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= Matriarch of the Blues =
Matriarch of the Blues is an album by Etta James , released in December 2000 through the record label Private Music . The album 's title reflects James ' nickname as " matriarch of the blues " . Marking James ' return to blues following attempts at country music and jazz and pop standards , the album consisted primarily of rhythm and blues covers . James ' sons , Donto and Sametto , are credited as engineers , mixers and producers , among other contributions ; the album features Mike Finnigan on the Hammond organ , guitarist Leo Nocentelli , and performances on multiple instruments by Jimmy Zavala .
Matriarch of the Blues received mixed critical reception . Following its release , the album reached a peak position of number two on Billboard 's Top Blues Albums chart . Billboard 's final issue for 2001 included Matriarch as number ten on its list of Top Blues Albums for the year . The album was nominated for Best Contemporary Blues Album at the 44th Grammy Awards .
= = Background and composition = =
Entertainment Weekly considered Matriarch of the Blues to be James ' reclamation as the " mother of the blues " following recent attempts at country music and jazz and pop standards . Rolling Stone grouped Matriarch in a " trifecta " with James ' previous two studio albums , Life , Love & the Blues ( 1998 ) and Heart of a Woman ( 1999 ) . Prior to the album 's release , James performed at the eighteenth annual San Francisco Jazz Festival at the Masonic Auditorium . The concert lasted over three house and featured an eight @-@ piece band , members of which included her sons Donto and Sametto .
Matriarch is composed of rock , soul and blues standards between five and seven minutes in length . People magazine contributors described James ' vocals as " deeply funky " . Mike Finnigan performed the Hammond B3 organ , Leo Nocentelli featured on guitar , and Jimmy Zavala contributed performances on multiple instruments . James ' two sons — Donto and Sametto — produced and engineered , and played drums and bass , respectively .
The album begins with the sound of a motorcycle engine . Bob Dylan 's " Gotta Serve Somebody " is delivered , according to Parke Puterbaugh of Rolling Stone , with " the air of Old Testament @-@ style authority it demands " . James does not modify the lyrics , singing " You can call me Bobby , you can call me Zimmy " . " Don 't Let My Baby Ride " , originally by Deadric Malone and O. V. Wright , adds a bit of sensuality to the album with the line " If his jeans are too tight ... you might see what you like . " Other covers include Al Green 's " Rhymes " , " Try a Little Tenderness " ( Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly , Harry M. Woods ) , and Otis Redding 's " Hawg for Ya " . The tempo of The Rolling Stones ' " Miss You " is slowed down to a " sensual simmer " . James modified the gender mentioned in the lyrics , singing " Puerto Rican boys just dying to meet you " . Following " Hawg " are Malone 's " You 're Gonna Make Me Cry " , which features vocals by Finnigan , Sandy Jones ' " Walking the Back Streets " , and Benny Latimore 's " Let 's Straighten It Out " . Closing the album are John Fogerty 's " Born on the Bayou " , " Come Back Baby " ( Ray Charles , Lightnin ' Hopkins ) , and Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller 's " Hound Dog " .
= = Reception = =
Matriarch of the Blues received mixed critical reception . Allmusic 's Matthew Robinson wrote that James " coast [ ed ] " through the album and the backing band lacked " youthful vitality " . Robinson thought the album 's opening track " Gotta Serve Somebody " came across more as a " sleepy suggestion " . However , he felt the " draggier pace and intermittent woofs " in " Miss You " added sex appeal and complimented the " funkification " of " Born on the Bayou " and " Hound Dog " . Associated Press contributor Gene Bright wrote a positive review of the album but was disappointed with James ' cover of " Miss You " , writing " the song just can 't be slowed and manipulated with any success " . People magazine contributors felt that the motorcycle introduction was unnecessary and considered the album to be more " full @-@ throated gospel @-@ rock " than blues . However , they wrote that James sounded " as sexy and full of sass as she did nearly half a century ago " . With James ' sons contributing to the album , Bill Milkowski of JazzTimes called the album a " real family affair " and " worthy follow @-@ up " to Heart of a Woman . In his review for Out , Barry Walters complimented Donto and Sametto 's rhythm performances . Walters admitted that James all of the notes available to her in the 1960s but wrote that her " interpretive abilities are sharper than ever " .
The Morning Call 's Larry Printz published a negative review , concluding that James ' performance was mediocre and that the " nuances in [ her ] once @-@ formidable voice are long gone " . Printz also criticized the slow tempo throughout the album and accused James of " coasting " on her legendary status . James Sullivan of Entertainment Weekly wrote that James ' " voice isn 't quite the nasty snarl it once was , but the attitude remains " . Sullivan thought " Hound Dog " was the album 's best composition . Rolling Stone 's Marie Elsie St. Léger wrote that James provided a " healthy dose of rootsy feminism and mettle " with her " passionately seasoned and gravel @-@ edged voice " . St. Léger also complimented James and her performance for having " inimitable depth " and for " making no apologies and needing no permission to sing it like she feels it . " Parke Puterbaugh of Rolling Stone named " Don 't Let My Baby Ride " , " Hawg for Ya " and " Come Back Baby " as the album 's greatest tracks . In his review , Puterbaugh concluded that the album is a " solid return to roots " , allowing James the right to reclaim her titular throne .
= = Chart performance and recognitions = =
The album reached a peak position of number two on Billboard 's Top Blues Albums chart . The album entered the chart at number seven the week of December 20 , 2000 . Matriarch climbed to number four by the week of January 27 , 2001 . By its fifteenth week on the chart the album had fallen to number seven and by its twenty @-@ fifth week on the chart ( week of June 16 , 2001 ) the album remained at number thirteen . Billboard 's final issue for 2001 included Matriarch of the Blues as number ten on its list of Top Blues Albums for the year . James and the album were nominated for Best Contemporary Blues Album at the 44th Grammy Awards , but lost to Delbert McClinton for the album Nothing Personal .
= = Track listing = =
" Gotta Serve Somebody " ( Bob Dylan ) – 6 : 48
" Don 't Let My Baby Ride " ( Deadric Malone , O. V. Wright ) – 5 : 16
" Rhymes " ( Al Green , Teenie Hodges ) – 4 : 35
" Try a Little Tenderness " ( Jimmy Campbell , Reg Connelly , Harry M. Woods ) – 4 : 47
" Miss You " ( Mick Jagger , Keith Richards ) – 5 : 59
" Hawg for Ya " ( Otis Redding ) – 3 : 45
" You 're Gonna Make Me Cry " ( Deadric Malone ) – 6 : 17
" Walking the Back Streets " ( Sandy Jones , Jr . ) – 7 : 07
" Let 's Straighten It Out " ( Curtis , Latimore , Scotomayer ) – 5 : 24
" Born on the Bayou " ( John Fogerty ) – 4 : 41
" Come Back Baby " ( Ray Charles , Lightnin ' Hopkins ) – 5 : 57
" Hound Dog " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller ) – 3 : 43
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
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= Æthelred , Lord of the Mercians =
Æthelred , Lord of the Mercians ( or Ealdorman Æthelred of Mercia ; died 911 ) became ruler of English Mercia shortly after the death of its last king , Ceolwulf II in 879 . His rule was confined to the western half , as eastern Mercia was then part of the Viking @-@ ruled Danelaw . Æthelred 's ancestry is unknown . He was probably the leader of an unsuccessful Mercian invasion of Wales in 881 , and soon afterwards he acknowledged the lordship of King Alfred the Great of Wessex . The alliance was cemented by the marriage of Æthelred to Alfred 's daughter Æthelflæd .
In 886 Alfred took possession of London , which had suffered greatly from several Viking occupations ; as it had traditionally been a Mercian town , he handed control to Æthelred . In 892 the Vikings renewed their attacks , and the following year Æthelred led an army of Mercians , West Saxons and Welsh to victory over a Viking army at the Battle of Buttington . He spent the next three years fighting them alongside Alfred 's son , the future King Edward the Elder . At some time in the decade 899 to 909 , Æthelred 's health may have declined , and Æthelflæd may have become the effective ruler of Mercia .
After Æthelred 's death , Æthelflæd ruled as Lady of the Mercians until her own death in 918 . The couple 's only child , a daughter called Ælfwynn , then ruled briefly until deposed by her uncle , King Edward .
= = Background = =
Mercia was the dominant kingdom in southern England in the eighth century , and maintained its position until it suffered a decisive defeat by King Egbert of Wessex at the Battle of Ellandun in 825 . Egbert briefly conquered Mercia , but it recovered its independence in 830 , and thereafter the two kingdoms became allies , which was to be an important factor in English resistance to the Vikings . The Mercians traditionally held overlordship over Wales , and in 853 King Burgred of Mercia obtained the assistance of King Æthelwulf of Wessex in an invasion of Wales in order to reassert their hegemony . The same year , Burgred married Æthelwulf 's daughter .
In 865 the Viking Great Heathen Army landed in East Anglia , and used it as a starting point for an invasion . The East Anglians were forced to buy peace , and the following year the Vikings invaded Northumbria , where they established an obscure Northumbrian man called Egbert as puppet king in 867 . They then moved on to Nottingham in Mercia , where they spent the winter of 867 – 868 . Burgred was joined by King Æthelred of Wessex and his brother , the future King Alfred , for a combined attack on the Vikings , but they refused an engagement and in the end the Mercians bought peace with them . The following year , the Vikings conquered East Anglia . They returned to Mercia in 872 ; two years later they expelled Burgred , and Ceolwulf became king with their support . Ceolwulf was described by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as " a foolish king 's thegn " who was a puppet of the Vikings , but the historian Ann Williams regards this view as partial and distorted : he was accepted as a true king by the Mercians and by King Alfred .
In 877 the Vikings divided Mercia , taking the eastern part for themselves and leaving Ceolwulf with the west . The Vikings went on to attack Wessex , leaving Ceolwulf free to renew Mercian claims of hegemony in Wales . At almost the same time as Alfred 's victory over the Vikings in 878 at the Battle of Edington , Ceolwulf defeated and killed Rhodri Mawr , king of the north Welsh territory of Gwynedd . After Ceolwulf 's disappearance in 879 , Mercia began to fall under the hegemony of Wessex .
= = Life = =
= = = Early rule = = =
Æthelred 's descent is unknown , and he does not appear to have been closely related to his immediate predecessors , although his name suggests possible descent from earlier Mercian kings . He may have been related to King Alfred 's Mercian father @-@ in @-@ law , Æthelred Mucel , and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Æthelwulf , who appears to have been a member of Æthelred 's court from the mid 880s . Æthelred may have been the man of the same name who attested two Mercian charters in the late 860s , but he is not listed in the two surviving charters of Ceolwulf . Lists of witnesses to charters show that Æthelred 's witan ( council ) shared bishops and at least two ealdormen with Ceolwulf , but Ceolwulf 's thegns all disappeared . In the view of Ian Walker : " He was a royal ealdorman whose power base lay in the south @-@ west of Mercia in the former kingdom of the Hwicce around Gloucester . "
It is not known when Æthelred took over following Ceolred 's death or disappearance , but in the view of Thomas Charles @-@ Edwards , a historian of medieval Wales , Æthelred was almost certainly " Edryd Long @-@ Hair " , the leader of a Mercian army which invaded Gwynedd in 881 , and was defeated by Rhodri Mawr 's sons at the Battle of the Conwy . This was described by Welsh annals as " revenge by God for Rhodri " . The defeat forced Æthelred to abandon his ambitions in north Wales , but he continued to exercise overlordship over the south @-@ eastern Welsh kingdoms of Glywysing and Gwent . According to Alfred 's Welsh biographer Asser , Æthelred 's " might and tyrannical behaviour " forced these kingdoms to submit to the protection of King Alfred 's lordship . By 883 , Æthelred had accepted Alfred 's lordship . Charles @-@ Edwards suggests that in 881 – 882 he tried to maintain his dominance in south @-@ east Wales , but Alfred offered his protection to Glywysing and Gwent , and in 882 – 883 Æthelred accepted that West Saxon power made continued independence impossible . Charles @-@ Edwards comments :
The implication of all this is that the Mercian submission to Alfred – a crucial step in the creation of a single English kingdom – occurred not just because of one battle , Alfred 's victory over the Great Army at Edington in 878 , but also because of another , more distant battle , " God 's revenge " on the Mercians at the Conwy , when Anarawd of Gwynedd and his brothers defeated Æthelred and so brought about that collapse of the Mercian hegemony in Wales from which Alfred was only too pleased to benefit .
When Æthelred made a grant to Berkeley Abbey in 883 , he did it with the approval of King Alfred , thus acknowledging Alfred 's lordship . Thereafter he usually acted with Alfred 's permission , but issued some charters in his own name without reference to Alfred , such as at a meeting in Risborough in Buckinghamshire in 884 , showing that English Mercia extended quite far south @-@ east towards London .
After the Battle of Edington in 878 , Alfred established a network of fortified settlements , called burhs , in Wessex to protect his people and territory against Viking attacks , and when Æthelred accepted Alfred 's lordship the burhs were extended into Mercia . One of the burhs was Worcester , where Æthelred worked with its bishop and used the standing Roman walls in the town 's defences . Over the next two generations Worcester was transformed from an ecclesiastical settlement to a town with a diverse population of craftsmen .
London suffered severely from Viking attacks and was several times occupied by Viking armies . In 886 Alfred took possession of London , and according to Asser he " restored " the city and " made it habitable again " . He then handed control to Æthelred . Historians , however , disagree about the circumstances . According to Frank Stenton , Alfred recovered London by force from the Vikings and handed it to Æthelred because it had previously been a Mercian town , and he respected the traditions of other kingdoms . Marios Costambeys takes a similar view , arguing that Alfred 's decision was probably due to the need to maintain unity among the English who were outside Viking territory . Alfred Smyth suggests that the Chronicle 's account reflects bias in Alfred 's favour , and that Æthelred took charge because he had a greater role in London 's recovery than the West Saxon chronicler was willing to admit . Some versions of the Chronicle state that Alfred besieged London in 883 , and Simon Keynes argues that Alfred probably took London at that time and that the " occupation " in 886 may have been a restoration of London 's defences following Viking attacks close to the city in 885 .
Anglo @-@ Saxon London , called Lundenwic , was located a mile west of Roman Londinium , but Lundenwic was undefended , and the restoration was carried out inside the walls of the old Roman city , especially an area close to the River Thames now called Queenhithe , but which was then known as Æthelred 's Hythe after its Mercian ruler . Æthelred moved quickly to restore the area ; in 889 he and Alfred granted property there to the Bishop of Worcester , and in 899 they made another grant to the Archbishop of Canterbury . Both bishops were , like Æthelred , Mercians and strong allies of King Alfred , who had the right to all tolls from markets along the river bank .
After the restoration of London , Alfred received the submission of " all the English people who were not under subjection to the Danes " , and the alliance between Wessex and Mercia was cemented by the marriage of Æthelred to Alfred 's oldest daughter , Æthelflæd . She is first recorded as Æthelred 's wife in a charter of 887 , but Keynes thinks that the marriage may have taken place two or three years earlier , and the historian Maggie Bailey dates it to between 882 and 887 , with the most likely political context being the occupation of London in 886 . Æthelred was probably much older than his wife . They had a daughter , Ælfwynn , and according to the twelfth century chronicler , William of Malmesbury , she was their only child . In King Alfred 's will , drawn up in the 880s , Æthelred was left a sword worth 100 mancuses .
In 892 , two Viking armies attacked eastern England , and Æthelred took part in the defence . After the defeat of one Viking leader , Hastein , Alfred became godfather to one of Hastein 's two sons and Æthelred to the other . Soon afterwards , the English captured Hastein 's wife and children , but they were returned to him because the sons were godsons of the English leaders . In 893 , Æthelred brought troops from London to join Alfred 's son Edward against a Viking army at Thorney in Buckinghamshire , but the Vikings were too strong for a direct attack so they were allowed to leave English territory . Later in the year , a larger Viking force marched from Essex through Mercia to the Welsh border , followed by Æthelred with a joint force of Mercians and West Saxons . Welsh kings joined Æthelred to meet the Vikings at the Battle of Buttington , where according to Smyth " these invaders were utterly routed ... in what was the most decisive battle in the war " , although Marios Costambeys states that the Vikings eventually cut their way out and retreated back to Essex . The Viking army finally dispersed in 896 . For much of the time , Alfred had been in the west country defending Devonshire , and in the view of Richard Abels : " King Alfred had little to do directly with the great victories enjoyed by the English in 893 – 896 . His son , Edward , and his ealdormen , in particular his son @-@ in @-@ law , Æthelred , had won the glory . "
In the last years of the ninth century , three sub @-@ ealdormen ruled Mercia under Æthelred . Æthelflæd 's uncle , Æthelwulf , controlled western and possibly central Mercia , while the south and east were ruled by Æthelfrith , the father of Æthelstan Half @-@ King . Alhhelm was responsible for the lands bordering the northern Danelaw . Æthelwulf and Alhhelm are not recorded after the turn of the century , and Æthelfrith may have been Æthelflæd 's chief lieutenant when Æthelred 's health collapsed soon afterwards . Keynes sees Æthelfrith as an ealdorman of West Saxon origin , probably appointed by Alfred to look after his interests in south @-@ east Mercia .
Evidence from charters show that Æthelred and Æthelflæd supported religious communities . In 883 they freed Berkeley Abbey from obligations to the king 's feorm ( payments in kind ) , and in 887 they confirmed the possession of land and transferred manpower to Pyrton Minster in Oxfordshire . In 901 they gave land to Much Wenlock Abbey , and donated a gold chalice weighing thirty mancuses in honour of its former abbess , Saint Mildburgh . In 903 they negotiated a settlement over a former monastic estate which the bishops of Worcester had been trying to recover since the 840s , and Bishop Wærferth wrote " we never could get anywhere until Æthelred became lord of the Mercians " .
= = = Later life = = =
Some historians believe that at an unknown time in the decade 899 to 909 , Æthelred 's health collapsed and Æthelflæd became the effective ruler of Mercia . Cyril Hart and Maggie Bailey believe that it occurred by 902 . Bailey cites " Mercian Register " entries from 902 showing Æthelflæd acting alone or in conjunction with Edward in military operations . Irish annals called the Three Fragments also suggest that Æthelred was unable to take an active part in government from about 902 , although he did attend a meeting in 903 with King Edward , Æthelflæd and Ælfwynn . In 1998 Keynes suggested that Æthelred may have been incapacitated by illness at the end of his life , but in a summary of his career in 2014 Keynes does not mention this , stating that Æthelred and Æthelflæd cooperated with King Edward in campaigns against the Vikings . Martin Ryan also makes no mention of a decline in Æthelred 's health , describing him as joining Edward in encouraging thegns to purchase land in Viking territories . In Michael Livingston 's view , he campaigned with Edward in Northumbria in 909 , and may have died as a result of wounds sustained at the Battle of Tettenhall in 910 .
According to William of Malmesbury , King Edward 's eldest son , the future King Æthelstan , was sent to be brought up at the court of Æthelred and Æthelflæd after Edward remarried in about 900 . This is supported by one independent piece of evidence . According to a transcript dating from 1304 in York 's archives , in 925 Æthelstan gave a grant of privileges to St Oswald 's Priory in Gloucester " according to a pact of paternal piety which formerly he pledged with Æthelred , ealdorman of the people of the Mercians " . When King Edward died in 924 , Æthelstan initially faced opposition at the West Saxon court , but was accepted as king in Mercia .
After Æthelred 's death in 911 , Æthelflæd ruled as " Lady of the Mercians " , but she did not inherit the Mercian territories of London and Oxford , which were taken by Edward . Æthelflæd died in 918 , and their daughter Ælfwynn briefly ruled Mercia until deposed by Edward the Elder , who took the territory under his direct control .
= = = St Oswald 's Priory , Gloucester = = =
Gloucester seems to have been the main seat of Æthelred 's and Æthelflæd 's power , and before 900 they founded a new minster there , dedicated to St Peter . In 909 a West Saxon and Mercian army raided Viking territory and seized the bones of the Northumbrian king and martyr , St Oswald , from Bardney in Lincolnshire . The bones were translated to the new Gloucester minster , which was renamed St Oswald 's Priory in his honour . Both Æthelred and Æthelflæd were buried there . The historian Martin Ryan sees the new minster as something like a Mercian royal mausoleum , to replace the one at Repton destroyed by the Vikings .
= = Æthelred 's status = =
Æthelred 's status is unclear , and this is reflected in the varying titles given to him by different historians . He is sometimes called " ealdorman " , but also " Lord of the Mercians " and " subking " . Coinage issued in English Mercia in Ceolred 's time named him as king , but in Æthelred 's time it named the West Saxon king , yet Æthelred issued some charters in his own name , implying royal authority . West Saxon sources refer to him as an ealdorman , emphasising Mercian subordination to the West Saxon monarchy , whereas Mercian ones describe him as Lord of the Mercians , and Celtic ones sometimes as King of Mercia . The late tenth @-@ century chronicler Æthelweard , who used sources independent of surviving versions of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , called him " King of the Mercians " .
King Edward 's influence over Mercia is unclear , and he may have had less power than his father . Edward 's charters show Æthelred and Æthelflæd as accepting his royal authority , but their own charters make no reference to an overlord , and some use expressions such as " holding , governing and defending the sole rule of the Mercians " , which come close to describing them as king and queen .
Pauline Stafford comments that " Alfred 's dominance in the 890s over Æthelred , Lord of the Mercians , was as debatable at the time as it still is . " In the view of Ann Williams , " though he accepted West Saxon overlordship , Æthelred behaved rather as a king of Mercia than an ealdorman " , and Charles Insley states that Mercia remained an independent kingdom until 920 . To the Welsh and Irish looking east , Mercian rulers still kept all their old regality until Æthelflæd 's death in 918 , and Nick Higham argues that : " Celtic visions of Æthelred and Æthelflæd as king and queen certainly offer a different , and equally valid , contemporary take on the complex politics of this transition to a new English state . "
Keynes takes the West Saxon view , arguing that Alfred created the " kingdom of the Anglo @-@ Saxons " , inherited by his son Edward the Elder in 899 , and Æthelred ruled Mercia under the king . Keynes points out that according to Asser , the Welsh king Anarawd submitted to Alfred on the same terms as Æthelred — " Namely that in every respect he would be obedient to the royal will " . Keynes regards the designation " K. [ King ] Æthelred II " in the Handbook of British Chronology as a " delightfully provocative " extension of the " received wisdom " that Mercia retained a real measure of independence in Æthelred 's time . However , Keynes also says :
Æthelred usually acted with the permission of or in association with King Alfred , but occasionally he acted independently of him . Although sometimes described as plain dux or ealdorman , his status was clearly quite different from that of other duces , for he is also accorded styles which aspire to divine grace and which appear to verge on the royal . In other words , there is no mistaking that the Mercians retained a conception of their ruler as a rightful successor to earlier kings , and a conception of their land as a kingdom with its own identity ; but there is also no mistaking that Æthelred moved in an Alfredian world .
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= Pinkham Notch =
Pinkham Notch ( elevation 2032 ft . / 619 m ) is a mountain pass in the White Mountains of north @-@ central New Hampshire , United States . The notch is a result of extensive erosion by the Laurentide ice sheet during the Wisconsinian ice age . Pinkham Notch was eroded into a glacial U @-@ shaped valley whose walls are formed by the Presidential , Wildcat , and Carter @-@ Moriah ranges . Due to the volatility of the area 's climate and rugged character of the terrain , a number of rare or endemic ecosystems have developed throughout the notch .
The notch was discovered in 1784 by Jeremy Belknap , but its isolation prevented further development for several years . The construction of New Hampshire Route 16 has led to increased accessibility and a rise in tourism . Its location makes it a hub for hiking and skiing .
= = Geography = =
The notch separates the Presidential Range , which forms the western wall , from the Wildcat Range , which forms the eastern wall . Two rivers drain the notch ; the Ellis River drains the south end and is a tributary of the Saco , and the Peabody River drains the north end and is a tributary of the Androscoggin .
The bulk of the western slope of the notch is formed by Mount Washington , the highest peak in the northeast United States , reaching 6 @,@ 288 feet ( 1 @,@ 917 m ) above sea level . Mount Washington rises more than 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) above the floor of the notch . A number of glacial cirques are found on this side of the notch . The Great Gulf and its tributary cirques form the largest cirque in the White Mountains . South of the Great Gulf is Huntington Ravine , with a rocky , precipitous headwall renowned for its rock and ice climbing . The slope then dips into the Ravine of Raymond Cataract , a non @-@ glacial " V @-@ shaped " valley with a notable waterfall . After this comes Tuckerman Ravine , with a uniform , smoother headwall that is known for its high @-@ quality skiing . After passing the Gulf of Slides , a smaller and lesser @-@ known cirque , the notch opens up and continues until Jackson .
The eastern slope of the notch consists of the Wildcat and Carter @-@ Moriah Ranges , slightly lower than the Presidential Range to the west . The Wildcat Range consists of five peaks , named A , B , C , D , and E from northeast to southwest in order of height . Wildcat A is the highest , at 4 @,@ 422 feet ( 1 @,@ 348 m ) . From the main ridge , the slopes drop very steeply , but not precipitously , to the floor of the notch . The Wildcat Mountain Ski Area occupies the western slopes of Wildcat up to the col between D and E peaks . As the notch rounds E peak , the slope becomes extremely steep , and Wildcat Ridge begins to drop to the end of the notch .
The Carter @-@ Moriah Range lies to the north of Wildcat Ridge , forming the eastern side of Pinkham Notch all the way to the Androscoggin River . From south to north , the peaks overlooking the notch are Carter Dome ( 4 @,@ 832 ft / 1 @,@ 473 m ) , Mount Hight ( 4 @,@ 675 ft / 1 @,@ 425 m ) , South Carter Mountain ( 4 @,@ 420 ft / 1 @,@ 347 m ) , Middle Carter Mountain ( 4 @,@ 600 ft / 1 @,@ 402 m ) , North Carter Mountain ( 4 @,@ 530 ft / 1 @,@ 381 m ) , Imp Mountain ( 3 @,@ 720 ft / 1 @,@ 134 m ) , and Mount Moriah ( 4 @,@ 049 ft / 1 @,@ 234 m ) .
= = Environment = =
The climate , and as a result , the flora and fauna , of Pinkham Notch varies greatly with elevation . As elevations increase on the walls of the notch , climate and ecosystems change to those of increasingly northern occurrence . Biomes range from a low @-@ elevation northern hardwood forest at the base of Mount Washington to alpine @-@ Arctic vegetation near the summit comparable to vegetation found at the latitude of Labrador .
= = = Below 2500 ft . — Northern hardwood forest = = =
The lowest elevations of Pinkham Notch are occupied by a northern hardwood forest . This forest type is primarily deciduous and consists mostly of sugar maple , American beech , and yellow birch . There is also a proliferation of understory and forest floor plants ; common examples include wild sarsaparilla , painted trillium , hobblebush , and Indian cucumber @-@ root .
The northern hardwood forest also contains the greatest diversity of animal life in the notch . Mammals include chipmunks , raccoons , white @-@ tailed deer , black bears , and moose . There are also a large number of birds in this forest ; frequently seen are red @-@ eyed vireos , hermit thrushes , and ovenbirds . Amphibians are also found in the northern hardwood forest . Red efts , the terrestrial stage of development for the red @-@ spotted newt , congregate in large numbers after heavy rains ; also present are American toads , spring peepers , and wood frogs .
At around 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , species from higher forest zones begin to mix with the northern hardwoods in what is known as the " transition zone " . As elevation within this zone increases , species from the lower hardwood forest begin to drop out . By 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) , yellow birch is the only deciduous species that remains , and the forest becomes a spruce @-@ fir forest .
= = = 2500 ft. to 4000 ft . — Spruce / fir forest = = =
As elevation increases , the forest is subjected to colder temperatures , increased moisture , and acidic , infertile soils . As a result , conifers , or " softwoods " become the dominant species . Two trees , red spruce and balsam fir , are present throughout this zone , with paper birch , striped maple and mountain ash present in its lower levels . Like the hardwood forest below it , the spruce @-@ fir forest also holds understory plants ; commonly found are wood sorrel , Indian pipes , Canada mayflowers , and bluebead lilies . Fungi are also common in the moist environment .
Most of the animals in the spruce @-@ fir forest have ranges that extend into the balsam fir forest higher up . Warblers are abundant ; more than ten species exist in this forest type . Other common birds include brown @-@ capped chickadees , spruce grouse , and yellow @-@ capped woodpeckers . Mammals include the red squirrel and the pine marten .
= = = 4000 ft. to timberline — Balsam fir forest = = =
As elevation continues to increase , only the hardiest trees remain in the forest , which is composed almost exclusively of balsam fir . Most of the understory plants and animals from the upper spruce @-@ fir zone , however , can be found in this forest . Moisture causes nutrients to be stripped from the soil and brought to lower elevations , and decomposition takes place at a rate that is too slow to replenish them .
In the upper reaches of the balsam fir zone , winds and temperatures are extreme enough to force the trees into stunted , " bonsai @-@ like " shapes . Known as krummholz , from the German word for " crooked wood " , trees in this area are often bent into bizarre shapes by the combined effects of wind , temperature , and airborne ice particles . Branches that are perpendicular to the prevailing winds are often killed , leaving " flag trees " that point in the direction of the wind . Eventually , conditions become extreme enough to prevent any tree growth ; the elevation at which this occurs is known as tree line , and usually occurs at around 4 @,@ 500 ft ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) in the White Mountains , depending on wind exposure .
= = = Above timberline — The alpine zone = = =
On the highest slopes of the west wall of the notch , trees are unable to grow , and an " alpine zone " of alpine @-@ Arctic vegetation exists . Vegetation in this zone tends to be lichens , sedges or small , low @-@ lying plants that can resist the constant exposure to the wind . Most plants in this area are perennial ; the growing season is far too short to allow for annuals .
Alpine plants usually occur in communities spaced between barren talus slopes . Cushion @-@ shaped Diapensia lapponica usually grows in communities in the windiest areas , and in less exposed sites sedge , heath , snowbank , and alpine bog communities can be found .
= = History = =
Pinkham Notch was originally a riverine , " V @-@ shaped " valley until the Laurentide Ice Sheet shaped it into its current form , a " U @-@ shaped " valley . This shaping occurred during the Wisconsinian Ice Age , 25 – 50 @,@ 000 years ago . The geology of the region became greatly altered by this event ; much of the weaker rock was stripped from the region , leaving only highly @-@ resistant mica schist . As the glaciers retreated , a layer of glacial till was deposited , including several glacial erratics . A notable glacial erratic in the area is Mount Washington 's Glen Boulder .
The notch first appears in recorded history in 1784 , when an expedition led by Jeremy Belknap camped in the notch before ascending to the summit of Mount Washington through Huntington Ravine . Pinkham Notch was far more isolated than neighboring Crawford Notch ; as a result , the first settler of Pinkham Notch came in 1827 , 43 years after habitation of Crawford Notch . The first settler , Hayes Copp , built a homestead in the then @-@ uninhabited area , near where the Dolly Copp campground stands today . Copp and his wife lived alone in the wilderness until Daniel Pinkham completed the first road through the notch between in 1836 , finally providing a link between the Copp homestead and civilization . In 1851 , a railroad was built to Gorham , and a hotel , the Glen House , was constructed to accommodate passengers . Mount Washington was the main attraction in the area ; a bridle path was constructed from the Glen House to hotels on the summit , which was later improved into what would become the Mount Washington Auto Road . Completion of the road in 1861 led to a massive increase in tourism .
Meanwhile , logging began in the Pinkham area . After almost total deforestation of the White Mountain region , the White Mountain National Forest was created in 1911 , and the Mount Washington area was added to the national forest in 1914 . With the preservation of the area , emphasis shifted from logging to recreation . The Appalachian Mountain Club converted a logging camp near the height @-@ of @-@ land into what is now the Pinkham Notch Visitor Center in 1921 . The Appalachian Trail was built through the visitor center , making it an important trailhead for ascents of Mount Washington . Meanwhile , ski trails began to be constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps on Wildcat Mountain , and the ski resort was opened in 1958 .
= = Recreation = =
Pinkham Notch is easily accessible by New Hampshire Route 16 . Numerous opportunities for recreation exist in the area .
= = = Hiking = = =
Mount Washington is a common objective , and is often climbed from Pinkham Notch . There are numerous trail approaches from the Appalachian Mountain Club 's visitor 's center . Although trail distances seem short , the trip to the summit should not be underestimated ; most trail approaches involve at least 4 @,@ 000 vertical feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) of climbing , including an ascent of the rocky summit cone and the boulder @-@ strewn upper slopes . Weather changes very quickly , and one must be prepared for extreme conditions . The Tuckerman Ravine Trail is the most popular trail in the notch , ascending to the summit via the headwall of Tuckerman Ravine . The Huntington Ravine Trail is widely considered the most difficult trail in New Hampshire , making its way up the precipitous headwall of neighboring Huntington Ravine , where there are several rock climbing opportunities .
On the other side of the notch , the Wildcat Range is a popular objective . The five summits can be reached via the Wildcat Ridge Trail ; the first two miles are extremely difficult , and require skill on short , yet exposed , rock scrambles . This part of the trail is frequently bypassed by following the ski area 's Polecat Trail to the summit of D Peak .
The Appalachian Trail , which extends over 2 @,@ 150 miles ( 3 @,@ 460 km ) from Georgia to Maine , runs along the Presidential Range before crossing the notch and ascending to the summits of the Wildcat Range .
There are also less challenging hikes that are equally scenic , yet better suited for families with young children . Popular objectives include Glen Ellis Falls , a waterfall on the Ellis River , and Square Ledge , with an impressive view of Mount Washington for modest effort .
= = = Skiing = = =
The area also has many opportunities for both alpine and Nordic skiing . The bowl of Tuckerman Ravine is famous for its extremely steep backcountry skiing . Long lines are common during the peak spring @-@ skiing season of April and May . Wildcat Mountain offers groomed ski trails and lifts , and is a better choice for less @-@ experienced skiers . The centerpiece of the ski @-@ area is the gondola , which runs during the summer , and offers views of the Presidentials with no expended effort .
For Nordic skiing , Great Glen Trails offers a large , groomed trail system that also includes the lower half of the Auto Road . Several warming huts are scattered around the trail system , including scenic Great Angel Cabin , with views of the Great Gulf and surrounding peaks . Great Glen also permits biking on the trails during the summer , and is the only mountain bike facility in the notch . Another cross @-@ country trail system exists in the town of Jackson , extending as far as the summit of Wildcat Mountain .
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= Shriya Saran =
Shriya Saran ( pronounced [ ʂrɪjaː sərən ] ( born as Shriya Saran Bhatnagar on 11 September 1982 ) , also known by the mononym Shriya , is an Indian film actress and model . She has acted in Telugu , Tamil , and Hindi language films , as well as a few films in English , Malayalam and Kannada .
Saran was born in Dehradun and spent most of her childhood in Haridwar . In 2001 , her dance master gave her the opportunity to appear in Renoo Nathan 's debut music video " Thirakti Kyun Hawa " , which brought Saran to the attention of many Indian filmmakers .
Although Saran aspired to become a well @-@ known dancer , she was rather offered a leading role . Thus , Saran made her film debut in 2001 with the Telugu film Ishtam , and had her first commercial success with Santhosham ( 2002 ) . She subsequently appeared in several more Telugu films , while making in @-@ roads in the Hindi and Tamil film industries . In 2007 , Saran starred in Sivaji , the highest @-@ grossing Tamil film at that time . She also gained critical acclaim for her role in the 2007 Bollywood film Awarapan . In 2008 , Saran played the lead role in her first English film , the American @-@ Indian co @-@ production The Other End of the Line . Her following projects included popular films such as Kanthaswamy ( 2009 ) in Tamil , and Pokkiri Raja ( 2010 ) in Malayalam , her roles in which established her as one of the leading actresses in the South Indian film industries . In 2012 , she was cast in the British @-@ Canadian film Midnight 's Children under the direction of Deepa Mehta , based on Salman Rushdie 's Booker Prize @-@ winning novel of the same name , for which she received international critical acclaim . She achieved further commercial success by starring in films such as Pavitra ( 2013 ) and Chandra ( 2013 ) . In 2014 , Shriya Saran starred in the critically acclaimed Telugu film Manam , which she received accolades for her performance .
In addition to her work in films , Saran has been the brand ambassador for several brands across India , endorsing beauty and health products . Among other philanthropic activities , she has volunteered for a number of charity organizations , and in 2011 she opened a spa employing exclusively visually challenged people . She also was the brand ambassador Celebrity Cricket League for its two first seasons .
= = Early life and background = =
Shriya Saran Bhatnagar was born on 11 September 1982 in the Haridwar in Northern India , to Pushpendra Saran Bhatnagar and Neeraja Saran Bhatnagar . Her father worked for Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited and her mother was a Chemistry teacher in Delhi Public School , Ranipur in Haridwar and Delhi Public School , Mathura Road , New Delhi . Saran completed her schooling from both schools where her mother had taught . She has an elder brother named Abhiroop who lives in Mumbai . Her family lived in the small town of BHEL colony in Haridwar when she was growing up . She later studied at Lady Shri Ram College in Delhi and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in literature . Saran is an accomplished dancer . She was first trained as a child by her mother in Kathak and Rajasthani folk dance , and later trained in Kathak style by Shovana Narayan . She was involved with many dance teams in college and with her teacher . They would incorporate social issues into their dance routines .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 2001 – 03 ) = = =
While in her sophomore year at the LSR College in Delhi , Saran got her first opportunity to appear in front of the camera for a video shoot . Following her dance teacher 's recommendation , she was invited to appear in the music video of Renoo Nathan 's " Thirakti Kyun Hawa " . Shot in Banaras , the video was seen by Ramoji Films who offered her the lead role of Neha in their film Ishtam . Saran accepted the part , and even before it was released she was signed to four more films , including Nuvve Nuvve , in which she played a millionaire 's daughter who falls for a middle class man . In 2002 , she starred in Santosham , co @-@ starring Nagarjuna , Prabhu Deva and Gracy Singh , which was her first commercial success . The film took the Nandi Award for Best Feature Film and Filmfare Best Film Award ( Telugu ) . Saran played a girl who lets someone she loves go with another , but wins him back later in life . For her performance , she earned a nomination for the CineMAA Award for Best Actor- Female , giving her a good foothold in the Telugu industry in the early part of her career .
In 2003 , Saran acted a supporting role in her first Hindi film , Tujhe Meri Kasam , starring debutants Ritesh Deshmukh and Genelia D 'Souza in leading roles . She also performed the lead female role in several Telugu films including Tagore , which was screened at the International Indian Film Academy Awards , and was a commercial success . She followed it with her Tamil film debut in Enakku 20 Unakku 18 , alongside Tarun and Trisha Krishnan , which was simultaneously shot in Telugu as Nee Manasu Naaku Telusu , in which she played a football coach . Though she acted in films in three languages that year , overall eight of the first ten films of her career were in Telugu .
= = = Career fluctuations ( 2004 – 07 ) = = =
In 2004 , Saran acted in two Telugu and two Hindi films , including Nenunnanu , where she played a student in classical singing . She had ten 2005 releases , nine of which were Telugu films , the most notable for her being Chatrapathi . There she appeared opposite Prabhas , and earned her first nomination for the Filmfare Best Telugu Actress Award . A reviewer for Moviebuzz said that as an action film , Saran 's character of the lead 's love interest was not well developed ; that she was there primarily for the songs . Meanwhile , she tried to make her comeback in Tamil with Mazhai , a remake of the Telugu film Varsham . Neither the movie nor her performance were received well . Also in 2005 , she appeared as one of only three characters in the film Mogudu Pellam O Dongodu , which was about a married couple 's first night together , and made a guest appearance in a children 's film called Bommalata , which won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu . Saran 's only lead role in 2006 , excluding three special appearances , was in the Tamil film Thiruvilayadal Arambam .
In 2007 , she was chosen to play the lead female role opposite Rajinikanth in S. Shankar 's Sivaji : The Boss , which was the most expensive Indian film at that time . R. G. Vijayasarathy wrote in his review for Rediff that aside from her beauty , Saran " proves that she can act too " . Her performance earned her a South Scope Style Award for Best Tamil Actress , her first award win , and a nomination at the Vijay Awards . The role also made her a star in the south Indian film industry . During this phase of her career , she made several special appearances in item numbers , including in the films Devadasu , Munna , and Tulasi .
Also in 2007 , Saran made her comeback in Hindi cinema with Awarapan , which was a joint production between India and Pakistan , and in which she played a Muslim girl and had to learn Urdu . This was her fourth Hindi film , but the others had failed to make any impact . Sanjay Ram , writing for Business of Cinema , gave the film 2 @.@ 5 of 5 stars , and said that Saran provided a brief but compelling performance . Saran later said that the film strengthened her conviction that all religions are equal . Later that year she appeared in one more Tamil film , Azhagiya Tamil Magan opposite Vijay . Though critics exalted her looks , her performance received mixed reviews , with one reviewer , Nandhu Sundharam of Rediff , going so far as to say that her " acting is as bad as her looks are good " . That same year Saran made a special appearance in a scene in the Kannada film Arasu . In all she appeared in six films in 2007 , in four different languages .
= = = American cinema debut ( 2008 – 12 ) = = =
In 2008 , Saran then made her American cinema debut in Ashok Amritraj 's The Other End of the Line . She played the role of Priya Sethi who works as a telephone operator in an Indian call centre , while acting alongside Jesse Metcalfe , Anupham Kher and Tara Sharma . Shriya 's performance was praised by critics , particularly her on @-@ screen chemistry with Jesse Metcalfe . John Anderson , writing for Variety magazine , said it was " a winning Stateside debut for beautiful Indian actress Shriya Saran . "
Saran acted in the Hindi film Mission Istaanbul with Zayed Khan , Vivek Oberoi and Shabbir Ahluwalia also in 2008 . She played the character of Anjali Sagar which was inspired by the character of Romila Dutta played by Preity Zinta in the film Lakshya ; a journalist who desires to have a child with her husband , which leads to their separation , since he is reluctant . Bollywood Hungama critics said that her character was wasted , as again she gets very little screen time . However , she did pick up the Stardust Exciting New Face Award .
Her most important 2009 release was the commercially successful Tamil film Kanthaswamy , alongside Vikram . She earned a nomination at the Vijay Awards . Vikram himself said in an interview that her role was on par with his , and she easily stole the show on most occasions . Of her character in the film , Saran said that it was the best she has done so far . Also that year she appeared as the female lead in Thoranai . A reviewer said that her glamour and the songs were the only high points of the film . For Thoranai and Kanthaswamy together , she received her third award win , the Amrita Mathrubhumi Award for Best Actress . She then appeared in another English film , Cooking with Stella , which is a comedy , but also takes a look at the serious nature of relationships between servants and employers . It was selected to the Toronto International Film Festival , which Saran attended .
In 2010 , Saran made her Malayalam debut with Pokkiri Raja , in which she appeared opposite Mammootty and Prithviraj . The film was declared a super hit in the first week , breaking the record in Malayalam cinema for opening week gross income , though it was not received well critically , and it was said of Saran that all she had to do was look pretty . She then enacted her first lead role in a Telugu film after five years , in the commercially successful action @-@ comedy film Don Seenu opposite Ravi Teja , where she plays the sister of a mobster . In the opinion of some critics , she stole the show with her dances and romantic scenes . The year 2010 was her second busiest after 2005 , having appeared in eight films in all , this time in four languages .
In 2011 , Saran appeared in Rowthiram , where she worked with Tamil actor Jeeva for the first time . The film received fairly low reviews . Although some reviews said that Saran was not given much opportunity to show her acting skills , mainly just adding a romantic touch to a mostly violent film , she was referred to by another as the pivot around which the film revolves . Her performance earned her Best Actress Award at the International Tamil Film Awards . Her only other film in 2011 was a special appearance in a song for Tamil film Rajapattai .
Saran 's first release of 2012 was her second Malayalam project , Casanovva , co @-@ starring Mohanlal and directed by Rosshan Andrrews . The movie was delayed many times , and it was rumored that Saran would leave the project , but in October 2010 , the producer of the film announced that shooting would commence in Dubai with Shriya Saran among the cast . It was released on 26 January . Her next release was in Gali Gali Mein Chor Hai , from director Rumy Jafry , which began shooting in September 2011 , and released on 3 February . She then was seen in the critically average comedic Telegu film Nuvva Nena with actors Allari Naresh and Sharwanand , followed by Sekhar Kammula 's much delayed Life is Beautiful .
Saran has starred in Deepa Mehta 's long delayed English project Midnight 's Children , which is based on Salman Rushdie 's highly acclaimed novel of the same name . It was filmed under the working title of Winds of Change . It was screened at several film festivals in late 2012 in Canada and finally made its general release in India on February 1 , 2013 .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
In early 2013 , Saran appeared in an item number in the film Zila Ghaziabad . This was her first item number in a Hindi film . On 7 June Saran 's Pavitra was released , in which she played a prostitute . At a press conference in Hyderabad , she said that the film is very special for her , and that she was touched by the sensitivity that director / writer Janardhana Maharshi gave to the topic . According to a review from The Times of India , the most cinematic part of the film is a sensual number " Sukumara Ra Ra ... " in which the camera shows in the curves of the main character . He summed up the review saying , " Besides Shriya Saran 's curves there is nothing in this movie that 's worth watching per se . " Her bi @-@ lingual film Chandra directed by Roopa Iyer was simultaneously made in Kannada and Tamil languages . She played the role of a princess in the film opposite Kannada actor Prem Kumar . The film released in Kannada on 27 June 2013 , and in Tamil on 14 February 2014 . It became a moderate success at the Kannada box office . The film marked Saran 's return to Tamil cinema after more than five years .
Saran 's first film of 2014 , released May 23 , was the Telugu family comedy Manam , which was a success in India and America . Saran 's first film of 2015 was Gopala Gopala , a remake of Bollywood blockbuster Oh , My God , released in the January festive season . She will next appear in director Karan Bhutani 's Hindi film Valmiki Ki Bandook , which is currently under production . She appeared opposite Ajay Devgan in Drishyam , a remake of the Malayalam film of the same name , which turned to be a box office success . In mid January 2016 , she made a special appearance in Nagarjuna 's Oopiri , while also signing her next Hindi film Tadka opposite Nana Patekar . In May 2016 , she was selected as a female lead in Balakrishna 's 100th film Gautamiputra Satakarni .
= = Other works = =
In 2003 , Saran hosted the 50th Filmfare South Award with actor R. Madhavan . She was a part of Tamil director Mani Ratnam 's stage show , Netru , Indru , Naalai , an event which sought to raise funds for " The Banyan " , a voluntary organisation which rehabilitates homeless women with mental illness in Chennai . She was one of the guests alongside actor Surya Sivakumar at the season 3 finale of TV dance show Maanada Mayilada .
Saran was the first actress , and the third celebrity after Shah Rukh Khan and Aamir Khan to deliver a lecture to students at the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad ( IIM @-@ A ) on 12 February 2010 . She said that , " The Indian media and entertainment industry is the fastest growing sector at present , so considering this IIM Ahmedabad had started a new program CFI – Contemporary Film Industry – A Business Perspective . I was there to give a lecture to 2nd year students of CFI and did a lot of research for the lecture for nearly five days . " She held a lecture on marketing and branding of a film . In 2011 , she gave a lecture to students at the Indian Institutes of Technology ( IIT ) Madras on the history of films , and films as a medium of cultural exchange .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Saran started her modelling career by acting in a Pond 's Creams advertisement . She then did a Coca @-@ Cola advertisement alongside Tamil actor Vijay which was directed by prominent director Rajiv Menon . She also starred in a Fair & Lovely creams advertisement during her early career . Shriya Saran is also appointed brand ambassador for Pantene Shampoo . In 2007 , she became the brand ambassador of Saravana Stores . She is now the brand ambassador of the Lux and Head & Shoulders . Saran was also signed as brand ambassador along with actor Saif Ali Khan for Brooke Bond Taj Mahal Tea . Saran says no to soft drinks advertisements because she feels that soft drinks may harm children 's health . In 2011 , Saran was appointed as the promotional model for McVitie 's by United Biscuits along with actress Bipasha Basu . In 2013 , Saran was appointed as brand ambassador for Colgate Active Salt Healthy White toothpaste , along with Bollywood actress Kareena Kapoor . In 2014 , she was signed as brand ambassador for Karnataka Milk Federation ( KMF ) .
= = = CCL ( Celebrity Cricket League ) = = =
On the sports front , Saran is brand ambassador of Celebrity Cricket League ( CCL ) , a concept that mixes two passions in India , film and cricket . In April 2010 , she danced with Shah Rukh Khan at the fourth season opening ceremony of the Indian Premier League ( IPL ) , another cricket league .
In 2007 , Saran launched the first issue of Galatta Cinema and has been featured on its cover many times . In 2008 , she was featured in , and appeared on the cover of the June issue of Maxim India . Editor Anup Kutty said , " We had been thinking of getting someone who bridges this strange divide we have between the North , South and the West ... Shreya fit the bill perfectly . " She has appeared on various other magazine covers over the years , including Jade and South Scope . In 2012 , she again did a photoshoot for Maxim India .
= = Personal life = =
Saran is very reluctant to talk about her private life , and usually denies that reported linkups are romantic in nature . She is Hindu .
Saran is well known for her charity work . She describes herself as someone used to " sharing time and resources with the underprivileged since childhood . " She says that " celebrities can show the way by sensitising people to social issues , campaigning for causes or being part of fund @-@ raisers . " Her family has always encouraged her to think of the needy .
Saran is a brand ambassador for the Naandi Foundation , and for the Save A Child 's Heart Foundation ( SACH ) , which works for the benefit of poor children and people affected by natural calamities . She helps finance a Prevention of Aids foundation . In 2009 , Saran joined with other eminent personalities to promote ' The Joy of Giving Week ' , to encourage people from all walks of life to engage in acts of giving . She regularly participates in carnivals and campaigns that associate with children benefits . She is associated with animal welfare and the Blue Cross of India . She is also associated with an NGO called World Vision that finds parents for deprived kids , and works for Apollo ’ s RDF to raise funds for underprivileged children .
In 2011 , she opened a Spa which exclusively employs the visually challenged . It is called Shree Spa , and is located in Mumbai . Saran has said " When I studied in DPS Mathura Road in Delhi , there was a school for blind exactly opposite to our school . I used to go there every week and spend time seeing how these students played cricket and did other things normally . That is what inspired me to do something for these people " . In an interview to TOI , the actress said , " We feel sympathetic towards them but we never employ them . We are scared because we have not grown up with them . While these people might be visually impaired , their other senses are very strong . So they can effectively give foot and back massages and treatments like reflexology . It 's important to understand that you are not doing a favour on them but they are doing a favour on you " .
In January 2008 , Saran was the subject of a controversy , when a Hindu organisation in Chennai lodged a police complaint against Saran , objecting to the outfit worn by her during the 175th day celebration of her film , Sivaji : The Boss . In a complaint , the Hindu Makkal Katchi ( HMK ) alleged that Shriya 's outfit had " offended Hindu culture " . Shriya publicly apologised to Tamilians and Hindus , saying it was a mistake , and that she had " great respect for the tradition and culture of Tamil Nadu [ ... ] I was shooting for a Hindi film in Thanjavur . I came to the function directly from the shooting , [ ... ] I was unaware of the repercussions because of the attire I wore during the function . "
On working in different regional film industries in India she has stated , " I don ’ t consider Kollywood or Bollywood as separate entities . For me , there ’ s only a single category , the Indian film industry , which is extremely rich owing to its diverse genres and languages . " She is fluent in Hindi , English , and can understand Telugu and Tamil well . On 19 January 2013 , she quit Twitter due to derogatory comments from her followers . However , she rejoined Twitter with a new account on 27 January 2015 .
= = Filmography = =
As Actress
= = Awards = =
Honours and recognitions
2010 – T. Subbarami Reddy Lalitha Kala Parishath Awards for Contributions to Telugu Cinema
2010 – Featured in a poll conducted by Rediff about woman achievers in Indian entertainment , ranking her among the top actresses
2014 – GR8 Women 's Award
Rankings on The Times of India 's list of " 50 Most Desirable Women " : 13th in 2010 , 15th in 2011 , 18th in 2012 , 7th in 2013 , 5th in 2014 and 6th in 2015
Rankings on Hyderabad Times most desirable woman for south , 3rd in 2013 , 2nd in 2014 , 2nd in 2015
Brand Ambassador for SIIMA AWARDS in 2013 , 2014 and 2015
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= Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Soviet Union ) =
The Ministry of External Relations ( MER ) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) ( Russian : Министерство внешних сношений СССР ) , formed on 16 July 1923 , was one of the most important government offices in the Soviet Union . It was known as the People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs ( Russian : Народный комиссариат по иностранным делам ) , or Narkomindel , until 1946 . The Ministry was known as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Russian : Министерство иностранных дел ) , or MFA , from 1946 to 1991 . The MER , at the all @-@ Union level , was established on 6 July 1923 , after the signing of the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR , and was based upon the People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) , formed in 1917 . The Ministry was led by a Commissar prior to 1946 , a Minister of Foreign Affairs prior to 1991 , and a Minister of External Relations in 1991 . Every leader of the Ministry was nominated by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and confirmed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , and was a member of the Council of Ministers .
The Ministry of External Relations negotiated diplomatic treaties , handled Soviet foreign affairs along with the International Department of the Central Committee and aided in the guidance of international communism and anti @-@ imperialism , both strong themes of Soviet policy . Before Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary , the organisational structure of the MER mostly stayed the same . As many other Soviet agencies , the MER had an inner @-@ policy group known as the Collegium , made up of the minister , the two first deputy ministers and nine deputy ministers , among others . Each deputy minister usually headed his own department .
= = Duties and responsibilities = =
The primary duty of the foreign ministry was directing the general line of Soviet foreign policy . The MER represented the country abroad and participated in talks with foreign delegations on behalf of the Soviet government . It also appointed diplomatic officers , with the exception of Soviet ambassadors , who were appointed by the Council of Ministers . The MER was responsible for taking care of the USSR 's economic and political interests abroad , although economic interests were also the joint responsibility of the Ministry of Foreign Trade . The State Committee of the Council of Ministers on Cultural Links with Foreign Nations and the Ministry of Culture worked jointly with the MER in regards to the protection of Soviet citizens abroad , the exercise of overall Soviet consular relations abroad and the promotion of Soviet culture abroad . A less visible duty of the MER was its role in the coordination of Soviet intelligence operations abroad .
Exit visas were issued by the federal MER , but also by its all @-@ union foreign affairs ministries and by the Ministry of Internal Affairs . The same was true for the civilian external passports that were issued to Soviet citizens .
= = Organisation and structure = =
The inner policy making group of the ministry was the Collegium . The members of the Collegium were usually the minister , the two first deputy ministers , the nine deputy ministers , a chief of the general secretariat and fourteen other members . In total there were 27 members of the Collegium in 1990 . Each deputy minister was responsible for a department . The remaining members controlled either a department or an administrative body of the ministry . A Collegium in the USSR was , in many ways , the same as collective leadership . The Collegium coordinated decision making regarding the allocation of specific tasks on the basis of the MER 's policy . This body was expected to review new directives ordered by the minister and note their successes and failures . Mikhail Gorbachev 's " new thinking " abroad was made official in the Collegium in 1988 , such as by setting goals for improving diplomatic relations and creating " decent , human , material and spiritual living conditions for all nations " . Furthermore , the Collegium noted that the improvements in international efforts " to save the world " was the best " class notion of socialism . " It believed that if socialism could create a more peaceful world , socialism would truly have carried out a " world revolution . "
The federal Ministry of External Relations and its local all @-@ union affiliates would regularly convene at the federal Council of Ministers and its Union Republics branches to discuss the policy , duties and responsibilities of the MER . This joint gathering led to more participation from the union republics on foreign policy implementation , elaboration and coordination . This organ also discussed international problems and solved such problems in the international arena .
Because the communist regimes of Eastern Europe collapsed in 1989 , there was no longer any distinction between the Eastern and Western European departments . A separate administration body known as " embassy affairs " existed for servicing the Soviet diplomatic corps abroad . In 1986 , the Soviet government created new MER departments to deal with arms control and disarmament . The MER also created new regional departments , such as the Department of the Pacific . This was a radical change , since the MER 's structure had mostly remained unchanged since the Russian Empire . A Soviet textbook describes MER 's organisation and structure as follows :
An important branch of the central apparatus , from the point of view of day @-@ to @-@ day operational diplomatic guidance , is the executive diplomatic division . The nature of activities engaged in by these divisions is determined by their territorial and functional characteristics . Territorial departments handle questions of foreign relations with specific groups of states . These groups of countries are divided by regions .
The reorganisation efforts that took place in 1986 and the beginning of 1987 led to the replacement of many senior diplomats . The government also introduced a new principle which stated , " Once an ambassador has been at the same post for 4 or 5 years , he loses the edge of his perceptiveness . The optimum period of service in one and the same post is three years as a maximum . "
= = Ideology and policy @-@ making = =
Ideology was a key component of Soviet foreign policy . Soviet diplomacy was built on the ideas of Marxism @-@ Leninism ; Vladimir Lenin understood that compromise is an important element in foreign diplomacy and was a proponent of peaceful coexistence with the capitalist powers . A primary goal of the emphasis placed on coexistence and compromise was to “ prevent the imperialist states from attacking the USSR while it was restoring the Russian economy following the Civil War and , later , while it was undertaking industrial development . Therefore , " certain agreements with the imperialist countries in the interest of socialism " could sometimes be reached . The relationship between policy and ideology remained an active issue until the dissolution of the Soviet Union . According to an unknown former director of the Moscow State Institute of International Relations , all successful diplomatic activities by the Soviet side were based on the principles of Marxism @-@ Leninism and the Soviet evaluation of other countries in certain fields , such as social development . The Directorate for Planning Foreign Policy Measures , an organ of the MER , analysed international relations and tried to predict future events , although it never actually planned the policy of the MER . Soviet foreign affairs minister Eduard Shevardnadze claimed that Soviet foreign policy , and the " new thinking " approach laid out by Gorbachev , had become the cornerstone of maintaining stable diplomatic relations throughout the world .
There are many examples of rivalry between party and state in Soviet history . In foreign policy the state was represented by the MER , while the International Department ( ID ) represented the party . The ID 's foreign policy approach was more ideological than the MER 's , which followed a policy of détente , literally meaning the easing of strained relations with the First World . Historian Jan Adams explained the conflict in the following manner :
" Deeply embedded and seemingly inescapable conflict between these two major Soviet foreign policy institutions and their missions . On the other hand , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs seeks to cultivate formal state to state relationships ; on the other hand the ID pursues the party 's dream of building a communist world at the expense of capitalism . "
The MER used much more of its human and financial resources for propaganda purposes and so @-@ called " active measures " than other non @-@ Soviet affiliated foreign ministries . This included dissemination of views supported by the Soviet government , harassment , censorship , radio jamming , forgeries and general disinformation . Disinformation had become an important component of day @-@ to @-@ day operations in Soviet foreign affairs . Because of this , during most of its lifespan the Soviet MER had a much higher budget than its counterpart non @-@ Soviet ministries , especially when comparing the MER to the foreign ministries of the Western Bloc . Shevardnadze claimed that the Soviet government used an estimate of 700 billion rubles alone on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( known as such until 1991 ) to support " ideological confrontations " with the First World .
= = History = =
The People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) was established in 1917 . The Commissar was a member of the Council of the People 's Commissars . The People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs replaced the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire after the October Revolution . In 1946 the Council of People 's Commissars was renamed the Council of Ministers and the People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs was renamed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs .
As Soviet foreign minister , Andrei Gromyko noted in his memoirs that working with Nikita Khrushchev was not always an easy task . As Gromyko tells it , " Khrushchev would constantly throw new ideas back and forth . " His ideas were not always supported , but , as Gromyko noted , Khrushchev had a positive impact on Soviet foreign policy . Leonid Brezhnev , according to Gromyko , was a man much easier to do business with because he compensated for his lack of skills by discussing subjects openly within the Politburo . While he was easier to do business with in some areas , Brezhnev 's slowness and lack of knowledge in certain fields made him hard to discuss foreign policy with . However , Gromyko noted that his disease should be taken in consideration . Mikhail Gorbachev 's " new thinking " led to friendlier foreign relations with the Western countries , but his domestic policies destabilised the country , and in 1991 the Soviet Union dissolved . In 1991 , before the country 's dissolution , the Ministry was renamed the Ministry of External Relations . The ministry was succeeded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation in 1992 after Russia declared itself the legal successor to the USSR .
= = Commissars and ministers = =
The following persons headed the Commissariat / Ministry as commissars ( narkoms ) , ministers , and deputy ministers during the Soviet era :
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= Keeps Gettin ' Better =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " is a song by American singer Christina Aguilera , taken from her first greatest hits album , Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits ( 2008 ) . It was released on September 9 , 2008 , by RCA Records as the only single from the album . The song was written and produced by Linda Perry , with additional songwriting from Aguilera . After giving birth to her son Max , she looked to " come up with something new and fresh " , developing a " futuristic " era of her career . " Keeps Gettin ' Better " is an electroclash and electropop song , and was inspired by the likes of Andy Warhol and Goldfrapp . Its lyrics portray Aguilera as a superhero .
Upon its release , " Keeps Gettin ' Better " received generally mixed reviews from music critics . At a time when dance music was becoming increasingly prominent , the song was criticized for its lack of originality , but was deemed " catchy " and a welcome change from Aguilera 's fifth studio album Back to Basics ( 2006 ) . It became Aguilera 's highest debut on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number seven . The song additionally topped the US Hot Dance Club Play chart . Elsewhere , it peaked at number four in Canada , while charting inside the top twenty in Austria , Germany , Ireland , Italy , Japan , Slovakia and the United Kingdom .
The accompanying music video , directed by Peter Berg , features Aguilera in an editing room , producing the music video on a green screen . Using the equipment there , she creates several characters , including a blonde 1960 's inspired hippie character , another based on Catwoman and a futuristic blue @-@ haired version of herself . Aguilera debuted the song during a live performance at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards . Wearing a catsuit , she sang a remixed version of her debut single " Genie in a Bottle " ( 1999 ) , before performing " Keeps Gettin ' Better " . Aguilera also performed the song during a promotional tour for the album , and as part of a medley of her greatest hits on the 36th Annual American Music Awards .
= = Background = =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " was released almost a year after Aguilera gave birth to her first son , Max . She told MSN that " Growing into being a woman , a mother , it 's a very different time in my life , and also where I 'm at musically " . Throughout her career , Aguilera has been noted for her reinventions . She stated that with " Keeps Gettin ' Better " , she wished to " come up with something new and fresh " , calling the new redefined era of her music " futuristic " . Aguilera said that the development of new songs featured on Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits was influenced by artists such as Blondie , Velvet Underground and Nico . Visually , artists Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein were credited as influences for the album . After stating the theme of the record was futuristic , she said to MTV News that the era has a " very pop @-@ art feel visually " . Aguilera also stated that she had been " diving deep " into " electro in particular " at the time , noting that she had started connections to collaborate with prominent dance artists Goldfrapp and Ladytron . While talking to MTV News , Aguilera discussed the influence behind the track and the album , and said :
I wanted to give [ fans ] a little sneak preview of what 's to come [ with the VMA performance ] . The vein of the new material is a futuristic take on what is inspiring me at the moment ... and it 's got a very pop @-@ art feel , visually . [ There 's a ] throwback to Andy Warhol and all the colors and vividness and bright boldness that was in that artwork . I 'm a big collector of pop art and graffiti art at this point , too — D * Face and Banksy , also Roy Lichtenstein ... and it 's been very fun venturing off into that zone .
= = Composition = =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " was written by Aguilera and Linda Perry , while production was done by the latter . It is an electropop song , written in the key of F minor . Aguilera 's vocals in the track span from the note of F3 to the note of C5 . Meanwhile , Shahryar Rizvi from the Dallas Observer described it as electroclash . The song has also been noted by The Times as an " electro @-@ glam " number . Described as a " muscular , percussive arena @-@ ready " track , the song garnered comparisons to Goldfrapp 's Supernature album and Britney Spears ' song " Womanizer " . An " instantly engaging " electropop beat begins the track ; it additionally features " space @-@ age sounds " in response to its futuristic concept , with a " throbbing " synth line . Lyrically , themes of female empowerment and being a superhero are dominant on the track . Aguilera sings , " Some days I 'm a super bitch " . The lyrics derive from Aguilera 's experience as a mother . While talking to MSN , she said :
After having my own child , it 's pretty amazing what females are capable of . We 're Supergirl , we do it all : we give the love , we give the milk . On the other hand , I 'm running a business . I 'm running my career . That comes with being labeled a bitch . If that 's what I 'm gonna be called by being assertive and knowing who I am and what I want out of life , then so be it . I will wear that label proudly . For me it 's about turning that word into a positive .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly responded to the new additions of the compilation saying , " The singer has banished melisma and belting from these electronic confections , and her chops sound just as hot set on simmer . " Nick Butler from Sputnikmusic positively received the song and " Dynamite " saying " Christina the pop singer is dead , long live Electro Christina " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy called the song a " welcome change " from Aguilera 's 2006 Back to Basics album , but stated that the song is not one of Aguilera 's best singles . Fraser McAlpine from BBC wrote a mixed review for the song , recognizing Aguilera 's maturity in the lyrics . However , he confessed that this could easily be a song by Pink , who might have made a better job of making it her own . Allmusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that the singer was instantly overshadowed by fellow singer Britney Spears , but " Keeps Gettin ' Better " proves that no other teen pop singer of her era has a better track than Aguilera , concluding that if the new songs are any indication , the title of the hits compilation [ Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits ] is no lie either .
Gavin Martin from The Mirror gave a mixed response , as he said : " Nothing dates as quickly as pop that dares to call itself futuristic " . Martin awarded the song 3 / 5 and concluded with " It 's not that this new number from the forthcoming Greatest Hits set is bad – but it 's a whole lot more routine than it pretends to be . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented on the possibly outdated dance theme . Responding to the new additions of the record including " Keeps Gettin ' Better " , he noted : " Not exactly what one would call original , but if it 's true the singer 's next studio album will reprise this electro @-@ pop sound , Aguilera deserves credit for refusing to play it safe . " Bill Lamb from About.com awarded the track three stars . He noted Aguilera 's dance @-@ inspired effort , at a time of dance dominance in the industry , negatively and stated that " the catchy electro @-@ pop vibe isn 't enough to make it one of her more memorable efforts . " Rolling Stone noted that in the compilation , Aguilera 's old singles are " weighed down by four bland attempts at 2008 's trendy , Lady Gaga @-@ jacking electropop " . Paul Thompson and Amy Phillips from Pitchfork Media said that the track was " basically a ripoff " of Goldfrapp 's " Ooh La La " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " sold 143 @,@ 895 legal downloads in its first week dated September 30 , 2008 , debuting at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 a few weeks later . This has become Aguilera 's highest debut on the chart and became her first top ten hit since " Ain 't No Other Man " in 2006 . As of August 2014 , it has sold 1 @.@ 156 million digital copies in the US . The song has performed well on the Canadian Hot 100 chart ; it debuted at number 16 , and a week later the song became the " Greatest Airplay , Sales Gainer " , peaking at number four . However , the track only spent one week within the top ten . It debuted and peaked at number 21 in Swedish Singles Chart , and reached number 14 in the United Kingdom . On September 21 , 2008 , the song debuted and peaked on the Australian ARIA Charts at number 26 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
Directed by Peter Berg , the music video for the song is said to have been influenced by films Minority Report and the James Bond series , and was conceived to show Aguilera " through time and fashion in an homage to her 10 @-@ year career " according to a statement by her label . Popjustice saw the music video in progress on October 22 , 2008 , in the edit they reported that the music video was produced on a green screen , but the concept of the video was to be Aguilera in an edit suite pressing various flashing buttons , editing what was her own music video . Aguilera herself discussed the production of the video , saying " I really enjoyed making the video for ' Keeps Gettin ' Better ' , being an artist who likes to play around with different looks , it was a lot of fun to portray various characters within the same shoot . " The music video debuted on iLike , an online music service on October 27 , 2008 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video starts with multi colored , digital waves which then merge into a scene where Aguilera is sat in an editing suite overlooking a sound and edit board . Pressing flashing buttons , multiple large screens stand in front of the desk and correspond to her choice of button selected . The first images shown on the screens feature Aguilera as Catwoman , a futuristic blue haired character , and a 1960s influenced hippie before focusing on the 60 's inspired character . The blond character is shown to be holding an old fashioned handheld video camera filming scenes of high rise buildings , all the while showing shots of Aguilera editing the on screen projection . The blond hippie inspired character is then seen in a second setting , riding a bicycle through a grassy field at times performing dance movements to the song and lip @-@ synching .
Aguilera then takes a touch screen Nokia 5800 XpressMusic phone from her pocket with an image of a futuristic blue haired character , after producing a scene of a convertible car , she inputs the character from the phone onto the screen and into the car and the blue haired character is then shown driving . Aguilera then produces silhouettes of a catwoman style figure , until Aguilera as the catwoman character is shown , wearing a leather catsuit with cat ears , lighting bolts shoot from her hands until another scene featuring the same character shows her alongside a black motorbike holding a gun . Shots of both the blue haired character and catwoman lead to a scene featuring a blond Aguilera moving inside of the screens accompanied by multi @-@ colored digital waves , before shots of the catwoman style character on a motorbike , shooting the gun are presented . Shots of the different scenes including one of Aguilera at the desk accompanied by a toy robot are shown finishing as Aguilera turns the screens off .
= = = Reception = = =
Gil Kaufman from MTV News called the video " geektastic " . Popjustice also gave the video a positive review , saying : " The video 's a riot of costume changes , makeovers , multiple ' scenarios ' and Christina even seems to look like she 's having fun . We 'd sort of forgotten the single was even coming out , but the video makes it all seem quite exciting . " The Sun commented that " has done the impossible – made the blue rinse sexy " . Anna Pickard from The Guardian heavily compared Aguilera to Britney Spears in the video , saying : " We 're at a final count of four Christinas to five Britneys . [ ... ] We can 't be seen to have achieved a perfect Xtina / Britney balance . [ ... ] We 'd probably need a guest appearance from Madonna for that " . She also felt that " the 30 @-@ second Target advert is better than the whole video . But still : any release that makes it compulsory to type ' Christina Aguilera Keeps Getting Better ' is surely a clever ploy " .
= = Live performances = =
At a press conference in Paramount Studios in Los Angeles , Aguilera confirmed that she would be performing at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards on September 7 , 2008 . She discussed about allowing her newly born son , Max , to watch the performance , saying : " This will be his first time watching me perform on television , but only for a little while because he 's not really allowed to watch television yet . I 'll make an exception for the VMAs . " Aguilera discussed the concept of the performance beforehand saying : " You 're going to get a first look and a first listen at my new image and my new sound . The last album , the style and sound was about vintage glam — this one is all about the future " . The performance began with Aguilera standing in a tower of neon @-@ lit boxes , singing " Genie 2 @.@ 0 " while wearing second @-@ skin leather catsuit accessorized with silver armbands , a black @-@ leather cat mask , black cape and platinum @-@ blond hair . Then , she began performing " Keeps Gettin ' Better " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy called the performance " sassy , slickly @-@ choreographed " .
Aguilera made an appearance at the Thisday Africa Rising at the London 's Royal Albert Hall , where she performed several old hits and " Keeps Gettin ' Better " . She also performed the song as part of the tour in Kiev , Ukraine , on October 20 and 21 . The last date was held on October 24 in Abu Dhabi , at the Emirates Palace Hotel . On November 23 , Aguilera promoted her greatest hits album by performing at the 36th Annual American Music Awards . She opened the show with a seven @-@ minute medley including six of her greatest hits . Los Angeles Times ' Todd Martens commented about the performance : " Things get started in familiar territory , with an Aguilera medley , the first of what is sure to be many whiplash @-@ inducing musical performances this evening . But unlike her MTV VMA run @-@ down , Aguilera backs into " Genie in a Bottle " rather than opening with it . [ ... ] Opening with the ballad allowed Aguilera to flex her vocal muscles , but the zipping between songs never allowed her - or her background dancers - to catch a groove " .
= = Track listings = =
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= No. 1 Aircraft Depot RAAF =
No. 1 Aircraft Depot ( No. 1 AD ) was a maintenance unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Formed in July 1921 at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , it moved to the nearby RAAF Laverton in March 1926 . As well as servicing aircraft and other equipment , in its early years the depot supported survey flights in Australia and the Pacific region . Its strength increased from 350 staff in the 1930s to over 2 @,@ 000 during World War II , when it assembled , tested and repaired aircraft ranging from Tiger Moths to Spitfires to B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses . The depot also engaged in aircraft research and development . Shortly after the war it introduced the first jets into RAAF service . In 1961 , No. 1 AD ceased airframe maintenance , but continued to service aero engines . By the 1970s its main focus was ground @-@ based equipment , though it still handled some aircraft components . The depot was disbanded in December 1994 , its functions having been taken over by other units and private contractors . At the time of its disbandment , it was the oldest RAAF unit in continuous operation .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ war years = = =
No. 1 Aircraft Depot ( No. 1 AD ) was one of the first units formed by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) after the new service was established ( as the Australian Air Force ) on 31 March 1921 . The original components of No. 1 AD became known as such in April 1921 , though the unit did not formally come into existence until July . Prior to this it comprised two elements in Melbourne , one at Spotswood handling the aircraft and equipment of the Imperial Gift , and another at North Fitzroy responsible for motor vehicle repair . When No. 1 AD was officially established at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , on 1 July , the Spotswood component was dissolved , while North Fitzroy continued to operate as a detachment . The unit 's inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader Bill Anderson , who was in overall charge of Point Cook .
In January 1922 the depot was organised into a headquarters with stores , aircraft repair , and engine repair sections . The vehicle repair section at North Fitzroy was transferred to Point Cook that April . Point Cook 's corrosive seaside atmosphere was however deemed an unsuitable long @-@ term location for aircraft maintenance . In September 1921 , the government purchased land at Laverton , near a railway station eight kilometres inland from Point Cook , for the express purpose of constructing a dedicated home for No. 1 AD as the " warehouse of the Air Force " . The depot , staffed by eight officers and seventy @-@ seven other ranks , relocated to the new base on 1 March 1926 . It occupied a large hangar that included an administration block , which along with living quarters and ancillary buildings had cost £ 300 @,@ 000 to build .
As well as receiving , assembling , testing and maintaining RAAF equipment , No. 1 AD was responsible for supporting research flights . In July 1927 , it was the departure point for the Northern Survey Flight , comprising a De Havilland DH.50 and two DH.9s , which reconnoitered northern and central Australia under the command of the Chief of the Air Staff , Wing Commander ( later Air Marshal Sir ) Richard Williams . The following month , No. 1 AD formed a Papuan Survey Flight , consisting of two Supermarine Seagull III amphibious biplanes under the command of Flight Lieutenant ( later Air Vice Marshal ) Ellis Wackett , to photograph the Papuan and New Guinean coasts as far north as Aitape . Wing Commander Bill Anderson returned to command the depot from April to August 1929 , handing over to Wing Commander Adrian Cole , who served in the post until December 1932 .
By the mid @-@ 1930s , No. 1 AD comprised some 350 staff , servicing a range of aircraft that included the Westland Wapiti , Bristol Bulldog , Hawker Demon , De Havilland Dragon Rapide , Avro Cadet , Avro Anson , and North American NA @-@ 16 . The NA @-@ 16 was later augmented by the purchase of the more advanced North American NA @-@ 33 , which was licensed and built in Australia by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation as the CAC Wirraway . No. 1 AD 's commanding officers during this decade included Wing Commanders Frank McNamara ( February 1933 to April 1936 ) , Frank Lukis ( April 1936 to January 1938 ) , and Arthur Murphy ( January 1938 to May 1940 ) . To cope with a new policy of rapid expansion of the RAAF , a Recruit Training Section was formed under the depot 's auspices in March 1935 ; it was reorganised as Recruit Training Squadron on 1 September 1936 . On 3 May 1937 , Recruit Training Squadron acquired its own sub @-@ unit , the Communications and Survey Flight , utilising Tugan Gannets and Dragon Rapides for ongoing photographic survey work .
= = = World War II = = =
Although many squadrons were raised at RAAF Station Laverton during World War II , the base 's prime focus continued to be its aircraft depot . Following the outbreak of hostilities in September 1939 , No. 1 AD began expanding to handle the RAAF 's growing number of training and combat aircraft , among them De Havilland Tiger Moths , CAC Wirraways , Lockheed Hudsons , Hawker Hurricanes , and Curtiss P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . The depot assembled and tested new aircraft , and ferried them to operational areas such as northern Australia and New Guinea . It was also responsible for the maintenance of in @-@ service aircraft , including their engines , instruments , and armament . As well as RAAF equipment , No. 1 AD repaired damaged US aircraft such as B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses . The depot undertook research and development on various types , including Supermarine Spitfires , CAC Boomerangs , and Wackett Woomerass . It also ran comparative performance studies on Spitfires , Boomerangs , Kittyhawks , Brewster Buffalos , and Mitsubishi Zeros .
In the case of the Boomerang , for example , 105 CA @-@ 12s were delivered to No. 1 AD for testing between July 1942 and June 1943 . As soon as the aircraft started arriving , the depot commenced handling and armament trials that continued for six months , identifying and overcoming such issues as the aircraft 's guns freezing at high altitudes , and unusual levels of carbon monoxide in the cockpit . Fighter aces Alan Rawlinson and Wilfred Arthur , along with a United States Army Air Forces pilot , conducted comparative trials between a Boomerang , a Kittyhawk , a Buffalo , and a Bell Airacobra . The depot began despatching the Boomerangs to their operational units in March 1943 , and the following month performance tested a turbocharged version of the CA @-@ 14 , though this model never entered production . No. 1 AD 's Special Duties and Performance Flight was responsible for conducting performance trials during the early war years ; in December 1943 it became a separate organisation , No. 1 Aircraft Performance Unit , which would evolve into the Aircraft Research and Development Unit ( ARDU ) in 1947 . Among the depot 's wartime commanding officers was Wing Commander John Lerew , who held the post from December 1942 until November 1943 . During his tenure , after investigating the crash of a Vultee Vengeance , he designed a clip to prevent the accidental release of the pilot 's safety harness , which was later adopted for all such harnesses . By January 1945 , No. 1 AD 's strength had increased to its highest level of 2 @,@ 339 staff .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
A Gloster Meteor jet made its first flight in Australia from Laverton in 1946 . By May 1947 , No. 1 AD had assembled the first De Havilland Vampire jet in Australia for its maiden flight . In October the same year , the first helicopter in RAAF service , a Sikorsky S @-@ 51 , arrived at the depot . In 1950 , No. 1 AD received the sole high @-@ performance piston @-@ engined CAC CA @-@ 15 to be built , which had been sent to be " converted to components " ( scrapped ) . The depot took delivery of the first Australian @-@ built English Electric Canberra jet bomber in July 1953 . Shortly afterwards , it modified the three Canberras of No. 1 Long Range Flight prior to the unit taking part in the 1953 London @-@ to @-@ Christchurch air race . In September that year , the first Australian @-@ built Sabre jet fighter was delivered .
By 1961 , when all airframe maintenance at Laverton was transferred to Nos. 2 and 3 Aircraft Depots , No. 1 AD had serviced forty @-@ two different aircraft types throughout its existence . It continued to maintain aero engines , and began supporting telecommunications equipment as well . The engine repair facilities at No. 1 AD were closed down in 1968 . Staff were transferred to No. 3 Aircraft Depot at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , to prepare for the introduction of the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber to Australian service and concentrate on maintaining the new aircraft 's engines . No. 1 AD 's focus thereafter shifted to ground equipment that supported navigational aids , air traffic control , telecommunications and motor transport for the Air Force and other sections of defence and government .
No. 1 AD was presented with a Queen 's Colour on 6 November 1981 . By September the following year its strength was down to 235 staff , but it pioneered the support of various new technologies for the Air Force , in fields such as electroplating , fibre optics , and electronics . It was also responsible for developing and testing components for the F @-@ 111 , Macchi MB @-@ 326 and McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet jets . From 1986 , restructuring and outsourcing began to impact heavily upon the RAAF 's technical services . By the 1990s , No. 1 AD 's functions had largely been taken over by other units and private contractors , and it was disbanded on 2 December 1994 . It was , at the time , the oldest RAAF unit in continuous operation and , according to the RAAF Historical Section , the oldest continuously operating maintenance depot of any air force .
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= Murder of Dwayne Jones =
Dwayne Jones was a Jamaican 16 @-@ year @-@ old who was killed by a violent mob in Montego Bay in 2013 , after he attended a dance party dressed in women 's clothing . The incident attracted national and international media attention and brought increased scrutiny to the status of LGBT rights in Jamaica .
Perceived as effeminate , Jones was bullied in school and , at the age of 14 , was forced out of his family home by his father . He moved into a derelict house in Montego Bay with transgender friends . On the evening of 21 July 2013 , they went to the Irwin area of the city and attended a dance party . When some men at the party discovered that the cross @-@ dressing Jones was not a woman , they confronted and attacked him . Jones was beaten , stabbed , shot , and run over by a car ; he died in the early hours of the morning . Police investigated the murder but did not arrest or charge anyone for the crime , which remains unsolved .
The event made newspaper headlines in Jamaica and was reported on in the United Kingdom and the United States . While voices on social media accused Jones of provoking his killers by cross @-@ dressing in public , the murder was condemned by Jamaican educators and the country 's Justice Minister . In the wake of the attack , both domestic and international organisations devoted to LGBT rights and human rights – among them Human Rights Watch , Jamaicans for Justice , and the Jamaica Forum for Lesbians , All @-@ Sexuals & Gays – asked the Jamaican authorities for a proper investigation and for legal recognition of LGBT rights on the island .
= = Background = =
= = = Jones ' biography = = =
Raised in an impoverished slum in Montego Bay , a city in northwest Jamaica , Jones faced bullying at high school from students who perceived his behaviour as effeminate . When Jones was 14 , his father ejected him from the family home and encouraged neighbours to chase him out of the neighbourhood . After a period sleeping in bushes and on beaches , he began squatting in a derelict house in the hills above Montego Bay with two transgender friends , Keke and Khloe , both 23 at the time of Jones ' death . Jones was known among friends as " Gully Queen " , a reference to the storm drainage systems which many homeless LGBT Jamaicans live in . Friends noted that Jones desired to become a teacher or to work in the tourist industry . He also wanted to become a performer like the American pop star Lady Gaga , and had won a local dancing competition . Khloe described him as " a diva " who was " always very feisty and joking around " .
= = = Anti @-@ LGBT sentiment in Jamaica = = =
In 2006 , Time magazine asked whether Jamaica was " the most homophobic place on Earth " , and answered that it " may be the worst offender " . The country 's laws criminalising same @-@ sex activity between males were introduced in 1864 , during the British colonial administration . According to the Sexual Offences Act of 2009 , any man convicted under these laws must register as a sex offender . These laws have been cited as contributing to wider homophobic attitudes among the Jamaican populace , including the view that gay people are criminals regardless of whether or not they have committed any crime . Anti @-@ LGBT perspectives have been furthered by the island 's conservative Christian churches . Many reggae and dancehall songs , among them Buju Banton 's " Boom Bye Bye " , call for the killing of gays . Writing for the International Business Times in the summer of 2013 , the journalist Palash Gosh noted that while Jamaica was " awash in crime and violence , gays and lesbians are particularly prominent targets of wanton brutality . " In the mid @-@ 2000s , two of Jamaica 's best @-@ known LGBT rights activists , Brian Williamson and Steve Harvey , were murdered . In the summer of 2013 , Human Rights Watch carried out five weeks of fieldwork among Jamaica 's LGBT community , reporting that over half of those interviewed had experienced violence as a result of their sexual orientation or gender identity , sometimes on more than one occasion .
= = Murder = =
On the evening of 21 July 2013 – when Jones was 16 – he dressed in female clothing and attended a dance party with Keke and Khloe called Henessey Sundays , held at a bar in the Irwin area . They arrived by taxi at around 2 am . Jones successfully passed as a girl at the party , and several males danced with him . Although he initially kept his biological sex a secret from others at the party , fearing homophobic persecution , he revealed his identity to a girl he had previously been to church with . The girl informed her male friends , who accosted him outside the venue , demanding to know , " Are you a woman or a man ? " One of the men used a lantern to examine Jones ' feet , claiming that they were too large to be those of a biological woman . Discovering his sex , they started calling him " batty boy " and other homophobic epithets . Khloe tried to get him to avoid confrontation , whispering in his ear , " Walk with me , walk with me " , but Jones refused , instead insisting to those assembled that he was female .
When someone pulled on Jones ' bra strap , he ran away , and the crowd pursued and attacked him further down the road . He was beaten , stabbed , shot and run over by a car . He slipped in and out of consciousness for two hours before another attack finally killed him . There were no reports of anyone trying to help him during the altercation . Khloe was also attacked and almost raped , but escaped by hiding first in a church and then in neighbouring woods . Khloe commented , " When I saw Dwayne 's body , I started shaking and crying . It was horrible . " Police arrived at the scene at 5 am to find the body dumped in bushes along Orange Main Road . They launched an investigation into the homicide , inviting friends and family of the victim to contact them . Jones ' family declined to claim the body , and his father refused to talk to the press about the incident .
On 14 August , Deputy Superintendent of Police Steve Brown announced that fourteen statements had been collected and that the investigation was progressing . As of May 2014 , however , no one had been arrested or charged , and in August 2015 the crime was still considered unsolved . In October 2013 , a group of men set fire to the place Jones had lived in as a squatter , forcing its four occupants to flee , in what was also believed to be an anti @-@ LGBT hate crime . Everald Morgan , an officer at the St James Public Health Department , requested that police provide protection for the four youths made homeless by the arson attack , but they declined to do so . Meanwhile , a charity named Dwayne 's House was set up in Jones ' memory to aid homeless LGBT youth in Jamaica .
= = Reaction = =
= = = In Jamaica = = =
Jones ' murder made headline news across Jamaica . Jamaica 's Justice Minister , Senator Mark Golding , condemned the killing and called for an end to " depraved acts of violence " in Jamaica . He added that " all well @-@ thinking Jamaicans " should embrace " the principle of respect for the basic human rights of all persons " and express tolerance towards minority groups such as the LGBT community . Annie Paul , the Publications Officer of the Jamaican campus of the University of the West Indies ( UWI ) , stated that on the basis of comments provided on social media , she thought that most Jamaicans believed that Jones provoked his own murder by cross @-@ dressing within a society that did not tolerate such behaviour . Newton D. Duncan , the UWI Professor of Paediatric Surgery , similarly noted that the " overwhelming majority " of Jamaicans believed that cross @-@ dressers are homosexuals and deserve punishment . He added that this was a common misconception , because the majority of cross @-@ dressers were heterosexual . He condemned the attack and compared it to the lynching of an African @-@ American man in Harper Lee 's novel To Kill a Mockingbird , drawing links between the anti @-@ LGBT violence of Jamaica and the anti @-@ black violence of the mid @-@ 20th century United States .
Writing in the Jamaican broadsheet The Gleaner , Carolyn Cooper , Professor of Literary and Cultural Studies at UWI , condemned the group who committed Jones ' murder . She blamed their behaviour on the selective use of the Bible , noting that while many Jamaicans embrace those Biblical passages which condemn same @-@ sex sexual activity and cross @-@ dressing , they are themselves typically guilty of many other Biblical sins , such as adultery and murder . She commented that Jones had been killed just for being himself and expressed the hope that his killers face legal prosecution for their crime . The following week she published a follow @-@ up article in which she responded to several emails that she had received which claimed that the real victims of the scenario were the men whom Jones deceived when he was dancing with them . She reiterated her condemnation of Jones ' killers , remarking that rather than retaliating violently , they should have brushed it off with a humorous comment .
Jaevion Nelson , an HIV / AIDS campaigner and human rights advocate , also published an article on the subject in The Gleaner . He noted that his initial reaction was to question why Jones had gone to the dance party and why he wasn 't satisfied in attending Jamaica 's underground gay parties . He added that he had subsequently realised that adopting this viewpoint was rooted in " the culture of violence " by which a victim is blamed for what happened to them . He called on Jamaicans to be tolerant of LGBT individuals , and to focus on " rebuilding this great nation on the principles of inclusivity , love , equality and respect with no distinctions whatsoever " . Also in The Gleaner , Sheila Veléz Martínez , a law professor at the University of Pittsburgh , condemned the murder as " alarming evidence " of the high rates of homophobia in Jamaican society .
On 25 July , the Jamaica Forum for Lesbians , All @-@ Sexuals & Gays ( J @-@ FLAG ) , an LGBT rights organisation , issued a public statement expressing their " deep concern " regarding the case , and offering their condolences to Jones ' friends and family . They encouraged local people to aid the police in locating the perpetrators of the attack , which they asserted was an affront to Jamaica 's democracy . J @-@ FLAG 's director Dane Lewis later commented that despite an increase in homophobic violence , Jamaican society was becoming more tolerant toward LGBT people ; he attributed this to the actions of individuals like Jones , who have helped improve the public visibility of LGBT people in Jamaican society . Another LGBT rights organisation , Quality of Citizenship Jamaica , issued a press release calling for the government and churches to engage with LGBT organisations to establish common ground which could be undergirded by the principle of " true respect for all , " found in the nation 's National Anthem . Human rights organisation Jamaicans for Justice called on Prime Minister Portia Simpson @-@ Miller and religious leaders to condemn the murder , also commenting on what they saw as a lack of media coverage and public outrage about the incident , adding that " we must ask ourselves what this says about us as a people . "
= = = Internationally = = =
News of Jones ' murder attracted international media attention , resulting in condemnation of the killing by human rights groups . Graeme Reid , the LGBT Rights Program director at Human Rights Watch in New York , issued a statement that the Jamaican government should send an " unequivocal message " that there would be " zero tolerance " of anti @-@ LGBT violence . Reid noted that Jamaica 's Prime Minister had vowed to decriminalise same @-@ sex sexual activity in her 2011 election campaign but had yet to implement that promise . He encouraged the Jamaican authorities to take action to investigate Jones ' murder and to promote respect for the country 's LGBT citizens .
In a February 2014 briefing , the US Department of State Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy , Human Rights , and Labor , Uzra Zeya , cited Jones ' case as well as the torture and murder of Cameroonian HIV / AIDS activist Eric Ohena Lembembe as examples of the " troubling acts of violence " against LGBT individuals that had happened across the globe in the previous year .
In the United Kingdom , a black LGBT organization , the Out and Proud Diamond Group ( OPDG ) , in association with the Peter Tatchell Foundation , organised a protest outside Jamaica 's London embassy on 28 August . Talking to press , the OPDG 's Marvin Kibuuka condemned Jones ' murder and called for supporters to actively oppose the persecution of LGBT people in both Jamaica and elsewhere . Peter Tatchell later asserted that the lack of action by Simpson @-@ Miller and the police was tantamount to colluding with those guilty of an anti @-@ LGBT hate crime .
In her introduction to an academic study of " queerness and children 's literature " , Laura Robinson , an Associate Professor of English at the Royal Military College of Canada , cited Jones ' murder alongside the 2013 Russian LGBT propaganda law as an example in which youth issues intersected with LGBT issues . She added that Jones was a " child who did not end up having what Judith Butler calls a ' livable life ' . "
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= Bhale Bhale Magadivoy =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy ( English : You are an interesting man ) is a 2015 Indian Telugu @-@ language romantic comedy film written and directed by Maruthi Dasari . Jointly produced by Bunny Vasu , V. Vamsi Krishna Reddy , and Pramod Uppalapati under their production companies GA2 Pictures and UV Creations , Bhale Bhale Magadivoy features Nani and Lavanya Tripathi in the lead roles , and Murli Sharma , Ajay , Naresh , Sithara , and Vennela Kishore in supporting roles . The film revolves around Lucky , an absent @-@ minded plant scientist and his efforts to hide his inherent memory @-@ related flaws from Nandana , a benevolent kuchipudi dancer with whom he is in a relationship .
The title Bhale Bhale Magadivoy was borrowed from a song of the same name composed by M. S. Viswanathan for K. Balachander 's 1978 Telugu film Maro Charitra . Gopi Sunder composed the film 's soundtrack and background score . Production commenced in March 2013 , and the film 's principal photography was completed in July 2015 . Including post @-@ production tasks , the film was completed in seven months . Though mostly shot in and around Hyderabad , one of the songs was filmed in Goa .
Produced on a budget of around ₹ 70 — 90 million , Bhale Bhale Magadivoy was released on 4 September 2015 in 700 screens across the globe . It received positive reviews from critics and was a box office success , grossing over ₹ 550 million globally in its full run . It also became the fourth @-@ highest grossing Telugu film of all time at the United States box office , where it was released in 115 screens . The production of the film 's Kannada remake , Gandu Endare Gandu , commenced in February 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Lucky is an absent @-@ minded junior botanist who is easily distracted by other tasks while working on his current research . His father arranges his marriage with the daughter of Panduranga Rao , a senior botanist . Rao decides to break the alliance after learning about Lucky 's mental condition and warns him not to show up again . On his way to donate blood to his boss , Lucky falls in love with Nandana , a kuchipudi dance teacher , and gets diverted . He creates a positive impression by unknowingly donating blood to one of her students .
In their frequent meetings , Lucky keeps forgetting things ( such as going out without his shoes , giving away his motorbike keys to a beggar , etc . ) , but manages to hide this shortcoming from Nandana by claiming he is a philanthropist . He is unaware of the fact that Nandana is Rao 's daughter , the young woman whom he was supposed to marry before . Rao 's friend 's son Ajay , a police inspector , also falls in love with Nandana , while she is waiting for Lucky 's proposal . When he tries to propose on her birthday , Lucky ends up taking Nandana 's pregnant sister @-@ in @-@ law , who is experiencing labour pains , to a nearby hospital . After the delivery , Nandana proposes to Lucky , and they become a couple .
Nandana informs Lucky that her father has accepted their proposal and wants to meet him . Lucky and Rao meet as strangers when Rao insults Lucky after an incident with a little girl who was about to fall into a pond . Lucky later realises that Nandana is Rao 's daughter and flees . Lucky and Nandana plan to meet later . Lucky makes a friend of his pose as Nandana 's lover , and joins Rao as an apprentice .
When Nandana 's relatives attend the naming ceremony of the new born child , Rao 's nephew assumes Lucky 's friend is her potential lover , and all the others assume Lucky is Nandana 's suitor . Rao 's nephew becomes further confused when Lucky visits a sick Nandana to spend some quality time with her . Days later , Rao wants Lucky to escort Nandana and her relatives to Srisailam . Lucky , driving , misses a turn and reaches the outskirts of Bangalore . He takes them to a nearby temple and explains that it is a very special and historically significant temple .
Ajay , who is confused about the identity of Nandana 's lover ( as Lucky and his friend keep changing places depending on who is around at the moment ) manages to get a video of Lucky romancing Nandana . When they all arrive back home , Ajay reveals Lucky 's mental condition to Nandana , and they break up . On the day of Nandana 's engagement with Ajay , Rao , who has become aware of the sincerity of Lucky 's love , advises her to choose Lucky over Ajay . When Ajay makes it clear he intends to marry Nandana by force , Rao challenges Lucky to stop it , this time without forgetting .
Rao meets Lucky and reveals that he has been aware of his love for Nandana since the moment she and Lucky met at the hospital , and that , since then , he has been watching to see how Lucky 's amnesia might affect his relationship with Nandana . Lucky visits the temple where the marriage is scheduled to take place but ends up forgetting , instead buying a lemon soda . However , this turns out to be a trick , as he wants to lure Ajay 's henchmen into a false sense of security . He reaches the original marriage venue ( actually an aluminium factory ) in time with help from Ajay 's henchmen and marries Nandana there after a duel with Ajay .
A week later , Rao visits Nandana and Lucky , and during their conversations , Rao says that Ajay has been missing for a week and his father is concerned . Lucky remembers that he tied Ajay with a rope at the factory . When he reaches the spot , and Ajay asks why he did not release him , Lucky replies , " Sorry boss , I forgot ! " .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
V. Vamsi Krishna Reddy and Pramod Uppalapati signed Maruthi Dasari to direct a film starring Nani and Lavanya Tripathi under their banner UV Creations . The film , as yet untitled , was formally announced in February 2015 , before the release of Nani 's Yevade Subramanyam . Maruthi wanted to tell the story of a person who has a shortcoming that makes him think he is not worthy of being loved . Bunny Vasu co @-@ produced the film under the banner GA2 Pictures , a sub @-@ division of Geetha Arts , with Allu Aravind as the film 's presenter , making it a joint venture with UV Creations . The film was officially launched on 2 March 2015 at Hyderabad and was titled Bhale Bhale Magadivoy after a song of the same name composed by M. S. Viswanathan for K. Balachander 's Maro Charitra ( 1978 ) . Gopi Sunder composed the film 's music . Nizar Shafi and S. B. Uddhav were the film 's cinematographer and editor respectively .
Nani played the role of Lakkaraju , called Lucky , an absentminded young man who often forgets the task he is currently performing when he is distracted by something else . He initially wanted to turn down Maruthi 's proposal due to the latter 's previous risqué films . After listening to the script , he liked the absence of irrelevant comedy tracks . Tripathi plays the role of Nandana , an innocent kuchipudi dancer . Regarding her looks , Tripathi said that the emphasis was on " graceful attires , simple accessories and kohl @-@ rimmed eyes " . She was previously trained in kathak , and two teachers assisted her with the dance as a part of her preparation for the character . Murli Sharma plays the role of Tripathi 's conservative father ; he said he found the role difficult to portray as most of his previous roles were more aggressive in nature . Vennela Kishore was selected to play a supporting role . Naresh and Sithara play Nani 's parents , and Ajay , Praveen , and Srinivasa Reddy play supporting roles in the film .
Principal photography commenced on 3 March 2015 , and Nani joined the set two days later . The song " Endaro " was filmed as a montage number with scenes featuring the humorous consequences of the protagonist 's poor memory and his girlfriend 's reactions to them . By late May 2015 , the filming of talkie portions was almost done and a few song sequences were filmed at Ramoji Film City . For one particular scene , Nani delivered eight pages of dialogue in a single take . The song " Hello Hello " was filmed in Goa during the rains , which was a spontaneous decision by the filmmakers . The principal photography was completed on 28 July 2015 at Saradhi Studios in Ameerpet , Hyderabad . Including post @-@ production tasks , the film was completed in seven months . Singer Chinmayi , who dubbed for Tripathi in her Telugu debut Andala Rakshasi ( 2012 ) , also dubbed for her character in this film . Tripathi said that she wanted Chinmayi to dub for her lines because she had a good understanding of the character and the situations and had a voice similar to hers .
= = Music = =
Gopi Sunder composed the film 's soundtrack , which consisted of five songs . The lyrics were written by Ramajogayya Sastry , Sri Mani , and Bhaskarabhatla . The tune of " Endaro Mahanubhavulu " , one of Tyagaraja 's Pancharatna Kriti , was adapted for the song " Endaro " , which was composed in classical fusion style , and the lyrics were tweaked to suit the situation . Renuka Arun provided the vocals . She was recommended to Sunder by a guitarist in his group when the former intended to select a singer who " has a strong inclination towards Carnatic music but with an exposure to fusion music " . Sachin Warrier , who sang for Saheba Subramanyam ( 2014 ) , the Telugu version of Sunder 's Malayalam musical Thattathin Marayathu ( 2012 ) , was selected to sing the song " Motta Modatisari " . He initially recorded the song 's raw cut intended to be used while filming . Warrier was chosen to sing for the final version as well , since the film 's team found his voice apt . He was helped by its lyricist Ramajogayya Sastry and an assistant director in pronoucing the words correctly . Karthik provided the vocals for three songs : " Bhale Bhale Magadivoy " , " How How " , and " Hello Hello " . The first of the three was released on 12 August 2015 at a FM station in Hyderabad . The rest of the soundtrack album was released three days later at a promotional event held in Hyderabad , with actor Allu Arjun attending as guest of honour . Lahari Music marketed the soundtrack album .
Reviewing the song " Bhale Bhale Magadivoy " , Karthik Srinivasan of The Hindu stated that Sunder " ups the ante for the phrase 's use with a super bouncy tune , going one up on Mickey J. Meyer 's African @-@ style remake of the original " , adding that Karthik and Mohana Bhogaraju " are in lively form singing this one " . The Hindu stated that Sunder treated the song " Endaro " like a " classic rock song , with drums and violin dominating impressively , even as Renuka is in scintillating form , bringing classical chops to what is treated as a complex , contemporary pop song " , adding that it is " less ambitious and sticks faithfully " to the original .
Deepu Joseph of The Times of India gave the soundtrack album 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and called it an album that " has something in it for everyone and it sure to be a hit " . Joseph called " Endaro " an " absolute fusion masterpiece as Gopi Sunder wonderfully fuses Carnatic , rock and Jazz elements as Renuka Arun 's voice sounds majestic and takes the song to the next level " . Behindwoods gave the soundtrack album 3 out of 5 stars and stated that the it is " one of the most melodious albums released in Telugu over the recent times " and that Sunder " sure knows how to blend modernity with rock steady classical music ! " .
Track listing
= = Release and reception = =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy was released on 4 September 2015 in 700 screens across the globe , competing with Dynamite and Jayasurya , the Telugu dubbed version of Paayum Puli . CineGalaxy Inc. acquired the film 's overseas theatrical distribution rights . The film was released in 115 screens across the United States .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy received positive reviews from critics . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu found the film to be a " laugh riot " and stated that Bhale Bhale Magadivoy " puts logic aside but there 's plenty of situational humour where you 'll find yourself laughing aloud and having a good time . And these laughs are with [ rather ] than at the protagonist " . N. Sethumadhavan of the Bangalore Mirror called the film a " fresh breeze " and stated that the film " reasserts that Nani is a talent to watch " and that Maruthi " has indeed surprised us with a clean family entertainer " . Sify called the film a " cool entertainer " and stated that it is a " neatly packaged romcom about a mini Ghajini 's travails " .
Pranita Jonnalagedda of The Times of India gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and stated that Bhale Bhale Magadivoy comes across as a " breath of fresh air " because it " successfully keeps itself away from the regular formula of romantic comedies [ and is ] devoid of the oh @-@ so @-@ overused cliches " and is a " delight for anyone looking for wholesome entertainment " . Suresh Kavirayani of the Deccan Chronicle also gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and stated that the film can be watched for " some hilarious scenes and Nani 's brilliance performance [ sic ] " . Behindwoods gave the film 2 @.@ 75 out of 5 stars and called it a " fun ride that will entertain you throughout " and added , " What amazes the most is the film doesn 't resort to a predictable narration . The movie is filled with plenty of twists to keep the audience hooked from the scratch to finish line and it is the primary USP of the film " .
= = = Box office = = =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy collected US $ 70 @,@ 132 from the premier shows at the United States and US $ 164 @,@ 459 on the first day , taking its total to US $ 234 @,@ 591 ( ₹ 15 @.@ 6 million ) , which trade analyst Taran Adarsh called a " smashing start " . The first weekend figures at the United States box office stood at US $ 718 @,@ 378 ( ₹ 48 million ) . It grossed ₹ 140 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 90 million in its first weekend at the global box office . The film grossed ₹ 230 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 110 million in its first week at the global box office , recovering production costs . It collected US $ 1 @,@ 034 @,@ 228 at the United States box office in eight days and became the 15th Telugu film to cross the US $ 1 million mark there . It also became the fifth @-@ highest grossing Telugu film of 2015 at the United States box office .
The film collected US $ 265 @,@ 376 from 84 screens at the United States box office in its second weekend , taking its ten @-@ day total to $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( ₹ 87 @.@ 1 million ) . It collected US $ 1 @,@ 356 @,@ 673 ( ₹ 89 @.@ 1 million ) in 17 days , and US $ 1 @,@ 426 @,@ 527 ( ₹ 92 @.@ 4 million ) in 38 days at the United States box office , thus becoming the fourth @-@ highest grossing Telugu film of all time after Baahubali : The Beginning , Srimanthudu , and Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) . The film grossed more than ₹ 550 million globally in its lifetime , and the United States box office figures stood at approximately ₹ 100 million . It was one of the few small @-@ budget Telugu films to cross the US $ 1 million mark and also the first blockbuster in Nani 's career .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Remakes = =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy is being remade into Kannada as Gandu Endare Gandu by Ramesh Arvind ; Ganesh and Shanvi Srivastava reprise the roles of Nani and Tripathi from the original . It is jointly produced by Allu Aravind and Rockline Venkatesh . A Tamil remake with G. V. Prakash Kumar as the protagonist was announced in October 2015 .
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= Agung =
The agung is a set of two wide @-@ rimmed , vertically suspended gongs used by the Maguindanao , Maranao , Sama @-@ Bajau and Tausug people of the Philippines as a supportive instrument in kulintang ensembles . The agung is also ubiquitous among other groups found in Palawan , Panay , Mindoro , Mindanao , Sabah , Sulawesi , Sarawak and Kalimantan as an integral part of the agung orchestra .
= = Description = =
The agung is a large , heavy , wide @-@ rimmed gong shaped like a kettle gong. of the agung produces a bass sound in the kulintang orchestra and weighs between 13 and 16 pounds , but it is possible to find agungs weigh as low as 5 pounds or as high as 20 or 30 pounds each , depending on the metal ( bronze , brass or iron ) used to produce them .
Though their diameters are smaller than the gandingan ’ s , at roughly 22 inches ( 560 mm ) to 24 inches ( 610 mm ) in length , they have a much deeper turned @-@ in takilidan ( rim ) than the latter , with a width of 12 to 13 inches ( 330 mm ) including the knob .
They are hung vertically above the floor at or a bit below the waist line , suspended by ropes fastened to structures like strong tree limb , beam of a house , ceiling , or gong stand .
The larger , lower pitched gong of the two is called the pangandungan by the Maguindanao and the p 'nanggisa @-@ an by the Maranao . Played on the musician 's right , it provides the main part , which it predominantly played on the accents of the rhythmic structure .
The smaller , higher pitched gong , the thicker of the two , is called the panentekan by the Maguindanao and the p 'malsan or pumalsan by the Maranao . Found on the player ’ s left , it is mainly played on the weaker double and triple beats of the rhythmic structure , in counterpoint to the pangandungan 's part .
= = Origins = =
Scholars seem to agree that the origins of the agung are in Indonesia , noting that the word agung / agong is derived from the Malay agong and Indonesian / Javanese ageng .
Further evidence of this comes from a British explorer , Thomas Forrest , who in the 1770s wrote Filipinos were “ fond of musical gongs which came from Cheribon on Java and have round knobs on them . ”
= = Technique = =
The agung is usually performed while standing beside the instrument , holding the upper edge of its flange between the thumb and other fingers with the left hand while striking the knob with the right hand . The mallets , called balu , are made from short sticks about half a foot in length and padded with soft but tough material such as rubber at one end . Using these balus , players handle the agung similar to the way a brass tom @-@ tom is played .
A series of solid , fast decaying sounds are produced using dampening techniques . The desired effect is produced after striking the knob , by leaving one ’ s hand or knee or the mallets themselves on it . When one player is using two gongs , the assistant holding the lower @-@ pitched gong positions it at an angle and dampens its surface using their hands .
Recently , new ways of handling the agung have emerged , including grasping a portion of the boss rather than the flange to dampen or using regular strokes upon the busel while striking the surrounding gong surface with the opposite , wooden end of the beater . The latter technique , called katinengka , is used by downriver musicians to produce metallic sounds during kulintang performances .
Different combinations of players , gongs and mallets can be used for playing the agung : two players with each assigned their own gong or just one . When playing alone , the agung player could either play both gongs with the player holding the higher @-@ pitched gongs face @-@ to @-@ face , with the lower one held at an angle by an assistant for stability , or just one gong . The latter style , common among downriver Maguindanaos in Simuay , who consider this style an old one , uses only the higher @-@ pitch gong for it , unlike the lower @-@ pitched gong , is considered the lead gong , therefore having primary importance . An example of this is when single gong agungs are used during a tagunggo piece .
The number of mallets used by the player could also vary as well . For most occasions , only one mallet is used but for other techniques , the player could use two mallets , one in each hand . An even more interesting technique uses only one balu but requires the player to play the agung in reverse order of pitches . Called patuy , this technique and the one with two mallets are normally reserved only for competition and exhibition instances .
= = Uses = =
= = = Kulintang ensemble = = =
The main use for the agung in Maguindanao and Maranao society is as a supportive / accompanying instrument of an orthodox kulintang ensemble . Using basic patterns and interlocking rhythms , a player would use the agung to complement the melody played by the kulintang . The patterns players use are normally considered freer than either the babendil or the dabakan ; players could manipulate the patterns freely as long as they conform , reaffirm , reinforce and even generate the rhythmic mode of the piece . The length of the patterns themselves may vary depending on how they fit into the melodic improvisation . Rapid style is useful especially during exhibition of playing skills .
Among both the Maguindanao and the Maranao , the agung embodies all that is masculine and thus the agung is traditionally considered a masculine instrument . To be considered a good player , one must possess strength , stamina ( playing extremely fast tempos with no mistakes ) and endurance . Players must also exhibit improvisation skills for different patterns to be considered as having quality musicianship — lest the audience considers the patterns played repetitions and mundane .
Because of the highly skilled nature required for playing the agung , it is not uncommon to see agung players have friendly rivalries during a performance , using tricks in an attempt to throw others off @-@ beat . For instance , if the p ’ nanggisa ’ s elaborations are so elusive that the p ’ mals has a hard time ornamenting or if the reversed happens and the p ’ mals ornaments to the point the p ’ nanggisa ’ s performance is engulfed , the player that cannot keep up is usually embarrassed , becoming the butt of jokes . Normally agung players switch off after each piece , but during instances like this where one player cannot handle the part being played , players either remain at their gongs or switch during the performance . It is also possible for agung players to switch places with the dabakan after two pieces . Even though the players compete , they still understand they are a single entity , closely accompanying the melody , employ different variations without destroying the music ’ s basic patterns .
= = = Interactions with the opposite sex = = =
There was also a secondary motive for men , especially young males , for learning the agung : the ability to interact with young , unmarried women . Both Maranao and Maguindanao cultures traditionally adhere to Islamic customs which prohibit dating or causal conversation between the opposite sexes ( unless married to or related to by blood ) and therefore performances such as kulintang music provided the opportunity for such a connection . Among the Maguindanao , the rhythmic modes of duyog and sinulog a kamamatuan allowed agung players to serenade the young , unmarried women on the kulintang . Tidto , the other rhythmic mode , could also be used but players rarely use this for serenading since the kulintang player is usually an older woman .
= = = Contest = = =
The latter mode actually is reserved specifically for solo agung contest . Unlike other Southern Filipino groups who participate in group contest , the Maguindanao are unique in that they also hold solo agung contest to find out who in the community is the best papagagung ( expert agung player ) . Tidto is prefect for such contest since the agung is often the focus of attention , the focal point during the ensemble during this mode . Players normally perform two or more versions playing the three types of techniques discussed above .
= = = Signaling and the supernatural = = =
Other than its use in the kulintang ensemble , the agung also had other non @-@ ensemble uses among the Maguindanao and Maranao . The agung has been used to warn others of impending danger , announcing the time of day and other important occasions . For instance , long ago the sultan would beat the agung repeatedly to announce the onset of a meeting or during the fasting month of Ramadhan , the agung would ring either at three in the morning to indicate the signal to eat ( sawl ) or at sunset , to mark the end for fasting that day . And supposedly due to the deep , loud sound the agung produces , people believed that it possessed supernatural powers . For instance , during an earthquake , the locals of Maguindanao would strike the agung in a fast , loud rhythm called baru @-@ baru , believing its vibrations would either lessen or even halt the jolt of an earthquake .
= = Similar agung instruments = =
= = = Kulintang ensembles = = =
In the Sulu Archipelago , the kulintang orchestra uses not two but three low @-@ sounding agungs , which serve as accompaniment in Tausug , Samal and Yakan ensembles . For the Tausug and Samal , the largest of the agungs with a wide turned @-@ in rim is called the tunggalan or tamak , which provides slow , regular beats , similar to the Maguindanaon pangandungan and Maranao p ’ nanggisa @-@ an . The smaller pair of agungs , the duahan , syncopate with the tunggalan / tamak . These are further classified : the wider @-@ rimmed duahan is called the pulakan and the narrower one is called the huhugan or buahan by the Tausug and bua by the Samal .
= = = In agung ensembles = = =
Agungs also play a major role in agung orchestras — ensembles composed of large hanging , suspended or held , knobbed gongs which act as drones without any accompanying melodic instrument like a kulintang . Such orchestras are prevalent among Indigenous Philippine groups ( Bagobo , Bilaan , Bukidon , Hanunoo , Magsaka , Manabo , Mangyan , Palawan , Subanun , Suludnon , T ’ boli , Tagakaolu , Tagbanwa and the Tiruray ) , regions in Kalimantan and Indonesia ( Iban , Modang , Murut ) and Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia ( Bidayuh , Iban , Kadazan @-@ Dusun , Kajan , Kayan ) , places where agung orchestras take precedence over kulintang @-@ like orchestras . The composition and tuning of these orchestras vary widely from one group to another . For instance , the Hanunoo of Mindoro have a small agung ensemble consisting of only two light gongs played by two musicians on the floor in a simple duple rhythm while the Manobo have an ensemble ( called an ahong ) consisting of 10 small agungs hung vertically on a triangular frame . It includes three musicians : one standing up , playing the melody , and the rest sitting . The ahong is divided by purpose , with the higher @-@ pitched gongs ( kaantuhan ) carrying the melody , three to four lower @-@ pitched gongs ( gandingan ) playing melodic ostinato figures , and the lowest @-@ pitched gong ( bandil ) setting the tempo .
The Tiruray call their agung ensemble a kelo @-@ agung , kalatong , or karatung . It is made up of five shallow bossed gongs of graduating size , each played by one person . The smallest , the segaron , is used as the lead instrument , providing a steady beat . The Manobo sagabong ensemble follows a similar format , consisting of five small gongs , each held by one musician playing a unique pattern with rubber mallets , interlocking with other parts . The T ’ boli and Palawan have similar agung ensembles : the T ’ boli ensemble is composed of three to four agungs with two to three of them collectively called semagi which play variations , and the other agung , tang , providing a steady beat . The Palawan call their ensemble , composed of four gongs , a basal . It includes one to two large humped , low @-@ sounding agungs and a pair of smaller humped , higher @-@ pitched sanangs which produce metallic sounds . The Subanon also have an agung ensemble similar to the Tiruray karatung , called a gagung sua .
Both the Bagabo and the B ’ laan refer to their agung ensemble as a tagunggo , a set of eight metal gongs suspended on a harness , which is played by two , three , or more people . Seven of the smaller @-@ sized gongs produce a running melody with the eighth , largest gong playing syncopation with the other gongs to produce a particular rhythm . The Manabo also have an agung ensemble similar to the tagunggo , called a tagungguan .
The Kadazan @-@ Dusun , located on the western coast of Sabah , refer to their agung ensemble as a tawag or bandil , which consists of six to seven large gongs in shoreline groups and 7 – 8 large gongs for those in interior valleys . In southwestern Sarawak , Bidayuh agung ensembles consist of nine large gongs divided into four groups ( taway , puum , bandil , and sanang ) , while among the Iban of Sawarak , Brunei , Kalimantan , agung ensembles are smaller in comparison .
Such ensembles can either perform alone or with one or two drums , played with the hands or wooden sticks , as accompaniment . They play either homophonically or in an interlocking fashion with the gongs . These agung orchestras often perform at many types of social events , including agriculture rituals , weddings , victory celebrations , curing rites , rituals for the dead , entertainment for visitors , and other community rituals .
Historically among the main lowland Philippine groups ( Tagalog , Visayan , Kapampangan , Ilocano ) agung orchestras similar to the ones found today among non @-@ hispanised indigenous groups in the country , were among the main instrumental ensembles used up until the 17th century , as evidenced by the agung ensemble encountered by Pigafetta in Cebu in the 16th century , similar in set up ( two sanang , two agung and one gimbal ) to the basal ensemble of the Palawan people .
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= Bahadur Shah I =
Bahadur Shah ( Urdu : بہادر شاه اول — Bahādur Shāh Awwal ) ( 14 October 1643 – 27 February 1712 ) , the seventh Mughal emperor of India , ruled from 1707 until his death in 1712 . Born Mu 'azzam , Shah was the third son of Aurangzeb with his Muslim Rajput wife Nawab Bai and the grandson of Shah Jahan . In his youth , he conspired to overthrow his father and ascend to the throne a number of times . Shah 's plans were intercepted by the emperor , who imprisoned him several times . From 1696 to 1707 , he was governor of Akbarabad ( later known as Agra ) , Kabul and Lahore .
After Aurangzeb 's death Shah 's brother , Muhammad Azam Shah , declared himself successor before his defeat in the Battle of Jajau . During his reign , Shah bloodlessly annexed the Rajput states of Jodhpur and Amber and sparked controversy in the khutba by inserting the declaration of Ali as wali . His reign was also disturbed by the Sikh leader Banda Singh Bahadur , who led a rebellion against him . Bahadur Shah was buried in the Moti Masjid at Mehrauli in Delhi .
= = Early life = =
Mu 'azzam was born on 14 October 1643 in Burhanpur to the sixth Mughal emperor , Aurangzeb , and his wife Begum Nawab Bai .
= = = Life during the reign of Shah Jahan = = =
During his grandfather 's reign Muzzam was appointed vizer of Lahore from 1653 @-@ 1659 . In 1663 , when he was twenty years old , Mu 'azzam was made the governor of the Deccan province . The most important issue in front of him was to curb the rise of Shivaji , who was on the ascendant in the area , and had carved out his own kingdom .
= = = = Campaign against Pune = = = =
In 1663 itself , Mu 'azzam attacked Pune which was Shivaji 's base at that time . However , the Mughal army was defeated and Muazzam himself was captured . He spent seven years as a prisoner of the Marathas.after his grandfather Shah Jahan died at Agra fort Prince Muzzam was sent to Agra to by orders his father Muzzam buried his grandfather to Taj Mahal .
Mu 'azzam 's imprisonment was not severe , and indeed he was kept in the lap of luxury by his captors . This was the custom with regard to high @-@ born and potentially useful captives , and it was quite normal for captive and captor to become friends and even allies . Shivaji 's own son , Sambhaji , was at roughly the same time a prisoner of the Mughals .
= = = During the reign of Aurangzeb = = =
In 1670 , Mu 'azzam organised an insurgency to overthrow Aurangzeb and proclaim himself the Mughal emperor . This plan may have been hatched at the instigation of the Marathas , and Mu 'azzam 's own inclinations and sincerity are difficult to gauge . Anyway , Aurangzeb learned about the plot and sent Mu 'azzam 's mother Begum Nawab Bai ( a Hindu Rajput princess by birth ) to dissuade Mu 'azzam from rebellion . Nawab Bai brought Mu 'azzam back to the Mughal court , where he spent the next several years under Aurangzeb 's supervision . However , Mu 'azzam revolted in 1680 on the pretext of protesting Aurangzeb 's treatment of Rajput chiefs . Once again , Aurangzeb followed his previous policy to dissuade Mu 'azzam with gentleness and then to place him under greater vigilance .
For the next seven years , from 1681 to 1687 , Mu 'azzam was a " grudgingly obedient son " .
= = = = Treason = = = =
In 1681 , he was sent by Aurangzeb to the Deccan to crush a revolt raised by his step @-@ brother Sultan Muhammad Akbar . According to the historian Munis Faruqui , Mu 'azzam deliberately failed in his mission . In 1683 , he was ordered by Aurangzeb to march to the Konkan region to prevent the still rebellious Akbar from fleeing the country , but again Mu 'azzam 's " half @-@ hearted " mission failed to achieve the assigned goal . Nevertheless , the emperor still persisted in entrusting his son with responsibilities , and in 1687 , Aurangzeb ordered Mu 'azzam to march against the sultanate of Golconda . Within weeks , the emperor 's spies intercepted treasonous messages exchanged between Mu 'azzam and Abul Hasan , the ruler of Golconda . This was something which could not be mistaken for incompetence ; it was clearly treason . Aurangzeb charged Mu 'azzam with treason and imprisoned him ; his harem was " shipped off to faraway Delhi " , and the ladies were also charged with treason . Mu 'azzam 's loyal servants were moved by his father into the imperial service , and the remaining servants were sacked . Aurangzeb forbade Mu 'azzam to cut his nails or hair for six months , gave orders depriving him of " good food or cold water . " He was not to meet anybody without his father 's prior consent .
Around 1694 , Aurangzeb rehabilitated Mu 'azzam and allowed him " to rebuild his household " , rehiring some of his servants who had been dismissed . Aurangzeb continued to spy on his son , appointing his men to Mu 'azzam 's household , sending informants to his harem and choosing his representatives at the imperial court . Mu 'azzam and his sons were transferred from the Deccan to north India , and were forbidden to lead military expeditions in that region for the rest of Aurangzeb 's reign . In 1695 , Aurangzeb sent Mu 'azzam to the Punjab region to fight the chieftains and subdue a rebellion by the Sikh Guru Gobind Singh . Although the commander imposed " heavy taxation " on the rajas , he thought it necessary to leave the Sikhs undisturbed in their fortified city of Anandpur and refused to wage war against them out of " genuine respect " for their religion . That year Mu 'azzam was appointed governor of Akbarabad , and in 1696 he was transferred to Lahore . After the death of Amin Khan ( governor of Kabul ) he assumed that position in 1699 , holding it until his father 's death in 1707 .
= = Reign = =
= = = War of succession = = =
Without appointing a crown prince , Aurangzeb died in 1707 when Mu 'azzam was governor of Kabul and his half @-@ brothers ( Muhammad Kam Bakhsh and Muhammad Azam Shah ) were the governors of the Deccan and Gujarat respectively . All three sons intended to win the crown , and Kam Bakhsh began minting coins in his name . Azam prepared to march to Agra and declare himself successor , but was defeated by Mu 'azzam at the Battle of Jajau in June 1707 . Azam and his son , Ali Tabar , were killed in the battle . Mu 'azzam ascended the Mughal throne at age 63 on 19 June 1707 , with the title of Bahadur Shah I.
= = = Annexations = = =
= = = = Amber = = = =
With his predecessors unable to make significant gains in Rajputana , after ascending the throne , Shah made plans to annexe cities of the region to the Mughal empire . On 10 November Shah began his march to Amber ( in Rajputana , present day Rajasthan state of India ) , visiting the tomb of Salim Chishti in Fatehpur Sikri on 21 November . In the meantime , Shah 's aid Mihrab Khan was ordered to take possession of Jodhpur . Shah reached Amber on 20 January 1708 . Though the monarch of the kingdom was Jai Singh , his brother Bijai Singh resented his rule . Shah ruled that because of the dispute , the region would become part of the Mughal empire and the city was renamed as Islamabad . Jai Singh 's goods and properties were confiscated on the pretext that he supported Shah 's brother Azam Shah during the war of Shah 's succession and Bijai Singh was made the governor of Amber on 30 April 1708 . Shah gave him the title of Mirza Rajah , and he received gifts valued at 100 @,@ 000 rupees . Amber passed into Mughal hands without a war .
= = = = Jodhpur = = = =
Jaswant Singh was the leader of the Rathore in Jodhpur ( in Rajputana , in present @-@ day Indian state Rajasthan ) during Aurangzeb 's reign . During a war of succession Singh sided with Aurangzeb 's older brother Dara Shikoh , who was killed by Aurangzeb . Singh was pardoned , became titular ruler of the region and was appointed governor of the province of Kabul before his death on 18 December 1678 . After his death , Aurangzeb ordered Singh 's widows and his son Ajit Singh to be brought to Delhi and with plans of forcefully absorbing Ajit Singh in the Mughal army in the future . Though Durgadas Rathore of the Rathore clan who was ambitous of conquering Jodhpur from the Mughals , took advantage of this opportunity and fought a war to prevent Aurangzeb getting hold of Ajit , he faced defeat but the widows and Singh managed to flee from Delhi to Jodhpur . After Aurangzeb 's death , during Shah 's half brother Muhammad Azam Shah 's rule Singh marched to Jodhpur and took it from Mughal rule .
In Amber he announced his intention to march to Jodhpur when Mihrab Khan defeated Ajit Singh at Mairtha , and he reached the town on 21 February 1708 . His men were sent to bring Singh to the city for an interview with him , where Singh received " special robes of honour " and a jewelled scarf . Then , he headed towards Ajmer ( in Rajputana , in present @-@ day Indian state Rajasthan ) and reached the city on 24 March , where he visited the Dargah Sharif .
= = = = Udaipur = = = =
The city of Udaipur ( in Rajputana , present day Indian state of Rajasthan ) was annexed to the Mughal empire by Akbar in 1567 . However the city was lost to the Sisodias during the reign of his grandson Shah Jahan . Shah also had intention of recapturing Udaipur .
In Jodhpur , Bahadur Shah got the news that the Maharana Amar Singh II had fled from Udaipur to the hills . His messengers gave him the message that Singh got " afraid " by the happenings in Amber and Jodhpur and thought that his kingdom would also be annexed by the emperor . According to the Bahadur Shah Nama chronicle , because of this incident the emperor called Amar Singh an " unbeliever " . Bahadur Shah waged war against the king until his brother Muhammad Kam Bakhsh 's insurgency diverted him southward .
= = = Rajput Rebellion = = =
While the emperor was on his way to Deccan to punish Muhammad Kam Bakhsh the three Rajput Raja 's of Amber , Udaipur and Jodhpur made a joint resistance to the Mughals . The Rajputs first expelled the commandants of Jodhpur and Hindaun @-@ Bayana and recovered Amber by a night attack . They next killed Sayyid Hussain Khan Barha , the commandant of Mewat and many other officers ( September , 1708 ) . The emperor , then in the Deccan had to patch up a truce by restoring Ajit Singh and Jai Singh to the Mughal Service .
= = = Kam Bakhsh 's uprising = = =
= = = = Court rivalry = = = =
His half @-@ brother , Muhammad Kam Bakhsh , marched to Bijapur in March 1707 with his soldiers . When the news of Aurangzeb 's death spread through the city , the city 's monarch , King Sayyid Niyaz Khan surrendered the fort to him without a fight . Ascending the throne , Kam Bakhsh made Ahsan Khan , who served in the army as the bakshi ( general of the armed forces ) , and made his advisor Taqarrub Khan as chief minister and gave himself the title of Padshah Kam Bakhsh @-@ i @-@ Dinpanah ( Emperor Kam Bakhsh , Protector of Faith ) . He then conquered Kulbarga and Wakinkhera .
Rivalry developed between Taqarrub Khan and Ahsan Khan . Ahsan Khan had developed a marketplace in Bijapur where , without permission from Kam Bakhsh , he did not tax the shops . Taqarrub Khan reported it to Kam Bakhsh , who ordered the practise stopped . In May 1707 , Kam Bakhsh sent Ahsan Khan to conquer the states of Golkonda and Hyderabad . Although the king of Golconda refused to surrender , Subahdar of Hyderabad Rustam Dil Khan did so .
Taqarrub Khan made a conspiracy to eliminate Ahsan Khan , alleging that meetings of Ahsan Khan , Saif Khan ( Kam Bakhsh 's archery teacher ) , Arsan Khan , Ahmad Khan , Nasir Khan and Rustam Dil Khan ( all of them Kam Bakhsh 's former teachers and members of the then court ) to discuss public business were a conspiracy to assassinate Kam Bakhsh " while on his way to the Friday prayer at the great mosque " . After informing Kam Bakhsh of the matter , he invited Rustam Dil Khan for dinner ; arrested en route , Rustam Dil Khan was killed by being crushed under the feet of an elephant . Saif Khan 's hands were amputated , and Arshad Khan 's tongue was cut off . Ahsan Khan ignored warnings by close friends that Kam Bakhsh would arrest him , but he was imprisoned and his property seized . In April 1708 , Shah 's envoy Maktabar Khan came to Kam Bakhsh 's court . When Taqarrub Khan told Kam Bakhsh that Maktabar Khan intended to dethrone him , Kam Bakhsh invited the envoy and his entourage to a feast and executed them .
= = = = March to South India = = = =
In May 1708 , the emperor wrote a letter to Kam Bakhsh which he hoped would " be a warning " against proclaiming himself an independent sovereign and began a journey to the Tomb of Aurangzeb to pay his respects to his father . Kam Bakhsh thanked him in a letter , " without either explaining or justifying [ his actions ] " .
When he reached Hyderabad on 28 June 1708 , he learned that Kam Bakhsh had attacked Machhlibandar to seize over three million rupees ' worth of treasure hidden in its fort . The subahdar of the province , Jan Sipar Khan , refused to hand over the money . Enraged , Kam Bakhsh confiscated his properties and ordered the recruitment of four thousand soldiers for the attack . In July , the garrison at the Kulbarga fort declared their independence and garrison leader Daler Khan Bijapuri " reported his desertion from Kam Bakhsh " . On 5 November 1708 Shah 's camp reached Bidar , 67 miles ( 108 km ) north of Hyderabad . Historian William Irvine wrote that as his " camp drew nearer desertions from Kam Bakhsh became more and more frequent " . On 1 November , Kam Bakhsh captured Pam Naik 's ( zamindar , the landlord of Wakinkhera ) holdings after Naik abandoned his army .
According to Irvine , more soldiers deserted as the emperor 's group neared . When Kam Bakhsh 's general told him that his failure to pay his soldiers was the reason for their desertion , he replied : " What need have I of enlisting them ? My trust is in God , and whatever is best will happen . "
Thinking that Kam Bakhsh might flee to Persia , the emperor ordered his prime minister Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung to agree with Madras Presidency governor Thomas Pitt to pay him 200 @,@ 000 rupees for Kam Bakhsh 's capture . On 20 December , Kam Bakhsh was reported to have a cavalry of 2 @,@ 500 and an infantry of 5 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Death of Kam Bakhsh = = = =
On 20 December 1708 , the emperor marched towards Talab @-@ i @-@ Mir Jumla , on the outskirts of Hyderabad , with " three hundred camels , [ and ] twenty thousand rockets " for war with Shah . He made his son Jahandar Shah commander of the advance guard , later replacing him with Khan Zaman . On 12 January 1709 , Bahadur Shah reached Hyderabad and prepared his troops . Although Kam Bakhsh had little money and few soldiers left , the royal astrologer had predicted that he would " miraculously " win the battle .
At sunrise the following day , the Mughal army charged towards Kam Bakhsh . His 15 @,@ 000 troops were divided into two bodies : one led by Mumin Khan , assisted by Rafi @-@ ush @-@ Shan and Jahan Shah , and the second under Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung . Two hours later Kam Bakhsh 's camp was surrounded , and Zulfiqar Khan impatiently attacked him with his " small force " .
With his soldiers outnumbered and unable to resist the attack , Kam Bakhsh joined the battle and shot two quivers of arrows at his opponents . According to Irvine , when he was " weakened by loss of blood " , Bahadur Shah took him and his son Bariqullah prisoner . A dispute arose between Mumin Khan and Zulfikar Khan Nusrat Jung over who had captured them , with Rafi @-@ us @-@ Shan ruling in favour of the latter . Kam Bakhsh was brought by palanquin to the emperor 's camp , where he died the next morning .
= = Sikh rebellion = =
Unlike previous Mughal rulers who divided power between Mughal and Rajput chiefs , during Bahadur Shah 's reign all power resided with him . The Sikh khalsa ( army ) , under the leadership of Banda Singh Bahadur , and their army defeated the Mughals in battle at Samana , Sirhind and Rahon and captured the cities of Samana , Sirhind , Malerkotla , Saharanpur , Rahon , Behat , Ambheta , Ropar and Jalandhar from 1709 to 1712 . With an army of eighty thousand soldiers , he also besieged the city of Jalalabad in present @-@ day Afghanistan .
= = = Efforts at suppression = = =
He signed peace treaties with Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Man Singh of Amber before fighting him . He also ordered the Nawab of Awadh Asaf @-@ ud @-@ Daula , provincial governor Khan @-@ i @-@ Durrani , Moradabad faujdar Muhammad Amin Khan Chin , Delhi subahdar Asad Khan and Jammu faujdar Wazid Khan to accompany him into battle . Shah left Ajmer for the Punjab on 17 June 1710 , mobilising groups opposed to Bahadur on the way . When he learned about Shah 's plans , Bahadur unsuccessfully appealed to Ajit Singh and Man Singh for help . In the meantime , Shah had reoccupied Sonipat , Kaithal and Panipat en route . In October , his commander Feroze Khan wrote to him that he had " chopped three hundred heads of rebels " ; Khan sent them to the emperor , who displayed them mounted on spears .
On 1 November 1710 the emperor reached the city of Karnal , where Mughal cartogapher Rustam Dil Khan gave him a map of Thanesar and Sirhind . Six days later , a small group of Sikhs were defeated at Mewati and Banswal . The city of Sirhind fell to the Mughals on 7 December ; its besieger , general Mohammad Amin Khan Bahadur , gave him a golden key ring commemorating the victory . After failing to recapture Sadaura he marched towards Lohgarh , where Bahadur was hiding . On 30 November he attacked the Lohgarh fort , capturing three guns , matchlocks and three trenches from the rebels . With little ammunition left , Bahadur and a " few hundred of his followers fled " . His follower , Gulab Singh ( who was " dressed like " Bahadur ) , entered the fight and was killed . The emperor issued orders to the rulers of Kumaon and Srinagar that if Bahadur tried to enter their province , he should be " sent to the Emperor " .
Suspecting that Bahadur was allied with Bhup Prakash , the king of Nahan , the emperor has Prakash imprisoned in January 1711 ; his mother begged in vain for his release . After she sent him captured followers of Bahadur he ordered that " ornaments worth 100 @,@ 000 rupees should be manufactured " for her , and Prakash was released a month later . Shukan Khan Bahadur and Himmet Diler Khan were sent to Lahore to end Bahadur 's rebellion , and their unsuccessful attempt was reinforced by a garrison of five thousand soldiers . Shah also pressed Rustam Dil Khan and Muhammad Amin Khan to join them .
Bahadur was hiding in Alhalab , 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Lahore . When Mughal workers came to repair a bridge in the village , his followers disinformed them that he was preparing to attack Delhi via Ajmer . Bahadur received soldiers from village ruler Ram Chand for his march against the Mughals , and besieged Fatehabad in April 1711 . After learning from messenger Rustan Jung that he crossed the Ravi River , the emperor attacked with artillery led by Isa Khan . In the July battle , Bahadur was defeated and fled to the Jammu hills . Forces led by Isa Khan and Muhammad Amin Khan followed , but failed to capture him . The emperor issued an edict to the zamindars ( landlord ) of Jammu to take the Sikh captive if possible .
Bahadur was attacked by Muhammad Amin Khan at the river Satluj , escaping to the Garhwal hills . Finding him " invincible " , the emperor went to Ajit Singh and Jai Singh for help . In October 1711 , a joint Mughal @-@ Rajput force marched towards Sadaura . Bahadur escaped the ensuing siege , this time taking refuge at Kulu in present @-@ day Himachal Pradesh .
= = = Khutba controversy = = =
After ascending the throne , Bahadur Shah altered the public prayer ( or khutba ) for the monarch said every Friday by giving the title wali to Ali — the fourth Sunni and the first Shia caliph . Because of this , the citizens of Lahore resented reciting the khutba .
To solve the problem , he went to Lahore in September 1711 and had discussions with Haji Yar Muhammad , Muhammad Murad and " other well @-@ known men " . At their meeting , he read " books of authority " to justify using the word wasi . He had a heated argument with Yar Muhammad , saying that martyrdom by a king was the only thing he wanted . Yar Muhammad ( supported by the emperor 's son , Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan ) recruited troops against Shah , but no war was fought. he held the khatib ( chief reciter ) at the Badshahi Mosque responsible for the matter , and had him arrested . On 2 October , although the army was deployed at the mosque the old khutba ( which did not call Ali " wasi " ) was read .
= = Death = =
According to historian William Irvine , the emperor was in Lahore in January 1712 when his " health failed " . On 24 February he made his final public appearance , and died during the night of 27 – 28 February ; according to Mughal noble Kamwar Khan , he died of " enlargement of the spleen " . On 11 April , his body was sent to Delhi under the supervision of his widow Mihr @-@ Parwar and Chin Qilich Khan . He was buried on 15 May in the courtyard of the Moti Masjid ( Pearl Mosque ) in Mehrauli , which he built near the dargah of Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki . He was succeeded by his son Jahandar Shah who ruled until 1713 .
= = Coins = =
He issued gold , silver and copper coins , although his predecessors ' coins were also used to pay government officials and in commerce . Copper coins from Aurangzeb 's reign were re @-@ minted with his name . Unlike the other Mughal emperors , his coins did not use his name in a couplet ; poet Danishmand Khan composed two lines for the coins , but they were not approved .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Name , title and lineage = = =
His full name , including his titles , was " Abul @-@ nasr Sayyid Qutb @-@ ud @-@ din Muhammad Shah Alam Bahadur Shah Badshah " . After his death , contemporary historians began calling him " Khuld @-@ Manzil " ( Departed to Paradise ) . He was the only Mughal emperor to have the title Sayyid , used by descendants of the prophet Muhammad . According to William Irvine , his maternal grandfather was Sayyid Shah Mir ( whose daughter , Begum Nawab Bai , married Aurangzeb ) .
= = = Children = = =
Source : Irvine , pp. 143 – 144
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= A Flash Flood of Colour =
A Flash Flood of Colour is the third studio album by English rock band Enter Shikari , and was produced by Dan Weller . The album was recorded in May and June 2011 at Karma Sound Studios in Bang Saray , Thailand , and at the Fortress in London , United Kingdom . It was released internationally on 16 January 2012 by Ambush Reality , the band 's record label in the United Kingdom , and Hopeless Records in North America .
Lyrically , the album deals with current affairs ( primarily the Great Recession ) . It confronts flaws in government action to end the global recession , also touching on the political situation in Israel and climate change . A Flash Flood of Colour demonstrated Enter Shikari 's continued fusion of electronic and rock music influences . The album 's cover depicts an inverted social hierarchy .
A Flash Flood of Colour received generally positive reviews from music critics and an average Metacritic score of 75 out of 100 . It debuted at number four on the UK Albums Chart after a band @-@ led campaign to get the album to number one , and appeared on several album @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year lists . To promote the album , Enter Shikari made A Flash Flood of Colour World Tour .
= = Background and recording = =
Enter Shikari took a different lyrical direction with the release of their 2009 album Common Dreads , which focused on financial meltdown , economic collapse and widespread discontent . Journalists such as Ian Winwood credited the band 's lyrical direction as a reaction to the evolution of politics since their 2007 debut album , Take to the Skies ; there is now " ongoing Orwellian overseas conflicts , riots in England 's major cities , endless austerity programmes the end date of which stretch years into the distance " . The change in lyrics began with Reynolds ' belief that music is an effective way of conveying political ideas .
The record was produced by former SikTh guitarist Dan Weller , who helped with guitar production on Common Dreads , and sound engineer Tim Morris . Enter Shikari recorded the album in May and June 2011 , primarily at Karma Sound Studios in Bang Saray , Thailand . Its recording began at Weller 's Old Street London @-@ based recording studio . When he told the band that a friend owned a recording studio in Thailand , it became a running joke that they would record there instead . Eventually , they decided that it would be financially , logistically and artistically advantageous to record at Karma Sound . The studio in Thailand was described by drummer Rob Rolfe as " four walls in a little compound in the middle of the jungle " an hour @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half drive south of Bangkok and a " fantastic studio in paradise " . The band recorded the album 's music before adding the vocals , since Reynolds knew the album 's themes and that it would be " uniting and empowering " . The album was mixed in Vancouver by Mike Fraser .
Within the first 10 days of recording , the album 's most @-@ complete songs were its most aggressive — particularly the tentatively @-@ titled " Tyrannosaurus " ( later known as " Hello Tyrannosaurus , Meet Tyrannicide " ) . During its production , the album went through several changes ; " Stalemate " was intended as an acoustic introduction , and " System Meltdown " was intended to be a single song . Recording was completed within a month .
= = Style and themes = =
A Flash Flood of Colour is noted for its fusion of genres : electronic music , rock music , hip @-@ hop music and hardcore punk . The album is considered to " contain at least two or three different genres within each track " , blending elements of other styles ( alternative rock , dubstep , drum and bass , industrial , techno , trance , electro , British hip hop , grime and metalcore ) into post @-@ hardcore and metal . Fusing electronic music with heavy rock music has led to the album 's style being described as electronicore .
The theme of A Flash Flood of Colour is politically progressive . The album 's treatment of current affairs and environmental issues takes aim " at the failings of capitalism , the hypocrisy of modern politics and the blatant disregard of human health and happiness " and has been compared to the calculated approach of the Occupy movement , rather than an ensuing class conflict . Despite its political themes , Reynolds denied that the album was politically motivated : " This album is anti @-@ politics . We say that politics is an outdated system . It is time that we embrace technological developments and no longer have to rely on a rule . Our lives should develop according to scientific findings . " He described A Flash Flood of Colour 's recurring theme as " perspective " : " We 're not trying to think subjectively . " The Real News , Democracy Now ! and journalist John Pilger have all influenced Reynolds ' political views .
= = = Tracks = = =
A Flash Flood of Colour opens with the trance @-@ like , spoken @-@ word introduction to " System ... " , featuring synthesised strings , a " battle cry " buildup and an outline of the album 's lyrical themes ( metaphorically comparing Britain 's economy to an eroded cliff @-@ top house ) . The next track , " ... Meltdown " , opens with a dubstep @-@ influenced breakdown . Both songs " surf a plateau musically " , highlighting the album 's diversity and acting as a " paean to internationalist idealism " . " Ssssnakepit " mixes jungle music " fury " , thrash metal guitar riffing , an electro interlude and a catchy chorus ; Reynolds also noted drum @-@ and @-@ bass and hardcore @-@ punk influences . " Ssssnakepit " focuses on partying more than politics ; Reynolds said about the song , " It ’ s hard to write positive songs with everything going on in the world , but this track is basically one full @-@ on party — it 's about cherishing your friendships and living compassionately . "
The title of " Arguing with Thermometers " refers to climate @-@ change deniers . " Stalemate " is a ballad about war profiteering , condemning Israel 's use of white phosphorus in Palestine and noting that wars " make trillionaires out of billionaires " . The song 's combination of acoustic guitar , vocal harmonies and rock drumming produces a " radio @-@ friendly hook " .
With its " furious , anarchist edge " , " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi " focuses on the distinction between social and economic stability , summarising capitalism as " a long outdated system ... that does nothing but divide and segregate us " . The song has been seen as supporting the Occupy London movement ; Reynolds called it a " very frustrated and confused song " reflecting the current Zeitgeist : " People know we have the resources , the creativity , and the ingenuity to do better than what we have at the moment and are struggling to come to terms with the short term love of money over the long @-@ term stability and progression of our species . " The song focuses on two characters ; Reynolds ' vocals supply a revolutionary perspective , and Rory Clewlow 's are those of a person in power . " Gandhi mate , Gandhi " has unconventional lyrics for its characters ; " Yabba Dabba do one , son " was described by Reynolds as the product of a drunken MC battle , and during the song the other band members pause and urge Reynolds to calm down . Reynolds described " Gandhi mate , Gandhi " as a " lively electro influenced dubstep " and a " rap rock pileup " textured over " wobbly dubstep bass " .
" Warm Smiles Do Not Make You Welcome Here " incorporates stadium rock into Enter Shikari 's typical style . Reynolds described " Hello Tyrannosaurus , Meet Tyrannicide " as a critique of certain democracies which are " polite dictatorships " , specifically referring to those in the Arab Spring movement . The album closes with " Constellations " , a " rallying call about the future of the human race " . With a " swirling " string quartet resembling " System ... " ' s , the anthemic song has a post @-@ rock sound .
= = Cover and packaging = =
The title of A Flash Flood of Colour was intended to describe the album 's music , and Reynolds noted its colourful blend of musical genres . He said that the band wanted a title with a " big sound " which was positive and forward @-@ thinking , and it derives from the lyrics of " Warm Smiles Do Not Make You Welcome Here " .
The cover art is a reversal of society 's hierarchical structure based on social stratification . Although it was introduced to Enter Shikari as a set design for their live shows , they thought it would be a " solid symbol " for the album . Guitarist Rory Clewlow described the cover art : " Our society is often depicted as a pyramid , with the few at the top with all the wealth and the masses at the bottom with no wealth , but supporting the pyramid for the few at the top . Our upside down triangle represents this system being flipped on [ its ] head . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Enter Shikari released two non @-@ album singles , " Destabilise " and " Quelle Surprise " , before A Flash Flood of Colour 's release . Although " Quelle Surprise " ( released on 19 May 2011 ) was intended as the first single from the new album , it was later decided that it ( like " Destabilise " ) would be a stand @-@ alone track . They were included as bonus tracks on selected versions of A Flash Flood of Colour .
The album 's first single , " Sssnakepit " , was released on 20 September 2011 . On 5 December " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi " was released as a preview of the album . On 5 January 2012 Enter Shikari released the studio version of " Arguing with Thermometers " on their YouTube page , and it was played on Lowe 's show as his " Hottest Record in the World " . On 4 January 2013 , the band released an animated music video for " Hello Tyrannosaurus , Meet Tyrannicide " on their YouTube page .
When it was released , A Flash Flood of Colour was one of two new entries in the United Kingdom 's top 20 mainstream album chart ( the other was Tribes ' début album , Baby ) . The album reached number one halfway through its first week , with over 2 @,@ 500 copies sold ( rivalling Adele , Bruno Mars and Ed Sheeran ) . After the announcement of the midweek chart , Rou Reynolds called A Flash Flood of Colour 's success a victory for " independent music , for socially conscious music and for alternative music " in a blog post on the Enter Shikari website . Although the album fell to fourth behind 21 , + and Mylo Xyloto , it reached number one on the UK Rock Chart and number two on the UK independent album charts and sold over 19 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Tour and performances = = =
As a " first big test " Enter Shikari introduced songs from A Flash Flood of Colour at Soundwave in Australia , and they were pleased by the positive reaction to their new music . When the band was touring at the time of the album 's release , they distributed leaflets with interviews answering questions they are not usually asked . On 12 February 2012 they played a subdued , well @-@ attended show at the Bull and Gate , a Kentish Town pub , which was filmed for Scuzz . The show , filmed and edited by Stand Your Ground Media , aired on 31 March at 5 pm . Enter Shikari played three small shows in the UK to celebrate the album 's release : 16 January 2012 ( its release date ) at the Borderline in London , 17 January at the Hippodrome in Kingston and 18 January at the Cockpit in Leeds . The shows were sponsored by HMV , Banquet Records , Jumbo Records and Crash Records ; those pre @-@ ordering from these sources received tickets to the shows .
After the album 's release , Enter Shakiri toured Europe , North America and Australasia with a full production and light show . The band 's touring schedule , and their confidence , expanded across the United States and they played with two- or three @-@ band bills to play longer sets .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
A Flash Flood of Colour received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received a score of 75 based on 13 reviews ( categorised as " generally favorable reviews " ) . Drew Beringer of AbsolutePunk praised the album in an eight @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten review : " The quartet has a much bigger goal than just getting kids to dance to their breakdowns , rather they focus on putting a lot of substance into each track , hoping to inspire this generation to take a stand and make change amongst the broken systems throughout the world " .
Ian Winwood gave the album four out of five " Ks " for the British magazine Kerrang ! , an " excellent " review . He called the music far more upbeat than Enter Shikari 's serious message : " This 11 @-@ song set is a good deal of fun to listen to , even if its lyrics ' subject matters are the exact opposite . " Winwood also reviewed the album favourably for BBC Music , comparing its lyrics to The King Blues ' Punk & Poetry and calling Enter Shikari " the only other mainstream @-@ breaching British rock band concerning itself with the news of the world " . Johnny Firecloud gave the album an eight @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten rating on CraveOnline : " Enter Shikari have found a balance while honing a voice of rebellion – at a time where tearing down boundaries and microanalyzing the current structure is more vital and valuable than ever before in our lives . " Iain Moffat of The Fly said of the album that ' Disenchantment should always be this spellbinding . ' In NME , Dan Martin gave the album an eight @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten rating : " All of that surface tension lands Enter Shikari in a pretty powerful position for their third – and , as the title promises fabulously , they respond to the challenge in explosive style to deliver something like their defining statement . " Rocksound writer Ryan Bird gave the album a nine @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten score , praising the band for their emotional cultural and sonic development and noting the importance of their message : " In a world edging ever closer to complete and utter destruction , Enter Shikari remain fearless and uncompromising leaders in a field of one . "
Not all reviews were positive . Jon O 'Brien of Allmusic gave the album three stars out of five , saying that the album 's " rebellious stance rarely transcends " Beginners Guide to Politics " territory " and considering its music a " hyperactive Wall of Sound " . O 'Brien summarised his review by calling the album " a demanding and often exhausting listen , [ however ] it 's a call to arms which the flagging U.K. guitar band scene could do with more of . " John Calvert of Drowned In Sound gave the album a five @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten rating , calling its sound " sports metal " and noting a decline in Enter Shikari 's music : " Forward rewind to 2011 and it 's all Nero @-@ grade dubstep , amateurish drum 'n'bass and mid @-@ twenties pot bellies . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Roughton " Rou " Reynolds , all music composed by Enter Shikari .
Limited edition bonus DVD
DVD bonus dell 'edizione limitata
= = Personnel = =
Enter Shikari
Roughton " Rou " Reynolds – lead vocals , MC , growls , electronics , acoustic guitar , celesta , piano , brass and string arrangements , lyrics
Liam " Rory " Clewlow – guitar , backing vocals , co @-@ lead vocals on " Sssnakepit " , " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi " and " Destabilise "
Chris Batten – bass , backing vocals , co @-@ lead vocals on " ... Meltdown " , " Search Party " , " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi " and " Pack of Thieves "
Rob Rolfe – drums , percussion , backing vocals , co @-@ lead vocals on " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi "
Additional personnel
Dan Weller – producer
Tim Morris – engineer
Bobo Ekrangsi – engineer
Mike Fraser – mixing
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Susianna Kentikian =
Susianna " Susi " Levonovna Kentikian ( Armenian : Սյուզի Կենտիկյան , born Syuzanna Kentikyan on September 11 , 1987 ) is a German @-@ Armenian professional boxer now residing in Germany . She was born in Yerevan , Armenian SSR , but she left the country with her family at the age of five because of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . Kentikian has lived in Hamburg since 1996 and began boxing when she was twelve years old . Following a successful amateur career , she turned professional in 2005 when she signed with the Hamburg boxing promoter Spotlight Boxing . Kentikian won her first world championship fight in February 2007 , and she is a former World Boxing Association ( WBA ) , World Boxing Organization ( WBO ) and Women 's International Boxing Federation ( WIBF ) World Flyweight Champion , and is considered Top Female fighter pound for pound .
Kentikian was undefeated , having won 16 of her first 30 professional fights by knockout . The German television station ZDF broadcasts her fights since July 2009 . She had previously headlined fight cards for the television station ProSieben from 2007 to 2009 . Kentikian has gained minor celebrity status in Germany and she hopes to reach a popularity similar to that of the retired German female boxing star Regina Halmich .
= = Early life = =
Susianna Kentikian was born in Yerevan , Armenian SSR , the daughter of veterinary doctor Levon Kentikian and his wife Makruhi . At the age of five , she left Armenia with her parents and her nine @-@ year @-@ old brother , Mikael , because her father was called up to serve in the military during the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . In 1992 , the family first moved to Berlin , Germany and stayed at asylum seekers ' homes . However , due to the violence at these facilities and their poor knowledge of the German language , they left Berlin and moved to Moldova and later to Russia , where Kentikian went to school for a short period of time . The family returned to Germany in 1996 and relocated in Hamburg , again living in government facilities for asylum seekers . Kentikian 's residence status remained uncertain for almost a decade . Several times , she and her family were taken to the airport for deportation , but the intervention of local friends such as her amateur trainer , Frank Rieth , who called lawyers , the media and local politicians , prevented their final expulsion . Her family received a permanent residence permit in 2005 when she signed a three @-@ year professional boxing contract that established a stable income .
At the age of 16 , Kentikian began working as a cleaner in a local fitness center to help her family financially . She graduated from high school ( Realschule ) in the summer of 2006 and she eventually became a German citizen in June 2008 . She has applied for dispensation to be allowed to retain her Armenian citizenship . Kentikian now lives with her family in an apartment near her Hamburg boxing gym .
= = Amateur career = =
Kentikian discovered her enthusiasm for boxing when she was twelve years old after accompanying her brother to his boxing training . She started with regular training herself and stated that boxing had allowed her to forget the difficulties of her life for a short time : " I could let everything out , my whole energy . If you have so many problems like our family , you need something like that . "
Kentikian won the Hamburg Championships for juniors from 2001 to 2004 . She also won the Northern German Championships for juniors in 2003 and 2004 , and in October 2004 , she had her biggest amateur success by winning the International German Women 's Amateur Championships in the featherweight division for juniors . Kentikian found it increasingly difficult to find opponents in the amateur ranks , as few boxers wanted to face her in the ring , and her status as an asylum seeker did not allow her to box outside Hamburg . Kentikian 's final amateur record stood at 24 wins and one loss . She later blamed overeagerness for her single loss , having fought despite health problems at the time . Her aggressive style and fast combinations , and her ambition to always attack until she knocked out the opponent earned her the nickname " Killer Queen " ; she has often used the identically @-@ named song by the English rock band Queen as her entrance music .
= = Professional career = =
Kentikian was discovered as a professional boxer at an exhibition fight during qualifications for the World Amateur Boxing Championships . At the beginning of 2005 , she signed a three @-@ year contract with the Hamburg boxing promoter Spotlight Boxing , a joint venture of Universum Box @-@ Promotion , focusing on young athletes . Since then , she has been coached by Universum trainer Magomed Schaburow . Kentikian started her professional career on January 15 , 2005 , with a win by unanimous decision over Iliana Boneva of Bulgaria on the undercard of German female boxing star Regina Halmich . Over the next 14 months , Kentikian won nine of her eleven fights by knockout . Her unusually high knockout percentage , rarely seen in lower female weight classes , began to draw attention . On July 25 , 2006 , she won her first belt , the International German flyweight title , against Daniela Graf by unanimous decision . In her first international title fight on September 9 , 2006 , Kentikian beat Maribel Zurita from the United States with a fourth round technical knockout for the WIBF InterContinental Flyweight title ; the fight was stopped when Zurita was cut over the left eyebrow .
= = = 2007 = = =
In her 15th professional bout , Kentikian fought for her first world championship in Cologne , Germany , on February 16 , 2007 ; it was also her first time headlining a fight card . She won by a ninth round technical knockout against Carolina Alvarez of Venezuela , thereby winning the vacant WBA Flyweight title . Alvarez took unanswered punches in most of the rounds and was bleeding heavily from her nose and the referee eventually stopped the fight in round nine in concern for Alvarez 's health . Six weeks later , on March 30 , 2007 , Kentikian made her first title defense . Before a crowd of 19 @,@ 500 in the Kölnarena , she fought on the undercard of the popular exhibition bout between German comedian Stefan Raab and WIBF World Champion Regina Halmich . Kentikian beat María José Núñez from Uruguay with a third round technical knockout . Núñez was knocked down in round two and Kentikian finished the fight one round later with a right cross followed up by combinations that left Núñez defenseless on the ropes , causing the referee to step in .
Kentikian next faced Nadia Hokmi of France in her second title defense on May 25 , 2007 . Hokmi , using her height and reach advantage , proved to be the first test of Kentikian 's professional career and both boxers fought a competitive bout . While Hokmi started out slower , she managed to win several of the later rounds by landing repeated combinations . Kentikian won through a split decision for the first time in her career . The fight was voted among the five " Top Fights of the Year " by WomenBoxing.com. On September 7 , 2007 , Kentikian defended her title against Shanee Martin from the United Kingdom , winning by a third round technical knockout . Kentikian controlled her opponent from the opening bell and the referee stopped the fight after Martin was knocked down from a straight right hand in round three .
Following the retirement of long @-@ standing WIBF belt holder Regina Halmich , Kentikian unified the WBA and vacant WIBF Flyweight titles in her hometown of Hamburg on December 7 , 2007 . She met Nadia Hokmi in a rematch of their contest six months earlier . The French boxer again proved to be a tough opponent and the fight developed very similarly to their first encounter . Once more , Kentikian had the better start , but Hokmi scored during the second half of the fight , again making it a close bout . This time however , Kentikian was ahead on all three of the judges ' scorecards , winning by unanimous decision .
= = = 2008 = = =
Kentikian successfully defended her titles against Sarah Goodson of the Philippines by a third round technical knockout on February 29 , 2008 . Goodson , who had fought almost exclusively in lower weight classes before , was overpowered by Kentikian and the referee ended the fight after a series of body punches in round three . In her next title defense on May 10 , 2008 , Kentikian beat Mary Ortega from the United States with a first round technical knockout . Ortega , who had previously fought against well @-@ known opponents such as Elena Reid and Hollie Dunaway , was knocked down twice by straight right hands during the first 90 seconds of the fight . When Kentikian had Ortega pinned against the ropes again , the referee stepped in shortly before the end of round one . The quick stoppage came as a surprise to many , including television commentator Regina Halmich , who had expected a hard @-@ fought bout .
In her next title defense on August 29 , 2008 , Kentikian met Hager Finer of Israel , Halmich 's last opponent before retiring . Following a close opening round , the boxing match turned into a brawl and Finer scored during the first half of the fight . From round five onwards , Kentikian managed to take over the bout by landing the cleaner punches and she won by unanimous decision . On December 5 , 2008 , Kentikian faced Anastasia Toktaulova of Russia , the reigning GBU Flyweight Champion , although the GBU title was not on the line . During the uncharacteristic tactical fight , Kentikian managed to control her opponent from the middle of the ring in most of the rounds . The three judges all scored the bout in favor of Kentikian . In December 2008 , she was named Germany 's female boxer of the year for the first time .
= = = 2009 = = =
Kentikian retained her WIBF and WBA belts with a unanimous decision win over Elena Reid from the United States on March 20 , 2009 . Reid , who was well known in Germany after two controversial bouts with Halmich in 2004 and 2005 , remained largely passive from the opening bell and Kentikian controlled her through the majority of the fight . Reid did not win a single round on the official scorecards . On July 4 , 2009 , Kentikian fought the Interim WBA Super Flyweight Champion Carolina Gutierrez Gaite of Argentina . Kentikian used her speed and combinations to dominate her opponent through the ten rounds , winning every round on the judges ' scores . Kentikian ended 2009 by fighting the undefeated Turkish @-@ German Julia Sahin ( 20 – 0 ) on 10 October for the vacant WBO Female Flyweight title . Kentikian overwhelmed Sahin with her higher work rate early on . Sahin spent most of the fight covering up from Kentikian 's many flurries . Kentikian gave Sahin a ten @-@ round beating and won a unanimous decision to become the new WBO Female Flyweight Champion .
= = = 2010 = = =
Kentikian , now the WIBF , WBA and WBO Female Flyweight Champion , made the first defense of all her titles against Nadia Raoui on 24 April 2010 . The bout was very close , with Kentikian landing more cleaner and harder shots , yet Raoui finding much success as well . After ten close rounds , Kentikian won via split decision .
On 17 July , Susi Kentikian defended all of her titles once again against Mexico 's Arely Mucino . In a disappointing turn of events , the bout was stopped in the third round after an accidental clash of heads left Kentikian with an injury , leaving her unable to continue . The fight was declared a no contest . Up until the stoppage , Kentikian was giving Mucino problems with her fast combinations , in and out attacks and power shots .
= = = 2011 = = =
Kentikian retained her WIBF Flyweight title against Ana Arrazola on 26 March 2011 . It was an action packed ten round fight , with Susi winning almost every round on her way to a unanimous decision victory . Arrazola was docked a point in round six for a low blow . Kentikian finished the year by scoring another unanimous decision win , this time against Thai Teeraporn Pannimit , to retain her WIBF , WBA and WBO Female Flyweight titles . Kentikian won every round on every scorecard ( 100 @-@ 90 , 100 @-@ 90 , 100 @-@ 90 ) .
= = = 2012 = = =
Kentikian attempted to defend her WIBF and WBO Female Flyweight titles next on 16 May 2012 in Frankfurt , Germany against Melissa McMorrow . Kentikian lost via controversial majority decision with scores of 95 @-@ 95 , 94 @-@ 96 and 94 @-@ 96 . McMorrow had won the early rounds , but Kentikian dominated the remainder of the fight . Months later , Kentikian defend WBA Female title against Carina Moreno , but lost a close split decision .
= = = 2013 = = =
On February 1 , 2013 , Kentikian defeated Sanae Jah and won the Interim WBA Female Flyweight title . On June 7 , 2013 , Kentikian defeated Carina Moreno and won WBA Female Flyweight title . On December 7 , 2013 , Kentikian defeated Simona Galassi and defended the WBA Female Flyweight title .
= = = 2014 = = =
On May 31 , 2014 , Kentikian defeated Dan @-@ Bi Kim and defended the WBA Female Flyweight title . On November 8 , 2014 , Kentikian defeated Naoko Fujioka ( Japan ) and again defended the WBA Female Flyweight title .
= = In the media = =
At the beginning of her professional career , Kentikian was primarily featured in the local media in Hamburg and occasionally in national German newspapers ; in particular , her difficult childhood and her long @-@ time uncertain asylum status sparked interest in the press and led to comparisons with the boxing film Million Dollar Baby . Her height of 1 @.@ 54 m ( 5 ft 1 in ) also drew attention , and she was dubbed " Germany 's smallest professional boxer " . Early on , Kentikian was considered one of the big talents in German boxing and the media mentioned her as the potential successor of record world champion Regina Halmich , a goal she had also set out for herself .
In 2007 , Kentikian was introduced to a much larger audience due to cooperation between German television station ProSieben and her promoter Spotlight Boxing . In addition to live broadcasts of her fights during so @-@ called " ProSieben Fight Nights , " she appeared several times on the popular television show TV total . She also took part in a four @-@ round sparring session with the show 's host , Stefan Raab , and participated in the competitive entertainment event World Wok Championships , where she teamed with Sven Hannawald , Christina Surer and Markus Beyer to win the four @-@ person competition . Her first world title defense , fighting María José Núñez on the undercard of the popular Raab vs. Halmich exhibition bout , was seen by 4 @.@ 69 million television viewers — her most watched fight to date . A camera crew visited her for one year prior to her first world championship fight against Carolina Alvarez ; the documentary aired in June 2007 on the German public broadcaster Das Erste . A shortened version with commentary in English was aired by the German international broadcaster Deutsche Welle in October 2007 .
= = Other activities = =
On 24 November 2010 it was announced Susi Kentikian is the patron of an organization called Lebensbaum für Armenien ( Tree of Life for Armenia ) , whose aim is to plant 300 @,@ 000 trees in Armenia and to create jobs in Kentikian ´ s homeland .
= = Boxing championships and honors = =
Amateur titles
Hamburg Champion for juniors – 2001 to 2004
Northern German Champion for juniors – 2003 and 2004
International German Amateur Featherweight Champion for juniors – 2004
Professional titles
International German Flyweight Title – won July 25 , 2006 ( later vacated )
WIBF InterContinental Flyweight Title – won September 9 , 2006 ( later vacated )
WBA World Flyweight Champion – won February 16 , 2007
WIBF World Flyweight Champion – won December 7 , 2007
WBO World Flyweight Champion – won October 10 , 2009
WBA World Flyweight Champion – won July 6 , 2013
Awards
Hamburg 's sportswoman of the year – 2007
WBA Best Female Boxer – 2007 / 2008
Germany 's female boxer of the year – 2008
= = Professional boxing record = =
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= Canadian National Vimy Memorial =
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial is a memorial site in France dedicated to the memory of Canadian Expeditionary Force members killed during the First World War . It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave . The monument is the centrepiece of a 100 @-@ hectare ( 250 @-@ acre ) preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the Canadian Corps made their assault during the initial Battle of Vimy Ridge offensive of the Battle of Arras .
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation , and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice . France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial . Wartime tunnels , trenches , craters , and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site , which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety . Along with preserved trench lines , a number of other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park .
The memorial took designer Walter Seymour Allward 11 years to see built . King Edward VIII unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of French President Albert Lebrun and more than 50 @,@ 000 Canadian and French veterans and their families . Following an extensive multi @-@ year restoration , Queen Elizabeth II re @-@ dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle . The site is maintained by Veterans Affairs Canada . This Vimy Memorial and the Beaumont @-@ Hamel Newfoundland Memorial are the only two National Historic Sites of Canada outside of Canada .
= = Background = =
= = = Topography = = =
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising escarpment on the western edge of the Douai Plains , eight kilometres northeast of Arras . The ridge gradually rises on its western side , dropping more quickly on the eastern side . The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of 145 metres ( 476 ft ) above sea level , or 60 metres ( 200 ft ) above the Douai Plains , providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions .
= = = Early conflicts on site = = =
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 , during the Race to the Sea , as the Franco @-@ British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France . The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette . During the attack , the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge , where the Vimy memorial is currently located , but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements . The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915 , but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge . The French suffered approximately 150 @,@ 000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory .
The British XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916 . On 21 May 1916 , the German infantry attacked the British lines along a 1 @,@ 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge . The Germans captured several British @-@ controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions . Temporary Lieutenant Richard Basil Brandram Jones was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack . British counter @-@ attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation . The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916 .
= = = Battle of Vimy Ridge = = =
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together , as a cohesive formation . The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities . Consequently , the British 5th Infantry Division and supplementary artillery , engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place . The 24th British Division of I Corps supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south . The ad hoc Gruppe Vimy formation , based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander General der Infanterie Karl Ritter von Fasbender , was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps .
The attack began at 5 : 30 am on Easter Monday , 9 April 1917 . Light field guns laid down a barrage that advanced in predetermined increments , often 91 metres ( 100 yd ) every three minutes , while medium and heavy howitzers established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead . The 1st , 2nd , and 3rd Canadian Divisions quickly captured their first objectives . The 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later . The 1st , 2nd , and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7 : 30 am . The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north . Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill 145 to withdraw .
On the morning of 10 April , Canadian Corps commander Lieutenant @-@ General Julian Byng moved up three fresh brigades to support the continued advance . The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line , including Hill 135 and the town of Thélus , by 11 : 00 am . By 2 : 00 pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives . By this point the " Pimple " , a heavily defended knoll west of the town of Givenchy @-@ en @-@ Gohelle , was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge . On 12 April , the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops , with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division . By nightfall on 12 April , the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge . The Canadian Corps suffered 10 @,@ 602 casualties : 3 @,@ 598 killed and 7 @,@ 004 wounded . The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties , and around 4 @,@ 000 men became prisoners of war .
Although the battle is not generally considered Canada 's greatest military achievement , the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada . According to Pierce , " the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada 's coming of age as a nation . " The idea that Canada 's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada .
= = History = =
= = = Selection = = =
In 1920 , the Government of Canada announced that the Imperial War Graves Commission had awarded Canada eight sites — five in France and three in Belgium — on which to erect memorials . Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments . In September 1920 , the Canadian government formed the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe . The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the architectural design competition would be open to all Canadian architects , designers , sculptors , and artists . The jury consisted of Charles Herbert Reilly representing the Royal Institute of British Architects , Paul Philippe Cret representing the Société centrale des architectes français and Frank Darling representing the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada . Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field ; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe . Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17 submissions for consideration , commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster maquette of their respective design . The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed . In October 1921 , the commission formally selected the submission of Toronto sculptor and designer Walter Seymour Allward as the winner of the competition and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner @-@ up . The complexity of Allward 's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site . The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor Percy Erskine Nobbs , who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments . The consensus however went in Allward 's favour with his design receiving both public and critical approval . The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials — those of Allward and Clemesha — and six smaller identical memorials .
At the outset , members of the commission debated where to build Allward 's winning design . The jury 's assessment was that Allward 's submission was best suited to a " low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge " . The commission committee initially took the position of placing the monument in Belgium on Hill 62 , near the location of the Battle of Mont Sorrel , as the site provided an imposing view . This however ran counter to the desires of the Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King who , while speaking in the House of Commons of Canada in May 1922 , argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge . King 's position received unanimous support of the House and , in the end , the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site . The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward 's design . In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the 14th Canadian Parliament , Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons Rodolphe Lemieux went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land . On 5 December 1922 , Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada " freely and for all time " the use of 100 hectares ( 250 acres ) of land on Vimy Ridge , in recognition of Canada 's war effort . The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park .
= = = Memorial construction = = =
Following the competition , Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the Spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe . After selling his home and studio , Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922 and spent a number of months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then Paris , though Allward eventually set up a studio in London , England .
Allward had initially hoped to use white marble for the memorial 's facing stone , but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a " ghost like " appearance . Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour , texture , and luminosity . He found it in the ruins of the Diocletian 's Palace at Split , Croatia ; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years , which Allward took as evidence of the stone 's durability . His choice — Seget limestone — came from an ancient Roman quarry located near Seget , Croatia . The difficulties with the quarrying process , coupled with complicated transportation logistics , delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial . The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927 and the larger blocks , intended for the human figures , did not begin to arrive until 1931 .
On Allward 's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber , a Danish structural engineer , in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work . Faber had recently designed the substructure for the Menin Gate at Ypres and he selected a design that employed cast @-@ in @-@ place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded . Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site . Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures . Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete . The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping .
While awaiting the first delivery of stone , Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate . Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied , Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and the Grange Subway more accessible . Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall , on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group , in concrete . The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and , after excavating a portion of the tunnel system , installed electric lighting .
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument : limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame . A foundation bed of 11 @,@ 000 tonnes of concrete , reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel , served as the support bed for the memorial . The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6 @,@ 000 tonnes of Seget limestone . Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on site from large blocks of stone . The carvers used half @-@ size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio , now on display at the Canadian War Museum , and an instrument called a pantograph to reproduce the figures at the proper scale . The carvers conducted their work year @-@ round inside temporary studios built around each figure . The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them . Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning . Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927 , Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument . The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls . The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument .
= = = Pilgrimage and unveiling = = =
In 1919 , the year after the war ended , around 60 @,@ 000 British tourists and mourners made pilgrimages to the Western Front . The transatlantic voyage was however longer and more expensive from Canada . Many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed , and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small , unofficial groups . The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the Canadian Legion passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields . A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial , which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932 . Due to construction delays with the memorial , it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial . Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set , the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa . The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic — 1 @,@ 200 inquiries by November 1934 . The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on Dominion Day , 1 July 1936 , even though the government still did not know when it would be completed .
For event planning purposes the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible . The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial . The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage . For the Legion this included planning meals , accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe . The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers , and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3 ½ -week trip , inclusive of all meals , accommodation , health insurance , and sea and land transportation would be CA $ 160 per person ( $ 2 @,@ 779 @.@ 18 in present terms ) . Indirect assistance came in a number of forms . The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost . The government and a number of private sector firms also provided paid leave for their participating employees . It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date , 26 July 1936 . On 16 July 1936 , the five transatlantic liners , escorted by HMCS Champlain and HMCS Saguenay , departed the Port of Montreal with approximately 6 @,@ 200 passengers and arrived in Le Havre on 24 and 25 July . The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations .
On 26 July 1936 , the day of the ceremony , pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument . For the ceremony , sailors from HMCS Saguenay provided the guard of honour . Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band , French army engineers , and French @-@ Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the Second Battle of Artois . The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission over shortwave radio , with facilities of the British Broadcasting Corporation transmitting the ceremony to Canada . Senior Canadian , British , and European officials , including French President Albert Lebrun , and over 50 @,@ 000 Canadian , British , and French veterans and their families attended the event . Absent , however , was Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance .
Before the ceremony began , King Edward VIII , present in his capacity as king of Canada , inspected the guard of honour , was introduced to the honoured guests , and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd . Two Royal Air Force and two French Air Force squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute . The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the Church of England , the United Church of Canada , and the Roman Catholic Church . Ernest Lapointe , Canadian Minister of Justice , spoke first , followed by Edward VIII , who , in both French and English , thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead . The King then pulled the Royal Union Flag from the central figure of Canada Bereft and the military band played the Last Post . The ceremony was one of the King 's few official duties before he abdicated the throne . The pilgrimage continued , and most participants toured Ypres before being taken to London to be hosted by the British Legion . One @-@ third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August , while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home .
= = = Second World War = = =
In 1939 , the increased threat of conflict with Nazi Germany amplified the Canadian government 's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial . Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments . When war did break out , the British Expeditionary Force deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector , which included Vimy . In late May 1940 , following the British retreat after the Battle of Arras , the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to Allied forces . The Germans took control of the site and held the site 's caretaker , George Stubbs , in an Ilag internment camp for Allied civilians in St. Denis , France . The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial , either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans , was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom . The rumours led the German Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial . To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated Adolf Hitler , who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature , was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940 . The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when the Welsh Guards recaptured Vimy Ridge .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
Immediately following the Second World War very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial , having been overshadowed by more contemporary events . The Winnipeg Free Press and The Legionary , the magazine of the Canadian Legion , were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952 . The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice with only the Halifax Herald making any mention . Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the fiftieth anniversary of the battle , paired with the Canadian Centennial . A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television . Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of Canadian Confederation and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992 . The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and at least 5 @,@ 000 people . Subsequent smaller @-@ scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002 .
= = = Restoration and rededication = = =
By the end of the century , the large number of repairs undertaken since the memorial 's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours , and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints . In May 2001 , the Government of Canada announced the Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project , a major $ 30 million Canadian dollar restoration project to restore Canada 's memorial sites in France and Belgium , in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner . In 2005 , the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work . Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments , the Commonwealth War Graves Commission , consultants and specialists in military history .
Time , wear , and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems , the single most pervasive being water damage . In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone , Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time . The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones , which resulted in water infiltrating the structure through its walls and platforms , dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry . As the water exited , it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces , obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon . Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform , terrace , and stairs . The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone , walkways , walls , terraces , stairs , and platforms . In order to respect Allward 's initial vision of a seamless structure , the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs , replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia , and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze @-@ thaw activity . Underlying structural flaws were also corrected .
Queen Elizabeth II , escorted by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle . Other senior Canadian officials , including Prime Minister Stephen Harper , and senior French representatives , Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin among them , attended the event , along with thousands of Canadian students , veterans of the Second World War and of more recent conflicts , and descendants of those who fought at Vimy . The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication .
= = Site = =
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras , France , near the towns of Vimy and Neuville @-@ Saint @-@ Vaast . The site is one of the few places on the former Western Front where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state . The total area of the site is 100 hectares ( 250 acres ) , much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety . The site 's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators . Instead , sheep graze the open meadows of the site .
The memorial site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps , but it also contains a number of other memorials . These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division , Lions Club International , and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mike Watkins . There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site : Canadian Cemetery No. 2 and Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery . Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours , the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War battlefield archaeology , because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state . The site 's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial , the preserved battlefield park , and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada 's participation in the First World War . The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and Beaumont @-@ Hamel Newfoundland Memorial sites comprise close to 80 percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year .
= = = Vimy memorial = = =
Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145 , the highest point on the ridge . The memorial contains a large number of stylized features , including 20 human figures , which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole . The front wall , normally mistaken for the rear , is 7 @.@ 3 metres ( 24 ft ) high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence . There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall , next to the base of the steps . The Breaking of the Sword is located at the southern corner of the front wall while Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless is located at the northern corner . Collectively , the two groups are The Defenders and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war . There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group , to symbolize peace . In Breaking of the Sword , three young men are present , one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword . This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace . This grouping of figures is the most overt image to pacifism in the monument , the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials . The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot . It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery . In Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless , one man stands erect while three other figures , stricken by hunger or disease , are crouched and kneeling around him . The standing man represents Canada 's sympathy for the weak and oppressed .
The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains . The woman has her head bowed , her eyes cast down , and her chin resting in one hand . Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus , bearing a Brodie helmet , a sword and draped in laurel branches . The saddened figure of Canada Bereft , also known as Mother Canada , is a national personification of the young nation of Canada , mourning her dead . The statue , a reference to traditional images of the Mater Dolorosa and presented in a similar style to that of Michelangelo 's Pietà , faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day . Unlike the other statues on the monument , stonemasons carved Canada Bereft from a single 30 tonne block of stone . The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point . The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space , which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre , that fanned out from the monument 's front wall for a distance of 270 feet ( 82 m ) while the battle damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched .
The twin pylons rise to a height 30 metres above the memorial 's stone platform ; one bears the maple leaf for Canada and the other the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis for France and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries . At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the Chorus . The most senior figures represent Justice and Peace ; Peace stands with a torch upraised , making it the highest point in the region . The pair is in a style similar to Allward 's previously commissioned statues of Truth and Justice , located outside the Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa . The remainder of the Chorus is located directly below the senior figures : Faith , Hope and Truth on the eastern pylon ; and Honour , Charity and Knowledge on the western pylon . Around these figures are shields of Canada , Britain , and France . Large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon . The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory message to Canada 's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons . The Spirit of Sacrifice is located at the base between the two pylons . In the display , a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion @-@ like pose , having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him . In a lightly veiled reference to the poem In Flanders Fields , by John McCrae , the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead .
The Mourning Parents , one male and one female figure , are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument . They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the Medici Tomb in Florence , Italy . Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11 @,@ 285 Canadians killed in France and whose final resting place is unknown . Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified . Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands , across both vertical and horizontal seams , around the base of the monument . As a consequence , as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial . The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients ; Robert Grierson Combe , Frederick Hobson , William Johnstone Milne , and Robert Spall .
= = = Moroccan Division Memorial = = =
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the Moroccan Division , killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 . The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925 , having been built without planning permission . Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the Memorial ; Campaign battles are inscribed on the left and right hand side corner view of the memorial . The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only divisions where all subordinate units had been awarded the Legion of Honour .
The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the Marching Division of Morocco . The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise , did not in fact contain any units originating from Morocco . Moroccans were part of the Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment with 2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment , both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades . The division contained Tirailleurs and Zouaves , of principally Tunisian and Algerian origin and most notably Legionnaires from the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment . The French Legionnaires came , as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial , from 52 different countries and included amongst them American , Polish , Russian , Italian , Greek , German , Czech , Swedish and Swiss volunteers , such as writer Blaise Cendrars .
In the battle , General Victor d 'Urbal , commander of the French Tenth Army , sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette . When the attack began on 9 May 1915 , the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains . The Moroccan Division , which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps , quickly moved through the German defences and advanced 4 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) into German lines in two hours . The division managed to capture the height of the ridge , with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge , before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements . Even after German counter @-@ attacks , the division managed to hold a territorial gain of 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 yd ) . The division did however suffer heavy casualties . Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division 's brigade commanders , Colonels Gaston Cros and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein .
= = = Grange Subway = = =
The First World War 's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels , subways , and dugouts . The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately 800 metres ( 870 yd ) in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line . This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly , securely , and unseen . A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides .
The Arras @-@ Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft , porous yet extremely stable nature of the chalk underground . As a result , pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915 . In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge , five British tunnelling companies excavated 12 subways along the Canadian Corps ' front , the longest of which was 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) in length . The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10 metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire . The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide . This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines , hospitals , command posts , water reservoirs , ammunition stores , mortar and machine gun posts , and communication centres .
= = = Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mike Watkins memorial = = =
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mike Watkins MBE . Watkins was head of Explosive Ordnance Disposal at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition , Royal Logistic Corps , and a leading British explosive ordnance disposal expert . In August 1998 , he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site . Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge . Earlier the same year , he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated ammonal explosives located under a road intersection on the site .
= = = Visitors ' centre = = =
The site has a visitors ' centre , staffed by Canadian student guides , which is open seven days a week . During the memorial restoration , the original visitors ' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one , which remains in use today . The visitors ' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines , close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway . Construction of a new CA $ 5 million visitors ' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017 , in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle .
= = Sociocultural influence = =
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada . The idea that Canada 's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada . Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the interwar period . Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War , while expressing the enormous impact of war in general . Hucker also suggest that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation 's determination to remember Canada 's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War . The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada ; it was so designated , one of only two outside of Canada , in 1997 . The other is the Beaumont @-@ Hamel Newfoundland Memorial , also in France . Remembrance has also taken other forms : the Vimy Foundation , having been established to preserve and promote Canada 's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge , and Vimy Ridge Day , to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle . Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge , as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy . The memorial is not without its critics . Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified . Visually , Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base . Textually , she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument .
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects . In 1931 , Will Longstaff painted Ghosts of Vimy Ridge , depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial , though the memorial was still several years away from completion . The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada , including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Canadian Unknown Soldier was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial . The Never Forgotten National Memorial was intended to be a 24 @-@ metre ( 79 ft ) statue inspired by the Canada Bereft statue on the memorial , before the project was cancelled in February 2016 . A 2001 Canadian historical novel The Stone Carvers by Jane Urquhart involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial . In 2007 , the memorial was a short @-@ listed selection for the Seven Wonders of Canada . The Royal Canadian Mint released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions , including a 5 cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30 dollar sterling silver coin in 2007 . The Sacrifice Medal , a Canadian military decoration created in 2008 , features the image of Mother Canada on the reverse side of the medal . A permanent bas relief sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the Embassy of France in Canada to symbolize the close relations between the two countries . The memorial is featured on the reverse of the Frontier Series Canadian polymer $ 20 banknote , which was released by the Bank of Canada on 7 November 2012 .
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= At Newport 1960 =
At Newport 1960 is a live album by Muddy Waters performed at Newport Jazz Festival in Newport , Rhode Island , with his backing band , consisting of Otis Spann ( piano , vocals ) , Pat Hare ( guitar ) , James Cotton ( harmonica ) , Andrew Stevens ( bass ) and Francis Clay ( drums ) , on July 3 . Waters 's performances across Europe in the 1950s and at Newport helped popularize blues to a broader audience , especially to whites . The album is said to be one of the first live blues albums .
The album was released in the US on November 15 that year , featuring eight songs , including " I Got My Brand on You " to " Goodbye Newport Blues " . In 2001 , Chess Records released a remastered version , which includes three bonus tracks recorded in Chicago in June . At Newport 1960 never charted , but it received critical acclaim and was influential for future bands . It was ranked on several music lists , including at number 348 on Rolling Stone 's " 500 Greatest Albums of all Time " in 2003 .
= = Background = =
After releasing his debut album The Best of Muddy Waters ( 1958 ) , a greatest hits collection , and Sings Big Bill Broonzy ( 1960 ) , a collection of covers of songs by the blues musician Big Bill Broonzy , Waters performed at the Newport Jazz Festival . Waters had already been a well @-@ known blues musician across Europe and the United States in the ' 50s . His successful performances with his electric blues band , consisting of his half @-@ brother Otis Spann ( piano , vocals ) , Pat Hare ( guitar ) , James Cotton ( harmonica ) , Andrew Stevens ( bass ) and Francis Clay ( drums ) , increasingly popularized the blues in mainstream music in the United States and Europe , especially among white audiences .
= = Recording = =
The gig was scheduled on July 3 , Sunday afternoon . The day before , performances by Ray Charles and singing group Lambert , Hendricks and Ross were met with crowd rushes . About 300 drunken hipsters made an uproar during Charles ' performance caused by poor police security . The policemen attacked with teargas and water hoses . The riots became so out of control that the National Guard was called in at midnight to calm the crowd . When Waters and his band arrived on the scheduled day , they intended to drive back on the next day , until driver James Cotton saw John Lee Hooker standing at a corner , his guitar on his back without a guitar case . Cotton said Hooker should get into his car to get the musicians out of harm 's way . At the same time , the city council decided to cancel the concert , but concert promoter George Wein convinced them when he said that the United States Information Agency ( USIA ) planned to film the festival to teach American culture in other countries .
Before Waters ' performance , his band backed Otis Spann , who was the band leader , and John Lee Hooker . At about 17 p.m. , Waters entered the stage , wearing black , while the rest of the band wore white formal dress . At Newport 1960 opens with then @-@ unreleased " I Got My Brand on You " , which was recorded one month prior , and " ( I 'm Your ) Hoochie Coochie Man " , both written by Willie Dixon . Next are the Big Joe Williams cover " Baby Please Don 't Go " , Oden 's " Soon Forgotten " , Dixon 's " Tiger in Your Tank " and Broonzy 's " I Feel So Good " . During the latter he performed hip swings , and during " I 've Got My Mojo Working " , which he played a second time , he performed Elgin movements , then a foxtrot with Cotton . At the end he did a jitterbug ; when he returned to the microphone and performed the move a second time , he received massive cheers from the audience . At the end of this song , every bluesman gathered at the stage to perform medleys of blues standards . Jazz poet and directorate of Newport Langston Hughes spontaneously wrote a finishing song , the slow " Goodbye Newport Blues " , this time Spann with as singer , as Waters was too exhausted to perform .
The album was released in the United States in November 15 , the same year they performed their concert in Newport , on the MCA label , and produced by Leonard Chess . A CD version was released in 1987 , but one bootleger already released a different version in the early 90s . It was digitally remastered in 2001 by MCA , with a significantly better quality in bass and singing . The remastered version contains three bonus tracks recorded in Chicago in June 1960 .
= = Album cover = =
The album cover depicts Muddy Waters at the Newport Jazz Festival holding a semi @-@ acoustic guitar . When the photographer , Burt Goldblatt , asked him to pose for the cover , Waters left his Fender Telecaster ( which he played during the concert ) on the stage and instead held the semi @-@ acoustic guitar , belonging to his friend John Lee Hooker .
= = Critical reception = =
At Newport 1960 received positive critical reception . It was generally praised for the powerful and fizzy performance by Waters and his band . Cub Koda , writing for Allmusic , said that Waters " lays it down tough and cool with a set that literally had [ the audience ] dancing in the aisles by the set close " . Furthermore , he remarked that the opening track , " I Got My Brand on You " , " positively burns the relatively tame " . Matthew Oshinsky , in 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , praised the " merciless refrain " in " Hoochie Coochie Man " and the " unvarnished moaning " in " Baby Please Don 't Go " . He also enjoyed Muddy 's powerful baritone , Cotton 's harmonica playing , Spann 's " pub piano " – like playing and the overall danceable music .
Chris Smith , in 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music , praised Waters 's " growly vocal presentation , energetic stage presence , and electrifying ( literally and figuratively ) performances . " The album was ranked number 348 on Rolling Stone 's " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " in 2003 , in which the band 's playing was described as " tough , tight and in the groove " and Cotton 's harmonica jams were mentioned as " a special treat . " In Vibe ' magazine 's " 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century " , a critic called the album " immortal . " The album is mentioned in The Rough Guide to Blues 100 Essential CDs .
Many musicians and bands , such as the Rolling Stones , Jimi Hendrix , AC / DC and Led Zeppelin , have been influenced by his electric sound and used this and his greatest hits album in creating a hard rock sound . At Newport 1960 was one of the first live blues albums .
= = Track listing = =
" I Got My Brand on You " ( Willie Dixon ) – 4 : 24
" I 'm Your Hoochie Coochie Man " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 50
" Baby , Please Don 't Go " ( McKinley Morganfield ) – 2 : 52
" Soon Forgotten " ( James Oden ) – 4 : 08
" Tiger in Your Tank " ( Dixon ) – 4 : 12
" I Feel So Good " ( Bill Broonzy ) – 2 : 48
" Got My Mojo Working " ( Preston Foster ) – 4 : 08
" Got My Mojo Working , Part 2 " ( Foster ) – 2 : 38
" Goodbye Newport Blues " ( Langston Hughes , Morganfield ) – 4 : 38
= = = 2001 remastered issue bonus tracks = = =
" I Got My Brand on You " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 22
" Soon Forgotten " ( Oden ) – 2 : 41
" Tiger in Your Tank " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 17
" Meanest Woman " ( Morganfield ) – 2 : 18
Tracks 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 were credited to McKinley Morganfield on the original LP .
= = Personnel = =
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= John Stossel =
John Frank Stossel ( born March 6 , 1947 ) is an American consumer television personality , author , and libertarian pundit . In October 2009 , Stossel left his long @-@ time employment at ABC News to join the Fox Business Channel and Fox News Channel . He is the host of a weekly news show on Fox Business , Stossel , which was first broadcast on December 10 , 2009 . Stossel also regularly provides analysis , appearing on various Fox News programs , which include weekly appearances on The O 'Reilly Factor . He also writes a Fox News Blog , " John Stossel 's Take " . Stossel has also been a nationally syndicated newspaper columnist since February 2011 . Stossel was diagnosed with lung cancer in 2016 .
Stossel 's style combines reporting and commentary . It reflects a libertarian political philosophy and views on economics which are largely supportive of the free market . He began his journalism career as a researcher for KGW @-@ TV , was a consumer reporter at WCBS @-@ TV in New York City , and then joined ABC News as a consumer editor and reporter on Good Morning America . Stossel went on to be an ABC News correspondent , joining the weekly news magazine program 20 / 20 , going on to become co @-@ anchor .
As a reporter , Stossel has received numerous honors including 19 Emmy Awards , and he has been honored five times for excellence in consumer reporting by the National Press Club . Stossel has written three books recounting how his experiences in journalism shaped his socioeconomic views , Give Me a Break in 2004 , Myths , Lies , and Downright Stupidity in 2007 , and No They Can 't ! Why Government Fails but Individuals Succeed in 2012 . ABC said : " His reporting goes against the grain of the established media and offers the network something fresh and different ... [ but ] makes him a target of the groups he offends . " Stossel has also served as a spokesman for the Stuttering Foundation of America .
= = Early life = =
John F. Stossel was born on March 6 , 1947 , in Chicago Heights , Illinois , the younger of two sons , to Jewish parents who left Germany before Hitler rose to power . They joined a Congregationalist church in the U.S. , and Stossel was raised Protestant . He grew up on Chicago 's affluent North Shore and graduated from New Trier High School . Stossel characterizes his older brother , Tom , as " the superstar of the family " , commenting , " While I partied and played poker , he studied hard , got top grades , and went to Harvard Medical School . " Stossel characterizes himself as having been " an indifferent student " while in college , commenting , " I daydreamed through half my classes at Princeton , and applied to grad school only because I was ambitious , and grad school seemed like the right path for a 21 @-@ year @-@ old who wanted to get ahead . " Although he had been accepted to the University of Chicago 's School of Hospital Management , Stossel was " sick of school " and thought taking a job would inspire him to embrace graduate studies with renewed vigor .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Stossel intended to go work at Seattle Magazine , but it had gone out of business by the time he graduated . His contacts there , however , got him a job at KGW @-@ TV in Portland , Oregon , where Stossel began as a newsroom gofer , working his way up to researcher and then writer . After a few years , the news director told Stossel to go on the air and read what he wrote . Stossel , who confesses to having been frightened of being on the air , has expressed embarrassment at watching videos of his early performances . Nonetheless , Stossel says his fear spurred him to improve , examining broadcasts of David Brinkley and Jack Perkins to imitate them . Stossel also struggled with a stuttering problem he had harbored since childhood . After a few years of on @-@ air reporting , Stossel was hired by WCBS @-@ TV in New York City , by Ed Joyce , the same news director who hired Arnold Diaz , Linda Ellerbee , Dave Marash , Joel Siegel and Lynn Sherr . Stossel was disappointed at CBS , feeling that the journalism was of a lower quality than in Portland , and disliking the lesser quantity of time devoted to research there . Stossel cites union work rules that discouraged the extra work that Stossel felt allowed employees to be creative , which he says represented his " first real introduction to the deals made by special interests " . Stossel also " hated " Joyce , who he felt was " cold and critical " , though Stossel credits Joyce with allowing him the freedom to pursue his own story ideas , and with recommending the Hollins Communications Research Institute in Roanoke , Virginia , that largely cured Stossel 's stuttering problem .
Stossel grew continuously more frustrated with having to follow the assignment editor 's vision of what was news . Perhaps because of his stuttering , he had always avoided covering what others covered , feeling he could not succeed if he was forced to compete with other reporters by shouting out questions at news conferences . However , this led to the unexpected realization for Stossel that more important events were those that occurred slowly , such as the women 's movement , the growth of computer technology , and advancements in contraception , rather than daily events like government pronouncements , elections , fires or crime . One day , Stossel bypassed the assignment editor to give Ed Joyce a list of story ideas the assignment editor had rejected . Joyce agreed that Stossel 's ideas were better , and approved them .
= = = 20 / 20 = = =
In 1981 Roone Arledge offered Stossel a job at ABC News , as a correspondent for 20 / 20 and consumer reporter for Good Morning America . His " Give Me a Break " segments for the former featured a skeptical look at subjects from government regulations and pop culture to censorship and unfounded fear . The series was spun off into a series of one @-@ hour specials with budgets of half a million dollars that began in 1994 . They include :
" Give Me a Break " – regular segment
You Can 't Even Talk About It – 2009
Bailouts and Bull ( in association with ReasonTV ) – 2009
Age of Consent – 2009
John Stossel 's Politically Incorrect Guide to Politics – 2008
Sex in America – 2008
Sick in America , Whose Body Is It Anyway ? – 2007
Cheap In America – 2007
Myths , Lies and Downright Stupidity – 2007
Cheap in America – 2006
Stupid in America : How We Cheat Our Kids – 2006
Privilege in America : Who 's Shutting You Out ? – 2006
War on Drugs : A War on Ourselves – 2002
Freeloaders – 2001
John Stossel Goes to Washington – Spring 2001
Is America # 1 ? – 1999
Greed – 1999
Nuts for Nintendo – 1988
Common Sense – 1995
Are We Scaring Ourselves to Death ?
Junk Science : What You Know That May Not Be So
Boys and Girls Are Different
You Can 't Say That !
The Power of Belief
During the course of his work on 20 / 20 , Stossel discovered Reason magazine , and found that the libertarian ideas of its writers made sense to him . Stossel was named co @-@ anchor of 20 / 20 in May 2003 , while he was writing his first book , Gimme a Break : How I Exposed Hucksters , Cheats , and Scam Artists and Became the Scourge of the Liberal Media , which was published in 2004 . In it , he details his start in journalism and consumer reporting , and how he evolved to harbor libertarian beliefs .
= = = Fox News Channel and Fox Business Network = = =
In September 2009 , it was announced that Stossel was leaving Disney 's ABC News and joining News Corp. ' s Fox News Channel and Fox Business Network . In addition to appearing on The O 'Reilly Factor every Tuesday night , he now hosts a one @-@ hour weekly program for Fox Business Network and a series of one @-@ hour specials for Fox News Channel , as well as making regular guest appearances on Fox News programs .
The program , entitled Stossel , debuted December 10 , 2009 , on Fox Business Network . The program looks at consumer @-@ focused topics , such as civil liberties , the business of health care , and free trade . His blog , " Stossel ’ s Take " , is published on both FoxBusiness.com and FoxNews.com.
= = = Publications = = =
Stossel has written three books . Give Me a Break : How I Exposed Hucksters , Cheats , and Scam Artists and Became the Scourge of the Liberal Media is a 2005 autobiography from Harper Perennial documenting his career and philosophical transition from liberalism to libertarianism . It describes his opposition to government regulation , his belief in free market and private enterprise , support for tort reform , and advocacy for shifting social services from the government to private charities . It was a New York Times bestseller for 11 weeks . Myths , Lies , and Downright Stupidity : Get Out the Shovel – Why Everything You Know Is Wrong , which was published in 2007 by Hyperion , questions the validity of various conventional wisdoms , and argues that the belief he is conservative is untrue . On April 10 , 2012 , Threshold Editions , an imprint of Simon & Schuster , published Stossel 's third book No , They Can 't : Why Government Fails – But Individuals Succeed . It argues that government policies meant to solve problems instead produce new ones , and that free individuals and the private sector perform tasks more efficiently than the government does .
With financial support from the libertarian Palmer R. Chitester Fund , Stossel and ABC News launched a series of educational materials for public schools in 1999 entitled " Stossel in the Classroom " . It was taken over in 2006 by the Center for Independent Thought and releases a new DVD of teaching materials annually . In 2006 , Stossel and ABC released Teaching Tools for Economics , a video series based on the National Council of Economics Education standards .
Since February 2011 , Stossel has written a weekly newspaper column for Creators Syndicate . His articles appear in such online publications as Newsmax , Reason , and Townhall .
= = Political and personal beliefs = =
= = = Contrarianism = = =
Stossel 's news reports and writings attempt to debunk popular beliefs . His Myths and Lies series of 20 / 20 specials challenges a range of widely held beliefs . He also hosted The Power of Belief ( October 6 , 1998 ) , an ABC News Special that focused on assertions of the paranormal and people 's desire to believe . Another report outlined the belief that opposition to DDT is misplaced and that the ban on DDT has resulted in the deaths of millions of children , mostly in poor nations .
= = = Libertarianism = = =
As a libertarian , Stossel says that he believes in both personal freedom and the free market . He frequently uses television airtime to advance these views and challenge viewers ' distrust of free @-@ market capitalism and economic competition . He received an Honoris Causa Doctorate from Francisco Marroquin University , a libertarian university in Guatemala , in 2008 . He told The Oregonian , on October 26 , 1994 :
I started out by viewing the marketplace as a cruel place , where you need intervention by government and lawyers to protect people . But after watching the regulators work , I have come to believe that markets are magical and the best protectors of the consumer . It is my job to explain the beauties of the free market .
I 'm a little embarrassed about how long it took me to see the folly of most government intervention . It was probably 15 years before I really woke up to the fact that almost everything government attempts to do , it makes worse .
Stossel argues that individual self @-@ interest , or " greed " , creates an incentive to work harder and to innovate . He has promoted school choice as a way to improve American schools , believing that when people are given a choice , they will choose the schools best suited for their children . Referring to educational tests that rank American students lower than others he says :
The people who run the international tests told us , " the biggest predictor of student success is choice . " Nations that " attach the money to the kids " and thereby allow parents to choose between different public and private schools have higher test scores . This should be no surprise ; competition makes us better .
Stossel has criticized government programs for being inefficient , wasteful , and harmful . He has also criticized the American legal system , opining that it provides lawyers and vexatious litigators the incentive to file frivolous lawsuits indiscriminately . Stossel contends that these suits often generate more wealth for lawyers than for deserving clients , stifle innovation and personal freedoms , and cause harm to private citizens , taxpayers , consumers and businesses . Although Stossel concedes that some lawsuits are necessary in order to provide justice to people genuinely injured by others with greater economic power , he advocates the adoption in the U.S. of the English rule as one method to reduce the more abusive or frivolous lawsuits .
Stossel opposes corporate welfare , bailouts and the war in Iraq . He also opposes legal prohibitions against pornography , marijuana , recreational drugs , gambling , ticket scalping , prostitution , polygamy , homosexuality , and assisted suicide , and believes most abortions should be legal . He advocates lower and simpler taxes , and has endorsed or explored various ideas in his specials and on his TV series for changing the tax system , including switching to a flat tax , and replacing the income tax with the FairTax .
When the Department of Labor reissued federal guidelines in April 2010 governing the employment of unpaid interns under the Fair Labor Standards Act based on a 1947 Supreme Court decision , Stossel criticized the guidelines , appearing in a police uniform during an appearance on the Fox News program America Live , commenting , " I ’ ve built my career on unpaid interns , and the interns told me it was great – I learned more from you than I did in college . " Asked why he did not pay them if they were so valuable , he said he could not afford to .
= = = Agnosticism = = =
In the 16 December 2010 episode of Stossel titled “ Skeptic or Believer , ” Stossel identified himself as an agnostic , explaining that although he had no belief in God , he did not believe God was an impossibility .
= = Praise and criticism = =
= = = Awards = = =
Stossel has won 19 Emmy Awards . He was honored five times for excellence in consumer reporting by the National Press Club , has received a George Polk Award for Outstanding Local Reporting and a Peabody Award . According to Stossel , when he was in favor of government intervention and skeptical of business , he was deluged with awards , but in 2006 he stated , " They like me less ... Once I started applying the same skepticism to government , I stopped winning awards . " On April 23 , 2012 , Stossel was awarded the Chapman University Presidential Medal , by the current president , James Doti , and chancellor , Danielle Struppa . The award has been presented to only a handful of people over the past 150 years . Stossel received an honorary doctorate from Universidad Francisco Marroquín .
= = = Praise = = =
The Nobel Prize – winning Chicago School monetarist economist Milton Friedman lauded Stossel , stating : " Stossel is that rare creature , a TV commentator who understands economics , in all its subtlety . " Steve Forbes , the editor of Forbes magazine , described Stossel as riveting and " one of America ’ s ablest and most courageous journalists . " P. J. O 'Rourke , best @-@ selling author of Eat the Rich and Parliament of Whores praised Stossel , stating :
... about John Stossel 's fact @-@ finding . He seeks the truths that destroy truisms , wields reason against all that 's unreasonable , and ... puncture ( s ) sanctimonious idealism .... He makes the maddening mad . And Stossel ’ s tales of the outrageous are outrageously amusing .
An article published by the libertarian group Advocates for Self Government notes praise for Stossel . Independent Institute Research Analyst Anthony Gregory , writing on the libertarian blog , LewRockwell.com , described Stossel as a " heroic rogue ... a media maverick and proponent of freedom in an otherwise statist , conformist mass media . " Libertarian investment analyst Mark Skousen said Stossel is " a true libertarian hero " .
= = = Criticism and controversy = = =
Progressive organizations such as Fairness and Accuracy In Reporting ( FAIR ) and Media Matters for America ( MMfA ) have criticized Stossel 's work , for what they perceived as a lack of balance of coverage and distortion of facts . For example , Stossel was criticized for a segment on his October 11 , 1999 , show during which he argued that AIDS research has received too much funding , " 25 times more than on Parkinson 's , which kills more people . " FAIR responded that AIDS had killed more people in the United States in 1999 , but Stossel was speaking in more broad terms than a single country over a single year .
In a February 2000 Salon.com feature on Stossel entitled " Prime @-@ time propagandist " , David Mastio wrote that Stossel has a conflict of interest in donating profits from his public speaking engagements to , among others , a non @-@ profit called " Stossel in the Classroom " which includes material for use in schools , some of which uses material made by Stossel .
University of Texas economist James K. Galbraith has alleged that Stossel , in his September 1999 special Is America # 1 ? , used an out @-@ of @-@ context clip of Galbraith to convey the notion that Galbraith advocated the adoption by Europe of the free market economics practiced by the United States , when in fact Galbraith actually advocated that Europe adopt some of the United States ' social benefit transfer mechanisms such as Social Security , which is the economically opposite view . Stossel denied any misrepresentation of Galbraith 's views and stated that it was not his intention to convey that Galbraith agreed with all of the special 's ideas . However , he re @-@ edited that portion of the program for its September 2000 repeat , in which Stossel paraphrased , " Even economists who like Europe 's policies , like James Galbraith , now acknowledge America 's success . "
= = = = Organic vegetables = = = =
A February 2000 story about organic vegetables on 20 / 20 included statements by Stossel that tests had shown that neither organic nor conventional produce samples contained any pesticide residue , and that organic food was more likely to be contaminated by E. coli bacteria . The Environmental Working Group objected to his report , mainly questioning his statements about bacteria , but also managed to determine that the produce had never been tested for pesticides . They communicated this to Stossel , but after the story 's producer backed Stossel 's recollection that the test results had been as described , the story was rebroadcast months later , uncorrected , and with a postscript in which Stossel reiterated his claim . Later , after a report in The New York Times confirmed the Environmental Working Group 's claims , ABC News suspended the producer of the segment for a month and reprimanded Stossel . Stossel apologized , saying that he had thought the tests had been conducted as reported . However , he asserted that the gist of his report had been accurate .
= = = = Frederick K. C. Price = = = =
In a March 2007 segment about finances and lifestyles of televangelists , 20 / 20 aired a clip of Apostle Frederick K. C. Price , a TV minister , that was originally broadcast by the Lifetime Network in 1997 . Price alleged that the clip portrayed him describing his wealth in extravagant terms , when he was actually telling a parable about a rich man . ABC News twice aired a retraction and apologized for the error . In August 2010 , a lower court 's dismissal of the minister 's defamation suit against ABC , Price v. Stossel , was overturned by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals .
= = = = “ Sick Sob Stories ” = = = =
In an opinion piece published in The Wall Street Journal in September 2007 called " Sick Sob Stories " , Stossel described the case of Tracy and Julie Pierce that was explored in Michael Moore ’ s film , Sicko . Julie Pierce criticized Stossel , saying her husband would have been saved by the Canadian health care system , and she thought Stossel should have interviewed her and her doctor before writing about them . Stossel expressed sympathy , but said she had been misled to believe the treatment was routinely available in Canada . He said that the treatment is also considered “ experimental ” in Canada , and is provided there even more rarely than in the United States .
Stossel did not title the piece “ Sick Sob Stories ” ; that title was given to the piece by The Wall Street Journal .
= = = = Global warming = = = =
Stossel challenges the notion that man @-@ made global warming would have net negative consequences , pointing to assertedly warmer periods in human history . Central to his argument is the idea that groups and individuals get much more public attention , donations , and government funding when they proclaim " this will be terrible " than groups that say " this is nothing to worry about . " He points to groups like the World Wildlife Fund , Greenpeace , the Environmental Defense Fund , the Natural Resources Defense Council , and to activists such as Rachel Carson and former U.S. Vice President Al Gore as examples of environmental scaremongers .
In 2001 , the media watchdog organization FAIR criticized Stossel 's reportage of global warming in his documentary , Tampering with Nature , for using " highly selective ... information " that gave " center stage to three dissenters from among the 2 @,@ 000 members of the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which recently released a report stating that global temperatures are rising almost twice as fast as previously thought . "
Stossel groups supporters of the scientific consensus on climate change with astrologers and psychics in his second book , Myths , Lies and Downright Stupidity . He claims that proposals surrounding the proposed solutions to reduce global warming are " myths , " which will not only not solve the problem but will " restrict freedom . "
= = = = David Schultz incident = = = =
On December 28 , 1984 , during an interview for 20 / 20 on professional wrestling , wrestler David Schultz struck Stossel after Stossel stated that he thought professional wrestling was " fake " . Stossel stated that he suffered from pain and buzzing in his ears eight weeks after the assault . Stossel sued and obtained a settlement of $ 425 @,@ 000 from the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . In his book , Myths , Lies , and Downright Stupidity , he writes that he has come to regret doing so , having adopted the belief that lawsuits harm many innocent people . Schultz maintains that he attacked Stossel on orders from Vince McMahon , the head of the then @-@ WWF .
= = Personal life = =
Stossel lives in New York City , in the apartment building The Beresford , with his wife , Ellen Abrams . They have two children , Lauren , and Max . They also own a home in Massachusetts .
Stossel came to embrace his Jewish heritage after marrying his wife , who is Jewish , and their children have been raised in that tradition . Stossel identified himself as an agnostic in the December 16 , 2010 , episode of Stossel , explaining that he had no belief in God but was open to the possibility .
Stossel 's brother , Thomas P. Stossel , is a Harvard Medical School professor and co @-@ director of the Hematology Division at Boston 's Brigham and Women 's Hospital . He has served on the advisory boards of pharmaceutical companies such as Merck and Pfizer . Stossel 's nephew is journalist and magazine editor Scott Stossel .
On April 20 , 2016 , Stossel , who stated that he had never smoked , revealed that he had lung cancer which was caught early and given an excellent prognosis .
= = Books = =
Give Me a Break : How I Exposed Hucksters , Cheats , and Scam Artists and Became the Scourge of the Liberal Media ... ( Paperback ed . ) . Harper Paperbacks . 2005 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 052915 @-@ 4 .
Myths , Lies and Downright Stupidity : Get Out the Shovel – Why Everything You Know is Wrong ( Paperback ed . ) . Hyperion . 2007 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7868 @-@ 9393 @-@ 5 .
No , They Can 't : Why Government Fails – But Individuals Succeed . Threshold Editions . 2012 . ISBN 1451640943 .
= = = Biographies and articles about Stossel = = =
ABC News Biography
Johnson , Peter . " Stossel 's evolution from activist to contrarian angers some of his fans " , USA Today , April 30 , 2006
" John Stossel : Myth @-@ Buster " , FrontPageMag.com
Sullum , Jacob . " Risky Journalism : ABC 's John Stossel bucks a fearful establishment " Reason , April 1997 .
= = = Articles by Stossel = = =
John Stossel 's 20 / 20 Web Page
John Stossel 's Newspaper Columns
John Stossel 's contributions to Reason Magazine
" Confessions of a Welfare Queen : How rich bastards like me rip off taxpayers for millions of dollars " is an excerpt from his first book .
John Stossel 's Column on Creators.com
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= Evan Lorne =
Major Evan Lorne , USAF is a fictional character in the Canadian – American Sci @-@ Fi Channel television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 and Stargate Atlantis , two military science fiction shows about military teams exploring the galaxy via a network of alien transportation devices . Played by Kavan Smith , Evan Lorne was first introduced as a recurring character in the seventh season of Stargate SG @-@ 1 , holding the military rank of Major in the United States Air Force . He joins the Atlantis expedition after " The Siege " as one of the personnel on the Daedalus class battlecruiser .
Lorne was a recurring character in seasons seven and ten in Stargate SG @-@ 1 and season two – season five in Stargate Atlantis . Smith was originally supposed to play another character in Stargate Atlantis , but the producers eventually decided to keep Lorne , since he was popular with the fans according to Smith himself . He appears in a total of 29 episodes .
= = Character arc = =
Lorne first appears in Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " Enemy Mine " . Lorne reappears as a part of the new personnel sent after the Wraith siege by the Daedalus and serves as Atlantis ' military second @-@ in @-@ command under Lieutenant Colonel John Sheppard . In " Runner " , he assists Sheppard , Teyla Emmagan , and Rodney McKay in the search for Aiden Ford . Lorne possesses the ATA gene , but it has never been revealed whether his gene is natural or artificial . He is seen piloting a Puddle Jumper in several episodes including " Condemned " and " The Hive " .
Lorne is one of the Atlantis Expedition members in " This Mortal Coil " that the Replicators take the form of , but they are all killed by Oberoth . In an alternate timeline shown in the episode " The Last Man " , Lorne is a Major General and appears to be in command of the Stargate Command ( SGC ) . Lorne also appears as the team leader of the SG @-@ 1 unit in an alternate universe in the SG @-@ 1 season 10 episode " The Road Not Taken " .
In " Doppleganger " , Lorne threatens Sheppard while sleepwalking , believing him to be a Replicator . Lorne is stunned by Ronon Dex , and while being questioned by Dr. Kate Heightmeyer says that he " hadn 't had a sleepwalking incident since he was ten . " Lorne 's mother , an art teacher , taught him how to paint on weekends when he was growing up , and Lorne rekindles this muse during his stay on Atlantis . In " Tabula Rasa " , Lorne , while being semiamnesiac , takes a severe overdose of a delaying medicine that is supposed to hold back the illness . This causes him ( and all of his team ) to become paranoid , aggressive and confused and they resort to shooting with stunners everyone they see even if they are not affected by the sickness . Eventually , though , a picture of Sheppard convinced him to assist Ronon treat the sick . He later apologised to Sheppard . Originally from San Francisco , California , Lorne also has a sister who has two young boys . He loves ice cream .
= = Conceptual history = =
The character was introduced in the Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " Enemy Mine " . Kavan Smith had formed a close relationship with director Peter DeLuise before being cast . When the development of the episode was finished , there were no plans of expanding Lorne 's role in the franchise . Smith himself felt the part would not " necessarily " lead anywhere big . Sometime after shooting " Enemy Mine " , the producers wanted to talk to Smith about the possibility of having him return to the spin off series , Stargate Atlantis . After the talk , Smith auditioned for a part , he won and received a different character . According to Smith , this character was more of a " military guy " , but the producers eventually decided to give Smith back his old character , Lorne .
When talking about season two of Stargate Atlantis , staff writer , Martin Gero said Lorne had become the most notable recurring character of the series . In an interview with Smith , it was revealed that Lorne 's first name was decided to be " Evan " , later confirmed by executive producer , Joseph Mallozzi . While fans on the other hand , have given him the first name , Marcus ( or , alternately , Nick ) , the producers or writers have not responded to this . In the episode " Spoils of War " , a character was going to call him " Uncle Evan " , this scene was cut off , because of time constraints .
At first , plot information about the episode , " Coup D 'etat " was a bit scarce . Many fans speculated that they were going to kill Lorne off the show . Smith went and had a brief talk with the writing staff , responding to his worries that it was a part of a " cliffhanger " . According to Smith , the only reason for making Lorne a recurring character was the positive feedback from fans . " Sunday " became the first episode to reveal information about Lorne 's backstory . Smith described Lorne as " that sort of faithful , loyal guy that everybody kind of knows , " and representing a " steady constant . " On his own weblog , Joseph Mallozzi said that Lorne as a character would become more active during season 5 .
= = Reception = =
Cynthia from Sci Fi Universe commented that Kavan Smith played a character who had the " same name " as the character he originally portrayed in Stargate SG @-@ 1 , but was " not really the same guy " . Concluding her review saying she reacted positive towards the evolution of the character . When talking about science fiction fandom , Smith said that he was " shocked " about the fan response to his character , further stating that this could only be possible in a science fiction television series . In the interview , Smith said that his " character seems to be developing ... I feel like his career is sort of moving ahead . " In an interview , Smith said he had evolved a strong fanbase , which started with his more obscure earlier work and has since followed him throughout his career . Because of the strong fan response , Smith has started to attend various Stargate conventions .
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= Good Cop Bad Dog =
" Good Cop Bad Dog " is the 22nd episode of the American comedy television series Modern Family 's second season and the 46th episode overall . The episode originally aired on May 11 , 2011 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was written by Abraham Higginbotham & Jeffrey Richman and was guest directed by former child star Fred Savage . It guest starred Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda as Guillermo , the Grocery Store worker who tries to convince Jay to invest with him .
In the episode , Jay advises a dog trainer , while Phil and Claire switch parenting duties to the kids ' chagrin . Mitchell has an extra Lady Gaga ticket when Cameron ends up sick . The episode introduces the Pritchett 's new dog that will appear for the rest of the season and for a majority of the third .
" Good Cop Bad Dog " received positive reviews from critics with many praising Ty Burrell 's performance . The episode was viewed by more than 10 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 11 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking an 8 percent rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Mother 's Day " . The episode was also the highest @-@ rated scripted program of the original week it aired among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . Burrell eventually received an Emmy for his performance in the episode .
= = Plot = =
In the Dunphy household , Alex ( Ariel Winter ) and Haley ( Sarah Hyland ) are furious at Manny ( Rico Rodriguez ) and Luke ( Nolan Gould ) for barging into their room while they were changing . This leads to their mother , Claire ( Julie Bowen ) to yell at them , while their dad , Phil ( Ty Burrell ) attempts to push himself away from Claire 's anger behind her back . Annoyed , Claire confronts Phil about how he always makes her play the ' bad cop ' role in their family and keeps the ' good cop ' role for himself . He reluctantly agrees to switch roles with her . Claire takes Manny and Luke go @-@ carting ( although Phil had been quite keen to go ) , while Phil has to stay and make the girls clean their bathroom . The go @-@ carting goes horribly as Luke gets sick from drinking a milkshake he did not want . Meanwhile , Phil goes berserk when the girls lie to him about cleaning the bathroom and jump on their car to stop them from leaving , before forcing them to clean the bathroom under his direct supervision and then he had them clean his bathroom . That evening , Phil and Claire admit that they cannot handle each other 's natural parent roles , and agree to go back to normal .
Meanwhile , Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) wants to help a grocery @-@ store worker , Guillermo ( Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda ) , so she convinces Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) to let Guillermo pitch him a business idea : a dog @-@ training system labeled " The Good @-@ doggy / Bad @-@ doggy Training System " , which consists of two sets of dog treats , one of them being bland and the other a tastier one with bacon . The pitch goes wrong when Guillermo 's dog , Stella ( Brigitte ) , chews on Jay 's pillow and seems to prefer the bad doggy treat . Seeing that Gloria 's blind encouragement is doing him no favours , Jay adopts a firm , frank tone with Guillermo and tells him that , while he has obvious skill , enthusiasm and charisma , his idea is not good . Guillermo , who had invested five years of his life in this idea , leaves in tears . Gloria follows him to apologize , but Guillermo admits that he found Jay 's honesty refreshing , and has decided to reorganize his life , which means moving back in with his sister to go back to school , but it also means that he must give the dog away . Gloria allows the dog to stay with them much to Jay 's anger , which is increased when Manny walks in and believes the dog is a present for him . Jay drives the dog to the pound but Stella 's sweet face makes him take her back home .
Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) has bought tickets to a Lady Gaga concert , but his plans go south when Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) gets sick . This causes Mitchell to be torn on whether he should stay with Cameron or go to the concert . He eventually tries to be supporting and attempts to subtly persuade Cameron to let him go , as Claire has advised him to do . Mitchell tries to sneak away after noticing that Cameron has drunk most of a cough syrup that would " put down a Grizzly " , but he is caught when Cam wakes up . Mitchell then gives a speech about how selfish he has been to Cameron , before realizing Cameron has fallen asleep once more . He then sneaks off to the concert and comes back before Cameron wakes up again . When Cameron does wake up , Mitchell acts as if he never went out , unaware that his glow stick is still visible underneath his shirt . As Cameron returns to bed , he pleasantly informs Mitchell that his glow @-@ stick is still flashing , and switches off the light to reveal it .
= = Production = =
" Good Cop Bad Dog " was written by Abraham Higginbotham and Jeffrey Richman , the former receiving third writing credit for the series having previously written " The Kiss " and " Regrets Only " and the latter receiving his fourth writing credit for the series . Higginbotham received a story credit for the episode , as well . The episode was directed by guest director Fred Savage , best known for his performance in The Wonder Years .
The episode was filmed on March 3 , and March 4 , 2011 . The episode features a guest appearance by Puerto Rican @-@ American composer and singer Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda . The episode marks the introduction of the Pritchett 's new dog , a French Bulldog played by Brigette . According to Rico Rodriguez , who plays Manny on the show , " She 'll probably be in the last three episodes of the season and then in multiple episodes next year [ ... ] [ She ] has fit in very well " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on May 11 , 2011 , " Good Cop Bad Dog " was viewed by an estimated 10 @.@ 113 million households and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked an 8 percent rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Mother 's Day " . In its timeslot , " Good Cop Bad Dog " was outperformed by Fox reality television series , American Idol which received a 6 @.@ 9 rating / 20 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . However the series defeated CBS crime drama Criminal Minds which received a 3 @.@ 1 rating / 8 % share , a rerun of NBC reality series , Minute to Win It which received a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 2 % share and The CW reality series , America 's Next Top Model with received a 0 @.@ 8 rating / 2 % share . " Good Cop Bad Dog " was the most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 , and the twenty @-@ third most @-@ watched show among all viewers . Added with the DVR viewers , the episode received a 6 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 2 @.@ 2 rating to the original viewership .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics with many commenting on Ty Burrell 's performance .
Entertainment Weekly writer Leseley Savage praised the episode 's theme commenting that " while tonight 's theme of switching roles definitely wasn 't subtle , it was still clever . " She named Burrell the " MVP " saying that " When he jumped onto the roof of their car , I nearly died " .
The A.V. Club 's Donna Bowman wrote that the episode showed " flashes of brilliance in this half hour that were equally due to the situations set up by the writers and to the talents of the cast " . Despite the mainly positive review , she criticized the Mitchell and Cameron plot for not having " much warmth " . She ultimately gave the episode a B + while readers of the article gave it a B.
New York writer Rachael Maddux praised the episode for " revealing new sides of several personalities " commenting that " our favorite moments over the last twenty @-@ something Modern Family episodes have almost entirely involved learning something new about these characters " .
CNN reviewer Henry Hanks wrote , " Wednesday night 's Modern Family was an example of the series at the top of its game . " He also called Burrell the " this week 's MVP " .
TV Squad writer Joel Keller praised Phil and Claire 's plot for recycling a standard television trope while still having " the biggest laughs " . Keller criticized the Mitchell and Cam subplot " because Cam 's personality was tamped down by sickness " and later wrote , " Yes , I just said you can rehash stuff if done well . This one wasn 't done well . "
Not all reviews were positive . Christine Ziemba of Paste called the episode " uneven " , but wrote that " it still had its moments " . She praised Ty Burrell 's performance calling him " the episode ’ s scene stealer " . She ultimately gave the episode a 6 @.@ 9 / 10 calling it " respectable " .
Sam Morgan of Hollywood.com complimented the writers for attempting to write a " classic MF episode " but concluded , " It had some very funny bits , but that heart it searched far and wide for just wasn ’ t there " .
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= Spanish general election , 1936 =
Legislative elections were held in Spain on 16 February 1936 . At stake were all 473 seats in the unicameral Cortes Generales . The winners of the 1936 elections were the Popular Front , a left @-@ wing coalition of the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( PSOE ) , Republican Left ( Spain ) ( IR ) , Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya ( ERC ) , Republican Union Party ( UR ) , Communist Party ( PCE ) , Acció Catalana ( AC ) and other parties . They commanded a narrow lead in terms of the popular vote , but a significant lead over the main opposition party , Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right ( CEDA ) , of the political right in terms of seats . The election had been prompted by a collapse of a government led by Alejandro Lerroux , and his Radical Republican Party . Manuel Azaña would replace Manuel Portela Valladares , caretaker , as prime minister , after what were widely considered fair elections – although limited cases of electoral fraud did occur . They were the last of three elections held during the Spanish Second Republic , coming three years after the 1933 general election which had brought the first of Lerroux 's governments to power . The poor result for the political right would help bring about the July coup , and the ensuing civil war . The right @-@ wing military coup initiated by Generals Sanjurjo and Franco ultimately brought about the end of parliamentary democracy in Spain until the 1977 general election .
= = Background = =
After the 1933 election , the Radical Republican Party ( RRP ) lead a series of governments , with Alejandro Lerroux as a moderate Prime Minister . On 26 September 1935 , the CEDA announced it would no longer support the RRP 's minority government ; it was replaced by a RRP cabinet , led by Lerroux once more , that included three members of the CEDA . The concession of posts to CEDA prompted the Asturian miners ' strike of 1934 . Some time later , Robles once again prompted a cabinet collapse , and five members of Lerroux 's new government were conceded to CEDA , including Robles himself . Since the 1933 elections , farm workers ' wages had been halved , and the military purged of republican members and reformed ; those loyal to Robles had been promoted . However , since CEDA 's entry into the government , no constitutional amendments were ever made ; no budget was ever passed .
In 1935 , Manuel Azaña Díaz and Indalecio Prieto started to unify the left , and combat its extreme elements , including the staging of large , popular rallies , in what would become the Popular Front . Lerroux 's Radical government collapsed after two significant scandals , including the Straperlo affair . However , president Niceto Alcalá Zamora did not allow the CEDA to form a government , and called elections . Zamora had become disenchanted with Robles 's obvious desire to do away with the republic and establish a corporate state , and his air of pride . He was looking to strengthen a new centre party in place of the Radicals , but the election system did not favour this . Portela Valladares was thus chosen to form a caretaker government in the meantime . The Republic had , as its opponents pointed out , faced twenty @-@ six separate government crises . Portela failed to get the required support in the parliament to rule as a majority . The government was dissolved on 4 January ; the date for elections would be 16 February .
In common with the 1933 election , Spain was divided into multi @-@ member constituencies ; for example , Madrid had 17 representatives . However , each member of the electorate could vote for somewhat less than that – in Madrid 's case , 13 . This favoured coalitions , as in Madrid in 1933 when the Socialists won 13 members and the right , with only 5 @,@ 000 votes less , secured only the remaining 4 .
= = Election = =
The campaigning for the election was generally in accordance with the law and peaceful , with few problems . Certain press restrictions were lifted . The political right repeatedly warned of the risk of a ' red flag ' – communism – over Spain ; the Radical Republican Party , led by Lerroux , concentrated on besmirching the Centre Party . CEDA , which continued to be the main party of the political right , struggled to gain the support of the monarchists , but managed to . Posters , however , had a distinctly fascist appeal , showing leader Gil @-@ Robles alongside various autocratic slogans . Whilst few campaign promises were made , a return to autocratic government was implied . Funded by considerable donations from large landowners , industrialists and the Catholic Church – which had suffered under the previous Socialist administration – the Right printed millions of leaflets , promising a ' great Spain ' . In terms of manifesto , the Popular Front proposed going back to the sort of reforms its previous administration , including important agrarian reforms , and those to do with the treatment of strikes . It would also release political prisoners , helping to secure the votes of the CNT and FAI , although as organisations they remained outside the growing Popular Front ; the Popular Front had the support of votes from anarchists . The Communist Party campaigned under a series of revolutionary slogans ; however , they were strongly supportive of the Popular Front government . " Vote Communist to save Spain from Marxism " was a Socialist joke at the time . Devoid of strong areas of working class support , already taken by syndicalism and anarchism , they concentrated on their position within the Popular Front .
34 @,@ 000 members of the Civil Guards and 17 @,@ 000 Assault Guards enforced security on election day , many freed from their regular posts by the carabineros . Six people were killed during the elections , and perhaps another 30 injured . Ballots were generally fair and in accordance with the 1931 constitution , although three cases of electoral fraud occurred . The first was in Galicia , in north @-@ west Spain , and orchestrated by the incumbent government ; there also , in A Coruña , by the political left . The voting in Granada was forcibly ( and unfairly ) dominated by the government . In some villages , the police stopped anyone not wearing a collar from voting . Wherever the Socialists were poorly organised , farm workers continued to vote how they were told by their bosses or caciques . Similarly , some right @-@ wing voters were put off from voting in strongly socialist areas . However , such instances were comparatively rare . The first results to be released , in the evening of the 14 , from urban areas , were encouraging for the Popular Front .
= = Outcome = =
Just under 10 million people voted , with an abstention rate of 28 percent , a level of apathy higher than might be suggested by the ongoing political violence . A small number of coerced voters and anarchists formed part of the abstainers . The elections of 1936 were narrowly won by the Popular Front , with vastly smaller resources than the political right , who followed Nazi propaganda techniques . The exact numbers of votes differ among historians ; Brenan assigns the Popular Front 4 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 votes , the Right around 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and the centre 450 @,@ 000 . It was a comparatively narrow victory in terms of votes , but Paul Preston describes it as a ' triumph of power in the Cortes ' – the Popular Front won 267 deputies and the Right only 132 , and the imbalance caused by the nature of Spain 's electoral system since the 1932 election law came into force . The same system had benefited the political right in 1933 . The political centre did badly . Lerroux 's Radicals , incumbent until his government 's collapse , were electorally devastated ; many of their supporters had been pushed to the right by the increasing instability in Spain . Portela Valladares had formed the Centre Party , but had not had time to build it up . Worried about the problems of a minority party losing out due to the electoral system , he made a pact with the right , but this was not enough to ensure success . Leaders of the centre , Lerroux , Cambó and Melquíades Álvarez , failed to win seats . The Falangist party , under José Antonio Primo de Rivera received only 46 @,@ 000 votes , a very small fraction of the total cast . This seemed to show little appetite for a takeover of that sort . The allocation of seats between coalition members was a matter of agreement between them . The official results ( Spanish : escrutinio ) were recorded on 20 February . The Basque Party , who had not at the time of the election been part of the Popular Front , would go on to join it . In 20 seats , no alliance or party had secured 40 % of the vote ; 17 were decided by a second vote on 3 March . In these runoffs , the Popular Front won 8 , the Basques 5 , the Right 5 and the Centre 2 . In May , elections were reheld in two areas of Granada where the new government alleged there had been fraud ; both seats were taken from the national Right victory in February by the Left .
Despite a relatively small mandate in terms of votes , some socialists took to the streets to free political prisoners , without waiting for the government to do so officially . There were claims of an imminent socialist or anarchist takeover . The right had firmly believed , at all levels , that they would win . Portela would , a year later , claim that Gil @-@ Robles and General Francisco Franco had approached him within days to the election to propose a military takeover . Portela resigned , even before a new government could be formed . However , the Popular Front , which had proved an effective election tool , did not translate into a Popular Front government . Largo Caballero and other elements of the political left were not prepared to work with the republicans , although they did agree to support much of the proposed reforms . Manuel Azaña Díaz was called upon to form a government , but would shortly replace Zamora as president . The right began to conspire as to how to best overthrow the republic , rather than taking control of it .
= = Results = =
= = = Seats = = =
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= USS Portland ( CA @-@ 33 ) =
USS Portland ( CL / CA – 33 ) , the lead ship of her class of cruiser , was the first ship of the United States Navy named after the city of Portland , Maine . Launched in 1932 , she saw a number of training and goodwill cruises in the interwar period . In World War II , she saw extensive service beginning at the 1942 Battle of Coral Sea , where she escorted the aircraft carrier Yorktown and picked up survivors from the sunken carrier Lexington . She screened for Yorktown again in the Battle of Midway , picking up her survivors as well . She then supported the carrier Enterprise during the initial phase of the Guadalcanal Campaign later that year , and was torpedoed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . The torpedo inflicted heavy damage which put her out of action for six months as she was repaired in Sydney , Australia and later San Diego , California .
Returning to action in mid @-@ 1943 , she saw action in many of the major campaigns of the Pacific War , conducting shore bombardments in support of campaigns at the Aleutian Islands , Gilbert and Marshall Islands , Mariana Islands , and New Guinea . She was involved in the October 1944 Battle of Leyte Gulf , engaging Japanese ships in the decisive Battle of Surigao Strait . She then conducted shore bombardments at Lingayen Gulf and Corregidor Island , and in 1945 supported landings during the Battle of Okinawa until the end of the war .
Following World War II , Portland accepted the Japanese surrender in the Caroline Islands and then undertook several Operation Magic Carpet cruises to bring U.S. troops home . She was decommissioned in 1946 and scrapped by 1962 . In her extensive service she accrued 16 battle stars , making her one of the most decorated ships in the U.S. fleet .
= = Design and construction = =
Portland was the lead ship of the third class of " treaty cruisers " to be constructed by the United States Navy following the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , following the two vessels of the Pensacola @-@ class ordered in 1926 and the six vessels of the Northampton @-@ class ordered in 1927 . Ordered for the U.S. Navy in Fiscal Year 1930 . Portland was originally designated as a light cruiser , because of her thin armor , and given the hull classification symbol CL @-@ 33 . She was reclassified a heavy cruiser , because of her 8 @-@ inch guns , with the symbol CA @-@ 33 on 1 July 1931 , in accordance with the London Naval Treaty .
Portland was designed for a standard displacement of 10 @,@ 258 long tons ( 10 @,@ 423 t ) , and a full @-@ load displacement of 12 @,@ 755 long tons ( 12 @,@ 960 t ) . However , Portland only displaced 9 @,@ 800 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) when completed . In 1943 , a light tripod was added forward of the second funnel on the ship , and a prominent fire @-@ control director was installed aft .
Her four Parsons GT geared turbines each drove a propeller shaft using steam provided by eight Yarrow boilers . Portland 's power plant generated 107 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 80 @,@ 000 kW ) and she had a designed maximum speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . The ship reached , however , 32 @.@ 7 knots ( 60 @.@ 6 km / h ; 37 @.@ 6 mph ) on sea trials . She rolled badly until fitted with bilge keels . Portland was designed for a range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of nine Mark 9 8 " / 55 caliber guns arrayed in three triple mounts , a superfiring pair forward and one aft . She was armed with eight 5 " / 25 caliber guns for anti @-@ aircraft defense , and she also had two QF 3 pounder Hotchkiss saluting guns . In 1945 , her anti @-@ aircraft defenses were upgraded , receiving twenty four Bofors 40 mm guns which were arranged in four quad mounts and four twin mounts . Portland was also upgraded with seventeen Oerlikon 20 mm cannons .
She was originally designed with 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of armor for deck and side protection , but during construction her armor was increased . As completed , the ship was protected with 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 83 mm ) of belt armor which increased to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) around the magazines . Her armor was between 2 inches ( 51 mm ) and 5 @.@ 75 inches ( 146 mm ) thick on the transverse bulkheads , while armor on her main deck was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick . Armor on her barbettes was 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick , armor on her gunhouses was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick , and armor on her conning tower was 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) thick .
Additionally , the Portland @-@ class cruisers were designed with space to be outfitted as fleet flagships , with accommodations for an Admiral and his staff to operate . The class also featured two aircraft catapult amidships , and she could carry four aircraft which were stored in a hangar . Her total crew complement varied , with a regular designed crew complement of 848 , a wartime complement of 952 , and a complement 1 @,@ 229 when the cruiser was operating as a fleet flagship .
Portland was laid down by Bethlehem Steel at its Quincy Shipyard on 17 February 1930 . The machinery was provided by the builders . Portland was launched on 21 May 1932 and commissioned on 23 February 1933 . She was the first ship named for the city of Portland , Maine , and sponsored by the daughter of Ralph D. Brooks of Portland , and with Captain Herbert F. Leary as her first commander . Her sailors would later nickname her " Sweet Pea . "
= = Service history = =
Departing Boston on 1 April 1933 , the cruiser arrived Gravesend Bay , New York late in the day on 3 April . The next evening , she was dispatched on her first assignment to the scene of the airship Akron , which had crashed at sea . Thirty six minutes after receiving the message , she was underway and on route to the crash site . She was the first naval vessel on scene , and began coordinating the search and rescue effort with other ships arriving . In spite of her efforts , 73 were killed in the crash , including Admiral William Moffett , Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics .
Portland steamed from San Diego , California on 2 October 1935 along with Houston , which was carrying President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The president spent much of his trip fishing with his party . After visiting Panama and several other ports , the two ships steamed to Charleston , South Carolina , where the President disembarked . Portland spent the remainder of the interwar era with the Scouting Force , Cruiser Division 5 and later in the United States Pacific Fleet conducting peacetime training and a number of goodwill missions . She crossed the equator for the first time on 20 May 1936 during fleet maneuvers .
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , Portland was two days away , en route to Midway Atoll as part of a carrier group escorting aircraft carrier Lexington . From December 1941 to 1 May 1942 , she operated between the West Coast , Hawaii , and Fiji on patrol .
= = = Battle of Coral Sea = = =
Portland joined Task Force 17 ( TF 17 ) , commanded by Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher and centered around the carrier Yorktown escorted by Portland as well as cruisers Astoria and Chester plus the destroyers Hammann , Anderson , Perkins , Morris , Russell , and Sims and oiler Neosho and Tippecanoe . TF 17 departed Tongatabu on 27 April en route to the Coral Sea . On the morning of 1 May , TF 17 joined with Task Force 11 ( TF 11 ) about 300 nmi ( 350 mi ; 560 km ) northwest of New Caledonia . TF 17 completed refueling the next day , but TF 11 reported that they would not be finished fueling until 4 May . Fletcher elected to take TF 17 northwest towards the Louisiades .
At 17 : 00 on 3 May , Fletcher was notified that a force of Japanese troops had been sighted at Tulagi the day before , approaching the southern Solomons . TF 17 changed course and proceeded at 27 kn ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) towards Guadalcanal to launch airstrikes against the Japanese forces at Tulagi the next morning . On 4 May , from a position 100 nmi ( 120 mi ; 190 km ) south of Guadalcanal ( 11 ° 10 ′ S 158 ° 49 ′ E ) , TF 17 launched airstrikes against Japanese forces off Tulagi After recovering its aircraft late in the evening of 4 May , TF17 retired towards the south . The next morning , TF 17 rendezvoused with TF 11 and Task Force 44 ( TF 44 ) at a predetermined point 320 nmi ( 370 mi ; 590 km ) south of Guadalcanal ( 15 ° S 160 ° E ) . Prompted by reports the Japanese would attack Port Moresby , the force moved to the Louisiades to engage the Japanese the next day . Portland was assigned to Task Group 17 @.@ 2 under Rear Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid together with cruisers Minneapolis , New Orleans , Astoria , Chester , and five destroyers from Destroyer Squadron One . She screened for Yorktown throughout the operation , including during Japanese air attacks on the two carriers on 8 May . Following the battle , she was to escort the damaged Lexington , but after fires on that carrier became uncontrollable she was abandoned and sunk . Portland took on 722 of her survivors . She suffered no casualties herself , though at least four of her sailors were transferred to the Neosho shortly before the battle and were lost when that ship was sunk .
= = = Battle of Midway = = =
After brief repairs at Tongatabu , Portland took on a new commander , Captain Laurence DuBose . She then steamed for Pearl Harbor escorting Yorktown , before heading to Midway Atoll to set a trap for Japanese forces attacking there . On 4 June , after Dive @-@ Bombers from carriers Yorktown and Enterprise had sunk three Japanese carriers , aircraft from Japanese carrier Hiryū responded with an attack on Yorktown that afternoon . Portland was to her port , providing anti @-@ aircraft defense along with cruisers Pensacola and Vincennes . A Japanese air attack came at 14 : 00 and another after 16 : 30 , and Yorktown was struck several times with torpedoes . With increasing damage , the carrier was abandoned and its survivors picked up by five destroyers and then transferred to Portland . In all , 2 @,@ 046 of Yorktown 's crew transferred to the cruiser . She then steamed toward Pearl Harbor and met the submarine tender Fulton and transferred the Yorktown survivors aboard her on 6 June . During 7 June she searched for downed naval aviators and the next day joined the group of carrier Saratoga . They steamed for the Aleutian Islands to counter a Japanese force there but were recalled to Pearl Harbor two days later .
= = = Guadalcanal campaign = = =
Portland accompanied the invasion fleet to Guadalcanal , escorting Enterprise . She remained off the coast protecting the landings at Tulagi and Guadalcanal from 7 – 9 August . In this duty , she missed the Battle of Savo Island and withdrew two days later following Enterprise . She then remained in the area to support the Guadalcanal operations and to protect communications lines for the attacking forces .
Remaining with Enterprise , she later participated in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons . On 24 August she was posted to air defense to the port of Enterprise , and though she and her sisters were able to down a number of Japanese aircraft , the carrier was hit at 18 : 34 . She continued to protect the carrier through 25 August , when Allied forces prevented reinforcement of Japanese units in the Solomons by a large naval armada under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto . Following the battle she escorted Enterprise to Pearl Harbor and was then ordered on a secret mission to the Gilbert Islands to conduct a raid on Tarawa with light cruiser San Juan . She took aboard Rear Admiral Mahlon S. Tisdale and was designated Task Unit 16 @.@ 9 @.@ 1 . Between 14 : 10 and 14 : 51 on 15 October she attacked Japanese ships near the island , damaging a transport and a destroyer and suffering one damaged aircraft before she withdrew and rejoined the Enterprise task group near the Solomons .
She then steamed south to take part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands as one of the escorts for Enterprise . The carrier came under heavy air attack at 10 : 12 on 24 October , and Portland suffered her first wartime damage as one of her 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 mm ) guns exploded in firing and again when one of her AA guns depressed too low and damaged the splinter shield , injuring 19 officers and enlisted men . In heavy fighting Enterprise was hit once but Portland and the task group shot down several aircraft . At 11 : 53 the bridge lost control of steering , and before it could regain control , a Japanese submarine was spotted . The submarine struck Portland with three torpedoes , but all three did not detonate , likely because the submarine had fired too close and they had no time to arm .
Two weeks later , she participated in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal from 12 – 15 November , which resulted in heavy damage to both forces but broke up the determined Japanese effort to disrupt the landing of 6 @,@ 000 American troops on Guadalcanal , to bombard Henderson Field , and to land 7 @,@ 000 reinforcements of their own . At the outbreak of the battle , Portland was escorting a convoy traveling to Guadalcanal from New Caledonia as part of Task Force 67 . After a four @-@ day journey they arrived and began to offload supplies on 12 November and were countered by a Japanese air attack of 46 aircraft . That night , she was among a force of five cruisers and eight destroyers under Daniel J. Callaghan which steamed to counter an approaching Japanese force . They spotted a Japanese force of two battleships , one cruiser and eleven destroyers and immediately opened fire , sinking the Japanese destroyer Akatsuki . Shortly thereafter , Portland was struck by a torpedo fired by either the destroyer Inazuma or the destroyer Ikazuchi at 01 : 58 , causing heavy damage to her stern . The torpedo struck the starboard side , which blew off both inboard propellers , jammed the rudder five degrees to starboard , and jammed her Number Three turret in train and elevation . A four degree list was quickly corrected by shifting ballast , but the steering problem could not be overcome and the ship was forced to steam in circles to starboard . The blast disrupted her steering column , forcing her to steer in a circle . At the end of her first circle , she fired on Japanese battleship Hiei , with her forward turrets . The Japanese ship returned fire , but all salvos passed over the cruiser . In the four six @-@ gun salvos returned by Portland , she succeeded in starting fires in the Japanese ship . At dawn , she was one of three U.S. ships still too damaged to withdraw on her own power . Then again at 06 : 30 , still circling , Portland opened fire on the abandoned hulk of Japanese destroyer Yudachi at a range of 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . After the sixth salvo , Yudachi exploded , rolled over , and sank within five minutes . She was eventually able to correct the steering problem and withdraw on her own power . She later received a Meritorious Unit Commendation for her actions in the battle . She suffered 18 killed , 17 wounded in the battle .
With the assistance of Higgins boats , a YP , and a tug , Portland anchored at Tulagi on 14 November . From there , she was towed to Sydney , Australia by the tugboat Navajo and escorted by the destroyers Meade and Zane for preliminary repairs prior to overhaul in the United States . She arrived at Sydney 30 November but did not enter drydock until 24 December after Chester and New Orleans were repaired . During this time the crew was given extended shore leave . Two of the ship 's sailors died in accidents during this leave . She left Australia after preliminary repairs , escorted by destroyer HMAS Warramunga . Following short stops at Samoa and Pearl Harbor , the ship arrived at Mare Island Navy Yard on 3 March 1943 .
= = = 1943 – 1944 = = =
After operational training in southern Californian waters , Portland steamed for the Aleutians late in May , arriving on 11 June and bombarding Kiska on 26 July . After covering a reconnaissance landing on Little Kiska on 17 August , she called at Pearl Harbor on 23 September , there to San Francisco in early October , then back to Pearl Harbor in mid @-@ October . From November 1943 to February 1944 , Portland participated in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaigns . She bombarded Tarawa on 20 November supporting landings there for several days . She was lightly damaged by a friendly depth charge when a nearby destroyer erroneously detected a Japanese submarine . In December 1943 she moved to the Marshall Islands escorting the new Essex @-@ class carrier Lexington . While Lexington came under air attack , none of the Japanese planes came within range of Portland and she did not open fire . She returned to Pearl Harbor on 25 December , and went into drydock to repair her rudder and propellers .
After repairs , she joined Task Group 51 under Rear Admiral Harry W. Hill for an attack on Darrit , steaming for that island on 23 January and arriving 30 January . After shelling the island for 30 minutes , it was discovered no Japanese were ashore . She then moved to support operations on Eniwetok Atoll on 8 February , providing shore bombardment on Parry Island ahead of landings which took place on 19 February . She then screened carriers conducting airstrikes at Palau , Yap , Ulithi , and Woleai between 30 March and 1 April . She then joined with a carrier force assigned to cover the landings around Hollandia and Tanahmerah on New Guinea , which took place from 21 – 24 April . She steamed northward with the carrier force and struck Truk with five other cruisers and destroyers . Portland then bombarded Satawan in the Nomei Group . Following this series of operations , Portland returned to Mare Island for a more extensive overhaul , which was completed in August . She returned to the western Pacific for shore bombardments of Peleliu from 12 – 14 September . The cruiser supported the landing on Peleliu on 15 September , providing artillery to support the advance of Allied forces . She provided gunfire support at Peleliu through 29 September , and then steamed for Seeadler Harbor , Manus Island in the Admiralties .
= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =
Portland next joined Cruiser Division 4 for the next major campaign against the Philippines . She arrived off Leyte on 17 October , entering the Gulf the next day , and began two days of shore bombardments to prepare for the troop landings there . On the night of 24 October , a strong Japanese force consisting of two battleships , one heavy cruiser , and four destroyers headed for Surigao Strait with the apparent intent of raiding shipping in Leyte Gulf . The Japanese force advanced in rough column up the narrow strait during darkness , but was met with a large U.S. force of cruisers , destroyers and battleships , including Portland . She and her sisters steamed across the top of the strait , crossing the T of the Japanese force . The Japanese were first met by PT boats , then in succession by three coordinated destroyer torpedo attacks , and finally by devastating gunfire from American battleships and cruisers disposed across the northern end of the strait . Portland took the Japanese cruiser Mogami under fire , scoring three hits on her at 04 : 02 , striking the compass platform and AA defense center . She continued firing on the Mogami for ten minutes She continued to fire on the stranded Mogami until 05 : 30 , striking several hits , including on the ship 's bridge . The Battle of Surigao Strait was a decisive defeat for the Japanese force , with most of its ships being destroyed .
= = = 1945 = = =
From 3 January to 1 March 1945 , Portland participated in the operations at Lingayen Gulf and Corregidor . Arriving off Lingayen Gulf on 5 January , and bombarding the vicinity of Cape Bolinao , she entered the Gulf the same day and commenced bombardment of the eastern shore but discontinued immediately when a large wave of Japanese kamikaze planes approached . Portland entered Manila Bay on 15 February , and bombarded the south shore of Corregidor in preparation for landings there . She returned to Leyte Gulf on 1 March for repairs and replenishment , having seen five months of continuous action .
From 26 March to 20 April , she conducted shore bombardments of Okinawa in support of the Allied landings during the Okinawa campaign . Portland endured twenty @-@ four air raids , shot down four Japanese aircraft , and assisted in downing two others . From 8 May to 17 June , she supported ground forces on Okinawa providing artillery support for ground forces , departing on 17 June for maintenance at Leyte before returning to Buckner Bay on 6 August , where she remained conducting shore bombardments until the end of the war .
= = Post @-@ war = =
With the termination of hostilities , Portland was designated flagship of Vice Admiral George D. Murray , Commander Mariana Islands , who was to accept the surrender of the Carolines . The ship steamed to Truk Atoll and there Murray , acting for Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz , accepted the formal capitulation of the senior Japanese military and civilian officials in ceremonies aboard Portland . She was then selected for Operation Magic Carpet duty , and returned to Pearl Harbor from 21 – 24 September embarking 600 troops for transportation to the United States . She crossed the Panama Canal on 8 October and arrived at Portland , Maine for Navy Day celebrations on 27 October . She then conducted two trans @-@ Atlantic crossings in November and December , bringing troops home from the European Theater . She reported on 11 March 1946 to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for inactivation and assignment to the Reserve Fleet . She decommissioned at Philadelphia Navy Yard on 12 July 1946 and was maintained in the United States Reserve Fleet . While she was identified as one of the few ships that fought through the entire war and not missed any major battle , no attempt was made to save her as a museum ship at either Portland Maine , or Portland Oregon . She was struck from the Navy List on 1 March 1959 and sold to Union Minerals and Alloys Corp. in New York on 6 October . She was scrapped at Wainwright Shipyard in Panama City , Florida during 1961 and 1962 .
Her tripod mast was preserved at Fort Allen Park , Portland . She received 16 battle stars for World War II service , making her among the most decorated US ships of World War II .
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= Battle of Shiloh =
The Battle of Shiloh , also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing , was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War , fought April 6 – 7 , 1862 , in southwestern Tennessee . A Union army under Major General Ulysses S. Grant had moved via the Tennessee River deep into Tennessee and was encamped principally at Pittsburg Landing , Tennessee on the west bank of the river , where Confederate forces under Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and Pierre G. T. Beauregard launched a surprise attack on Grant 's army . Johnston was killed in action during the fighting ; Beauregard , who thus succeeded to command of the army , decided against pressing the attack late in the evening . Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell . This allowed them to launch an unexpected counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day .
On April 6 , the first day of the battle , the Confederates struck with the intention of driving the Union defenders away from the river and into the swamps of Owl Creek to the west . Johnston hoped to defeat Grant 's Army of the Tennessee before the anticipated arrival of General Don Carlos Buell 's Army of the Ohio . The Confederate battle lines became confused during the fierce fighting , and Grant 's men instead fell back to the northeast , in the direction of Pittsburg Landing . A Union position on a slightly sunken road , nicknamed the " Hornet 's Nest , " defended by the men of Brig. Gens . Benjamin M. Prentiss 's and William H. L. Wallace 's divisions , provided critical time for the remainder of the Union line to stabilize under the protection of numerous artillery batteries . Wallace was mortally wounded when the position collapsed , while several regiments from the two divisions were eventually surrounded and surrendered . General Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death while personally leading an attack . Beauregard , his second in command , acknowledged how tired the army was from the day 's exertions and decided against assaulting the final Union position that night .
Tired but unfought and well @-@ organized men from Buell 's army and a division of Grant 's army arrived in the evening of April 6 and helped turn the tide the next morning , when the Union commanders launched a counterattack along the entire line . Confederate forces were forced to retreat from the area , ending their hopes of blocking the Union advance into northern Mississippi . The Battle of Shiloh was the bloodiest battle in American history up to that time , although it was superseded the next year by the Battle of Chancellorsville and , soon after , the three @-@ day Battle of Gettysburg , which would prove to be the bloodiest of the war .
= = Background and plans = =
= = = Military situation = = =
After the losses of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in February 1862 , Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston withdrew his forces into western Tennessee , northern Mississippi , and Alabama to reorganize . Johnston established his base at Corinth , Mississippi , the site of a major railroad junction and strategic transportation link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River , but left the Union troops with access into southern Tennessee and points farther south via the Tennessee River .
In early March , Union Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck , then commander of the Department of the Missouri , ordered Grant to remain at Fort Henry , and on March 4 turned field command of the expedition over to a subordinate , Brig. Gen. C. F. Smith , who had recently been nominated as a major general . ( Various writers assert that Halleck took this step because of professional and personal animosity toward Grant ; however , Halleck shortly restored Grant to full command , perhaps influenced by an inquiry from President Abraham Lincoln . ) Smith 's orders were to lead raids intended to capture or damage the railroads in southwestern Tennessee . Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman 's troops arrived from Paducah , Kentucky , to conduct a similar mission to break the railroads near Eastport , Mississippi . Halleck also ordered Grant to advance his Army of West Tennessee ( soon to be known by its more famous name , the Army of the Tennessee ) on an invasion up the Tennessee River . Grant left Fort Henry and headed upriver ( south ) , arriving at Savannah , Tennessee , on March 14 , and established his headquarters on the east bank of the river . Grant 's troops set up camp farther upriver : five divisions at Pittsburg Landing , Tennessee , and a sixth at Crump 's Landing , four miles from Grant 's headquarters .
Meanwhile , Halleck 's command was enlarged through consolidation of Grant 's and Buell 's armies and renamed the Department of the Mississippi . With Buell 's Army of the Ohio under his command , Halleck ordered Buell to concentrate with Grant at Savannah . Buell began a march with much of his army from Nashville , Tennessee , and headed southwest toward Savannah . Halleck intended to take the field in person and lead both armies in an advance south to seize Corinth , Mississippi , where the Mobile and Ohio Railroad linking Mobile , Alabama , to the Ohio River intersected the Memphis and Charleston Railroad . The railroad was a vital supply line connecting the Mississippi River at Memphis , Tennessee to Richmond , Virginia .
= = Opposing forces and initial movements = =
= = = Union = = =
Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 's Army of the Tennessee of 44 @,@ 895 men consisted of six divisions :
1st Division ( Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand ) : 3 brigades ;
2nd Division ( Maj. Gen. W. H. L. Wallace ) : 3 brigades ;
3rd Division ( Maj. Gen. Lew Wallace ) : 3 brigades ;
4th Division ( Brig. Gen. Stephen A. Hurlbut ) : 3 brigades ;
5th Division ( Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman ) : 4 brigades ;
6th Division ( Brig. Gen. Benjamin M. Prentiss ) : 2 brigades ;
Of the six divisions encamped on the western side of the Tennessee River in early April , only Lew Wallace 's 3rd Division was at Crump 's Landing ; the remainder were farther south ( upriver ) at Pittsburg Landing . Grant developed a reputation during the war for being more concerned with his own plans than with those of the enemy . His encampment at Pittsburg Landing displayed his most consequential lack of such concern — his army was spread out in bivouac style , with many of his men surrounding a small , log meetinghouse named Shiloh Church ( Shiloh is a Hebrew word meaning " place of peace " ) , passing the time waiting for Buell 's army with drills for his many raw troops , without establishing entrenchments or other significant defensive measures .
In his memoirs , Grant reacted to criticism of his lack of entrenchments : " Besides this , the troops with me , officers and men , needed discipline and drill more than they did experience with the pick , shovel and axe . ... under all these circumstances I concluded that drill and discipline were worth more to our men than fortifications . " Lew Wallace 's division was 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) downstream ( north ) from Pittsburg Landing , at Crump 's Landing , a position intended to prevent the placement of Confederate river batteries , to protect the road connecting Crump 's Landing to Bethel Station , Tennessee , and to guard the Union army 's right flank . In addition , Wallace 's troops could strike the railroad line connecting Bethel Station to Corinth , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the south .
The portion of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell 's Army of the Ohio that was engaged in the battle consisted of four divisions :
2nd Division ( Brig. Gen. Alexander M. McCook ) : 3 brigades ;
4th Division ( Brig. Gen. William " Bull " Nelson ) : 3 brigades ;
5th Division ( Brig. Gen. Thomas L. Crittenden ) : 2 brigades ;
6th Division ( Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood ) : 2 brigades ;
On April 5 , the eve of battle , the first of Buell 's divisions , under the command of Brig. Gen. William " Bull " Nelson , reached Savannah . Grant instructed Nelson to encamp there instead of immediately crossing the river . The remainder of Buell 's army , still marching toward Savannah with only portions of four of his divisions , totaling 17 @,@ 918 men , did not reach the area in time to have a significant role in the battle until its second day . Buell 's three other divisions were led by Brig. Gens . Alexander M. McCook , Thomas L. Crittenden , and Thomas J. Wood . ( Wood 's division appeared too late even to be of much service on the second day . )
= = = Confederate = = =
On the Confederate side , Johnston named his newly assembled force the Army of Mississippi . He concentrated almost 55 @,@ 000 men around Corinth , Mississippi , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) southwest of Grant 's troops at Pittsburg Landing . Of these men , 40 @,@ 335 departed from Corinth on April 3 , hoping to surprise Grant before Buell arrived to join forces . They were organized into four large corps , commanded by :
I Corps ( Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk ) , with 2 divisions under Brig. Gen. Charles Clark and Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Cheatham ;
II Corps ( Maj. Gen. Braxton Bragg ) , with 2 divisions under Brig. Gens . Daniel Ruggles and Jones M. Withers ;
III Corps ( Maj. Gen. William J. Hardee ) , with 3 brigades under Brig. Gens . Thomas C. Hindman , Patrick Cleburne , and Sterling A. M. Wood ;
Reserve Corps ( Brig. Gen. John C. Breckinridge ) , with 3 brigades under Cols . Robert Trabue and Winfield S. Statham , and Brig. Gen. John S. Bowen , and attached cavalry ;
= = = Comparison between Union and Confederate armies = = =
On the eve of battle , Grant 's and Johnston 's armies were of comparable size , but the Confederates were poorly armed with antique weapons , including shotguns , hunting rifles , pistols , flintlock muskets , and even a few pikes ; however , some regiments , notably the 6th and 7th Kentucky Infantry , had Enfield rifles . The troops approached the battle with very little combat experience ; Braxton Bragg 's men from Pensacola and Mobile were the best trained . Grant 's army included 32 out of 62 infantry regiments who had combat experience at Fort Donelson . One half of his artillery batteries and most of his cavalry were also combat veterans .
= = = Johnston 's plan = = =
Johnston 's plan was to attack Grant 's left , separate the Union army from its gunboat support and avenue of retreat on the Tennessee River , and drive it west into the swamps of Snake and Owl Creeks , where it could be destroyed . The attack on Grant was originally planned for April 4 , but it was delayed forty @-@ eight hours due to heavy rain . As a result , Johnston 's second in command , P. G. T. Beauregard , again feared that the element of surprise had been lost and recommended withdrawing to Corinth . But Johnston once more refused to consider retreat . Beauregard was concerned that the sounds of marching and the Confederate soldiers test @-@ firing their rifles after two days of rain had cost them the element of surprise . Beauregard urged Johnston not to attack Grant .
Johnston , who refused to accept Beauregard 's advice , made the decision to attack and then remarked , " I would fight them if they were a million . " Despite Beauregard 's well @-@ founded concern , most of the Union forces did not hear the marching army approach and were unaware of the enemy camps less than 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away .
= = Battle , April 6 ( first day : Confederate assault ) = =
= = = Early morning attack = = =
Before 6 a.m. on Sunday , April 6 , Johnston 's army was deployed for battle , straddling the Corinth Road . The army had spent the entire night bivouacking in order of battle within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the Union camp near Sherman 's headquarters at Shiloh Church . Their approach and dawn assault achieved a strategic and tactical surprise . The Union army had sent out no scouts or regular patrols and did not have any vedettes in place for early warning . Grant telegraphed a message to Halleck on the night of April 5 , " I have scarcely the faintest idea of an attack ( general one ) being made upon us , but will be prepared should such a thing take place . " Grant 's declaration proved to be overstated . Sherman , the informal camp commander at Pittsburg Landing , did not believe the Confederates had a major assault force nearby ; he discounted the possibility of an attack from the south . Sherman expected that Johnston would eventually attack from the direction of Purdy , Tennessee , to the west . When Col. Jesse Appler , 53rd Ohio Infantry , warned Sherman that an attack was imminent , the general angrily replied , " Take your damned regiment back to Ohio . There are no Confederates closer than Corinth . "
Around 3 a.m. , Col. Everett Peabody , commanding Brig. Gen. Benjamin Prentiss 's 1st Brigade , sent a patrol of 250 infantry men from the 25th Missouri and the 12th Michigan out on reconnaissance . The patrol , under the command of Maj. James P. Powell , met fire from Confederates who then fled into the woods . A short time later , 5 : 15 a.m. , they encountered Confederate outposts manned by the 3rd Mississippi Battalion , and a spirited fight lasted about an hour . Arriving messengers and sounds of gunfire from the skirmish alerted the nearest Union troops , who formed battle line positions before the Confederates were able to reach them ; however , the Union army command had not adequately prepared for an attack on their camps . By 9 a.m. Union forces at Pittsburgh Landing were either engaged or moving toward the front line .
The confusing alignment of the Confederate troops helped reduce the effectiveness of the attack , since Johnston and Beauregard had no unified battle plan . Earlier , Johnston had telegraphed Confederate President Jefferson Davis his plan for the attack : " Polk the left , Bragg the center , Hardee the right , Breckinridge in reserve . " His strategy was to emphasize the attack on his right flank to prevent the Union army from reaching the Tennessee River , its supply line and avenue of retreat . Johnston instructed Beauregard to stay in the rear and direct men and supplies as needed , while he rode to the front to lead the men on the battle line . This effectively ceded control of the battle to Beauregard , who had a different concept , which was simply to attack in three waves and push the Union army eastward to the river . The corps of Hardee and Bragg began the assault with their divisions in one line , nearly 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) wide and about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from its front to its rear column . As these units advanced , they became intermingled and difficult to control . Corps commanders attacked in line without reserves , and artillery could not be concentrated to effect a breakthrough . At about 7 : 30 a.m. , from his position in the rear , Beauregard ordered the corps of Polk and Breckinridge forward on the left and right of the line , diluting their effectiveness . The attack therefore went forward as a frontal assault conducted by a single linear formation , which lacked both the depth and weight needed for success . Command and control , in the modern sense , were lost from the onset of the first assault .
= = = Grant and his army rally = = =
The Confederate assault , despite its shortcomings , was ferocious , causing some of the numerous inexperienced Union soldiers in Grant 's new army to flee to the river for safety . Others fought well , but were forced to withdraw under strong pressure from the Confederates , and attempted to form new defensive lines . Many Union regiments fragmented entirely ; the companies and sections that remained on the field attached themselves to other commands . Sherman , who had been negligent in preparing for an attack , became one of its most important elements . He appeared everywhere along his lines , inspiring his raw recruits to resist the initial assaults , despite the staggering losses on both sides . Sherman received two minor wounds and had three horses shot out from under him . Historian James M. McPherson cites the battle as the turning point of Sherman 's life , helping him to become one of the North 's premier generals . Sherman 's division bore the brunt of the initial attack . Despite heavy fire on their position and their left flank crumbling , Sherman 's men fought stubbornly , but the Union troops slowly lost ground and fell back to a position behind Shiloh Church . McClernand 's division temporarily stabilized the position . Overall , however , Johnston 's forces made steady progress until noon , rolling up Union positions one by one . As the Confederates advanced , many threw away their flintlock muskets and grabbed rifles dropped by the fleeing Union troops .
Grant was about 10 miles ( 16 km ) downriver at Savannah , Tennessee , when he heard the sound of artillery fire . ( On April 4 , he had been injured when his horse fell and pinned him underneath . He was convalescing and unable to move without crutches . ) Before leaving Savannah , Grant ordered Bull Nelson 's division to march along the east side of the river , to a point opposite Pittsburg Landing , where it could be ferried over to the battlefield . Grant then took his steamboat , Tigress , to Crump 's Landing , where he gave Lew Wallace his first orders , which were to wait in reserve and be ready to move . Grant proceeded to Pittsburg Landing , arriving about 8 : 30 a.m. ; most of the day went by before the first of these reinforcements arrived . ( Nelson 's division arrived around 5 p.m. ; Wallace 's appeared about 7 p.m. ) Wallace 's slow movement to the battlefield would become particularly controversial .
= = = Lew Wallace 's division = = =
On the morning of April 6 , around 8 : 00 or 8 : 30 a.m. , Grant 's flagship stopped alongside Wallace 's boat moored at Crump 's Landing and gave orders for the 3rd Division to be held ready to move in any direction . Wallace concentrated his troops at Stoney Lonesome , although his westernmost brigade remained at Adamsville . He then waited for further orders , which arrived between 11 and 11 : 30 a.m. Grant ordered Wallace to move his unit up to join the Union right , a move that would have been in support of Sherman 's 5th Division , which was encamped around Shiloh Church when the battle began . The written orders , transcribed from verbal orders that Grant gave to an aide , were lost during the battle and controversy remains over their wording . Wallace maintained that he was not ordered to Pittsburg Landing , which was to the left rear of the army , or told which road to use . Grant later claimed that he ordered Wallace to Pittsburg Landing by way of the River Road ( also called the Hamburg – Savannah Road ) .
Around noon , Wallace began the journey along the Shunpike , a route familiar to his men . A member of Grant 's staff , William Rowley , found Wallace between 2 and 2 : 30 p.m. on the Shunpike , after Grant wondered where Wallace was and why he had not arrived on the battlefield , while the main Union force was being slowly pressed backward . Rowley told Wallace that the Union army had retreated , Sherman was no longer fighting at Shiloh Church , and the battle line had moved northeast toward Pittsburg Landing . If Wallace continued in the same direction , he would have found himself in the rear of the advancing Confederate troops .
Wallace had to make a choice : he could launch an attack and fight through the Confederate rear to reach Grant 's forces closer to Pittsburg Landing , or reverse his direction and march toward Pittsburg Landing via a crossroads to the River Road . Wallace chose the second option . ( After the war , Wallace claimed that his division might have attacked and defeated the Confederates if his advance had not been interrupted , but later conceded that the move would not have been successful . ) Rather than realign his troops so the rear guard would be in the front , Wallace made a controversial decision to countermarch his troops to maintain the original order , only facing in the other direction . The move further delayed Wallace 's troops as they marched north along the Shunpike road , then took a crossover to reach the River Road to the east , and headed south toward the battlefield .
Wallace 's division began arriving at Grant 's position about 6 : 30 p.m. , after a march of about 14 miles ( 23 km ) in seven hours over poor and muddy roads . It formed line on the battlefield about 7 p.m. , when the fighting was nearly over for the day . Although Grant showed no disapproval at the time , his later endorsement of Wallace 's battle report was negative enough to severely damage Wallace 's military career . Today , Wallace is better remembered as the author of Ben @-@ Hur .
= = = Hornet 's Nest = = =
On the main Union defensive line , starting around 9 a.m. , Prentiss 's and W. H. L. Wallace 's divisions established and held a position nicknamed the " Hornet 's Nest " , in a field along a road , now popularly called the " Sunken Road , " although there is little physical justification for that name . The Confederates assaulted the position for several hours rather than simply bypassing it , and suffered heavy casualties . Historians ' estimates of the number of separate charges range from 8 to 14 . The Union forces to the left and right of the Nest were forced back , making Prentiss 's position a prominent point in the line . Coordination within the Nest was poor , and units withdrew based solely on their individual commanders ' decisions . The pressure increased when W. H. L. Wallace , commander of the largest concentration of troops in the position , was mortally wounded . Union regiments became disorganized and companies disintegrated as the Confederates , led by Brig. Gen. Daniel Ruggles , assembled more than 50 cannons into " Ruggles 's Battery " to blast the line at close range . Confederates surrounded the Hornet 's Nest , and it fell after holding out for seven hours . Prentiss surrendered himself and the remains of his division to the Confederates . A large portion of the Union survivors , an estimated 2 @,@ 200 to 2 @,@ 400 men , were captured , but their sacrifice bought time for Grant to establish a final defense line near Pittsburg Landing .
While dealing with the Hornet 's Nest , the South suffered a serious setback with the death of their commanding general . Albert Sidney Johnston was mortally wounded at about 2 : 30 p.m. as he led attacks on the Union left through the Widow Bell 's cotton field against the Peach Orchard . Johnston was shot in his right leg , behind the knee . Deeming the leg wound to be insignificant , he sent his personal surgeon to care for wounded Confederates and the Union soldiers they had captured . In the doctor 's absence , Johnston bled to death within an hour from a torn popliteal artery that caused internal bleeding and blood to collect unnoticed in his riding boot . Jefferson Davis considered Johnston to be the most effective general they had ( this was two months before Robert E. Lee emerged as the pre @-@ eminent Confederate general ) . Johnston was the highest @-@ ranking officer from either side to be killed in combat during the Civil War . Beauregard assumed command , but his position in the rear , where he relied on field reports from his subordinates , may have given him only a vague idea of the disposition of forces at the front . Beauregard ordered Johnston 's body shrouded for secrecy to avoid damaging morale and resumed attacks against the Hornet 's Nest . This was likely a tactical error , because the Union flanks were slowly pulling back to form a semicircular line around Pittsburg Landing . If Beauregard had concentrated his forces against the flanks , he might have defeated the Union army at the landing , and then reduced the Hornet 's Nest position at his leisure .
= = = Defense at Pittsburg Landing = = =
The Union flanks were being pushed back , but not decisively . Hardee and Polk caused Sherman and McClernand on the Union right to retreat in the direction of Pittsburg Landing , leaving the right flank of the Hornet 's Nest exposed . Just after Johnston 's death , Breckinridge , whose corps had been in reserve , attacked on the extreme left of the Union line , driving off the understrength brigade of Col. David Stuart and potentially opening a path into the Union rear and the Tennessee River . However , the Confederates paused to regroup and recover from exhaustion and disorganization , then followed the sounds of the guns toward the Hornet 's Nest , and an opportunity was lost . After the Hornet 's Nest fell , the remnants of the Union line established a solid three @-@ mile ( 5 km ) front around Pittsburg Landing , extending west from the river and then north , up the River Road , keeping the approach open for the expected , although belated , arrival of Lew Wallace 's division . Sherman commanded the right of the line , McClernand took the center , and on the left , the remnants of W. H. L. Wallace 's , Hurlbut 's , and Stuart 's men mixed with thousands of stragglers who were crowding on the bluff over the landing . The advance of Buell 's army , Col. Jacob Ammen 's brigade of Bull Nelson 's division , arrived in time to be ferried over and join the left end of the line . The defensive line included a ring of more than 50 cannons and naval guns from the river ( the gunboats USS Lexington and USS Tyler ) . A final Confederate charge of two brigades , led by Brig. Gen. Withers , attempted to break through the line but was repulsed . Beauregard called off a second attempt after 6 p.m. , as the sun set . The Confederate plan had failed ; they had pushed Grant east to a defensible position on the river , not forced him west into the swamps .
= = = Evening lull = = =
The evening of April 6 was a dispiriting end to the first day of one of the bloodiest battles in American history . The cries of wounded and dying men on the fields between the armies could be heard in the Union and Confederate camps throughout the night . Exhausted Confederate soldiers bedded down in the abandoned Union camps . The Union troops were pushed back to the river and the junction of the River ( Hamburg – Savannah Road ) and the Corinth @-@ Pittsburg Landing Roads . Around 10 p.m. a thunderstorm passed through the area . Coupled with the continuous shelling from the Union gunboats Lexington and Tyler , it made the night a miserable experience for both sides .
A famous anecdote encapsulates Grant 's unflinching attitude to temporary setbacks and his tendency for offensive action . Sometime after midnight , Sherman encountered Grant standing under a tree , sheltering himself from the pouring rain and smoking one of his cigars , while considering his losses and planning for the next day . Sherman remarked , " Well , Grant , we 've had the devil 's own day , haven 't we ? " Grant looked up . " Yes , " he replied , followed by a puff . " Yes . Lick ' em tomorrow , though . "
Beauregard sent a telegram to President Davis announcing a complete victory . He later admitted , " I thought I had Grant just where I wanted him and could finish him up in the morning . " Many of his men were jubilant , having overrun the Union camps and taken thousands of prisoners and tons of supplies . Grant still had reason to be optimistic : Lew Wallace 's 5 @,@ 800 men ( minus the two regiments guarding the supplies at Crump 's Landing ) and 15 @,@ 000 of Don Carlos Buell 's army began to arrive that evening . Wallace 's division took up a position on the right of the Union line and was in place by 1 a.m. ; Buell 's men were fully on the scene by 4 a.m. , in time to turn the tide the next day .
Beauregard caused considerable historical controversy with his decision to halt the assault at dusk . Braxton Bragg and Albert Sidney Johnston 's son , Col. William Preston Johnston , were among those who bemoaned the so @-@ called " lost opportunity at Shiloh . " Beauregard did not come to the front to inspect the strength of the Union lines ; he remained at Shiloh Church . He also discounted intelligence reports from Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest ( and bluster from prisoner of war General Prentiss ) that Buell 's men were crossing the river to reinforce Grant . In defense of his decision , Beauregard 's troops were simply exhausted , there was less than an hour of daylight left , and Grant 's artillery advantage was formidable . In addition , he had received a dispatch from Brig. Gen. Benjamin Hardin Helm in northern Alabama that indicated Buell was marching toward Decatur and not Pittsburg Landing .
= = Battle , April 7 ( second day : Union counterattack ) = =
On Monday morning , April 7 , the combined Union armies numbered 45 @,@ 000 men ; the Confederates suffered as many as 8 @,@ 500 casualties the first day and their commanders reported no more than 20 @,@ 000 effectives due to stragglers and deserters . ( Buell disputed that figure after the war , stating that there were 28 @,@ 000 ) . The Confederates had withdrawn south into Prentiss 's and Sherman 's former camps , while Polk 's corps retired to the Confederate bivouac established on April 5 , which was 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southwest of Pittsburg Landing . No line of battle was formed , and few if any commands were resupplied with ammunition . The soldiers were consumed by the need to locate food , water , and shelter for a much @-@ needed night 's rest .
Beauregard , unaware that he was now outnumbered , planned to continue the attack and drive Grant into the river . To his surprise , Union forces started moving forward in a massive counterattack at dawn . Grant and Buell launched their attacks separately ; coordination occurred only at the division level . Lew Wallace 's division was the first to see action , about 5 : 30 a.m. , at the extreme right of the Union line . Wallace continued the advance , crossing Tilghman Branch around 7 a.m. and met little resistance . Changing direction and moving to the southwest , Wallace 's men drove back the brigade of Col. Preston Pond . On Wallace 's left were the survivors of Sherman 's division , then McClernand 's , and W. H. L. Wallace 's ( now under the command of Col. James M. Tuttle ) . Buell 's army continued to the left with Bull Nelson 's , Crittenden 's , and McCook 's divisions . The Confederate defenders were so badly commingled that little unit cohesion existed above the brigade level . It required more than two hours to locate Gen. Polk and bring up his division from its bivouac to the southwest . By 10 a.m. , Beauregard had stabilized his front with his corps commanders from left to right : Bragg , Polk , Breckinridge , and Hardee . In a thicket near the Hamburg @-@ Purdy Road , the fighting was so intense that Sherman described in his report of the battle " the severest musketry fire I ever heard . "
On the Union left , Nelson 's division led the advance , followed closely by Crittenden 's and McCook 's men , down the Corinth and Hamburg @-@ Savannah roads . After heavy fighting , Crittenden 's division recaptured the Hornet 's Nest area by late morning , but the Crittenden and Nelson forces were repulsed by determined counterattacks from Breckinridge . Wallace 's and Sherman 's men on the Union right made steady progress , driving Bragg and Polk to the south . As Crittenden and McCook resumed their attacks , Breckinridge was forced to retire . By noon Beauregard 's line paralleled the Hamburg @-@ Purdy Road .
In early afternoon , Beauregard launched a series of counterattacks from the Shiloh Church area , aiming to control the Corinth Road . The Union right was temporarily driven back by these assaults at Water Oaks Pond . Crittenden , reinforced by Tuttle , seized the junction of the Hamburg @-@ Purdy and East Corinth roads , driving the Confederates into Prentiss 's old camps . Nelson resumed his attack and seized the heights overlooking Locust Grove Branch by late afternoon . Beauregard 's final counterattack was flanked and repulsed when Grant moved Col. James C. Veatch 's brigade forward .
= = = Confederate retreat = = =
Realizing that he had lost the initiative , was low on ammunition and food , and had more than 10 @,@ 000 of his men killed , wounded , or missing , Beauregard could go no further . He withdrew beyond Shiloh Church , leaving 5 @,@ 000 men under Breckinridge as a covering force , and massed Confederate batteries at the church and on the ridge south of Shiloh Branch . Confederate forces kept the Union men in position on the Corinth Road until 5 p.m. , then began an orderly withdrawal southwest to Corinth . The exhausted Union soldiers did not pursue much farther than the original Sherman and Prentiss encampments . Lew Wallace 's division crossed Shiloh Branch and advanced nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , but received no support from other units and was recalled . They returned to Sherman 's camps at dark . The battle was over .
For long afterwards , Grant and Buell quarreled over Grant 's decision not to mount an immediate pursuit with another hour of daylight remaining . Grant cited the exhaustion of his troops , although the Confederates were certainly just as exhausted . Part of Grant 's reluctance to act could have been the unusual command relationship he had with Buell . Although Grant was the senior officer and technically was in command of both armies , Buell made it quite clear throughout the two days that he was acting independently .
= = Fallen Timbers , April 8 = =
On April 8 , Grant sent Sherman south along the Corinth Road on a reconnaissance in force to confirm that the Confederates had retreated , or if they were regrouping to resume their attacks . Grant 's army lacked the large organized cavalry units that would have been better suited for reconnaissance and vigorous pursuit of a retreating enemy . Sherman marched with two infantry brigades from his division , along with two battalions of cavalry , and met Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood 's division of Buell 's army . Six miles ( 10 km ) southwest of Pittsburg Landing , Sherman 's men came upon a clear field in which an extensive camp was erected , including a Confederate field hospital . The camp was protected by 300 troopers of Confederate cavalry , commanded by Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest . The road approaching the field was covered by fallen trees for more than 200 yards ( 180 m ) .
As skirmishers from the 77th Ohio Infantry approached , having difficulty clearing the fallen timber , Forrest ordered a charge . The wild melee , with Confederate troops firing shotguns and revolvers and brandishing sabers , nearly resulted in Sherman 's capture . As Col. Jesse Hildebrand 's brigade began forming in line of battle , the Southern troopers started to retreat at the sight of the strong force , and Forrest , who was well in advance of his men , came within a few yards of the Union soldiers before realizing he was all alone . Sherman 's men yelled out , " Kill him ! Kill him and his horse ! " A Union soldier shoved his musket into Forrest 's side and fired , striking him above the hip , penetrating to near the spine . Although he was seriously wounded , Forrest was able to stay on horseback and escape ; he survived both the wound and the war . The Union lost about 100 men , most of them captured during Forrest 's charge , in an incident that has been remembered with the name " Fallen Timbers " . After capturing the Confederate field hospital , Sherman encountered the rear of Breckinridge 's covering force , but determined the enemy was making no signs of renewing its attack and withdrew back to the Union camps .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Reactions and effects = = =
In the immediate aftermath of the battle , Northern newspapers vilified Grant for his performance during the battle on April 6 , especially for being surprised and unprepared . Reporters , many far from the battle , spread the story that Grant had been drunk , falsely alleging that this had resulted in many of his men being bayoneted in their tents because of a lack of defensive preparedness . Despite the Union victory , Grant 's reputation suffered in Northern public opinion . Many credited Buell with taking control of the broken Union forces and leading them to victory on April 7 . Calls for Grant 's removal overwhelmed the White House . President Lincoln replied with one of his most famous quotations about Grant : " I can 't spare this man ; he fights . " Although all of the Union division commanders fought well , Sherman emerged as an immediate hero after Grant and Halleck commended him especially . His steadfastness under fire and amid chaos atoned for his previous melancholy and his defensive lapses preceding the battle . In retrospect , however , Grant is recognized positively for the clear judgment he was able to retain under the strenuous circumstances , and his ability to perceive the larger tactical picture that ultimately resulted in victory on the second day .
= = = Subsequent events = = =
Nevertheless , Grant 's career suffered temporarily in the aftermath of Shiloh . Halleck combined and reorganized his armies , relegating Grant to the powerless position of second @-@ in @-@ command . In late April and May , the Union armies , under Halleck 's personal command , advanced slowly toward Corinth and captured it , while an amphibious force on the Mississippi River destroyed the Confederates ' River Defense Fleet and captured Memphis , Tennessee . Halleck was promoted to be general in chief of all the Union armies . With Halleck 's departure to the East , Grant was restored to command and eventually pushed down the Mississippi River to besiege Vicksburg , Mississippi . After the surrender of Vicksburg and the fall of Port Hudson in the summer of 1863 , the Mississippi River was under Union control and the Confederacy was cut in two . Command of the Army of Mississippi fell to Braxton Bragg , who was promoted to full general on April 6 , and during the fall of 1862 , he led it on an unsuccessful invasion of Kentucky , culminating in his retreat from the Battle of Perryville .
= = = Casualties = = =
The two @-@ day battle of Shiloh , the costliest in American history up to that time , resulted in the defeat of the Confederate army and frustration of Johnston 's plans to prevent the two Union armies in Tennessee from joining together . Union casualties were 13 @,@ 047 ( 1 @,@ 754 killed , 8 @,@ 408 wounded , and 2 @,@ 885 missing ) ; Grant 's army bore the brunt of the fighting over the two days , with casualties of 1 @,@ 513 killed , 6 @,@ 601 wounded , and 2 @,@ 830 missing or captured . Confederate casualties were 10 @,@ 699 ( 1 @,@ 728 killed , 8 @,@ 012 wounded , and 959 missing or captured ) . The dead included the Confederate army 's commander , Albert Sidney Johnston ; the highest ranking Union general killed was W. H. L. Wallace . Both sides were shocked at the carnage . Three more years of such bloodshed remained and eight larger and bloodier battles were yet to come . Grant later came to realize that his prediction of one great battle bringing the war to a close would probably not occur . The war would continue , at great cost in casualties and resources , until the Confederacy succumbed or the Union was divided . Grant also learned a valuable personal lesson on preparedness that ( mostly ) served him well for the rest of the war .
= = Battlefield preservation = =
Shiloh 's importance as a Civil War battle , coupled with the lack of widespread agricultural or industrial development in the battle area after the war , led to its development as one of the first five battlefields restored by the federal government in the 1890s . Government involvement eventually proved insufficient to preserve the land on which the battle took place . ( The federal government had saved just over 2 @,@ 000 acres at Shiloh by 1897 , and consolidated those gains by adding another 1 @,@ 700 acres by 1954 . ) Preservation eventually slowed . Since 1954 , only 300 additional acres of the saved land had been preserved . Private preservation organizations stepped in to fill the void . The Civil War Trust became the primary agent of these efforts , preserving 1 @,@ 158 acres at Shiloh since its inception . The land preserved by the Trust at Shiloh included tracts over which Confederate divisions passed as they fought Grant 's men on the battle 's first day and their retreat during the Union counteroffensive on day two . A 2012 campaign focused in particular on a section of land which was part of the Confederate right flank on day one and on several tracts which were part of the Battle of Fallen Timbers .
Shiloh National Military Park is managed by the National Park Service .
= = Honors and commemoration = =
The United States Postal Service released a commemorative stamp on the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Shiloh , first issued through the Shiloh , Tennessee , Post Office on April 7 , 1962 . It was the second in a series of five stamps marking the Civil War Centennial .
= = In popular culture = =
The Battle of Shiloh was depicted in the 1962 film How the West Was Won , directed by John Ford . The all @-@ star cast includes ( in alphabetical order ) Carroll Baker , Lee J. Cobb , Henry Fonda , Carolyn Jones , Karl Malden , Gregory Peck , George Peppard , Robert Preston , Debbie Reynolds , James Stewart , Eli Wallach , John Wayne , and Richard Widmark . The film is narrated by Spencer Tracy .
Simulation games The Battle of Shiloh was depicted in the wargame " Bloody April : The Battle of Shiloh , 1862 " , published in 1979 by SPI ( Simulation Publications Inc ) . The game is a grand @-@ tactical , regimental @-@ level simulation , and is the 2nd game in the SPI " Great Battles of the American Civil War " game system , following " Terrible Swift Sword " ( Gettysburg ) . With 1200 unit counters and two maps , the game is of unusual size and complexity . It is now out of print .
In May 2016 , " Bloody April " , a computer game based on the SPI title was released by HexWar Games , Ltd . ( Scotland ) , for iPhone / iPad / Mac platforms . This single @-@ player game ( with computer opponent ) presents several scenarios covering the two @-@ day battle .
= = = Memoirs and primary sources = = =
Grant , Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant . 2 vols . Charles L. Webster & Company , 1885 – 86 . ISBN 0 @-@ 914427 @-@ 67 @-@ 9 .
U.S. War Department , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1880 – 1901 .
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= I. M. Pei =
Ieoh Ming Pei ( born April 26 , 1917 ) , commonly known as I. M. Pei , is a Chinese American architect . In 1948 , Pei was recruited by New York real estate magnate William Zeckendorf . There he spent seven years before establishing his own independent design firm I. M. Pei & Associates in 1955 , which became I. M. Pei & Partners in 1966 and later in 1989 became Pei Cobb Freed & Partners . Pei retired from full @-@ time practice in 1990 . Since then , he has taken on work as an architectural consultant primarily from his sons ' architectural firm Pei Partnership Architects . His first major recognition came with the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado ; his new stature led to his selection as chief architect for the John F. Kennedy Library in Massachusetts . He went on to design Dallas City Hall and the East Building of the National Gallery of Art .
He returned to China for the first time in 1975 to design a hotel at Fragrant Hills , and designed Bank of China Tower , Hong Kong , a skyscraper in Hong Kong for the Bank of China fifteen years later . In the early 1980s , Pei was the focus of controversy when he designed a glass @-@ and @-@ steel pyramid for the Musée du Louvre in Paris . He later returned to the world of the arts by designing the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center in Dallas , the Miho Museum in Japan , the Suzhou Museum in Suzhou , and the Museum of Islamic Art in Qatar .
Pei has won a wide variety of prizes and awards in the field of architecture , including the AIA Gold Medal in 1979 , the first Praemium Imperiale for Architecture in 1989 , and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Cooper @-@ Hewitt , National Design Museum in 2003 . In 1983 , he won the Pritzker Prize , sometimes called the Nobel Prize of architecture .
= = Childhood = =
Pei 's ancestry traces back to the Ming Dynasty , when his family moved from Anhui province to Suzhou . Finding wealth in the sale of medicinal herbs , the family stressed the importance of helping the less fortunate . Ieoh Ming Pei was born on April 26 , 1917 to Tsuyee Pei and Lien Kwun , and the family moved to Hong Kong one year later . The family eventually included five children . As a boy , Pei was very close to his mother , a devout Buddhist who was recognized for her skills as a flautist . She invited him , his brothers , and his sisters to join her on meditation retreats . His relationship with his father was less intimate . Their interactions were respectful but distant .
Pei 's ancestors ' success meant that the family lived in the upper echelons of society , but Pei said his father was " not cultivated in the ways of the arts " . The younger Pei , drawn more to music and other cultural forms than to his father 's domain of banking , explored art on his own . " I have cultivated myself " , he said later .
At the age of ten , Pei moved with his family to Shanghai after his father was promoted . Pei attended Saint Johns Middle School , run by Protestant missionaries . Academic discipline was rigorous ; students were allowed only one half @-@ day each month for leisure . Pei enjoyed playing billiards and watching Hollywood movies , especially those of Buster Keaton and Charlie Chaplin . He also learned rudimentary English skills by reading the Bible and novels by Charles Dickens .
Shanghai 's many international elements gave it the name " Paris of the East " . The city 's global architectural flavors had a profound influence on Pei , from the Bund waterfront area to the Park Hotel , built in 1934 . He was also impressed by the many gardens of Suzhou , where he spent the summers with extended family and regularly visited a nearby ancestral shrine . The Shizilin Garden , built in the 14th century by a Buddhist monk , was especially influential . Its unusual rock formations , stone bridges , and waterfalls remained etched in Pei 's memory for decades . He spoke later of his fondness for the garden 's blending of natural and human @-@ built structures .
Soon after the move to Shanghai , Pei 's mother developed cancer . As a pain reliever , she was prescribed opium , and assigned the task of preparing her pipe to Pei . She died shortly after his thirteenth birthday , and he was profoundly upset . The children were sent to live with extended family ; their father became more consumed by his work and more physically distant . Pei said : " My father began living his own separate life pretty soon after that . " His father later married a woman named Aileen , who moved to New York later in her life .
= = Education and formative years = =
As Pei neared the end of his secondary education , he decided to study at an overseas university . He was accepted to a number of schools , but decided to enroll at the University of Pennsylvania . Pei 's choice had two roots . While studying in Shanghai , he had closely examined the catalogs for various institutions of higher learning around the world . The architectural program at the University of Pennsylvania stood out to him . The other major factor was Hollywood . Pei was fascinated by the representations of college life in the films of Bing Crosby , which differed tremendously from the academic atmosphere in China . " College life in the U.S. seemed to me to be mostly fun and games " , he said in 2000 . " Since I was too young to be serious , I wanted to be part of it ... You could get a feeling for it in Bing Crosby 's movies . College life in America seemed very exciting to me . It 's not real , we know that . Nevertheless , at that time it was very attractive to me . I decided that was the country for me . "
In 1935 Pei boarded the SS President Coolidge and sailed to San Francisco , then traveled by train to Philadelphia . What he found , however , differed vastly from his expectations . Professors at the University of Pennsylvania based their teaching in the Beaux @-@ Arts style , rooted in the classical traditions of Greece and Rome . Pei was more intrigued by modern architecture , and also felt intimidated by the high level of drafting proficiency shown by other students . He decided to abandon architecture and transferred to the engineering program at Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . Once he arrived , however , the dean of the architecture school commented on his eye for design and convinced Pei to return to his original major .
MIT 's architecture faculty was also focused on the Beaux @-@ Arts school , and Pei found himself uninspired by the work . In the library he found three books by the Swiss @-@ French architect Charles @-@ Édouard Jeanneret @-@ Gris , better known as Le Corbusier . Pei was inspired by the innovative designs of the new International style , characterized by simplified form and the use of glass and steel materials . Le Corbusier visited MIT in November 1935 , an occasion which powerfully affected Pei : " The two days with Le Corbusier , or ' Corbu ' as we used to call him , were probably the most important days in my architectural education . " Pei was also influenced by the work of US architect Frank Lloyd Wright . In 1938 he drove to Spring Green , Wisconsin , to visit Wright 's famous Taliesin building . After waiting for two hours , however , he left without meeting Wright .
Although he disliked the Beaux @-@ Arts emphasis at MIT , Pei excelled in his studies . " I certainly don 't regret the time at MIT " , he said later . " There I learned the science and technique of building , which is just as essential to architecture . " Pei received his Bachelor of Architecture degree in 1940 . He planned to return to China immediately afterward , but the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War forced him to change his plans . Pei 's father urged him to remain in the United States , and he worked for two years at the Boston engineering firm of Stone & Webster .
While visiting New York City in the late ' 30s , Pei met a Wellesley College student named Eileen Loo . They began dating and they married in the spring of 1942 . She enrolled in the landscape architecture program at Harvard University , and Pei was thus introduced to members of the faculty at Harvard 's Graduate School of Design ( GSD ) . He was excited by the lively atmosphere , and joined the GSD in December 1942 .
Less than a month later , Pei suspended his work at Harvard to join the National Defense Research Committee , which coordinated scientific research into US weapons technology during World War II . Pei 's background in architecture was seen as a considerable asset ; one member of the committee told him : " If you know how to build you should also know how to destroy . " The fight against Germany was ending , so he focused on the Pacific War . The US realized that its bombs used against the stone buildings of Europe would be ineffective against Japanese cities , mostly constructed from wood and paper ; Pei was assigned to work on incendiary bombs . Pei spent two and a half years with the NDRC , but has revealed few details .
In 1945 Eileen gave birth to a son , T 'ing Chung ; she withdrew from the landscape architecture program in order to care for him . Pei returned to Harvard in the autumn of 1945 , and received a position as assistant professor of design . The GSD was developing into a hub of resistance to the Beaux @-@ Arts orthodoxy . At the center were members of the Bauhaus , a European architectural movement that had advanced the cause of modernist design . The Nazi regime had condemned the Bauhaus school , and its leaders left Germany . Two of these , Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer , took positions at the Harvard GSD . Their iconoclastic focus on modern architecture appealed to Pei , and he worked closely with both men .
One of Pei 's design projects at the GSD was a plan for an art museum in Shanghai . He wanted to create a mood of Chinese authenticity in the architecture without using traditional materials or styles . The design was based on straight modernist structures , organized around a central courtyard garden , with other similar natural settings arranged nearby . It was very well received ; Gropius , in fact , called it " the best thing done in [ my ] master class " . Pei received his master 's degree in 1946 , and taught at Harvard for another two years .
= = Career = =
= = = 1948 – 56 : Early career with Webb and Knapp = = =
In the spring of 1948 Pei was recruited by New York real estate magnate William Zeckendorf to join a staff of architects for his firm of Webb and Knapp to design buildings around the country . Pei found Zeckendorf 's personality the opposite of his own ; his new boss was known for his loud speech and gruff demeanor . Nevertheless , they became good friends and Pei found the experience personally enriching . Zeckendorf was well connected politically , and Pei enjoyed learning about the social world of New York 's city planners .
His first project for Webb and Knapp was an apartment building with funding from the Housing Act of 1949 . Pei 's design was based on a circular tower with concentric rings . The areas closest to the supporting pillar handled utilities and circulation ; the apartments themselves were located toward the outer edge . Zeckendorf loved the design and even showed it off to Le Corbusier when they met . The cost of such an unusual design was too high , however , and the building never moved beyond the model stage .
Pei finally saw his architecture come to life in 1949 , when he designed a two @-@ story corporate building for Gulf Oil in Atlanta , Georgia . The building was demolished in February 2013 although the front facade will be retained as part of an apartment development . His use of marble for the exterior curtain wall brought praise from the journal Architectural Forum . Pei 's designs echoed the work of Mies van der Rohe in the beginning of his career as also shown in his own weekend @-@ house in Katonah in 1952 . Soon Pei was so inundated with projects that he asked Zeckendorf for assistants , which he chose from his associates at the GSD , including Henry N. Cobb and Ulrich Franzen . They set to work on a variety of proposals , including the Roosevelt Field Shopping Mall . The team also redesigned the Webb and Knapp office building , transforming Zeckendorf 's office into a circular space with teak walls and a glass clerestory . They also installed a control panel into the desk that allowed their boss to control the lighting in his office . The project took one year and exceeded its budget , but Zeckendorf was delighted with the results .
In 1952 Pei and his team began work on a series of projects in Denver , Colorado . The first of these was the Mile High Center , which compressed the core building into less than twenty @-@ five percent of the total site ; the rest is adorned with an exhibition hall and fountain @-@ dotted plazas . One block away , Pei 's team also redesigned Denver 's Courthouse Square , which combined office spaces , commercial venues , and hotels . These projects helped Pei conceptualize architecture as part of the larger urban geography . " I learned the process of development , " he said later , " and about the city as a living organism . " These lessons , he said , became essential for later projects . The hyperbolic paraboloid structure was removed when the Denver Pavilions facility was constructed . In 1982 , he returned to design the 16th Street Mall , essentially converting a street into a pedestrian only shopping district .
Pei and his team also designed a united urban area for Washington , D.C. , L 'Enfant Plaza ( named for French @-@ American architect Pierre Charles L 'Enfant ) . Pei 's associate Araldo Cossutta was the lead architect for the plaza 's North Building ( 955 L 'Enfant Plaza SW ) and South Building ( 490 L 'Enfant Plaza SW ) . Vlastimil Koubek was the architect for the East Building ( L 'Enfant Plaza Hotel , located at 480 L 'Enfant Plaza SW ) , and for the Center Building ( 475 L 'Enfant Plaza SW ; now the United States Postal Service headquarters ) . The team set out with a broad vision that was praised by both the Washington Post and Washington Star ( which rarely agreed on anything ) , but funding problems forced revisions and a significant reduction in scale .
In 1955 Pei 's group took a step toward institutional independence from Webb and Knapp by establishing a new firm called I. M. Pei & Associates . ( The name changed later to I. M. Pei & Partners . ) They gained the freedom to work with other companies , but continued working primarily with Zeckendorf . The new firm distinguished itself through the use of detailed architectural models . They took on the Kips Bay residential area on the east side of Manhattan , where Pei set up Kips Bay Towers , two large long towers of apartments with recessed windows ( to provide shade and privacy ) in a neat grid , adorned with rows of trees . Pei involved himself in the construction process at Kips Bay , even inspecting the bags of concrete to check for consistency of color .
The company continued its urban focus with the Society Hill project in central Philadelphia . Pei designed the Society Hill Towers , a three @-@ building residential block injecting cubist design into the 18th @-@ century milieu of the neighborhood . As with previous projects , abundant green spaces were central to Pei 's vision , which also added traditional townhouses to aid the transition from classical to modern design .
From 1958 to 1963 Pei and Ray Affleck developed a key downtown block of Montreal in a phased process that involved one of Pei 's most admired structures in the commonwealth , the cruciform tower known as the Royal Bank Plaza ( Place Ville Marie ) . According to the Canadian Encyclopedia " its grand plaza and lower office buildings , designed by internationally famous US architect I. M. Pei , helped to set new standards for architecture in Canada in the 1960s ... The tower 's smooth aluminum and glass surface and crisp unadorned geometric form demonstrate Pei 's adherence to the mainstream of 20th @-@ century modern design . "
Although these projects were satisfying , Pei wanted to establish an independent name for himself . In 1959 he was approached by MIT to design a building for its Earth science program . The Green Building continued the grid design of Kips Bay and Society Hill . The pedestrian walkway at the ground floor , however , was prone to sudden gusts of wind , which embarrassed Pei . " Here I was from MIT , " he said , " and I didn 't know about wind @-@ tunnel effects . " At the same time , he designed the Luce Memorial Chapel in at Tunghai University in Taichung , Taiwan . The soaring structure , commissioned by the same organisation that had run his middle school in Shanghai , broke severely from the cubist grid patterns of his urban projects .
The challenge of coordinating these projects took an artistic toll on Pei . He found himself responsible for acquiring new building contracts and supervising the plans for them . As a result , he felt disconnected from the actual creative work . " Design is something you have to put your hand to , " he said . " While my people had the luxury of doing one job at a time , I had to keep track of the whole enterprise . " Pei 's dissatisfaction reached its peak at a time when financial problems began plaguing Zeckendorf 's firm . I. M. Pei and Associates officially broke from Webb and Knapp in 1960 , which benefited Pei creatively but pained him personally . He had developed a close friendship with Zeckendorf , and both men were sad to part ways .
= = = = NCAR and Related Projects = = = =
Pei was able to return to hands @-@ on design when he was approached in 1961 by Walter Orr Roberts to design the new Mesa Laboratory for the National Center for Atmospheric Research outside Boulder , Colorado . The project differed from Pei 's earlier urban work ; it would rest in an open area in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains . He drove with his wife around the region , visiting assorted buildings and surveying the natural environs . He was impressed by the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs , but felt it was " detached from nature " .
The conceptualization stages were important for Pei , presenting a need and an opportunity to break from the Bauhaus tradition . He later recalled the long periods of time he spent in the area : " I recalled the places I had seen with my mother when I was a little boy — the mountaintop Buddhist retreats . There in the Colorado mountains , I tried to listen to the silence again — just as my mother had taught me . The investigation of the place became a kind of religious experience for me . " Pei also drew inspiration from the Mesa Verde cliff dwellings of the Ancient Pueblo Peoples ; he wanted the buildings to exist in harmony with their natural surroundings . To this end , he called for a rock @-@ treatment process that could color the buildings to match the nearby mountains . He also set the complex back on the mesa overlooking the city , and designed the approaching road to be long , winding , and indirect .
Roberts disliked Pei 's initial designs , referring to them as " just a bunch of towers " . Roberts intended his comments as typical of scientific experimentation , rather than artistic critique ; still , Pei was frustrated . His second attempt , however , fit Roberts ' vision perfectly : a spaced @-@ out series of clustered buildings , joined by lower structures and complemented by two underground levels . The complex uses many elements of cubist design , and the walkways are arranged to increase the probability of casual encounters among colleagues .
Once the laboratory was built , several problems with its construction became apparent . Leaks in the roof caused difficulties for researchers , and the shifting of clay soil beneath caused cracks in the buildings which were expensive to repair . Still , both architect and project manager were pleased with the final result . Pei refers to the NCAR complex as his " breakout building " , and he remained a friend of Roberts until the scientist died in March 1990 .
The success of NCAR brought renewed attention to Pei 's design acumen . He was recruited to work on a variety of projects , including the S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University , the Sundrome terminal at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City , and dormitories at New College of Florida .
= = = = Kennedy Library = = = =
After President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963 , his family and friends discussed how to construct a library that would serve as a fitting memorial . A committee was formed to advise Kennedy 's widow Jacqueline , who would make the final decision . The group deliberated for months and considered many famous architects . Eventually , Kennedy chose Pei to design the library , based on two considerations . First , she appreciated the variety of ideas he had used for earlier projects . " He didn 't seem to have just one way to solve a problem , " she said . " He seemed to approach each commission thinking only of it and then develop a way to make something beautiful . " Ultimately , however , Kennedy made her choice based on her personal connection with Pei . Calling it " really an emotional decision " , she explained : " He was so full of promise , like Jack ; they were born in the same year . I decided it would be fun to take a great leap with him . "
The project was plagued with problems from the outset . The first was scope . President Kennedy had begun considering the structure of his library soon after taking office , and he wanted to include archives from his administration , a museum of personal items , and a political science institute . After the assassination , the list expanded to include a fitting memorial tribute to the slain president . The variety of necessary inclusions complicated the design process and caused significant delays .
Pei 's first proposed design included a large glass pyramid that would fill the interior with sunlight , meant to represent the optimism and hope that Kennedy 's administration had symbolized for so many in the US . Mrs. Kennedy liked the design , but resistance began in Cambridge , the first proposed site for the building , as soon as the project was announced . Many community members worried that the library would become a tourist attraction , causing particular problems with traffic congestion . Others worried that the design would clash with the architectural feel of nearby Harvard Square . By the mid @-@ 70s , Pei tried proposing a new design , but the library 's opponents resisted every effort . These events pained Pei , who had sent all three of his sons to Harvard , and although he rarely discussed his frustration , it was evident to his wife . " I could tell how tired he was by the way he opened the door at the end of the day , " she said . " His footsteps were dragging . It was very hard for I. M. to see that so many people didn 't want the building . "
Finally the project moved to Columbia Point , near the University of Massachusetts Boston . The new site was less than ideal ; it was located on an old landfill , and just over a large sewage pipe . Pei 's architectural team added more fill to cover the pipe and developed an elaborate ventilation system to conquer the odor . A new design was unveiled , combining a large square glass @-@ enclosed atrium with a triangular tower and a circular walkway .
The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum was dedicated on October 20 , 1979 . Critics generally liked the finished building , but the architect himself was unsatisfied . The years of conflict and compromise had changed the nature of the design , and Pei felt that the final result lacked its original passion . " I wanted to give something very special to the memory of President Kennedy , " he said in 2000 . " It could and should have been a great project . " Pei 's work on the Kennedy project boosted his reputation as an architect of note .
= = = = " Pei Plan " in Oklahoma City = = = =
The Pei Plan was an urban redevelopment initiative designed for downtown Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , in the 1960s and 1970s . It is the informal name for two related commissions by Pei – namely the Central Business District General Neighborhood Renewal Plan ( design completed 1964 ) and the Central Business District Project I @-@ A Development Plan ( design completed 1966 ) . It was formally adopted in 1965 , and implemented in various public and private phases throughout the 1960s and 1970s .
The plan called for the demolition of hundreds of old downtown structures in favor of renewed parking , office building , and retail developments , in addition to public projects such as the Myriad Convention Center and the Myriad Botanical Gardens . It was the dominant template for downtown development in Oklahoma City from its inception through the 1970s . The plan generated mixed results and opinion , largely succeeding in re @-@ developing office building and parking infrastructure but failing to attract its anticipated retail and residential development . Significant public resentment also developed as a result of the destruction of multiple historic structures . As a result , Oklahoma City 's leadership avoided large @-@ scale urban planning for downtown throughout the 1980s and early 1990s , until the passage of the Metropolitan Area Projects ( MAPS ) initiative in 1993 .
= = = = Dallas City Hall = = = =
Kennedy 's assassination led indirectly to another commission for Pei 's firm . In 1964 the acting mayor , Erik Jonsson , began working to change the community 's image . Dallas was known and disliked as the city where the president had been killed , but Jonsson began a program designed to initiate a community renewal . One of the goals was a new city hall , which could be a " symbol of the people " . Jonsson , a co @-@ founder of Texas Instruments , learned about Pei from his associate Cecil Howard Green , who had recruited the architect for MIT 's Earth Sciences building .
Pei 's approach to the new Dallas City Hall mirrored those of other projects ; he surveyed the surrounding area and worked to make the building fit . In the case of Dallas , he spent days meeting with residents of the city and was impressed by their civic pride . He also found that the skyscrapers of the downtown business district dominated the skyline , and sought to create a building which could face the tall buildings and represent the importance of the public sector . He spoke of creating " a public @-@ private dialogue with the commercial high @-@ rises " .
Working with his associate Theodore Musho , Pei developed a design centered on a building with a top much wider than the bottom ; the facade leans at an angle of 34 degrees . A plaza stretches out before the building , and a series of support columns holds it up . It was influenced by Le Corbusier 's High Court building in Chandigarh , India ; Pei sought to use the significant overhang to unify building and plaza . The project cost much more than initially expected , and took 11 years . Revenue was secured in part by including a subterranean parking garage . The interior of the city hall is large and spacious ; windows in the ceiling above the eighth floor fill the main space with light .
The city of Dallas received the building well , and a local television news crew found unanimous approval of the new city hall when it officially opened to the public in 1978 . Pei himself considered the project a success , even as he worried about the arrangement of its elements . He said : " It 's perhaps stronger than I would have liked ; it 's got more strength than finesse . " He felt that his relative lack of experience left him without the necessary design tools to refine his vision , but the community liked the city hall enough to invite him back . Over the years he went on to design five additional buildings in the Dallas area .
= = = = Hancock Tower , Boston = = = =
While Pei and Musho were coordinating the Dallas project , their associate Henry Cobb had taken the helm for a commission in Boston . John Hancock Insurance chairman Robert Slater hired I. M. Pei & Partners to design a building that could overshadow the Prudential Tower , erected by their rival .
After the firm 's first plan was discarded due to a need for more office space , Cobb developed a new plan around a towering parallelogram , slanted away from the Trinity Church and accented by a wedge cut into each narrow side . To minimize the visual impact , the building was covered in large reflective glass panels ; Cobb said this would make the building a " background and foil " to the older structures around it . When the Hancock Tower was finished in 1976 , it was the tallest building in New England .
Serious issues of execution became evident in the tower almost immediately . Many glass panels fractured in a windstorm during construction in 1973 . Some detached and fell to the ground , causing no injuries but sparking concern among Boston residents . In response , the entire tower was reglazed with smaller panels . This significantly increased the cost of the project . Hancock sued the glass manufacturers , Libbey @-@ Owens @-@ Ford , as well as I. M. Pei & Partners , for submitting plans that were " not good and workmanlike " . LOF countersued Hancock for defamation , accusing Pei 's firm of poor use of their materials ; I. M. Pei & Partners sued LOF in return . All three companies settled out of court in 1981 .
The project became an albatross for Pei 's firm . Pei himself refused to discuss it for many years . The pace of new commissions slowed and the firm 's architects began looking overseas for opportunities . Cobb worked in Australia and Pei took on jobs in Singapore , Iran , and Kuwait . Although it was a difficult time for everyone involved , Pei later reflected with patience on the experience . " Going through this trial toughened us , " he said . " It helped to cement us as partners ; we did not give up on each other . "
= = = = National Gallery East Building , Washington , DC = = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , directors of the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , declared the need for a new building . Paul Mellon , a primary benefactor of the gallery and a member of its building committee , set to work with his assistant J. Carter Brown ( who became gallery director in 1969 ) to find an architect . The new structure would be located to the east of the original building , and tasked with two functions : offer a large space for public appreciation of various popular collections ; and house office space as well as archives for scholarship and research . They likened the scope of the new facility to the Library of Alexandria . After inspecting Pei 's work at the Des Moines Art Center in Iowa and the Johnson Museum at Cornell University , they offered him the commission .
Pei took to the project with vigor , and set to work with two young architects he had recently recruited to the firm , William Pedersen and Yann Weymouth . Their first obstacle was the unusual shape of the building site , a trapezoid of land at the intersection of Constitution and Pennsylvania Avenues . Inspiration struck Pei in 1968 , when he scrawled a rough diagram of two triangles on a scrap of paper . The larger building would be the public gallery ; the smaller would house offices and archives . This triangular shape became a singular vision for the architect . As the date for groundbreaking approached , Pedersen suggested to his boss that a slightly different approach would make construction easier . Pei simply smiled and said : " No compromises . "
The growing popularity of art museums presented unique challenges to the architecture . Mellon and Pei both expected large crowds of people to visit the new building , and they planned accordingly . To this end , he designed a large lobby roofed with enormous skylights . Individual galleries are located along the periphery , allowing visitors to return after viewing each exhibit to the spacious main room . A large mobile sculpture by American artist Alexander Calder was later added to the lobby . Pei hoped the lobby would be exciting to the public in the same way as the central room of the Guggenheim Museum in New York . The modern museum , he said later , " must pay greater attention to its educational responsibility , especially to the young " .
Materials for the building 's exterior were chosen with careful precision . To match the look and texture of the original gallery 's marble walls , builders re @-@ opened the quarry in Knoxville , Tennessee , from which the first batch of stone had been harvested . The project even found and hired Malcolm Rice , a quarry supervisor who had overseen the original 1941 gallery project . The marble was cut into three @-@ inch @-@ thick panels and arranged over the concrete foundation , with darker blocks at the bottom and lighter blocks on top .
The East Building was honored on May 30 , 1978 , two days before its public unveiling , with a black @-@ tie party attended by celebrities , politicians , benefactors , and artists . When the building opened , popular opinion was enthusiastic . Large crowds visited the new museum , and critics generally voiced their approval . Ada Louise Huxtable wrote in The New York Times that Pei 's building was " a palatial statement of the creative accommodation of contemporary art and architecture " . The sharp angle of the smaller building has been a particular note of praise for the public ; over the years it has become stained and worn from the hands of visitors .
Some critics disliked the unusual design , however , and criticized the reliance on triangles throughout the building . Others took issue with the large main lobby , particularly its attempt to lure casual visitors . In his review for Artforum , critic Richard Hennessy described a " shocking fun @-@ house atmosphere " and " aura of ancient Roman patronage " . One of the earliest and most vocal critics , however , came to appreciate the new gallery once he saw it in person . Allan Greenberg had scorned the design when it was first unveiled , but wrote later to J. Carter Brown : " I am forced to admit that you are right and I was wrong ! The building is a masterpiece . "
Starting in 2005 , the joints attaching the marble panels to the walls began to show signs of strain , creating a risk of panels falling off the building onto the public below . In 2008 officials decided that it would be necessary to remove and reinstall all the panels . The project is scheduled for completion in 2013 .
= = = = Fragrant Hills , China = = = =
After US President Richard Nixon made his famous 1972 visit to China , a wave of exchanges took place between the two countries . One of these was a delegation of the American Institute of Architects in 1974 , which Pei joined . It was his first trip back to China since leaving in 1935 . He was favorably received , returned the welcome with positive comments , and a series of lectures ensued . Pei noted in one lecture that since the 1950s Chinese architects had been content to imitate Western styles ; he urged his audience in one lecture to search China 's native traditions for inspiration .
In 1978 Pei was asked to initiate a project for his home country . After surveying a number of different locations , Pei fell in love with a valley that had once served as an imperial garden and hunting preserve known as Fragrant Hills . The site housed a decrepit hotel ; Pei was invited to tear it down and build a new one . As usual , he approached the project by carefully considering the context and purpose . Likewise , he considered modernist styles inappropriate for the setting . Thus , he said , it was necessary to find " a third way " .
After visiting his ancestral home in Suzhou , Pei created a design based on some simple but nuanced techniques he admired in traditional residential Chinese buildings . Among these were abundant gardens , integration with nature , and consideration of the relationship between enclosure and opening . Pei 's design included a large central atrium covered by glass panels that functioned much like the large central space in his East Building of the National Gallery . Openings of various shapes in walls invited guests to view the natural scenery beyond . Younger Chinese who had hoped the building would exhibit some of Cubist flavor for which Pei had become known were disappointed , but the new hotel found more favour with government officials and architects .
The hotel , with 325 guest rooms and a four @-@ story central atrium , was designed to fit perfectly into its natural habitat . The trees in the area were of special concern , and particular care was taken to cut down as few as possible . He worked with an expert from Suzhou to preserve and renovate a water maze from the original hotel , one of only five in the country . Pei was also meticulous about the arrangement of items in the garden behind the hotel ; he even insisted on transporting 230 short tons ( 210 t ) of rocks from a location in southwest China to suit the natural aesthetic . An associate of Pei 's said later that he never saw the architect so involved in a project .
During construction , a series of mistakes collided with the nation 's lack of technology to strain relations between architects and builders . Whereas 200 or so workers might have been used for a similar building in the US , the Fragrant Hill project employed over 3 @,@ 000 workers . This was mostly because the construction company lacked the sophisticated machines used in other parts of the world . The problems continued for months , until Pei had an uncharacteristically emotional moment during a meeting with Chinese officials . He later explained that his actions included " shouting and pounding the table " in frustration . The design staff noticed a difference in the manner of work among the crew after the meeting . As the opening neared , however , Pei found the hotel still needed work . He began scrubbing floors with his wife and ordered his children to make beds and vacuum floors . The project 's difficulties took an emotional and physical strain on the Pei family .
The Fragrant Hill Hotel opened on October 17 , 1982 but quickly fell into disrepair . A member of Pei 's staff returned for a visit several years later and confirmed the dilapidated condition of the hotel . He and Pei attributed this to the country 's general unfamiliarity with deluxe buildings . The Chinese architectural community at the time gave the structure little attention , as their interest at the time centered on the work of American postmodernists such as Michael Graves .
= = = = Javits Convention Center , New York = = = =
As the Fragrant Hill project neared completion , Pei began work on the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center in New York City , for which his associate James Freed served as lead designer . Hoping to create a vibrant community institution in a run @-@ down neighborhood on Manhattan 's west side , Freed developed a glass @-@ coated structure with an intricate space frame of interconnected metal rods and spheres .
The convention center was plagued from the start by budget problems and construction blunders . City regulations forbid a general contractor having final authority over the project , so architects and program manager Richard Kahan had to coordinate the wide array of builders , plumbers , electricians , and other workers . The forged steel globes to be used in the space frame came to the site with hairline cracks and other defects ; 12 @,@ 000 were rejected . These and other problems led to media comparisons with the disastrous Hancock Tower . One New York City official blamed Kahan for the difficulties , indicating that the building 's architectural flourishes were responsible for delays and financial crises . The Javits Center opened on April 3 , 1986 , to a generally positive reception . During the inauguration ceremonies , however , neither Freed nor Pei was recognized for their role in the project .
= = = = Le Grand Louvre , Paris = = = =
When François Mitterrand was elected President of France in 1981 , he laid out an ambitious plan for a variety of construction projects . One of these was the renovation of the Louvre Museum . Mitterrand appointed a civil servant named Emile Biasini to oversee it . After visiting museums in Europe and the United States , including the US National Gallery , he asked Pei to join the team . The architect made three secretive trips to Paris , to determine the feasibility of the project ; only one museum employee knew why he was there . Pei finally agreed that a reconstruction project was not only possible , but necessary for the future of the museum . He thus became the first foreign architect to work on the Louvre .
The heart of the new design included not only a renovation of the Cour Napoléon in the midst of the buildings , but also a transformation of the interiors . Pei proposed a central entrance , not unlike the lobby of the National Gallery East Building , which would link the three major buildings . Below would be a complex of additional floors for research , storage , and maintenance purposes . At the center of the courtyard he designed a glass and steel pyramid , first proposed with the Kennedy Library , to serve as entrance and anteroom skylight . It was mirrored by another inverted pyramid underneath , to reflect sunlight into the room . These designs were partly an homage to the fastidious geometry of the famous French landscape architect André Le Nôtre ( 1613 – 1700 ) . Pei also found the pyramid shape best suited for stable transparency , and considered it " most compatible with the architecture of the Louvre , especially with the faceted planes of its roofs " .
Biasini and Mitterrand liked the plans , but the scope of the renovation displeased Louvre director André Chabaud . He resigned from his post , complaining that the project was " unfeasible " and posed " architectural risks " . The public also reacted harshly to the design , mostly because of the proposed pyramid . One critic called it a " gigantic , ruinous gadget " ; another charged Mitterrand with " despotism " for inflicting Paris with the " atrocity " . Pei estimated that 90 percent of Parisians opposed his design . " I received many angry glances in the streets of Paris , " he said . Some condemnations carried nationalistic overtones . One opponent wrote : " I am surprised that one would go looking for a Chinese architect in America to deal with the historic heart of the capital of France . "
Soon , however , Pei and his team won the support of several key cultural icons , including the conductor Pierre Boulez and Claude Pompidou , widow of former French President Georges Pompidou , after whom another controversial museum was named . In an attempt to soothe public ire , Pei took a suggestion from then @-@ mayor of Paris Jacques Chirac and placed a full @-@ sized cable model of the pyramid in the courtyard . During the four days of its exhibition , an estimated 60 @,@ 000 people visited the site . Some critics eased their opposition after witnessing the proposed scale of the pyramid .
To minimize the impact of the structure , Pei demanded a method of glass production that resulted in clear panes . The pyramid was constructed at the same time as the subterranean levels below , which caused difficulties during the building stages . As they worked , construction teams came upon an abandoned set of rooms containing 25 @,@ 000 historical items ; these were incorporated into the rest of the structure to add a new exhibition zone .
The new Louvre courtyard was opened to the public on October 14 , 1988 , and the Pyramid entrance was opened the following March . By this time , public opinion had softened on the new installation ; a poll found a fifty @-@ six percent approval rating for the pyramid , with twenty @-@ three percent still opposed . The newspaper Le Figaro had vehemently criticized Pei 's design , but later celebrated the tenth anniversary of its magazine supplement at the pyramid . Prince Charles of Britain surveyed the new site with curiosity , and declared it " marvelous , very exciting " . A writer in Le Quotidien de Paris wrote : " The much @-@ feared pyramid has become adorable . " The experience was exhausting for Pei , but also rewarding . " After the Louvre , " he said later , " I thought no project would be too difficult . " The Louvre Pyramid has become Pei 's most famous structure .
= = = = Meyerson Symphony Center , Dallas = = = =
The opening of the Louvre Pyramid coincided with four other projects on which Pei had been working , prompting architecture critic Paul Goldberger to declare 1989 " the year of Pei " in The New York Times . It was also the year in which Pei 's firm changed its name to Pei Cobb Freed & Partners , to reflect the increasing stature and prominence of his associates . At the age of seventy @-@ two , Pei had begun thinking about retirement , but continued working long hours to see his designs come to light .
One of the projects took Pei back to Dallas , Texas , to design the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center . The success of city 's performing artists , particularly the Dallas Symphony Orchestra then being led by conductor Eduardo Mata , led to interest by city leaders in creating a modern center for musical arts that could rival the best halls in Europe . The organizing committee contacted 45 architects , but at first Pei did not respond , thinking that his work on the Dallas City Hall had left a negative impression . One of his colleagues from that project , however , insisted that he meet with the committee . He did and , although it would be his first concert hall , the committee voted unanimously to offer him the commission . As one member put it : " We were convinced that we would get the world 's greatest architect putting his best foot forward . "
The project presented a variety of specific challenges . Because its main purpose was the presentation of live music , the hall needed a design focused on acoustics first , then public access and exterior aesthetics . To this end , a professional sound technician was hired to design the interior . He proposed a shoebox auditorium , used in the acclaimed designs of top European symphony halls such as the Amsterdam Concertgebouw and Vienna Musikverein . Pei drew inspiration for his adjustments from the designs of the German architect Johann Balthasar Neumann , especially the Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers . He also sought to incorporate some of the panache of the Paris Opéra designed by Charles Garnier .
Pei 's design placed the rigid shoebox at an angle to the surrounding street grid , connected at the north end to a long rectangular office building , and cut through the middle with an assortment of circles and cones . The design attempted to reproduce with modern features the acoustic and visual functions of traditional elements like filigree . The project was risky : its goals were ambitious and any unforeseen acoustic flaws would be virtually impossible to remedy after the hall 's completion . Pei admitted that he did not completely know how everything would come together . " I can imagine only 60 percent of the space in this building , " he said during the early stages . " The rest will be as surprising to me as to everyone else . " As the project developed , costs rose steadily and some sponsors considered withdrawing their support . Billionaire tycoon Ross Perot made a donation of US $ 10 million , on the condition that it be named in honor of Morton H. Meyerson , the longtime patron of the arts in Dallas .
The building opened and immediately garnered widespread praise , especially for its acoustics . After attending a week of performances in the hall , a music critic for The New York Times wrote an enthusiastic account of the experience and congratulated the architects . One of Pei 's associates told him during a party before the opening that the symphony hall was " a very mature building " ; he smiled and replied : " Ah , but did I have to wait this long ? "
= = = = Bank of China , Hong Kong = = = =
A new offer had arrived for Pei from the Chinese government in 1982 . With an eye toward the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong from the British in 1997 , authorities in China sought Pei 's aid on a new tower for the local branch of the Bank of China . The Chinese government was preparing for a new wave of engagement with the outside world and sought a tower to represent modernity and economic strength . Given the elder Pei 's history with the bank before the Communist takeover , government officials visited the 89 @-@ year @-@ old man in New York to gain approval for his son 's involvement . Pei then spoke with his father at length about the proposal . Although the architect remained pained by his experience with Fragrant Hill , he agreed to accept the commission .
The proposed site in Hong Kong 's Central District was less than ideal ; a tangle of highways lined it on three sides . The area had also been home to a headquarters for Japanese military police during World War II , and was notorious for prisoner torture . The small parcel of land made a tall tower necessary , and Pei had usually shied away from such projects ; in Hong Kong especially , the skyscrapers lacked any real architectural character . Lacking inspiration and unsure of how to approach the building , Pei took a weekend vacation to the family home in Katonah , New York . There he found himself experimenting with a bundle of sticks until he happened upon a cascading sequence .
The design that Pei developed for the Bank of China Tower was not only unique in appearance , but also sound enough to pass the city 's rigorous standards for wind @-@ resistance . The tower was planned around a visible truss structure , which distributed stress to the four corners of the base . Using the reflective glass that had become something of a trademark for him , Pei organized the facade around a series of boxed X shapes . At the top , he designed the roofs at sloping angles to match the rising aesthetic of the building . Some influential advocates of feng shui in Hong Kong and China criticized the design , and Pei and government officials responded with token adjustments .
As the tower neared completion , Pei was shocked to witness the government 's massacre of unarmed civilians at the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 . He wrote an opinion piece for The New York Times titled " China Won 't Ever Be the Same " , in which he said that the killings " tore the heart out of a generation that carries the hope for the future of the country " . The massacre deeply disturbed his entire family , and he wrote that " China is besmirched . "
= = = 1990 – present : museum projects = = =
As the 1990s began , Pei transitioned into a role of decreased involvement with his firm . The staff had begun to shrink , and Pei wanted to dedicate himself to smaller projects allowing for more creativity . Before he made this change , however , he set to work on his last major project as active partner : The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland , Ohio . Considering his work on such bastions of high culture as the Louvre and US National Gallery , some critics were surprised by his association with what many considered a tribute to low culture . The sponsors of the hall , however , sought Pei for specifically this reason ; they wanted the building to have an aura of respectability from the beginning . As in the past , Pei accepted the commission in part because of the unique challenge it presented .
Using a glass wall for the entrance , similar in appearance to his Louvre pyramid , Pei coated the exterior of the main building in white metal , and placed a large cylinder on a narrow perch to serve as a performance space . The combination of off @-@ centered wraparounds and angled walls was , Pei said , designed to provide " a sense of tumultuous youthful energy , rebelling , flailing about " .
The building opened in 1995 , and was received with moderate praise . The New York Times called it " a fine building " , but Pei was among those who felt disappointed with the results . The museum 's early beginnings in New York combined with an unclear mission created a fuzzy understanding among project leaders for precisely what was needed . Although the city of Cleveland benefited greatly from the new tourist attraction , Pei was unhappy with it .
At the same time , Pei designed a new museum for Luxembourg , the Musée d 'art moderne Grand @-@ Duc Jean , commonly known as the Mudam . Drawing from the original shape of the Fort Thüngen walls where the museum was located , Pei planned to remove a portion of the original foundation . Public resistance to the historical loss forced a revision of his plan , however , and the project was nearly abandoned . The size of the building was halved , and it was set back from the original wall segments to preserve the foundation . Pei was disappointed with the alterations , but remained involved in the building process even during construction .
In 1995 Pei was hired to design an extension to the Deutsches Historisches Museum , or German Historical Museum in Berlin . Returning to the challenge of the East Building of the US National Gallery , Pei worked to combine a modernist approach with a classical main structure . He described the glass cylinder addition as a " beacon " , and topped it with a glass roof to allow plentiful sunlight inside . Pei had difficulty working with German government officials on the project ; their utilitarian approach clashed with his passion for aesthetics . " They thought I was nothing but trouble " , he said .
Pei also worked at this time on two projects for a new Japanese religious movement called Shinji Shumeikai . He was approached by the movement 's spiritual leader , Kaishu Koyama , who impressed the architect with her sincerity and willingness to give him significant artistic freedom . One of the buildings was a bell tower , designed to resemble the bachi used when playing traditional instruments like the shamisen . Pei was unfamiliar with the movement 's beliefs , but explored them in order to represent something meaningful in the tower . As he said : " It was a search for the sort of expression that is not at all technical . "
The experience was rewarding for Pei , and he agreed immediately to work with the group again . The new project was the Miho Museum , to display Koyama 's collection of tea ceremony artifacts . Pei visited the site in Shiga Prefecture , and during their conversations convinced Koyama to expand her collection . She conducted a global search and acquired more than 300 items showcasing the history of the Silk Road .
One major challenge was the approach to the museum . The Japanese team proposed a winding road up the mountain , not unlike the approach to the NCAR building in Colorado . Instead , Pei ordered a hole cut through a nearby mountain , connected to a major road via a bridge suspended from ninety @-@ six steel cables and supported by a post set into the mountain . The museum itself was built into the mountain , with 80 percent of the building underground .
When designing the exterior , Pei borrowed from the tradition of Japanese temples , particularly those found in nearby Kyoto . He created a concise spaceframe wrapped into French limestone and covered with a glass roof . Pei also oversaw specific decorative details , including a bench in the entrance lobby , carved from a 350 @-@ year @-@ old keyaki tree . Because of Koyama 's considerable wealth , money was rarely considered an obstacle ; estimates at the time of completion put the cost of the project at US $ 350 million .
During the first decade of the 2000s , Pei designed a variety of buildings , including the Suzhou Museum near his childhood home . He also designed the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha , Qatar at the request of the Al @-@ Thani Family . Although it was originally planned for the corniche road along Doha Bay , Pei convinced project coordinators to build a new island to provide the needed space . He then spent six months touring the region and surveying mosques in Spain , Syria , and Tunisia . He was especially impressed with the elegant simplicity of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo .
Once again , Pei sought to combine new design elements with the classical aesthetic most appropriate for the location of the building . The rectangular boxes rotate evenly to create a subtle movement , with small arched windows at regular intervals into the limestone exterior . The museum 's coordinators were pleased with the project ; its official website describes its " true splendour unveiled in the sunlight " , and speaks of " the shades of colour and the interplay of shadows paying tribute to the essence of Islamic architecture " .
The Macao Science Center in Macau was designed by Pei Partnership Architects in association with I. M. Pei . The project to build the science center was conceived in 2001 and construction started in 2006 . The center was completed in 2009 and opened by the Chinese President Hu Jintao . The main part of the building is a distinctive conical shape with a spiral walkway and large atrium inside , similar to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York . Galleries lead off the walkway , mainly consisting of interactive exhibits aimed at science education . The building is in a prominent position by the sea and is now a landmark of Macau .
= = Style and method = =
Pei 's style is described as thoroughly modernist , with significant cubist themes . He is known for combining traditional architectural elements with progressive designs based on simple geometric patterns . As one critic writes : " Pei has been aptly described as combining a classical sense of form with a contemporary mastery of method . " In 2000 , biographer Carter Wiseman called Pei " the most distinguished member of his Late @-@ Modernist generation still in practice " . At the same time , Pei himself rejects simple dichotomies of architectural trends . He once said : " The talk about modernism versus post @-@ modernism is unimportant . It 's a side issue . An individual building , the style in which it is going to be designed and built , is not that important . The important thing , really , is the community . How does it affect life ? "
Pei 's work is celebrated throughout the world of architecture . His colleague John Portman once told him : " Just once , I 'd like to do something like the East Building . " But this originality does not always bring large financial reward ; as Pei replied to the successful architect : " Just once , I 'd like to make the kind of money you do . " His concepts , moreover , are too individualized and dependent on context to give rise to a particular school of design . Pei refers to his own " analytical approach " when explaining the lack of a " Pei School " . " For me , " he said , " the important distinction is between a stylistic approach to the design ; and an analytical approach giving the process of due consideration to time , place , and purpose ... My analytical approach requires a full understanding of the three essential elements ... to arrive at an ideal balance among them . "
On a matter of personal style and his method of business negotiation , Mr. Pei once told a television reporter during an interview about an amusing event that happened in his career . A client was inclined to disburse less treasure for a particular design , and the architect replied " My name is I. M. Pei , not I am Not Pay . " The client paid the asking price .
= = Awards and honors = =
In the words of his biographer , Pei has won " every award of any consequence in his art " , including the Arnold Brunner Award from the National Institute of Arts and Letters ( 1963 ) , the Gold Medal for Architecture from the American Academy of Arts and Letters ( 1979 ) , the AIA Gold Medal ( 1979 ) , the first Praemium Imperiale for Architecture from the Japan Art Association ( 1989 ) , the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Cooper @-@ Hewitt , National Design Museum , and the 2010 Royal Gold Medal from the Royal Institute of British Architects . In 1983 he was awarded the Pritzker Prize , sometimes called the Nobel Prize of architecture . In its citation , the jury said : " Ieoh Ming Pei has given this century some of its most beautiful interior spaces and exterior forms ... His versatility and skill in the use of materials approach the level of poetry . " The prize was accompanied by a US $ 100 @,@ 000 award , which Pei used to create a scholarship for Chinese students to study architecture in the US , on the condition that they return to China to work . In being awarded the 2003 Henry C. Turner Prize by the National Building Museum , then @-@ museum board chair Carolyn Brody praised his impact on construction innovation : " His magnificent designs have challenged engineers to devise innovative structural solutions , and his exacting expectations for construction quality have encouraged contractors to achieve high standards . "
In 1992 , Pei was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George H.W. Bush .
= = Personal life = =
Pei 's wife of over seventy years , Eileen Loo , predeceased him in June 2014 . They had three sons , T 'ing Chung ( 1946 – 2003 ) , Chien Chung ( b . 1946 ) and Li Chung ( b . 1949 ) , and a daughter , Liane ( b . 1960 ) . T 'ing Chung was an urban planner and alumnus of his father 's alma mater MIT and Harvard . Chieng Chung and Li Chung , who are both Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni , founded and run Pei Partnership Architects . Liane is a lawyer .
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= The Chase ( U.S. game show ) =
The Chase is an American television quiz show based on the British program of the same name . The program involves a quiz competition in which contestants attempt to win money by challenging a quiz show genius known as the " chaser " . The show premiered on August 6 , 2013 , on Game Show Network , and received a nomination at the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game Show . In the United Kingdom and Ireland the show is seen on Challenge under the title The Chase USA .
The series is hosted by Brooke Burns and features Mark Labbett ( nicknamed " The Beast " ) as the chaser . The American version of the show follows the same general format as the original UK version ; however , the American version of the program features three contestants instead of four . Also , while the UK and Australian versions feature one of a panel of chasers who rotate from one episode to the next , the American version features Labbett as the only chaser .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Cash Builder and individual chases = = =
Three new contestants compete on each episode as a team . Each contestant first plays individually against the chaser , starting with a round where they try to answer as many questions correctly as possible during a one @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire round , with each correct answer adding $ 5 @,@ 000 to their bank . After the minute is up , the contestant competes head to head against the chaser in order to retain their bank and continue to the Final Chase . During celebrity episodes , contestants start with $ 5 @,@ 000 already in the bank .
In the Chase , the contestant 's goal is to answer enough questions correctly to move the earned winnings into the team bank without being caught by the chaser , whose job is to catch them by capitalizing on mistakes made by the player . The contestant must answer five questions correctly without being caught to bank the money and continue to the Final Chase , providing the contestant does not play for one of two additional offers given at the start of the round . These offers include having a contestant play for a lower amount and start one step closer to the bank , while being required to answer only four questions correctly without being caught . In addition , the contestant can also play for a higher amount of money , but must instead answer six questions correctly without being caught . On rare occasions , the chaser may escalate the stakes by offering a " super offer " for an even higher amount , with the contestant being required to answer seven questions correctly without being caught . Usually , the contestant is permitted to talk briefly with his or her teammates ( if he or she has yet to play or has moved on to the Final Chase ) for advice as to which offer to take .
After deciding which amount to play for , the prize money is displayed on a seven @-@ space gameboard , with the appropriate number of spaces away from the bank depending upon the contestant 's decision . The chaser starts the round off of the gameboard eight spaces away from the bank . Both the contestant and chaser are then presented with the same multiple choice question , and each locks @-@ in their answer separately . After one has selected their answer , they may not change it and the other has five seconds to answer after them , otherwise they are locked out and do not advance on the gameboard . For each question the contestant answers correctly , the prize money earned moves one step closer to the team bank . For each question answered correctly by the chaser , he moves one step closer to the prize money . Additional questions are asked until the contestant reaches the end of the board ( thus banking the prize money ) , or the chaser catches the contestant eliminating them from the game . No movement is made by the contestant and / or the chaser if an incorrect answer is provided or if they are locked out by the time limit . All three contestants take part in separate rounds to determine which of them will advance to the Final Chase and how much prize money will be at stake . If all three contestants fail to win their individual chases , the team selects one contestant to play the Final Chase alone for a total of $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 000 per contestant ) . During celebrity episodes , celebrity contestants that get caught leave with $ 5 @,@ 000 for their respective charities .
= = = The Final Chase = = =
The Final Chase is played on a gameboard , with the team receiving a head start of one space for each member who advanced to this round . During the commercial break , the team chooses between two sets of questions , labeled " A " and " B " , with the chaser playing the other set of questions . The contestants have two minutes to answer as many questions as possible . After a question is asked , contestants are only permitted to respond or pass a question after first ringing @-@ in . If a contestant rings @-@ in but another contestant answers , the question is treated as a wrong regardless if the answer was correct . If there is only one contestant in the Final Chase , then he or she does not ring @-@ in . Each question answered correctly within the time limit moves the team one space ahead on the board .
After time expires , the chaser is then given two minutes to catch the team by correctly answering a new series of questions , with each correct answer moving him one space along the board . If the chaser answers incorrectly or passes , the clock is stopped briefly and the team is given a chance to answer the question . A correct answer pushes the chaser back one space , or moves the team ahead by one if he has not moved on to the gameboard . An incorrect answer provides no movement for the chaser at all . Regardless of the outcome , the clock begins running again and the chaser continues to answer questions . If the chaser runs out of time before catching the team , the team splits the banked money equally ; however , if the chaser catches the team before time expires , the team leaves with no money . On celebrity episodes , if the chaser catches the team before time runs out , the team leaves with $ 15 @,@ 000 divided equally .
= = Production = =
In April 2012 , Fox ordered two pilot episodes to be taped in London for consideration to be added to the network 's U.S. programming lineup . Bradley Walsh , presenter of the British version of The Chase , was featured as the show 's host , while Labbett and Jeopardy ! champion Brad Rutter were the chasers . Fox passed up the opportunity to add the series to its lineup .
After Fox 's plans to launch The Chase fell through , GSN , in conjunction with ITV Studios America , picked up the series with an eight episode order on April 9 , 2013 , and announced Burns as the show 's host and Labbett as the chaser on May 29 . Dan Patrick was originally considered to host the series ; however , those plans eventually fell through . The first season premiered on August 6 , 2013 . Despite the show having not yet premiered at the time , the network ordered a second season of eight episodes on July 1 , 2013 , which premiered on November 5 . On March 18 , 2014 , GSN announced plans to renew the series for a third season , with both Burns and Labbett returning to the show . The third season premiered on July 8 , 2014 . After airing nine episodes , the series went on a hiatus , before returning with five additional new season three episodes on November 11 , 2014 . On August 21 , 2014 , GSN proceeded to renew the series for a fourth season , which began airing January 27 , 2015 . After the seventh episode of the season , the series went on another hiatus ; new episodes from the fourth season resumed airing July 16 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Chase has been generally well received by critics . Michael Tyminski of Manhattan Digest gave a positive review of the series , calling it " a breath of fresh air " and praising Burns and Labbett in their respective roles . Tyminski added that while the level difficulty is not always on par with other quiz shows such as Jeopardy ! , the show avoids a " painfully slow pace " .
Similarly , John Teti of The A.V. Club called the show a " pretty good adaptation " of its UK counterpart , but also noted the presence of " dick @-@ related questions " in the series . Teti also maintained that although the British version of the show was " better " , the American version " still holds its own " . Additionally , The Chase was ranked number 9 on Douglas Pucci 's ( of TV Media Insights ) list of best new television shows of 2013 .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Chase was also one of two GSN originals ( the other being The American Bible Challenge ) to be honored at the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards in 2014 with an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Game Show ; however , the series lost to Jeopardy !
= = = Ratings = = =
The Chase has become one of the highest rated original programs in GSN 's history . The series debuted to 511 @,@ 000 total viewers during its premiere while maintaining 90 % of its audience with 461 @,@ 000 total viewers during the second episode airing that night . On January 28 , 2014 , The Chase set a new series high in terms of total viewers and adults 18 – 49 , with 827 @,@ 000 and 234 @,@ 000 viewers respectively .
Although the season 3 premiere fell in the ratings from its series high , earning 494 @,@ 000 viewers with only 73 @,@ 000 in the 18 – 49 demographic , the premiere of the fourth season saw a sizeable rise over the previous season 's premiere , earning 749 @,@ 000 total viewers .
= = Merchandise = =
On December 18 , 2013 , Barnstorm Games released a mobile version of the game for iOS and Android . The app features Labbett as chaser and can be played by up to four people . The only differences between the app and the show are that four choices are presented for questions in the Cash Builder and the Final Chase rounds and that no Final Chase is played if all players are caught in their individual chases .
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= Hurricane Waldo ( 1985 ) =
Hurricane Waldo was a Pacific hurricane that caused significant flooding in Kansas during October 1985 . After developing into a tropical depression on October 7 , it steadily intensified , becoming a tropical storm within a day . Waldo reached hurricane intensity on October 8 . After peaking as a moderate Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , it re @-@ curved to the east , making landfall at peak intensity near Culiacan . Afterward , it rapidly dissipated . In all , Waldo caused moderate damage in Sonora . The remnants of the storm combined with a cold front over the Great Plains . Significant flooding and one death was recorded in Kansas . Many rivers and creeks overflowed its banks .
= = Meteorological history = =
Waldo originated from a developing disturbance first noted by Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) on October 5 based on data from ship reports . By 0000 UTC October 7 , a circulation became evident on satellite imagery . Based on this , the EPHC upgraded the system into a tropical depression about 300 mi ( 480 km ) west of the Mexican coast . Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression began to turn to the northwest in response to a strong upper @-@ level trough over Baja California Peninsula . Passing over 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) sea surface temperatures , the tropical cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Waldo about 12 hours after developing . The storm began to intensify rapidly . Meanwhile , the tropical storm passed 92 mi ( 148 km ) east of Socorro Island . Tropical Storm Waldo then began to turn to the north and while located 130 miles ( 210 km ) south of Baja California Sur , Waldo was upgraded into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
After reaching hurricane status the strengthening cyclone attained Category 2 hurricane status on October 9 . Shortly thereafter , a ship reported a sea level pressure of 982 mb ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) just outside the center of circulation . Meanwhile , Hurricane Waldo reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Four hours after Hurricane Waldo 's peak , the storm made landfall near Culiacan . The storm rapidly dissipated during the afternoon of October 9 , while the system was located inland over Mexico . The remnants of Waldo merged with a cold front and produced heavy rains across the Great Plains and Mississippi River Valley .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In parts of Sinaloa , people were evacuated and then granted refuge in shelters . In Los Mochis , the Mexican Army was put on standby in the event the Fuerte River flooded . While no deaths or injuries were reported , much farmland and 600 houses were destroyed . The Juarez River bursts its banks , flooding at least eight neighborhoods in Culiacán . Telephone service in Los Mochis , Guarmuchil , and Guasave was cut when a communications tower was blown over . In Los Mochis , some schools and homes were destroyed and a few trees were uprooted . A total of 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless across the state . The peak rainfall total in Mexico from Waldo was 9 @.@ 61 inches ( 244 mm ) in Jocuixtita / San Igancio ; heavy rain was also recorded along southern Baja California Sur .
In the United States , heavy rainfall prompted flood watches for most of west Texas . The National Weather Service even noted the possibility of 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rain in some areas across the state . Waldo contributed to rain heavy enough to cause some flash flooding in the Permian Basin area of Texas . Flood waters rose , leaving motorists stranded . One motorist was stranded for 30 minutes before begin rescued by another car . Odessa , Texas received about 2 in ( 51 mm ) in a four and half @-@ hour period . Torrential rainfall was recorded in Texas , but the highest official rainfall total in the United States was 6 @.@ 6 in ( 170 mm ) , recorded in Hobbs , New Mexico . Flash floods affected the southern one – third of the state from rainfall associated from Waldo . Damage was estimated between $ 100 @,@ 000 – $ 1 million ( 1985 USD ) , mostly to crops , roads , and buildings .
With help from a cold front , Waldo contributed to major flooding in Kansas that forced many rivers and creeks to overflow their banks . A total of 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 110 mm ) of rain fell in some locations . In the rural town of Raymond , a 52 @-@ year @-@ old man died from a heart attack while moving to higher ground due to rising floodwaters . Approximately 15 people were evacuated from their homes in Easton due to the overflow of the nearby Stranger Creek . Some of the evacuated resident slept at the nearby senior center for the night where the American Red Cross delivered items such as blankets , food , and clothes to the victims of the flood . In Kansas City , Waldo produced 1 ft ( 30 cm ) of water on roads , but none of the nearby homes received extensive damage . The Sedgwick County , the county fire department freed 35 trapped people from rising flood waters , six of which were rescued via helicopter . County workers were forced to use sandbags to prevent the dike along Cowskin creek from breaking . The Salt Creek overflowed its banks ; subsequently , Highway 68 closed in Osage County . Within six days after the dissipation of Hurricane Waldo , the remnants had produced heavy rainfall as far north as Michigan with flooding recorded as far north as Iowa . Waldo 's rain were comparable to Atlantic Hurricane Gloria though the wind speeds were much lower .
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= Hurricane Julia ( 2010 ) =
Hurricane Julia was the easternmost Category 4 hurricane recorded in the Atlantic basin since reliable satellite observations became available . The twelfth tropical cyclone , fifth hurricane and fourth major hurricane of the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season , Julia rapidly developed on September 12 from a tropical wave near Cape Verde . Passing near the islands , the system quickly organized into Tropical Storm Julia the next day . On September 14 , Julia attained hurricane status and subsequently entered a trend of rapid intensification ; the storm strengthened from a minimal hurricane to a low @-@ end Category 4 in only 24 hours . After peaking in intensity , further development was impeded as interaction with nearby Hurricane Igor began to occur ; the storm was downgraded to a tropical storm by September 18 . It subsequently moved into a region of unfavorable conditions , heading toward lower sea surface temperatures . Correspondingly , Julia entered an extratropical transition on September 20 , and advisories on the storm were discontinued by that time .
As Julia never posed any significant threat to land , damage related to the storm was minimal . Trace amounts of rain reportedly fell across the Cape Verde islands , causing locally light flooding and minor inconveniences . Gusts battering the territory peaked at 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , resulting in some wind damage to crops . In addition , these winds produced rough sea conditions , and high waves posed few threats along coastlines .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Julia trace back to a vigorous tropical wave , or an equatorward low @-@ pressure area , which emerged into the Atlantic along the western coast of Africa on September 11 . At the time , the system maintained deep convection and strong easterly winds , prompting the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to commence tracking the system as an area of interest . As the wave moved generally westward at 10 to 15 mph ( 16 to 24 km / h ) , a quick increase in organization as well as a significant drop in surface pressure became notable . The system continued to organize , and several hours later , the NHC noted only a slight increase would suffice for the development of a tropical cyclone . By September 12 , a tropical depression developed , and the NHC initiated advisories at 1500 UTC that day . At the time , the cyclone was situated 250 mi ( 400 km ) southeast of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde .
For several hours , steady strengthening continued as the depression maintained a westward track . Operationally , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Julia early on September 13 , though post @-@ analysis confirmed the storm had reached winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) twelve hours after formation . For several hours , no significant change occurred in its intensity or organization as Julia passed near Cape Verde , though the storm gradually retraced to the west @-@ northwest along the southern periphery of a deep @-@ layer ridge . Slow intensification resumed as the storm bypassed the Cape Verde islands ; by early September 14 , it displayed a ragged , banded eye @-@ like feature in satellite imagery . Due to locally high sea surface temperatures of about 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) , a period of rapid intensification subsequently commenced ; within hours , Julia attained Category 1 hurricane status . Though located over an area with relatively low oceanic heat content , Julia continued to intensify rapidly under low vertical wind shear and over favorable sea surface temperatures ; as such , the hurricane was upgraded to Category 2 status on September 15 . In less than two hours , the hurricane deepened to reach Category 3 intensity , becoming the fourth major hurricane of the season . The rapid intensification trend continued , and Julia eventually strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane six hours later . Based on satellite estimates , its winds peaked at 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 99 inHg ) , though operationally estimated at 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) , respectively .
Upon peaking in intensity , Julia accelerated slightly as it re @-@ curved toward the northwest along a mid to upper @-@ level low to its southwest . In addition , this system generated unfavorable southerly flow aloft , inducing a slight weakening of the storm . By early September 16 , Julia 's eye became indistinguishable on satellite images , and the storm further dropped to below major hurricane status . Upon doing so , Julia became embedded within a south @-@ southeasterly steering current along deep @-@ layer ridging in its vicinity , resulting in a more westward track . Though still a hurricane , the relatively small tropical system moved to the east of the much larger Hurricane Igor . Concurrently , Igor 's outflow began impinging on Julia 's circulation , and due to colder sea surface temperatures , the storm weakened below hurricane intensity late on September 17 . Henceforth , Julia re @-@ accelerated as it further curved northward around the contiguous ridge , nearly merging with Igor as a result . Progressively tracking to the north over the next hours , Julia subsequently executed a turn to the northeast , then to the east . Proceeding eastward , the low @-@ level center of the storm became partially exposed on September 18 ; however , for several hours thereafter , convection gradually redeveloped over its center . Despite the deep convection , vertical wind shear again increased over the system , causing the storm to enter an extratropical transition . It is estimated Julia degenerated into a post @-@ tropical low by 1800 UTC on September 20 , while located about 1095 mi ( 1750 km ) west of the Azores . The resultant storm meandered around over the Atlantic for several days , continuing generally eastward before executing an elongated loop to the south . Following this erratic track , the remnants of Hurricane Julia proceeded northwestward and came within 350 mi ( 563 km ) of Bermuda , where they were once again briefly monitored by the NHC . However , chance of redevelopment dwindled , as conditions were not conducive for tropical formation ; convection nearly diminished entirely , and the NHC discontinued monitoring the system on September 28 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Immediately upon developing into a tropical depression , Julia posed a threat to Cape Verde . At the time , at least 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) of precipitation was expected , with locally accumulations of up to 8 in ( 203 mm ) . In response , the Government of Cape Verde issued a tropical storm warning for the southern portion of the archipelago , which included Maio , Sao Tiago , Fogo , and Brava . The tropical storm warning remained in effect after Julia intensified into a tropical storm ; it was finally discontinued early on September 14 .
Since Julia stayed at sea and never directly struck land as a significant cyclone , there were no reports of major damage or casualties . Across southern Cape Verde , intermittent rains and some gusty winds were reported when the storm neared the islands . Winds reached between 24 and 30 mph ( 38 and 48 km / h ) ; the only known report of rainfall accumulations was in Sal , where no more than 0 @.@ 39 in ( 9 @.@ 9 mm ) of precipitation was recorded . During the passage of the storm , authorities canceled several local and international flights across Cape Verde . In Sao Tiago , floods triggered several landslides , resulting in the isolation of the community of Covão Grande from roadways . Several communities also reported wind damage to maiz crops . In addition , rough seas with waves of 9 @.@ 8 to 14 @.@ 8 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 5 m ) resulted in minor disruptions along coastlines .
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= Hurricane Cosme ( 2007 ) =
Hurricane Cosme was a minimal hurricane that threatened Hawaii in mid @-@ July 2007 . The sixth tropical cyclone , third named storm and first hurricane of the 2007 Pacific hurricane season , Cosme originated from a tropical wave that emerged off the coast of Africa on June 27 and tracked westward before emerging in the eastern Pacific . A system along the wave organized , and it was classified as a tropical depression on July 14 , a tropical storm on July 15 , and a hurricane on July 16 . Cosme reached peak intensity as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , but quickly weakened due to cooler waters . Steadily decreasing in strength , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression before passing to the south of the Hawaiian Islands . The depression crossed into the Central Pacific and degenerated into a remnant low by July 23 .
Because Cosme stayed far from land , effects were mostly minor . Swells up to 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) and up to 6 @.@ 94 in ( 176 mm ) of rainfall were reported , in addition to wind gusts of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . No fatalities or injuries were reported , and only minimal damage occurred .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Cosme can be traced back to a tropical wave that left the coast of Africa on June 27 , 2007 . Due to a lack of associated convection , the wave was difficult to track across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated that the wave emerged into the Pacific Ocean on July 8 . Because the system was embedded within the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , development was initially slow . However , when it separated from the ITCZ on July 13 , the disturbance increased in convective organization , and was classified as Tropical Depression Six @-@ E about midway between Mexico and Hawaii . It tracked westward at 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) due to steering currents of a tropical easterly flow . Although wind shear was generally light , ocean temperatures were only marginal for tropical cyclone intensification . Forecasters experienced difficulty in locating the exact center of circulation . By July 14 , convection had steadily decreased , although the storm 's movement was initially uncertain due to its location within a broad low pressure area . Early on July 15 the depression 's appearance on satellite imagery improved , and at 1800 UTC the NHC upgraded the depression to tropical storm status , and gave it the name " Cosme " .
Shortly after attaining tropical storm status , the previously @-@ broad circulation consolidated as banding features developed . The inner core gradually condensed and tightened , as indicated by an AMSR @-@ E overpass . On July 16 an eye began to form and Cosme intensified to attain winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Tracking northwest towards a weakness in the mid @-@ level ridge , the cyclone continued to intensify and was upgraded to Hurricane Cosme late on July 16 , about 1 @,@ 600 mi ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) east of Hilo . The hurricane reached peak intensity with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , although due to cooler waters it quickly weakened to a tropical storm , as the eye became ragged and cloud @-@ filled .
By July 17 , the cloud pattern had deteriorated , and its winds decreased to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The center subsequently became exposed , with just a few thunderstorms confined to the southwest portion of the storm as it began to accelerate to the west . As easterly vertical wind shear increased , convection temporarily reformed in a concentrated area southwest of the center . As Cosme reached steadily cooler water temperatures , it was downgraded to a tropical depression late on July 18 about 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) southeast of Hilo , Hawaii ; at around the same time , the storm entered the forecast responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center . Tracking westward at 14 mph ( 23 km / h ) , maximum sustained winds were 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) with localized higher gusts . Gradually weakening , Tropical Depression Cosme passed south of the Hawaiian Islands on July 20 with a minimum central pressure of 1010 mbar . On July 22 , the depression came within 180 mi ( 290 km ) of Johnston Island , and later that day , it degenerated into a remnant low .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Initially , Cosme was predicted to make landfall on Hawaii as a tropical storm . In anticipation of the storm , the National Weather Service issued a flash flood watch for the island of Hawaii on July 20 . Also , small craft advisories were in effect for Maui and Hawaii ; wind advisories were issued for summits in those regions . High surf advisories were also put into effect for coastal areas . The Hawaii County Civil Defense prepared for the storm by planning for increases in emergency response personnel and opening of evacuation centers . County crews worked to clean out drains and culverts to prevent flooding .
Because the depression stayed far from land , the effects were mostly minor and little damage was reported . A strong trade wind swell north of Cosme generated waves up to 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high . Rain bands produced up to 6 @.@ 94 in ( 176 mm ) of rainfall , causing small stream and drainage ditch flooding , as well as ponding on roadways in portions of Hilo , Puna , and Kau . The rainfall helped to relieve a persistent drought which had existed for several months . Wind gusts reached 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in southern portions of Hawaii , causing no known damage .
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= Royal National College for the Blind =
The Royal National College for the Blind ( RNC ) is a co @-@ educational specialist residential college of further education based in the English city of Hereford . Students who attend the college are aged over 16 and blind or partially sighted . They can study a wide range of qualifications at RNC , from academic subjects such as English and mathematics to more vocational topics such as performing arts . Alongside regular further education subjects and vocational training , the College offers training in mobility , independent living and personal development .
Founded in 1871 in London as the Royal Normal College and Academy for the Blind , the college had a number of homes before moving to its campus in Hereford ; it was renamed the Royal National College for the Blind in the late 1970s . It has been a pioneer in the education of visually impaired people in Britain since the Victorian era , and , as of 2010 , is the only college for visually impaired students in the United Kingdom to have been awarded Beacon Status in recognition of its outstanding teaching and learning .
RNC hosts the UK 's first VI Sports Academy , having begun as the home of the first football academy for visually impaired players and the England blind football team . It hosted the 2010 World Blind Football Championship and also served as a training facility for participants in the 2012 Paralympic Games . The college is actively involved in the development of assistive technology , including student participation in the Tech Novice Cafe , run for members of the public who are not confident in computer use . Two notable devices were developed at RNC ; the Mountbatten Brailler , an electronic braille writer , and the T3 , a talking tactile device that helped with the reading of maps and diagrams .
Early in the 21st century , there was dramatic departmental restructuring at the college , and a significant redevelopment and modernisation of the Hereford campus . The campus , located on Venns Lane , Hereford , is home to RNC 's teaching , residential and leisure facilities . Students live in halls of residence , which enable them to gain a level of independence within the college environment . RNC operates a leisure facility , thePoint4 , which is open to the public , and conferencing and hotel accommodation under the name Gardner Hall . Principal Mark Fisher took over from his predecessor ( Sheila Tallon ) in December 2015 .
The college is a registered charity ( number 1000388 ) , and its Patron is Charles , Prince of Wales . There are several high @-@ profile supporters , including Dave Clarke , former captain of the England and Great Britain blind football teams . RNC has a number of notable people among its alumni , including former Home Secretary David Blunkett . The college was the subject of a 2007 film for the Channel 4 Cutting Edge documentary strand , which followed three students through their first term of study . The film won a 2008 Royal Television Society Award .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The college was established in 1871 by the English philanthropist Thomas Rhodes Armitage and the American anti @-@ slavery campaigner Francis Joseph Campbell , who lost his sight as a young boy . Campbell had originally planned to establish a college for the blind in the United States , but was persuaded by Armitage that London would be a more suitable location . At the time , English schools for the blind did not provide their students with the skills to become independent and , dissatisfied with this situation , Armitage dreamed of establishing a school whose emphasis was on music and which would prepare its students for careers as organists , piano tuners , and music teachers .
With donations of £ 3 @,@ 000 , the college enrolled its first two students on 1 March 1872 . Queen Victoria became its first Patron , while several prominent members of her family became Vice @-@ Patrons . Among those to become governors of the College were Duke of Westminster , Lord Shaftesbury , Lord Lichfield and the Right Hon. W. H. Smith , M.P. At the time of its founding it was called " The Royal Normal College and Academy for the Blind " , the word Normal being an American expression referring to teacher training offered by the college , with Campbell recruiting many of his teaching staff from the United States .
Originally located in two small buildings on Anerley Hill near London 's Crystal Palace , the college later moved to larger accommodation at Westow Street , Upper Norwood after rapidly outgrowing its original premises . In its early days , the college was considered very progressive and experimental in its approach to education . A history of the college on its website describes the curriculum as " liberal and advanced for its day " , and emphasis was placed on physical activities such as swimming , cycling and roller @-@ skating . Students even took part in a morning of tobogganing following a heavy fall of snow . By the end of the 19th century , the college had over 200 students . Until the Second World War the college admitted 11- to 15 @-@ year @-@ olds , but in 1945 the principal of RNC and headmaster of Worcester College for the Blind came to an agreement that Worcester would provide secondary education and RNC would take students over the age of 16 .
As well as being one of its founders , Francis Joseph Campbell served as RNC 's first principal , from 1871 until his retirement in 1912 . He was knighted as a Knight Bachelor by King Edward VII in 1909 , for his services to blind people . He was succeeded by his son , Guy Marshall Campbell , and following his death in 1929 Guy 's widow , Louie Bealby Campbell took over the position . The role of principal passed outside the Campbell family for the first time upon Louie Bealby Campbell 's retirement in 1934 .
= = = Relocation = = =
In the 20th century , the college moved location several times before establishing itself at its present campus in Hereford . The first of these moves occurred at the beginning of the Second World War , when the college was evacuated from its London site and moved to a mansion named Great Maytham in Rolvenden in west Kent . However , because of the threat of a German invasion , the authorities soon advised another move , and this time , with 24 hours notice and the help of the London Society for the Blind , a temporary home was found for RNC in Dorton , near Aylesbury , Buckinghamshire . At the time of the move most of the students were on holiday , although some thirty had remained at the college along with several staff members .
The college did not return to London because the Upper Norwood site – which was being used as a hospital following RNC 's move to Kent – was bombed in 1940 during the Blitz , then acquired by the authorities . The college had to close temporarily , until a permanent new home could be found , but in 1941 it purchased new premises at Rowton Castle near Shrewsbury and relocated there . The castle was built in the 17th Century and is situated in 17 acres ( 69 @,@ 000 m2 ) of grounds six miles ( 10 km ) west of Shrewsbury . This accommodation had limited space , and throughout its time in Shrewsbury RNC acquired other premises in and around the town . Albrighton Hall , about three miles ( 5 km ) from Shrewsbury , was acquired in 1955 and adapted for residential and training purposes for male students , and Hardy House was obtained as a new residential area for female students in 1958 . Plans to enlarge the Rowton site were seriously affected when , in 1953 , fire destroyed much of the buildings and 38 pianos and organs . The alarm was raised by one of the students , and everybody present was evacuated to safety . Training was able to continue after Henshaw 's Institution for the Blind took students and staff as a temporary measure .
RNC remained in Shropshire for many years until , in 1978 , more suitable accommodation was found that would enable RNC to consolidate its teaching and residential accommodation into one campus , and the college moved to its current home in Hereford . The site had previously been the campus of Hereford College of Education , a former teacher training college . In 1978 the college adopted its present name , the Royal National College for the Blind . RNC was opened at its new campus by Prince Charles , who arrived in Hereford by helicopter to perform the ceremony in 1979 .
= = = Hereford = = =
In the early 2000s the halls of residence at the Hereford campus underwent an extensive £ 1 @.@ 5 million upgrade . The blocks were originally built when the campus was being used as a teacher training college during the 1960s and were updated to include modern facilities such as larger student bedrooms with en @-@ suite bathrooms and space for televisions and computers , and improved social areas .
In 2006 the college announced an extensive expansion of its campus , including new halls of residence , a sports and complementary therapy building and a new outdoor floodlit sports pitch . The £ 21.5m sports development would be the venue for the 2010 World Blind Football Championship . A £ 10 million fundraising campaign , Building Brighter Futures , was created to raise the funds required to complete the project , and construction work began in the summer of 2007 . The complex , thePoint4 , was originally named The Point after a nearby block of flats . It includes a bistro and conference facilities , and commenced operation in April 2009 , and was officially opened on 24 June by BBC sports presenter and Daily Mail columnist Des Kelly . In 2008 the college was nominated as one of the sites for the 2012 Paralympic Games and acted as a pre @-@ Games training camp for Paralympic athletes .
RNC was the subject of a 2007 documentary for the Channel Four series Cutting Edge , which followed three young students ( Steve Markham , Daniel Angus and Selina Litt ) during their first term at the college . The film examines their individual journeys towards greater independence as they encounter the unique challenges that being visually impaired presents , as well as how they deal with the everyday issues that affect all teenagers , such as sex , relationships , partying and their future plans after graduation . The documentary , Blind Young Things , was first aired on 30 April 2007 , and won a Royal Television Society award for Channel Four and the Cutting Edge team in 2008 .
In September 2009 the college became the permanent home of the National BlindArt Collection , a collection of paintings , sculptures , installations and other works of art designed to engage all the senses and to provide people who are visually impaired with greater accessibility to art . In November 2009 RNC announced that it had been forced to send a third of its students home following an outbreak of swine flu on campus . During the heavy winter snowfall of 2009 – 2010 the college 's sports facilities were utilised by the Hereford United team for training after the bad weather conditions made using their own grounds at Edgar Street difficult .
In January 2010 two students from the college appeared with the fashion consultant Gok Wan in an edition of the Channel 4 series How to Look Good Naked ... with a Difference , where they took part in a photo shoot . The series sought to highlight confidence issues among people with disabilities . In February 2010 the college secured a £ 90 @,@ 000 grant from the Learning and Skills Improvement Service to install a music video production studio enabling bands to record material and showcase their work .
RNC celebrated its 140th anniversary in March 2012 with a day of events at its campus and a street collection in Hereford .
= = = Restructuring = = =
In the late 2000s RNC underwent significant restructuring as it responded to changes in the world of employment and therefore the courses that it offered its students . However , some of the college 's changes provoked criticism from staff and students who argued these were not in RNC 's best interest . There was some controversy over the college 's decision to reduce the availability of courses in piano tuning , traditionally regarded as a secure profession for visually impaired people , while fears were expressed that the decrease in A Level subjects would lead to RNC becoming a sport rather than an academic orientated college . Responding to these concerns in July 2008 , the then principal Christine Steadman told In Touch , the BBC Radio 4 news programme for visually impaired listeners ; " It 's about what the local authorities , what the learning and skills council , what the Welsh Assembly for government will purchase from us . And at the moment we are reducing a small number of A Level courses but at the same time we 're extending other courses , for example we 've got level 3 Braille being taught for the first time at the college , we 're not cutting A Levels , we 're just responding to the needs of the learners that are coming through our doors . " In an interview in January 2010 , current principal Geoff Draper said that piano tuning would be taught at the college if there was a demand for it , and suggested RNC could look to bringing in international students to fill places .
The changes led to significant department reorganisations within RNC , with several dozen staff members being summarily dismissed without explanation ; some were replaced by volunteers . A number of former college employees made complaints regarding the manner in which their employment was ended . In July 2008 the college lecturers union , the University and College Union , called for greater consultation between management and staff at the college . Speaking in a 2009 interview with In Touch Ian Pickford , who was brought in as interim principal following Christine Steadman 's departure , claimed that the atmosphere of the college had changed and issued a challenge to any student or member of staff who was still unhappy to meet with him to discuss their concerns .
Financial concerns were raised in 2009 over the cost of the new leisure complex , and because of a change in the source of student funding from the Learning and Skills Council to Local Education Authorities . The college was facing a shortfall of at least £ 500 @,@ 000 in 2009 and its auditors expressed doubt about RNC 's ability to continue as a going concern . In response Ian Pickford said that much of thePoint4 's costs had been paid for through donations and that the shortfall issue was being addressed through cutbacks , including some redundancies . Of the auditors ' concerns he said ; " I think post the banking crisis a lot of auditors are incredibly nervous about making bland statements in terms of the future of organisations and therefore they frequently now put those sort of caveats in to protect their position going forward . "
= = Assistive technology = =
The college is actively involved in the development and use of assistive technology to aid visually impaired people in their everyday lives . For example , working with a United States @-@ based software engineer , RNC produced the T3 ( Talking Tactile Tablet ) , a touch sensitive device for interpreting tactile images such as diagrams , charts and maps . The device is connected to a computer and run with a programme CD , and has a tactile surface which produces touchable icons that provide audio feedback when they are pressed . The device was originally developed for educational purposes but can be adapted for other uses . In 2005 Hereford Museum and Art Gallery became the first in the United Kingdom to invest in the technology . The T3 was later marketed internationally with the help of the UK Trade & Investment 's passport initiative – a scheme which gives new exporters the training , planning and support they need to succeed in overseas markets .
The Mountbatten , an electronic Braille writing machine and embosser , was pioneered and developed at the college by Ernest Bate . Work began on the project following a bequest in the will of the late Lord Louis Mountbatten for the development of a modern , low cost , portable brailler . It has been available since 1991 , and is manufactured by Quantum Technology , a company based in Australia . In the early 1990s two RNC lecturers , Clive Ellis and Tony Larkin , invented the Hoople , a hoop @-@ shaped mobility aid for blind people which performs a similar role to a white cane , but is designed for use in a rural environment and on rough terrain . RNC lecturer Nigel Berry designed the Fingerprints Braille course , which was first published in 1993 and is now widely used to teach adult beginners to touch @-@ read and write grade 2 Braille .
RNC is involved in the RoboBraille project which allows visually impaired Internet users to have text translated into Braille and MP3 audio format via email . The system , developed in Denmark , was launched in June 2006 and won a British Computer Society Social Contribution Project Award in 2007 . ClearText , which enables visually impaired users to browse the web more easily by making text easier for them to read , was developed in conjunction with the college . In 2009 RNC lecturer Tony Sales developed Vinux , an accessible version of the Linux operating system for the visually impaired .
= = Education = =
RNC provides full @-@ time and shorter courses in vocational and academic subjects for approximately 200 students aged 16 and above . In 2008 there were 196 students in attendance , 74 of whom were aged 16 to 18 and 122 aged 19 years and over . Younger students often join the college straight from school , while adult students are from a diverse range of backgrounds . Students have often been visually impaired since birth or may have lost their sight in later life as a result of illness or accident . Some students have additional disabilities such as autistic spectrum disorder and other medical needs . They can attend the college on a daily or residential basis , and accommodation is provided for those who board . There were 152 residential and 44 day students in 2008 .
Courses vary in length from a few weeks to two years . There are no formal academic requirements for entry into RNC , but potential students are invited to attend an assessment at the college before being offered a place to determine the level of support they will need during their studies . The assessment typically includes an evaluation of a person 's level of vision , their mobility and independence skills , any residential support they may require , basic literacy and numeracy skills tests , and an interview with the leader of the course they wish to take .
Study programmes at RNC are designed to prepare visually impaired students for progression into further education , university or employment . The development of independent living and personal skills is also encouraged . The college is divided into several different areas of study . These include Leisure , Therapies and Sport ( including courses and qualifications in massage , complementary therapies , and sport treatment and management ) ; Music , Media , Performance and Art ( including courses and qualifications in music technology , media and art ) ; Information and Communication Technology ( including courses and qualifications in office skills and the European Computer Driving Licence ) ; Business , Administration and Customer Service ; Secondary level qualifications – General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) and General Certificate of Education Advanced Level ( A @-@ Level ) qualifications in subjects such as English , mathematics , French and psychology ; and Braille reading . On top of academic and vocational study students are also taught to develop independence and mobility skills for day @-@ to @-@ day living . Topics covered here include the use of a white cane and becoming familiar with the surrounding environment , using public transport safely and confidently , cooking and laundry skills , and using cash machines or making Chip and PIN credit card transactions .
Traditionally courses in Piano Tuning and Piano Technology were also available at the college . However , these were significantly reduced in the late 2000s because of a decline in the number of students studying the subjects . There has also been a reduction in the number of A @-@ levels available for study owing to changes in the types of courses education funding bodies supporting students at RNC are willing to pay for .
RNC began to offer its first Higher Education ( or university level ) qualification in January 2010 with the launch of the Certificate in Higher Education : Working with People with Visual Impairment Programme . The qualification is offered in collaboration with St Joseph 's Centre for the Visually Impaired in Dublin and the University of Worcester .
Following an inspection by the Office for Standards in Education , Children 's Services and Skills ( Ofsted ) in 2004 the quality of the college 's teaching was graded as " outstanding " , and in 2005 RNC was one of only eight colleges in the UK to be awarded Learning and Skills Beacon Status . It is the only college for visually impaired students to have Beacon status , which is only given to educational establishments which have received a first @-@ class Ofsted inspection report . RNC was again praised by Ofsted in 2009 for its continued good progress when Inspectors graded the college as " outstanding " across all six areas inspected and said it had gained ground since its last inspection in 2006 .
= = Campus = =
RNC has four halls of residence , three of which ( Armitage , Campbell and Dowdell ) have been updated in recent years to include modern facilities in accordance with Care Standards and Disability Discrimination Act requirements . Specific accommodation has been adapted for wheelchair users , while some rooms have sensory fire alarm calls to alert those who are hard of hearing . Halls are divided into flats accommodating several students . Each flat has a number of single rooms with shared kitchen and dining facilities , and a central lounge .
Because it was not possible to upgrade Gardner Hall , a new modern block , Orchard Hall , was built to replace it . Gardner became an assessment centre for prospective students . In September 2009 Gardner was made available as a venue for hire for functions such as weddings . In addition to the halls of residence , the college also owns several houses both on and off campus which enable students to gain a greater level of independent living . There is a restaurant which provides meals , or students can choose to be self @-@ catering . All accommodation has kitchen facilities .
On @-@ campus facilities include a gym , sports hall , a floodlit all @-@ weather football pitch and tennis courts . RNC 's thePoint4 complex offers sporting , leisure and conference facilities , as well as a bistro , and is open to both students and members of the general public . Other facilities at RNC include the Flexible Learning Centre , which features the latest assistive technology and learning resources and is open seven days a week , a student social club which is licensed to sell alcohol to students who are 18 and over , and a student common room . The college has an active Students ' Union which plays an important role in college life , being responsible for organising leisure activities both on and off campus . There are also on @-@ campus medical facilities .
In December 2008 the Hereford Times reported that the college would be home to a sculpture by the Herefordshire @-@ based contemporary artist Walenty Pytel that he would create using an original drawing produced by an RNC student . The piece , depicting a man running in a Futurist style and titled the 4Runner was unveiled in September 2009 and stands on a 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) plinth outside the entrance of the sports and leisure complex .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
RNC is the home of the first football academy for visually impaired players . The Football Academy was officially opened in August 2008 by former England footballer Sir Trevor Brooking and offers visually impaired students the opportunity to include football as part of their study programme with a view to playing the game at a national level . The college is the home of the England blind football team , which is supported by the Football Association and coached by former professional footballer Tony Larkin . The game is played as a five @-@ a @-@ side match using a ball filled with ballbearings to enable players to hear its position . Teams consist of four blind players and a sighted goalkeeper who offers directions along with the coach and a sighted guide behind the opposition goalpost . RNC is helping to develop a national blind football league . In 2010 RNC hosted the World Blind Football Championship at its campus . The tournament got under way on Saturday 14 August with the opening match between England and Spain , and was won by Brazil following a 2 – 0 win against Spain in the final on 22 August . Members of England 's blind football team travelled to Los Angeles in November 2011 to promote the sport in the United States , and took part in a day 's training with former England captain David Beckham . The trip was organised by supermarket chain Sainsbury 's as part of their sponsorship deal with the footballer .
Blind cricket , which is played basically the same as conventional cricket but using larger stumps and wickets and a white ball so that players may see it much more easily , is also played at the college , and RNC has its own cricket team , which competes in the British Blind Sport ( BBS ) National Cricket League . The college also features acoustic shooting , a sport which uses air rifles fitted with photoelectric cells which convert light reflected from targets into sound .
As well as football , cricket and acoustic shooting , students at RNC can participate in a wide range of other sporting and athletic activities , including horse riding , swimming , ten pin bowling , weight training , circuit training and martial arts . Away from sport , other activities include art and design , ceramics , drama and dance , photography and gardening . There are shopping excursions and trips to the cinema and theatre , while clubs and societies include a dining club and the RNC choir .
= = Notable people and alumni = =
The college is a charitable organisation and is registered with the Charity Commission , the government body which oversees charities in England and Wales . It has a number of high @-@ profile supporters which include Charles , Prince of Wales , who is the current Patron , a position he has held since 1997 . The current president is Mrs Jessica White , and there are several public figures who serve as vice presidents . These include the Archbishop of Canterbury , the Archbishop of York , the Archbishop of Westminster , Countess Mountbatten of Burma and Michael Buerk . In 2008 the BBC sports presenter Gabby Logan and Daily Mail columnist Des Kelly both became Patrons of the England Blind Football team .
Since the Principalship passed outside the Campbell family in 1934 a number of individuals have held the position . Among them are Lance Marshall who was principal at the time the college moved to its Hereford campus in 1978 , followed by Colin Housby @-@ Smith and then Roisin Burge . Christine Steadman oversaw the college 's restructuring during her tenure in the late 2000s and proved to be unpopular with staff and students ; Steadman resigned in November 2008 . Geoff Draper , a former Colonel in the British Army , was appointed to the position on 7 December 2009 . The present incumbent is Sheila Tallon , who succeeded Draper in September 2011 .
Graduates of the college include David Blunkett , British Labour Party politician and former Home Secretary , and Alfred Hollins , English composer and organist . Giles McKinley , who starred in a groundbreaking television commercial for Sauza Tequila during the 1990s , is a former RNC student . The actor Ryan Kelly , who in 1997 , became the first completely blind student to join the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , and plays the role of Jack " Jazzer " McCreary in Radio 4 's The Archers , attended RNC . The Paralympic cyclist Anthony Kappes also studied at the college .
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= Adiantum viridimontanum =
Adiantum viridimontanum , commonly known as Green Mountain maidenhair fern , is a rare fern found only in outcrops of serpentine rock in New England and Eastern Canada . The leaf blade is cut into finger @-@ like segments , themselves once @-@ divided , which are borne on the outer side of a curved , dark , glossy rachis ( the central stalk of the leaf ) . These finger @-@ like segments are not individual leaves , but parts of a single compound leaf . The " fingers " may be drooping or erect , depending on whether the individual fern grows in shade or sunlight . Spores are borne under false indusia ( rolled flaps of tissue ) at the edge of the subdivisions of the leaf , a characteristic unique to the genus Adiantum .
Until 1991 , A. viridimontanum was grouped with the western maidenhair fern , A. aleuticum , which grows both in western North America and as a disjunct on serpentine outcrops in eastern North America . At one time , A. aleuticum itself was classified as a variety ( A. pedatum var. aleuticum ) of the northern maidenhair fern , A. pedatum . However , after several years of study , botanist Cathy Paris recognized that A. aleuticum was a distinct species , and that some of the specimens that had been attributed to that taxon ( group of organisms ) were a third , hybrid species intermediate between A. pedatum and A. aleuticum . She named the new species A. viridimontanum for the site of its discovery in the Green Mountains in Vermont ; it has since been located in Quebec and in one site on serpentine in coastal Maine .
A. viridimontanum is difficult to distinguish from its parent species in the field . It can generally be separated from A. pedatum by the shape of the ultimate segments ( the smallest divisions of the leaf ) , and by its habitat on thin , exposed serpentine soils rather than in rich woodlands . It more closely resembles A. aleuticum ; however , the stalks of the ultimate segments and the false indusia are longer and the spores larger .
Due to its limited distribution and similarity to other Adiantum species within its range , little is known of its ecology . It thrives on sunny , disturbed areas where ultramafic rock is covered with thin soil , such as road cuts , talus slopes , and asbestos mines . Individual plants seem long @-@ lived , and new individuals only infrequently reach maturity . It is one of four species endemic to serpentine in eastern North America and is considered globally threatened due to its habitat restrictions .
= = Description = =
Adiantum viridimontanum is a medium @-@ sized , deciduous , terrestrial fern , about 2 feet ( 60 cm ) wide and 1 to 2 feet ( 30 to 60 cm ) high . Its fronds range from 30 to 75 cm ( 12 to 30 in ) in length from the base of the stem to the tip . Like many ferns , the frond of A. viridimontanum is divided into a series of leaflets , known as pinnae , and the pinnae are further divided into pinnules . The shape of the frond in A. pedatum , A. aleuticum , and A. viridimontanum is very similar . They are usually described as having a rachis that forks into two branches , which curve outwards and backwards . Several pinnae grow from the outer side of the curve of each rachis branch , with the longest pinnae located closest to the fork of the rachis . The fingerlike pinnae are pinnately divided into short @-@ stalked pinnules .
However , this interpretation of the frond architecture ( pedately divided into pinnae , then pinnately divided into pinnules ) presents a problem : no other species of Adiantum , nor any other member of the Polypodiaceae sensu lato ( the family in which Adiantum was once included ) has a forking rachis . In fact , these species are not pedate , but pseudopedate . What appears to be a fork in the rachis is in fact the junction between the rachis and a basal pinna . That basal pinna makes up one of the two curving branches ; the rachis runs straight up the first fingerlike segment on the other branch , while the remainder of that curving branch is made up of the other basal pinna . Both basal pinnae are further divided and subdivided to create the other fingerlike segments . Therefore , even though they appear structurally similar , the longest and most central fingerlike segment represents the tip of the frond , pinnately divided into pinnae ( the first level of division of the frond ) , while the two shorter fingerlike segments immediately on either side of it are pinnae , pinnately divided into pinnules ( the second level of division ) . Each fingerlike segment thereafter represents a level of division one greater than the one that precedes it . Therefore , the final , pinnate subdivisions of each fingerlike segment may be referred to as " ultimate segments " to avoid the technical inaccuracy of calling them pinnules .
The rhizome shows little branching , with intervals of 4 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 5 mm between nodes . It measures 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 5 mm in diameter . The rhizome and the stipe ( the part of the stem below the leaf ) have bronze @-@ colored scales . The stipe and rachis range from chestnut brown to dark purple in color and are glabrous ; the stipe is about 2 to 3 mm in diameter while the rachis is smaller , 1 to 2 mm . The basal pinnae are from three to seven times pinnate ( due to the pseudopedate structure of the blade ) , while the apical parts of the blade ( and the corresponding segments of the basal pinnae ) are once @-@ pinnate . The penultimate segments of the blade ( the apparent " pinnae " , or fingerlike segments ) are typically lanceolate in shape . The overall arrangement of the penultimate segments ranges from drooping and fan @-@ shaped on plants growing in the shade to funnel @-@ shaped on plants growing in full sun ; under the latter conditions , the segments stand stiffly erect .
The ultimate segments of the divided blade ( the apparent " pinnules " ) are borne on short , dark stalks of 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 5 mm , with the dark color often spreading into the base of each segment . They are long and obliquely triangular , the basiscopic margin forming the hypotenuse . The tip of the segments is typically acute , but entire ( not pointed ) . They measure from 9 @.@ 5 to 22 @.@ 5 mm in length and 4 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 5 mm in breadth , the average length being about 2 @.@ 5 times the breadth . Their tissue is herbaceous ( firmly leafy ) to chartaceous ( parchment @-@ like ) in texture , and bright green to bluish @-@ green in color . As in other members of Adiantum , the glabrous leaves shed water when young . Under shady conditions , the ultimate segments lie within the plane of the blade , but tend to twist out of the plane when grown in the sun . The acroscopic margins of these segments are lobed , with narrow ( less than 1 @.@ 0 mm ) incisions lying between lobes . In fertile segments , these lobes are recurved to form false indusia beneath the leaf . These are transversely oblong , from 2 to 5 mm in length and from 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 4 mm in width .
The sporangia ( the fern 's spore @-@ bearing structures ) are borne on the underside of the leaf beneath the false indusium , a trait found in all members of Adiantum and not in any species outside it . The sori are round , and are found on veins ending in the false indusium , below the veins ' ends . The spores are tetrahedral to globose , yellow in color , and measure 41 to 58 micrometers ( μm ) in diameter ( averaging 51 @.@ 4 μm ) , on average larger than other species in the A. pedatum complex . Spores appear in the summer and fall . The species has a chromosome number of 116 in the sporophyte .
= = = Identification = = =
Adiantum viridimontanum closely resembles the other species in the A. pedatum complex ( A. pedatum and A. aleuticum ) , and distinguishing the three in the field is difficult . Paris and Windham , in their study of the complex , noted that while each species , collectively , can be distinguished from the others , no single morphological character was absolutely distinctive among species . Sterile triploid hybrids between A. viridimontanum and the other two species may occur , further complicating field identification .
One potentially distinguishing character is the shape of the ultimate segments in the middle part of the leaf blade , which are oblong in A. pedatum and long @-@ triangular or reniform ( kidney @-@ shaped ) in A. viridimontanum and some specimens of A. aleuticum . Furthermore , A. viridimontanum can grow in both shade and sun , while A. pedatum grows in shade only .
Adiantum viridimontanum can be separated from the morphologically similar individuals of A. aleuticum by the greater length of the stalks on the medial ultimate segments and of the false indusia , measuring greater than 0 @.@ 9 mm and greater than 3 @.@ 5 mm , respectively , in A. viridimontanum . Spore size is also a useful character ( although not easily measured in the field ) ; the average A. viridimontanum spore measures 51 @.@ 4 μm in diameter . While A. aleuticum spores can reach up to 53 μm , they average about 43 μm . In A. aleuticum growing as a disjunct on eastern serpentine ( the specimens most likely to be confused with A. viridimontanum ) , the rhizome is much more frequently branched , with intervals of 1 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 0 mm between nodes .
= = Taxonomy = =
All species in the genus Adiantum are currently placed in the subfamily Vittarioideae of family Pteridaceae on the basis of molecular phylogenetic evidence .
The work which led to the recognition of Adiantum viridimontanum as a distinct taxon began in the early 20th Century . Following the discovery of disjunct specimens of western maidenhair fern , then classified as A. pedatum var. aleuticum , on the serpentine tableland of Mount Albert by Merritt Lyndon Fernald in 1905 , botanists began to search for western maidenhair on ultramafic outcrops elsewhere in Quebec and Vermont . It was first identified in Vermont by L. Frances Jolley in 1922 at Belvidere Mountain in Eden . In 1983 , William J. Cody transferred A. pedatum growing on serpentine , both in eastern and western North America , to A. pedatum ssp. calderi instead . Many of the stations for the fern in Vermont were described in 1985 , in a survey of ultramafic outcrops in that state .
From 1983 to 1985 , Cathy A. Paris , then a graduate student , gathered specimens of A. pedatum from non @-@ serpentine soils in the Midwest and Vermont , and from serpentine soils in New England and Canada , for biosystematic analysis . In 1988 , Paris and Michael D. Windham published the results of this analysis , revealing A. pedatum in North America to be a cryptic species complex . They showed that A. pedatum sensu lato included two well @-@ distinguished diploid taxa , one found in the Eastern woodlands , and the other found both in the Western mountains and as a disjunct on serpentine in the East . However , not all of the serpentine disjuncts proved to belong to the Western taxon . Several of them , including most of the specimens in Vermont , were found to be tetraploid , forming a taxon distinguishable from the two diploids . Isozyme banding patterns suggested that the tetraploid had arisen by hybridization between the eastern subspecies of non @-@ serpentine woodlands and the western and serpentine taxon , followed by a duplication of the hybrid genome through polyploidy ( allowing the chromosomes to pair and restoring sexual fertility ) . This allotetraploid was also morphologically intermediate between the two taxa , although it more closely resembled the serpentine taxon ( hence its referral to var. aleuticum before Paris 's work ) . Paris formally described the tetraploid as a new species , A. viridimontanum , in 1991 , and also separated the western and serpentine taxon from A. pedatum as the species A. aleuticum . The type specimen of A. viridimontanum was collected from a talus slope at the old asbestos mine on Belvidere Mountain on August 28 , 1985 . The sequencing of several chloroplast DNA loci has revealed that the A. viridimontanum chloroplast genome most closely resembles that of A. aleuticum , suggesting that A. aleuticum was the maternal parent of A. viridimontanum .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Adiantum viridimontanum is narrowly distributed in New England and Quebec . Seven stations in Vermont lie in the Missisquoi Valley , in the northern Green Mountains , giving the fern its common name . The ultramafic rocks of this area extend northwards into Quebec , where eight stations are known in southern Quebec and six in the Thetford Mines area . It is also known from one station on serpentine on Deer Isle , Maine .
The fern thrives in thin serpentine soils on sunny , disturbed habitats such as roadcuts and talus slopes , in dunite and other ultramafic rocks . Anthropogenic disturbance has removed thicker soils and increased sun exposure in many of these sites ; for instance , many of the Quebec stations are in asbestos mines , both abandoned and active . In more natural habitats , frost weathering and erosion may promote rock fall and maintain suitable habitat .
The eastern serpentine outcrops where A. viridimontanum thrives have relatively few endemics , compared to serpentine exposures globally . A. viridimontanum is one of only five taxa ( four species and a variety ) that are strictly endemic to serpentine in eastern North America , and two of these , A. aleuticum and Aspidotis densa , grow on non @-@ serpentine substrates elsewhere in North America .
= = Ecology = =
Adiantum viridimontanum largely reproduces asexually by branching rather than sexually through spores . While wind @-@ blown spores can result in sexual reproduction for the species , most spores probably fall within a relatively short radius of the plant . In addition , reproduction through spore dispersal requires the spore to land in suitable conditions for generating a gametophyte , typically in bright sunlight on thin serpentine soils . These requirements allow A. viridimontanum to colonize recently disturbed sites on ultramafic outcrops , where bedrock has been exposed and competing plants have been removed . The populations appear stable , with the long life of individuals compensating for low recruitment rates .
Little is known about the role of A. viridimontanum in the ecosystem . In general , ferns are less susceptible to herbivory than flowering plants due to higher levels of toxic and distasteful compounds in their foliage . A. viridimontanum is not known to be threatened by a particular predator or disease .
= = Conservation = =
Under the NatureServe conservation status system , A. viridimontanum is considered globally vulnerable ( G3 ) . It is considered imperiled ( S2 ) in Vermont and vulnerable ( S3 ) in Quebec ; it has not yet been classified in Maine .
Conservation of A. viridimontanum is primarily limited by its restricted habitat on serpentine cliffs and talus slopes . However , these sites are also of little value to humans . The most likely threat to the species is expansion of asbestos mining , which often occurs near populations of the fern , or other reuse of abandoned asbestos mines . Road construction might also threaten some sites , although this is mitigated by the fern 's ability to flourish on disturbed serpentine . None of the sites are as yet known to be invaded by non @-@ native plants . The species is considered more difficult to cultivate than either of its parent species .
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= Hurricane Audrey =
Hurricane Audrey was an extremely destructive tropical cyclone which primarily impacted areas of the South Central United States in June 1957 . The first named storm and hurricane of the annual hurricane season , it first formed on June 25 , 1957 from a tropical wave which moved into the Bay of Campeche , developing so quickly that it was never recorded at tropical depression status . Situated within favorable conditions for tropical development , Audrey quickly strengthened , reaching hurricane status just a few hours after being classified as a tropical cyclone . Moving generally northwards , it continued to strengthen as it approached the United States Gulf Coast . On June 27 , the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) , making it a major hurricane . At the time , Audrey had a minimum barometric pressure of 945 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) . The hurricane made landfall at the same intensity between the mouth of the Sabine River and Cameron , Louisiana later that day , causing unprecedented destruction across the region . Once inland , Audrey rapidly weakened and turned extratropical over Louisiana on June 28 , before fully dissipating on June 29 .
Prior to making landfall , Audrey severely disrupted offshore drilling operations in the Gulf of Mexico . Damages from offshore oil facilities alone was estimated at $ 16 million . Audrey caused much of its destruction near the border between Texas and Louisiana upon its first and only landfall . The hurricane 's strong winds resulted in widespread property and infrastructural damage . Power outages also resulted from the strong winds . However , as typical with most landfalling tropical cyclones , most of the destruction at the coast was the result of the hurricane 's strong storm surge , which was amplified by Audrey 's rapid deepening just prior to landfall . The hurricane 's storm surge was reported to have peaked as high as 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , helping to inundate coastal areas . Damage from the surge alone extended 25 mi ( 40 km ) inland . The rough seas killed nine people offshore after capsizing the boat they were in . Further inland in Louisiana , the storm spawned two tornadoes , causing additional damage . The hurricane also dropped heavy rainfall , peaking at 10 @.@ 63 in ( 270 mm ) near Basile , Louisiana . In Louisiana and Texas , where Audrey first impacted , damages totaled $ 128 million .
After moving inland and transitioning into an extratropical cyclone , Audrey caused additional damage across the interior United States . The storm produced 23 tornadoes across Mississippi and Alabama , causing $ 600 @,@ 000 in losses and killing two people . As it moved towards the northeast , moisture associated with the extratropical remnants of Audrey intersected with a weather front over the Midwestern United States , producing record rainfall that peaked at 10 @.@ 20 in ( 259 @.@ 08 mm ) in Paris , Illinois . The resultant flooding resulted in ten fatalities . Elsewhere in the United States , the storm brought strong winds , causing additional damage . Further north in Canada , 15 people were killed in Ontario and Quebec . Strong winds and torrential rainfall disrupted transportation services . In Quebec , ten people were killed in the Montreal area , making Audrey the deadliest hurricane to strike the Canadian province in recorded history . The storm was also considered the worst storm to strike Quebec in at least 20 years . In the United States , Audrey killed at least 416 people , the majority of which were in Cameron Parish Louisiana , though the final death total may never be known . Damage totaled $ 147 million in the country , at the time the fifth @-@ costliest hurricane recorded in the US since 1900 . The name Audrey was later retired from usage as an identifier for an Atlantic hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
Between June 20 and 25 , 1957 , an ill @-@ defined tropical wave moved across the Caribbean Sea , over the Yucatán Peninsula , and into the Bay of Campeche . The system was difficult to trace until a report on June 24 from Carmen , Mexico confirmed the presence of a low pressure area . Later that evening , a shrimp boat in the Bay of Campeche reported sustained winds of 40 to 45 mph ( 65 to 75 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1008 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 78 inHg ) . As the disturbance developed , a large trough extended from a low over the Hudson Bay into the Gulf of Mexico . The " latitudinal superposition " of these systems resulting in the intensification of both . Situated over an area of high sea surface temperatures ( approximately 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) ) and within a region of favorable upper @-@ level divergence , the tropical disturbance rapidly deepened overnight . The system was declared a tropical depression early on June 25 as it became stationary over the southern Gulf of Mexico . An aircraft reconnaissance mission into the storm on June 25 revealed that the system had already intensified into a hurricane , reporting winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . At this time , Audrey was located approximately 380 mi ( 610 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas .
After attaining hurricane status , Audrey began to slowly move northward in response troughing in the upper @-@ levels of the atmosphere . Continued reconnaissance missions into the storm revealed a well @-@ developed structure , indicating that the system had become increasingly powerful . Only one observation close to the storm 's center was made from this point until its landfall ; the tanker Tillamook encountered the hurricane 's western eyewall between 0910 and 1025 UTC on June 27 . During this time , a pressure of 969 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 62 inHg ) was measured . According to the Hurricane Database , Audrey attained winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) shortly after passing this tanker , making it a Category 4 on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . Around 1430 UTC on June 27 , the eye of Audrey made landfall between the mouth of the Sabine River and Cameron , Louisiana . Adjustments were made to the strength of Hurricane Audrey winds were previously thought to have been at approximately 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . Later research showed the maximum sustained winds only reached 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) .
After maintaining its eye 60 mi ( 95 km ) inland , Audrey dramatically weakened and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it turned northeastward over Louisiana , and reached Tennessee as a 995 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) low . At this point , the system interacted with a wave extending from a polar front near Chicago , Illinois and subsequently re @-@ intensified . Curving northward and later northwestward around another extratropical low , the system attained a pressure of 974 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 76 inHg ) as it moved near Lake Huron . The rapid deepening of Audrey as an extratropical cyclone was stated to be similar to that of Hurricane Hazel in 1954 . By this point , the system was again producing hurricane @-@ force winds , with Jamestown , New York reporting gusts up to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . By June 29 , the system became entangled with the other cyclone and was eventually absorbed into its circulation over southern Quebec .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
The name " Audrey " was soon retired and will never be used again to name a hurricane . Because of this , it was the only use of the name Audrey for the Atlantic Basin . Hurricane Audrey left $ 147 million ( 1957 USD ) in damage and at least 416 fatalities in the US , most in eastern Texas and western Louisiana . Audrey is ranked as the sixth deadliest hurricane to hit the United States mainland since accurate record @-@ keeping began in 1900 . No future hurricane caused as many fatalities in the United States until Katrina in 2005 .
= = = Gulf of Mexico = = =
One mobile drilling rig sank , with four tenders suffering damage when pulled loose from their mooring and running aground . The damage from all offshore oil facilities totaled US $ 16 million ( 1957 dollars ) .
= = = Texas and Louisiana = = =
Shortly after Audrey was classified as a tropical cyclone , the United States Weather Bureau advised ships in the path of the storm to exercise caution and small craft to remain in port on June 26 . In addition , the Weather Bureau requested for Texas and Louisiana to issue hurricane watches for their coasts . These requested watches were later succeeded by a hurricane warning for the entire Louisiana coast later that day . This warning was later extended westward to include areas of the Texas coast south to High Island , Texas . Northwest storm warnings were issued for the upper Texas coast north of Galveston , Texas , while southeast storm warnings were issued for coastal areas between the western border of Mississippi and Pensacola , Florida . These warnings remained posted until Audrey made landfall . Small craft warnings were issued the next day for coastal areas between Brownsville , Texas and Pensacola , Florida .
Residents in exposed low @-@ lying areas were urged to evacuate , due to the potential for high and damaging storm surge . Evacuation procedures in Texas began on June 27 , starting with residents in the Bolivar Peninsula area . Several power lines were redirected to Fort Davis to act as an emergency supply in the event of a mass evacuation . In Louisiana , schools were set up as emergency shelters . All residents on Grand Isle were urged to evacuate after the island was isolated from the mainland during Hurricane Flossy a year prior ; 3 @,@ 400 residents later evacuated from the island to cities in southern Louisiana . However , 600 residents remained on the island during the storm . Civil defense groups in the state placed key personnel in the area on 24 @-@ hour duty .
= = = = Texas = = = =
Although making landfall near the border between Texas and Louisiana , areas of eastern Texas saw relatively less damage associated with Audrey . In Port Arthur , Texas , winds gusted to 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) , while the barometric pressure fell to 966 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 52 inHg ) . The strong winds blew down communication lines and uprooted trees . Storm surge heights exceeded 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in coastal areas north of Galveston . Further south in Corpus Christi , Texas , storm tides peaked at 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal , washing out portions of Mustang Island Park Road . A 0 @.@ 75 mi ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) section of Texas State Highway 87 between High Island and Sabine Pass , Texas was later closed after sections of the highway were washed out by high water . Further inland , rainfall peaked at 7 @.@ 35 in ( 187 mm ) at Jefferson County Airport , setting a daily rainfall record . Overall , Audrey caused $ 8 million in damages and nine deaths in Texas .
= = = Elsewhere in the United States = = =
While moving inland , Audrey spawned 23 tornadoes which killed two people and injured 14 others in Mississippi and Alabama , while causing $ 600 @,@ 000 ( 1957 USD ) in damage . In the Midwest , the flow of moisture from Audrey intersected a weather front to its north , creating a large storm with associated rainfall of 5 inches ( 130 mm ) to 11 inches ( 280 mm ) extending from central Missouri east @-@ northeast across central Illinois and central Indiana . The 10 @.@ 20 inches ( 259 mm ) of rain that fell in Paris , Illinois led to a monthly precipitation record for June of 17 @.@ 65 inches ( 448 mm ) and its wettest year on record with a total of 61 @.@ 59 inches ( 1 @,@ 564 mm ) . It also flooded the entire town . The storm dropped huge amounts of rain that caused significant flooding , leaving 10 fatalities . In Pennsylvania , the storm produced 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) sustained winds while winds of 95 – 100 mph ( 153 – 161 km / h ) were reported in New York . In Canada , winds up to 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) were reported and there were 15 fatalities .
As an extratropical cyclone , Audrey brought hurricane @-@ force winds as far east as St. Albans , Vermont , where a gust of 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) was measured . Throughout the state , countless tress and power lines were downed . In Maine , rough seas stirred up by the storm forced yachts to be grounded .
= = = Canada = = =
The remnants of Audrey entered Ontario with tropical storm force winds after crossing Lake Ontario . Heavy rainfall in the province washed out roads and rail lines . Six people were trapped in Algonquin Provincial Park for four days due to dangerous river currents and downed trees blocking roads . One boy drowned and a firefighter died due to the storm , and three other people died in Ontario due to traffic accidents . In neighboring Quebec , the remnants of Audrey were considered the worst storm in about 20 years , and over 100 houses were damaged by floods . The Montreal district of Saraguay lost power for several days . Throughout Montreal , there were 10 deaths , nine of which due to traffic accidents . This made Audrey the deadliest tropical cyclone in Quebec on record .
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= Zaolzie =
Zaolzie [ zaˈɔlʑɛ ] is the Polish name for an area now in the Czech Republic which was disputed between interwar Poland and Czechoslovakia . The name means " lands beyond the Olza River " ; it is also called Śląsk zaolziański , meaning " trans @-@ Olza Silesia " . Equivalent terms in other languages include Zaolší ( Zaolží ) in Czech and Olsa @-@ Gebiet in German . The Zaolzie region was created in 1920 , when Cieszyn Silesia was divided between Czechoslovakia and Poland . Zaolzie forms the eastern part of the Czech portion of Cieszyn Silesia . The division did not satisfy any side , and persisting conflict over the region led to its annexation by Poland in October 1938 , following the Munich Agreement . After German invasion of Poland in 1939 , the area became a part of Nazi Germany until 1945 . After the war , the 1920 borders were restored .
Historically , the largest specified ethnic group inhabiting this area were those identifying as Poles . Under Austrian rule , Cieszyn Silesia was initially divided into three ( Bielitz , Friedek and Teschen ) , and later into four districts ( plus Freistadt ) . One of them , Frýdek , had a mostly Czech population , the other three were mostly inhabited by Poles . During the 19th century the number of ethnic Germans grew . After declining at the end of the 19th century , at the beginning of the 20th century and later from 1920 to 1938 the Czech population grew significantly ( mainly as a result of immigration and the assimilation of locals ) and Poles became a minority , which they are to this day . Another significant ethnic group were the Jews , but almost the entire Jewish population was exterminated during World War II .
In addition to the Polish , Czech and German national orientations there was another group living in the area , the Ślązakowcy , who claimed a distinct Silesian national identity . This group enjoyed popular support throughout the whole of Cieszyn Silesia although its strongest supporters were among the Protestants in eastern part of the Cieszyn Silesia ( now part of Poland ) and not in Zaolzie itself .
= = Name and territory = =
The term Zaolzie ( meaning " the trans @-@ Olza " , i.e. " lands beyond the Olza " ) is used predominantly in Poland and also commonly by the Polish minority living in the territory . In Czech it is mainly referred to as České Těšínsko / Českotěšínsko ( " land around Český Těšín " ) , or as Těšínsko or Těšínské Slezsko ( meaning Cieszyn Silesia ) . The Czech equivalent of Zaolzie ( Zaolší or Zaolží ) is rarely used . The term of Zaolzie is also used by some foreign scholars , e.g. American ethnolinguist Kevin Hannan .
The term Zaolzie denotes the territory of the former districts of Český Těšín and Fryštát , in which the Polish population formed a majority according to the 1910 Austrian census . It makes up the eastern part of the Czech portion of Cieszyn Silesia . However , Polish historian Józef Szymeczek notes that the term is often mistakenly used for the whole Czech part of Cieszyn Silesia .
Since the 1960 reform of administrative divisions of Czechoslovakia , Zaolzie has consisted of Karviná District and the eastern part of Frýdek @-@ Místek District .
= = History = =
After the Migration Period the area was settled by Slavs , which were later organized into the Golensizi tribe . The tribe had a large and important gord situated in contemporary Chotěbuz . In the 880s or the early 890s the gord was raided and burned , most probably by an army of Svatopluk I of Moravia , and afterwards the area could have been subjugated by Great Moravia , which is however questioned by historians like Zdeněk Klanica , Idzi Panic , Stanisław Szczur .
After the fall of Great Moravia in 907 the area could have been under the influence of Bohemian rulers . In the late 10th century Poland , ruled by Bolesław I Chrobry , began to contend for the region , which was crossed by important international routes . From 950 to 1060 it was under the rule of the Duchy of Bohemia , and from 1060 it was part of Poland . The written history explicitly about the region begins on 23 April 1155 when Cieszyn / Těšín was first mentioned in a written document , a letter from Pope Adrian IV issued for Walter , Bishop of Wrocław , where it was listed amongst other centres of castellanies . The castellany was then a part of Duchy of Silesia . In 1172 it became a part of Duchy of Racibórz , and from 1202 of Duchy of Opole and Racibórz . In the first half of the 13th century the Moravian settlement organised by Arnold von Hückeswagen from Starý Jičín castle and later accelerated by Bruno von Schauenburg , Bishop of Olomouc , began to press close to Silesian settlements . This prompted signing of a special treaty between Duke Władysław of Opole and King Ottokar II of Bohemia on December 1261 which regulated a local border between their states along the Ostravice River . In order to strengthen the border Władysław of Opole decided to found Orlová monastery in 1268 . In the continued process of feudal fragmentation of Poland the Castellany of Cieszyn was eventually transformed in 1290 into the Duchy of Cieszyn , which in 1327 became an autonomic fiefdom of the Bohemian crown . Upon the death of Elizabeth Lucretia , its last ruler from the Polish Piast dynasty in 1653 , it passed directly to the Czech kings from the Habsburg dynasty . When most of Silesia was conquered by Prussian king Frederick the Great in 1742 , the Cieszyn region was part of the small southern portion that was retained by the Habsburg monarchy ( Austrian Silesia ) .
Up to the mid @-@ 19th century members of the local Slav population did not identify themselves as members of larger ethnolinguistic entities . In Cieszyn Silesia ( as in all West Slavic borderlands ) various territorial identities pre @-@ dated ethnic and national identity . Consciousness of membership within a greater Polish or Czech nation spread slowly in Silesia .
From 1848 to the end of the 19th century , local Polish and Czech people co @-@ operated , united against the Germanizing tendencies of the Austrian Empire and later of Austria @-@ Hungary . At the end of the century , ethnic tensions arose as the area 's economic significance grew . This growth caused a wave of immigration from Galicia . About 60 @,@ 000 people arrived between 1880 and 1910 . The new immigrants were Polish and poor , about half of them being illiterate . They worked in coal mining and metallurgy . For these people the most important factor was material well @-@ being ; they cared little about the homeland from which they had fled . Almost all of them assimilated into the Czech population . Many of them settled in Ostrava ( west of the ethnic border ) , as heavy industry was spread through the whole western part of Cieszyn Silesia . Even today , ethnographers find that about 25 @,@ 000 people in Ostrava ( about 8 % of the population ) have Polish surnames . The Czech population ( living mainly in the northern part of the area : Bohumín , Orlová , etc . ) declined numerically at the end of the 19th century , assimilating with the prevalent Polish population . This process shifted with the industrial boom in the area .
= = = Decision time ( 1918 – 1920 ) = = =
Originally , both national councils ( the Polish Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego in its declaration " Ludu śląski ! " of 30 October 1918 and the Czech Zemský národní výbor pro Slezsko in its declaration of 1 November 1918 ) claimed the whole Cieszyn Silesia for themselves .
On 31 October 1918 , at the dusk of World War I and the dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary , the majority of the area was taken over by local Polish authorities supported by armed forces . The interim agreement of 2 November 1918 reflected the inability of the two national councils to come to final delimitation . On 5 November 1918 , the area was divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia by an interim agreement of two local self @-@ government councils ( Czech Zemský národní výbor pro Slezsko and Polish Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego ) . Before that , the majority of the area was taken over by Polish local authorities . In 1919 both councils were absorbed by the newly created and independent central governments in Prague and Warsaw . The former was not satisfied with this compromise and on 23 January 1919 invaded the area while Poland was engaged in its war against the West Ukrainian National Republic .
The reason for the Czech invasion in 1919 was primarily the organisation of elections to the Sejm ( parliament ) of Poland in the disputed area . The elections were to be held in the whole of Cieszyn Silesia . The Czechs claimed that the polls must not be held in the disputed area as the delimitation was only interim and no sovereign rule should be executed there by any party . When the Czech demand was rejected by the Poles , the Czechs decided to resolve the issue by force .
Czech units were held up near Skoczów and a ceasefire was signed on 3 February . The new Czechoslovakia claimed the area partly on historic and ethnic grounds , but especially on economic grounds . The area was important for the Czechs as the crucial railway line connecting Czech Silesia with Slovakia crossed the area ( the Košice @-@ Bohumín Railway , which was one of only two railroads that linked the Czech provinces to Slovakia at that time ) . The area is also very rich in black coal . Many important coal mines , facilities and metallurgy factories are located there . The Polish side based its claim to the area on ethnic criteria : a majority ( 69 @,@ 2 % ) of the area 's population was Polish according to the last ( 1910 ) Austrian census .
In this very tense atmosphere it was decided that a plebiscite would be held in the area asking people which country this territory should join . Plebiscite commissioners arrived there at the end of January 1920 , and after analysing the situation declared a state of emergency in the territory on 19 May 1920 . The situation in the area remained very tense , with mutual intimidation , acts of terror , beatings and even killings . A plebiscite could not be held in this atmosphere . On 10 July both sides renounced the idea of a plebiscite and entrusted the Conference of Ambassadors with the decision . Eventually , on 28 July 1920 , by a decision of the Spa Conference , Czechoslovakia received 58 @.@ 1 % of the area of Cieszyn Silesia , containing 67 @.@ 9 % of the population . It was this territory that became known , originally from the Polish standpoint , as Zaolzie – the Olza River marked the boundary between the Polish and Czechoslovak parts of the territory .
The most vocal support for union with Poland had come from within the territory awarded to Czechoslovakia , while some of the strongest opponents of Polish rule came from the territory awarded to Poland .
= = = = 1918 @-@ 19 = = = =
Historian Richard M. Watt writes , " On 5 November 1918 , the Poles and the Czechs in the region disarmed the Austrian garrison ( ... ) The Poles took over the areas that appeared to be theirs , just as the Czechs had assumed administration of theirs . Nobody objected to this friendly arrangement ( ... ) Then came second thoughts in Prague . It was observed that under the agreement of 5 November , the Poles controlled about a third of the duchy 's coal mines . The Czechs realized that they had given away rather a lot ( ... ) It was recognized that any takeover in Teschen would have to be accomplished in a manner acceptable by the victorious Allies ( ... ) , so the Czechs cooked up a tale that the Teschen area was becoming Bolshevik ( ... ) The Czechs put together a substantial body of infantry – about 15 @,@ 000 men – and on 23 January 1919 , they invaded the Polish @-@ held areas . To confuse the Poles , the Czechs recruited some Allied officers of Czech background and put these men in their respective wartime uniforms at the head of the invasion forces . After a little skirmishing , the tiny Polish defense force was nearly driven out . "
In 1919 , the matter went to consideration in Paris before the World War I Allies . Watt claims the Poles based their claims on ethnographical reasons and the Czechs based their need on the Teschen coal , useful in order to influence the actions of Austria and Hungary , whose capitals were fuelled by coal from the duchy . The Allies finally decided that the Czechs should get 60 percent of the coal fields and the Poles were to get most of the people and the strategic rail line . Watt writes : " Czech envoy Edvard Beneš proposed a plebiscite . The Allies were shocked , arguing that the Czechs were bound to lose it . However , Beneš was insistent and a plebiscite was announced in September 1919 . As it turned out , Beneš knew what he was doing . A plebiscite would take some time to set up , and a lot could happen in that time – particularly when a nation 's affairs were conducted as cleverly as were Czechoslovakia 's . "
Watt argues that Beneš strategically waited for Poland 's moment of weakness , and moved in during the Polish @-@ Soviet War crisis in July 1920 . As Watt writes , " Over the dinner table , Beneš convinced the British and French that the plebiscite should not be held and that the Allies should simply impose their own decision in the Teschen matter . More than that , Beneš persuaded the French and the British to draw a frontier line that gave Czechoslovakia most of the territory of Teschen , the vital railroad and all the important coal fields . With this frontier , 139 @,@ 000 Poles were to be left in Czech territory , whereas only 2 @,@ 000 Czechs were left on the Polish side " .
" The next morning Beneš visited the Polish delegation at Spa . By giving the impression that the Czechs would accept a settlement favorable to the Poles without a plebiscite , Beneš got the Poles to sign an agreement that Poland would abide by any Allied decision regarding Teschen . The Poles , of course , had no way of knowing that Beneš had already persuaded the Allies to make a decision on Teschen . After a brief interval , to make it appear that due deliberation had taken place , the Allied Council of Ambassadors in Paris imposed its ' decision ' . Only then did it dawn on the Poles that at Spa they had signed a blank check . To them , Beneš ' stunning triumph was not diplomacy , it was a swindle ( ... ) As Polish Prime Minister Wincenty Witos warned : ' The Polish nation has received a blow which will play an important role in our relations with the Czechoslovak Republic . The decision of the Council of Ambassadors has given the Czechs a piece of Polish land containing a population which is mostly Polish ... The decision has caused a rift between these two nations which are ordinarily politically and economically united ' ( ... ) . "
The affair soured the Prague @-@ Warsaw relationship .
= = = = View by Victor S. Mamatey = = = =
Another account of the situation in 1918 – 1919 is given by historian Victor S. Mamatey . He notes that when the French government recognised Czechoslovakia 's right to the " boundaries of Bohemia , Moravia , and Austrian Silesia " in its note to Austria of 19 December , the Czechoslovak government acted under the impression it had French support for its claim to Cieszyn Silesia as part of Austrian Silesia . However , Paris believed it gave that assurance only against German @-@ Austrian claims , not Polish ones . Paris , however , viewed both Czechoslovakia and Poland as potential allies against Germany and did not want to cool relations with either . Mamatey writes that the Poles " brought the matter before the peace conference that had opened in Paris on 18 January . On 29 January , the Council of Ten summoned Beneš and the Polish delegate Roman Dmowski to explain the dispute , and on 1 February obliged them to sign an agreement redividing the area pending its final disposition by the peace conference . Czechoslovakia thus failed to gain her objective in Teschen . "
With respect to the arbitration decision itself , Mamatey writes that " On 25 March , to expedite the work of the peace conference , the Council of Ten was divided into the Council of Four ( The " Big Four " ) and the Council of Five ( the foreign ministers ) . Early in April the two councils considered and approved the recommendations of the Czechoslovak commission without a change – with the exception of Teschen , which they referred to Poland and Czechoslovakia to settle in bilateral negotiations . " When the Polish @-@ Czechoslovak negotiations failed , the Allied powers proposed plebiscites in the Cieszyn Silesia and also in the border districts of Orava and Spiš ( now in Slovakia ) to which the Poles had raised claims . In the end , however , no plebiscites were held due to the rising mutual hostilities of Czechs and Poles in Cieszyn Silesia . Instead , on 28 July 1920 the Spa Conference ( also known as the Conference of Ambassadors ) divided each of the three disputed areas between Poland and Czechoslovakia .
= = = Part of Czechoslovakia ( 1920 – 1938 ) = = =
The local Polish population felt that Warsaw had betrayed them and they were not satisfied with the division of Cieszyn Silesia . About 12 @,@ 000 to 14 @,@ 000 Poles were forced to leave to Poland . It is not quite clear how many Poles were in Zaolzie in Czechoslovakia . Estimates ( depending mainly whether the Silesians are included as Poles or not ) range from 110 @,@ 000 to 140 @,@ 000 people in 1921 . The 1921 and 1930 census numbers are not accurate since nationality depended on self @-@ declaration and many Poles filled in Czech nationality mainly as a result of fear of the new authorities and as compensation for some benefits . Czechoslovak law guaranteed rights for national minorities but reality in Zaolzie was quite different . Local Czech authorities made it more difficult for local Poles to obtain citizenship , while the process was expedited when the applicant pledged to declare Czech nationality and send his children to a Czech school . Newly built Czech schools were often better supported and equipped , thus inducing some Poles to send their children there . Czechs schools were built in ethnically almost entirely Polish municipalities . This and other factors contributed to the cultural assimilation of Poles and also to significant emigration to Poland . After few years , the heightened nationalism typical for the years around 1920 receded and local Poles increasingly co @-@ operated with Czechs . Still , Czechization was supported by Prague , which did not follow certain laws related to language , legislative and organizational issues . Polish deputies in Czechoslovak National Assembly frequently tried to put those issues on agenda . One way or the other , more and more local Poles thus assimilated into the Czech population .
= = = Part of Poland ( 1938 – 1939 ) = = =
Within the region originally demanded from Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1938 was the important railway junction city of Bohumín ( Polish : Bogumin ) . The Poles regarded the city as of crucial importance to the area and to Polish interests . On 28 September , Edvard Beneš composed a note to the Polish administration offering to reopen the debate surrounding the territorial demarcation in Těšínsko in the interest of mutual relations , but he delayed in sending it in hopes of good news from London and Paris , which came only in a limited form . Beneš then turned to the Soviet leadership in Moscow , which had begun a partial mobilisation in eastern Belarus and the Ukrainian SSR on 22 September and threatened Poland with the dissolution of the Soviet @-@ Polish non @-@ aggression pact . The Czech government was offered 700 fighter planes if room for them could be found on the Czech airfields . On 28 September , all the military districts west of the Urals were ordered to stop releasing men for leave . On 29 September , 330 @,@ 000 reservists were up throughout the western USSR .
Nevertheless , the Polish leader , Colonel Józef Beck , believed that Warsaw should act rapidly to forestall the German occupation of the city . At noon on 30 September , Poland gave an ultimatum to the Czechoslovak government . It demanded the immediate evacuation of Czechoslovak troops and police and gave Prague time until noon the following day . At 11 : 45 a.m. on 1 October the Czechoslovak foreign ministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague and told him that Poland could have what it wanted . The Polish Army , commanded by General Władysław Bortnowski , annexed an area of 801 @.@ 5 km ² with a population of 227 @,@ 399 people . Administratively the annexed area was divided between two counties : Frysztat and Cieszyn County . At the same time Slovakia lost to Hungary 10 @,@ 390 km ² with 854 @,@ 277 inhabitants .
The Germans were delighted with this outcome , and were happy to give up the sacrifice of a small provincial rail centre to Poland in exchange for the ensuing propaganda benefits . It spread the blame of the partition of the Republic of Czechoslovakia , made Poland a participant in the process and confused political expectations . Poland was accused of being an accomplice of Nazi Germany – a charge that Warsaw was hard @-@ put to deny .
The Polish side argued that Poles in Zaolzie deserved the same ethnic rights and freedom as the Sudeten Germans under the Munich Agreement . The vast majority of the local Polish population enthusiastically welcomed the change , seeing it as a liberation and a form of historical justice , but they quickly changed their mood . The new Polish authorities appointed people from Poland to various key positions from which locals were fired . The Polish language became the sole official language . Using Czech ( or German ) by Czechs ( or Germans ) in public was prohibited and Czechs and Germans were being forced to leave the annexed area or become subject to Polonization . Rapid Polonization policies then followed in all parts of public and private life . Czech organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited . The Roman Catholic parishes in the area belonged either to the Archdiocese of Breslau ( Archbishop Bertram ) or to the Archdiocese of Olomouc ( Archbishop Leopold Prečan ) , respectively , both traditionally comprising cross @-@ border diocesan territories in Czechoslovakia and Germany . When the Polish government demanded after its takeover that the parishes there be disentangled from these two archdioceses , the Holy See complied . Pope Pius XI , former nuncio to Poland , subjected the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie to an apostolic administration under Stanisław Adamski , Bishop of Katowice .
Czechoslovak education in the Czech and German language ceased to exist . About 35 @,@ 000 Czechoslovaks emigrated to core Czechoslovakia ( the later Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia ) by choice or forcibly . The behaviour of the new Polish authorities was different but similar in nature to that of the Czechoslovak ones before 1938 . Two political factions appeared : socialists ( the opposition ) and rightists ( loyal to the new Polish national authorities ) . Leftist politicians and sympathizers were discriminated against and often fired from work . The Polish political system was artificially implemented in Zaolzie . The local Poles continued to feel like second @-@ class citizens and a majority of them were dissatisfied with the situation after October 1938 . Zaolzie remained a part of Poland for only 11 months until the invasion of Poland started on 1 September 1939 .
When Poland entered the Western camp in April 1939 , General Gamelin reminded General Kasprzycki of the Polish role in the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia . According to historian Paul N. Hehn , Poland ’ s annexation of Teschen may have contributed to the British and French reluctance to attack the Germans with greater forces in September 1939 .
Richard M. Watt describes the Polish capture of Teschen in these words :
Amid the general euphoria in Poland – the acquisition of Teschen was a very popular development – no one paid attention to the bitter comment of the Czechoslovak general who handed the region over to the incoming Poles . He predicted that it would not be long before the Poles would themselves be handing Teschen over to the Germans .
Watt also writes that
the Polish 1938 ultimatum to Czechoslovakia and its acquisition of Teschen were gross tactical errors . Whatever justice there might have been to the Polish claim upon Teschen , its seizure in 1938 was an enormous mistake in terms of the damage done to Poland 's reputation among the democratic powers of the world .
Daladier , the French Prime Minister , told the US ambassador to France that " he hoped to live long enough to pay Poland for her cormorant attitude in the present crisis by proposing a new partition . " The Soviet Union was so hostile to Poland over Munich that there was a real prospect that war between the two states might break out quite separate from the wider conflict over Czechoslovakia . The Soviet Prime Minister , Molotov , denounced the Poles as " Hitler 's jackals " .
In his postwar memoirs , Winston Churchill compared Germany and Poland to vultures landing on the dying carcass of Czechoslovakia and lamented that " over a question so minor as Teschen , they [ the Poles ] sundered themselves from all those friends in France , Britain and the United States who had lifted them once again to a national , coherent life , and whom they were soon to need to sorely . ... It is a mystery and tragedy of European history that a people capable of every heroic virtue ... as individuals , should repeatedly show such inveterate faults in almost every aspect of their governmental life . "
= = = World War II = = =
On 1 September 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland , starting World War II in Europe , and subsequently made Zaolzie part of the Military district of Upper Silesia . On 26 October 1939 Nazi Germany unilaterally annexed Zaolzie as part of Landkreis Teschen . During the war , strong Germanization was introduced by the authorities . The Jews were in the worst position , followed by the Poles . Poles received lower food rations , they were supposed to pay extra taxes , they were not allowed to enter theatres , cinemas , etc . Polish and Czech education ceased to exist , Polish organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited . Katowice 's Bishop Adamski was deposed as apostolic administrator for the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie and on 23 December 1939 Cesare Orsenigo , nuncio to Germany , returned them to their original archdioceses of Breslau or Olomouc , respectively , with effect of 1 January 1940 .
The German authorities introduced terror into Zaolzie . The Nazis especially targeted the Polish intelligentsia , many of whom died during the war . Mass killings , executions , arrests , taking locals to forced labour and deportations to concentration camps all happened on a daily basis . The most notorious war crime was a murder of 36 villagers in and around Żywocice on 6 August 1944 . This massacre is known as the Żywocice tragedy ( Polish : Tragedia Żywocicka ) . The resistance movement , mostly composed of Poles , was fairly strong in Zaolzie . So @-@ called Volksliste – a document in which a non @-@ German citizen declared that he had some German ancestry by signing it ; refusal to sign this document could lead to deportation to a concentration camp – were introduced . Local people who took them were later on enrolled in the Wehrmacht . Many local people with no German ancestry were also forced to take them . The World War II death toll in Zaolzie is estimated at about 6 @,@ 000 people : about 2 @,@ 500 Jews , 2 @,@ 000 other citizens ( 80 % of them being Poles ) and more than 1 @,@ 000 locals who died in the Wehrmacht ( those who took the Volksliste ) . Also a few hundred Poles from Zaolzie were murdered by Soviets in the Katyn massacre . Percentage @-@ wise , Zaolzie suffered the worst human loss from the whole of Czechoslovakia – about 2 @.@ 6 % of the total population .
= = = Since 1945 = = =
Immediately after World War II , Zaolzie was returned to Czechoslovakia within its 1920 borders , although local Poles hoped it would again be given to Poland . While most Czechoslovaks of German ethnicity were expelled , the local Polish population again suffered discrimination , as many Czechs blamed them for the discrimination by the Polish authorities in 1938 – 1939 . Polish organizations were banned , and the Czechoslovak authorities carried out many arrests and dismissed many Poles from work . The situation had somewhat improved when the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took power in February 1948 . Polish property deprived by the German occupants during the war was never returned .
As to the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie pertaining to the Archdiocese of Breslau Archbishop Bertram , then residing in the episcopal Jánský vrch castle in Czechoslovak Javorník ( Jauernig ) , appointed František Onderek ( 1888 – 1962 ) as vicar general for the Czechoslovak portion of the Archdiocese of Breslau on 21 June 1945 . In July 1946 Pope Pius XII elevated Onderek to Apostolic Administrator for the Czechoslovak portion of the Archdiocese of Breslau ( colloquially : Apostolic Administration of Český Těšín ; Czech : Apoštolská administratura českotěšínská ) , seated in Český Těšín , thus disentangling the parishes from Breslau 's jurisdiction . On 31 May 1978 Pope Paul VI merged the apostolic administration into the Archdiocese of Olomouc through his Apostolic constitution Olomoucensis et aliarum .
Poland signed a treaty with Czechoslovakia in Warsaw on 13 June 1958 confirming the border as it existed on 1 January 1938 . After the Communist takeover of power , the industrial boom continued and many immigrants arrived in the area ( mostly from other parts of Czechoslovakia , mainly from Slovakia ) . The arrival of Slovaks significantly changed the ethnic structure of the area , as almost all the Slovak immigrants assimilated into the Czech majority in the course of time . The number of self @-@ declared Slovaks is rapidly declining . The last Slovak elementary school was closed in Karviná several years ago . Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993 , Zaolzie has been part of the independent Czech Republic . However a significant Polish minority still remains there .
= = = In the European Union = = =
The entry of both the Czech Republic and Poland to the European Union in May 2004 , and especially the entry of the countries to the EU 's passport @-@ free Schengen zone in late 2007 , reduced the significance of territorial disputes , ending systematic controls on the border between the countries . Signs prohibiting passage across the state border were removed , with people now allowed to cross the border freely at any point of their choosing .
The area now belongs mostly to the Cieszyn Silesia Euroregion with a few municipalities in the Euroregion Beskydy .
= = Census data = =
Ethnic structure of Zaolzie based on census results :
Sources : Zahradnik 1992 , 178 – 179 . Siwek 1996 , 31 – 38 .
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= Cyclone Gillian =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Gillian was the second most powerful of the 2013 – 14 Australian region cyclone season and the strongest in the basin in four years . It developed on 8 March , 2014 , in the Gulf of Carpentaria offshore northern Australia . It drifted southeastward , moving over northwestern Queensland on 10 March as a weak tropical cyclone , and subsequently turned to the southwest and later to the west . Unfavourable wind shear , land interaction , and dry air prevented much restrengthening , and for several days Gillian was a weak tropical low . The storm moved northward and curved westward around the Top End of northwestern Australia , and subsequently moved across several islands in Indonesia , first Timor on 18 March . On 21 March , Gillian again became a tropical cyclone as it moved away from Indonesia . The next day , it passed just southeast of Christmas Island as an intensifying storm , and subsequently Gillian underwent rapid deepening . On 23 March , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) estimated peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . On the same day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , making it a Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Increased wind shear caused the cyclone to rapidly weaken , and both BoM and JTWC discontinued advisories on Gillian on 26 March .
The cyclone affected northern Australia with gusty winds and some rainfall , while on the Indonesian island of Java , it produced strong waves . While moving near Christmas Island , Gillian downed thousands of trees and damaged the roof of one of the oldest buildings on the island . Winds gusted to 96 km / h ( 60 mph ) , making it the first cyclone to affect Christmas Island in six years . The storm also affected the search for missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Gillian were from a weak tropical low that persisted in the eastern Arafura Sea on 6 March . The next day , the system moved into the Gulf of Carpentaria , where it developed convection , or thunderstorms , which organised into curved rainbands . The thunderstorms were located west of a circulation , was exposed due to moderate wind shear . At 06 : 00 UTC on 8 March , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) office in Darwin began issuing warnings on the developing tropical low . Around that time , the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , indicated the high potential for tropical cyclogenesis due to the increasingly organised circulation and convection . At 09 : 00 UTC on 8 March , the BoM upgraded the low to Tropical Cyclone Gillian , and six hours later , the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 17P . After its formation , Gillian moved slowly southward toward Queensland within an area of weak steering currents . Despite ongoing wind shear , forecasters anticipated strengthening due to warm water temperatures and favourable outflow . The storm turned more toward the southeast due to the influence of a ridge to the northeast . Early on 10 March , Gillian made landfall along the western Cape York Peninsula of Queensland , after weakening below tropical cyclone status .
A strengthening ridge to the south turned the storm to the southwest , bringing Gillian back over water ; however , the circulation became poorly @-@ defined and the convection decreased due to land interaction . Early on 11 March the JTWC discontinued advisories . When Gillian was downgraded to a tropical low , the proximity to land and continued wind shear prevented initial redevelopment . The system tracked westward through the Gulf of Carpentaria due to the ridge to the south , passing just north of Mornington Island on 12 March . The next day , the convection reorganised as the circulation became better defined . On 14 March , the JTWC again assessed a high potential for Gillian redeveloping into a tropical cyclone , noting the appearance of a central dense overcast . At 06 : 00 UTC on the same day , the BoM again upgraded Gillian to tropical cyclone status in the central Gulf of Carpentaria . Due to a weak trough in the region , the storm turned to the northeast . Increasing wind shear again caused the storm to lose organisation early on 15 March , prompting the BoM to downgrade Gillian to a tropical low .
Dry air prevented the convection from initially reorganising after Gillian was downgraded . With a ridge to the south , the low turned westward around the Top End of northwestern Australia . On 17 March , the system moved north of 10 ° S , into the area of warning responsibility of the Indonesian Agency for Meteorology , Climatology and Geophysics . By that time , the low @-@ level circulation was disconnected from its mid @-@ level circulation , and land interaction with Indonesia was expected to prevent redevelopment . Late on 18 March , the storm moved over the island of Timor , and over the subsequent two days passed over several other Indonesian islands . On 21 March , the convection reorganised due to a drop in wind shear , and at 12 : 00 UTC that day , the BoM again upgraded Gillian to tropical cyclone status while the storm was about 380 km ( 235 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Jakarta . On the same day , the JTWC also re @-@ initiated advisories on the storm , noting that the circulation had improved as it moved away from Indonesia . With low wind shear and favourable outflow , Gillian gradually intensified while moving southwestward around the ridge . On 22 March , the storm passed just north of Christmas Island while Gillian was developing an eye ; by that time , the 10 minute sustained winds had increased to 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) within an environment favourable for continued strengthening .
At 12 : 00 UTC on 22 March , the BoM upgraded the storm to a Category 3 on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale with 10 minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , the equivalent of a minimal hurricane ; a few hours later , the JTWC followed suit . The cyclone continued to rapidly intensify , with a well @-@ defined anticyclone providing good outflow and very low wind shear . At 12 : 00 UTC on 23 March , the BoM estimated Gillian attained peak 10 minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , making it a Category 5 on the Australian scale , while located about 1000 km ( 620 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Jakarta ; the agency also estimated peak gusts of 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) . At 18 : 00 UTC on 23 March , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . By that time , the eye had contracted to a diameter of 22 km ( 14 mi ) , but was beginning to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle . In addition , Gillian was experiencing increased wind shear due to an approaching trough , indicative of weakening . It continued around the ridge and turned more to the south over open waters well to the west of Western Australia . The eye became less distinct , and early on 25 March Gillian weakened below Category 3 intensity on the Australian scale . On the same day , the JTWC also downgraded the cyclone to tropical storm strength , noting the storm 's rapid weakening corresponded to a decline in Dvorak numbers – a system to estimate intensity via satellites . The circulation became exposed from the convection , and BoM downgraded Gillian to a tropical low on 26 March , the same day that the JTWC discontinued advisories after the circulation began dissipating .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Much of Far North Queensland was affected by rain for over a week as Gillian slowly moved through the Gulf of Carpentaria . The heaviest rains , averaging 150 to 250 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 to 9 @.@ 8 in ) , fell along a corridor along southern part of the Cape York Peninsula from the Mitchell @-@ Alice Rivers National Park to Cooktown . 227 @.@ 4 mm ( 8 @.@ 95 in ) of rain from 9 – 15 March with gusts up to 57 km / h ( 35 mph ) in Kowanyama , Queensland . On 17 March , Gillian brushed the Top End region , bringing only minor rainfall to coastal areas . Winds reached 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) in the Wessel Islands .
Across Java , Indonesia , the storm produced moderate to heavy rains . After re @-@ intensifying into a tropical cyclone , swells of 3 to 5 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 16 @.@ 4 ft ) from the storm affected southern shores of the island . Though well to the north of Cyclone Gillian , the system 's circulation drew moisture away from Riau western Indonesia , leaving behind fire @-@ prone conditions . Due in part to illegal logging and slash @-@ and @-@ burn land clearing , several new forest fires began by 23 March .
On 20 March , the BoM issued a cyclone watch for Christmas Island , and the next day upgraded it to a cyclone warning . The first cyclone to affect Christmas Island since Cyclone Rosie in 2008 , Gillian approached the island as a category 2 system , causing light to moderate damage . Only one structure on the island , the Immigration Detention Centre , is constructed to cyclone @-@ standards on the island . Island administrator Jon Stanhope stated that the 1 @,@ 700 asylum seekers were likely safer than residents in permanent homes . Gale @-@ force winds , peaking at 96 km / h ( 60 mph ) , battered the island for 15 hours . Several homes lost their roof and one family had to be evacuated ; however , most structures were left unscathed . The roof of the Rumah Tinggi Bar and Restaurant , one of the oldest buildings on the island , was torn off . Thousands of trees were reportedly downed across the island , with jungles sustaining significant losses , and there were power outages due to significant damage to the islands powerlines . Gillian also dropped 181 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of rainfall over a 24 ‑ hour period on the island .
On 23 March , several aircraft at Subang airport in Malaysia taking part in the 26 @-@ nation search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 were grounded due to inclement weather . It was noted that Gillian could hamper rescue efforts in the southern corridor search for the aircraft . Following the discovery of possible debris from the aircraft about 2 @,@ 500 km ( 1 @,@ 600 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Australia , fears arose that large swells from the storm could sink the possible wreckage and make the investigation " almost impossible . "
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= Let the Right One In ( film ) =
Let the Right One In ( Swedish : Låt den rätte komma in ) is a 2008 Swedish romantic horror film directed by Tomas Alfredson , based on the 2004 novel of the same title by John Ajvide Lindqvist , who also wrote the screenplay . The film tells the story of a bullied 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy who develops a friendship with a vampire child in Blackeberg , a suburb of Stockholm , in the early 1980s . Alfredson , unconcerned with the horror and vampire conventions , decided to tone down many elements of the novel and focus primarily on the relationship between the two main characters . Selecting the lead actors involved a year @-@ long process with open castings held all over Sweden . In the end , the 11 @-@ year @-@ olds Kåre Hedebrant and Lina Leandersson were chosen for the leading roles . They were subsequently commended by both Alfredson and film reviewers for their performances .
The film received critical acclaim and won several awards , including the " Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature " at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival and the European Fantastic Film Festivals Federation 's 2008 Méliès d 'Or ( Golden Méliès ) for the " Best European Fantastic Feature Film " , as well as four Guldbagge Awards from the Swedish Film Institute and the Saturn Award for Best International Film .
= = Plot = =
Oskar , a meek 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy , resides with his mother Yvonne in the western Stockholm suburb of Blackeberg in 1981 and occasionally visits his father Erik in the countryside . It is not clear why Erik is living apart from Yvonne , but on one such visit , when Oskar and Erik are enjoying a cosy night playing games , a drunken neighbour arrives and Erik starts to drink heavily with him , breaking up the father / son evening .
Oskar 's classmates regularly bully him , and he spends his evenings imagining revenge , collecting clippings from newspapers and magazines about grisly murders . One night he meets Eli , who appears to be a pale girl of his age . Eli has recently moved into the next @-@ door apartment with an older man , Håkan . Eli initially informs Oskar that they cannot be friends . Over time , however , they begin to form a close relationship , with Oskar lending his Rubik 's Cube to Eli , and the two exchanging Morse code messages through their adjoining wall . Håkan requests that Eli stop seeing Oskar . After questioning Oskar about a cut on his cheek , Eli learns that the boy is being bullied by schoolmates and encourages him to stand up for himself . This inspires Oskar to enroll for weight @-@ training classes after school .
Earlier , Håkan stops and kills a passerby on a busy footpath near a main road to harvest fresh blood for Eli , but he fails to return with any when he is interrupted by an oncoming dog walker . Eli is prompted to waylay and kill a local man , Jocke , making his way home from a bar after having said goodnight to his best friend , Lacke . A local cat @-@ loving recluse , Gösta , witnesses the attack from his flat , but hardly believes what he has seen and later refuses to report the incident . Håkan hides Jocke 's body in an ice @-@ hole in the local lake . Håkan later makes another well @-@ prepared but incompetently executed effort to obtain blood for Eli by trapping a teenage boy in a changing room after school . The boy 's friends are waiting for him to emerge , and go to see what is holding him up . Before he is discovered , Håkan pours concentrated hydrochloric acid onto his own face , disfiguring it to prevent the authorities from identifying him and tracing Eli . Eli learns that Håkan has been taken to the hospital and scales the building to access his restricted room . Håkan opens the window for Eli and offers his neck to her for feeding ; after she has fed , Håkan falls out of the window on the snow . Now alone , Eli goes to Oskar 's apartment and spends the night with him , during which time they agree to " go steady " . While Eli states , " I 'm not a girl " , Oskar ( ambiguously ) either ignores this or accepts the homoerotic status of the relationship .
During an ice skating field trip at the lake , some of Oskar 's fellow students discover Jocke 's body . At the same time , Oskar finally stands up to his tormentors and strikes the leader of the bullies , Conny , on the side of the head with a pole , splitting his ear . Some time later , Oskar shows Eli a private place he knows . Unaware that Eli is a vampire , Oskar suggests that they form a blood bond , and cuts his hand , asking Eli to do the same . Eli , thirsting for blood but not wanting to harm Oskar , laps up his spilled blood before running away . Lacke 's girlfriend , Virginia , is subsequently attacked by Eli . Lacke turns up in time to interrupt the attack . Virginia survives , but she soon discovers that she has become painfully sensitive to sunlight . Thirsting for blood , she pays a visit to Gösta , only to be fiercely attacked by his cats . In the hospital , Virginia , who has realized what she has become , asks an orderly to open the blinds in her room . When the sunlight streams in , she bursts into flames .
On realizing her true nature , Oskar confronts Eli , who admits to being a vampire . Oskar is initially upset by Eli 's need to kill people for survival . However , Eli insists that their bloodthirsty natures are alike , in that Oskar wants to kill and Eli needs to kill , and she encourages Oskar to " be me , for a little while . "
Lacke , who has lost everything because of Eli , tracks her down to the closed @-@ off apartment . Breaking in , he discovers Eli asleep in the bathtub . Lacke prepares to kill Eli , but Oskar , who was hiding inside the apartment , interferes ; Eli immediately wakes up , jumps on Lacke and kills him , feeding on his blood . Eli thanks Oskar and kisses him in gratitude . However , an upstairs neighbor is angrily knocking on the ceiling due to the disturbance the fight has caused . Eli realizes that it is no longer safe to stay and leaves the same night .
The next morning , Oskar receives a phone call from Conny 's friend , Martin , who lures Oskar out to resume the after @-@ school fitness program at the local swimming pool . The bullies , led by Conny and his sadistic older brother Jimmy , start a fire to draw Mr Ávila , the teacher in charge , outside , enter the pool @-@ area and order the other children to clear out , which leaves Oskar trapped alone in the pool . Jimmy forces Oskar under the water , threatening to stab his eye out if he does not hold his breath for three minutes . While Oskar is being held underwater , Eli arrives and rescues Oskar by killing and dismembering the bullies except for the most reluctant of their number , Andreas , who is left sobbing on a bench .
Later , Oskar is traveling on a train with Eli in a box beside him , safe from sunlight . From inside , Eli taps the word " kiss " to Oskar in Morse code , to which he taps back " puss " ( small kiss in Swedish ) .
= = Cast = =
Kåre Hedebrant as Oskar
Lina Leandersson as Eli
Elif Ceylan as Eli ( Voice )
Susanne Ruben as Aged Eli
Per Ragnar as Håkan
Henrik Dahl as Erik
Karin Bergquist as Yvonne
Peter Carlberg as Lacke
Ika Nord as Virginia
Mikael Rahm as Jocke
Karl Robert Lindgren as Gösta
Anders T. Peedu as Morgan
Pale Olofsson as Larry
Cayetano Ruiz as Magister Ávila
Patrik Rydmark as Conny
Johan Sömnes as Andreas
Mikael Erhardsson as Martin
Rasmus Luthander as Jimmy
Sören Källstigen as Erik 's friend
Bernt Östman as Virginia 's nurse
Kajsa Linderholm as Oskar 's Teacher
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film project started in late 2004 when John Nordling , a producer at the production company EFTI , contacted Ajvide Lindqvist 's publisher Ordfront to acquire the rights for a film adaption of Ajvide Lindqvist 's novel . " At Ordfront they just laughed when I called , I was like the 48th they put on the list . But I called John Ajvide Lindqvist and it turned out we had the same idea of what kind of film we should make . It wasn 't about money , but about the right constellation " . A friend introduced Tomas Alfredson to the novel . While he normally does not like to receive books , because " it 's a private thing to choose what to read " , he decided after a few weeks to read it . The depiction of bullying in the novel affected Alfredson deeply . " It 's very hard and very down @-@ to @-@ earth , unsentimental ( ... ) I had some period when I grew up when I had hard times in school ( ... ) So it really shook me " , he told the Los Angeles Times . Ajvide Lindqvist already knew Alfredson 's previous work , and he and Alfredson discovered that they " understood each other very well " .
In addition to EFTI , co @-@ producers included Sveriges Television and the regional production @-@ centre Filmpool Nord . The production of the film involved a total budget of around 29 million SEK , including support from the Swedish Film Institute and Nordisk Film- & TV Fond and WAG .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Lindqvist had insisted on writing the screenplay himself . Alfredson , who had no familiarity with the vampire and horror genres , initially expressed skepticism at having the original author do the adaptation , but found the end result very satisfying . Many of the minor characters and events from the book were removed , and focus directed primarily on the love story between the two leads . In particular , many aspects of the character Håkan , including him being a paedophile , were toned down , and his relationship with Eli was mostly left open to interpretation . Alfredson felt that the film could not deal with such a serious theme as pedophilia in a satisfying manner , and that this element would detract from the story of the children and their relationship . Still , the film provided a few hints , of which Alfredson mentions one in the director 's comments ( Håkan likes children , for the wrong reasons ) .
A key passage in the novel details what happens when a vampire enters a room uninvited , an action that traditional vampire lore usually prohibits . Alfredson originally wanted to omit this from the film , but Ajvide Lindqvist was adamant that it had to be included . Alfredson was initially nervous about the scene . He realized in post @-@ production that the sound effects and music made it " American , in a bad way " , and had to be removed for the scene to work . The end result , which shows Eli slowly beginning to bleed from her eyes , ears , and pores , received positive notices from many critics . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian described it as a " haemophilia of rejection " .
The novel presents Eli as an androgynous boy , castrated centuries before by a sadistic vampire nobleman . The film handles the issue of Eli 's gender more ambiguously : a brief scene in which Eli changes into a dress offers a glimpse of a suggestive scar but no explicit elaboration . When Oskar asks Eli to become his girlfriend , Eli tries to tell Oskar " I 'm not a girl " . An actress plays Eli 's character , but her voice was considered to be too high pitched , so it was dubbed by voice actress Elif Ceylan . According to an interview with the director , as the film was originally conceived , flashbacks explained this aspect in more detail , but these scenes were eventually cut . In the end , Ajvide Lindqvist was satisfied with the adaptation . When Alfredson showed him eight minutes of footage for the first time , he " started to cry because it was so damn beautiful " . He subsequently described the film as a " masterpiece " . " It doesn 't really matter that [ Alfredson ] didn 't want to do it the way I wanted it in every respect . He could obviously never do that . The film is his creative process " , he said .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting of the lead actors took almost a year , with open castings held all over Sweden . Kåre Hedebrant , selected to audition for the role as Oskar after an initial screening at his school , eventually landed the role . Lina Leandersson responded to an online advertisement seeking a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy or girl " good at running " . After three more auditions , she was selected to play Eli .
Alfredson has described the casting process as the most difficult part of making the film . He had particular concerns about the interaction between the two leads , and the fact that those who had read the book would have a preconceived notion of how the characters were supposed to look . He wanted the actors to look innocent , and be able to interact in front of the camera . They were supposed to be " mirror images of each other . She is everything he isn 't . Dark , strong , brave , and a girl . ( ... ) Like two sides of the same coin . " On another occasion , Alfredson stated that " [ c ] asting is 70 percent of the job ; it 's not about picking the right people to make the roles . It is about creating chords , how a B and A minor interact together , and are played together . "
In the end , Alfredson expressed satisfaction with the result , and has frequently lauded Hedebrant and Leandersson for being " extremely intelligent " , " incredibly wise " , and " unprecedentedly fantastic . "
= = = Filming = = =
Although the film takes place in Blackeberg , a suburb of Stockholm , principal photography took place in Luleå ( in the north of Sweden ) to ensure enough snow and cold weather . The area where the filming took place dated from around the same time as Blackeberg , and has similar architecture . However , Alfredson shot a few scenes in the Blackeberg area . In particular , the scene where Eli leaps down on Virginia from a tree , was shot in the town square of Blackeberg . Another scene , where Eli attacks Jocke in an underpass , was shot in the nearby suburb Råcksta . The original Blackeberg underpass that Lindqvist had envisioned was deemed too high to fit in the picture . Some of the outdoor close @-@ up scenes were made in a super cold studio .
The jungle gym where much of the interaction between Oskar and Eli takes place was constructed specifically for the film . Its design was intended to suit the CinemaScope format better than a regular jungle gym , which would typically have to be cropped height @-@ wise .
Most of the filming used a single , fixed , Arri 535B camera , with almost no handheld usage , and few cuts . Tracking shots relied on a track @-@ mounted dolly , rather than Steadicam , to create calm , predictable camera movement . The crew paid special attention to lighting . Cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema and director Alfredson invented a technique they called " spray light " . In an interview , van Hoytema describes it as follows : " If you could capture dull electrical light in a can and spray it like hairspray across Eli ’ s apartment , it would have the same result as what we created " . For the emotional scenes between Oskar and Eli , van Hoytema consistently diffused the lighting .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The film contains around 50 shots with computer @-@ generated imagery . Alfredson wanted to make them very subtle and almost unnoticeable . The sequence where multiple cats attack Virginia , one of the most complicated scenes to film , required several weeks of drafting and planning . The crew used a combination of real cats , stuffed cats and computer @-@ generated imagery .
The film features analogue sound @-@ effects exclusively throughout . The lead sound @-@ designer Per Sundström explained : " The key to good sound effects is working with natural and real sounds . ( ... ) These analogue sounds can be digitally reworked as much as necessary , but the origin has to be natural " . Sundström designed the soundscape to come as close to the actors as possible , with audible heartbeats , breathing , and swallowing . Late in production it was also decided to overdub actress Lina Leandersson 's voice with a less feminine one , to underline the backstory . " She 's 200 years old , not twelve . We needed that incongruity . Besides , it makes her menacing " , Sundström said . Both men and women up to the age of forty auditioned for the role . After a vote , the film team ended up selecting Elif Ceylan , who provides all of Eli 's spoken dialogue . Footage of Ceylan eating melon or sausage was combined with various animal noises to emulate the sound of Eli biting into her victims and drinking their blood .
The sound crew won a Guldbagge Award for Best Achievement from the Swedish Film Institute , for the " nightmarishly great sound " in the film .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Swedish composer Johan Söderqvist wrote the score . Alfredson instructed him to write something that sounded hopeful and romantic , in contrast to the events that take place in the film . Söderqvist has described the outcome as consisting of both darkness and light , and emphasized melody and harmony as the most important qualities of the music .
The Slovak National Symphony Orchestra performed the score ; two years earlier they had performed the score for the first Swedish vampire movie , Frostbiten . It placed fourth on Ain 't It Cool News ' Top 10 Best Scores Of 2008 List , being described as " scrupulously weaving together strains of bone @-@ chillingly cold horror with the encompassing warmth of newly acquired love " . If magazine described the score as " the most beautifully emotional score yet to grace the undead . It ’ s a feeling of tender melancholy that delivers its scares in a subtle , chamber orchestra way " .
The song " Kvar i min bil " , written and performed by Per Gessle , resonates repeatedly through the film . Originally an outtake from Gessle 's solo album En händig man , the song was specially provided for the film , to resemble the sound of popular 1980s pop group Gyllene Tider . Gessle has described the song as a " bluesy tune with a nice guitar hook ” . Other songs in the film include " Försonade " from 1968 , written and performed by future ABBA member Agnetha Fältskog , " Flash in the Night " from 1981 , written by Tim Norell and Björn Håkansson and performed by Secret Service , and " Dags å välja sida " by Peps Blodsband .
On November 11 , 2008 , MovieScore Media released the film soundtrack in a limited edition of 500 copies . It contains 21 of Söderqvist 's original scores from the film .
= = Release = =
Let the Right One In received its first performance at the Gothenburg Film Festival in Sweden on 26 January 2008 where Alfredson won the Festival 's Nordic Film Prize . It subsequently played at several other film festivals , including the Tribeca Film Festival in New York ( 24 April 2008 ) , where it won the Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature , the Edinburgh Film Festival on 25 Jun 2008 where it won the Rotten Tomatoes Critical Consensus Award , and the Neuchâtel International Fantastic Film Festival in Switzerland on 3 July 2008 where it won the Méliès d 'Argent ( Silver Méliès ) . The Swedish premiere was originally planned for 18 April 2008 , but following the positive response from the festival screenings , the producers decided to postpone the release until autumn , to allow for a longer theatrical run . At one time there was a plan to release the film for a special series of screenings in Luleå , beginning 24 September and lasting seven days . This was canceled when the Swedish Film Institute announced that Everlasting Moments had been selected over Let the Right One In as Sweden 's submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film . The distributors released it on 24 October 2008 in Sweden , Norway , and as a limited release in the United States . In Australia , the film was released on 19 March 2009 . The film was released in cinemas in the UK on 10 April 2009 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Swedish critics generally expressed positive reactions to the film . In 26 reviews listed at the Swedish @-@ language review site Kritiker.se it achieved an average rating of 4 @.@ 0 out of 5 . Svenska Dagbladet gave the film a rating of 5 out of 6 and hailed Alfredson for his ability to " tell [ stories ] through pictures instead of words about a society where hearts are turned to icicles and everyone is left on their own , but also about love warm and red like blood on white melting snow " . Göran Everdahl for SVT 's Gomorron Sverige gave the film 4 out of 5 and described the film as " kitchen sink fantasy " that " gives the vampire story back something it has been missing for a long time : the ability to really frighten us " . Expressen and Göteborgs @-@ Posten were less impressed and gave the film 3 out of 5 . Expressen criticized it for being unappealing to those uninitiated in vampire films while Göteborgs @-@ Posten believed the supporting characters had lost the emotional depth that made the novel so successful .
Let the Right One In received widespread critical acclaim in the U.S. As of 2014 the film has a 98 % " Certified fresh " rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 175 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 . Additionally , Metacritic has reported an average score of 82 out of 100 based on 30 reviews which indicates " universal acclaim " . Reviewers have commented on the beautiful cinematography and its quiet , restrained approach to the sometimes bloody and violent subject matter . KJ Doughton of Film Threat thought the visuals in the ending were fresh and inventive and would be talked about for years to come . Roger Ebert gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , calling it a vampire movie that takes vampires seriously , drawing comparisons to Nosferatu and to Nosferatu the Vampyre . He described it as a story of " two lonely and desperate kids capable of performing dark deeds without apparent emotion " , and praised the actors for " powerful " performances in " draining " roles . Ebert later called the film " The best modern vampire movie " . One negative review came from Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly , who gave the movie a " C " , characterizing it as a " Swedish head @-@ scratcher " , with " a few creepy images but very little holding them together " .
Bloody Disgusting ranked the film first in their list of the ' Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade ' , with the article saying " It ’ s rare enough for a horror film to be good ; even rarer are those that function as genuine works of art . Let the Right One In is one of those films – an austerely beautiful creation that reveals itself slowly , like the best works of art do . The simplicity of the story allows Swedish director Tomas Alfredson to focus on these two pre @-@ teen characters with a penetrating insight that not only makes it a great vampire film but a great coming @-@ of @-@ age film as well . At its core , the film is , simply , a human story , a pensive meditation on the transcendent possibilities of human connection . Most of all , it ’ s a film that sticks with you , and whose stature will continue to grow in the decades to come . "
The film was ranked # 15 in Empire magazine 's 2010 list of " The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema " . In their rationale , the authors noted that , " in these days where every second movie seems to feature vampires , it takes a very special twist on the legend to surprise us – but this one knocked us out and then bit us in the jugular " , and found that the " strange central friendship " between the two lead characters was what made the film " so frightening , and so magnetic " . In the early 2010s , Time Out conducted a poll with several authors , directors , actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films . Let the Right One In placed at number 28 on their top 100 list .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released in North America on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in March 2009 by Magnet Films , and in the UK in August by Momentum Pictures . The American discs feature both the original Swedish dialogue and an English dubbed version , while the European versions feature only the Swedish , and an audio @-@ descriptive track in English . Icons of Fright reported that the American release had been criticized for using new , oversimplified English subtitles instead of the original theatrical subtitles . Following customer complaints , Magnet stated that they would release an updated version with the original theatrical subtitles , but will not exchange current discs . Director Tomas Alfredson also expressed his dissatisfaction with the DVD subtitles , calling it a " turkey translation " . " If you look on the ' net , people are furious about how bad it is done " , he added . The UK release retains the theatrical subtitles .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Alfredson won the Gothenburg Film Festival 's Nordic Film Prize as director of Let the Right One In on the grounds that he " succeeds to transform a vampire movie to a truly original , touching , amusing and heart @-@ warming story about friendship and marginalisation " . Let the Right One In was nominated in five categories for the Swedish Film Institute 's 2008 Guldbagge Award , eventually winning for best directing , screenplay and cinematography as well as a Best Achievement @-@ award to production designer Eva Norén . In awarding the film the " Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature " , the top award at the Tribeca Film Festival , the jury described the film as a " mesmerizing exploration of loneliness and alienation through masterful reexamination of the vampire myth " . The film also won the Méliès d 'Argent ( Silver Méliès ) at the Swiss Neuchâtel International Fantastic Film Festival ( NIFFF ) and went on to win the Méliès d 'Or ( Golden Méliès ) for the " Best European Fantastic Feature Film " , awarded by the European Fantastic Film Festivals Federation of which NIFFF is a part . Other awards include the first Rotten Tomatoes Critical Consensus Award at the Edinburgh Film Festival .
Despite being an internationally successful film , Let the Right One In was not submitted by Sweden for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film . The details surrounding the film 's eligibility for the award resulted in some confusion . Being released on 24 October 2008 , the film would normally be eligible for submission for the 82nd Academy Awards . However , the producers decided to release it on 24 September as a seven @-@ day limited run only in Luleå . This would be exactly enough to meet the criteria for the 81st Academy Awards instead . When the Swedish Film Institute on 16 September announced that Jan Troell 's Everlasting Moments had been selected instead of Let the Right One In , the Luleå screenings were cancelled . Despite the fact that the film was released within the eligibility period for the 82nd Academy Awards , it wasn 't among the films considered because the Swedish Film Institute doesn 't allow a film to be considered twice .
= = American version = =
After the release of Let the Right One In took place , Cloverfield director Matt Reeves signed on to write and direct an English @-@ language version for Overture Films and Hammer Films . Hammer Films acquired the rights at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival , where Let the Right One In won the " Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature " , and Overture films planned to release the film in 2010 . Alfredson has expressed unhappiness about the idea of a remake , saying that " Remakes should be made of movies that aren 't very good , that gives you the chance to fix whatever has gone wrong " and expressing concern that the end result would be too mainstream . Alfredson was initially asked to direct the remake , but he turned it down stating that " I am too old to make the same film twice and I have other stories that I want to tell . " Lindqvist , in contrast , said that he had heard that Reeves " will make a new film based on the book , and not remake the Swedish film " and so " it 'll be something completely different , but it 's going to be really interesting to see . " Hammer Films producer Simon Oakes referred to the project as a remake of the film and later not as a remake , but just as " Reeves ' version " . Let Me In was released in late 2010 starring Chloë Grace Moretz and Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee as Abby and Owen , Eli 's and Oskar 's respective counterparts , and received very positive reviews despite not performing well at the box office .
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= Hunter Mariners =
The Hunter Mariners were an Australian professional rugby league club based in the Hunter Region 's largest city , Newcastle . Hunter was formed in mid @-@ 1995 and was later disbanded at the end of 1997 . The club was formed because of the Super League war , which was the rivalry between the traditional Australian Rugby League competition and the new media driven Super League competition . The team competed in the inaugural and only Super League season in 1997 , as well as that year 's World Club Challenge .
The Mariners faced much adversity in the Newcastle region because of the Australian Rugby League 's Newcastle Knights team being already well established in the region . The club played its home games at Topper Stadium and missed out on the finals of the 1997 Super League season , but made the grand final of the World Club Challenge . The team was overshadowed by the Newcastle Knights who won the ARL competition and were admitted into the 1998 re @-@ united competition . The Mariners were disbanded after being left out of the new competition because they believed that the Hunter region could not support two entities .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The New South Wales Rugby League competition ( NSWRL ) had been formed in 1908 as the first rugby league competition in Australia . There was a Newcastle based club in the first two seasons of the Sydney @-@ based competition , but they eventually left to form their own Newcastle Rugby League competition . It was not until 1988 that another Newcastle based team was admitted into the NSWRL . In 1995 , the Australian Rugby League ( ARL ) took control of the competition amid the beginning of the Super League war . It was then that News Limited began proposing and deliberating a rival rugby league competition and the twenty teams which competed in the 1995 ARL season were split between the Super League and ARL competitions .
The Newcastle Knights , the Newcastle @-@ based team formed in 1988 , aligned itself with the ARL and the new Super League competition was left without a Newcastle @-@ based team . The Super League then established their own Newcastle @-@ based team . The financially successful Newcastle Wests Leagues Club was given a licence to form a club for the 1996 inaugural Super League season .
In July 1995 , it was officially announced that the Newcastle @-@ based team would be called the " Hunter Mariners " . However , in the middle of 1995 , members of the Newcastle Wests Leagues Club did not want the club involved in the rebel competition , and the club held a meeting after 5 @,@ 000 fans signed a petition objecting to the club ’ s involvement . After this , and when local unions became involved in the protest , the Leagues Club abandoned the licence . The club then became owned and supported by News Limited .
In early 1996 , the Hunter Mariners club was officially launched , without a home ground , but on that same day the Super League was banned from running its rebel competition . Originally the Mariners were allowed to use the Newcastle Knights home ground Marathon Stadium by the Showground Trust , but the Supreme Court found that they had no rights to play there . The club eventually played at Topper Stadium , sharing the ground with the National Soccer League 's Newcastle Breakers , and used over $ 1 million to upgrade facilities at the stadium . After an appeal in mid @-@ 1996 , the Super League was officially allowed to run the competition , which began in 1997 .
= = = 1997 Super League Telstra Cup = = =
The Mariners lost their first three games of the premiership season , their first a narrow loss on their home ground . However , after the first loss at home , the Mariners were able to win seven consecutive matches at Topper Stadium . Despite this home ground record , Mariners were never able to win away from home . They lost all nine matches played away from their stadium , and subsequently missed out on the finals for the Super League season .
The Mariners were able to produce some representative players throughout their one season . Noel Goldthorpe and Robbie Ross were selected in the Super League Tri @-@ Series and Goldthorpe scored the winning points for New South Wales in the final of that series . Tyran Smith , Tony Iro and Kevin Iro were all selected for the New Zealand representative team . While mid @-@ year find Brett Kimmorley was the club ’ s sole selection for Australia in the Super League Test series against Great Britain .
= = = 1997 World Club Championship = = =
The Super League had also begun a rugby league competition in England , and they had created a mixed competition , encompassing Super League clubs from Australia , New Zealand , France and England , known as the World Club Challenge . The 1997 World Club Championship was held in order to crown " the best club in the world " . The Mariners were a part of Australasia ’ s group A and competed in England , before returning to complete the Australian part of the competition . The Mariners won all three games in England , over Paris Saint @-@ Germain , Castleford and Sheffield . They returned home to again win the three games at Topper Stadium and therefore made the finals of the competition .
The finals system meant that they would have to play their finals match in England against English Super League club Wigan . The Mariners shocked the club and the league by winning 22 – 18 . That score line would again be repeated in the grand final qualifier against Australian club Cronulla , another match the Mariners were expected to lose . But the Mariners were able to defeat the Australian Super League runners @-@ up to take themselves to the grand final of the competition . Against the winners of the Super League grand final , Brisbane , the Mariners were blown away by the competition favourites . In what would be their final rugby league match as a club , the Mariners were down at half @-@ time 26 – 4 and the final scoreline of 36 – 12 prevented the Mariners taking out a A $ 1 million prize .
= = = Demise = = =
The agreement of the ARL and Super League was to unify and become one competition , to be known as the National Rugby League ( NRL ) , was that only twenty teams would compete in the competition in 1998 . This meant that three of the twenty @-@ two teams from both competitions was to be demised with the addition of a new Melbourne based team . With the other Newcastle @-@ based team , the Newcastle Knights winning the 1997 premiership , they were admitted into the new competition , however the NRL saw that two Newcastle based teams would not be financially viable .
Late in 1997 , the club was offered to merge with Gold Coast @-@ based team the Gold Coast Chargers , which would be known as the Gold Coast Mariners and would be based in the Gold Coast . However the Gold Coast party withdrew late to go alone in the 1998 competition , and while the Mariners tried to do the same , they , along with South Queensland Crushers and Western Reds , were not admitted into the NRL competition , thus ending their tenure as a first @-@ grade rugby league team .
= = Representative players = =
Players from the Hunter Mariners that have represented another teams while at the club include Australian international Brett Kimmorley and New Zealand internationals Kevin Iro , Tony Iro and Tyran Smith . Robbie Ross and Noel Goldthorpe also played for New South Wales in the State of origin .
= = Players = =
In the Super League season , the Mariners used a total of twenty @-@ nine players over the eighteen games .
= = Records and statistics = =
= = = Individual records = = =
Scott Hill , Peter Gregory , and Tony Stone share the record of playing all eighteen Super League games for the Mariners , being the players with the most first grade games . Nick Zisti , however is the Mariner 's most prolific record holder , with the most first grade points for the team with 76 points . This encompasses the most tries for the team with nine as well as most goals with twenty . Zisti has the most tries and goals in a match with three and five scored respectively in a match . The Mariners have only had three representatives , Robbie Ross and Noel Goldthorpe represented New South Wales in the Super League Tri @-@ Series while Brett Kimmorley represented Australia in the Super League test matches .
= = = Team honours = = =
Their home ground success , winning seven from nine matches , was never able to attract decent figure crowds , their highest reaching 7 @,@ 719 . Compared with the Super League competition average of 12 @,@ 347 and the nearby Newcastle Knights had an average of 14 @,@ 257 home attendances . With crowds at these levels , the Mariners were unsuccessfully competing in the Newcastle area .
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= Existence ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Existence " is the twenty @-@ first episode and eighth season finale of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files and 182nd episode overall . The episode first premiered on Fox in the United States on May 20 , 2001 , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on June 28 , 2001 on Sky1 . It was written by executive producer Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . " Existence " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 4 and was watched by 8 @.@ 58 million households and 14 million viewers , overall . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) — as well as ex @-@ FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , continuing from the previous episode , " Essence " , a new type of alien , called a Super Soldier programmed to destroy any traces of alien involvement on Earth , is introduced . Mulder , Doggett , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , and Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) help Scully escape from Billy Miles with Special Agent Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) to a remote town . Shortly after , Skinner kills Krycek and Scully delivers an apparently normal baby with the alien Super Soldiers surrounding her . Without explanation , the aliens leave the area as Mulder arrives .
" Existence " is a story milestone for the series . It , along with previous season eight episodes starting with " Per Manum " , helped to introduce the story arc featuring the super @-@ soldiers which continued throughout the ninth season . The episode was the last to feature Fox Mulder 's character until the series finale the following year . As such , the last scene with Doggett and Reyes in Kersh 's office was intended to show the " New X @-@ Files " without David Duchovny .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a metal box brought in containing the remains of Billy Miles . The coroner examines it and notices a small piece of metal . After he leaves the room , the metal begins to spin , growing into what looks like the beginnings of a spine . Meanwhile , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and Monica Reyes arrive at the abandoned town where Special Agent John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) was born .
Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) is seated in a chair in Assistant Director Walter Skinner 's office , where he is shown a video from the morgue . Skinner tells him that Miles is somehow alive and still out to get Scully and her unborn child . Suddenly , Agent Gene Crane comes to Doggett and tells him that there is a person — Knowle Rohrer — who wants to see him , about issues concerning Miles and Scully . This leaves Fox Mulder and Skinner to interrogate Krycek . Rohrer fabricates a story to Doggett that Miles is part of a Military Project to create a super soldier and that Scully had a chip put in the back of her neck during her abduction to make her pregnant with the first organic version of a super soldier .
In Skinner 's office , Krycek gets up from his chair and starts leaving out the doorway . Skinner goes after him , then turns around and sees Miles approaching behind him . Skinner just manages to escape with Krycek ( who was purposely closing the elevator doors on Skinner ) , but Miles ' hand breaks through the elevator , injuring Skinner . At the hospital , Mulder distrusts what Doggett has been told by Knowle Rohrer , so the two set out to find out how trustworthy Rohrer really is . Meanwhile , at Doggett 's abandoned hometown where Reyes and Scully are hiding out , Reyes sees someone running off and follows whoever it is . A car pulls up and she meets a trooper who agrees to help with the birth . As Mulder and Doggett pull into the garage , they find Krycek with a passenger , who happens to be Rohrer . Mulder believes that Rohrer and Krycek are colluding together . Doggett covertly pursues Rohrer and learns that Rohrer has an accomplice : Agent Crane .
Mulder 's own problems arise when his cell phone rings and Krycek disappears from his car . Mulder , after learning what Doggett has witnessed , believes that Crane gave Krycek access to the FBI . Suddenly , Krycek smashes through the car window with his prosthetic hand and destroys the cell phone . Krycek aims his gun at Mulder and tells him to get out . Krycek is about to pull the trigger when a bullet administered by Skinner pierces his arm . Krycek tries to pick his gun up again , but Skinner shoots his hand , rendering it useless . Krycek pushes his gun over and tells Skinner to shoot Mulder . Instead , Skinner raises his gun and shoots Krycek in the head . Doggett attempts to apprehend Rohrer and Crane but ends up being chased by the two . The pursuit ends up in the FBI garage and ends violently with Crane being run over and Rohrer crashing his car into the garage wall . Both men are presumed dead .
Scully goes into labour and Reyes helps her deliver an apparently normal baby with the alien Super Soldiers surrounding them . Without explanation , the aliens leave the area as Mulder arrives . While Doggett and Reyes report to the FBI Headquarters , Doggett initiates an investigation into Kersh after a late night meeting between him and Rohrer . Mulder takes Scully and their newborn baby back to her apartment . After marveling over the baby and discussing recent events , the two agents share a long , passionate kiss .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
" Existence " was written during filming , which led to Kim Manners — the director of the episode — helping with the script . Because of this , several of the action scenes , such as the fight at the FBI headquarters , were Manners ' ideas . The last scene with Doggett and Reyes in Kersh 's office is the birth of the " New X @-@ Files " without David Duchovny . From here on , Monica Reyes became a main character on the show . Star Trek : The Next Generation regular Denise Crosby briefly appears as Scully 's gynecologist . The episode features the last appearance of Nicholas Lea , sans the series finale . Reportedly , Lea had become tired of the role and was growing weary of the ambiguous nature of the character . When Lea learned that his character was to be killed off in " Existence " , he reportedly welcomed the news . The night the episode aired , Lea wrote on his personal website : " I felt that [ Krycek ] wasn 't getting a fair shake anyway . [ ... ] I wanted more in @-@ depth ideas about the character and it never came to pass . It kind of stopped being fun to play . "
The final scene of the episode featuring Mulder and Scully kissing almost was not filmed . Initially , the script called for Mulder to kiss Scully 's forehead . Both Duchovny and Manners argued that the scene was " mundane " and that they had " been teasing and doing that bull for so long " that they wanted " a real kiss at this point " . During the birth of Scully 's child , several allusions to the story of the birth of Jesus are made , including Mulder following a star to find Scully and The Lone Gunmen bringing gifts for the baby , much like the Three Wise Men . Scully 's child was portrayed by Jerry Shiban , who is the son of John Shiban , a producer who worked on The X @-@ Files as well as The Lone Gunmen . He was the first of seven babies to represent the character and the only one to play Baby William for a single episode .
= = = Effects and filming = = =
The episode featured several elaborate CGI scenes . The first scene with the vertebrae was entirely computer generated by visual effects head John Wash . Alex Krycek was killed by a CGI bullet straight through the head , which again was Manners ' idea . Extra money was budgeted for Krycek 's death . Mitch Pileggi was very happy when he was told he would be killing Krycek ; he explained , " when they came to me and told me that I was the one that was going to kill Krycek , I was elated . Not because I wanted Nick to go away or anything , it was just from a character stand @-@ point ; Skinner just wanted to kill Krycek so bad . " Manners later called it one of his " favorite scenes [ he 'd ] ever directed " and one of the " best scenes [ he 's ] seen in a long time on television . "
The car scene with Gillian Anderson and Annabeth Gish was shot at Kanan Road , Malibu . Anderson and Gish sat in what is known as an insert car , while the crew sat in a pickup car in front of them . The birth scene was filmed at the old Paramount Movie Ranch . According to director Kim Manners , the most difficult scene to shoot was in the elevator with Mitch Pileggi and Nicholas Lea . Gish had never worked much with guns before joining The X @-@ Files cast , so the producers got a retired LAPD officer to teach her more about firearms . She did some shooting practices before returning to the set . The FBI garage scenes were shot in Century City and took a total of four days to finish .
The episode also contains a scene wherein Reyes serenades Scully with " karaoke renditions " of whale calls . Gish later noted that " [ Series creator Chris Carter ] gave me a tape of whale songs , which was hysterical to be playing in my trailer . " Carter was inspired to write the scene after a friend gave him a Paul Winter album that incorporated whale sounds into the music . Carter later explained that , " I just thought it was kind of much like [ Reyes ' ] character to appreciate that . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Existence " premiered on May 20 , 2001 in the United States on Fox . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 4 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 4 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 58 million households and by 14 million viewers , overall . In the United Kingdom , " Existence " premiered on June 28 , 2001 and received 0 @.@ 65 million viewers , placing The X @-@ Files number three in the top ten broadcasts for Sky1 that week behind Star Trek : Voyager and The Simpsons . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Will the beginning be the end ? " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Existence " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " . While offering a positive opinion in regards to the finale as a whole , he felt that " Existence " dragged more so than " Essence " , resulting in a less interesting episode . He also felt that the overarching mythology of the series had long ago become too convoluted to make sense , but that the " human pieces of the show still work , and that includes Doggett . " Contra Costa Times columnists George Avalos and Michael Liedtke were pleased with the episode noting that the last scene was " beautifully written " . Avalos and Liedtke also reacted positively to the death of Alex Krycek at the hands of Skinner , saying it was the best scene in the episode . Despite their praise , however , they stressed that " Existence " was not as exciting as the previous episode , " Essence , " or the 1998 The X @-@ Files feature film . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode an A- rating , noting that " season eight 's finale goes out with a big fat juicy kiss between Mulder and Scully , at long last " . Gareth Wigmore of TV Zone was positive toward both " Essence " and " Existence " . Wigmore gave the episodes a 9 out of 10 rating and wrote " the reason that this two @-@ parter works is that its plot is simple enough for the audience to still have a handle on " .
Not all reviews were positive . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a more mixed two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a scathing review and awarded it no stars out of four . She heavily derided the plot , and wrote , " Thus endeth the Mulder @-@ and @-@ Scully era of The X @-@ Files , and what a load of sanctimonious crap it turned out to be ! "
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= I Am ... World Tour ( album ) =
I Am ... World Tour is a live DVD / CD concert film and live album by American R & B recording artist Beyoncé . Beyoncé produced , directed , and edited the concert film for her own production company Parkwood Pictures . The DVD was filmed in the presence of more than a million fans during her worldwide I Am ... World Tour , running from March 2009 through February 2010 , in support of her third studio album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . The DVD release is a combination of performances from the tour , including guest appearances from Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West , as well as backstage moments . Beyoncé explained that the idea of filming her worldwide performances came when she realized that she was feeling lonely . She edited the DVD for nine months and it serves as her directorial debut .
The DVD was released in three separate editions ; standard , deluxe and Blu @-@ ray . In the United States , the standard edition was only made available exclusively at Wal @-@ Mart on November 26 , 2010 . The deluxe edition was released in several countries around the world on the same date . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released from December 3 , 2010 in a list of selected countries only . She promoted it by appearing on several shows , including ABC 's Nightline and by holding a screening of her DVD in New York , in presence of several fans and artists on November 21 , 2010 . Prior to the release , numerous trailers were posted on Beyoncé 's official website . I Am ... World Tour premiered exclusively on ABC on November 25 , 2010 as a 90 @-@ minute Thanksgiving special .
Upon the release of the DVD , it received mixed to positive reviews from music critics who generally praised the high @-@ energy performances of the songs as well as Beyoncé 's vocals . I Am ... World Tour debuted at number one on the Billboard Music DVD Chart , giving Beyoncé her second consecutive number one DVD ( and third overall ) in the United States . It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The DVD was also successful worldwide , peaking inside the top ten on the DVD charts in every country after its release . It became the best @-@ selling music DVD of 2010 in the world and seventh best @-@ selling of 2011 . I Am ... World Tour was nominated in the category for Best Long Form Music Video at the 54th Grammy Awards .
= = Background and release = =
To promote I Am ... Sasha Fierce , Beyoncé embarked on the worldwide I Am ... Tour with several performances . The tour kicked off in Edmonton , Canada on March 26 , 2009 , in support of the album . The European leg of the tour started on April 26 , 2009 , in Zagreb , Croatia and ended on June 9 , 2009 , in London , England . On June 21 , 2009 , she began the third leg of the tour in the United States and finished in August with a 4 @-@ day stint at Encore Las Vegas on the Las Vegas Strip . Starting on September 15 , 2009 , the fourth leg began in Melbourne , Australia and finished on September 24 in Perth , Australia . Beyoncé then went on performing in Asia , the Middle East , Europe , Africa , and the United Kingdom , before finishing the 2009 portion of the tour on November 24 in Belfast , Northern Ireland . The tour had its final leg in 2010 , visiting Latin America . Starting on February 4 , 2010 , in Florianópolis , Brazil , she visited five other places before ending in Trinidad on February 18 , 2010 . According to Pollstar , the tour earned $ 17 @.@ 2 million between January 1 , and June 30 , 2010 , which added onto her total of $ 86 million for her first 93 concerts in 2009 , bringing the tour total to $ 103 @.@ 2 million for the 97 shows .
While Beyoncé was on tour , she played at a Las Vegas residency at the Encore Theatre in Las Vegas . Titled I Am ... Yours , the August 2 , 2009 show was recorded and later released as a DVD , audio CD and television special in late November 2009 .
After Beyoncé finished her concert at the Trent FM Arena in Nottingham , England on November 20 , 2009 , she announced to the crowd that a new album would be released the next year . I Am ... World Tour features performances from Beyoncé 's tour . She explained that the idea of filming her worldwide performances came when she realized that she was feeling lonely , stating " there was one moment I was in China and I was in this huge suite and I looked out the window and there were just thousands of people walking and I couldn 't believe my life ... I guess I was a bit lonely and I wanted to talk to someone so I opened up my computer and I just talked . " Additionally , Beyoncé revealed that the DVD will show more of her intimate side . The album 's track listing was confirmed on November 12 , 2010 . Both Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West make guest appearances on the DVD . In November 2010 , there was a sweepstakes to win tickets to an exclusive screening of the DVD .
In the United States , the standard edition of the DVD was released exclusively at Wal @-@ Mart stores on November 26 , 2010 . The deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour includes the concert DVD , a live audio CD , an exclusive documentary , and a 40 @-@ page four @-@ color booklet of never before seen photos of her journey around the world , made available on November 30 , 2010 in several countries . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on December 7 , 2010 . A live instrumentals album was released digitally February 1 , 2011 and on doubled sided vinyl on February 22 and February 28 . This is Beyoncé 's third release of this nature but the first live instrumental album to have a physical release ; the live instrumentals album from The Beyoncé Experience Live and I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas were her first two , only released digitally .
= = Production and filming = =
I Am ... World Tour was produced , directed , and edited by Beyoncé for her own production company Parkwood Pictures . It contains tour footage from 108 shows that took place in 78 cities , 32 countries , and 6 continents in the presence of 1 @.@ 1 million fans around the world . The show is a combination of performance clips from the tour , as well as backstage moments . I Am ... World Tour also serves as the directorial debut for Beyoncé . On this occasion , she confessed that it was a lot of work for her . Nevertheless , she was very happy and eager for her fans to see her DVD directed by herself . She explained , " I 'm so excited – this is my directorial debut . I am just thrilled that my fans are going to be in the theatre with me and I can 't wait for everyone to see it . It took me nine months to edit because I wanted to show a little bit of each show , each performance on tour , and it was 116 shows , so you can only imagine how much work it was , [ but ] it was worth it . " At the New York City screening of the DVD , Beyoncé further explained that she was completely " hands @-@ on " , deciding which moments made the final cut and which ones wound up on the cutting @-@ room floor , stating , " It was hard work . I learned so much . I have a new respect for directors and I think I would like to do more of it . " Some of the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage were shot by Beyoncé on her laptop . The DVD captures concert footage from cities in Europe , Asia , South America , and the United States , all edited into one concert . However , I Am ... World Tour was significantly recorded at London 's larger O2 Arena , a few months after the I Am ... Yours concert . A live CD of the concert , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary of her life along the tour and a 20 @-@ page book of exclusive photos are all included in the package . According to a press release , " it is meant to create the ne plus ultra Knowles concert experience , seen from her perspective " .
= = About the show = =
In addition to offering behind @-@ the @-@ scenes glimpses into Beyoncé 's intimate world on tour , the film also features performances of over twenty songs with staging , choreography , lighting and production values . In between performances of " If I Were a Boy " , which included a medley with Alanis Morissette 's " You Oughta Know " , viewers get glimpses of her childhood from old video footage . The footage transitions from Beyoncé dancing up a storm in her childhood home , to sleepless nights on tour where she worries about her health after nine consecutive days of touring , rehearsing , and recording . Despite her struggles , she sings Destiny 's Child songs , " Bootylicious " and " Survivor " , and asks for a guest appearance from Kanye West . For " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , Beyoncé 's performance is accompanied by YouTube footage of fans mimicking her moves , and a short video clip of US President Barack Obama .
In some of the raw moments captured in the documentary , Beyoncé appears completely bare . During one video , Beyoncé cries and asks herself : " Why did God give me this life ? Sometimes it 's overwhelming . Why did God give me my talent , my gift , my family . But I know you ’ re not supposed to question God . " She told Entertainment Tonight : " I wanted to do something a little different with the film ... I wanted people to re @-@ experience the show in a different way . Everyone that had been to the show -- I wanted them to see things that they didn 't get to see . I figured it would be cool for everyone to see it from my point of view . It 's a peek behind the curtain ... honestly , more than no makeup , the emotions and just being so real and raw , I don 't think I 'd be able to let down my guard the way I did if anybody was in the room . " The last minutes of the film get very sentimental , with a performance of Etta James 's classic " At Last " set to the backdrop of Civil Rights @-@ era footage , followed by a close @-@ up moment when Beyoncé admits that her life can be overwhelming , although she is blessed , stating , " I 'm grateful ... I 'm alive and I 'm living my dreams . " The film 's final performance shows Beyoncé performing " Halo " and sees her paying tribute to Michael Jackson . She also splices in footage of an old video from the night she attended her first Michael Jackson concert as a child . At the end of the performance , the whole production wraps as Beyoncé throws up the Roc sign and exits the stage .
= = Marketing and promotion = =
A thirty @-@ four second promo trailer of I Am ... World Tour was launched on several websites in early November 2010 . The concert film premiered exclusively on ABC on November 25 , 2010 as a 90 @-@ minute Thanksgiving special . A year before , over Thanksgiving itself , the network aired I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas , shot at the Encore Theater , Las Vegas , on August 2 , 2009 . Several other trailers kept dropping on Beyoncé ' official website in November . Beyoncé made an appearance at the School of Visual Arts Theater in New York City 's Chelsea neighborhood on November 21 , 2010 to premiere the concert film . On November 22 , 2010 , she held a screening of the DVD in New York , in presence of her parents and artists such as Mary J. Blige , Jennifer Hudson , Amel Larrieux , Tyson Beckford , Alicia Keys , and AJ Calloway . Additionally , in an interview with the Associated Press on the same day , Beyoncé revealed that the DVD will show more of her intimate side , stating : " I felt like I 've done so many different things , it 's time for me to show a bit of who I am . The hardest thing was showing that , because a lot of things that I filmed , I filmed in my computer , and I would never have gotten so open if someone else was in the room . " On November 23 , 2010 , Beyoncé was interviewed by Cynthia McFadden on ABC 's Nightline where she stated " I feel like I wanted the fans to be able to see the things that I see ... It 's a lot of things that I reveal about myself that I would never give to another director . "
On November 22 , 2010 , Rolling Stone organized a competition where I Am ... World Tour was one of the gifts for readers of the magazine . On December 1 , 2010 , Entertainment Weekly offered a six @-@ foot tall version of the poster signed by Beyoncé to one of the first ten people who posted a qualifying comment on the related post on their Facebook wall concerning the giveaway of the first ten copies of the DVD . On December 8 , 2010 , Perthnow collaborated with Beyoncé 's official website for a competition where twenty copies of the album were available . Fans completed an entry form and signed up to receive one of the copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Andy Kellman of AllMusic awarded the DVD three out of five stars and stated , " for anyone but the most devout fans of Beyoncé , this will be overkill , and it doesn 't have as much of the playfulness such as the pleasing diversions as the I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas set . " Simon Gage of Daily Express awarded it four out of five stars , complimenting Beyoncé 's dance moves and praising her vocal capabilities , going on saying that she is " probably the most electric performer since Tina Turner " and calling her the " Queen of R & B " . She also praised the quality of the songs " Crazy In Love " , " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " and " Halo " . Ian Drew of Us Weekly complimented the " high @-@ energy performances " of Beyoncé on her Destiny 's Child songs and enjoyed the black @-@ and @-@ white behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . He also added that the singer is " most revelatory when tearing up over [ her ] missing husband Jay @-@ Z on the road . " New York 's Amy Odell described the DVD as a " cinematic masterpiece " . Jam ! ' s Darryl Sterdan gave the album a rating of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and said , " More than two hours of powerhouse vocal performances and high @-@ energy choreography , accompanied by endless costume changes , eye @-@ popping production and general fabulousness . You 'll get tired just watching it . " Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald awarded it three out of five stars , stating that the good thing about the DVD is that it has a " wider range of songs " , nevertheless they do not have the same " rump @-@ rattling power " of the songs in The Beyoncé Experience simply because some songs are too short in duration , for instance " Bootylicious " . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly wrote that although Beyoncé showed an emotional side of herself during the DVD , " Still , the shows go on in their high @-@ heeled , wonderfully choreographed glory . "
Jon Pareles of The New York Times compared the DVD with Taylor Swift 's Journey to Fearless which aired as a special the same day as I Am ... World Tour . He noted , " Beyoncé 's I Am ... World Tour placed her before much larger audiences , documenting her choreographed razzle @-@ dazzle as she played arenas and stadiums in 2009 @-@ 10 . " He further said , " Beyoncé didn ’ t explain : she performed . With costumes that made her a comic @-@ book heroine , a cyborg , a club hottie , and a white @-@ clad vision of purity , she worked her big stages with hip @-@ pumping moves and a soul diva 's voice , from creamy to raspy . The documentary quietly flaunted her consistency as a trouper in montages that segued multiple shows — supertitled in small type — with Beyoncé in the same outfit making the same moves , while the fans ' nationalities changed around her . Yet for all her superhuman pep , she also came across as warmer than Ms. Swift . She grinned knowingly after belting a phrase into the bleachers , and she drew listeners into her own pop generalities . Andy Gill of The Independent was much less impressed with the DVD , qualifying it as an " unsatisfying , incoherent entertainment experience " even though she liked the way " the visual spectacle put everything in perspective " . The concert film received a nomination for a NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Variety – Series or Special in 2011 . I Am ... World Tour was nominated in the category for Best Long Form Music Video at the 54th Grammy Awards , held on February 12 , 2012 .
= = Chart performance = =
The live album debuted at number one on the Billboard Music DVD Chart in November , 2010 . It sold 37 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and 31 @,@ 000 copies in its second week of release in the US . It spent nine non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one in its fifteen weeks of charting . By December 26 , 2010 , I Am ... World Tour had sold 139 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . I Am ... World Tour became the best @-@ selling music DVD of 2010 and the third best @-@ selling DVD of 2011 in the US . The album also debuted and peaked at number forty on the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart for the issue dated December 18 , 2010 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , I Am ... World Tour has shipped over 200 @,@ 000 copies in the US , giving the DVD a double @-@ platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
On the chart issue dated December 2 , 2010 , I Am ... World Tour debuted and peaked at number four on the Irish Music DVD Chart . On December 11 , 2010 , the DVD debuted at number six on the UK Music Video Chart . It descended the chart for the next three weeks , before peaking at number five on January 8 , 2011 . It stayed on that position on the chart for three consecutive weeks . It was last seen in the top forty of the chart on May 21 , 2011 at number thirty eight . It also peaked at number thirty seven on the UK R & B Albums Chart on July 9 , 2011 . On the chart issue dated December 4 , 2010 , I Am ... World Tour debuted at number one on the Dutch Music DVD Chart . The next week , it stayed on the top for a second week and fell to number three on December 18 , 2010 . I Am ... World Tour peaked at number six on the Flanders Music DVD Chart for the chart issue dated December 4 , 2010 . On December 11 , 2010 , it peaked at number ten on the Wallonia Music DVD Chart . For the week ending December 6 , 2010 , the DVD debuted at number nine on the French Music DVD Chart and later , it became its peak position . On the Czech Music Video Chart , the DVD peaked at number sixteen . On the Italian DVD Music Chart , I Am ... World Tour debuted at number eleven for the week ending January 25 , 2010 which later became its peak position in that country . In 2011 , the DVD was certified gold by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry ( ZPAV ) .
On December 6 , 2010 , I Am ... World Tour debuted at number six on the Australian Music DVD Chart , with more than 7 @,@ 500 copies sold in the first week and hence achieved a gold certification on the same date . It was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for selling 15 @,@ 000 copies . It was the fortieth best @-@ selling DVD in Australia in 2010 and 2011 . On the New Zealand Music DVD Chart , I Am ... World Tour debuted at number five for the chart issue dated May 30 , 2011 . The next week it moved to number four which became its peak position in that country . In 2010 , I Am ... World Tour became the best @-@ selling music DVD in the world . The next year , it was the seventh best @-@ selling DVD worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
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= Hurricane Florence ( 1953 ) =
Hurricane Florence was a minimal Atlantic hurricane that struck the Florida Panhandle in September of the 1953 season . The eighth storm and fifth hurricane of the season , Florence developed in the western Caribbean from a tropical wave near Jamaica on September 23 . It produced heavy rainfall on the nearby island , and later caused damage in western Cuba . The storm quickly intensified into a hurricane over the Yucatan Channel , and as it moved north through the Gulf of Mexico , Florence 's maximum sustained winds reached 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . On September 26 , the hurricane hit in a sparsely populated region of western Florida , and shortly after landfall became an extratropical cyclone .
Damage from Florence , with 421 houses damaged and another three destroyed . The winds destroyed the roofs of three evacuation shelters , resulting in one injury . The city of Apalachicola , Florida was temporarily isolated due to the storm 's impact . There were no deaths associated with Florence , and damage totaled $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1953 USD , $ 1 @.@ 77 million 2016 USD ) . After becoming extratropical , the remnants continued to the northeast , producing rainfall along its path before dissipating on September 28 southeast of New England .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Florence were from a tropical wave that moved through the Lesser Antilles into the eastern Caribbean Sea on September 21 . The wave tracked generally westward , and spawned a tropical storm on September 23 about 100 mi ( 160 km ) southeast of Jamaica . Given the name Florence , the storm steadily intensified after developing , although a well @-@ defined circulation was not observed until September 24 . That day , Florence attained hurricane status in the Yucatán Channel between the Yucatán Peninsula and the western tip of Cuba .
After turning north and entering the Gulf of Mexico , Florence quickly intensified , with the Hurricane Hunters estimating winds of 125 to 140 mph ( 205 to 225 km / h ) ; the official peak intensity was reported as 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , along with a pressure of 968 @.@ 0 mb ( 28 @.@ 59 inHg ) . However , the estimate of the peak winds may have been too high , as ships in the region did not confirm them . On September 26 , it began quickly weakening , due to a combination of colder water temperatures and cool air . At around 1800 UTC that day , Florence made landfall in a sparsely populated area between Fort Walton and Panama City Beach , Florida with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Within six hours after moving ashore , the hurricane had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near the borders of Florida , Alabama , and Georgia . The remnants of Florence turned the northeast along a cold front , crossing Georgia before emerging near Savannah . The storm paralleled the Carolinas just offshore , dissipating on September 28 southeast of New England .
= = Preparations and impact = =
While the storm was first developing , Florence dropped heavy rainfall up to 10 in ( 250 mm ) in Jamaica , which isolated villages and blocked roads . Early in its existence , Hurricane Florence produced strong winds and waves along the west coast of Cuba , producing locally heavy damage . Prior to the hurricane making landfall on the United States Gulf Coast , the Weather Bureau issued warnings and recommended evacuations , which were credited in preventing any deaths or major injuries . In Florida and Alabama , the National Guard were activated in the event of heavy damage being caused , although they were ultimately not required . The Air Force flew hundreds of planes away from the region for safety . In addition , the Coast Guard drove along the beach to warn people of the approaching hurricane . In Panama City , Florida , about 10 @,@ 000 people were evacuated . All warnings related to the hurricane were lowered by the New Orleans U.S. Weather Bureau office at 4 pm CDT on September 26 . Offshore , a United States Coast Guard ship came to a standstill for 18 hours from the morning of September 25 into the early morning hours of September 26 while battling the cyclone out in the Gulf of Mexico .
The strongest winds recorded were 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) at Eglin Air Force Base . Although Florence made landfall in Florida , the heaviest rainfall related to Florence was 14 @.@ 71 in ( 374 mm ) in Lockhart , Alabama . Two intense rainbands , one on each side of the center , were responsible for the heaviest rainfall from the hurricane , including hourly rainfall rates of over 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) . Panama City reported 3 @.@ 66 in ( 93 millimetres ) in a three @-@ hour period . The combination of winds and heavy rainfall caused minor crop damage in the Florida panhandle and southeastern Alabama . Along the coast , Florence damaged 421 houses and destroyed three others . The winds destroyed the roofs of three shelters – one at Eglin Air Force Base and two in Crestview , Florida , forcing the evacuees to leave for safer areas ; one person was injured in the process . The winds also destroyed the roofs of nine houses in Crestview . Strong waves , reaching up to 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) in height , damaged 100 ft ( 30 m ) of a fishing pier in Panama City . The waves also washed over portions of U.S. Route 98 near Apalachicola , leaving the city isolated after power lines were downed .
Due to the strongest winds affecting a sparsely populated area near the coast , overall damage in the United States was minor , estimated around $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1953 USD , $ 1 @.@ 77 million 2016 USD ) . Heavy rainfall was reported in portions Alabama , including a total of 8 @.@ 72 in ( 221 mm ) , one inch shy of the 24 ‑ hour precipitation record in Montgomery set in 1892 . There , the rainfall backed up sewer drains , flooding homes and cars . The storm left about 4 @,@ 000 people without electricity in the area . While Florence moved across the southeastern United States , the heaviest rainfall fell to the near and left of its center , due to interaction with a cold front .
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= 1938 – 39 Oregon Webfoots men 's basketball team =
The 1938 – 39 Oregon Webfoots men 's basketball team was a Division I college basketball team that represented the University of Oregon . The Webfoots , coached by Howard Hobson , played in the Pacific Coast Conference ( PCC ) and compiled a 29 – 5 win – loss record in regular and postseason competition . After winning the PCC title , they became the champions of the inaugural NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
Coming off a season in which the Webfoots were defeated in the PCC championship series by Stanford , the team returned all five of their starters . Known for their fast break offense , Oregon 's players were nicknamed the " Tall Firs " and held a height advantage over most teams . After several early @-@ season wins , the Webfoots went on an extended road trip to the East Coast , becoming the first West Coast team to do so . The team suffered two losses on the trip , to City College of New York ( CCNY ) and Bradley , but posted seven victories as well . Oregon won 10 consecutive games at one point in PCC competition , and clinched a Northern Division championship with a win in the next @-@ to @-@ last contest of the regular season . In the best @-@ of @-@ three PCC championship series , against California , the Webfoots won in two games to earn the team 's first conference championship since 1919 .
Oregon was invited to compete in the West Regional of the NCAA Tournament , and beat Texas in their first game to reach the regional final , where the team won against Oklahoma . At the first NCAA Tournament final , versus Ohio State , the Webfoots claimed a 46 – 33 victory behind a game @-@ high 15 points by John H. Dick . Three players from the 1938 – 39 Oregon men 's basketball team were selected as All @-@ Americans , and Hobson and Lauren Gale have been honored by the Basketball Hall of Fame .
= = Background = =
The 1937 – 38 Webfoots posted a win – loss record of 14 – 6 in Pacific Coast Conference play . In the conference 's North division , the Webfoots won the title by a one @-@ game margin over Washington . The Webfoots were led by Lauren Gale , who was the PCC North division 's leader in scoring with 12 @.@ 5 points per game in conference play ; his overall average was 12 @.@ 4 . Oregon advanced to the best @-@ of @-@ three PCC championship series , but lost two consecutive games to Stanford by margins of 52 – 39 and 59 – 51 . That ended the team 's hopes of being crowned PCC champions . Following the decisive game of the series , player Bobby Anet said at a team meeting , " Next year , we 're going to win everything . "
= = Roster and schedule = =
Oregon 's entire starting lineup returned from the 1937 – 38 team that had lost in the conference championship playoff ; it included 6 ' 8 " center Slim Wintermute , who was known for his shot @-@ blocking ability . Forward Gale , who was 6 ' 4 " , had what sportswriter Michael Russell called " enormous hands ( that ) allowed him to fake opponents while palming the ball with one hand " ; he was the PCC points @-@ scoring leader in 1938 – 39 . Anet , a 5 ' 8 " guard , was " the heart of the team " , according to Russell , due to his ability to dribble and run the floor quickly . He was the Webfoots ' captain , and was responsible for calling timeouts and engaging in conversations with referees . Other players on the team included 6 ' 4 " forward John H. Dick and 5 ' 11 " guard Wally Johansen . Newspaper editor L. H. Gregory called the Oregon team the " Tall Firs " due to the height of the team 's players , since Oregon was taller than most other teams of the era . Eight of the eleven men on the roster came from Oregon , and the other three from neighboring Washington . Anet and Johansen , along with forwards Earl Sandness and Ted Sarpola , had played for Astoria High School ; Anet and Johansen had won multiple state championships before joining Oregon . Ford Mullen , a future Major League Baseball player , was a backup guard on the team . Along with Mullen , the Webfoots ' reserves included guard Matt Pavalunas and forwards Bob Hardy and Ted Sarpola . The team normally played up to nine players in a game , foregoing a regular substitute for Wintermute ; when he needed a rest , Dick or Gale often changed positions to play center , allowing for a third forward to be inserted into the lineup . The Webfoots ' head coach was Howard Hobson , who was in his fourth season on the job . In his previous three seasons , he had led the Webfoots to a total win – loss record of 63 – 28 .
Oregon 's preferred offensive game plan was to play an attacking fast break style of basketball . In response , opposing teams with shorter players often played a slower @-@ paced offense . Oregon 's fast break was unique among West Coast basketball teams , who were not accustomed to facing such an offensive style . Dick said of the team 's attack that " We wanted to keep the pressure on ( the opponent ) mentally – more so than physically . Never give them a moment 's rest . " Hobson frequently tracked Oregon 's attempted shots in both competition and practice sessions , and built the offense around his players ' strengths . On defense , the team switched between zone and man @-@ to @-@ man styles depending on how its opponent played .
= = Regular season = =
The Webfoots began the 1938 – 39 season by defeating Portland 51 – 24 on November 29 , 1938 . Oregon 's second game was also against a team based in Portland , which represented the Multnomah Athletic Club . The Webfoots won by an 83 – 25 final score . In a closer game with a team representing Signal Oil , Oregon stretched its winning streak to three games with a 46 – 34 triumph . The team then recorded a victory over Pacific Packards , by a 54 – 39 final score .
Following those games , the Webfoots embarked on a long trip through the Eastern United States ; they were the first college basketball team from the West Coast to do so . Nine games were set up in as many cities , with eight held on the East Coast and one in San Francisco before the team returned home . In scheduling the extended trip away from Oregon , Hobson sought to show the team " different styles of play and officiating " and help them prepare for games later in the season . As a result of the extended travel , a University of Oregon student newspaper nickname the club the " Wandering Webfoots " . The first game of the trip came in December at New York City 's Madison Square Garden against City College of New York ( CCNY ) . Oregon had a poor start to the game ; according to the Sporting News , the team was " confused by officials ' interpretation of legal and illegal screens to the moving picks set by City College of New York . " CCNY took an early 10 @-@ point lead , but Oregon cut its deficit in half by the end of the first half , and tied the game at 30 – 30 . Despite Oregon 's comeback attempt , CCNY won 38 – 36 to hand the Webfoots their first loss of the season . The trip continued on December 19 with a game at Convention Hall in Philadelphia , against local team Saint Joseph 's . Oregon won easily by a 54 – 44 margin , as Gale and Wintermute led the Webfoots with 13 points each .
Future stops included Chicago , Cleveland , and Detroit , among other locations . Starting with the St. Joseph 's game , the Webfoots had a streak in which they played four games in five days before Christmas Eve . On December 20 , Oregon routed Miami ( Ohio ) 74 – 38 , as Sarpola led the team with 20 points . Wintermute suffered an ankle injury during the game . The Webfoots then defeated Canisius by a 12 @-@ point margin . In the next game , against an undefeated Wayne State team , the Webfoots entered halftime tied at 22 – 22 and needed a late burst of scoring , led by Gale and Johansen , to clinch an 11 @-@ point victory . After the Miami ( Ohio ) game , Wintermute missed three of the team 's following four games . The Webfoots won without him in their next two games , but not in the game in which he returned to action against Bradley . In Peoria , Illinois , Oregon fell behind by 17 points at halftime and lost 52 – 39 , as Bradley center Dar Hutchins tallied 17 points while defended by Wintermute , who was playing through his ankle injury . Following their loss to Bradley , Oregon traveled to the Chicago Coliseum for a game against Western Illinois State Teachers College . Despite being without the services of Wintermute again , the Webfoots posted a 60 – 45 victory . Drake , the Webfoots ' opponent on December 29 in Chicago , was defeated by 11 points . The final game of the road trip , held in San Francisco on New Year 's Eve , saw the Webfoots lose to Stanford . The stretch proved profitable for the school , which made $ 4 @,@ 400 off of the East Coast games , and Dick credited the trip for giving the Webfoots exposure to different styles of play than they had been accustomed to .
= = = Conference play = = =
The Webfoots then entered play in the PCC , with four games scheduled against each of the four other teams in the conference 's Northern Division ; Oregon hosted each club twice and played two games at all opposing teams ' arenas . At the beginning of 1939 , the Webfoots began its PCC schedule with consecutive home games against Washington State on January 6 and 7 . In the first , Oregon entered halftime with a nine @-@ point advantage and prevailed by a 46 – 35 margin . They lost the second , 39 – 34 , for their only home defeat of the season ; the loss broke a 23 @-@ game winning streak at McArthur Court , the Webfoots ' arena .
Oregon then began a 10 @-@ game winning streak , their longest since the start of the 1937 – 38 season . Oregon State was the Webfoots ' first opponent during the streak , on January 13 ; Oregon prevailed 31 – 26 . In two higher @-@ scoring contests at Washington State on January 17 and 18 , the Webfoots claimed 56 – 44 and 57 – 31 victories , respectively . A five @-@ game road trip concluded with games in Idaho on January 20 and 21 . The contests were closer than those against Washington State , but the Webfoots won 38 – 30 in the first game and 35 – 31 in the second to improve to 6 – 1 in conference play . Oregon 's next five games were at home , beginning with a second encounter against Oregon State , on January 27 that they won by a seven @-@ point margin . Washington traveled to Oregon for games on January 31 and February 1 , and 57 – 49 and 58 – 42 victories moved the Webfoots ' winning streak to eight . They then concluded their four @-@ game season series with Idaho , winning by 17 points in each game . On February 18 , the Webfoots ' streak ended with a 50 – 31 upset loss to Oregon State , which would be their last of the season . Six days later , Oregon posted a 48 – 37 win over the Beavers at home . That game was the Webfoots ' last appearance for the 1938 – 39 regular season at McArthur Court ; it was the school 's 100th win at the arena since it was opened in 1927 .
With two games left in the regular season , the Webfoots held a one @-@ game lead over Washington , with a pair of contests scheduled in Seattle against the Huskies . Oregon required one victory to clinch the Northern Division championship . On March 3 , the Webfoots defeated Washington in the first game of the series 39 – 26 ; Gale led the team in scoring with 11 points , as the team won despite missing 53 of their 67 field goal attempts . Anet suffered a dislocated finger and was held out of the second game against Washington , which took place the following day . The Webfoots claimed a two @-@ point win , their fourth of the season over Washington . Of the Huskies ' five losses in 1938 – 39 , all but one was against the Webfoots . By the end of the regular season , Oregon had won the PCC North Division with a 14 – 2 conference record , and had a 24 – 5 record overall .
= = Postseason = =
= = = PCC championship series = = =
By winning the PCC Northern Division , Oregon earned the right to play the winner of the Southern Division in a best @-@ of @-@ three playoff series , with the games held at McArthur Court . In addition to the PCC championship , the winner would gain a berth in the first NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , which the National Association of Basketball Coaches would run . The series was slated to be held between March 10 – 13 , but a tie between California and Southern California for first place in the Southern Division necessitated a one @-@ game playoff . Rumors began that the PCC championship series would be postponed by one week , which would have prevented the winner from competing in the NCAA Tournament ; the event was scheduled to begin on March 20 . In response , Oregon declared that they would not play if the series was scheduled to end after March 14 . Despite the school 's claim , it agreed to a rescheduling approved by PCC member schools , in which the series was set for March 16 – 18 . Hobson declared that Oregon would accept an invitation to the NCAA Tournament , following hints that the PCC champion might be passed over for a bid in favor of a PCC team that did not receive a shortened rest between games . California won the Southern Division playoff 42 – 36 over Southern California to become the Webfoots ' opponent in the PCC championship series . Dick later noted that he considered it vital for Oregon to sweep the Golden Bears in two games , to avoid an overnight trip to San Francisco for the NCAA Tournament and secure an off day in the Webfoots ' schedule .
In front of a crowd that included members of the Webfoots ' 1919 conference championship team , which had won the title over California , Oregon took a one @-@ point halftime lead on a late 30 @-@ foot shot by Johansen . The team switched its defense from zone to man @-@ to @-@ man for the second half and went on an early second half run to open up a 14 @-@ point lead with 12 minutes left . The Golden Bears made multiple comeback bids as the half progressed , but the Webfoots held on to win 54 – 49 and move ahead in the series . More than half of Oregon 's points were scored by Gale and Wintermute , who had 18 and 11 respectively . The second game of the series was closely contested in the first half , but Oregon opened a 25 – 23 lead at halftime and extended their advantage to eight points before a run of three baskets by California . A stretch featuring three scores by Dick helped the Webfoots rebuild their lead later in the second half , and they clinched a two @-@ game sweep with a 53 – 47 victory . Dick and Wintermute contributed 16 points apiece . It was Oregon 's first PCC championship in 20 seasons .
= = = NCAA Tournament = = =
Oregon received an invitation to the NCAA Tournament 's West Regional , which was held on March 20 and 21 in San Francisco . First , Oregon faced Texas in the first round , in a matchup of teams considered superior to either of their potential opponents in the regional final , according to analysts . The Webfoots scored 10 of the game 's first 12 points , led by Dick and Wintermute , and held a three @-@ point halftime advantage . After Texas had closed their deficit to one point multiple times in the second half , Oregon went on a scoring run and eventually opened a 19 @-@ point lead . The Webfoots defeated Texas by a final score of 56 – 41 . Wintermute had 14 points in the game , and Dick added 13 . In the regional final against Oklahoma , a 10 – 0 run to close the first half put the Webfoots in front , 21 – 14 . Oregon took advantage of Oklahoma 's strategy of attempting to play a fast @-@ paced game and extended their lead in the second half . Dick had 14 points and Gale and Wintermute scored 11 and 10 , respectively , as Oregon advanced to the national championship game with a 55 – 37 victory . All three of the Webfoots ' leading scorers in the regional final were selected to the all @-@ Western regional squad , as determined by Kansas head coach Phog Allen . Hobson commented on his team 's NCAA Tournament opponents that " We were head and shoulders above [ both ] , but not so with Washington and California . "
The title game was held on March 27 in Northwestern University 's Patten Gymnasium . Oregon 's opponent was Ohio State , who had won the East Regional by winning against Wake Forest and Villanova . Oregon took advantage of the Buckeyes ' defense , which was designed to stop Gale and Wintermute , by using Gale as " a decoy " , in his words . This created an opportunity for contributions from the Webfoots ' other players , including Dick , who led both teams by scoring 15 points . On Ohio State 's offensive possessions , the Webfoots used a match @-@ up zone defense , which held the Buckeyes ' field goal percentage to 17 percent for the game ; in addition , Oregon gained a rebounding advantage . The Webfoots held a five @-@ point lead at halftime , having led by as much as seven . After Ohio State closed to within one point , Oregon pulled away in the second half to win the national championship , 46 – 33 . Afterward came what Dick termed " a two @-@ handed trophy presentation " ; during the game , Anet had broken a figure off the top of the championship trophy while attempting to gain possession of the ball by the sideline . On the team 's way back to the University of Oregon , a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 people greeted the Webfoots in The Dalles , Dick 's birthplace , and presented him with what Sporting News writer Joe Gergen called " the first championship watch in NCAA Tournament history . " The train stopped in several other cities on the way to Eugene , where a parade was held for the Webfoots .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
At the end of the season , Anet , Gale , and Wintermute were selected as All @-@ Americans . In the 1939 – 40 season , the Webfoots were unable to defend their PCC championship , finishing second behind Oregon State in the division ; the following season , all but one of the players from the championship team had graduated , and the Webfoots ended tied for third . The team did not win the Northern Division again until 1944 – 45 . Hobson left the program before the 1947 – 48 season to become Yale 's men 's basketball head coach . Gale and Wintermute later played professional basketball in the National Basketball League ; both were members of the same team , the Detroit Eagles , and Anet declined an offer to join them . Dick briefly played Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) basketball before embarking on a military career of over 30 years after the U.S. entered World War II . Anet and Johansen joined a Eugene , Oregon @-@ based AAU team , the Rubenstein 's Oregonians , and helped the club win a state title and reach the quarterfinals of the AAU 's national basketball tournament in 1940 . Bob Hardy and Mullen both played minor league baseball , and Mullen reached the major leagues with the Philadelphia Phillies in 1944 .
Hobson was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1965 , and Gale followed him into the Hall 12 years later . The entire 1938 – 39 Oregon team was enshrined in the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame in 1984 , and Anet , Dick , Gale , Hobson , Johansen , and Wintermute were inducted as individuals . The University of Oregon Athletic Hall of Fame selected the team and Hobson as part of its inaugural class of inductees in 1992 . Dick and Gale ( 1993 ) , Wintermute ( 1994 ) , and Anet and Johansen ( 1996 ) were also inducted in later years . All five of the team 's starters have had their numbers retired by the university .
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= Anyang Halla =
Anyang Halla ( Hangul : 안양 한라 ; hanja : 安養 漢拏 ) is a professional ice hockey team based in Anyang in Gyeonggi @-@ do , South Korea . It is one of the founding and current members of the Asia League Ice Hockey ( AL ) . Formed in 1994 , it is the oldest professional ice hockey team , and one of only three professional teams , in South Korea . The Halla Group contributes three billion won annually to run the club .
At its inception the team was based out of Mok @-@ dong , Seoul and named the Mando Winia . In 1998 the team took the name of Mando 's parent company , Halla . After the collapse of the Korean Ice Hockey League in 2003 they were the only team to survive . They joined four Japanese teams to create the new Asia League Ice Hockey . In 2005 the team relocated and took the name of their new hometown as their own , playing all current home games out of the Anyang Sports Complex Arena . After two years of finishing in 5th place , they became the first non @-@ Japanese team to finish first in the regular season in 2008 – 09 . However , they failed to defeat the Nippon Paper Cranes in the semi @-@ finals . In the following season Halla again finished in first and managed to win the semi @-@ final and final series giving them their first play @-@ off series win and first Asia League Championship . The club captured their second AL title after the league cancelled the championship final due to the earthquake in Japan . Asia League announced Halla and Tohoku Free Blades as the co @-@ champions .
= = Team history = =
= = = 1994 – 2003 : pre @-@ Asia League Ice Hockey = = =
The team was originally founded in 1994 by the Halla Group to help promote hockey in Korea . The Halla Group also felt that by creating an ice hockey team , it would help them to fulfill their role as a responsible corporation by providing something to the community . The team was originally named " Mando Winia " . It was so named because Mando is a subsidiary company of Halla and Winia is a brand of air conditioner sold by the company . In 1997 the team was disbanded for a short time during the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis . However , the chairman of Halla Group , Chung Mong @-@ won , fought to keep the team .
As a member of the Korean Ice Hockey League the team won the championship five times . During this time , the team also changed their name from " Mando Winia " to " Halla Winia " . The team first looked at adding foreign players to their roster in late 2001 with other members of the Korean League . In 2003 , the team was one of the founding members of Asia League Ice Hockey .
= = = 2003 – present : Asia League Ice Hockey = = =
While the team participates primarily in the Asia League , they also play in tournaments like the All Korea Ice Hockey Championship each year . In the inaugural year of Asia League Ice Hockey , Halla played a shortened seasons of only 16 games , and failed to break .500 . In the following year they brought Esa Tikkanen , a veteran player of 20 NHL seasons , on board . He was brought on primarily to coach the players but he also played during the team 's games . Tikkanen felt that as the players played against more skilled teams their own skill level showed greater improvement . He also felt that they should play more games and that the season was too short . That year the team was also noted for showing great improvement over the first year 's effort . Halla finished the season winning 18 games out of 42 with 5 ties . Their top offensive player , Marco Poulsen , finished 5th in the overall points race , however they didn 't reach their goal that year of making the playoffs , finishing in 5th place one spot out of the playoffs . In the off @-@ season the team changed their name from Anyang Halla Winia to Anyang Halla with the expiration of the sponsorship contract . As well they hired Otakar Vejvoda to be the team 's new coach . Vejvoda was considered a legend in the Czech Extraliga both for his skill as a player and a coach .
In the 2005 – 06 season Halla improved on the previous year 's performance finishing in second place . The league saw a reduced season of only 38 games . Song Dong @-@ hwan was the leader in goals for the league with 31 and Patrik Martinec ranked 2nd in assists with 44 . Martinec ranked number 2 on the total points list while Song finished in fourth place . Halla also scored the most short @-@ handed goals of any team in the league with 11 . The city of Anyang won an award for being " The best Hockey Town in Asia " . The team made the play @-@ offs for the first time since the league 's formation . They received a bye in the first round and played Kokudo , the winner of the 3rd place and 6th place match @-@ up . Anyang managed to win only a single game out of the first three which were played on home ice . They were eliminated in the 4th game which was played in Kokudo 's home rink by a score of 5 – 1 . Kokudo went on to be the league champions for the second year in a row .
After the conclusion of the 2005 – 06 season there were some roster changes . Two of the team 's top players , Song Dong @-@ hwan and Jang Jong @-@ moon , had to report for compulsory military service . Starting goaltender , Kim Sung @-@ Bae , retired after the previous season . Even though they were missing these players they were noted for having more players with more than 10 goals and 10 assists than in the previous season . With the departure of Song offensive output dropped slightly , the team 's top offensive player finished 7th overall in goals with 21 . However Martinec won the assists race with 53 and the overall points total with 71 . The team shared top spot in the short @-@ handed goals with 2 other teams , scoring 10 over the course of the season . With a further shortened season of only 34 games the team finished in 5th place and faced the other Korean team , Kangwon Land in the quarter finals . During the regular season Kangwon won 6 of 7 meetings , and the quarter finals were no different . Kangwon swept Halla in 3 games , the final game ending in 3 – 2 with a last minute desperate bid by Halla to tie the game .
The next season saw the AL further reduce the amount of games played to just 30 . In the pre @-@ season Halla won the Anyang Cup , which is a pre @-@ season tournament held in Anyang . The team 's record in the regular season remained relatively the same and they finished again in 5th place . Lee Yu @-@ Won was the top offensive player with 16 goals and was tied for 4th place with 3 other players . Martinec continued to contribute many assists to the team and finished in second place with 29 , one point off first . He finished in 4th place in the overall point totals . Halla did not have another player in the top 10 . The team once again led the league in short @-@ handed goals and gave up the fewest short @-@ handed goals against along with the Oji Eagles . In the playoffs the Halla faced the Nippon Paper Cranes in the first round . During the regular season the two teams split their series , each winning 2 games . The playoffs told a different story , and Nippon swept Halla in 3 games . Halla lost each game by a single goal . Vejvoda praised Nippon 's goalie for his excellent play and commended his players for their effort .
Following the defeat in the post @-@ season Halla replaced Vejvoda as head coach with Shim Eui @-@ Sik . Shim had spent his entire professional career playing for Halla and during the 2007 – 2008 season he was the coach of Little Halla . As a player Shim had 30 points in 80 games . He vowed to reorganize the team and set his sights on a league championship . The team 's general manager also hired Samuel H. Kim , then an analyst for SBS Sports and previously an NHL reporter from Vancouver , as a scout for the organization . Halla moved away from the heavy Czech influence which had previously dominated the team and filled 3 of the 4 spots for foreign players on the team with players from North America . Brock Radunske , Brad Fast and Jon Awe became the first three players from North America to play for the team . They also arranged for Eric Thurston , the head coach of University of Alberta 's team , to spend the first 3 weeks of the training camp assisting the new coach and new North American players . Martinec was the only Czech player to remain on the team . In addition to the new foreigner players , Song Dong @-@ hwan and Jang Jong @-@ moon returned from military service . In the 2008 pre @-@ season Anyang Cup , Halla finished 4th out of 5 teams . The AL increased the number of regular season games for the 2008 – 09 season to 36 . In September head coach Shim was suspended for 5 games for refusal to play . The incident stemmed from a goal that was scored as the final buzzer sounded during a 21 September game against High1 . Halla entered the dressing room and refused to return to the ice . The league considered the game a forfeit . Anyang Halla finished the season in first place with a total of 76 points . Their defeat of their rivals High1 in the final game of the season marks the first time a non @-@ Japanese team had finished first place in the Asia League . Brock Radunske captured the titles for both the most goals scored with 29 and most points on the season with 57 . Martinec finished in second place for the second year in a row in the assists category with 47 . Overall the team finished with 5 players in the top 10 in the overall points tally . For the first time the team ended the season with the number one powerplay scoring 54 goals . In contrast to earlier seasons the team did not lead the league in short @-@ handed goals , ranking in the middle of the pack both in goals for and against . They were the only team not shutout during the regular season . After receiving a bye in the first round of the play @-@ offs Halla had to face the Nippon Paper Cranes in the semi @-@ final . They returned to Anyang for game 6 of the series leading 3 – 2 . They were expected to win the series but Nippon 's Ilmura scored two game @-@ winning goals and the Japanese club defeated Anyang in 7 games .
Halla opened the 2009 – 10 season with a loss on home ice , but at the midpoint of the season they were tied for first place with the Oji Eagles . The league maintained the number of games at 36 . The first half of the season saw Halla plagued with injuries . Particularly hard hit were the team 's foreign imports . After the third game of the season Jon Awe was diagnosed with a sports hernia that required surgery and was scheduled to miss 8 – 12 weeks . On 29 November , Brad Fast received a knee injury that would sideline him for 4 – 6 months , ending his season . Brock Radunske was also on the injury list with a concussion , while Patrik Martinec was day to day with a lower @-@ body injury . Halla replaced Awe quickly with Dustin Wood , who has played in both the American Hockey League and Deutsche Eishockey Liga . Fast was replaced by Lee Don @-@ ku from Yonsei University . Halla also had several other regular players injured including Kim Won @-@ jun , Kim Kyu @-@ hun , and Lee Seung @-@ yup . After 18 games Halla led the league with 94 goals . On 31 January 2010 Halla defeated the Oji Eagles in overtime by a score of 4 – 3 , clinching first place for the second year in a row . The win also set up a semi @-@ final match @-@ up against Korean rivals High1 , guaranteeing that a Korean team would appear in the final for the first time in league history . Halla won all of their series against opposing teams , except against their rival High1 . Of 18 possible points available in their six @-@ game series , Halla took only eight . They were the only team to win a series against the Nippon Paper Cranes . The team led the league in goals scored with 180 . Individually , Kim Ki @-@ sung led the team in goals scored with 22 , while Patrik Martinec again led with 40 assists and 51 points . Halla finished with five players in the top ten point list . The team also led in both powerplay goals for , with 57 , powerplay percentage , with 34 @.@ 97 % , and shorthanded goals for , with 10 . In the annual end of season awards , Patrik Martinec took the award for Most Valuable Player and Best Playmaking . Cho Min @-@ ho took the award for Young Guy of the Year . Anyang city won the award for Best Hockey Town for the second time for their spirit and sell @-@ out crowds . Anyang Halla defeated High1 by a score of 5 – 2 to win the semi @-@ finals three games to one , winning their first play @-@ off series and becoming the first Korean team to play for the Championship Cup . Halla faced the Cranes , who had knocked them out of the playoffs twice , in the final . The series went to the full five games and four of the games went to overtime . Brock Radunske scored two overtime winners and assisted Kim Woo @-@ Jae in scoring the overtime winner in game five , making Halla the first non @-@ Japanese team to win the Asia League Championship . Radunske was named MVP while head coach Shim was named " Coach of the Year " . After retiring as a player , Martinec signed a 1 @-@ year deal to work as an assistant coach on the team .
Like the previous season , Halla lost the opening game against High1 . However , they once again found themselves on top at the midpoint of the season . The team was second in the league in goals scored with 65 . Halla retained Dustin Wood who was brought in as a replacement in the previous season . On 14 November 2010 the team defended their Korea Domestic Championship title against High1 by defeating them 5 – 1 in the final game of the week @-@ long tournament . After finishing first two consecutive years , Halla finished in fourth place one point behind the Free Blades . They won their season series against all teams except the Cranes and Eagles . They also finished fifth in goals scored with 130 , one behind High1 , but allowed the second fewest goals with 94 , three behind the Eagles . While the team 's penalty kill was ranked fifth in the league , they were tied for the most short @-@ handed goals with the Cranes with six goals . Their powerplay was ranked third , and they gave up the second fewest short @-@ handed goals . Brock Radunske led the team with 20 goals and finished fourth in the league . Cho Min @-@ ho also made the top ten ranking and finished in eight place with 18 goals . Kim Ki @-@ sung was the only Halla player to make the top ten in assists and finished in tenth place with 27 . Overall Cho Min @-@ ho led the team with 44 points and finished ninth in the league . Dustin Wood led the team in penalty minutes with 45 . With their fourth @-@ place finish , Halla had to face the Eagles in the first round of the playoffs . The series began in Japan , but Halla took two of three games and upon returning to South Korea they won the fourth game of the best @-@ of @-@ five series and knocked the Eagles out . The Free Blades defeated the Cranes and Halla were set to face them on 12 March 2011 in Sendai , Japan . However , a 9 @.@ 0 magnitude earthquake struck the Sendai area about one hour after the team landed there to prepare for the games . The League immediately cancelled the three games scheduled in Sendai and on 22 March 2011 they officially cancelled the final series , award co @-@ championship titles to both Anyang Halla and Tohoku Free Blades . This decision made Halla only the second team to capture back @-@ to @-@ back championships since the league 's inception .
= = Community contributions = =
As a team and organization the Halla have engaged in charitable work . In 2008 they had two charity games on 27 and 28 December . The admission fee was waved and instead fans were asked to make donations . The proceeds were donated to the poor children of Anyang city as well as the sick children 's hospital . On 19 December 2009 The Anyang Halla organization donated 20 @,@ 000 won for each goal that had been scored in the season to charity , totaling just over 2 million won . On 25 and 26 December 2010 Halla repeated their charity game series , and offered free admission to the game in exchange for donations to the sick children 's hospitals in Gyeonggi Province . After the cancellation of the final series , the team held a charity game on 22 March 2011 to raise money for the Japanese earthquake victims . Instead of raising a trophy to celebrate their championship , the team took a final photo holding signs of sympathy and encouragement for Japan . The team raised almost 20 million won in donations for Japan . The team maintains a yearly tradition of giving free admission to students who take the College Scholastic Ability Test ( CSAT ) to promote rest and comfort after the difficult exam .
= = Media = =
The Anyang Halla Hockey Club launched a new radio broadcast deal in 2007 with Afreeca.com. On 11 May 2009 , SBSsports acquired a 5 @-@ year broadcast contract with the club .
= = Arena = =
The Anyang Sports Complex Ice Arena ( Hangul : 안양종합운동장 빙상장 ) was opened on 24 November 2000 . It seats 1 @,@ 284 spectators . The Arena also contains a basketball court and is home to the Anyang KGC . It has a seating for 6 @,@ 690 people . The ice rink is also used for short track and figure skating among other sports . The team previously used the Mok @-@ dong Ice Rink .
= = Team colors and mascots = =
= = = Logo = = =
The Anyang Halla logo features a black triangle in the background surrounded by a white and black border . A growling polar bear is shown protruding from the top half of the triangle and underneath the team name " Halla " is shown in stylized gold letters . Below the team name is a semicircular shape which contains the city name " Anyang " in white letters on a blue background .
= = = Jerseys = = =
As the team changed its name from the Winia to the Halla the uniforms had minor changes made to them . The logo changed names and the uniforms had colored shoulders removed from them . The current home jerseys feature a solid blue background with yellow stripes on the cuffs and bottom of the body as well as a number of blue rough shapes behind the gold trim as well as sponsor logos on the shoulders . The away jerseys feature a solid white background with dark blue striped borders on the cuffs and bottom of the body , it also contains the same rough blue shapes behind the trim . The Halla put the first name of Korean players on the jerseys to avoid confusion as several players share the same family name .
= = = Mascots = = =
The teams mascots are a male and female polar bear . The male polar bear wears the Halla home jersey and the female polar bear wears the away jersey . She also wears a white skirt and has red eyes . No name has been released for either of the polar bears . In February 2012 the team began an event to choose a name for the male mascot with the name to be announced at the end of the season .
= = Honours = =
Korean Ice Hockey League :
Winners ( 5 ) : 1997 – 98 , 1999 – 2000 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2003 – 04
Korea Domestic Championship :
Winners ( 7 ) : 1996 , 1999 , 2000 , 2003 , 2005 , 2009 , 2010
Asia League Ice Hockey :
Winners ( 3 ) : 2009 – 10 , 2010 – 11 [ a ] , 2015 – 16
= = Team records = =
As of the 2015 – 16 season :
Most games played : Brock Radunske , 304
Most goals scored : Brock Radunske , 183
Most assists : Brock Radunske , 270
Most points accumulated : Brock Radunske , 453
Most PIM accumulated : Brock Radunske , 342
Bold lettering indicates active with team player . The statistics are counted for Asia League games only .
= = Current roster = =
Updated : 24 July 2016
= = Leaders = =
= = = Team captains = = =
Lee Dong @-@ ho , 1994 – 1998
Rho Jung @-@ won , 1998 – 2000
Shim Eui @-@ sik , 2000 – 2002
Kim Chang @-@ bum , 2002 – 2004
Park Sung @-@ min , 2004 – 2006
Kim Woo @-@ jae , 2006 – 2012
Kim Woo @-@ young , 2012 – 2014
Park Woo @-@ sang , 2014 – present
= = = Head coaches = = =
Kim Sae @-@ il , 1994 – 2004
Byun Sun @-@ wook , 2004 – 2005
Vejvoda Otakar , 2005 – 2008
Shim Eui @-@ sik , 2008 – 2014
Jiri Veber , 2014 – present
= = Year @-@ by @-@ year record = =
= = = Anyang Halla ( AL Hockey 2003 – 2016 ) = = =
complete records for previous seasons
* prior to the 2008 – 09 season , there were no shoot @-@ outs and games ended in a tie .
= = Past import players = =
Prior to the 2008 – 09 season , Halla drew most of their imports from the Czech Republic , including their head coach of 3 seasons .
Michal Madl 2003 – 04 , D
Miroslav Stefanka 2003 – 04 , C
Ales Zima 2003 – 04 , C / W
Vesa Ponto 2004 – 05 , D
Marco Poulsen 2004 – 05 , W
Esa Tikkanen 2004 – 05 , W / Playing Coach ( former Oilers / Rangers / Blues / Devils / Canucks / Panthers / Capitals )
Daniel Seman 2005 – 06 , D
Jaroslav Nedvěd 2005 – 07 , D ( brother of Petr Nedvěd )
Zdeněk Nedvěd 2005 – 07 , C / W ( former Maple Leafs )
Pavel Falta 2006 – 07 , G
Tomas Hruby 2007 – 08 , W
Patrik Hucko 2007 – 08 , D
Milan Kopecky 2007 – 08 , C
Filip Stefanka 2007 – 08 , D
Patrik Martinec 2005 – 2010 , C
Jon Awe 2008 – 2011 , D
Jeff Dimmen 2013 – 15 , D
Dustin Wood 2009 – 2011 , 2013 – 14 , D
Brad Fast 2008 – 11 , D
John Hecimovic 2011 , RW
Ric Jackman 2011 – 13 , D
Mark Derlago 2012 – 13 , LW
Alex Plante 2015 – 16 , D
= = Retired numbers = =
91 Shim Eui @-@ sik ( 1994 – 2006 ) was the Korean League MVP five times and held the record for most career goals and career points . He spent his entire professional career with Halla . He said after his retirement that he hoped to have the chance to coach Halla in the future .
43 Patrik Martinec ( 2005 – 2010 )
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= Charles A. May =
Charles Augustus May ( 1818 – 1864 ) was an American officer of the United States Army who served in the Mexican War and other campaigns over a 25 @-@ year career . He is best known for successfully leading a cavalry charge against Mexican artillery at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma .
May spent most of his career in the Second Regiment of Dragoons , but also had a brief stint in the First Regiment of Dragoons . As a lieutenant , he participated in the Second Seminole War , where he was responsible for the capture of an important tribal chief . During the Mexican War , he commanded a squadron during Zachary Taylor 's expedition , and saw action in the Battles of Palo Alto , Resaca de la Palma , Monterrey , and Buena Vista . He distinguished himself in those actions and was eventually promoted to the rank of brevet colonel , with a permanent rank of major . May later served in various parts of the American frontier , including during the Bleeding Kansas crisis .
He resigned his commission in 1861 and took a job as a railroad executive in New York City , but died three years later . His name is included in a verse that commemorates Mexican War heroes from Maryland in the state song , " Maryland , My Maryland " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
May was born in Washington , D.C. on August 9 , 1818 , the son of a doctor in a prominent Baltimore family . He received a civil education , but applied for a commission directly to President Andrew Jackson , who was impressed by his soldierly appearance , bearing , and skill at horsemanship . In 1836 , he entered the United States Army as a second lieutenant in the Second Regiment of Dragoons . During the Second Seminole War , May was responsible for the capture of King Philip ( Ee @-@ mat @-@ la ) , the Seminole nation 's principal chieftain . He was promoted from first lieutenant to captain on February 2 , 1841 .
= = = Mexican War service = = =
On March 8 , 1846 , after a final attempt to pressure Mexico to settle on a boundary for Texas , Secretary of War William L. Marcy ordered Brigadier General Zachary Taylor to move his army , which included May 's dragoon squadron , to the Rio Grande . Taylor 's destination was the river 's north bank , directly opposite the Mexican town of Matamoros , which stood at a natural choke @-@ point and controlled access to well @-@ traveled routes to the south . When Taylor refused to leave the region , Mexican cavalry ambushed a dragoon detachment under Captain Seth B. Thornton on April 25 , 1846 , which officially commenced hostilities . On May 8 , 1846 , the two main forces met at the Battle of Palo Alto , where May 's squadron was held in reserve and mounted an unsuccessful cavalry charge .
= = = = Battle of Resaca de la Palma = = = =
Searching for more favorable terrain , the Mexican commander led his army five miles to the south . On May 9 , 1846 , the pursuing American element met them at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma . General Taylor 's force received heavy fire from a battery of eight Mexican artillery pieces , which halted its advance . Taylor ordered Captain May to lead his unit , a squadron consisting of D and E companies of the Second Dragoons , to silence the enemy guns . May told his men to " Remember your Regiment and follow your officers ! " Today , the phrase is the unofficial motto of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment , which traces its lineage to May 's unit .
He led his cavalry squadron on the charge and , despite heavy casualties , secured the objective and silenced the guns before being forced to withdraw due to a lack of infantry support . The dragoons also captured one of the Mexican commanders , General Rómulo Díaz de la Vega , on the gun line . With the Mexican artillery out of action , the 8th Infantry Regiment and 5th Infantry Regiment were able to maneuver forward and eventually drove the enemy from their positions . Of approximately eighty men , the dragoons lost one lieutenant , seven privates , and twenty @-@ eight horses , with an additional ten privates wounded . Colonel David E. Twiggs , the regimental commander , commented that " After the unsurpassed , if not unequalled charge of Captain May 's squadron , the enemy was unable to fire a gun . " In his official after @-@ action report , Taylor wrote that " The charge of cavalry against the enemy 's batteries on the 9th , was gallantly led by Captain May , and had complete success . " After the battle , May received two brevets to the rank of lieutenant colonel .
= = = = Battle of Monterrey = = = =
After Resaca de la Palma , Mexican forces were cleared from the Texan side of the Rio Grande , but additional operations were required to force Mexico to agree to the border . The Mexican commander , General Mariano Arista , withdrew his forces to Linares , with Taylor in pursuit for sixty miles before returning to Fort Brown for reinforcements . He then marched against Monterrey . The heavily fortified city had a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man garrison under Arista 's replacement , General Pedro de Ampudia , but its supply line running south to Saltillo was vulnerable . Lacking the heavy artillery needed for a siege , Taylor planned a double envelopment , with one division executing a turning movement to cut the supply line and attack from the west and south , and his other two divisions assaulting the north side of the city .
May 's squadron was attached as a direct @-@ reporting unit to the newly promoted General Twiggs ' 1st Texas Division , which was to be committed to the north side of Monterrey . On September 21 , Taylor launched his attack on the city , but failed to synchronize his two forces . Poor Mexican leadership allowed the Americans to avert disaster , and after some intense urban fighting , General Ampudia offered Taylor an eight @-@ week ceasefire that was highly favorable to the Mexicans . Taylor accepted , which caused President James K. Polk , furious at the agreement , to transfer most of his forces to Winfield Scott .
= = = = Battle of Buena Vista = = = =
On February 20 , 1847 , May led a reconnaissance force that included an attached company of Texas Rangers under Major Ben McCulloch and artillery section of six @-@ pounder guns under Captain J.M. Washington . During the mission , the advanced element encountered small units of Mexican General José Vicente Miñón 's cavalry brigade and spotted a dust cloud to the south , presumably produced by a much larger force . Lieutenant Samuel Sturgis was captured during a reconnoiter before May 's force caught up with the advanced element , spotted more Mexican lancers , and took up defensive positions . After scouting parties failed to locate the main enemy force , May 's unit returned to camp to report to General Taylor . After riding 80 miles in 24 hours , the only fire encountered was from the American sentries as May 's force re @-@ entered friendly lines .
Three days later , on February 23 , 1847 , after having moved to better defensive terrain , General Taylor 's force was met by General Antonio López de Santa Anna 's numerically superior army just south of Saltillo for the Battle of Buena Vista . May 's squadron was reinforced with Troops A and E of the First Dragoons and a squadron of Arkansas cavalry under the command of Captain Albert Pike . The American line was thrown into jeopardy when Colonel Bowles of the Second Indiana Regiment ordered his unit to retreat for reasons unknown . With skillful artillery support from Washington 's guns , the situation was restored by the Second Illinois Regiment and rallied Indianans . At that point , Taylor arrived with May 's dragoons and the First Mississippi Rifles under Colonel Jefferson Davis , which halted General Anastasio Torrejón 's cavalry . Miñón 's brigade of 1 @,@ 500 Mexican lancers flanked the American line and assaulted the supply trains guarded by the Kentucky and Arkansas cavalry , and in the process killed former governor Colonel Archibald Yell . The dragoons counterattacked Miñón 's flank and routed the Mexican lancers . May was wounded during the action . On May 24 , 1848 , he was promoted from brevet lieutenant colonel to brevet colonel for his gallantry , backdated to the day of the battle .
= = = Later years = = =
After the Mexican War , May was posted to several different parts of the American frontier , including California , New Mexico , and Texas . He served with the First Regiment of Dragoons in the Kansas Territory during its violent abolitionist clashes . On March 3 , 1855 , he was promoted to major and exchanged positions with another officer to return to his old unit , the Second Dragoons . On October 27 , 1855 , the regiment marched to Texas , under the command of Albert Sidney Johnson .
May resigned his commission as a brevet colonel on April 20 , 1861 , and moved to New York City , where he served as the vice president of the Eighth Avenue Railroad . He died there on December 24 , 1864 at the age of 46 . He had a history of heart problems and poor health dating back to at least 1850 .
May was described variously as a courageous , sometimes reckless , and unpopular officer . Samuel Chamberlain , who served in the First Dragoons and wrote scathing descriptions of most of his contemporaries , was most critical of May . Chamberlain believed May had received unjustified praise for his actions at Resaca de la Palma and referred to him as the " Murat of America " and an " ass in the lion 's skin " . In 1861 , James Ryder Randall referred to " dashing May " alongside other Mexican War heroes from Maryland in a poem that later became the state song , " Maryland , My Maryland " .
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= SS Edmund Fitzgerald =
SS Edmund Fitzgerald was an American Great Lakes freighter that sank in a Lake Superior storm on November 10 , 1975 , with the loss of the entire crew of 29 . When launched on June 7 , 1958 , she was the largest ship on North America 's Great Lakes , and she remains the largest to have sunk there .
For 17 years Fitzgerald carried taconite iron ore from mines near Duluth , Minnesota , to iron works in Detroit , Toledo , and other Great Lakes ports . As a " workhorse , " she set seasonal haul records six times , often breaking her own previous record . Captain Peter Pulcer was known for piping music day or night over the ship 's intercom while passing through the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers ( between Lakes Huron and Erie ) , and entertaining spectators at the Soo Locks ( between Lakes Superior and Huron ) with a running commentary about the ship . Her size , record @-@ breaking performance , and " DJ captain " endeared Fitzgerald to boat watchers .
Carrying a full cargo of ore pellets with Captain Ernest M. McSorley in command , she embarked on her ill @-@ fated voyage from Superior , Wisconsin , near Duluth , on the afternoon of November 9 , 1975 . En route to a steel mill near Detroit , Fitzgerald joined a second freighter , SS Arthur M. Anderson . By the next day , the two ships were caught in a severe storm on Lake Superior , with near hurricane @-@ force winds and waves up to 35 feet ( 11 m ) high . Shortly after 7 : 10 p.m. , Fitzgerald suddenly sank in Canadian ( Ontario ) waters 530 feet ( 160 m ) deep , about 17 miles ( 15 nautical miles ; 27 kilometers ) from Whitefish Bay near the twin cities of Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan , and Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario — a distance Fitzgerald could have covered in just over an hour at her top speed . Although Fitzgerald had reported being in difficulty earlier , no distress signals were sent before she sank ; Captain McSorley 's last message to Anderson said , " We are holding our own . " Her crew of 29 perished , and no bodies were recovered .
Many books , studies , and expeditions have examined the cause of the sinking . Fitzgerald might have fallen victim to the high waves of the storm , suffered structural failure , been swamped with water entering through her cargo hatches or deck , experienced topside damage , or shoaled in a shallow part of Lake Superior . The sinking of Edmund Fitzgerald is one of the best @-@ known disasters in the history of Great Lakes shipping . Gordon Lightfoot made it the subject of his 1976 hit song " The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald " after reading an article , " The Cruelest Month " , in the November 24 , 1975 , issue of Newsweek . The sinking led to changes in Great Lakes shipping regulations and practices that included mandatory survival suits , depth finders , positioning systems , increased freeboard , and more frequent inspection of vessels .
= = History = =
= = = Design and construction = = =
Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company of Milwaukee , Wisconsin , invested in the iron and minerals industries on a large @-@ scale basis , including the construction of Fitzgerald , which represented the first such investment by any American life insurance company . In 1957 , they contracted Great Lakes Engineering Works ( GLEW ) , of River Rouge , Michigan , to design and construct the ship " within a foot of the maximum length allowed for passage through the soon @-@ to @-@ be completed Saint Lawrence Seaway . " Fitzgerald was the first laker built to the maximum St. Lawrence Seaway size , which was 730 feet ( 222 @.@ 5 m ) long , 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) wide , and with a 25 foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) draft . The moulded depth ( roughly speaking , the vertical height of the hull ) was 39 ft ( 12 m ) . The hold depth ( the inside height of the cargo hold ) was 33 ft 4 in ( 10 @.@ 16 m ) . GLEW laid the first keel plate on August 7 the same year .
With a deadweight capacity of 26 @,@ 000 long tons ( 29 @,@ 120 short tons ; 26 @,@ 417 t ) , and a 729 @-@ foot ( 222 m ) hull , Fitzgerald was the longest ship on the Great Lakes , earning her the title Queen of the Lakes until September 17 , 1959 , when the 730 @-@ foot ( 222 @.@ 5 m ) SS Murray Bay was launched . Fitzgerald 's three central cargo holds were loaded through 21 watertight hatches , each 11 by 48 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 by 14 @.@ 6 m ) of 5 ⁄ 16 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 7 @.@ 9 mm ) steel . Originally coal @-@ fired , her boilers were converted to burn oil during the 1971 – 72 winter layup . In 1969 , the ship 's maneuverability was improved by the installation of a diesel @-@ powered bow thruster .
By ore freighter standards , the interior of Fitzgerald was luxurious . Her J.L. Hudson Company @-@ designed furnishings included deep pile carpeting , tiled bathrooms , drapes over the portholes , and leather swivel chairs in the guest lounge . There were two guest state rooms for passengers . Air conditioning extended to the crew quarters , which featured more amenities than usual . A large galley and fully stocked pantry supplied meals for two dining rooms . The Fitzgerald pilothouse was outfitted with " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art nautical equipment and a beautiful map room . "
= = = Name and launch = = =
Northwestern named the ship after its president and chairman of the board , Edmund Fitzgerald . Fitzgerald 's own grandfather had himself been a lake captain , and his father owned the Milwaukee Drydock Company that built and repaired ships . More than 15 @,@ 000 people attended Fitzgerald 's christening and launch ceremony on June 7 , 1958 . But the event was plagued by misfortunes : When Elizabeth Fitzgerald , wife of Edmund Fitzgerald , tried to christen the ship by smashing a champagne bottle over the bow , it took her three attempts to break it . A delay of 36 minutes followed while the shipyard crew struggled to release the keel blocks . Upon sideways launch , the ship crashed violently into a pier . On September 22 , 1958 , Fitzgerald completed nine days of sea trials .
= = = Career = = =
Northwestern 's normal practice was to purchase ships for operation by other companies . In Fitzgerald 's case , they signed a 25 @-@ year contract with Oglebay Norton Corporation to operate the vessel . Oglebay Norton immediately designated the Fitzgerald flagship of its Columbia Transportation fleet .
Fitzgerald was a record @-@ setting " workhorse , " often beating her own milestones . The vessel 's record load for a single trip was 27 @,@ 402 long tons ( 30 @,@ 690 short tons ; 27 @,@ 842 t ) in 1969 . For 17 years , Fitzgerald carried taconite from Minnesota 's Iron Range mines near Duluth , Minnesota , to iron works in Detroit , Toledo , and other ports . She set seasonal haul records six different times . Her nicknames included " Fitz " , " Pride of the American Flag " , " Mighty Fitz " , " Toledo Express " , " Big Fitz " , and the " Titanic of the Great Lakes " . Loading Fitzgerald with taconite pellets took about four and a half hours while unloading took around 14 hours . A round trip between Superior , Wisconsin , and Detroit , Michigan , usually took her five days and she averaged 47 similar trips per season . The vessel 's usual route was between Superior , Wisconsin , and Toledo , Ohio , although her port of destination could vary . By November 1975 , Fitzgerald had logged an estimated 748 round trips on the Great Lakes and covered more than a million miles , " a distance roughly equivalent to 44 trips around the world . "
Up until a few weeks before her loss , passengers had traveled on board as company guests . Frederick Stonehouse wrote :
Stewards treated the guests to the entire VIP routine . The cuisine was reportedly excellent and snacks were always available in the lounge . A small but well stocked kitchenette provided the drinks . Once each trip , the captain held a candlelight dinner for the guests , complete with mess @-@ jacketed stewards and special " clamdigger " punch .
Because of her size , appearance , string of records , and " DJ captain , " Fitzgerald became a favorite of boat watchers throughout her career . Although Captain Peter Pulcer was in command of Fitzgerald on trips when cargo records were set , " he is best remembered ... for piping music day or night over the ship 's intercom system " while passing through the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers . While navigating the Soo Locks he would often come out of the pilothouse and use a bullhorn to entertain tourists with a commentary on details about Fitzgerald .
In 1969 , Fitzgerald received a safety award for eight years of operation without a time @-@ off worker injury . The vessel ran aground in 1969 , and she collided with SS Hochelaga in 1970 . Later that same year , she struck the wall of a lock , an accident repeated in 1973 and 1974 . During 1974 , she lost her original bow anchor in the Detroit River . None of these mishaps , however , were considered serious or unusual . Freshwater ships were built to last more than half a century , and Fitzgerald should still have had a long career ahead of her when she sank .
= = = Final voyage and wreck = = =
Fitzgerald left Superior , Wisconsin , at 2 : 15 p.m. on the afternoon of November 9 , 1975 , under the command of Captain Ernest M. McSorley . She was en route to the steel mill on Zug Island , near Detroit , Michigan , with a cargo of 26 @,@ 116 long tons ( 29 @,@ 250 short tons ; 26 @,@ 535 t ) of taconite ore pellets and soon reached her full speed of 16 @.@ 3 miles per hour ( 14 @.@ 2 kn ; 26 @.@ 2 km / h ) . Around 5 p.m. , Fitzgerald joined a second freighter under the command of Captain Jesse B. " Bernie " Cooper , Arthur M. Anderson , destined for Gary , Indiana , out of Two Harbors , Minnesota . The weather forecast was not unusual for November and the National Weather Service ( NWS ) predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior by 7 a.m. on November 10 .
SS Wilfred Sykes loaded opposite Fitzgerald at the Burlington Northern Dock # 1 and departed at 4 : 15 p.m. , about two hours after Fitzgerald . In contrast to the NWS forecast , Captain Dudley J. Paquette of Sykes predicted that a major storm would directly cross Lake Superior . From the outset , he chose a route that took advantage of the protection offered by the lake 's north shore in order to avoid the worst effects of the storm . The crew of Sykes followed the radio conversations between Fitzgerald and Anderson during the first part of their trip and overheard their captains deciding to take the regular Lake Carriers ' Association downbound route . The NWS altered its forecast at 7 : 00 p.m. , issuing gale warnings for the whole of Lake Superior . Anderson and Fitzgerald altered course northward seeking shelter along the Ontario coast where they encountered a winter storm at 1 : 00 a.m. on November 10 . Fitzgerald reported winds of 52 knots ( 96 km / h ; 60 mph ) and waves 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high . Captain Paquette of Sykes reported that after 1 a.m. , he overheard McSorley say that he had reduced the ship 's speed because of the rough conditions . Paquette said he was stunned to later hear McSorley , who was not known for turning aside or slowing down , state that " we 're going to try for some lee from Isle Royale . You 're walking away from us anyway ... I can 't stay with you . "
At 2 : 00 a.m. on November 10 , the NWS upgraded its warnings from gale to storm , forecasting winds of 35 – 50 knots ( 65 – 93 km / h ; 40 – 58 mph ) . Until then , Fitzgerald had followed Anderson , which was travelling at a constant 14 @.@ 6 miles per hour ( 12 @.@ 7 kn ; 23 @.@ 5 km / h ) , but the faster Fitzgerald pulled ahead at about 3 : 00 a.m. As the storm center passed over the ships , they experienced shifting winds , with wind speeds temporarily dropping as wind direction changed from northeast to south and then northwest . After 1 : 50 p.m. , when Anderson logged winds of 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) , wind speeds again picked up rapidly and it began to snow at 2 : 45 p.m. , reducing visibility ; Anderson lost sight of Fitzgerald , which was about 16 miles ( 26 km ) ahead at the time .
Shortly after 3 : 30 p.m. , Captain McSorley radioed Anderson to report that Fitzgerald was taking on water and had lost two vent covers and a fence railing . The vessel had also developed a list . Two of Fitzgerald 's six bilge pumps ran continuously to discharge shipped water . McSorley said that he would slow his ship down so that Anderson could close the gap between them . In a broadcast shortly afterward , the United States Coast Guard ( USCG ) warned all shipping that the Soo Locks had been closed and they should seek safe anchorage . Shortly after 4 : 10 p.m. , McSorley called Anderson again to report a radar failure and asked Anderson to keep track of them . Fitzgerald , effectively blind , slowed to let Anderson come within a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) range so she could receive radar guidance from the other ship .
For a time , Anderson directed Fitzgerald toward the relative safety of Whitefish Bay ; then at 4 : 39 p.m. , McSorley contacted the USCG station in Grand Marais , Michigan , to inquire whether the Whitefish Point light and navigation beacon were operational . The USCG replied that their monitoring equipment indicated that both instruments were inactive . McSorley then hailed any ships in the Whitefish Point area to report the state of the navigational aids , receiving an answer from Captain Cedric Woodard of Avafors between 5 : 00 and 5 : 30 p.m. that the Whitefish point light was on but not the radio beacon . Woodard testified to the Marine Board that he overheard McSorley say , " Don 't allow nobody on deck , " as well as something about a vent that Woodard could not understand . Some time later , McSorley told Woodard , " I have a ' bad list , ' I have lost both radars , and am taking heavy seas over the deck in one of the worst seas I have ever been in . "
By late in the afternoon of November 10 , sustained winds of over 50 knots ( 93 km / h ; 58 mph ) were recorded by ships and observation points across eastern Lake Superior . Anderson logged sustained winds as high as 58 knots ( 107 km / h ; 67 mph ) at 4 : 52 p.m. , while waves increased to as high as 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) by 6 : 00 p.m. Anderson was also struck by 70 @-@ to @-@ 75 @-@ knot ( 130 to 139 km / h ; 81 to 86 mph ) gusts and rogue waves as high as 35 feet ( 11 m ) .
The last communication from the ship came at approximately 7 : 10 p.m. , when Anderson notified Fitzgerald of an upbound ship and asked how she was doing . McSorley reported , " We are holding our own . " She sank minutes later . No distress signal was received , and ten minutes later , Anderson lost the ability either to raise Fitzgerald by radio or to detect her on radar .
= = = Search = = =
Captain Cooper of Anderson first called the USCG in Sault Ste . Marie at 7 : 39 p.m. on channel 16 , the radio distress frequency . The USCG responders instructed him to call back on channel 12 because they wanted to keep their emergency channel open and they were having difficulty with their communication systems , including antennas blown down by the storm . Cooper then contacted the upbound saltwater vessel Nanfri and was told that she could not pick up Fitzgerald on her radar . Despite repeated attempts to raise the USCG , Cooper was not successful until 7 : 54 p.m. when the officer on duty asked him to keep watch for a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) outboard lost in the area . At about 8 : 25 p.m. , Cooper again called the USCG to express his concern about Fitzgerald and at 9 : 03 p.m. reported her missing . Petty Officer Philip Branch later testified , " I considered it serious , but at the time it was not urgent . "
Lacking appropriate search @-@ and @-@ rescue vessels to respond to the Fitzgerald disaster , at approximately 9 : 00 p.m. , the USCG asked Anderson to turn around and look for survivors . Around 10 : 30 p.m. , the USCG asked all commercial vessels anchored in or near Whitefish Bay to assist in the search . The initial search for survivors was carried out by Anderson , and a second freighter , SS William Clay Ford . The efforts of a third freighter , the Toronto @-@ registered SS Hilda Marjanne , were foiled by the weather . The USCG sent a buoy tender , Woodrush , from Duluth , Minnesota , but it took two and a half hours to launch and a day to arrive at the search area . The Traverse City , Michigan , USCG station launched an HU @-@ 16 fixed @-@ wing search aircraft that arrived on the scene at 10 : 53 p.m. while an HH @-@ 52 USCG helicopter with a 3 @.@ 8 @-@ million @-@ candlepower searchlight arrived at 1 : 00 a.m. on November 11 . Canadian Coast Guard aircraft joined the three @-@ day search and the Ontario Provincial Police established and maintained a beach patrol all along the eastern shore of Lake Superior .
Although the search recovered debris , including lifeboats and rafts , no survivors were found . On her final voyage , Fitzgerald 's crew of 29 consisted of the captain , the first , second and third mates , five engineers , three oilers , a cook , a wiper , two maintenance men , three watchmen , three deckhands , three wheelsmen , two porters , a cadet and a steward . Most of the crew was from Ohio and Wisconsin ; their ages ranged from 21 @-@ year @-@ old deckhand Mark Andrew Thomas to Captain McSorley , 63 years old and planning his retirement .
Fitzgerald is among the largest and best @-@ known vessels lost on the Great Lakes but she is not alone on the Lake Superior seabed in that area . In the years between 1816 , when Invincible was lost , and 1975 , when Fitzgerald sank , the Whitefish Point area had claimed at least 240 ships .
= = Wreck discovery and surveys = =
= = = Wreck discovery = = =
A U.S. Navy Lockheed P @-@ 3 Orion aircraft , piloted by Lt. George Conner and equipped to detect magnetic anomalies usually associated with submarines , found the wreck on November 14 , 1975 . Fitzgerald lay about 15 miles ( 13 nmi ; 24 km ) west of Deadman 's Cove , Ontario , 17 miles ( 15 nmi ; 27 km ) from the entrance to Whitefish Bay to the southeast , in Canadian waters close to the international boundary at a depth of 530 feet ( 160 m ) . A further November 14 – 16 survey by the USCG using a side scan sonar revealed two large objects lying close together on the lake floor . The U.S. Navy also contracted Seaward , Inc . , to conduct a second survey between November 22 and 25 .
= = = Underwater surveys = = =
From May 20 to 28 , 1976 , the U.S. Navy dived the wreck using its unmanned submersible , CURV @-@ III , and found Fitzgerald lying in two large pieces in 530 feet ( 160 m ) of water . Navy estimates put the length of the bow section at 276 feet ( 84 m ) and that of the stern section at 253 feet ( 77 m ) . The bow section stood upright in the mud , some 170 feet ( 52 m ) from the stern section that lay capsized at a 50 @-@ degree angle from the bow . In between the two broken sections lay a large mass of taconite pellets and scattered wreckage lying about , including hatch covers and hull plating .
In 1980 , during a Lake Superior research dive expedition , marine explorer Jean @-@ Michel Cousteau , the son of Jacques Cousteau , sent two divers from RV Calypso in the first manned submersible dive to Fitzgerald . The dive was brief , and although the dive team drew no final conclusions , they speculated that Fitzgerald had broken up on the surface .
The Michigan Sea Grant Program organized a three @-@ day dive to survey the Fitzgerald in 1989 . The primary objective was to record 3 @-@ D videotape for use in museum educational programs and production of documentaries . The expedition used a towed survey system ( TSS Mk1 ) and a self @-@ propelled , tethered , free swimming remotely operated underwater vehicle ( ROV ) . The Mini Rover ROV was equipped with miniature stereoscopic cameras and wide angle lenses in order to produce 3 @-@ D images . The towed survey system and the Mini Rover ROV were designed , built and operated by Chris Nicholson of Deep Sea Systems International , Inc . Participants included the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the National Geographic Society , the United States Army Corps of Engineers , the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society ( GLSHS ) , and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , the latter providing RV Grayling as the support vessel for the ROV . The GLSHS used part of the five hours of video footage produced during the dives in a documentary and the National Geographic Society used a segment in a broadcast . Frederick Stonehouse , who wrote one of the first books on the Fitzgerald wreck , moderated a 1990 panel review of the video that drew no conclusions about the cause of Fitzgerald 's sinking .
Canadian explorer Joseph B. MacInnis organized and led six publicly funded dives to Fitzgerald over a three @-@ day period in 1994 . Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution provided Edwin A. Link as the support vessel , and their manned submersible , Celia . The GLSHS paid $ 10 @,@ 000 for three of its members to each join a dive and take still pictures . MacInnis concluded that the notes and video obtained during the dives did not provide an explanation why Fitzgerald sank . The same year , longtime sport diver Fred Shannon formed Deepquest Ltd . , and organized a privately funded dive to the wreck of Fitzgerald , using Delta Oceanographic 's submersible , Delta . Deepquest Ltd. conducted seven dives and took more than 42 hours of underwater video while Shannon set the record for the longest submersible dive to Fitzgerald at 211 minutes . Prior to conducting the dives , Shannon studied NOAA navigational charts and found that the international boundary had changed three times before its publication by NOAA in 1976 . Shannon determined that based on GPS coordinates from the 1994 Deepquest expedition , " at least one @-@ third of the two acres of immediate wreckage containing the two major portions of the vessel is in U.S. waters because of an error in the position of the U.S. – Canada boundary line shown on official lake charts . "
Shannon 's group discovered the remains of a crew member partly dressed in coveralls and wearing a life jacket lying face up on the lake bottom alongside the bow of the ship , indicating that at least one of the crew was aware of the possibility of sinking . The life jacket had deteriorated canvas and " what is thought to be six rectangular cork blocks ... clearly visible . " Shannon concluded that " massive and advancing structural failure " caused Fitzgerald to break apart on the surface and sink .
MacInnis led another series of dives in 1995 to salvage the bell from Fitzgerald . The Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians backed the expedition by co @-@ signing a loan in the amount of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Canadian engineer Phil Nuytten 's atmospheric diving suit , known as the " Newtsuit , " was used to retrieve the bell from the ship , replace it with a replica , and put a beer can in Fitzgerald 's pilothouse . That same year , Terrence Tysall and Mike Zee set multiple records when they used trimix gas to scuba dive to Fitzgerald . The pair are the only people known to have touched the Fitzgerald wreck . They also set records for the deepest scuba dive on the Great Lakes and the deepest shipwreck dive , and were the first divers to reach Fitzgerald without the aid of a submersible . It took six minutes to reach the wreck , six minutes to survey it , and three hours to resurface to avoid decompression sickness , also known as " the bends . "
= = = Restrictions on surveys = = =
Under the Ontario Heritage Act , activities on registered archeological sites require a license . In March 2005 , the Whitefish Point Preservation Society accused the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society ( GLSHS ) of conducting an unauthorized dive to Fitzgerald . Although the director of the GLSHS admitted to conducting a sonar scan of the wreck in 2002 , he denied such a survey required a license at the time it was carried out .
An April 2005 amendment to the Ontario Heritage Act allowed the Ontario government to impose a license requirement on dives , the operation of submersibles , side scan sonars or underwater cameras within a designated radius around protected sites . Conducting any of those activities without a license would result in fine of up to CAD $ 1 million . On the basis of the amended law , to protect wreck sites considered " watery graves " , the Ontario government issued updated regulations in January 2006 , including an area with a 500 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) radius around Fitzgerald and other specifically designated marine archeological sites . In 2009 , a further amendment to the Ontario Heritage Act imposed licensing requirements on any type of surveying device .
= = Theories on the cause of sinking = =
Extreme weather and sea conditions play a role in all of the published theories regarding Fitzgerald 's sinking , but they differ on the other causal factors .
= = = Waves and weather theory = = =
In 2005 NOAA and the NWS ran a computer simulation , including weather and wave conditions , covering the period from November 9 , 1975 , until the early morning of November 11 . Analysis of the simulation showed that two separate areas of high wind appeared over Lake Superior at 4 : 00 p.m. on November 10 . One had speeds in excess of 43 knots ( 80 km / h ; 49 mph ) and the other winds in excess of 40 knots ( 74 km / h ; 46 mph ) . The southeastern part of the lake , the direction in which Fitzgerald was heading , had the highest winds . Average wave heights increased to near 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) by 7 : 00 p.m. , November 10 , and winds exceeded 50 mph ( 43 kn ; 80 km / h ) over most of southeastern Lake Superior .
Fitzgerald sank at the eastern edge of the area of high wind where the long fetch , or distance that wind blows over water , produced significant waves averaging over 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) by 7 : 00 p.m. and over 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) at 8 : 00 p.m. The simulation also showed one in 100 waves reaching 36 feet ( 11 m ) and one out of every 1 @,@ 000 reaching 46 feet ( 14 m ) . Since the ship was heading east @-@ southeastward , the waves likely caused Fitzgerald to roll heavily .
At the time of the sinking , the ship Arthur M. Anderson reported northwest winds of 57 mph ( 50 kn ; 92 km / h ) , matching the simulation analysis result of 54 mph ( 47 kn ; 87 km / h ) . The analysis further showed that the maximum sustained winds reached near hurricane force of about 70 mph ( 61 kn ; 110 km / h ) with gusts to 86 miles per hour ( 75 kn ; 138 km / h ) at the time and location where Fitzgerald sank .
= = = Rogue wave theory = = =
A group of three rogue waves , often called " three sisters , " was reported in the vicinity of Fitzgerald at the time she sank . The " three sisters " phenomenon is said to occur on Lake Superior as a result of a sequence of three rogue waves forming that are one @-@ third larger than normal waves . When the first wave hits a ship 's deck , before its water drains away the second wave strikes . The third incoming wave adds to the two accumulated backwashes , suddenly overloading the deck with tons of water .
Captain Cooper of Anderson reported that his ship was " hit by two 30 to 35 foot seas about 6 : 30 p.m. , one burying the aft cabins and damaging a lifeboat by pushing it right down onto the saddle . The second wave of this size , perhaps 35 foot , came over the bridge deck . " Cooper went on to say that these two waves , possibly followed by a third , continued in the direction of Fitzgerald and would have struck about the time she sank . This theory postulates that the " three sisters " compounded the twin problems of Fitzgerald 's known list and her slower speed in heavy seas that already allowed water to remain on her deck for longer than usual .
The Edmund Fitzgerald episode of the 2010 television series Dive Detectives features the wave @-@ generating tank of the National Research Council 's Institute for Naval Technology in St. John 's , and the tank 's simulation of the effect of a 17 @-@ meter ( 56 ft ) rogue wave upon a scale model of Fitzgerald . The simulation indicated such a rogue wave could almost completely submerge the bow or stern of the ship with water , at least temporarily .
= = = Cargo @-@ hold flooding theory = = =
The July 26 , 1977 , USCG Marine Casualty Report suggested that the accident was caused by ineffective hatch closures . The report concluded that these devices failed to prevent waves from inundating the cargo hold . The flooding occurred gradually and probably imperceptibly throughout the final day , finally resulting in a fatal loss of buoyancy and stability . As a result , Fitzgerald plummeted to the bottom without warning . Video footage of the wreck site showed that most of her hatch clamps were in perfect condition . The USCG Marine board concluded that the few damaged clamps were probably the only ones fastened . As a result , ineffective hatch closure caused Fitzgerald to flood and founder .
From the beginning of the USCG inquiry , some of the crewmen 's families and various labor organizations believed the USCG findings could be tainted because there were serious questions regarding their preparedness as well as licensing and rules changes . Paul Trimble , a retired USCG vice admiral and president of the Lake Carriers Association ( LCA ) , wrote a letter to the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) on September 16 , 1977 , that included the following statements of objection to the USCG findings :
The present hatch covers are an advanced design and are considered by the entire lake shipping industry to be the most significant improvement over the telescoping leaf covers previously used for many years ... The one @-@ piece hatch covers have proven completely satisfactory in all weather conditions without a single vessel loss in almost 40 years of use ... and no water accumulation in cargo holds ...
It was common practice for ore freighters , even in foul weather , to embark with not all cargo clamps locked in place on the hatch covers . Maritime author Wolff reported that depending on weather conditions , all the clamps were eventually set within one to two days . Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes was dismissive of suggestions that unlocked hatch clamps caused Fitzgerald to founder . He said that he commonly sailed in fine weather using the minimum number of clamps necessary to secure the hatch covers .
The May 4 , 1978 , NTSB findings differed from the USCG . The NTSB made the following observations based on the CURV @-@ III survey :
The No. 1 hatch cover was entirely inside the No. 1 hatch and showed indications of buckling from external loading . Sections of the coaming in way of the No. 1 hatch were fractured and buckled inward . The No. 2 hatch cover was missing and the coaming on the No. 2 hatch was fractured and buckled . Hatches Nos. 3 and 4 were covered with mud ; one corner of hatch cover No. 3 could be seen in place . Hatch cover No. 5 was missing . A series of 16 consecutive hatch cover clamps were observed on the No. 5 hatch coaming . Of this series , the first and eighth were distorted or broken . All of the 14 other clamps were undamaged and in the open position . The No. 6 hatch was open and a hatch cover was standing on end vertically in the hatch . The hatch covers were missing from hatches Nos. 7 and 8 and both coamings were fractured and severely distorted . The bow section abruptly ended just aft of hatch No. 8 and the deck plating was ripped up from the separation to the forward end of hatch No. 7 .
The NTSB conducted computer studies , testing and analysis to determine the forces necessary to collapse the hatch covers and concluded that Fitzgerald sank suddenly from flooding of the cargo hold " due to the collapse of one or more of the hatch covers under the weight of giant boarding seas " instead of flooding gradually due to ineffective hatch closures . The NTSB dissenting opinion held that Fitzgerald sank suddenly and unexpectedly from shoaling .
= = = Shoaling theory = = =
The LCA believed that instead of hatch cover leakage , the more probable cause of the Fitzgerald loss was shoaling or grounding in the Six Fathom Shoal northwest of Caribou Island when the vessel " unknowingly raked a reef " during the time the Whitefish Point light and radio beacon were not available as navigation aids . This theory was supported by a 1976 Canadian hydrographic survey , which disclosed that an unknown shoal ran a mile further east of Six Fathom Shoal than shown on the Canadian charts . Officers from Anderson observed that Fitzgerald sailed through this exact area . Conjecture by proponents of the Six Fathom Shoal theory concluded that Fitzgerald 's downed fence rail reported by McSorley could occur only if the ship " hogged " during shoaling , with the bow and stern bent downward and the midsection raised by the shoal , pulling the railing tight until the cables dislodged or tore under the strain . Divers searched the Six Fathom Shoal after the wreck occurred and found no evidence of " a recent collision or grounding anywhere . " Maritime authors Bishop and Stonehouse wrote that the shoaling theory was later challenged on the basis of the higher quality of detail in Shannon 's 1994 photography that " explicitly show [ s ] the devastation of the Fitzgerald . " Shannon 's photography of Fitzgerald 's overturned stern showed " no evidence on the bottom of the stern , the propeller or the rudder of the ship that would indicate the ship struck a shoal . "
Maritime author Stonehouse reasoned that " unlike the Lake Carriers , the Coast Guard had no vested interest in the outcome of their investigation . " Author Bishop reported that Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes argued that through their support for the shoaling explanation , the LCA represented the shipping company 's interests by advocating a theory that held LCA member companies , the American Bureau of Shipping , and the U.S. Coast Guard Service blameless .
Paul Hainault , a retired professor of mechanical engineering from Michigan Technological University , promoted a theory that began as a student class project . His hypothesis held that Fitzgerald grounded at 9 : 30 a.m. on November 10 on Superior Shoal . This shoal , charted in 1929 , is an underwater mountain in the middle of Lake Superior about 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Copper Harbor , Michigan . It has sharp peaks that rise nearly to the lake surface with water depths ranging from 22 to 400 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 to 121 @.@ 9 m ) , making it a menace to navigation . Discovery of the shoal resulted in a change in recommended shipping routes . A seiche , or standing wave , that occurred during the low @-@ pressure system over Lake Superior on November 10 , 1975 , caused the lake to rise 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) over the Soo Locks 's gates to flood Portage Avenue in Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan , with 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) of water . Hainault 's theory held that this seiche contributed to Fitzgerald shoaling 200 feet ( 61 m ) of her hull on Superior Shoal , causing the hull to be punctured mid @-@ body . The hypothesis contended that the wave action continued to damage the hull , until the middle third dropped out like a box , leaving the ship held together by the center deck . The stern section acted as an anchor and caused Fitzgerald to come to a full stop , causing everything to go forward . The ship broke apart on the surface within seconds . Compressed air pressure blew a hole in the starboard bow , which sank 18 degrees off course . The rear kept going forward with the engine still running , rolled to port and landed bottom up .
= = = Structural failure theory = = =
Another published theory contends that an already weakened structure , and modification of Fitzgerald 's winter load line ( which allows heavier loading and travel lower in the water ) , made it possible for large waves to cause a stress fracture in the hull . This is based on the " regular " huge waves of the storm and does not necessarily involve rogue waves .
The USCG and NTSB investigated whether Fitzgerald broke apart due to structural failure of the hull and because the 1976 CURV III survey found the Fitzgerald sections were 170 feet ( 52 m ) from each other , the USCG 's formal casualty report of July 1977 concluded that she had separated upon hitting the lake floor . The NTSB came to the same conclusion as USCG because :
The proximity of the bow and stern sections on the bottom of Lake Superior indicated that the vessel sank in one piece and broke apart either when it hit bottom or as it descended . Therefore , the Fitzgerald did not sustain a massive structural failure of the hull while on the surface ... The final position of the wreckage indicated that if the Fitzgerald had capsized , it must have suffered a structural failure before hitting the lake bottom . The bow section would have had to right itself and the stern portion would have had to capsize before coming to rest on the bottom . It is , therefore , concluded that the Fitzgerald did not capsize on the surface .
After maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse moderated the panel reviewing the video footage from the 1989 ROV survey of Fitzgerald , he concluded that the extent of taconite coverage over the wreck site showed that the stern had floated on the surface for a short time and spilled taconite into the forward section ; thus the two sections of the wreck did not sink at the same time . The 1994 Shannon team found that the stern and the bow were 255 feet ( 78 m ) apart leading Shannon to conclude that Fitzgerald broke up on the surface . He said :
This placement does not support the theory that the ship plunged to the bottom in one piece , breaking apart when it struck bottom . If this were true , the two sections would be much closer . In addition , the angle , repose and mounding of clay and mud at the site indicate the stern rolled over on the surface , spilling taconite ore pellets from its severed cargo hold , and then landed on portions of the cargo itself .
The stress fracture theory was supported by the testimony of former crewmen . Former Second Mate Richard Orgel , who served on Fitzgerald in 1972 and 1973 , testified that " the ship had a tendency to bend and spring during storms ' like a diving board after somebody has jumped off . ' " Orgel was quoted as saying that the loss of Fitzgerald was caused by hull failure , " pure and simple . I detected undue stress in the side tunnels by examining the white enamel paint , which will crack and splinter when submitted to severe stress . " George H. " Red " Burgner , Fitzgerald 's steward for ten seasons and winter ship @-@ keeper for seven years , testified in a deposition that a " loose keel " contributed to the vessel 's loss . Burgner further testified that " the keel and sister kelsons were only ' tack welded ' " and that he had personally observed that many of the welds were broken . Burgner was not asked to testify before the Marine Board of Inquiry .
When Bethlehem Steel Corporation permanently laid up Fitzgerald 's sister ship , SS Arthur B. Homer , just five years after going to considerable expense to lengthen her , questions were raised as to whether both ships had the same structural problems . The two vessels were built in the same shipyard using welded joints instead of the riveted joints used in older ore freighters . Riveted joints allow a ship to flex and work in heavy seas , while welded joints are more likely to break . Reports indicate that repairs to Fitzgerald 's hull were delayed in 1975 due to plans to lengthen the ship during the upcoming winter layup . Homer was lengthened to 825 feet ( 251 m ) and placed back in service by December 1975 , not long after Fitzgerald foundered . In 1978 , without explanation , Bethlehem Steel Corporation denied permission for the chairman of the NTSB to travel on Homer . Homer was permanently laid up in 1980 and broken for scrap in 1987 .
Retired GLEW naval architect Raymond Ramsey , one of the members of the design team that worked on the hull of Fitzgerald , reviewed her increased load lines , maintenance history , along with the history of long ship hull failure and concluded that Fitzgerald was not seaworthy on November 10 , 1975 . He stated that planning Fitzgerald to be compatible with the constraints of the St. Lawrence Seaway had placed her hull design in a " straight jacket [ sic ? ] . " Fitzgerald 's long @-@ ship design was developed without the benefit of research , development , test , and evaluation principles while computerized analytical technology was not available at the time she was built . Ramsey noted that Fitzgerald 's hull was built with an all @-@ welded ( instead of riveted ) modular fabrication method , which was used for the first time in the GLEW shipyard . Ramsey concluded that increasing the hull length to 729 feet ( 222 m ) resulted in a L / D slenderness ratio ( the ratio of the length of the ship to the depth of her structure ) that caused excessive multi @-@ axial bending and springing of the hull , and that the hull should have been structurally reinforced to cope with her increased length .
= = = Topside damage theory = = =
The USCG cited topside damage as a reasonable alternative reason for Fitzgerald sinking and surmised that damage to the fence rail and vents was possibly caused by a heavy floating object such as a log . Historian and mariner Mark Thompson believes that something broke loose from Fitzgerald 's deck . He theorized that the loss of the vents resulted in flooding of two ballast tanks or a ballast tank and a walking tunnel that caused the ship to list . Thompson further conjectured that damage more extensive than Captain McSorley could detect in the pilothouse let water flood the cargo hold . He concluded that the topside damage Fitzgerald experienced at 3 : 30 p.m. on November 10 , compounded by the heavy seas , was the most obvious explanation for why she sank .
= = Possible contributing factors = =
The USCG , NTSB , and proponents of alternative theories have all named multiple possible contributing factors to the foundering of Fitzgerald .
= = = Weather forecasting = = =
The NWS long range forecast on November 9 , 1975 , predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior and over the Keweenaw Peninsula , extending into the Lake from Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes had been following and charting the low pressure system over Oklahoma since November 8 and concluded that a major storm would track across eastern Lake Superior . He therefore chose a route that gave Sykes the most protection and took refuge in Thunder Bay , Ontario , during the worst of the storm . Based on the NWS forecast , Arthur M. Anderson and Edmund Fitzgerald instead started their trip across Lake Superior following the regular Lake Carriers Association route , which placed them in the path of the storm . The NTSB investigation concluded that the NWS failed to accurately predict wave heights on November 10 . After running computer models in 2005 using actual meteorological data from November 10 , 1975 , Hulquist of the NWS said of Fitzgerald 's position in the storm , " It ended in precisely the wrong place at the absolute worst time . "
= = = Inaccurate navigational charts = = =
After reviewing testimony that Fitzgerald had passed near shoals north of Caribou Island , the USCG Marine Board examined the relevant navigational charts . They found that the Canadian 1973 navigational chart for the Six Fathom Shoal area was based on Canadian surveys from 1916 and 1919 and that the 1973 U.S. Lake Survey Chart No. 9 included the notation , " Canadian Areas . For data concerning Canadian areas , Canadian authorities have been consulted . " Thereafter , at the request of the Marine Board and the Commander of the USCG Ninth District , the Canadian Hydrographic Service conducted a survey of the area surrounding Michipicoten Island and Caribou Island in 1976 . The survey revealed that the shoal ran about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) further east than shown on Canadian charts . The NTSB investigation concluded that , at the time of the Fitzgerald foundering , Lake Survey Chart No. 9 was not detailed enough to indicate Six Fathom Shoal as a hazard to navigation .
= = = Lack of watertight bulkheads = = =
Mark Thompson , a merchant seaman and author of numerous books on Great Lakes shipping , stated that if her cargo holds had watertight subdivisions , " the Fitzgerald could have made it into Whitefish Bay . " Frederick Stonehouse also held that the lack of watertight bulkheads caused Fitzgerald to sink . He said :
The Great Lakes ore carrier is the most commercially efficient vessel in the shipping trade today . But it 's nothing but a motorized barge ! It 's the unsafest commercial vessel afloat . It has virtually no watertight integrity . Theoretically , a one @-@ inch puncture in the cargo hold will sink it .
Stonehouse called on ship designers and builders to design lake carriers more like ships rather than " motorized super @-@ barges " making the following comparison :
Contrast this [ the Fitzgerald ] with the story of the SS Maumee , an oceangoing tanker that struck an iceberg near the South Pole recently . The collision tore a hole in the ship 's bow large enough to drive a truck through , but the Maumee was able to travel halfway around the world to a repair yard , without difficulty , because she was fitted with watertight bulkheads .
After Fitzgerald foundered , Great Lakes shipping companies were accused of valuing cargo payloads more than human life , since the vessel 's cargo hold of 860 @,@ 950 cubic feet ( 24 @,@ 379 m3 ) had been divided by two non @-@ watertight traverse " screen " bulkheads . The NTSB Fitzgerald investigation concluded that Great Lakes freighters should be constructed with watertight bulkheads in their cargo holds .
The USCG had proposed rules for watertight bulkheads in Great Lakes vessels as early as the sinking of Daniel J. Morrell in 1966 and did so again after the sinking of Fitzgerald , arguing that this would allow ships to make it to refuge or at least allow crew members to abandon ship in an orderly fashion . The LCA represented the Great Lakes fleet owners and was able to forestall watertight subdivision regulations by arguing that this would cause economic hardship for vessel operators . A few vessel operators have built Great Lakes ships with watertight subdivisions in the cargo holds since 1975 , but most vessels operating on the lakes cannot prevent flooding of the entire cargo hold area .
= = = Lack of instrumentation = = =
A fathometer was not required under USCG regulations , and Fitzgerald lacked one , even though fathometers were available at the time of her sinking . Instead , a hand line was the only method Fitzgerald had to take depth soundings . The hand line consisted of a piece of line knotted at measured intervals with a lead weight on the end . The line was thrown over the bow of the ship and the count of the knots measured the water depth . The NTSB investigation concluded that a fathometer would have provided Fitzgerald additional navigational data and made her less dependent on Anderson for navigational assistance .
Fitzgerald had no system to monitor the presence or amount of water in her cargo hold , even though there was always some present . The intensity of the November 10 storm would have made it difficult , if not impossible , to access the hatches from the spar deck . The USCG Marine Board found that flooding of the hold could not have been assessed until the water reached the top of the taconite cargo . The NTSB investigation concluded that it would have been impossible to pump water from the hold when it was filled with bulk cargo . The Marine Board noted that because Fitzgerald lacked a draft @-@ reading system , the crew had no way to determine whether the vessel had lost freeboard ( the level of a ship 's deck above the water ) .
= = = Increased load lines , reduced freeboard = = =
The USCG increased Fitzgerald 's load line in 1969 , 1971 , and 1973 to allow 3 feet 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 997 mm ) less minimum freeboard than Fitzgerald 's original design allowed in 1958 . This meant that Fitzgerald 's deck was only 11 @.@ 5 feet ( 3 @.@ 5 m ) above the water when she faced 35 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) waves during the November 10 storm . Captain Paquette of Sykes noted that this change allowed loading to 4 @,@ 000 tons more than what Fitz was designed to carry .
Concerns regarding Fitzgerald 's keel @-@ welding problem surfaced during the time the USCG started increasing her load line . This increase and the resultant reduction in freeboard decreased the vessel 's critical reserve buoyancy . Prior to the load @-@ line increases she was said to be a " good riding ship " but afterwards Fitzgerald became a sluggish ship with slower response and recovery times . Captain McSorley said he did not like the action of a ship he described as a " wiggling thing " that scared him . Fitzgerald 's bow hooked to one side or the other in heavy seas without recovering and made a groaning sound not heard on other ships .
= = = Maintenance = = =
NTSB investigators noted that Fitzgerald 's prior groundings could have caused undetected damage that led to major structural failure during the storm , since Great Lakes vessels were normally drydocked for inspection only once every five years . It was also alleged that when compared to Fitzgerald 's previous captain , McSorley did not keep up with routine maintenance and did not confront the mates about getting the requisite work done . After August B. Herbel , Jr . , president of the American Society for Testing and Materials , examined photographs of the welds on Fitzgerald , he stated , " the hull was just being held together with patching plates . " Other questions were raised as to why the USCG did not discover and take corrective action in its pre @-@ November 1975 inspection of Fitzgerald given that her hatch coamings , gaskets , and clamps were poorly maintained .
= = = Complacency = = =
On the fateful evening of November 10 , 1975 , McSorley reported he had never seen bigger seas in his life . Paquette , master of Wilfred Sykes , out in the same storm , said , " I 'll tell anyone that it was a monster sea washing solid water over the deck of every vessel out there . " The USCG did not broadcast that all ships should seek safe anchorage until after 3 : 35 p.m. on November 10 , many hours after the weather was upgraded from a gale to a storm .
McSorley was known as a " heavy weather captain " who " ' beat hell ' out of the Fitzgerald and ' very seldom ever hauled up for weather ' " . Paquette held the opinion that negligence caused Fitzgerald to founder . He said , " in my opinion , all the subsequent events arose because ( McSorley ) kept pushing that ship and didn 't have enough training in weather forecasting to use common sense and pick a route out of the worst of the wind and seas . " Paquette 's vessel was the first to reach a discharge port after the November 10 storm ; she was met by company attorneys who came aboard Sykes . He told them that Fitzgerald 's foundering was caused by negligence . Paquette was never asked to testify during the USCG or NTSB investigations .
The NTSB investigation noted that Great Lakes cargo vessels could normally avoid severe storms , and called for the establishment of a limiting sea state applicable to Great Lakes bulk cargo vessels . This would restrict the operation of vessels in sea states above the limiting value . One concern was that shipping companies pressured the captains to deliver cargo as quickly and cheaply as possible regardless of bad weather . At the time of Fitzgerald 's foundering , there was no evidence that any governmental regulatory agency tried to control vessel movement in foul weather despite the historical record that hundreds of Great Lakes vessels had been wrecked in storms . The USCG took the position that only the captain could decide when it was safe to sail .
The USCG Marine Board issued the following conclusion :
The nature of Great Lakes shipping , with short voyages , much of the time in very protected waters , frequently with the same routine from trip to trip , leads to complacency and an overly optimistic attitude concerning the extreme weather conditions that can and do exist . The Marine Board feels that this attitude reflects itself at times in deferral of maintenance and repairs , in failure to prepare properly for heavy weather , and in the conviction that since refuges are near , safety is possible by " running for it . " While it is true that sailing conditions are good during the summer season , changes can occur abruptly , with severe storms and extreme weather and sea conditions arising rapidly . This tragic accident points out the need for all persons involved in Great Lakes shipping to foster increased awareness of the hazards which exist .
Mark Thompson countered that " the Coast Guard laid bare [ its ] own complacency " by blaming the sinking of Fitzgerald on industry @-@ wide complacency since it had inspected Fitzgerald just two weeks before she sank . The loss of Fitzgerald also exposed the USCG 's lack of rescue capability on Lake Superior . Thompson said that ongoing budget cuts had limited the USCG 's ability to perform its historical functions . He further noted that USCG rescue vessels were unlikely to reach the scene of an incident on Lake Superior or Lake Huron within 6 to 12 hours of its occurrence .
= = Legal settlement = =
Under maritime law , ships fall under the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts of their flag country . As Fitzgerald was sailing under the U.S. flag , even though she sank in foreign ( Canadian ) waters , she was subject to U.S. admiralty law . With a value of $ 24 million , Fitzgerald 's financial loss was the greatest in Great Lakes sailing history . In addition to the crew , 26 @,@ 116 long tons ( 29 @,@ 250 short tons ; 26 @,@ 535 t ) of taconite sank along with the vessel . Two widows of crewmen filed a $ 1 @.@ 5 million lawsuit against Fitzgerald 's owners , Northwestern Mutual , and its operators , Oglebay Norton Corporation , one week after she sank . An additional $ 2 @.@ 1 million lawsuit was later filed . Oglebay Norton subsequently filed a petition in the U.S. District Court seeking to " limit their liability to $ 817 @,@ 920 in connection with other suits filed by families of crew members . " The company paid compensation to surviving families about 12 months in advance of official findings of the probable cause and on condition of imposed confidentiality agreements . Robert Hemming , a reporter and newspaper editor , reasoned in his book about Fitzgerald that the USCG 's conclusions " were benign in placing blame on [ n ] either the company or the captain ... [ and ] saved the Oglebay Norton from very expensive lawsuits by the families of the lost crew . "
= = Subsequent changes to Great Lakes shipping practice = =
The USCG investigation of the Fitzgerald sinking resulted in 15 recommendations regarding load lines , weathertight integrity , search and rescue capability , lifesaving equipment , crew training , loading manuals , and providing information to masters of Great Lakes vessels . NTSB 's investigation resulted in 19 recommendations for the USCG , four recommendations for the American Bureau of Shipping , and two recommendations for NOAA . Of the official recommendations , the following actions and USCG regulations were put in place :
1 . In 1977 , the USCG made it a requirement that all vessels of 1 @,@ 600 gross register tons and over use depth finders .
2 . Since 1980 , survival suits have been required aboard ship in each crew member 's quarters and at their customary work station with strobe lights affixed to life jackets and survival suits .
3 . A LORAN @-@ C positioning system for navigation on the Great Lakes was implemented in 1980 and later replaced with Global Positioning System ( GPS ) in the 1990s .
4 . Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons ( EPIRB ) are installed on all Great Lakes vessels for immediate and accurate location in event of a disaster .
5 . Navigational charts for northeastern Lake Superior were improved for accuracy and greater detail .
6 . NOAA revised its method for predicting wave heights .
7 . The USCG rescinded the 1973 Load Line Regulation amendment that permitted reduced freeboard loadings .
8 . The USCG began the annual pre @-@ November inspection program recommended by the NTSB . " Coast Guard inspectors now board all U.S. ships during the fall to inspect hatch and vent closures and lifesaving equipment . "
Karl Bohnak , an Upper Peninsula meteorologist , covered the sinking and storm in a book on local weather history . In this book , Joe Warren , a deckhand on Anderson during the November 10 , 1975 , storm , said that the storm changed the way things were done . He stated , " After that , trust me , when a gale came up we dropped the hook [ anchor ] . We dropped the hook because they found out the big ones could sink . " Mark Thompson wrote , " Since the loss of the Fitz , some captains may be more prone to go to anchor , rather than venturing out in a severe storm , but there are still too many who like to portray themselves as ' heavy weather sailors . ' "
= = Memorials = =
The day after the wreck , Mariners ' Church in Detroit rang its bell 29 times ; once for each life lost . The church continued to hold an annual memorial , reading the names of the crewmen and ringing the church bell , until 2006 when the church broadened its memorial ceremony to commemorate all lives lost on the Great Lakes .
The ship 's bell was recovered from the wreck on July 4 , 1995 . A replica engraved with the names of the 29 sailors who lost their lives replaced the original on the wreck . A legal document signed by 46 relatives of the deceased , officials of the Mariners ' Church of Detroit and the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historic Society ( GLSHS ) " donated the custodian and conservatorship " of the bell to the GLSHS " to be incorporated in a permanent memorial at Whitefish Point , Michigan , to honor the memory of the 29 men of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald . " The terms of the legal agreement made the GLSHS responsible for maintaining the bell , and forbade it from selling or moving the bell or using it for commercial purposes . It provided for transferring the bell to the Mariners ' Church of Detroit if the terms were violated .
An uproar occurred in 1995 when a maintenance worker in St. Ignace , Michigan , refurbished the bell by stripping the protective coating applied by Michigan State University experts . The controversy continued when the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum tried to use the bell as a touring exhibit in 1996 . Relatives of the crew halted this move , objecting that the bell was being used as a " traveling trophy . " The bell is now on display in the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum in Whitefish Point near Paradise , Michigan .
An anchor from Fitzgerald lost on an earlier trip was recovered from the Detroit River and is on display at the Dossin Great Lakes Museum in Detroit , Michigan . The Dossin Great Lakes Museum also hosts a Lost Mariners Remembrance event each year on the evening of November 10 . Artifacts on display in the Steamship Valley Camp museum in Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan , include two lifeboats , photos , a movie of Fitzgerald and commemorative models and paintings . Every November 10 , the Split Rock Lighthouse in Silver Bay , Minnesota emits a light in honor of Edmund Fitzgerald .
On August 8 , 2007 , along a remote shore of Lake Superior on the Keweenaw Peninsula , a Michigan family discovered a lone life @-@ saving ring that appeared to have come from Fitzgerald . It bore markings different from those of rings found at the wreck site , and was thought to be a hoax . Later it was determined that the life ring was not from Fitzgerald , but had been lost by the owner , whose father had made it as a personal memorial .
The Royal Canadian Mint commemorated the Fitzgerald in 2015 with a colored silver collector coin , with a face value of $ 20 .
= = = Musical and theater tributes = = =
In 1976 , Ontario singer @-@ songwriter Gordon Lightfoot wrote , composed , and recorded the song " The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald " for his album Summertime Dream . On NPR 's Saturday Morning Edition on February 14 , 2015 , Gordon Lightfoot said he was inspired to write the song when he saw the name misspelled " Edmond " in Newsweek magazine two weeks after the sinking ; Lightfoot said he felt that it dishonored the memory of the 29 who died . Lightfoot 's popular ballad made the sinking of Fitzgerald one of the most well @-@ known disasters in the history of Great Lakes shipping . The original lyrics of the song show a degree of artistic license compared to the events of the actual sinking : it states the destination as Cleveland instead of Detroit and , in light of new evidence about what happened , Lightfoot has modified one line for live performances , changing “ When suppertime came the old cook came on deck / Saying ‘ Fellas , it ’ s too rough to feed ya . ’ / At 7 p.m. a main hatchway caved in / He said , ‘ Fellas , it 's been good to know ya . ” to “ When suppertime came the old cook came on deck / Saying ‘ Fellows it ’ s too rough to feed ya . ’ / At 7 p.m. it grew dark , it was then / He said , ‘ Fellas , it 's been good to know ya . ’ ” The song has been covered by many performers . The Toronto rock band Rheostatics recorded it for their second album , Melville , and their live album Double Live . The Dandy Warhols also covered the song in their The Black Album in 2004 .
In 1986 , writer Steven Dietz and songwriter / lyricist Eric Peltoniemi wrote the musical Ten November in memory of Fitzgerald 's sinking . In 2005 , the play was re @-@ edited into a concert version called The Gales of November , which opened on the 30th anniversary of the sinking at the Fitzgerald Theater in St. Paul , Minnesota . Shelley Russell , a professor of theater at Northern Michigan University , wrote a play called Holdin ' Our Own ; the play was performed at the university in 2000 .
A piano concerto titled " The Edmund Fitzgerald " was composed by American composer Geoffrey Peterson in 2002 ; it premiered by the Sault Symphony Orchestra in Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario , in November 2005 as another 30th anniversary commemoration .
= = = Commercialization = = =
The fame of Fitzgerald 's image and story have made it public domain and subject to commercialization . A " cottage industry " has evolved across the Great Lakes region from Two Harbors , Minnesota , to Whitefish Point , the incident 's " ground zero " . Memorabilia on sale include Christmas ornaments , T @-@ shirts , coffee mugs , Edmund Fitzgerald beer , videos , and other items commemorating the vessel and its loss .
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= Martha Logan =
Martha Logan is a fictional character played by Jean Smart in the television series 24 . As the first lady of the United States within the 24 universe , she is the capable yet mercurial wife of President Charles Logan . Critics praised Martha Logan as the breakout character of the show 's 2005 @-@ 2006 season .
In developing Martha Logan 's character , the show 's writers drew upon the historic example of a prominent whistleblower in the Watergate scandal , Martha Beall Mitchell . Similar to the real @-@ life model , Martha Logan becomes contemptuous of her husband 's conduct in office and decides to go public and end his career . Martha Logan takes part in a plot to get her husband to confess that he conspired with terrorists . Yet her mental health problems undermine her credibility and raise the possibility that she may be forced into treatment at an inpatient facility . After the events of the fifth season she was committed to a mental health facility .
= = Concept and creation = =
The inspiration for Martha Logan was Martha Beall Mitchell , the wife of John N. Mitchell , Attorney General during the Nixon administration . Mrs. Mitchell was a key whistleblower who contacted the press to disclose facts about the Watergate scandal , and for a time her statements were discredited because people believed she had a mental illness . Nixon said that " Watergate would have not occurred without Martha Mitchell . "
Howard Gordon , the executive producer of 24 , said that , during character development , they " wanted an actress that had the strength and intelligence to be a first lady , yet have the unpredictability of never knowing when she might snap . " Jean Smart was their first choice . Smart later told The New York Times that she decided she was eager to play the role after reading the character 's introductory scene , and commented that in her almost 30 years of acting she had come across few roles that offered the possibilities that this one did : a character that is sexy , mysterious , and powerful , yet is mentally unstable and has lost her trust and respect for her husband .
Smart also said of the opening scene that : " It encapsulates that character in one moment and says so much about her impulsiveness . We could not have accomplished that with a dozen speeches . When I saw it in the script , I thought ' this is great , this lady is going to be fun to play . ' "
On her first day on set , Smart was shocked to learn the producers wanted to cut the scene , a decision she felt was a mistake . She said " They had done this brilliant thing and now they were going to undo it . They were just being practical . They said , " It would be hours to get you back , your hair , your make @-@ up . " Smart spoke to the hair and makeup artists and guaranteed producers they could get it right in two takes ; they did it in one , and the scene stayed in .
Jean Smart 's character and Martha Mitchell were both labeled " unstable . " Although the real Martha Mitchell was not mentally ill , the fictional Martha Logan is , and with Smart 's input the writers enhanced this aspect of the character . Smart has said of Martha that she is an impulsive , powerful , and capable woman , and that she is intelligent , but has some " chemical problems " .
= = Characterization = =
Martha received a Bachelor of Arts in Art History from Stanford University . Prior to becoming a figure in politics , she served as a member of the Santa Barbara Museum Board of Trustees . She was once the most trusted adviser for the indecisive President Logan . She has also been portrayed as mentally ill , afflicted by depression and anxiety . Martha is a close personal friend of David Palmer .
= = Appearances = =
= = = 24 : Season 5 = = =
Prior to his death , Palmer asks to meet Martha to discuss a " matter of national security " involving Charles Logan . After his death , Martha believes that Palmer was killed to thwart the meeting , not knowing that her husband was involved in his murder .
Several hours later , Martha is frustrated to see her husband negotiating with terrorist Vladimir Bierko and his willingness to compromise Yuri Suvarov and his wife 's safety . Aaron Pierce eventually saves her from the ambush on the Suvarovs ' motorcade . Martha continues to question Logan 's motives as her husband attempts to prevent her from finding out about his role in Palmer 's death .
When Charles reveals that he was involved in the plot to assassinate Palmer , she is deeply shocked and says that she can never forgive him . Contemplating suicide , Logan comes into her room , begging for forgiveness . Rather than accepting his apology , Martha tells him that she is horrified to be his wife .
After Jack Bauer fails to obtain a confession from Logan , she screams in public that he is a murderer during Palmer 's funeral . Afterwards , President Logan hits her , and threatens to put Martha in an asylum for life . During his tirade , Logan acknowledges all of his misdeeds , unaware that there is a small listening device on his pen . The confession quickly reaches the Attorney General , who orders the U.S. Marshals to arrest Logan . As Charles is escorted away by agents , he turns to stare at Martha , who smiles at him in triumph .
= = = 24 : Season 6 = = =
Following Day 5 , Martha was admitted to a mental health facility in Vermont . Martha is romantically involved with Secret Service agent Aaron Pierce . After being persuaded to call Russian first lady Anya Suvarov to enlist her assistance in a diplomatic matter , Martha and Charles have a discussion , in which she verbally assaults Charles , and in a fit of rage , stabs him in the shoulder , severely injuring him . Several minutes after she is arrested , Martha calls Anya .
In a Reddit AMA writers Manny Coto and Evan Katz mentioned Aaron Pierce again , informing fans that Martha is currently " alive and well , being tended to by Aaron Pierce . "
= = Critical reception = =
Joe Rhodes of The New York Times devoted a review to the character on February 19 , 2006 :
About the only thing viewers might not have been able to anticipate was that this season 's break @-@ out character would be a high @-@ strung , sharp @-@ tongued and off @-@ her @-@ meds first lady of the United States , a woman who screams , " I will have your family eating dog food out of a can " at Secret Service agents trying to keep her away from a presidential news conference .
Rhodes described Martha Logan 's debut scene as " perhaps the most memorable character debut in 24 history . " In the debut scene , she proclaimed , " I look like a wedding cake " just before dunking her face into the bathroom sink . Her marriage to President Logan was described by producer Howard Gordon as " one of the highlights of this year . " Smart was also nominated for an Emmy for her performance , Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Category , but lost the award to Blythe Danner .
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= Udema =
An udema ( Swedish pronunciation : [ ˈɵdɛma ] or [ ˈudɛma ] ; also udenma ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . It was developed for warfare in the Archipelago Sea in the Baltic and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland against the Russian navy . The udema was designed by the prolific naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman for use in an area of mostly shallow waters and groups of islands and islets that extend from Stockholm all the way to the Gulf of Finland .
The udema was of an innovative new design with a single line of guns along the ship 's centerline , a foreshadowing of the dreadnought battleships of the early 20th century . The design proved impractical for its time , however , and only three udemas were built between 1760 and 1776 .
= = Background = =
In the early 18th century , the establishment of Russian naval power in the Baltic challenged the interests of Sweden , one of the major powers in the Baltic . The Swedish empire at the time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion held together by the Baltic sea routes . Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . During the Great Northern War Sweden lost its Baltic state territories , and suffered from Russian raiding in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos that stretched all the way from the Gulf of Finland to the capital of Stockholm . The Swedes began building inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels , beginning with smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean warships , the galleys . Most of these were more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war with Russia ( 1741 – 43 ) and the minor involvement in Prussia in the Seven Years ' War ( 1757 – 62 ) showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels .
Traditional galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically be armed with only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . However , they were undecked and lacked adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , great numbers of which succumbed to illness in the war of 1741 – 43 . The Swedish military invested heavily in an " archipelago fleet " ( skärgårdsflottan ) , a separate branch of the armed forces that organizationally belonged to the army . In 1756 , it was even officially designated Arméns flotta , " Navy of the Army " . It was in many ways a highly independent organization that attracted a social and cultural elite and enjoyed the protection of Gustav III after his 1772 coup that empowered him as an absolute monarch .
Several new ships were designed by the naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman to bolster the hitting @-@ power of the new Swedish maritime forces , to provide it with better naval defense and to improve its fire support capabilities during amphibious operations . The result was four new vessels that combined the maneuverability of oar @-@ powered galleys with the superior rigs and more comfortable living conditions of sailing ships : the udema , pojama , turuma and hemmema , named after the Finnish regions of Uusimaa ( " Uudenmaan " in genitive form ) , Pohjanmaa , Turunmaa and Hämeenmaa ( Tavastia ) . All four have been referred to as skärgårdsfregatter , " archipelago frigates " , in Swedish and English historical literature , though the smaller udema and pojama were also described as " archipelago corvettes " originally .
= = Design = =
The first udema was built in 1760 and had two masts ( mainmast and foremast ) that were originally rigged with lateen sails . It was later provided with a square sail rig similar to that of a polacca bark without topgallant sails . It had a low hull with a small quarterdeck structure and an arrangement of guns that was unique for its time . Its main armament consisted of a single line of eight 12 @-@ pound guns along the centerline of the ship and two 12 @-@ pounders in the bow facing forwards . The centerline guns used pivoting carriages that could be rotated 360 degrees and aimed to either side of the ship , similar to the main guns of the dreadnought battleships of the 20th century .
The first udema Gamla was c . 30 m ( 100 ft ) long and with a draft of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) . The later udemas , Torborg and Ingeborg , carried a mizzen mast , and were both longer and wider , 37 m ( 121 ft ) long and almost 9 m ( 29 ft ) wide with a draft of just over 3 m ( 10 ft ) . Torborg , built in 1772 , had three additional 12 @-@ pounders , eleven in the centerline and two in the bow facing forwards , housed under a decked superstructure with gun ports , but with the rowing seats left undecked . This arrangement proved to be less successful with reports about problems with splintering and lingering gunpowder smoke . She was also a poor sailer and slow under oars , earning the udema a poor reputation .
The Ingeborg , built in 1776 , had an eight @-@ 12 @-@ pounder centerline armament which was open to the elements , but two heavy 18 @-@ pounders in the bow and two 6 @-@ pounder chase guns in the stern . The rowing benches with room for three men per bench were on either side of the centerline battery , but had to swing forwards and outwards to allow the guns to pivot to either side .
For additional maneuverability , the udema carried 14 to 18 pairs of oars . Rowers sat on the weather deck on either side of the main armament with the oar ports placed on a rectangular outrigger which improved their leverage . However , they were positioned on either side of the centerline battery and could not row under fire ; in action , the udema had to rely on its sails for propulsion .
The concept of hybrid frigates with oar propulsion capabilities was not new . Small " galleasses " had been built for the English Tudor navy as early as the mid @-@ 16th century . The Royal Navy , its successor , later equipped the equivalent of sixth rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck as early as the 1660s . " Shebecks " , Baltic variations on the Mediterranean xebecs , had been introduced in the Russian navy for inshore duties during the 18th century . Both of these have been suggested as possible inspirations for af Chapman 's new designs .
= = Service = =
Only three udemas were built for the Swedish navy . Russian ship builders copied the Swedish designs , particularly around the time of the war of 1788 – 90 , and it is believed by some historians that a type named simply " secret vessel " could have been a Russian udema . Other historians question this conclusion ; the number of guns ( 44 in total ) may suggest a considerably larger turuma , one of the larger " archipelago frigates " .
The three Swedish udemas served in the Finnish archipelago squadrons throughout the war of 1788 – 90 by supporting amphibious operations , raiding the opposing Russian archipelago fleet , and protecting the left flank of the Swedish army 's operations on the Finnish mainland . Udemas fought in both the First and Second Battles of Svensksund . The latter battle , one of the largest naval battles ever fought , was a disastrous defeat for the Russians and one of Sweden 's greatest naval victories ever ; the udema Ingeborg was among the few Swedish vessels lost .
Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the udema proved to have only limited advantages . While it had superior firepower , its sailing qualities were poor , even compared with galleys , and were slow even under oars . The unconventional artillery layout was also deemed to be too weak and radical . The Second Battle of Svensksund showed that the smaller gunboats and gunsloops were far more efficient for the same operations and had almost entirely replaced the " archipelago frigates " by the Finnish War of 1808 – 09 , where Sweden finally lost all of its Finnish possessions .
= = Influence = =
Historian Lars @-@ Olof Berg suggests that the radical new design of rotating gun mounts , though somewhat of a disappointment in Swedish service , may have influenced shipbuilders in other countries . Russian floating batteries were equipped with similar mounts by 1790 . Designs were also presented and built in Great Britain and the US . Pivoting mounts were used in the US " gunboat navy " under Thomas Jefferson , even in much smaller craft , though they often proved risky since the recoil could destabilize vessels with a small displacement , especially if the guns were fired over the side . The genuine breakthrough for true centerline armament layouts , however , did not come until the advent of armored steamships in the late 19th century . The name " udema " has been carried on in the uninflected Finnish form Uusimaa for 20th century ships of the Finnish navy .
= = Ships = =
Only three udemas were built , all of them for the Swedish archipelago fleet . They are listed in the table below with basic information where it is actually known .
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= Is It Scary =
" Is It Scary " is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson . The song was originally written to have been featured in the 1993 film Addams Family Values , but the plans were canceled after contract conflicts . The song was recorded for Jackson 's 1997 remix album , Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix . " Is It Scary " was written and produced by Jackson , Jimmy Jam ( James Harris III ) and Terry Lewis .
" Is It Scary " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Musically , the song was viewed by music critics as showing a " darker side " of Jackson , and compared the song 's composition to the music of Marilyn Manson . In November 1997 , a radio edit version of the song was released as a promotional single in the Netherlands , while promo singles containing remixes were released in the United States and the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
" Is It Scary " was originally written by Michael Jackson , James Harris III and Terry Lewis for the 1993 film Addams Family Values . Paramount Pictures had signed Jackson to record a horror @-@ themed song for the film ( which became " Is It Scary " ) and to promote it with a video , but the song was dropped from the soundtrack due to contractual difficulties . The song was among those considered for inclusion on Jackson 's 1995 double album , HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , but it was not chosen as it did not complement the other tracks on the album . Jackson subsequently wrote the song into his 1997 short film , Ghosts . Jackson reused lyrics from " Is It Scary " for the film 's title track , which is also included on his Blood on the Dance Floor album . Jackson , Harris and Lewis were given producing credit for the song on Blood on the Dance Floor .
A remix of " Is It Scary " , called " DJ Greek 's Scary Mix " , was included on a three @-@ track ' minimax ' CD single that was released as part of the Ghosts Deluxe Collector Box Set . Remixes of " Is It Scary " were also included on Jackson 's canceled single , " Smile " . The radio edit for " Is It Scary " was later included on the third disc of the deluxe edition of Jackson 's greatest hits album King of Pop in 2008 in the United Kingdom . " Is It Scary " was also featured on the deluxe edition of King of Pop in France . Samples of " Is It Scary " and " Threatened " ( from Jackson 's tenth studio album Invincible ) are featured in the " Thriller " segment of the concert documentary film , Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( 2009 ) . Tommy D. also produced a remix of the song , but this mix was never officially released . However , this mix leaked in the internet in November 2010 .
= = Composition = =
Is It Scary clocks in at 5 : 35 and is sorted into the categories of goth rock , soul , operatic pop , and funk rock . The song is performed in alternating keys of Ab and A major , at a tempo of 109 beats per minute . Jackson 's vocal range on the song is Ab3 @-@ A5 .
= = Promotion = =
" Is It Scary " was never lifted as a commercial single , but it was given out to radio stations and dance clubs to promote Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix . Promo CD singles containing a radio edit and 12 " promos containing three remixes of the song were released to the Netherlands . The United States and the United Kingdom received 12 " promo singles containing remixes of the song by Deep Dish , while the UK also received 12 " promos with remixes of the song by Eddie Arroyo known as " Eddie 's Love Mixes " . Due to lack of a full release , " Is It Scary " did not enter any music charts .
= = Critical reception = =
" Is It Scary " generally received positive to mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Jim Farber , writer for the New York Daily News , commented that " Is It Scary ' boasts a few innovative sounds but no real melodies " . Roger Catlin of The Hartford Courant stated that " the most intriguing pairing " was " Ghosts " and " Is It Scary " because Jackson " asks those who 've only read about him in tabloids if he seems monstrous " . Anthony Violanti , a writer for The Buffalo News , remarked that Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix 's songs " Superfly Sister " , " Ghosts " and " Is It Scary " were " programmed plastic soul that makes you wonder how someone as talented as Jackson can churn out such tracks " .
Jae @-@ Ha Kim , a writer for Chicago Sun @-@ Times , noted , that " Is It Scary " shows a " darker side of Jackson than even the tabloids would have you believe " . Neil Strauss , a writer for The New York Times , described " Is It Scary " as " sounding more like the ghoulish rocker Marilyn Manson than the Motown prodigy that he is . " A longtime commentator on Jackson 's public life , J. Randy Taraborrelli , gave a retrospective analysis on Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix 's critical reviews in the biography , The Magic & the Madness ( 2004 ) . Taraborrelli argued that certain sections of the world took interest in tabloid stories about Jackson 's personal life over his musical career .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Official Remixes = =
Album Version - 5 : 35
Radio Edit - 4 : 11
Deep Dish Dark & Scary Remix - 12 : 07
Deep Dish Dark & Scary Remix ( Radio Edit ) - 4 : 38
Deep Dish Double O @-@ Jazz Dub - 8 : 35
Eddie 's Love Mix - 8 : 00
Eddie 's Love Mix ( Radio Edit ) - 3 : 50
Eddie 's Rub @-@ A @-@ Dub Mix - 4 : 33
Downtempo Groove Mix - 4 : 32 ( Incorrectly given as 4 : 50 on sleeve )
DJ Greek Scary Remix - 7 : 11
Tommy D 's Death Row Mix ( Unreleased ) - 4 : 15
" Is It Scary " / " Threatened " ( Immortal version ) - 5 : 03
= = Personnel = =
Written and composed by Michael Jackson , James Harris III and Terry Lewis
Produced by Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis , and Michael Jackson
Arranged by Michael Jackson , and Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis
Recorded and mixed by Steve Hodge
Solo and background vocals , vocal arrangement by Michael Jackson
Keyboard programming by Andrew Scheps
Drum programming by Jeff Taylor
Additional programming by Rob Hoffman
All instruments performed by Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis
Assistant engineers by Brad Yost , Xavier Smith , Ryan Arnold , Steve Baughman and Steve Durkee
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= MTR =
The Mass Transit Railway ( MTR ) is the rapid transit railway system in Hong Kong . Opened in 1979 , the system now includes 218 @.@ 2 km ( 135 @.@ 6 mi ) of rail with 155 stations , including 87 railway stations and 68 light rail stops . The MTR system is operated by MTR Corporation Limited ( MTRCL ) . It is one of the most profitable systems in the world , with a high farebox recovery ratio of 186 % .
Under the government 's rail @-@ led transport policy , the MTR system is a common mode of public transport in Hong Kong , with over five million trips made in an average weekday . It consistently achieves a 99 @.@ 9 % on @-@ time rate on its train journeys . As of 2014 , the MTR has a 48 @.@ 1 % market share of the franchised public transport market , making it the most popular transport option in Hong Kong . The integration of the Octopus smart card fare @-@ payment technology into the MTR system in September 1997 has further enhanced the ease of commuting on the MTR .
Construction of the MTR was prompted by a study , released in 1967 , commissioned by the Hong Kong Government in order to find solutions to the growing road congestion problem caused by the expansion of the territory 's economy . Construction started soon after the release of the study , and the first line opened in 1979 . The MTR was immediately popular with residents of Hong Kong ; as a result , subsequent lines have been built to cover more territory . There are continual debates regarding how and where to expand the MTR network .
As a successful railway operation , the MTR has served as a model for other newly built systems in the world , particularly in mainland China .
= = Early development ( 1960 – 2000 ) = =
= = = Initial proposals = = =
During the 1960s , the government of Hong Kong saw a need to accommodate increasing road traffic as Hong Kong 's economy continued to grow strongly . In 1966 , British transportation consultants Freeman , Fox , Wilbur Smith & Associates were appointed to study the transportation system of Hong Kong . The study was based on the projection of the population of Hong Kong for 1986 , estimated at 6 @,@ 868 @,@ 000 . On 1 September 1967 , the consultants submitted the Hong Kong Mass Transport Study to the government , which recommended the construction of a 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) rapid @-@ transit rail system in Hong Kong . The study suggested that four rail lines be developed in six stages , with a completion date set between December 1973 and December 1984 . Detailed positions of lines and stations were presented in the study . These four lines were Kwun Tong Line ( from Western Market to Ma Yau Tong ) , Tsuen Wan Line ( from Admiralty to Tsuen Wan ) , Island Line ( from Kennedy to Chai Wan Central ) , and Shatin Line ( from Tsim Sha Tsui to Wo Liu Hang ) .
The study was submitted to the Legislative Council on 14 February 1968 . The consultants received new data from the 1966 by @-@ census on 6 March 1968 . A short supplementary report was submitted on 22 March 1968 and amended in June 1968 . The by @-@ census indicated that the projected 1986 population was reduced by more than one million from the previous estimate to 5 @,@ 647 @,@ 000 . The dramatic reduction affected town planning . The population distribution was largely different from the original study . The projected 1986 populations of Castle Peak New Town , Sha Tin New Town , and , to a lesser extent , Tsuen Wan New Town , were revised downward , and the plan of a new town in Tseung Kwan O was shelved . In this updated scenario , the consultants reduced the scale of the recommended system . The supplementary report stated that the originally suggested four tracks between Admiralty Station and Mong Kok Station should be reduced to two , and only parts of the Island Line , Tsuen Wan Line , and Kwun Tong Line should be constructed for the initial system . The other lines would be placed in the list of extensions . This report led to the final study in 1970 .
In 1970 , a system with four lines was laid out and planned as part of the British consultants ' new report , Hong Kong Mass Transit : Further Studies . The four lines were to be the Kwun Tong Line , Tsuen Wan Line , Island Line , and East Kowloon Line . However , the lines that were eventually constructed were somewhat different compared to the lines that were originally proposed by the Hong Kong Mass Transport Study .
In 1972 , the Hong Kong government authorised construction of the Initial System , a 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) system that roughly translates to the Kwun Tong Line between Kwun Tong and Prince Edward , Tsuen Wan Line between Prince Edward and Admiralty , and Island Line between Sheung Wan and Admiralty of today . Negotiations with four major construction consortia started in 1973 . The government 's intention was to tender the entire project , based on the British design , as a single tender at a fixed price . A consortium from Japan signed an agreement to construct the system in early 1974 , but in December of the same year , it pulled out of the agreement for reasons stemming from fears of the oil crisis .
= = = Modified Initial System = = =
Several weeks later , in early 1975 , a government agency called the Mass Transport Provisional Authority was established to oversee the project . It announced that the Initial System would be reduced to 15 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 7 mi ) , and renamed it the " Modified Initial System " . Plans for a single contract were abandoned in favour of 25 engineering contracts and 10 electrical and mechanical contracts . In addition , the government @-@ owned Mass Transit Railway Corporation ( MTRC ) was established to replace the Mass Transport Provisional Authority .
Construction of the Modified Initial System ( now part of the Kwun Tong Line and Tsuen Wan Line ) commenced in November 1975 . The northern section was completed on 30 September 1979 and was opened on 1 October 1979 by Governor Murray MacLehose . Trains on this route ran from Shek Kip Mei Station to Kwun Tong Station , initially in a four @-@ car configuration . The first train drivers were trained on the London Underground . The route from Tsim Sha Tsui Station to Shek Kip Mei Station opened in December 1979 . The early stations were designed under the supervision of Roland Paoletti , the chief architect at MTR .
In 1980 , the first harbour crossing was made by an MTR train as the Kwun Tong Line was extended to Chater Station , since renamed Central Station . Trains were extended to six cars to accommodate an increase in passenger numbers .
= = = Line extensions = = =
The government approved construction of the Tsuen Wan Line in 1977 , then known as the Tsuen Wan Extension , and works commenced in November 1978 . The project added a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) section to the MTR system , from Prince Edward to Tsuen Wan . The line started service on 10 May 1982 with a total cost of construction ( not adjusted for inflation ) of HK $ 4 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 526 million ) . The plan was modified from that in the 1970 report Hong Kong Mass Transit : Further Studies , with Kwai Chung Station , Lap Sap Wan Station , and a planned depot at Kwai Chung next to Lap Sap Wan Station being replaced by stations at Kwai Hing and Kwai Fong and a depot at Tsuen Wan . Several stations also had names different to that during planning : So Uk Station became Cheung Sha Wan , Cheung Sha Wan became Lai Chi Kok , and Lai Chi Kok became Lai Wan ( later renamed as Mei Foo ) .
When service of this line started , the section of the Kwun Tong Line from Chater to Argyle ( since renamed Central and Mong Kok stations respectively ) was transferred to the Tsuen Wan Line . Thus , Waterloo station ( since renamed Yau Ma Tei Station ) became the terminus of the Kwun Tong Line , and both Argyle and Prince Edward stations became interchange stations . This change was made because system planners expected the traffic of the Tsuen Wan Line to exceed that of the Kwun Tong Line . This forecast proved to be accurate , necessitating a bypass from the northwestern New Territories to Hong Kong Island . The Tung Chung Line was therefore launched in 1998 with an interchange station at Lai King for that purpose .
Although land acquisitions were made for a station at Tsuen Wan West , beyond Tsuen Wan station , as part of the Tsuen Wan branch , the station was never built . This is not to be confused with the modern @-@ day Tsuen Wan West Station on West Rail Line , which lies on a newly reclaimed area near the former ferry pier .
Since opening in 1982 , the Tsuen Wan Line is the line whose alignment has remained the same for the longest time . For example , the Kwun Tong Line 's alignment has changed twice since its opening – the taking over of Tsuen Wan Line from Mong Kok to Central , and the taking over of Eastern Harbour Crossing section by the Tseung Kwan O Line .
Government approvals were granted for construction of the Island Line in December 1980 . Construction commenced in October 1981 . On 31 May 1985 , the Island Line was opened with service between Admiralty Station and Chai Wan Station . Both Admiralty and Central Stations became interchange stations with the Tsuen Wan Line . Furthermore , each train was extended to eight cars . On 23 May 1986 , the Island Line was extended to Sheung Wan Station . Construction was delayed for one year , as government offices which were located over the station had to be moved before the construction could start .
In 1984 , the government approved the construction of the Eastern Harbour Crossing , a tunnel to be used by cars and MTR trains . The Kwun Tong Line was extended across the harbour on 5 August 1989 to Quarry Bay Station , which became an interchange station for the Kwun Tong Line and the Island Line . An intermediate station , Lam Tin , started operations on 1 October 1989 .
= = = Airport connection = = =
The Airport Express and Tung Chung Line started services in 1998 . The decision was made in October 1989 to construct a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak International Airport . The government invited the MTRC to build a train line , then known as the Lantau Airport Railway , to the airport . Construction started in November 1994 , after the Chinese and British governments settled their financial and land disagreements .
The new line was included in the financing plans of the new Hong Kong International Airport as the airport was not considered viable without direct public transport links . Construction costs were also shared by the MTRC , which was granted many large @-@ scale developments in the construction plans for the new stations .
The Lantau Airport Railway turned into two MTR lines , the Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express . The Tung Chung Line was officially opened on 21 June 1998 by Hong Kong Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwa , and service commenced the next day . The Airport Express opened for service on 6 July 1998 along with the new Hong Kong International Airport .
The Airport Express also offers flight check @-@ in facilities at Kowloon Station and Hong Kong Station – the in @-@ town check @-@ ins offer a more convenient and time @-@ saving routine ; a free shuttle bus service transports travellers from these stations to their respective hotels as well . Porters are also available to help transport luggage from and onto trains . It is the second most popular means of transport to the airport after buses . In 2012 , it had a 21 @.@ 8 % of share of the traffic to and from the airport . However , this has drastically declined from a peak of 32 % in 1999 .
= = Recent projects ( 2000 – 2010 ) = =
= = = Tseung Kwan O Line = = =
The Quarry Bay Congestion Relief Works extended the Hong Kong Island end of the Kwun Tong Line from Quarry Bay to North Point via a pair of 2 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) tunnels . The project was initiated due to overcrowding at Quarry Bay and persistent passenger complaints about the five @-@ minute walk from the Island Line platforms to the Kwun Tong Line platform . Construction began in September 1997 and was completed in September 2001 at a cost of HK $ 3 @.@ 0 billion ( US $ 385 million ) . As with most earlier interchange stations , a cross @-@ platform interchange arrangement was provided here in both directions .
Construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line ( called the Tseung Kwan O Extension Line in the planning stage ) was approved on 18 August 1998 to serve new housing developments . Construction began on 24 April 1999 and the line officially opened in 2002 . It took over the existing Kwun Tong Line tracks running through the Eastern Harbour Tunnel , so that the full line stretches from Po Lam to North Point . When the line was opened , the Kwun Tong Line was diverted to Tiu Keng Leng on the new line . Construction costs were partly covered by the Hong Kong Government and private developers which linked construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line to new real estate and commercial developments .
= = = Interchange stations = = =
The interchange between the Tsuen Wan Line and the Kwun Tong Line , as well as that between the Kwun Tong Line and the Tseung Kwan O Line , are two stations long , allowing cross @-@ platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line . For example , when passengers are travelling on the Kwun Tong Line towards Tiu Keng Leng , getting off at Yau Tong would allow them to switch trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards North Point . Whereas , staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow them to board the Tseung Kwan O Line trains towards Po Lam / LOHAS Park . This design makes interchanging more convenient and passengers do not have the need to change to different levels . However this interchange arrangement is not available for all transferring passengers at Kowloon Tong , Central , Hong Kong , Quarry Bay , Nam Cheong ( except transfer between Tuen Mun and Hong Kong bound trains ) , Mei Foo , Tai Wai Station ( except alighting from Ma On Shan Line to change to southbound trains for East Rail Line ) and Sunny Bay ( except transfer between Tung Chung and Disneyland Resort bound trains ) stations , mainly because this service is available only when there are two continuous stations shared as interchange stations by two lines .
Two major works were undertaken to ease interchange between the Kwun Tong Line and East Rail Line . The modification of Kowloon Tong Station started in June 2001 . A new pedestrian link to Kowloon Tong Station southern concourse and a new entrance ( Exit D ) opened on 15 April 2004 to cope with the increase in interchange passenger flow . Modification to Tsim Sha Tsui Station involved upgrading station facilities and concourse layout to facilitate access from the East Tsim Sha Tsui Station via its pedestrian links . New entrances to the subway links were opened on 19 September 2004 ( Exit G ) and 30 March 2005 ( Exit F ) , with the whole scheme completed in May 2005 .
= = = Disneyland Resort Line = = =
The Disneyland Resort Line , previously known as Penny 's Bay Rail Link , provides service to the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort which was opened on 12 September 2005 . Service to Sunny Bay station on the Tung Chung Line started in 2005 . The new line and the Disneyland Resort station opened on 1 August 2005 . It is a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) single @-@ track railway that runs between Sunny Bay station and Disneyland Resort station . The Disneyland Resort station itself was designed to blend in with the ambiance of the resort . The line operates fully automated trains running every four to ten minutes without a driver . The carriages are refurbished M @-@ Train rolling stock to match the recreational and adventurous nature of the 3 @.@ 5 @-@ minute journey .
= = = Airport Express extension = = =
The AsiaWorld – Expo Station is an extension of the Airport Express serving a new international exhibition centre , AsiaWorld – Expo , at Hong Kong International Airport . The station opened on 20 December 2005 along with the exhibition centre . To cope with the projected increase in patronage , Airport Express trains were lengthened to eight carriages from the previous seven . Additional trains are also deployed on the Tung Chung Line during major exhibitions and events .
= = = Privatisation and merger = = =
On 5 October 2000 the operator of the MTR network , MTR Corporation Limited ( MTRCL ) , became Hong Kong 's first rail company to be privatised , marking the beginning of the Hong Kong government 's initiative to dissolve its interests in public utilities . Prior to its listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange , the Mass Transit Railway Corporation ( MTRC ) was wholly owned by the Hong Kong government . The offering involved the sale of about one billion shares , and the company now has the largest shareholder base of any company listed in Hong Kong . In June 2001 , MTRCL was transferred to the Hang Seng Index .
MTRCL has often developed properties next to stations to complement its already profitable railway business . Many recently built stations were incorporated into large housing estates or shopping complexes . For example , Tsing Yi station is built next to the Maritime Square shopping centre and directly underneath the Tierra Verde housing estate .
On 11 April 2006 , MTRCL signed a non @-@ binding memorandum of understanding with the Hong Kong government , the owner of Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway Corporation , to merge the operation of the two railway networks in Hong Kong in spite of the strong opposition by the KCRC staff . The minority shareholders of the corporation approved the proposal at an extraordinary general meeting on 9 October 2007 , allowing MTRCL to take over the operation of the KCR network and combine the fare system of the two networks on 2 December 2007 .
On 2 December 2007 the Kowloon – Canton Railway Corporation ( KCRC ) granted a 50 @-@ year service concession ( which may be extended ) of the KCR network to MTRCL , in return for making annual payments to KCRC , thereby merging the railway operations of the two corporations under MTRCL 's management . At the same time MTRCL changed its Chinese name from " 地鐵有限公司 " ( Subway Limited Company ) to " 香港鐵路有限公司 " ( Hong Kong Railway Limited Company ) , but left its English name unchanged . After the merger , the MTR network included three more lines — East Rail Line , West Rail Line , and Ma On Shan Line — as well as the Light Rail network and Guangdong Through Train to Guangzhou .
On 28 September 2008 , fare zones of all urban lines , East Rail Line , Ma On Shan Line and West Rail Line were merged . A passenger could travel on these networks with only one ticket , except where a transfer is made between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations , where two tickets are required . Student discounts on Octopus Card were also issued .
= = = Tseung Kwan O Line extension to LOHAS Park = = =
The LOHAS Park Spur Line is an extension of the Tseung Kwan O Line , splitting off after Tseung Kwan O Station . It serves the new residential development of LOHAS Park ( formerly " Dream City " ) , a 3 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 330 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate with fifty residential towers . The project is divided into 9 to 13 phases and is about halfway complete as of 2016 . These high rises will sit above LOHAS Park Station , which opened on 26 July 2009 .
= = Newly built extensions ( 2010 – present ) = =
= = = West Island Line = = =
The West Island Line , first put forward to the government on 21 January 2003 , is an extension of the Island Line . It serves the Western District of Hong Kong Island . The construction of the West Island Line started on 10 August 2009 . Kennedy Town Station and HKU Station opened on 28 December 2014 . Sai Ying Pun Station opened later , on 29 March 2015 , due to construction delays .
= = = Future expansions = = =
Several future projects on the MTR have been put forward by MTRCL to the Hong Kong Government , with some already under construction . The network was expanded significantly with the merger of MTRCL and the government @-@ owned KCRC . A non @-@ binding Memorandum of Understanding was signed on the eleventh of April 2006 to grant MTRCL operation of the existing KCR network with a service concession of 50 years . The new Sha Tin to Central Link that was originally awarded to KCRC is also to be operated by MTRCL .
Provisions are made to upgrade the existing infrastructure of the MTR . New subway links to the stations are also being made for better access . A further proposal to extend the existing Kwun Tong Line to Whampoa Garden , together in a tie @-@ up with the Sha Tin to Central Link expansion have been made in April 2006 . In March 2008 , the MTR Corporation welcomed the Government 's decision for the Corporation to proceed with further planning and design for the Kwun Tong Line Extension and the Shatin to Central Link . The construction of the Kwun Tong Line Extension is expected to be completed at the end of 2016 . The Sha Tin to Central Link from Tai Wai to Hung Hom is expected to be completed in 2019 , and the section from Hung Hom to Admiralty is expected to be completed in 2021 .
The South Island Line , first put forward to the government by MTRCL on 21 January 2003 , only received approval on 30 June 2005 after its heavily modified fourth proposal . This consisted of the South Island Line ( East ) from Admiralty to South Horizons and the South Island Line ( West ) that connects HKU to Wong Chuk Hang . The South Island Line ( East ) is expected to be finished by the end of 2016 .
The Northern Link will be a new line which connects West Rail Line with the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line of East Rail Line . It also has Au Tau , Ngau Tam Mei , San Tin , a future interchange station between East Rail Line and Northern Link , Kwu Tung and finally Lok Ma Chau , which will become a terminus for both lines , just like Hung Hom nowadays .
The North Island Line is a planned extension of the Tseung Kwan O Line that will interchange at the future Tamar Station with the Tung Chung Line . It will alleviate traffic in the Northern part of Hong Kong Island . There will be three new stations : Tamar , Exhibition ( which will be an interchange between the North Island Line and the North South Corridor ) , and Causeway Bay North . Construction is expected to begin in 2021 and finish in 2026 . The cost is estimated to be HK $ 20 billion in 2013 prices .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Rail network = = =
= = = Station facilities , amenities and services = = =
The architecture of MTR stations is less artistic , instead focusing on structural practicability . With the high level of daily passenger traffic , facilities of the MTR stations are built with durability and accessibility in mind . After extensive retrofitting , the MTR system has become , in general , disabled @-@ friendly — the trains have dedicated wheelchair space , the stations have special floor tiles to guide the blind safely on the platforms , and there are extra wide entry and exit gates for wheelchairs as well . On board the rolling stock , there are also flashing system maps on select trains while Active Line Diagrams and traditional route maps are installed on the others . Infopanels as well as on Newsline Express TVs onboard trains display important messages such as next station announcements as well as operational messages .
= = = = Telecommunications = = = =
A full GSM ( GSM @-@ 900 and GSM @-@ 1800 ) , CDMA and TDMA mobile phone network is in place throughout the MTR system of stations and tunnels allowing passengers to stay connected underground . Currently , full 3G network coverage in all stations and tunnels ( except underground section on East Rail Line and West Rail Line ) for the MTR system has been provided by 3 Hong Kong , SmarTone @-@ Vodafone and PCCW Mobile . Passengers with subscription services will be able to make video calls and access high speed video content on their mobile phones regardless whether the train is above ground or under ground . The MTR has already extended the Wi @-@ Fi service to all of the Airport Express trains and the expansion of the service to other MTR routes is still under consideration by MTR . As of 8 July 2013 , all 84 stations on the MTR offer free Wi @-@ Fi service to passengers with a limitation of 15 minutes per session and a maximum of five sessions per day .
In late 2015 it was announced that all 400 payphones in the MTR system would be removed in early 2016 . The contract with the service provider , Shinetown Telecom , was expiring , and the MTR Corporation said that no one had tendered a proposal to take over the contract .
= = = = Announcements = = = =
When the transport started , announcements of information including arriving stations were made in British English and in Cantonese . Since 2004 , in order to accommodate Mainland Chinese visitors under the Individual Visit Scheme , Standard Mandarin Chinese has been added to the repertory .
= = = = Public toilets = = = =
Unlike many other metro systems around the world , " main line " MTR stations originally did not have toilet facilities available for public use . Passengers may use MTR staff toilets at all stations on request . In 2006 , MTRCL said it would not consider retrofitting existing underground toilets , because of the challenge of installing new piping and toilet facilities . Only stations on the Airport Express and Disneyland Resort Line had access to toilet facilities . All former KCR stations ( on the East Rail Line , West Rail Line , and Ma On Shan Line ) , merged into the MTR network in 2007 , have public toilets .
During Legco Rail Merger Bill discussions , MTR Corporation received criticism from Hong Kong Legislative Council Members for their unwillingness to install toilet facilities in main line stations . MTRCL indicated in rail merger discussions that it would carry out a review of the feasibility of installing public toilets at or in the vicinity of its above @-@ ground railway stations . Discussions between the Government and MTRCL have taken into account Legco members ' request for a stronger commitment by the corporation to the provision of public toilets on new railway lines . This resulted in MTRCL agreeing to include the provision of toilet facilities within , or adjacent to , stations in the overall design parameters for all future new railway lines , subject to planning and regulatory approval and any concerns raised by residents in the vicinity about the location of external ventilation exhausts .
Toilets have since been retrofitted into several existing MTR stations , including Sheung Wan Station , Ngau Tau Kok Station , Quarry Bay Station , Mong Kok Station , and Prince Edward Station . In addition , newly opened stations such as those of the West Island Line have toilets . The MTR plans to install public toilets at all interchange stations by 2020 .
= = = = Commerce and journals = = = =
Prior to the privatisation of MTRC , MTR stations only had branches of the Hang Seng Bank , and Maxim 's Cakes stores , and a handful of other shops . Since then , the number and types of shops have increased at certain stations , turning them into miniature shopping centres . ATMs and convenience stores are now commonplace .
The MTR has contracted with publishers for the distribution of free magazines and newspapers in MTR stations . Recruit was the first free magazine which was solely distributed in stations ( before railway merger ) since July 1992 , but the contract was terminated in July 2002 . Another recruitment magazine Jiu Jik ( 招職 ) , published by South China Morning Post , replaced Recruit as the only free recruitment magazine distributed in MTR stations bi @-@ weekly . The Metropolis Daily ( 都市日報 ) , published by Metro International , is the first free newspaper distributed free in MTR stations during weekdays ( except public holidays ) ; and in 2005 , there is another weekend newspaper Express Post ( 快線週報 ) , distributed every Saturday except public holidays . The Metropop ( 都市流行 ) , a weekly magazine featuring cultural affairs and city trends also published by Metro International , started its distribution in MTR stations every Thursday since 27 April 2006 , a few months after the termination of Hui Kai Guide ( 去街 Guide ) in 2006 . MTR Stations on ex @-@ KCR lines feature two free Chinese @-@ language newspapers , namely am730 and Headline Daily . MTR promotes reading of these newspapers by adding special coupons and promotion offers inside the newspapers , for example , a free trip to Lok Ma Chau or a free keyring . On the Kwun Tong Line , East Rail Line , Ma On Shan Line and West Rail Line , Newsline Express is available .
= = = MTR Bus = = =
At various stations of the MTR network , the MTRCL ( which took over from KCR ) has set up feeder buses which enhance the convenience of taking the MTR . These bus routes , which normally consist of one to two stops , terminate at housing estates and go past major landmarks . The feeder bus routes on the East Rail Line are run under the MTR name but are operated by Kowloon Motor Bus .
= = = Rolling stock = = =
Six types of Electric Multiple Unit rolling stock operate on the MTR network and four generations of light rail vehicles operate on the Light Rail network . All utilise either 1 @,@ 432 mm ( 4 ft 8 3 ⁄ 8 in ) rail gauge ( near standard gauge ) or 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) ( standard gauge ) . Except for Airport Express trains , all trains are designed with features to cope with high density passenger traffic on frequently used services , for example , seating arrangements , additional ventilation fans , and additional sets of extra wide doors . These configurations allow the MTR to run at 101 @,@ 000 passengers per hour per direction ( p / h / d ) on its busy suburban East Rail Line and 85 @,@ 000 p / h / d on its urban metro network .
= = = = Metro Cammell EMU ( DC ) = = = =
Known as M @-@ Trains , the oldest model of MTR since its operation , M @-@ Trains can be divided into different " Stocks " . The M @-@ Stock ( or " CM @-@ Stock " ) of M @-@ Train are the oldest trains on the MTR , built originally by Metro Cammell ( now Alstom ) and refurbished by United Goninan . The M @-@ Train uses sliding doors , unlike K @-@ Stocks and Grupo CAF Trains which use plug doors . They are in service on Kwun Tong Line , Tsuen Wan Line , Island Line and Tseung Kwan O Line .
Except for Airport Express and Disneyland Resort Line trains , all trains are designed with features to cope with high density passenger traffic on frequently used services . The Disneyland Resort Line uses driverless M @-@ Trains with their appearance overhauled to suit the atmosphere and theme of the line . Windows on each carriage and the handrails inside are made into the shape of Mickey Mouse 's head , and there are bronze @-@ made Disney characters decorating the interior of the carriages .
= = = = Adtranz @-@ CAF EMU = = = =
The Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express are operated by CAF Trains specified to their respective lines . Initially run in seven @-@ car formations , they have now been lengthened to eight cars . These two variations are built jointly by Adtranz ( now Bombardier Transportation ) and Grupo CAF ( CAF ) between 1994 – 97 . Since 2006 , K @-@ Stock has also been used on the Tung Chung line .
= = = = Rotem EMU = = = =
The K @-@ Stock are built jointly by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Hyundai Rotem , first put into service on the Kwun Tong Line . Subsequently in 2006 , four additional sets joined the Tung Chung Line to cope with the increasing passenger traffic . K @-@ Stock trains have come under criticism when it was first put into service due to delays and door safety issues . There have been incidents where passengers have been injured by its doors and other service reliability issues have led to MTRCL " minimising the number of Korean trains for passenger service until a higher reliability of the systems concerned is achieved " .
= = = = CNR Changchun EMU = = = =
The contract ( C6554 @-@ 07E ) for 10 new sets of trains was awarded to Changchun Railway Vehicles Co . Limited in October 2008 with a further 12 trains ordered in the summer of 2011 . These MTR trains were delivered to Hong Kong between 2011 and 2013 to enhance train frequency on the existing lines to cater for ongoing patronage growth on the existing Island Line , Kwun Tong Line , Tsuen Wan Line and Tseung Kwan O Line . These trains will feature new 22 " LCD TVs , like their counterpart trains on former @-@ KCR lines equipped with Newsline Express , offering better infotainment such as news and announcements . The first of these trains entered revenue service on 7 December 2011 on the Kwun Tong Line . They are tested service on Tsuen Wan Line and Tseung Kwan O Line . They have also been tested running on the Island Line , but have not been in service yet .
= = = = SP1900 / 1950 EMU = = = =
Both East Rail Line and West Rail Line use the SP1900 while Ma On Shan Line uses SP1950 , a shorter model of the SP1900 . The electrification system used on these lines is 25 kV AC , 50 Hz , as opposed to the 1 @.@ 5 – kV DC used on the urban lines . Should the need arise in the future , dual voltage trains such as those utilised on Oresund Bridge would be required .
These two models of rolling stock are from the former KCRC network ( KCR East Rail , West Rail and Ma On Shan Rail ) . They did not receive major changes after the merger of the two companies except for the updated route map , the exterior company logo and such . The capability of this EMU fleet is similar to those on the urban network .
= = = = Metro Cammell EMU ( AC ) = = = =
The older Metro Cammell EMUs are also used on East Rail Line . There are 351 cars which have been built ( 29 sets + 3 surplus cars ) since 1982 .
= = = = Light Rail vehicles = = = =
Rolling stock running on the Light Rail system were ordered from three different manufacturers : Commonwealth Engineering ( Comeng ) , Kawasaki Heavy Industries and United Goninan . They are designed to run on the standard gauge and utilize 750 V DC through overhead lines . Trams are usually operated with one or two carriages while the second carriage functions as only a trailer . The arrangement allows each car to load approximately 300 passengers with 26 seats , while four sets of poach seats provide flexible riding for passengers .
In addition , the Light Rail will be modernised as part of a 20th Anniversary Activity according to the MTR . Trains will include better disabled facilities as well as a totally new interior . The MTR will refurbish 69 older trains and buy 22 new ones . The first trains have been completed and were scheduled to be put into service in November 2009 . The whole project is expected to be completed in 2011 .
= = Fares and tickets = =
After the rail merger , there are three different fare classes on the MTR : Adult , Students and Concessionary . Only children below the age of 12 and senior citizens 65 years or older are eligible for the concessionary rate on all lines . Full @-@ time Hong Kong students between the ages of 12 and 25 qualify for the concessionary rate using a personalized Octopus Card on all lines except on Airport Express , or travel to or from cross @-@ border stations ( Lo Wu / Lok Ma Chau ) . Children below the age of 3 travel free ( unless they exceed the height range ) .
The fare of MTR between any two particular stations is not calculated using a particular formula , and must be lookup up from the fare table . Fares for the Airport Express Line are significantly higher . Services to checkpoint termini are also more expensive than ordinary fares . Adult fares range from HK $ 3 @.@ 6 to $ 52 @.@ 6 ( US $ 0 @.@ 46 – 6 @.@ 74 ) . Concessionary fares are usually half the adult fare , and range from HK $ 1 @.@ 50 to $ 27 @.@ 00 . Student fares are the same as child and elderly fare on the urban lines , but are the same as the Adult fares for journeys to or from checkpoint termini , and range from HK $ 1 @.@ 50 to $ 51 @.@ 00 . The fare is subject to adjustment in June every year .
Prior to May 2009 , MTR did not provide concessionary fares for the disabled . Legislators such as social welfare constituency legislator Fernando Cheung Chiu @-@ hung and those from Hong Kong 's Association for Democracy and People 's Livelihood had for years demanded that such concessions be put in place . In May 2009 , MTR eventually agreed to offer the disabled concessionary fares with HK $ 2 million sponsorship from Transport and Housing Bureau and under the condition that Legislative Council amends the Disability Discrimination Ordinance .
Single journey tickets and Octopus card reloads can be purchased at vending machines while tourist passes , Octopus cards and other special tickets must be purchased at the ticket counter . Credit cards are only accepted to purchase Airport Express tickets .
= = = Octopus cards = = =
The Octopus card is a rechargeable contactless smart card used in an electronic payment system in Hong Kong developed by Australian company ERG Group . It was launched in September 1997 for use on the MTR ( and KCR , now operated by MTR ) and now is the most widely used electronic cash system for transactions in Hong Kong as many retailers ( including supermarkets , car parks and fast food outlets ) are fitted with readers . The technology used was Sony 's Felica line of smartcard . The Octopus card uses radio frequency identification ( RFID ) technology so that users need only hold the card in front of the reader , without taking it out of handbags and wallets .
Except for the Airport Express , MTR fares are slightly lower when using an Octopus card compared to using single journey tickets . For example , the cost of the three @-@ minute journey from Admiralty to Tsim Sha Tsui across the Victoria Harbour is ( as of September 2015 ) HK $ 9 @.@ 4 using the Octopus card , compared with HK $ 10 @.@ 0 for a single @-@ journey ticket .
= = = Tourist pass = = =
The Tourist Day Pass gives tourists unlimited MTR rides for one day ( with the exception of MTR Bus routes , the First Class of the East Rail Line , the Airport Express , as well as journeys to and from Lo Wu , Lok Ma Chau and Racecourse stations ) . Each pass costs HK $ 55 and are available at all the MTR Customer Service Centres . Tourist Day Pass must be used within 30 days upon the day of issue . The Airport Express Tourist Octopus Cards are also available . Cardholders may enjoy three days of unlimited rides on the MTR ( except Airport Express , East Rail Line First Class , Lo Wu and Lok Ma Chau stations ) refundable deposit of HK $ 50 and choice of either a single ( HK $ 220 ) or round trip ( HK $ 300 ) on the Airport Express .
= = = Other fares = = =
A touchless smart card system is used for single journey tickets . These tickets are pre @-@ paid for between pre @-@ determined stations , and are good for only one trip . There are no return tickets , except on the Airport Express . As of mid @-@ 2013 , less than 5 per cent of MTR customers travelled on single journey tickets .
Fares for the Airport Express are substantially different from main line fares . Apart from single tickets , same @-@ day return tickets ( same price as a single ) , and one @-@ month return tickets are also available .
A one @-@ day pass can be used for unlimited travel to and from Hong Kong Disneyland within the same day , and costs HK $ 50 . This pass can be purchased from any MTR Customer Service Centres or Airport Express Customer Service Centres .
= = Performance = =
Since the merger in 2007 , MTR has consistently achieved a 99 @.@ 9 % on @-@ time rate , meaning out of the 5 @.@ 2 million passengers on average each working day , 5 @.@ 195 million passengers arrive within 5 minutes of scheduled time . This makes MTR one of the most efficient rapid transit systems on the planet . MTR must report all delays of more than eight minutes to the government . There were 143 reportable incidents in 2013 . MTR is fined HK $ 1 million for having delays of 31 minutes to an hour , with higher fines for longer delays .
= = Regulations and safety = =
According to the Mass Transit Railway By @-@ Law , eating or drinking , and smoking are not allowed in the paid area of stations or in trains . Offenders will be fined up to HK $ 5000 .
Various campaigns and activities are taken to help ensure that the MTR is a safe system to travel on . Poster campaigns displaying information on topics such as escalator safety are a common sight in all MTR stations , and announcements are made regularly as safety reminders to travelling passengers . Bylaws were also introduced to deter potentially dangerous actions on the MTR , such as the ban on flammable goods on the MTR and rushing into trains when the doors are closing . Penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment have been imposed for such offences .
Police officers patrol the trains and stations , and police posts are available at some stations . The Hong Kong Police Force has a Railway District responsible for the MTR . Closed @-@ circuit television cameras are installed in stations and on some of the newer trains .
The entire Tung Chung Line and Airport Express , as well those stations added by the Tseung Kwan O Line , has platform screen doors ( PSDs ) , ordered from Swiss glass door manufacturer Kaba Gilgen AG , installed upon construction . So does the entire West Rail Line ( except Hung Hom Station ) , inherited from KCR . These doors make platforms safer by preventing people from falling onto the rails , even though MTRCL did not heavily promote it directly . However , the primary motivation was to separate the stations from the tunnels , hence allowing substantial energy savings on station air @-@ conditioning and tunnel ventilation . Automatic platform gates ( APGs ) have also been installed at the Sunny Bay and Disneyland Resort stations . Their heights are half of the PSDs and only prevent people from falling onto the rails . MTR has finished installing the APGs on all of the above @-@ ground stations of the MTR except on the East Rail and Ma On Shan lines ; they will be installed there as part of the Sha Tin to Central Link project .
In June 2000 , MTRCL proceeded with its plans to retrofit 2 @,@ 960 pairs of platform screen doors at all 30 underground stations on the Kwun Tong Line , Tsuen Wan Line , and Island Line in a six @-@ year programme . The programme made MTR the world 's first railway to undertake the retrofitting of PSDs on a passenger @-@ carrying system already in operation . A prototype design was first introduced at Choi Hung Station in the 3rd quarter of 2001 . The whole installation scheme was completed in October 2005 , ahead of the forecast completion date in 2006 . MTRCL said that part of the cost had to be assumed by passengers . HK $ 0 @.@ 10 per passenger trip was levied on Octopus card users to help fund the HK $ 2 billion retrofit programme . This levy was ended in 2013 after raising more than HK $ 1 billion .
= = Visual identity = =
The MTR visual identity , which includes logo , vehicle livery , signage , route maps and passenger information , was updated in 1995 – 1998 by Lloyd Northover , the British design consultancy founded by John Lloyd and Jim Northover .
= = MTR Service Update = =
MTR Service Update is an online service that provides MTR service information through Twitter and Facebook . It was founded by a group of post @-@ 80s MTR employees and passengers . Messages are provided in Traditional Chinese and English . Although some of the founders are MTR employees , the service is not officially provided by MTR .
The service was founded because of the dissatisfaction of the MTR on handling the message of service disruptions . The service was based on one provided for the London Underground . Because the service is user @-@ driven , the involvement of passengers is very important . The MTR Service update team are now facing the problem on no data source in the areas which have a low level of participation , such as Tseung Kwan O.
Aside from providing a service to Twitter , the team have also developed mobile applications for popular mobile platforms . For Android , there is TrainBoard and Swiftzer MetroRide .
= = Social outreach = =
= = = Art promotion = = =
With the objective " not only bring MTR passengers more time for life , but also more time for art " , the Art in MTR Initiative has been a success since its reception in 1998 , where the Airport Express Artwork Programme was the pioneer project . Thereafter , live performances , art exhibitions , display of artwork by established and emerging artists , students and young children have been brought into the MTR stations . MTRCL have even made art part of the station architecture when building new stations or renovating existing ones . Artworks are exhibited in different forms on the network , including " arttube " , open art gallery , community art galleries , roving art , living art , and art in station architecture .
= = = MTR HONG KONG Race Walking = = =
MTR and Hong Kong Amateur Athletic Association have jointly hosted MTR HONG KONG Race Walking annually in spring since 2005 . The race walking competition aims at promoting healthy living in Hong Kong . The race begins and ends on the ground above Central MTR Station , namely Chater Garden , Chater Road , Ice House Street and Des Voeux Road Central in Central . There is a fun walk apart from the regular competition . The event attracted over 800 participants in 2005 and 1 @,@ 500 in 2012 . Other than Hongkongers , the event also attracts athletes from various countries . The race raises fund for Better Health for a Better Hong Kong , a Hospital Authority project for the working population .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Destruction of conservation area in Yuen Long = = =
The MTR Corporation came under fire in June 2011 after their work on the cross @-@ border high @-@ speed railway line encroached on a conservation area in Pat Heung , Yuen Long . 34 trees were felled and an entire slope was concreted over in the conservation area . The Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department issued summonses to the corporation for offences under the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance . In September 2011 , a fine of HK $ 15 @,@ 000 was imposed by the court . The MTR Corporation admitted that 34 trees were felled by mistake ; all were common native woodland species and no rare tree species were affected . The corporation said owing to a technical misalignment of relevant drawings , the plan submitted to the Environmental Protection Department did not include the part of the Conservation Area which was included in the gazettal plan of their works . The corporation became aware that part of the approved tree removal works may have encroached onto the Conservation Area during construction , and proactively reported the situation to the government . Evaluation and measures have been taken to prevent similar incidents from happening again .
= = = Tree felling and failure to preserve indigenous species = = =
The MTR Corporation came under fire again in September 2011 after felling dozens of trees in Admiralty as part of construction work for the South Island Line . Green activists denounced the tree felling as " unprofessional " , and Ken So Kwok @-@ yin , chief executive of the Conservancy Association and a certified tree arborist , said that the explanations offered by the MTR Corporation as to why the trees were felled were " unacceptable " . The MTR Corporation is felling approximately 4 @,@ 000 trees in connection with the construction of the South Island Line , raising concerns from environmental groups and the public about its commitment to protecting Hong Kong 's natural environment .
= = = Limits on oversized luggage = = =
The corporation has limits on the size of items allowed on trains . The MTR system is facing pressure from the increasing number of passengers transporting goods and other oversized baggage , and is apparently overwhelmed by parallel traders , and was criticised for allowing parallel traders to board trains with their exports . It was accused of double standards in enforcement when while images of passengers pushing overladen trollies are appearing on social network sites on a regular basis , whilst students carrying large musical instruments are reported to have been stopped and issued with written warnings . Leading musicians also joined in the criticism of MTR 's unreasonable stance on large instruments ; some citizens invited players of celli and other large instruments to congregate on 3 October 2015 with their equipment at Tai Wai Station , where the majority of these instances occurred . Following the public uproar , MTR issued a press release in the early hours on acknowledged societal discontent and announced a one @-@ month review of the policy on oversized items to see whether there was room for fine @-@ tuning that would not compromise on passenger safety . The corporation said that staff would continue executing existing policy until any revisions are made .
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= Woolly mammoth =
The woolly mammoth ( Mammuthus primigenius ) is a species of mammoth that lived during the Pleistocene epoch , and was one of the last in a line of mammoth species , beginning with Mammuthus subplanifrons in the early Pliocene . The woolly mammoth diverged from the steppe mammoth about 400 @,@ 000 years ago in eastern Asia . Its closest extant relative is the Asian elephant . The appearance and behaviour of this species are among the best studied of any prehistoric animal because of the discovery of frozen carcasses in Siberia and Alaska , as well as skeletons , teeth , stomach contents , dung , and depiction from life in prehistoric cave paintings . Mammoth remains had long been known in Asia before they became known to Europeans in the 17th century . The origin of these remains was long a matter of debate , and often explained as being remains of legendary creatures . The mammoth was identified as an extinct species of elephant by Georges Cuvier in 1796 .
The woolly mammoth was roughly the same size as modern African elephants . Males reached shoulder heights between 2 @.@ 7 and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 8 @.@ 9 and 11 @.@ 2 ft ) and weighed up to 6 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) . Females averaged 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 8 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 ft ) in height and weighed up to 4 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) . A newborn calf weighed about 90 kilograms ( 200 lb ) . The woolly mammoth was well adapted to the cold environment during the last ice age . It was covered in fur , with an outer covering of long guard hairs and a shorter undercoat . The colour of the coat varied from dark to light . The ears and tail were short to minimise frostbite and heat loss . It had long , curved tusks and four molars , which were replaced six times during the lifetime of an individual . Its behaviour was similar to that of modern elephants , and it used its tusks and trunk for manipulating objects , fighting , and foraging . The diet of the woolly mammoth was mainly grass and sedges . Individuals could probably reach the age of 60 . Its habitat was the mammoth steppe , which stretched across northern Eurasia and North America .
The woolly mammoth coexisted with early humans , who used its bones and tusks for making art , tools , and dwellings , and the species was also hunted for food . It disappeared from its mainland range at the end of the Pleistocene 10 @,@ 000 years ago , most likely through climate change and consequent shrinkage of its habitat , hunting by humans , or a combination of the two . Isolated populations survived on St. Paul Island until 6 @,@ 400 years ago and Wrangel Island until 4 @,@ 000 years ago . After its extinction , humans continued using its ivory as a raw material , a tradition that continues today . It has been proposed the species could be recreated through cloning , but this method is as yet infeasible because of the degraded state of the remaining genetic material .
= = Taxonomy = =
Remains of various extinct elephants were known by Europeans for centuries , but were generally interpreted , based on biblical accounts , as the remains of legendary creatures such as behemoths or giants . It was also theorised that they were remains of modern elephants that had been brought to Europe during the Roman Republic , for example the war elephants of Hannibal and Pyrrhus of Epirus , or animals that had wandered north . The first woolly mammoth remains studied by European scientists were examined by Hans Sloane in 1728 and consisted of fossilised teeth and tusks from Siberia . Sloane was the first to recognise that the remains belonged to elephants . Sloane turned to another biblical explanation for the presence of elephants in the Arctic , asserting that they had been buried during the Great Flood , and that Siberia had previously been tropical prior to a drastic climate change . Others interpreted Sloane 's conclusion slightly differently , arguing the flood had carried elephants from the Tropics to the Arctic . Sloane 's paper was based on travellers ' descriptions and a few scattered bones collected in Siberia and Britain . He discussed the question of whether or not the remains were from elephants , but drew no conclusions . In 1738 , Johann Philipp Breyne argued that mammoth fossils represented some kind of elephant . He could not explain why a tropical animal would be found in such a cold area as Siberia , and suggested that they might have been transported there by the Great Flood . In 1796 , French anatomist Georges Cuvier was the first to identify the woolly mammoth remains not as modern elephants transported to the Arctic , but as an entirely new species . He argued this species had gone extinct and no longer existed , a concept that was not widely accepted at the time .
Following Cuvier 's identification , Johann Friedrich Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its scientific name , Elephas primigenius , in 1799 , placing it in the same genus as the Asian elephant . This name is Latin for " first elephant " . Cuvier coined the name Elephas mammonteus a few months later , but the former name was subsequently used . In 1828 , Joshua Brookes used the name Mammuthus borealis for woolly mammoth fossils in his collection that he put up for sale , thereby coining a new genus name . It is unclear where and how the word " mammoth " originated . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , it comes from an old Vogul word mēmoŋt ' earth @-@ horn ' . It may be a version of mehemot , the Arabic version of the biblical word " behemoth " . Another possible origin is Estonian , where maa means earth , and mutt means mole . The word was first used in Europe during the early 17th century , when referring to maimanto tusks discovered in Siberia . Thomas Jefferson , who had a keen interest in palaeontology , is partially responsible for transforming the word mammoth from a noun describing the prehistoric elephant to an adjective describing anything of surprisingly large size . The first recorded use of the word as an adjective was in a description of a wheel of cheese ( the " Cheshire Mammoth Cheese " ) given to Jefferson in 1802 .
The taxonomy of extinct elephants was complicated by the early 20th century , and in 1942 , Henry Fairfield Osborn 's posthumous monograph on the Proboscidea was published , wherein he used various taxon names that had previously been proposed for mammoth species , including replacing Mammuthus with Mammonteus , as he believed the former name to be invalidly published . Mammoth taxonomy was simplified by various researchers from the 1970s onwards , all species were retained in the genus Mammuthus , and many proposed differences between species were instead interpreted as intraspecific variation . Osborn chose two molars ( found in Siberia and Osterode ) from Blumenbach 's collection at Göttingen University as the lectotype specimens for the woolly mammoth , since holotype designation was not practised in Blumenbach 's time . Vera Gromova further proposed the former should be considered the lectotype with the latter as paralectotype . Both molars were thought lost by the 1980s , and the more complete " Taimyr mammoth " found in Siberia in 1948 was therefore proposed as the neotype specimen in 1990 . Resolutions to historical issues about the validity of the genus name Mammuthus and the type species designation of E. primigenius were also proposed . The paralectotype molar ( specimen GZG.V.010.018 ) has since been located in the Göttingen University collection , identified by comparing it with Osborn 's illustration of a cast .
= = = Evolution = = =
The earliest known members of Proboscidea , the clade which contains modern elephants , existed about 55 million years ago around the Tethys Sea . The closest known relatives of the Proboscidea are the sirenians ( dugongs and manatees ) and the hyraxes ( an order of small , herbivorous mammals ) . The family Elephantidae existed six million years ago in Africa and includes the modern elephants and the mammoths . Among many now extinct clades , the mastodon ( Mammut ) is only a distant relative of the mammoths , and part of the separate family Mammutidae , which diverged 25 million years before the mammoths evolved . The following cladogram shows the placement of the genus Mammuthus among other proboscideans , based on characteristics of the hyoid bone in the neck :
In 2005 , researchers assembled a complete mitochondrial genome profile of the woolly mammoth , which allowed them to trace the close evolutionary relationship between mammoths and Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) . A 2015 DNA review confirmed Asian elephants as the closest living relative of the woolly mammoth . African elephants ( Loxodonta africana ) branched away from this clade around 6 million years ago , close to the time of the similar split between chimpanzees and humans . Before the publication of the Neanderthal genome , many researchers expected the first fully sequenced nuclear genome of an extinct species would be that of the mammoth . A 2010 study confirmed these relationships , and suggested the mammoth and Asian elephant lineages diverged 5 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 8 million years ago , while African elephants diverged from an earlier common ancestor 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 8 million years ago . In 2008 , much of the woolly mammoth 's chromosomal DNA was mapped . The analysis showed that the woolly mammoth and the African elephant are 98 @.@ 55 % to 99 @.@ 40 % identical . The team mapped the woolly mammoth 's nuclear genome sequence by extracting DNA from the hair follicles of both a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old mammoth retrieved from permafrost , and another that died 60 @,@ 000 years ago . In 2012 , proteins were confidently identified for the first time , collected from a 43 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old woolly mammoth .
Since many remains of each species of mammoth are known from several localities , it is possible to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the genus through morphological studies . Mammoth species can be identified from the number of enamel ridges ( or lamellar plates ) on their molars ; primitive species had few ridges , and the number increased gradually as new species evolved to feed on more abrasive food items . The crowns of the teeth became deeper in height and the skulls became taller to accommodate this . At the same time , the skulls became shorter from front to back to minimise the weight of the head . The short and tall skulls of woolly and Columbian mammoths ( Mammuthus columbi ) are the culmination of this process .
The first known members of the genus Mammuthus are the African species M. subplanifrons from the Pliocene , and M. africanavus from the Pleistocene . The former is thought to be the ancestor of later forms . Mammoths entered Europe around 3 million years ago . The earliest European mammoth has been named M. rumanus ; it spread across Europe and China . Only its molars are known , which show that it had 8 – 10 enamel ridges . A population evolved 12 – 14 ridges , splitting off from and replacing the earlier type , becoming M. meridionalis about 2 – 1 @.@ 7 million years ago . In turn , this species was replaced by the steppe mammoth ( M. trogontherii ) with 18 – 20 ridges , which evolved in eastern Asia around 1 million years ago . The Columbian mammoth evolved from a population of M. trogontherii that had crossed the Bering Strait and entered North America about 1 @.@ 5 million years ago ; it retained a similar number of molar ridges . Mammoths derived from M. trogontherii evolved molars with 26 ridges 400 @,@ 000 years ago in Siberia and became the woolly mammoth . Woolly mammoths entered North America about 100 @,@ 000 years ago .
Individuals and populations showing transitional morphologies between each of the mammoth species are known , and primitive and derived species coexisted as well until the former disappeared . The different species and their intermediate forms have therefore been termed " chronospecies " . Many taxa intermediate between M. primigenius and other mammoths have also been proposed , but their validity is uncertain ; depending on author , they are either considered primitive forms of an advanced species or advanced forms of a primitive species . Distinguishing and determining these intermediate forms has been called one of the most long lasting and complicated problems in Quaternary palaeontology . Regional and intermediate species and subspecies include M. intermedius , M. chosaricus , M. p. primigenius , M. p. jatzkovi , M. p. sibiricus , M. p. fraasi , M. p. leith @-@ adamsi , M. p. hydruntinus , M. p. astensis , M. p. americanus , M. p. compressus , and M. p. alaskensis have been proposed .
A 2011 genetic study showed that two examined specimens of the Columbian mammoth were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths . This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring . A North American type formerly referred to as M. jeffersonii may be a hybrid between the two species . A 2015 study suggested that the animals in the range where M. columbi and M. primigenius overlapped formed a metapopulation of hybrids with varying morphology . It also suggested that Eurasian M. primigenius had a similar relationship with M. trogontherii , in areas where their range overlapped .
= = Description = =
The appearance of the woolly mammoth is probably the best known of any prehistoric animal due to the many frozen specimens with preserved soft tissue and depictions by contemporary humans in their art . Fully grown males reached shoulder heights between 2 @.@ 7 and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 8 @.@ 9 and 11 @.@ 2 ft ) and weighed up to 6 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) . This is almost as large as extant male African elephants , which commonly reach 3 – 3 @.@ 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 2 ft ) , and is less than the size of the earlier mammoth species M. meridionalis and M. trogontherii , and the contemporary M. columbi . The reason for the smaller size is unknown . Female woolly mammoths averaged 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 9 m ( 8 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 ft ) in height and were built more lightly than males , weighing up to 4 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) . A newborn calf would have weighed about 90 kg ( 200 lb ) . These sizes are deduced from comparison with modern elephants of similar size . Few frozen specimens have preserved genitals , so the gender is usually determined through examination of the skeleton . The best indication of sex is the size of the pelvic girdle , since the opening that functions as the birth canal is always wider in females than in males . Though the mammoths on Wrangel Island were smaller than those of the mainland , their size varied , and they were not small enough to be considered " dwarves " . It has been claimed that the last woolly mammoth populations decreased in size and increased their sexual dimorphism , but this was dismissed in a 2012 study .
Woolly mammoths had several adaptations to the cold , most noticeably the layer of fur covering all parts of the body . Other adaptations to cold weather include ears that are far smaller than those of modern elephants ; they were about 38 cm ( 15 in ) long and 18 – 28 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) across , and the ear of the 6 – 12 month old frozen calf " Dima " was under 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long . The small ears reduced heat loss and frostbite , and the tail was short for the same reason , only 36 cm ( 14 in ) long in the " Berezovka mammoth " . The tail contained 21 vertebrae , whereas the tails of modern elephants contain 28 – 33 . Their skin was no thicker than that of present @-@ day elephants , between 1 @.@ 25 and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 49 and 0 @.@ 98 in ) . They had a layer of fat up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick under the skin , which helped to keep them warm . Woolly mammoths had broad flaps of skin under their tails which covered the anus ; this is also seen in modern elephants .
Other characteristic features depicted in cave paintings include a large , high , single @-@ domed head and a sloping back with a high shoulder hump ; this shape resulted from the spinous processes of the back vertebrae decreasing in length from front to rear . These features were not present in juveniles , which had convex backs like Asian elephants . Another feature shown in cave paintings was confirmed by the discovery of a frozen specimen in 1924 , an adult nicknamed the " Middle Kolyma mammoth " , which was preserved with a complete trunk tip . Unlike the trunk lobes of modern elephants , the upper " finger " at the tip of the trunk had a long pointed lobe and was 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , while the lower " thumb " was 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and was broader . The trunk of " Dima " was 76 cm ( 2 @.@ 49 ft ) long , whereas the trunk of the adult " Liakhov mammoth " was 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long . The well @-@ preserved trunk of a juvenile specimen nicknamed " Yuka " was described in 2015 , and it was shown that it possessed a fleshy expansion a third above the tip . Rather than oval as the rest of the trunk , this part was ellipsoidal in cross section , and double the size in diameter . The feature was also shown to be present in two other specimens , of different sexes and ages .
= = = Coat = = =
The coat consisted of an outer layer of long , coarse " guard hair " , which was 30 cm ( 12 in ) on the upper part of the body , up to 90 cm ( 35 in ) in length on the flanks and underside , and 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) in diameter , and a denser inner layer of shorter , slightly curly under @-@ wool , up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and 0 @.@ 05 mm ( 0 @.@ 0020 in ) in diameter . The hairs on the upper leg were up to 38 cm ( 15 in ) long , and those of the feet were 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , reaching the toes . The hairs on the head were relatively short , but longer on the underside and the sides of the trunk . The tail was extended by coarse hairs up to 60 cm ( 24 in ) long , which were thicker than the guard hairs . It is likely that the woolly mammoth moulted seasonally , and that the heaviest fur was shed during spring . Since mammoth carcasses were more likely to be preserved during autumn , it is possible that only the winter coat has been preserved in frozen specimens . Modern elephants have much less hair , though juveniles have a more extensive covering of hair than adults . Comparison between the over @-@ hairs of woolly mammoths and extant elephants show that they did not differ much in overall morphology . Woolly mammoths had numerous sebaceous glands in their skin , which secreted oils into their hair ; this would have improved the wool 's insulation , repelled water , and given the fur a glossy sheen .
Preserved woolly mammoth fur is orange @-@ brown , but this is believed to be an artefact from the bleaching of pigment during burial . The amount of pigmentation varied from hair to hair and also within each hair . A 2006 study sequenced the Mc1r gene ( which influences hair colour in mammals ) from woolly mammoth bones . Two alleles were found : a dominant ( fully active ) and a recessive ( partially active ) one . In mammals , recessive Mc1r alleles result in light hair . Mammoths born with at least one copy of the dominant allele would have had dark coats , while those with two copies of the recessive allele would have had light coats . A 2011 study showed that light individuals would have been rare . A 2014 study instead indicated that the colouration of an individual varied from non @-@ pigmented on the overhairs , bi @-@ coloured , non @-@ pigmented and mixed red @-@ brown guard hairs , and non @-@ pigmented underhairs , which would give a light overall appearance .
= = = Dentition = = =
Woolly mammoths had very long tusks ( modified incisor teeth ) , which were more curved than those of modern elephants . The largest known male tusk is 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) long and weighs 91 kg ( 201 lb ) , but 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 7 m ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 9 ft ) and 45 kg ( 99 lb ) was a more typical size . Female tusks were smaller and thinner , averaging at 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and weighing 9 kg ( 20 lb ) . The sheaths of the tusks were parallel and spaced closely . About a quarter of the length was inside the sockets . The tusks grew spirally in opposite directions from the base and continued in a curve until the tips pointed towards each other , sometimes crossing . In this way , most of the weight would have been close to the skull , and there would be less torque than with straight tusks . The tusks were usually asymmetrical and showed considerable variation , with some tusks curving down instead of outwards and some being shorter due to breakage . Calves developed small milk tusks a few centimetres long at six months old , which were replaced by permanent tusks a year later . Tusk growth continued throughout life but became slower as the animal reached adulthood . The tusks grew by 2 @.@ 5 – 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 5 @.@ 91 in ) each year . Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths with small or no tusks , but it is unknown whether this reflected reality or was artistic license . Female Asian elephants have no tusks , but there is no fossil evidence that any adult woolly mammoths lacked them .
Woolly mammoths had four functional molar teeth at a time , two in the upper jaw and two in the lower . About 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) of the crown was within the jaw , and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) was above . The crown was continually pushed forwards and up as it wore down , comparable to a conveyor belt . The teeth had up to 26 separated ridges of enamel , which were themselves covered in " prisms " that were directed towards the chewing surface . These were quite wear resistant and kept together by cementum and dentine . A mammoth had six sets of molars throughout a lifetime , which were replaced five times , though a few specimens with a seventh set are known . The latter condition could extend the lifespan of the individual , unless the tooth consisted of only a few plates . The first molars were about the size of those of a human , 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) , the third were 15 cm ( 6 in ) 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , and the sixth were about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) long and weighed 1 @.@ 8 kg ( 4 lb ) . The molars grew larger and contained more ridges with each replacement . The woolly mammoth is considered to have had the most complex molars of any elephant .
Distortion in the molars is the most common health problem found in woolly mammoth fossils . Sometimes the replacement was disrupted , and the molars were pushed into abnormal positions , but some animals are known to have survived this . Teeth from Britain showed that 2 % of specimens had periodontal disease , with half of these containing caries . The teeth also sometimes had cancerous growths .
= = Palaeobiology = =
Adult woolly mammoths could effectively defend themselves from predators with their tusks , trunks and size , but juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves , cave hyenas and large felines . The tusks may also have been used in intra @-@ species fighting , such as territorial fights or fights over mates . Display of the large tusks of males could also have been used to attract females , and to intimidate rivals . Because of their curvature , the tusks were not suitable for stabbing , but may have been used for hitting , as indicated by injuries to some fossil shoulder blades . The very long hairs on the tail probably compensated for the shortness of the tail , enabling its use as a flyswatter , similar to the tail on modern elephants . As in modern elephants , the sensitive and muscular trunk worked as a limb @-@ like organ with many functions . It was used for manipulating objects , and in social interactions . The well @-@ preserved foot of the adult male " Yukagir mammoth " shows that the soles of the feet contained many cracks that would have helped in gripping surfaces during locomotion . Like modern elephants , woolly mammoths walked on their toes and had large , fleshy pads behind the toes .
Like modern elephants , woolly mammoths were likely very social and lived in matriarchal ( female @-@ led ) family groups . This is supported by fossil assemblages and cave paintings showing groups . It is therefore probable that most of their other social behaviour was similar to that of modern elephants . It is unknown how many mammoths lived at one location at a time , as fossil deposits are often accumulations of individuals that died over long periods of time . It is likely that the amounts varied by season and life @-@ cycle events . Modern elephants can form large herds , sometimes consisting of multiple family groups , and these herds can include thousands of animals migrating together . Mammoths may have formed large herds more often , since animals that live in open areas are more likely to do this than those in forested areas . Trackways made by a woolly mammoth herd 11 @,@ 300 – 11 @,@ 000 years ago have been found in the St. Mary Reservoir in Canada , showing that there were in this case almost equal numbers of adults , sub @-@ adults and juveniles . The adults had a stride of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , and the juveniles ran to keep up .
The woolly mammoth was probably the most specialised member of the family Elephantidae . They had lipopexia ( fat storage ) in their neck and withers , for times when food availability was insufficient during winter , and their first three molars grew more quickly than in the calves of modern elephants . The expansion identified on the trunk of " Yuka " and other specimens was suggested to function as a " fur mitten " ; the trunk tip was not covered in fur , but was used for foraging during winter , and could have been heated by curling it into the expansion . It was also suggested that the expansion could be used to melt snow if there was shortage of water to drink , as melting it directly inside the mouth could disturb the thermal balance of the animal . As in reindeer and musk oxen , the haemoglobin of the woolly mammoth was adapted to the cold , with three mutations to improve oxygen delivery around the body and prevent freezing . This feature may have helped the mammoths to live in high latitudes .
In a 2015 study , high @-@ quality genome sequences from three Asian elephants and two woolly mammoths were compared . Approximately 1 @.@ 4 million DNA nucleotide differences were found between mammoths and elephants , which affect the sequence of more than 1 @,@ 600 proteins . Differences were noted in genes for a number of aspects of physiology and biology that would be relevant to Arctic survival , including development of skin and hair , storage and metabolism of adipose tissue , and perceiving temperature . Genes related to both sensing temperature and transmitting that sensation to the brain were altered . One of the heat @-@ sensing genes encodes a protein , TRPV3 , found in skin which also affects hair growth . When inserted into human cells , the mammoth 's version of the protein was found to be less sensitive to heat than the elephant 's . This is consistent with a previous observation that mice lacking active TRPV3 are likely to spend more time in cooler cage locations than wild type mice , and have wavier hair . There were also several alterations in circadian clock genes , perhaps needed to cope with the extreme polar variation in length of daylight . Similar mutations are known in other Arctic mammals , such as reindeer .
= = = Diet = = =
Food at various stages of digestion has been found in the intestines of several woolly mammoths , giving a good picture of their diet . Woolly mammoths sustained themselves on plant food , mainly grass and sedges , which were supplemented with herbaceous plants , flowering plants , shrubs , mosses , and tree matter . The composition and exact varieties differed from location to location . Woolly mammoths needed a varied diet to support their growth , like modern elephants . An adult of six tonnes would need to eat 180 kg ( 397 lb ) daily , and may have foraged as long as twenty hours every day . The two @-@ fingered tip of the trunk was probably adapted for picking up the short grasses of the last ice age ( Quaternary glaciation , 2 @.@ 58 million years ago to present ) by wrapping around them , whereas modern elephants curl their trunks around the longer grass of their tropical environments . The trunk could also be used for pulling off large grass tufts , delicately picking buds and flowers , and tearing off leaves and branches where trees and shrubs were present . The " Yukagir mammoth " had ingested plant matter that contained spores of dung fungus . Isotope analysis shows that woolly mammoths fed mainly on C3 plants , unlike horses and rhinos .
Scientists identified milk in the stomach and faecal matter in the intestines of the mammoth calf " Lyuba " . The faecal matter may have been eaten by " Lyuba " to promote development of the intestinal microbes necessary for digestion of vegetation , as is the case in modern elephants . An isotope analysis of woolly mammoths from Yukon showed that the young nursed for at least three years , and were weaned and gradually changed to a diet of plants when they were two to three years old . This is later than in modern elephants and may be due to a higher risk of predator attack or difficulty in obtaining food during the long periods of winter darkness in high latitudes .
The molars were adapted to their diet of coarse tundra grasses , with more enamel plates and a higher crown than their earlier , southern relatives . The woolly mammoth chewed its food by using its powerful jaw muscles to move the mandible forwards and close the mouth , then backwards while opening ; the sharp enamel ridges thereby cut across each other , grinding the food . The ridges were wear @-@ resistant to enable the animal to chew large quantities of food , which often contained grit . Woolly mammoths may have used their tusks as shovels to clear snow from the ground and reach the vegetation buried below , and to break ice to drink . This is indicated on many preserved tusks by flat , polished sections up to 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) long on the part of the surface that would have reached the ground . The tusks were also used for obtaining food in other ways , such as digging up plants and stripping off bark .
= = = Life history = = =
The lifespan of mammals is related to their size , and since modern elephants can reach the age of 60 years , the same is thought to be true for woolly mammoths which were of a similar size . The age of a mammoth can be roughly determined by counting the growth rings of its tusks when viewed in cross section , but this does not account for their early years , as these are represented by the tips of the tusks , which are usually worn away . In the remaining part of the tusk , each major line represents a year , and weekly and daily ones can be found in between . Dark bands correspond to summers , and it is therefore possible to determine the season in which a mammoth died . The growth of the tusks slowed when it became harder to forage , for example during winter , during disease , or when a male was banished from the herd ( male elephants live with their herds until about the age of ten ) . Mammoth tusks dating to the harshest period of the last glaciation 25 – 20 @,@ 000 years ago show slower growth rates . Woolly mammoths continued growing past adulthood , like other elephants . Unfused limb bones show that males grew until they reached the age of 40 , and females grew until they were 25 . The frozen calf " Dima " was 90 cm ( 35 in ) tall when it died at the age of 6 – 12 months . At this age , the second set of molars would be in the process of erupting , and the first set would be worn out at 18 months of age . The third set of molars lasted for ten years , and this process was repeated until the final , sixth set emerged when the animal was 30 years old . When the last set of molars was worn out , the animal would be unable to chew and feed , and it would die of starvation . A study of North American mammoths found that they often died during winter or spring , the hardest times for northern animals to survive .
The best preserved head of a frozen adult specimen , that of a male nicknamed the " Yukagir mammoth " , shows that woolly mammoths had temporal glands between the ear and the eye . This feature indicates that , like bull elephants , male woolly mammoths also entered " musth " , a period of heightened aggressiveness . The glands are used especially by males to produce an oily substance with a strong smell called temporin . Their fur may have helped in spreading the scent further .
Examination of preserved calves show that they were all born during spring and summer , and since modern elephants have gestation periods of 21 – 22 months , it is probable that the mating season was from summer to autumn. δ15N isotopic analysis of the teeth of " Lyuba " has demonstrated their prenatal development , and indicates its gestation period was similar to that of a modern elephant , and that it was born in spring .
Evidence of several different bone diseases has been found in woolly mammoths . The most common of these diseases was osteoarthritis , found in 2 % of specimens . One specimen from Switzerland had several fused vertebrae as a result of this condition . The " Yukagir mammoth " had suffered from spondylitis in two vertebrae , and osteomyelitis is also known from some specimens . Several specimens have healed bone fractures , showing that the animals had survived these injuries . An abnormal number of cervical vertebrae has been found in 33 % of specimens from the North Sea region , probably due to inbreeding in a declining population . Parasitic flies and protozoa were identified in the gut of the calf " Dima " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The habitat of the woolly mammoth is known as " mammoth steppe " or " tundra steppe " . This environment stretched across northern Asia , many parts of Europe , and the northern part of North America during the last ice age . It was similar to the grassy steppes of modern Russia , but the flora was more diverse , abundant , and grew faster . Grasses , sedges , shrubs , and herbaceous plants were present , and scattered trees were mainly found in southern regions . This habitat was not dominated by ice and snow , as is popularly believed , since these regions are thought to have been high @-@ pressure areas at the time . The habitat of the woolly mammoth also supported other grazing herbivores such as the woolly rhinoceros , wild horses and bison . A 2014 study concluded that forbs ( a group of herbaceous plants ) were more important in the steppe @-@ tundra than previously acknowledged , and that it was a primary food source for the ice @-@ age megafauna .
The southernmost woolly mammoth specimen known is from the Shandong province of China , and is 33 @,@ 000 years old . The southernmost European remains are from the Depression of Granada in Spain and are of roughly the same age . DNA studies have helped determine the phylogeography of the woolly mammoth . A 2008 DNA study showed there were two distinct groups of woolly mammoths : one that became extinct 45 @,@ 000 years ago and another one that became extinct 12 @,@ 000 years ago . The two groups are speculated to be divergent enough to be characterised as subspecies . The group that became extinct earlier stayed in the middle of the high Arctic , while the group with the later extinction had a much wider range . Recent stable isotope studies of Siberian and New World mammoths have shown there were also differences in climatic conditions on either side of the Bering land bridge , with Siberia being more uniformly cold and dry throughout the Late Pleistocene . During the Younger Dryas age , woolly mammoths briefly expanded into north @-@ east Europe , whereafter the mainland populations became extinct .
A 2008 genetic study showed that some of the woolly mammoths that entered North America through the Bering land bridge from Asia migrated back about 300 @,@ 000 years ago and had replaced the previous Asian population by about 40 @,@ 000 years ago , not long before the entire species became extinct . Fossils of woolly mammoths and Columbian mammoths have been found together in a few localities of North America , including the Hot Springs sinkhole of South Dakota where their regions overlapped . It is unknown whether the two species were sympatric and lived there simultaneously , or if the woolly mammoths may have entered these southern areas during times when Columbian mammoth populations were absent there .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Modern humans coexisted with woolly mammoths during the Upper Palaeolithic period when the humans entered Europe from Africa between 30 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 years ago . Prior to this , Neanderthals had coexisted with mammoths during the Middle Palaeolithic , and these humans already utilised mammoth bones for tool making and building materials . Woolly mammoths were very important to ice @-@ age humans , and human survival may have depended on the mammoth in some areas . Evidence for such coexistence was not recognised until the 19th century . William Buckland published his discovery of the Red Lady of Paviland skeleton in 1823 , which was found in a cave alongside woolly mammoth bones , but he mistakenly denied that these were contemporaries . In 1864 , Édouard Lartet found an engraving of a woolly mammoth on a piece of mammoth ivory in the Abri de la Madeleine cave in Dordogne , France . The engraving was the first widely accepted evidence for the coexistence of humans with prehistoric extinct animals and is the first contemporary depiction of such a creature known to modern science .
The woolly mammoth is the third most depicted animal in ice @-@ age art , after horses and bison , and these images were produced between 35 @,@ 000 and 11 @,@ 500 years ago . Today , more than five hundred depictions of woolly mammoths are known , in media ranging from cave paintings and engravings on the walls of 46 caves in Russia , France and Spain to engravings and sculptures ( termed " portable art " ) made from ivory , antler , stone and bone . Cave paintings of woolly mammoths exist in several styles and sizes . The French Rouffignac Cave has the most depictions , 159 , and some of the drawings are more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in length . Other notable caves with mammoth depictions are the Chauvet Cave , Les Combarelles Cave , and Font @-@ de @-@ Gaume . A depiction in the Cave of El Castillo may instead show Palaeoloxodon , the " straight @-@ tusked elephant " .
" Portable art " can be more accurately dated than cave art since it is found in the same deposits as tools and other ice age artefacts . The largest collection of portable mammoth art , consisting of 62 depictions on 47 plaques , was found in the 1960s at an excavated open @-@ air camp near Gönnersdorf in Germany . There does not seem to be a correlation between the number of mammoths depicted and the species that were most often hunted , since reindeer bones are the most frequently found animal remains at the site . Two spear throwers shaped as woolly mammoths have also been found in France . Some portable mammoth depictions may not have been produced where they were discovered , but could have moved around by ancient trading .
= = = Exploitation = = =
Woolly mammoth bones were used as construction material for dwellings by both Neanderthals and modern humans during the ice age . More than 70 such dwellings are known , mainly from the Russian Plain . The bases of the huts were circular , and ranged from 8 to 24 square metres ( 86 to 258 sq ft ) . The arrangement of dwellings varied , and ranged from 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) to 20 m ( 66 ft ) apart , depending on location . Large bones were used as foundations for the huts , tusks for the entrances , and the roofs were probably skins held in place by bones or tusks . Some huts had floors that extended 40 cm ( 16 in ) below ground . Some huts included fireplaces , which used bones as fuel , probably because wood was scarce . It is possible that some of the bones used for materials came from mammoths killed by humans , but the state of the bones , and the fact that bones used to build a single dwelling varied by several thousands of years in age , suggests that they were collected remains of long @-@ dead animals . Woolly mammoth bones were also made into various tools , furniture , and musical instruments . Large bones , such as shoulder blades , were also used to cover dead human bodies during burial .
Woolly mammoth ivory was used to create art objects . Several Venus figurines , including the Venus of Brassempouy and the Venus of Lespugue , were made from this material . Weapons made from ivory , such as daggers , spears , and a boomerang , are also known . To be able to process the ivory , the large tusks had to be chopped , chiselled and split into smaller , more manageable pieces . Some ivory artefacts show that tusks had been straightened , and it is unknown how this was achieved .
Several woolly mammoth specimens show evidence of being butchered by humans , which is indicated by breaks , cut @-@ marks , and associated stone tools . It is not known how much prehistoric humans relied on woolly mammoth meat , since there were many other large herbivores available . Many mammoth carcasses may have been scavenged by humans rather than hunted . Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths in structures interpreted as pitfall traps . Few specimens show direct , unambiguous evidence of having been hunted by humans . A Siberian specimen with a spearhead embedded in its shoulder blade shows that a spear had been thrown at it with great force . A specimen from the Mousterian age of Italy shows evidence of spear hunting by Neanderthals . The juvenile specimen nicknamed " Yuka " is the first frozen mammoth with evidence of human interaction . It shows evidence of having been killed by a large predator , and of having been scavenged by humans shortly after . Some of its bones had been removed , and were found nearby . A site near the Yana River in Siberia has revealed several specimens with evidence of human hunting , but the finds were interpreted to show that the animals were not hunted intensively , but perhaps mainly when ivory was needed . Two woolly mammoths from Wisconsin , the " Schaefer " and " Hebior mammoths " , show evidence of having been butchered by Palaeoamericans .
= = Extinction = =
Most woolly mammoth populations disappeared during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene , alongside most of the Pleistocene megafauna ( including the Columbian mammoth ) . This extinction formed part of the Quaternary extinction event , which began 40 @,@ 000 years ago and peaked between 14 @,@ 000 and 11 @,@ 500 years ago . Scientists are divided over whether hunting or climate change , which led to the shrinkage of its habitat , was the main factor that contributed to the extinction of the woolly mammoth , or whether it was due to a combination of the two . Whatever the cause , large mammals are generally more vulnerable than smaller ones due to their smaller population size and low reproduction rates . Different woolly mammoth populations did not die out simultaneously across their range , but gradually became extinct over time . Most populations disappeared between 14 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The last mainland population existed in the Kyttyk Peninsula of Siberia 9 @,@ 650 years ago . A small population of woolly mammoths survived on St. Paul Island , Alaska , until 6 @,@ 400 years ago . The last known population remained on Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean until 4 @,@ 000 years ago , well into the start of human civilization and concurrent with the construction of the Great Pyramid of ancient Egypt .
DNA sequencing of remains of two mammoths , one from Siberia 44 @,@ 800 years BP and one from Wrangel Island 4 @,@ 300 years BP , indicates two major population crashes : one around 280 @,@ 000 years ago from which the population recovered , and a second about 12 @,@ 000 years ago , near the ice age 's end , from which it did not . The Wrangel Island mammoths were isolated for 5000 years , and due to the small population present when the island was isolated by rising post @-@ ice @-@ age sea level , about 300 to 1000 individuals experienced a 20 % to 30 % loss of heterozygosity , and a 65 % loss in mitochondrial DNA diversity . However , the population seems to have subsequently been stable , without suffering further significant loss of genetic diversity . Genetic evidence thus implies the extinction of this final population was sudden , rather than the culmination of a gradual decline ; the disappearance coincides roughly in time with the first evidence for humans on the island . The woolly mammoths of eastern Beringia ( modern Alaska and Yukon ) had similarly died out about 13 @,@ 300 years ago , soon ( roughly 1000 years ) after the first appearance of humans in the area , which parallels the fate of all the other late Pleistocene proboscids ( mammoths , gomphotheres and mastodons ) , as well as most of the rest of the megafauna , of the Americas . In contrast , the St. Paul Island mammoth population apparently died out prior to human arrival due to habitat shrinkage resulting from the post @-@ ice @-@ age sea @-@ level rise .
A 2008 study estimated that changes in climate shrank suitable mammoth habitat from 7 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ) 42 @,@ 000 years ago to 800 @,@ 000 km2 ( 310 @,@ 000 sq mi ) 6 @,@ 000 years ago . Woolly mammoths survived an even greater loss of habitat at the end of the Saale glaciation 125 @,@ 000 years ago , and it is likely that humans hunted the remaining populations to extinction at the end of the last glacial period . Studies of an 11 @,@ 300 – 11 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old trackway in south @-@ western Canada showed that M. primigenius was in decline while coexisting with humans , since far fewer tracks of juveniles were identified than would be expected in a normal herd .
A 2010 study suggests that the decline of the woolly mammoth could have increased temperatures by up to 0 @.@ 2 ° C ( 0 @.@ 36 ° F ) at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere . Mammoths frequently ate birch trees , creating a grassland habitat . With the disappearance of mammoths , birch forests , which absorb more sunlight than grasslands , expanded , leading to regional warming .
= = Fossil specimens = =
Woolly mammoth fossils have been found in many different types of deposits , including former rivers and lakes , and also in " Doggerland " in the North Sea , which was dry at times during the ice age . Such fossils are usually fragmentary and contain no soft tissue . Accumulations of modern elephant remains have been termed " elephants ' graveyards " , as these sites were erroneously thought to be where old elephants went to die . Similar accumulations of woolly mammoth bones have been found ; it is thought these are the result of individuals dying near or in the rivers over thousands of years , and their bones eventually being brought together by the streams . Some accumulations are also thought to be the remains of herds that died together at the same time , perhaps due to flooding . Natural traps , such as kettle holes , sink holes , as well as mud , have also trapped mammoths in separate events over time .
Apart from frozen remains , the only soft tissue known is from a specimen that was preserved in a petroleum seep in Starunia , Poland . Frozen remains of woolly mammoths have been found in the northern parts of Siberia and Alaska , with far fewer finds in the latter . Such remains are mostly found above the Arctic Circle , in permafrost . It appears that soft tissue was less likely to be preserved between 30 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 years ago , perhaps because the climate was milder during that period . Most specimens have partially degraded prior to discovery , due to exposure or to being scavenged . This " natural mummification " required the animal to have been buried rapidly in liquid or semi @-@ solids such as silt , mud and icy water , which then froze .
The presence of undigested food in the stomach and seed pods still in the mouth of many of the specimens suggests neither starvation nor exposure are likely . The maturity of this ingested vegetation places the time of death in autumn rather than in spring , when flowers would be expected . The animals may have fallen through ice into small ponds or potholes , entombing them . Many are certainly known to have been killed in rivers , perhaps through being swept away by floods . In one location , by the Berelekh River in Yakutia in Siberia , more than 8 @,@ 000 bones from at least 140 mammoths have been found in a single spot , apparently having been swept there by the current .
= = = Frozen specimens = = =
Between 1692 and 1806 , only four descriptions of frozen mammoths were published in Europe . None of the remains of those five were preserved , and no complete skeleton was recovered during that time . While frozen woolly mammoth carcasses had been excavated by Europeans as early as 1728 , the first fully documented specimen was discovered near the delta of the Lena River in 1799 by Ossip Schumachov , a Siberian hunter . Schumachov let it thaw until he could retrieve the tusks for sale to the ivory trade . While in Yakutsk in 1806 , Michael Friedrich Adams heard about the frozen mammoth . Upon arrival at the location , Adams discovered that wild animals had eaten most of the organs and flesh of the mammoth , including the trunk . He examined the carcass and realised what was left would still be the most complete mammoth recovered by that time . Adams recovered the entire skeleton , apart from the tusks , which Shumachov had already sold , and one foreleg , most of the skin , and nearly 18 kg ( 40 lb ) of hair . During his return voyage he purchased a pair of tusks that he believed were the ones that Shumachov had sold . Adams brought it to the Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences , and the task of mounting the skeleton was given to Wilhelm Gottlieb Tilesius . The Kunstkamera , the museum established by Peter the Great , contained the skeleton of an Indian elephant that could be used as reference . This was one of the first attempts at reconstructing the skeleton of an extinct animal . Most of the reconstruction is correct , but Tilesius placed each tusk in the opposite socket , so that they curved outward instead of inward . The error was not corrected until 1899 , and the correct placement of mammoth tusks was still a matter of debate into the twentieth century .
The 1901 excavation of the " Berezovka mammoth " is the best documented of the early finds . It was discovered at the Siberian Berezovka River , and the Russian authorities financed its excavation . Its head was exposed , and the flesh had been scavenged . The animal still had grass between its teeth and on the tongue , showing that it had died suddenly . The entire expedition took 10 months , and the specimen had to be cut to pieces before it could be transported to St. Petersburg . It was identified as a 35- to 40 @-@ year @-@ old male , which had died 35 @,@ 000 years ago . One of its shoulder blades was broken , which may have happened when it fell into a crevasse .
By 1929 , the remains of 34 mammoths with frozen soft tissues ( skin , flesh , or organs ) had been documented . Only four of them were relatively complete . Since then , about that many more have been found . In most cases , the flesh showed signs of decay before its freezing and later desiccation . Since 1860 , Russian authorities have offered rewards of up to руб.1000 for finds of frozen woolly mammoth carcasses . Often such finds were kept secret due to superstition . Several carcasses have been lost because they were not reported , and one was fed to dogs . In more recent years , scientific expeditions have been devoted to finding carcasses instead of relying solely on chance encounters . The most famous frozen specimen from Alaska is a calf nicknamed " Effie " , which was found in 1948 . It consists of the head , trunk , and a foreleg , and is about 25 @,@ 000 years old .
In 1977 , the well @-@ preserved carcass of a seven- to eight @-@ month @-@ old woolly mammoth calf named " Dima " was discovered . This carcass was recovered near a tributary of the Kolyma River in northeastern Siberia . This specimen weighed approximately 100 kg ( 220 lb ) at death and was 104 cm ( 41 in ) high and 115 cm ( 45 in ) long . Radiocarbon dating determined that " Dima " died about 40 @,@ 000 years ago . Its internal organs are similar to those of modern elephants , but its ears are only one @-@ tenth the size of those of an African elephant of similar age . A less complete juvenile , nicknamed " Mascha " , was found on the Yamal Peninsula in 1988 . It was 3 – 4 months old , and a laceration on its right foot may have been the cause of death . It is the westernmost frozen mammoth found .
In 1997 , a piece of mammoth tusk was discovered protruding from the tundra of the Taymyr Peninsula in Siberia , Russia . In 1999 , this 20 @,@ 380 @-@ year @-@ old carcass and 25 tons of surrounding sediment were transported by an Mi @-@ 26 heavy lift helicopter to an ice cave in Khatanga . The specimen was nicknamed the " Jarkov mammoth " . In October 2000 , the careful defrosting operations in this cave began with the use of hair dryers to keep the hair and other soft tissues intact .
In 2002 , a well @-@ preserved carcass was discovered near the Maxunuokha River in northern Yakutia , which was recovered during three excavations . This adult male specimen was called the " Yukagir mammoth " , and is estimated to have lived around 18 @,@ 560 years ago , and to have been 282 @.@ 9 cm ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) tall at the shoulder , and weighed between 4 and 5 tonnes . It is one of the best preserved mammoths ever found due to the almost complete head , covered in skin , but without the trunk . Some postcranial remains were also found , some with soft tissue .
In 2007 , the carcass of a female calf nicknamed " Lyuba " was discovered near the Yuribey River , where it had been buried for 41 @,@ 800 years . By cutting a section through a molar and analysing its growth lines , they found that the animal had died at the age of one month . The mummified calf weighed 50 kg ( 110 lb ) , was 85 cm ( 33 in ) high and 130 cm ( 51 in ) in length . At the time of discovery , its eyes and trunk were intact and some fur remained on its body . Its organs and skin are very well preserved . " Lyuba " is believed to have been suffocated by mud in a river that its herd was crossing . After death , its body may have been colonised by bacteria that produce lactic acid , which " pickled " it , preserving the mammoth in a nearly pristine state .
In 2012 , a juvenile was found in Siberia , which had man @-@ made cut marks . Scientists estimated its age at death to be 2 @.@ 5 years , and nicknamed it " Yuka " . Its skull and pelvis had been removed prior to discovery , but were found nearby . After being discovered , the skin of " Yuka " was prepared to produce a taxidermy mount . Another mammoth discovery was reported in October 2012 , when it was excavated on the Taymyr Peninsula . It was dated to 30 @,@ 000 years old . Formally known as the Sopkarga mammoth , it was nicknamed " Zhenya " after the boy who found it .
In 2013 , a well @-@ preserved carcass was found on Maly Lyakhovsky Island , one of the islands in the New Siberian Islands archipelago , a female between 50 and 60 years old at the time of death . The carcass contained well @-@ preserved muscular tissue . When it was extracted from the ice , liquid blood spilled from the abdominal cavity . The finders interpreted this as indicating woolly mammoth blood possessed anti @-@ freezing properties .
= = = Recreating the species = = =
The existence of preserved soft tissue remains and DNA of woolly mammoths has led to the idea that the species could be recreated by scientific means . Several methods have been proposed to achieve this . Cloning would involve removal of the DNA @-@ containing nucleus of the egg cell of a female elephant , and replacement with a nucleus from woolly mammoth tissue . The cell would then be stimulated into dividing , and inserted back into a female elephant . The resulting calf would have the genes of the woolly mammoth , although its fetal environment would be different . Most intact mammoths have had little usable DNA because of their conditions of preservation . There is not enough to guide the production of an embryo .
A second method involves artificially inseminating an elephant egg cell with sperm cells from a frozen woolly mammoth carcass . The resulting offspring would be an elephant – mammoth hybrid , and the process would have to be repeated so more hybrids could be used in breeding . After several generations of cross @-@ breeding these hybrids , an almost pure woolly mammoth would be produced . The fact that sperm cells of modern mammals are potent for 15 years at most after deep @-@ freezing is a hindrance to this method . In one case , an Asian elephant and an African elephant produced a live calf named Motty , but it died of defects at less than two weeks old .
In 2008 , a Japanese team found usable DNA in the brains of mice that had been frozen for 16 years . They hope to use similar methods to find usable mammoth DNA . In 2009 , the Pyrenean ibex ( a subspecies of the Spanish ibex ) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life ; the clone lived for only seven minutes before dying of lung defects . As the woolly mammoth genome has been fully sequenced , it may be possible to recreate a complete set of woolly mammoth chromosomes in the future by adding mammoth @-@ only sequences to Asian elephant chromosomes , which represents a more feasible but extremely difficult and expensive means of recreating the species . If the process is ever successful , there are plans to introduce woolly mammoths to Pleistocene Park , a wildlife reserve in Siberia .
By March 2015 , woolly mammoth genes had been copied into the genome of an Asian elephant , using the CRISPR DNA editing technique . Genetic segments from frozen mammoth specimens , including genes for the ears , subcutaneous fat , and hair attributes , were copied into the DNA of skin cells from a modern elephant . This marked the first time that woolly mammoth genes had been functionally active since the species became extinct .
Mammoth researchers question the ethics of such recreation attempts . In addition to the technical problems , there is not much habitat left that would be suitable for woolly mammoths . Because the species was social and gregarious , creating a few specimens would not be ideal . The time and resources required would be enormous , and the scientific benefits would be unclear , suggesting these resources should instead be used to preserve extant elephant species which are endangered . The ethics of using elephants as surrogate mothers in cloning attempts has also been questioned , as most embryos would not survive , and it would be impossible to know the exact needs of a resurrected calf .
= = Cultural significance = =
The woolly mammoth has remained culturally significant long after its extinction . Indigenous peoples of Siberia had long found what are now known to be woolly mammoth remains , collecting their tusks for the ivory trade . Native Siberians believed woolly mammoth remains to be those of giant mole @-@ like animals that lived underground and died when burrowing to the surface . Woolly mammoth tusks had been articles of trade in Asia long before Europeans became acquainted with them . Güyük , the 13th @-@ century Khan of the Mongols , is reputed to have sat on a throne made from mammoth ivory . Inspired by the Siberian natives ' concept of the mammoth as an underground creature , it became recorded in the Chinese pharmaceutical encyclopedia , Ben Cao Gangmu , as yin shu , " the hidden rodent " .
The indigenous peoples of North America also used woolly mammoth ivory and bone for tools and art . As in Siberia , North American natives had " myths of observation " explaining the remains of woolly mammoths and other elephants ; the Bering Strait Inupiat also believed the bones came from underground burrowing creatures , while other peoples associated them with primordial giants or " great beasts " . Observers have interpreted legends from several Native American peoples as containing folk memory of extinct elephants , though other scholars are sceptical that folk memory could survive such a long time .
Siberian mammoth ivory is reported to have been exported to Russia and Europe in the 10th century . The first Siberian ivory to reach western Europe was brought to London in 1611 . When Russia occupied Siberia , the ivory trade grew and it became a widely exported commodity , with huge amounts being excavated . From the 19th century and onwards , woolly mammoth ivory became a highly prized commodity , used as raw material for many products . Today it is still in great demand as a replacement for the now @-@ banned export of elephant ivory , and has been referred to as " white gold " . Local dealers estimate that there are 10 million mammoths still frozen in Siberia , and conservationists have suggested that this could help save the living species of elephants from extinction . Elephants are hunted by poachers for their ivory , but if this could instead be supplied by the already extinct mammoths , the demand could instead be met by these . Trade in elephant ivory has been forbidden in most places following the 1989 Lausanne Conference , but dealers have been known to label it as mammoth ivory to get it through customs . Mammoth ivory looks similar to elephant ivory , but the former is browner and the Schreger lines are coarser in texture . In the 21st century , global warming has made access to Siberian tusks easier , since the permafrost thaws more quickly , exposing the mammoths embedded within it .
Stories abound about frozen woolly mammoth meat that was consumed once defrosted , especially that of the " Berezovka mammoth " , but most of these are considered dubious . The carcasses were in most cases decayed , and the stench so unbearable that only wild scavengers and the dogs accompanying the finders showed any interest in the flesh . It appears that such meat was once recommended against illness in China , and Siberian natives have occasionally cooked the meat of frozen carcasses they discovered .
= = = Cryptozoology = = =
There have been occasional claims that the woolly mammoth is not extinct , and that small isolated herds might survive in the vast and sparsely inhabited tundra of the Northern Hemisphere . In the 19th century , several reports of " large shaggy beasts " were passed on to the Russian authorities by Siberian tribesmen , but no scientific proof ever surfaced . A French chargé d 'affaires working in Vladivostok , M. Gallon , said in 1946 that in 1920 he had met a Russian fur @-@ trapper who claimed to have seen living giant , furry " elephants " deep into the taiga . Gallon added that the fur @-@ trapper had not heard of mammoths before . Due to the large area of Siberia , it cannot be completely ruled out that woolly mammoths survived into more recent times , but all evidence indicates that they became extinct thousands of years ago . It is likely that these natives had gained their knowledge of woolly mammoths from carcasses they encountered , and that this is the source for their legends of the animal .
In the late 19th century , there were persistent rumours about surviving mammoths in Alaska . In October 1899 , Henry Tukeman detailed his killing of a mammoth in Alaska and his subsequent donation of the specimen to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C. The museum denied the existence of any mammoth corpse ; the story was a hoax . Bengt Sjögren believed that the myth began when the American biologist Charles Haskins Townsend travelled in Alaska , saw Eskimos trading mammoth tusks , asked if there were still living mammoths in Alaska , and provided them with a drawing of the animal .
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= William Jennings Bryan presidential campaign , 1896 =
In 1896 , William Jennings Bryan ran unsuccessfully for President of the United States . Bryan , a former Democratic congressman from Nebraska , gained his party 's presidential nomination in July of that year after electrifying the Democratic National Convention with his Cross of Gold speech . He was defeated in the general election by the Republican candidate , former Ohio governor William McKinley .
Born in 1860 , Bryan grew up in rural Illinois and in 1887 moved to Nebraska , where he practiced law and entered politics . He won election to the House of Representatives in 1890 , and was re @-@ elected in 1892 , before mounting an unsuccessful US Senate run . He set his sights on higher office , believing he could be elected president in 1896 even though he remained a relatively minor figure in the Democratic Party . In anticipation of a presidential campaign , he spent much of 1895 and early 1896 making speeches across the United States ; his compelling oratory increased his popularity in his party .
Bryan often spoke on the issue of the currency . The economic Panic of 1893 had left the nation in a deep recession , which still persisted in early 1896 . Bryan and many other Democrats believed the economic malaise could be remedied through a return to bimetallism , or free silver — a policy they believed would inflate the currency and make it easier for debtors to repay loans . Bryan went to the Democratic convention in Chicago as an undeclared candidate , whom the press had given only a small chance of becoming the Democratic nominee . His ' Cross of Gold ' speech , given to conclude the debate on the party platform , immediately transformed him into a favorite for the nomination , and he won it the next day . The Democrats nominated Arthur Sewall , a wealthy Maine banker and shipbuilder , for vice president . The left @-@ wing Populist Party ( which had hoped to nominate the only silver @-@ supporting candidate ) endorsed Bryan for president , but found Sewall unacceptable , substituting Thomas E. Watson of Georgia .
Abandoned by many gold @-@ supporting party leaders and newspapers after the Chicago convention , Bryan undertook an extensive tour by rail to bring his campaign to the people . He spoke some 600 times , to an estimated 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 listeners . His campaign focused on silver , an issue that failed to appeal to the urban voter , and he was defeated .
The 1896 race is generally seen as a realigning election . The coalition of wealthy , middle @-@ class and urban voters that defeated Bryan kept the Republicans in power for most of the time until 1932 . Although defeated in the election , Bryan 's campaign made him a national figure , which he remained until his death in 1925 .
= = Background = =
= = = Bryan = = =
William Jennings Bryan was born in rural Salem , Illinois in 1860 . His father , Silas Bryan , was a Jacksonian Democrat , judge , lawyer and local party activist . As a judge 's son , the younger Bryan had ample opportunity to observe the art of speechmaking in courtrooms , political rallies , and at church and revival meetings . In post @-@ Civil War America , oratory was highly prized , and Bryan showed aptitude for it from a young age , raised in his father 's house in Salem . Attending Illinois College beginning in 1877 , Bryan devoted himself to winning the school prize for speaking . He won the prize in his junior year , and also secured the affection of Mary Baird , a student at a nearby women 's academy . She became his wife , and was his principal assistant throughout his career .
While attending law school from 1881 to 1883 , Bryan was a clerk to former Illinois senator Lyman Trumbull , who influenced him in a dislike for wealth and business monopolies . Bryan was strongly affected by the emerging Social Gospel movement that called on Protestant activists to seek to cure social problems such as poverty . Looking for a growing city in which his practice could thrive , he moved to Lincoln , Nebraska in 1887 .
Bryan quickly became prominent in Lincoln as a lawyer and a public speaker , becoming known as the " Boy Orator of the Platte " . In 1890 , he agreed to run for Congress against William J. Connell , a Republican , who had won the local congressional seat in 1888 . At that time , Nebraska was suffering hard times as many farmers had difficulties making ends meet due to low grain prices , and many Americans were discontented with the existing two major political parties . As a result , disillusioned farmers and others formed a new far @-@ left party , which came to be known as the Populist Party . The Populists proposed both greater government control over the economy ( with some calling for government ownership of railroads ) and giving the people power over government through the secret ballot , direct election of United States Senators ( who were , until 1913 , elected by state legislatures ) , and replacement of the Electoral College with direct election of the president and vice president by popular vote . Party members in many states , including Nebraska , demanded inflation of the currency through issuance of paper or silver currency , allowing easier repayment of debt . After a candidate backed by the nascent Populists withdrew , Bryan defeated Connell for the seat by 6 @,@ 700 votes ( nearly doubling Connell 's 1888 margin ) , receiving support from the Populists and Prohibitionists .
In Congress , Bryan was appointed to the powerful Ways and Means Committee and became a major spokesman on the tariff and money questions . He introduced several proposals for the direct election of senators and to eliminate tariff barriers in industries dominated by monopolies or trusts . This advocacy brought him contributions from silver mine owners in his successful re @-@ election bid in 1892 . In the 1892 presidential election , former Democratic president Grover Cleveland defeated the Republican incumbent , Benjamin Harrison , to regain his office . Bryan did not support Cleveland , making it clear he preferred the Populist candidate , James B. Weaver , though he indicated that as a loyal Democrat , he would vote the party ticket .
In May 1894 , Bryan announced he would not seek re @-@ election to the House of Representatives , feeling the incessant need to raise money to campaign in a marginal district was inhibiting his political career . Instead , he sought the Senate seat that the Nebraska legislature would fill in January 1895 . Although Bryan was successful in winning the non @-@ binding popular vote , Republicans gained a majority in the legislature and elected John Thurston as senator .
= = = Economic depression ; rise of free silver = = =
The question of the currency had been a major political issue since the mid @-@ 1870s . Advocates of free silver ( or bimetallism ) wanted the government to accept all silver bullion presented to it and to return it , struck into coin , at the historic value ratio between gold and silver of 16 to 1 . This would restore a practice abolished in 1873 . A free silver policy would inflate the currency , as the silver in a dollar coin was worth just over half the face value / Someone who presented ten dollars in silver bullion would receive back almost twice that in silver coin . Advocates believed these proposals would lead to prosperity , while opponents warned that varying from the gold standard ( which the United States had , effectively , used since 1873 ) would cause problems in international trade .
The 1878 Bland @-@ Allison Act and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 required the government to buy large quantities of silver and strike it into coin . They had been passed as compromises between free silver and the gold standard . Bryan , who had been elected after the passage of the latter enactment , initially had little to say on the subject . Free silver was very popular among Nebraskans , though many powerful Democrats opposed it . After his election to Congress , Bryan studied the currency question carefully , and came to believe in free silver ; he also saw its political potential . By 1893 , Bryan had become a leading supporter of free silver , arguing in a speech in St. Louis that the gold standard was deflationary " making a man pay a debt with a dollar larger than the one he borrowed ... If this robbery is permitted , the farmer will be ruined , and then the cities will suffer . "
Even as Cleveland took office as president in March 1893 , there were signs of an economic decline . Sherman 's act required the government to pay out gold in exchange for silver and paper currency , and through the early months of 1893 gold flowed out of the Treasury . On April 22 , 1893 , the amount of gold in the Treasury dropped below $ 100 million for the first time since 1879 , adding to the unease . Rumors that Europeans were about to redeem a large sum for gold caused desperate selling on the stock market , the start of the Panic of 1893 . By August , many firms had gone bankrupt , and a special session of Congress convened , called by Cleveland to repeal the silver purchase act . Bryan , who was still in Congress , spoke eloquently against the repeal , but Cleveland forced it through . The President 's uncompromising stand for gold alienated many in his own party ( most southern and western Democrats were pro @-@ silver ) . The economy failed to improve , and when the President in 1894 sent federal troops to Illinois to break up the Pullman strike , he outraged even more Democrats . In late 1894 , pro @-@ silver Democrats began to organize in the hope of taking control of the party from Cleveland and other Gold Democrats and nominating a silver candidate in 1896 . In this , they were led by Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld , who had opposed Cleveland over the Pullman strike . The Democrats lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1894 midterm elections , with a number of southern states , usually solid for the Democrats , electing Republican or Populist congressmen .
In 1893 , bimetallism had been just one of many proposals by Populists and others . As the economic downturn continued , free silver advocates blamed its continuation on the repeal of the silver purchase act , and the issue of silver became more prominent . Free silver especially resonated among farmers in the South and West , as well as miners . June 1894 marked the publication of William H. Harvey 's Coin 's Financial School . The book , composed of accounts of ( fictitious ) lectures on the silver issue given by an adolescent named Coin to Chicago audiences , became an immense bestseller . The book included ( as foils to the title character ) many of Chicago 's most prominent men of business ; some , such as banker and future Secretary of the Treasury Lyman Gage , issued denials that they had participated in any such lectures . This popular treatment of the currency issue was highly influential . A Missourian , Ezra Peters , wrote to Illinois Senator John M. Palmer , " Coins [ sic ] Financial School is raising h — in this neck of the woods . If those in favor of honest money don 't do something to offset its influence the country is going to the dogs . " A Minnesota correspondent wrote in Outlook magazine : " high school boys are about equally divided between silver and baseball , with a decided leaning toward the former " .
= = Dark horse candidate = =
= = = Preparation = = =
In March 1895 , the same month he left Congress , Bryan passed his 35th birthday , making him constitutionally eligible for the presidency . By then , he had come to see his nomination for that office as possible , even likely . Bryan believed he could use the coalition @-@ building techniques he had applied in gaining election to Congress , uniting pro @-@ silver forces behind him to gain the Democratic nomination and the presidency . To that end , it was important that the Populists not nominate a rival silver candidate , and he took pains to cultivate good relations with Populist leaders . Through 1895 and early 1896 , Bryan sought to make himself as widely known as an advocate for silver as possible . He had accepted the nominal editorship of the Omaha World @-@ Herald in August 1894 . The position involved no day @-@ to @-@ day duties , but allowed him to publish his political commentaries . In the 17 months between his departure from Congress and the Democratic National Convention in July 1896 , Bryan travelled widely through the South and West , speaking on silver . At every stop , he made contacts that he later cultivated . Several times , in his addresses , Bryan repeated variations on lines he had spoken in Congress in December 1894 , decrying the gold standard , " I will not help to crucify mankind upon a cross of gold . I will not aid them to press down upon the bleeding brow of labor this crown of thorns . "
Historian H. Wayne Morgan described Bryan :
Robert La Follette remembered Bryan as " a tall , slender , handsome fellow who looked like a young divine " . A streak of the moralist preacher raised his political chances among a people attuned to the biblical phrase and Shakespearan [ sic ] stance . He was a fine actor , with a justly famous voice , but was not a charlatan . Bryan believed in the out @-@ dated Jeffersonian virtues he preached in the Hamiltonian world of 1896 ... He was young , had a respectable but not burdensome record , came from the West , and understood the arts of conciliation . Though men thought otherwise at the time , neither fate nor accident created his position in the party .
Through early 1896 , Bryan quietly sought the nomination . Any possible candidacy depended on silver supporters being successful in electing the bulk of convention delegates ; accordingly Bryan backed such efforts . He maintained contact with silver partisans in other parties , hopeful of gathering them in after a nomination . His campaign was low @-@ key , without excessive publicity : Bryan did not want to attract the attention of more prominent candidates . He continued to give speeches , and collected his traveling expenses , and most often a speaking fee , from those who had invited him .
Bryan faced a number of disadvantages in seeking the Democratic nomination : he was little @-@ known among Americans who did not follow politics closely , he had no money to pour into his campaign , he lacked public office , and had incurred the enmity of Cleveland and his administration through his stance on silver and other issues . There was little advantage to the Democratic Party in nominating a candidate from Nebraska , a state small in population that had never voted for a Democrat . As state conventions met to nominate delegates to the July national convention , for the most part , they supported silver , and sent silver men to Chicago . Gold Democrats had success in the Northeast , and little elsewhere . Most state conventions did not bind , or " instruct " , their delegates to vote for a specific candidate for the nomination ; this course was strongly supported by Bryan . Once delegates were selected , Bryan wrote to party officials and obtained a list ; he sent copies of his speeches , clippings from the World @-@ Herald , and his photograph to each delegate .
In June 1896 , Bryan 's old teacher , former senator Trumbull died ; on the day of his funeral , Bryan 's mother also died , suddenly in Salem . Bryan spoke at her funeral , quoting lines from Second Timothy : " I have fought a good fight , I have finished my course , I have kept the faith . " He also attended , as a correspondent for the World @-@ Herald , the Republican convention that month in St. Louis . The Republicans , at the request of their nominee for president , former Ohio governor William McKinley , included a plank in their party platform supporting the gold standard . Bryan was deeply moved when , after the adoption of the platform , Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller led a walkout of silver @-@ supporting Republicans . Bryan 's biographer , Paolo Coletta , suggests that Bryan may have played a part in inciting the silver men 's departure ; he was in close contact with Silver Republicans such as Teller and South Dakota Senator Richard Pettigrew . Historian James Barnes wrote of Bryan 's preparations :
The Nebraskan merely understood the political situation better than most of those who might have been his rivals , and he took advantage in a legitimate and thoroughly honorable manner of the existing conditions . He knew that hard work could turn the discontent of the people into a revolt against the gold wing of the party , and no group of individuals ever labored more diligently to gain their political ends than did the silver men in the [ Democratic Party ] between 1893 and 1896 . Bryan sensed the possibility of becoming the nominee long before 1896 ; his ambition was fully matured several months prior to the convention , and there is evidence that his hopes were becoming tinged with certainty before he left for Chicago .
= = = Convention = = =
In the run up to the Democratic National Convention , set to begin at the Chicago Coliseum on July 7 , 1896 , no candidate was seen as an overwhelming favorite for the presidential nomination . The leading candidates were former Missouri congressman Richard P. Bland and former Iowa governor Horace Boies . " Silver Dick " Bland was seen as the elder statesman of the silver movement ; he had originated the Bland @-@ Allison Act of 1878 , while Boies ' victories for governor in a normally Republican state made him attractive as a candidate who might compete with McKinley in the crucial Midwest . Both had openly declared their candidacies , and were the only Democrats to have organizations seeking to obtain pledged delegates . Neither candidate had much money to spend on his campaign . In addition to the frontrunners , other silver men were spoken of as candidates . These included Vice President Adlai Stevenson of Illinois , Senator Joseph C. Blackburn of Kentucky , Indiana Governor Claude Matthews , and Bryan . Illinois Governor Altgeld , a leader of the silver movement , was ineligible because he was not a natural @-@ born U.S. citizen as required for the presidency in the Constitution . When Senator Teller walked out of the Republican convention in protest over the currency plank , he immediately became another possible candidate for the Democratic nomination for president . However , he was deemed unlikely to succeed , as many Democrats feared that if elected , he might fill some patronage jobs with Republicans . President Cleveland spent the week of the convention fishing , and had no comment about the events there ; political scientist Richard Bensel attributes Cleveland 's political inaction to the President 's loss of influence in his party .
Bryan 's Nebraska delegation left Lincoln by train on July 5 . Carrying some 200 people , the train bore signs on each of its five cars , such as " The W.J. Bryan Club " and " Keep Your Eye on Nebraska . " Bryan 's strategy was simple : maintain a low profile as a candidate until the last possible moment , then give a speech that rallied the silver forces behind him and bring about his nomination . He was utterly confident that he would succeed , believing " the logic of the situation , " as he later put it , dictated his selection . He explained to Champ Clark , the future Speaker of the House , that Bland and others from southern states would fall because of prejudice towards the old Confederacy , that Boies could not be nominated because he was too little @-@ known , and all others would fail due to lack of support — leaving only himself .
Coletta noted the problems faced by Bryan in obtaining the nomination , and how his groundwork helped overcome them :
The maneuver that paid Bryan highest dividends was his fifteen months of missionary work in behalf of silver and cultivation of the Chicago delegates . He knew personally more delegates than did any other candidate ... and he was on the ground to supervise his strategy . When he spoke of himself as the nominee , some reacted as [ journalist ] Willis J. Abbot did and doubted his mental capacity . How could a boy in appearance , one not yet admitted to the convention , without a single state behind him , dare claim the nomination ? The answer was simple , Bryan told Abbot — he had prepared a speech that would stampede the convention .
Bryan stayed at the Clifton House , a modest hotel adjoining the opulent Palmer House . A large banner outside the Clifton House proclaimed the presence of Nebraska 's delegation headquarters , but did not mention Bryan 's campaign , which was run from Nebraska 's rooms . The main candidates headquartered at the Palmer House , their rooms often crowded as they served free alcoholic drinks . The Coliseum was located in a " dry " district of Chicago but the hotels were not .
Just before the convention , the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) made initial determinations of which delegations were to be seated — once convened , delegates would make the final determination after the convention 's Credentials Committee reported . The DNC seated a rival , pro @-@ gold Nebraska delegation , and recommended New York Senator David B. Hill as the convention 's temporary chairman , each by a vote of 27 — 23 . Bryan was present when it was announced that his delegation would not be initially seated ; reports state he acted " somewhat surprised " at the outcome . Since the DNC action meant Bryan would not have a seat at the start of proceedings , he could not be the temporary chairman ( who would deliver the keynote address ) ; the Nebraskan began looking for other opportunities to make a speech at the convention . Historian James A. Barnes deemed the DNC 's vote immaterial ; once the convention met on July 7 , it quickly elected a silver man , Virginia Senator John Daniel , as temporary chairman and appointed a committee to review credentials friendly to the silver cause .
As the committees met , the convention proceeded , though in considerable confusion . Many of the silver men had not attended a national convention before , and were unfamiliar with its procedures . Members of the Committee on Resolutions ( also called the Platform Committee ) intended to elect California Senator Stephen M. White as chairman ; they found that he had already been co @-@ opted as permanent chairman of the convention . Bryan had been widely supported as a candidate for permanent chairman by the silver men , but some western delegates on the Committee on Permanent Organization objected , stating that they wanted the chance to support Bryan for the nomination ( the permanent chairman was customarily ruled out as a candidate ) .
Delegates spent most of the first two days listening to various speeches by silver supporters . The first report from the Credentials Committee , on the afternoon of July 8 , recommended the seating of Bryan 's delegation . This was a matter of intense interest for the silver delegates : Bryan had written to large numbers of delegates urging them to support his men over their gold rivals ; once in Chicago , he and his fellow Nebraskans had spoken with many others about the dispute . The convention , by voice vote , seated the silver Nebraskans , who arrived in the convention hall a few minutes later , accompanied by a band . Soon afterwards , the delegates , bored , shouted for a speech from Bryan , but he was not to be found .
Once seated , Bryan went to the Platform Committee meeting at the Palmer House , displacing the Nebraska gold delegate on the committee . The proposed platform was pro @-@ silver ; Senator Hill had offered an amendment backing the gold standard , which had been defeated by committee vote . As Hill was determined to take the platform fight to the full convention , the committee discussed who should speak in the debate , and allocated 75 minutes to each side . South Carolina Senator Benjamin Tillman , a silver supporter , wanted an hour to address the convention , and to close the debate . When both Hill and Bryan ( who was selected as the other pro @-@ silver speaker ) objected to such a long closing address , Tillman settled for 50 minutes and for opening the debate rather than closing it ; Bryan was given 25 minutes to close . Bryan later asked the Platform Committee chairman , Arkansas Senator James K. Jones why he was given such a crucial role as closing the platform debate ; Senator Jones responded that he had three reasons : Bryan 's long service in the silver cause , the Nebraskan was the only major speaker not to have addressed the convention , and that Jones had a sore throat . That evening , Bryan dined with his wife and with friends . Looking upon the loud Boies and Bland supporters , Bryan commented , " These people don 't know it , but they will be cheering for me just this way tomorrow night . "
= = = Speech = = =
On the morning of July 9 , 1896 , thousands of people waited outside the Coliseum , hoping to hear the platform debate . The galleries were quickly packed , but the delegates , slowed by fatigue from the first two days and the long journey from the downtown hotels , were slower to arrive . It was not until 10 : 45 am , three @-@ quarters of an hour late , that Chairman White called the convention to order . Bryan arrived during the delay ; he was greeted with a musical tribute from one of the convention bands , which then returned to playing a medley of Irish melodies . Once White started the proceedings , he turned over the gavel to Senator Jones , who read the proposed platform to great applause from silver delegates , and hissing from gold men . The minority report attracted the opposite reaction .
Senator Tillman , a fiery speaker who wore a pitchfork on his lapel , began the debate . His speech , set as the only one besides Bryan 's in favor of silver , portrayed silver as a sectional issue pitting the poorer folk of the South and West against gold @-@ supporting New York and the rest of the Northeast . It was badly received even by silver delegates , who wished to think of silver as a patriotic , national issue . Senator Jones felt compelled to spend five minutes ( granted by the gold side ) , stating that the silver issue crossed sectional lines . New York Senator Hill was next : the leading spokesman for gold , both gold and silver delegates quieted to hear him . He was followed by Senator William Vilas of Wisconsin and former Massachusetts Governor William D. Russell . Each made their cases for gold , and likely changed few votes . Only Bryan was left to speak , and no one at the convention had yet effectively championed the silver cause . The New York Times described the setting :
There never was such a propitious moment for such an orator than that which fell to Bryan . The minority [ gold faction ] had just been pleased and the majority had just been depressed and mortified by the appearance , as the champion of free silver , of Tillman ... The minority had indicated its position . The majority felt exposed , crestfallen , and humiliated .
Writer Edgar Lee Masters , who witnessed Bryan 's speech , remembered , " Suddenly I saw a man spring up from his seat among the delegates and with the agility and swiftness of an eager boxer hurry to the speaker 's rostrum . He was slim , tall , pale , raven @-@ haired , beaked of nose . " The Nebraska delegation waved red handkerchiefs as Bryan progressed to the podium ; he wore an alpaca sack suit more typical of Lincoln and the West than of Chicago . There was loud cheering as Bryan stood at the lectern ; it took him a full minute to gain silence . He began :
I would be presumptuous , indeed , to present myself against the distinguished gentlemen to whom you have listened if this were a mere measuring of abilities ; but this is not a contest between persons . The humblest citizen in all the land , when clad in the armor of a righteous cause , is stronger than all the hosts of error . I come to speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of liberty — the cause of humanity .
Bryan , with this declaration , set the theme of his argument , and as it would prove , his campaign : that the welfare of humanity was at stake with the silver issue . According to his biographer Michael Kazin , " Bryan felt he was serving his part in a grander conflict that began with Christ and showed no sign of approaching its end . " From the start , Bryan had his audience : when he finished a sentence , they would rise , shout and cheer , then quiet themselves to ready for the next words ; the Nebraskan later described the convention as like a trained choir . He dismissed arguments that the business men of the East favored the gold standard :
We say to you that you have made the definition of a business man too limited in its application . The man who is employed for wages is as much a business man as his employer ; the attorney in a country town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great metropolis ; the merchant at the cross @-@ roads store is as much a business man as the merchant of New York ; the farmer who goes forth in the morning and toils all day , who begins in spring and toils all summer , and who by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of the country creates wealth , is as much a business man as the man who goes upon the Board of Trade and bets upon the price of grain ; the miners who go down a thousand feet into the earth , or climb two thousand feet upon the cliffs , and bring forth from their hiding places the precious metals to be poured into the channels of trade are as much business men as the few financial magnates who , in a back room , corner the money of the world . We come to speak of this broader class of business men .
Many of the elements of the speech had appeared in prior Bryan addresses . However , the business man argument was new , though he had hinted at it in an interview he gave at the Republican convention . Bryan always regarded that argument as the speech 's most powerful part , despite the fame its conclusion would gain . He responded to an argument by Senator Vilas that from silver forces might arise a Robespierre . Bryan affirmed that the people could be counted on to prevent the rise of a tyrant , and noted , " What we need is an Andrew Jackson to stand , as Jackson stood , against the encroachments of organized wealth . " He continued :
Upon which side will the Democratic Party fight ; upon the side of " the idle holders of idle capital " or upon the side of " the struggling masses " ? That is the question which the party must answer first , and then it must be answered by each individual hereafter . The sympathies of the Democratic Party , as shown by the platform , are on the side of the struggling masses , who have ever been the foundation of the Democratic Party .
Bryan concluded the address , seizing a place in American history :
Having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world , supported by the commercial interests , the laboring interests , and the toilers everywhere , we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them : " You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns ; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold . "
As he spoke his final sentence , he brought his hands to his head , fingers extended in imitation of thorns ; amid dead silence in the Coliseum , he extended his arms , recalling with words and posture the Crucifixion of Jesus , and held that position for several seconds . He then lowered his arms , and began the journey back to his seat in the silence .
Bryan described the stillness as " really painful " ; his anxieties that he might have failed were soon broken by pandemonium . The New York World reported , " The floor of the convention seemed to heave up . Everybody seemed to go mad at once . " In a demonstration of some half an hour , Bryan was carried around the floor , then surrounded with cheering supporters . Men and women threw their hats into the air , not caring where they might come down . Delegates were shouting to begin the vote and nominate Bryan immediately , which he refused to consider , feeling that if his appeal could not last overnight , it would not last until November . Bryan left the convention , returning to his hotel to await the outcome . In the midst of the crazed crowd , Altgeld , a Bland supporter , commented to his friend , lawyer Clarence Darrow , " That is the greatest speech I ever listened to . I don 't know but its effect will be to nominate him . "
= = = Nomination = = =
When order was restored after Bryan 's speech , the convention passed the platform , voting down the minority report and a resolution in support of the Cleveland administration ; it then recessed for a few hours until 8 : 00 pm , when nominating speeches were to be made . According to The Boston Globe , Bryan " had locked himself within the four walls at the Clifton House , down town , and there blushes unseen . The dark horse is in his stall , feasting on the oats of hope and political straws . " Bryan had made no arrangements for formal nominating speeches given the short timeframe , and was surprised when word was brought to him at the Clifton House that he had been nominated by Henry Lewis of Georgia : the candidate had expected the Kansas delegation to name him . As Missouri Senator George Vest nominated Bland , his oratory was drowned out by the gallery , " Bryan , Bryan , W.J. Bryan " .
The balloting for the presidential nomination was held on July 10 , the day after the speech ; a two @-@ thirds majority was needed to nominate . Bryan remained at his hotel , sending word to his fellow Nebraskans , " There must be no pledging , no promising , on any subject with anybody . No delegation must be permitted to violate instructions given by a state convention . Our delegation should not be too prominent in applause . Treat all candidates fairly . " On the first ballot , Bryan had 137 votes , mostly from Nebraska and four southern states , trailing Bland who had 235 ; Boies was fourth with 67 votes and was never a factor in the balloting . Bland maintained his lead on the second and third ballots , but on the fourth , with the convention in a huge uproar , Bryan took the lead . Governor Altgeld had held Illinois , which was subject to the " unit rule " whereby the entirety of a state 's vote was cast as a majority of that state 's delegation directed . After the fourth ballot , the Illinois delegation caucused and Altgeld was one of only two remaining Bland supporters , thus giving Bryan all of the state 's 48 votes and bringing him near the two @-@ thirds mark and the nomination . On the fifth ballot , other states joined the Bryan bandwagon , making him the Democratic candidate for president .
At the Clifton House , Bryan 's rooms were overwhelmed with those wishing to congratulate him , despite the efforts of police to keep the crowds at bay . Bryan quipped , " I seem to have plenty of friends now , but I remember well when they were very few . " He left the choice of a running mate to the convention ; delegates selected Maine shipbuilder Arthur Sewall . Active in Democratic Party politics , Sewall was one of the few eastern party leaders to support silver , was wealthy and could help finance the campaign ; he also balanced the ticket geographically . According to historian Stanley Jones in his account of the 1896 election , " it seemed in retrospect a curious logic that gave a capitalist from Maine a leading role in a campaign intended to have a strong appeal to the masses of the South and West " . Bryan and Sewall gained their nominations without the ballots of the gold men , most of whom refused to vote . Amid talk that the Gold Democrats would form their own party , Senator Hill was asked if he remained a Democrat . " I was a Democrat before the Convention and am a Democrat still — very still . "
= = General election campaign = =
Bryan 's nomination was denounced by many establishment Democrats . President Cleveland , stunned by the convention 's repudiation of him and his policies , decided against open support for a bolt from the party , either by endorsing McKinley or by publicly backing a rival Democratic ticket . Nevertheless , Gold Democrats began plans to hold their own convention , which took place in September . Many Cleveland supporters decried Bryan as no true Democrat , but a fanatic and socialist , his nomination procured through demagoguery . Some of the Democratic political machines , such as New York 's Tammany Hall , decided to ignore the national ticket and concentrate on electing local and congressional candidates . Large numbers of traditionally Democratic newspapers refused to support Bryan , including the New York World , whose circulation of 800 @,@ 000 was the nation 's largest , and major dailies in cities such as Philadelphia , Detroit , and Brooklyn . Southern newspapers stayed with Bryan ; they were unwilling to endorse McKinley , the choice of most African Americans , though few of them could vote in the South . Newspapers that supported other parties in western silver states , such as the Populist Rocky Mountain News of Denver , Colorado , and Utah 's Republican The Salt Lake Tribune , quickly endorsed Bryan .
Following his nomination in June , McKinley 's team had believed that the election would be fought on the issue of the protective tariff . Chicago banker Charles G. Dawes , a McKinley advisor who had known Bryan when both lived in Lincoln , had predicted to McKinley and his friend and campaign manager , Mark Hanna , that if Bryan had the chance to speak to the convention , he would be its choice . McKinley and Hanna gently mocked Dawes , telling him that Bland would be the nominee . In the three weeks between the two conventions , McKinley spoke only on the tariff question , and when journalist Murat Halstead telephoned him from Chicago to inform him that Bryan would be nominated , he responded dismissively and hung up the phone . When Bryan was nominated on a silver platform , the Republicans were briefly gratified , believing that Bryan 's selection would result in an easy victory for McKinley .
Despite the confidence of the Republicans , the nomination of Bryan sparked great excitement through the nation . His program of prosperity through free silver struck an emotional chord with the American people in a way that McKinley 's protective tariff did not . Many Republican leaders had gone on vacation for the summer , believing that the fight , on their terms , would take place in the fall . Bryan 's endorsement , soon after Chicago , by the Populists , his statement that he would undertake a nationwide tour on an unprecedented scale , and word from local activists of the strong silver sentiment in areas Republicans had to win to take the election , jarred McKinley 's party from its complacency .
= = = Populist nominee = = =
The Populist strategy for 1896 was to nominate the candidate most supportive of silver . Populist leaders correctly believed the Republicans unlikely to nominate a silver man . They hoped the Democrats either would not endorse silver in their platform or if they did , that the Democratic candidate would be someone who could be painted as weak on silver . Bryan 's sterling record on the issue left the Populists with a stark choice : They could endorse Bryan , and risk losing their separate identity as a party , or nominate another candidate , thus dividing the pro @-@ silver vote to McKinley 's benefit . According to Stanley Jones , " the Democratic endorsement of silver and Bryan at Chicago precipitated the disintegration " of the Populist Party ; it was never again a force in national politics after 1896 .
Even before their convention in late July , the Populists faced dissent in their ranks . Former Populist governor of Colorado Davis H. Waite wrote to former congressman Ignatius Donnelly that the Democrats had returned to their roots and " nominated a good & true man on the platform . Of course I support him . " Populist Kansas Congressman Jerry Simpson wrote , " I care not for party names . It is the substance we are after , and we have it with William J. Bryan . " Many Populists saw the election of Bryan , whose positions on many issues were not far from theirs , as the quickest path to the reforms they sought ; a majority of delegates to the convention in St. Louis favored him . However , many delegates disliked Sewall because of his wealth and ownership of a large business , and believed that nominating someone else would keep Populist issues alive in the campaign . Although they nominated Bryan for president , they chose Georgia 's Thomas E. Watson as vice @-@ presidential candidate ; some hoped Bryan would dump Sewall from his ticket . Bryan did not ; Senator Jones ( as the new Democratic National Committee chairman , in charge of the campaign ) stated , " Mr. Sewall , will , of course , remain on the ticket , and Mr. Watson can do what he likes . "
Historian R. Hal Williams , in his book about the 1896 campaign , believes that the Populist nomination did Bryan little good ; most Populists would have voted for him anyway and the endorsement allowed his opponents to paint him and his supporters as extremists . The vice presidential squabble , Williams argues , worried voters who feared that instability would follow a Bryan victory , and drove them towards McKinley . Populist leader Henry Demarest Lloyd described silver as the " cow @-@ bird " of the Populist Party , which had pushed aside all other issues . The National Silver Party , mostly former Republicans , met at the same time as the Populists ; both conventions were in St. Louis . They quickly endorsed Bryan and Sewall , urging all silver forces to unite behind that ticket .
= = = New York visit = = =
After the Democratic convention , Bryan had returned triumphantly to Lincoln , making speeches along the way . At home , he took a short rest , and was visited by Senator Jones to discuss plans for the campaign . Bryan was not interested in campaign organization ; what he wanted from the DNC was enough money to conduct a national tour by train . The campaign , as it proved , was badly organized : This was Jones ' first national campaign , and the party structure in many states was either only newly in the control of silver forces , or in gold states wanted no part of the national ticket . With little money , poor organization , and a hostile press , Bryan was his campaign 's most important asset , and he wanted to reach the voters by traveling to them . According to Stanley Jones in his study of the 1896 campaign , " Bryan expected that he alone , carrying to the people the message of free silver , would win the election for his party . "
Bryan set the formal acceptance of his nomination for August 12 at New York 's Madison Square Garden ; he left Lincoln five days earlier by rail , and spoke 38 times along the way , sometimes from the trackside in his nightgown . While speaking in McKinley 's hometown of Canton , Ohio , Bryan yielded to impulse and called upon his rival at his home with Congressman Bland ; the Republican candidate and his wife , somewhat startled , received the two men hospitably in a scene Williams calls , " surely bizarre . " August 12 was an extremely hot day in New York , especially for the crowd jammed into the Garden ; when Missouri Governor William J. Stone , chair of the notification committee , essayed a lengthy speech , he was drowned out by the crowd , which wanted to hear " the Boy Orator of the Platte " . Many were disappointed ; the Democratic candidate read a two @-@ hour speech from a manuscript , wishing to look statesmanlike , and fearing that if he spoke without a script , the press would misrepresent his words . Many seats were vacant before he concluded .
After several days in upstate New York , during which he had a dinner with Senator Hill at which the subject of politics was carefully avoided , Bryan began a circuitous journey back to Lincoln by train . At a speech in Chicago on Labor Day , Bryan varied from the silver issue to urge regulation of corporations . According to Stanley Jones ,
The period of this tour , in the return from New York to Lincoln , was the high point of the Bryan campaign . Bryan was well rested . After invading " the enemy 's country " , he was returning to his own territory . Wherever his train went people , who had travelled from nearby farms and villages , waved and shouted encouragement . Their enthusiasm at the unrehearsed rear platform appearances and in the formal speeches was spontaneous and contagious . The smell of victory seemed to hang in the air . Perhaps a vote taken then would have given Bryan the election .
= = = Whistle @-@ stop tour = = =
Bryan 's plan for victory was to undertake a strenuous train tour , bringing his message to the people . Although Hanna and other advisors urged McKinley to get on the road , the Republican candidate declined to match Bryan 's gambit , deciding that not only was the Democrat a better stump speaker , but that however McKinley travelled , Bryan would upstage him by journeying in a less comfortable way . McKinley 's chosen strategy was a front porch campaign ; he would remain at home , giving carefully scripted speeches to visiting delegations , much to the gratification of Canton 's hot dog vendors and souvenir salesmen , who expanded facilities to meet the demand . Meanwhile , Hanna raised millions from business men to pay for speakers on the currency question and to flood the nation with hundreds of millions of pamphlets . Starved of money , the Democrats had fewer speakers and fewer publications to issue . Bryan 's supporters raised at most $ 500 @,@ 000 for the 1896 campaign ; McKinley 's raised at least $ 3 @.@ 5 million . Among the foremost supporters of Bryan was publisher William Randolph Hearst who both contributed to Bryan 's campaign and slanted his newspapers ' coverage in his favor .
On September 11 , 1896 , Bryan departed on a train trip that continued until November 1 , two days before the election . At first , he rode in public cars , and made his own travel arrangements , looking up train schedules and even carrying his own bags from train station to hotel . By early October , the DNC , at the urging of Populist officials who felt Bryan was being worn out , procured the services of North Carolina journalist Josephus Daniels to make travel arrangements , and also obtained a private railroad car , The Idler — a name Bryan thought somewhat inappropriate due to the strenuous nature of the tour . Mary Bryan had joined her husband in late September ; on The Idler , the Bryans were able to eat and sleep in relative comfort .
During this tour , Bryan spoke almost exclusively on the silver question , and attempted to mold the speeches to reflect local issues and interests . He did not campaign on Sundays , but on most other days spoke between 20 and 30 times . Crowds assembled hours or days ahead of Bryan 's arrival . The train bearing The Idler pulled in after a short journey from the last stop , and after he was greeted by local dignitaries , Bryan would give a brief speech addressing silver and the need for the people to retake the government . The shortness of the speech did not dismay the crowds , who knew his arguments well : they were there to see and hear William Jennings Bryan — one listener told him that he had read every one of his speeches , and had ridden 50 miles ( 80 km ) to hear him , " And , by gum , if I wasn 't a Republican , I 'd vote for you . " After a brief interval for handshakes , the train would pull out again , to another town down the track .
Throughout the nation , voters were intensely interested in the campaign , studying the flood of pamphlets . Speakers for both parties found eager audiences . Arthur F. Mullen , a resident of O 'Neill , Nebraska , described the summer and fall of 1896 :
O 'Neill buzzed with political disputation from dawn till next dawn . A bowery had been built for the Fourth of July picnic and dance . Ordinarily , it was torn down after that event . In 1896 it was kept as a forum , and by day and night men and women met there to talk about the Crime of ' 73 , the fallacies of the gold standard , bimetallism and international consent , the evils of the tariff , the moneybags of Mark Hanna , the front porch campaign of McKinley . They read W. H. Harvey 's Coin 's Financial School to themselves , their friends , and opponents ... They read Bryan when they couldn 't go off to listen to him .
Bryan rarely emphasized other issues than silver ; leader of a disparate coalition linked by the silver question , he feared alienating some of his supporters . He occasionally addressed other subjects : in an October speech in Detroit , he spoke out against the Supreme Court 's decision ruling the federal income tax unconstitutional . He promised to enforce the laws against the trusts , procure stricter ones from Congress , and if the Supreme Court struck them down , to seek a constitutional amendment . In what Williams describes as " a political campaign that became an American legend " , Bryan traveled to 27 of the 45 states , logging 18 @,@ 000 miles ( 29 @,@ 000 km ) , and in his estimated 600 speeches reached some 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 listeners .
= = = Attacks and Gold Democrats ; the final days = = =
Republican newspapers painted Bryan as a tool of Governor Altgeld , who was controversial for having pardoned the surviving men convicted of involvement in the Haymarket bombing . Others dubbed Bryan a " Popocrat " . On September 27 , The New York Times published a letter by an " eminent alienist " who , based on an analysis of the candidate 's speeches , concluded that Bryan was mad . The paper editorialized on the same page that even if the Democratic candidate was not insane , he was at least " of unsound mind " . For the most part , Bryan ignored the attacks , and made light of them in his account of the 1896 campaign . Republican newspapers and spokesmen claimed that Bryan 's campaign was expensively financed by the silver interests . This was not the case : the mining industry was seeing poor times , and had little money to donate to Bryan . In his account , Bryan quoted a letter by Senator Jones : " No matter in how small sums , no matter by what humble contributions , let the friends of liberty and national honor contribute all they can to the good cause . "
In September , the Gold Democrats met in convention in Indianapolis . Loyal to Cleveland , they wanted to nominate him . However , the President ruled this out ; his Cabinet members also refused to run . Not even supporters thought the Gold Democrats would win ; the purpose was to have a candidate who would speak for the gold element in the party , and who would divide the vote and defeat Bryan . Illinois Senator John M. Palmer was eager to be the presidential candidate , and the convention nominated him with Kentucky 's Simon Bolivar Buckner as his running mate . Palmer was a 79 @-@ year @-@ old former Union general , Buckner a 73 @-@ year @-@ old former Confederate of that rank ; the ticket was the oldest in combined age in American history , and Palmer the second @-@ oldest presidential candidate ( behind Peter Cooper of the Greenback Party ; Bryan was the youngest ) . The Gold Democrats received quiet financial support from Hanna and the Republicans . Palmer proved an able campaigner who visited most major cities in the East , and in the final week of his campaign , told listeners , " I will not count it any great fault if next Tuesday you decide to cast your ballots for William McKinley . "
The South and most of the West were deemed certain to vote for Bryan . When early @-@ voting Maine and Vermont went strongly Republican in September , this meant that McKinley would most likely win the Northeast . These results made the Midwest the crucial battlefield that would decide the presidency . Bryan spent most of October there — 160 of his final 250 train stops were in the Midwest . Early Republican polls had shown Bryan ahead in crucial Midwestern states , including McKinley 's Ohio . Much of the blizzard of paper the Republican campaign was able to pay for concentrated on this area / By September , this had its effect as silver sentiment began to fade . Morgan noted , " full organization , [ Republican ] party harmony , a campaign of education with the printed and spoken word would more than counteract " Bryan 's speechmaking . Beginning in September , the Republicans concentrated on the tariff question , and as Election Day , November 3 , approached , they were confident of victory .
William and Mary Bryan returned to Lincoln on November 1 , two days before the election . He was not yet done with campaigning , however ; on November 2 , he undertook a train journey across Nebraska in support of Democratic congressional candidates . He made 27 speeches , including seven in Omaha , the last concluding a few minutes before midnight . His train reached Lincoln after the polls opened ; he journeyed from train station to polling place to his house escorted by a mounted troop of supporters . He slept much of the evening of election day , to be wakened by his wife with telegrams showing the election was most likely lost .
= = = Election = = =
The 1896 presidential election was close by modern measurements , but less so by the standards of the day , which had seen close @-@ run elections over the previous 20 years . McKinley won with 7 @.@ 1 million votes to Bryan 's 6 @.@ 5 million , 51 % to 47 % . The electoral vote was not as close : 271 for McKinley to 176 for Bryan . The nation was regionally split , with the industrial East and Midwest for McKinley , and with Bryan carrying the Solid South and the silver strongholds of the Rocky Mountain states . McKinley did well in the border states of Maryland , West Virginia , and Kentucky . Although Bryan claimed that many employers had intimidated their workers into voting Republican , Williams points out that the Democrats benefited from the disenfranchisement of southern African Americans . Palmer received less than 1 % of the vote , but his vote total in Kentucky was greater than McKinley 's margin of victory there . Confusion over ballots in Minnesota resulted in 15 @,@ 000 voided votes and may have thrown that state to the Republicans .
In most areas , Bryan did better among rural voters than urban . Even in the South , Bryan attracted 59 % of the rural vote , but only 44 % of the urban vote , taking 57 % of the southern vote overall . The only areas of the nation where Bryan took a greater percentage of the urban than the rural vote were New England and the Rocky Mountain states ; in neither case did this affect the outcome , as Bryan took only 27 % of New England 's vote overall , while taking 88 % of the Rocky Mountain city vote to 81 % of the vote there outside the cities . McKinley even won the urban vote in Nebraska . Most cities that were financial or manufacturing centers voted for McKinley . Those that served principally as agricultural centers or had been founded along the railroad favored Bryan . The Democratic Party preserved control in the eastern cities through machine politics and the continued loyalty of the Irish @-@ American voter ; Bryan 's loss over the silver issue of many German @-@ American voters , previously solidly Democratic , helped ensure his defeat in the Midwest . According to Stanley Jones , " the only conclusion to be reached was that the Bryan campaign , with its emphasis on the free coinage of silver at 16 to 1 , had not appealed to the urban working classes . "
On November 5 , Bryan sent a telegram of congratulations to McKinley , becoming the first losing presidential candidate to do so , " Senator Jones has just informed me that the returns indicate your election , and I hasten to extend my congratulations . We have submitted the issues to the American people and their will is law . " By the end of 1896 , Bryan had published his account of the campaign , The First Battle . In the book , Bryan made it clear that the first battle would not be the last , " If we are right , we shall yet triumph . "
= = Appraisal and legacy = =
Michael Kazin , Bryan 's biographer , notes the many handicaps he faced in his 1896 campaign : " A severe economic downturn that occurred with Democrats in power , a party deserted by its men of wealth and national prominence , the vehement opposition of most prominent publishers and academics and ministers , and hostility from the nation 's largest employers " . According to Kazin , " what is remarkable is not that Bryan lost but that he came as close as he did to winning . " Williams believes that Bryan did better than any other Democrat would have , and comments , " The nominee of a divided and discredited party , he had come remarkably close to winning . " Bryan 's own explanation was brief : " I have borne the sins of Grover Cleveland . "
The consequences of defeat , however , were severe for the Democratic Party . The 1896 presidential race is generally considered a realigning election , when there is a major shift in voting patterns , upsetting the political balance . McKinley was supported by middle @-@ class and wealthy voters , urban laborers , and prosperous farmers ; this coalition would keep the Republicans mostly in power until the 1930s . The election of 1896 marked a transition as the concerns of the rural population became secondary to those of the urban ; according to Stanley Jones , " the Democratic Party reacted with less sensitivity than the Republicans to the hopes and fears of the new voters which the new age was producing " . This was evidenced in the tariff question : Bryan spent little time addressing it , stating that it was subsumed in the financial issue ; Republican arguments that the protective tariff would benefit manufacturers appealed to urban workers and went unrebutted by the Democrats .
One legacy of the campaign was the career of William Jennings Bryan . He ran for president a second time in 1900 and a third time in 1908 , each time losing . Through the almost three decades before his death in 1925 , he was ever present on political platform and speaking circuit , fighting first for silver , and then for other causes . Bryan served as Secretary of State under President Woodrow Wilson from 1913 to 1915 , resigning as Wilson moved the nation closer to intervention in World War I. His final years were marked with controversy , such as his involvement in the Scopes Monkey Trial in the final weeks of his life , but according to Kazin , " Bryan 's sincerity , warmth , and passion for a better world won the hearts of people who cared for no other public figure in his day " .
Despite his defeat , Bryan 's campaign inspired many of his contemporaries . Writers such as Edgar Lee Masters , Hamlin Garland and his fellow Nebraskan , Willa Cather , like Bryan came from the prairies ; they wrote of their admiration for him and his first battle . The poet Vachel Lindsay , 16 years old in 1896 , passionately followed Bryan 's first campaign , and wrote of him many years later :
= = Results = =
Source ( Popular Vote ) : Leip , David . " 1896 Presidential Election Results " . Dave Leip 's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections . Retrieved May 19 , 2012 . Source ( Electoral Vote ) : " Electoral College Box Scores 1789 – 1996 " . National Archives and Records Administration . Retrieved May 19 , 2012 .
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= Cyclone Percy =
Cyclone Percy was the seventh named storm of the 2004 – 05 South Pacific cyclone season and the fourth and final severe tropical cyclone to form during the 2004 – 05 South Pacific cyclone season .
Percy was also the most damaging of the February cyclones as it battered the Cook Islands , which were still recovering from the impacts of Cyclones Meena , Nancy and Olaf . Percy then devastated the island of Tokelau , leaving many homeless and millions in dollars in property damages ( although exact damage figures are unavailable ) . Because of warnings in anticipation of the storm , there were no deaths and there were only a few injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
On February 23 , the Fiji Meteorological Service 's Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 10F , had developed within the monsoon trough about 700 kilometres ( 435 mi ) to the west of the Tuvaluan atoll : Funafuti .
10F was first identified as a tropical disturbance embedded in an active monsoon trough at 23 / 0000 UTC , approximately 380 miles to the west of Funafuti and moving eastwards about 05 to 10 knots . The system was then located just south of a 250 @-@ hPa ridge axis , in a diffluent region . Shear and diurnal variations were evidently influencing development . SST was around 31 ° C. Later on the 24th , shear had decreased markedly . Outflow was favourable and developing in all quadrants . Overnight , the depression underwent explosive development with the deep convection increasing spatially and in organization whilst cooling . Spiral bands were also wrapping tightly around the llcc . By 24 / 1800 UTC , TD10F was named Tropical Cyclone Percy , while located roughly 100 miles to the east of Funafuti and moving east @-@ southeast at 14 knots under a deep west @-@ northwest steering flow .
A discernible area of low pressure formed east of Tonga on February 23 . The area of low pressure moved eastward , where it strengthened into Tropical Depression 10F a day later . Since the depression was located in an area of low wind shear and warm water temperatures , it was able to quickly strengthen into Tropical Storm Percy . At this point in time , Percy was located 120 miles ( 190 km ) east of Fongafale , Tuvalu , and was moving towards the east @-@ southeast at 14 kt ( 16 mph , 26 km / h ) . On February 26 , Percy reached Category 1 status , while located 400 miles ( 644 km ) north of American Samoa . While Percy moved east @-@ southeast , a shortwave trough developed southwest of the storm . The trough caused the cyclone to intensify even further to a Category 3 storm as it passed between Fakaofa and Swains Island . Percy then reached Category 4 status north of Pago Pago as it winds reached over 135 mph ( 115 knots , 213 km / h ) and the barometric pressure at its center fell to 925 millibars . On February 27 , Cyclone Percy encountered a high pressure ridge which slowed its forward speed . Because of this , the cyclone 's structure became elliptical , which caused the cyclone to weaken back to Category 3 status . By February 28 , Percy bypassed the Pukapuka and Nassau Islands as a Category 3 cyclone as it continued to move east @-@ southeast .
By then , the cyclone was re @-@ organizing as the storm steered to the southeast . On March 2 , Percy reached its second peak intensity . Its winds reached 160 mph ( 140 knots , 265 km / h ) on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and an estimated barometric pressure of 900 millibars . Cyclone Percy maintained Category 5 status for 18 hours , while located 110 mi ( 177 km ) west of Palmerston Island . After reaching Category 5 status , Percy began to weaken , due to increasing wind shear . During its weakening phase , Cyclone Percy passed south of Tropical Depression 20S . Pulled by an upper level trough , Percy swung to the east , passing Tropical Depression 24S in the process , before being caught up by another trough . By March 4 , the center of Percy became detached from the main area of convection and Percy quickly weakened to a tropical storm . Tropical Storm Percy then quickly accelerated to 20 kt ( 23 mph , 37 km / h ) as it became an extratropical storm . Percy briefly entered the New Zealand area of responsibility before becoming extratropical at 1200 UTC . By March 5 , the remnants of Percy finally dissipated 700 mi ( 1127 km ) southwest of Rarotonga .
= = Preparations = =
When Percy quickly reached cyclone strength , forecasters began to issue watches and warnings for the American Samoa and Tokelau areas , which were impacted by earlier storms Nancy and Olaf . As Percy continued to move eastward , forecasters predicted the storm to strengthen into a Category 2 or Category 3 storm within 12 – 24 hours. meanwhile , forecasters issued gale warnings for Tokelau . On 26 February , forecasters predicted Percy would stay on its current track and miss the island of Atafu by 50 – 70 miles ( 80 – 113 km ) , even though the storm could bring damaging gale force winds and heavy rains to the island . However , forecasters predicted Percy would make landfall on Tokelau . In American Samoa , hurricane warnings were issued for Swains Island , while the rest of American Samoa remained under a hurricane watch . Later , the gale warnings for Tokelau were changed to hurricane warnings as Percy moved to within 75 miles ( 121 km ) north of Atafu . In Nukunou and Fakaofo , forecasters predicted that the cyclone would bring 60 @-@ 70 mph ( 95 – 111 km / h ) winds , heavy rains and possible flooding in low lying areas .
Forecasters predicted that Cyclone Percy was going to turn to the southeast and hit the islands of Pukapuka and Nassau directly . Because of this , evacuations were ordered and emergency shelters were activated in Rarotonga . Forecasters also predicted that Percy was going to cause a strong storm surge . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center and NOAA also predicted that the storm was going to strengthen further within 12 – 24 hours . In addition , forecast models predicted that Cyclone Percy would take a similar track like Cyclone Olaf weeks earlier . That prompted officials in the southern Cook Islands to order evacuations .
= = Impact = =
Like the earlier cyclones Meena , Nancy , and Olaf , Percy left widespread damage across Swains Island , Tokelau , and the northern Cook Islands . However , because of well @-@ executed warnings , there were no deaths and there were only a few injuries . Percy was the worst cyclone to strike Tokelau since a similar cyclone hit the area in 1966 .
= = = American Samoa and Tokelau = = =
The strong winds from Percy knocked out power and communications infrastructure in Swains Island . Efforts to re @-@ establish contact with the island were unsuccessful for a week . After the storm , however , all eight people who rode out the storm survived , though nine of the eleven buildings on the islands were destroyed or severely damaged . Damage in American Samoa was minimal . In Tokelau , Percy damaged trees and knocked down powerlines . During the height of the storm , one person was injured by flying debris , and two others were swept out to sea , but all three survived . In Nokonunu , the cyclone destroyed the only school and damaged 80 % of the structures . The local hospital completely lost power during the storm and its emergency generator was overwhelmed by the flooding .
In Fakaofo , the storm surge from Percy damaged a sea wall and caused major beach erosion . One house was destroyed while others were severely damaged . Percy also damaged much of the coconut harvest and 50 % of the livestock were killed by the cyclone . Atafu also suffered similar damage as the storm damaged a UHF tower and several storage sheds . Damage to crops was also significant as the storm damaged much of the banana and pandanus harvests . The schools in Atafu suffered only minimal damage ( mostly wind damage ) .
= = = Cook Islands = = =
The northern Cook Islands were hardest hit by Percy as the storm left 640 people homeless , of which 600 were in Pukapuka , and 40 were in Nassau . Of the buildings and houses destroyed or severely damaged , only ten were left standing . One person was rescued when his fishing boat stalled during the storm . Percy also damaged a solar power station , making it inoperable . Percy also battered the southern Cook Islands while weakening , although the damage there was minimal .
= = Aftermath = =
Relief efforts followed after Cyclone Percy . In Swains Island , a rescue plane dropped food and supplies . In Tokelau and northern Cook Islands , the governments of Australia and New Zealand offered over $ 200 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) in relief aid .
In Tokelau , many of the local officials feared about contamination since the cyclone had scattered human waste , trash , and other debris in the ocean and across the island . There was also an increase of mosquitoes and other insects , increasing the threat of a dengue fever outbreak . In addition , the storm damaged many of the hospitals , making treatment of the injured or displaced difficult . Criticism of government preparedness followed after Percy as emergency plans were not easily understood by the local population . In Nukunonu , the school , which was destroyed by Percy , was poorly built and vulnerable , and there was no early warning system . Also , many of the population had little time to prepare for the storm because of a social event held hours earlier .
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= OS T2000 =
T2000 was an electric train formerly used on the Oslo Metro of Oslo , Norway . Six double @-@ car multiple units were built by Strømmens Verksted and AEG in 1994 . Each was 18 metres ( 59 ft ) long , and could carry 185 passengers , of which 60 could be seated in two compartments per car . Maximum speed was 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . Bought by Oslo Sporveier , they were owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon , and operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift .
The T2000 operated on Line 1 of the T @-@ bane , and replaced the aging HkB 600 teak wagons used on the Holmenkoll Line . The units were equipped with both third rail and overhead wire collectors , so they could operate on the Common Line and on the Holmenkoll Line . The trains were a prototype for a new design intended to replace the aging T1000 stock , but the MX3000 was chosen instead , as the T2000 did not perform satisfactorily . The T2000 were taken out of service in 2009 .
= = Background = =
When Holmenkolbanen , the operator of the Holmenkoll Line , was merged into Oslo Sporveier in 1975 , plans were put in place to replace the old teak cars with faster units that could operate from Nationaltheatret to Frognerseteren in 25 minutes — allowing a turn @-@ around time of one hour . At the time there had been two separate pools of trains for the eastern and western networks . On the eastern metro , the T1000 units were in use , while the western network was using older material . During the 1980s , some T1000 stock had been rebuilt with pantograph , and taken into use on the western network .
Oslo Sporveier was highly satisfied with the SL79 articulated trams that had been delivered during the 1980s . In 1985 , work started on the development of a modified version for the western suburban lines . The stock on the Holmenkoll and Kolsås Line was the first that needed to be replaced . The new stock was considered to be a limited trial . If it met performance expectations , future orders could be made to replace the T1000 stock when the latter reached the end of its economical life in around 2000 . The required specification for the new train was published in October 1988 .
On 22 October 1987 , a fatal accident occurred when one of the old HkB 600 units suffered a catastrophic failure of its braking system , and rolled down the Holmenkoll Line , finally tipping over at Midtstuen . One person was killed and four were seriously injured , leading to a safety inspection of the old teak cars used on the line ; the HkB 600 units were withdrawn from service , but were reintroduced after some refits .
The initial proposal had called for 22 units , to replace all of the Kolsås and Holmenkoll Line stock . However , the Sognsvann and Røa Line was upgraded to metro standard between 1992 and 1995 , and could start using T1000 stock with only third @-@ rail support . At the time , the eastern network used third @-@ rail , while the western network used overhead wire . The upgrade used non @-@ utilised stock , so the order for T2000 was reduced to 12 units .
= = Construction = =
The order was placed with ABB Strømmen and AEG in August 1991 . The high development cost was subsidised by the Norwegian government , who saw the project as potentially establishing a new industrial export product . Electrical components were built by AEG in Berlin , while the bogies were built by MAN in Nuremberg . The bodywork was built at Strømmen , with profiles from Alusuisse , and the trains were assembled in Strømmen .
The six two @-@ car sets were delivered between 2 November and 22 December 1994 . The first official public presentation was made on 8 December , but the units did not enter regular service until April 1995 . The cars were numbered 2001 – 2012 . In 1995 , a unit was test @-@ run in Paris during an International Association of Public Transport convention .
= = Specifications = =
Each car 's aluminum body was 18 @,@ 000 mm ( 710 in ) long , 3 @,@ 650 mm ( 144 in ) high and 3 @,@ 300 mm ( 130 in ) wide . The latter was 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wider than the HkB 600 , since the new trains would no longer have ski boxes on the outside . The empty weight of a car was 31 t ( 31 long tons ; 34 short tons ) . Capacity was for 60 seated and 125 standing passengers . There was a driver 's cabin at one end of each car . Passengers sat in two compartments ; the forward had conventional 2 + 2 seating , while the back section had 1 + 2 + 1 seating with two aisles . Wagon 2012 was delivered with 2 + 3 seating in the forward section . Each car had three doors on each side .
Both cars had two bogies , with power on all axles , giving a Bo 'Bo ' wheel arrangement . Four traction motors , each of 143 kW ( 192 hp ) , powered the car , giving a top speed of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) and an acceleration of 1 @.@ 3 m / s2 ( 4 @.@ 3 ft / s2 ) . The trains were equipped with both pantograph and contact shoe , the current for both of which is supplied at 750 volt direct current . The trains could not be connected for multiple running with the T1000 trains .
= = Legacy = =
The T2000 class was prone to technical problems , and was not as reliable as the older T1000 stock . It soon became evident that no more would be ordered . The Norwegian State Railways had been considering a modified version for use on the Flåm and Voss Lines , but those plans were also soon abandoned . Another possibility considered was to build modified T2000 cars for use on the Oslo Metro Ring Line ; at the time it was planned that the Ring Line would share track with the mainline Gjøvik Line at Grefsen , so the Oslo Metro rolling stock using this section would need to be able to support 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC . However , a parallel section of dedicated metro track was built instead , at Grefsen .
Oslo Sporveier opted for the all @-@ new MX3000 from Siemens as a replacement for the T1000 stock instead of the T2000 . Although its design was found to be unsuitable , the T2000 was initially not planned to be replaced by the MX3000 , as the line was to remain with overhead wires and none of the new MX3000 trains are equipped with pantographs . However , following Oslo 's decision to host the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2011 , it was decided to upgrade the Holmenkollen Line to full metro standard , allowing longer than two @-@ car trains . A proposal to downgrade the line to light rail standard and make it part of the Oslo Tramway was rejected .
In 2009 , all twelve T2000 units were taken out of service , before the last of the much older T1300 . Kollektivtransportproduksjon , the successor of Oslo Sporveier , stated that procuring spare parts was becoming nearly impossible and that the small size of the series forced high maintenance costs . The initial orders for MX3000 trains did not call for sufficient numbers to replace the T2000 . Kollektivtransportproduksjon has estimated the cost of renovating the units so they can run for 15 more years at NOK 50 million . Alternatively , the city council has been recommended by Kollektivtransportproduksjon to purchase 15 new MX3000 three @-@ car trains for NOK 250 million .
In 2010 , Ruter decided to scrap all of the T2000 wagons , after only 16 years in operation , and ten of the wagons were sold for NOK 100 @,@ 000 a piece to the recycling company Hellik Teigen at Hokksund . The two remaining wagons will be preserved and displayed at the Oslo Tramway Museum . Ruter stated that it would cost about NOK 50 million to keep them in operation . Nevertheless , Ruter was in 2011 forced by the owner Oslo Vognselskap to keep renting the wagons for 22 million NOK each year , even though they were not in operation . Oslo Vognselskap stated the reason behind this was the contract which lasted for 30 years .
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= Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve =
Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve is an annual television special that airs every New Year 's Eve on ABC . The special broadcasts from New York City 's Times Square , and prominently features coverage of its annual ball drop event , along with live and pre @-@ recorded musical performances by popular musicians from Times Square and Hollywood , respectively .
Its creator and namesake was the entertainer Dick Clark , who conceived New Year 's Rockin ' Eve as a younger @-@ skewing competitor to Guy Lombardo 's popular and long @-@ running New Year 's Eve big band broadcasts on CBS . The first two editions , which were hosted by Three Dog Night and George Carlin , respectively , and featured Dick Clark assuming the role of Times Square reporter , were broadcast by NBC for 1973 and 1974 , respectively . In 1974 @-@ 75 , the program moved to its current home of ABC , and Clark assumed the role of host .
Following the death of Guy Lombardo and the decline of the Royal Canadians ' special , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve grew in popularity , and became ingrained in pop culture — even prompting Clark himself to make appearances on other programs in parody of his role . To this day , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve has consistently remained the highest @-@ rated New Year 's Eve special broadcast by the United States ' major television networks ; its 2012 edition peaked at 22 @.@ 6 million home viewers — not including viewers watching from public locations which are not measured by Nielsen .
Dick Clark hosted New Year 's Rockin ' Eve annually from 1973 through 2004 , and served as a Times Square correspondent alongside Peter Jennings for ABC News 's special coverage of year 2000 celebrations . The complications of a stroke suffered by Clark in December 2004 had a major effect on his role in the special . After having Regis Philbin serve as a guest host for 2005 , Clark returned for the 2006 edition to serve as a host : due to speech impediments that had resulted from his stroke , he ceded hosting duties to Ryan Seacrest . The death of Dick Clark on April 18 , 2012 left Ryan Seacrest as the sole host of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve beginning with its 2012 – 13 edition . Seacrest has most recently been joined by Jenny McCarthy as a correspondent from Times Square , with Fergie of The Black Eyed Peas serving as the presenter of the Hollywood concert segments .
= = Format = =
New Year 's Rockin ' Eve is primarily broadcast from Times Square in New York City , providing coverage of the New Year 's Eve festivities held there , culminating with the long @-@ running ball drop leading to midnight and the New Year . The special also features pre @-@ recorded segments featuring performances by popular musicians ; since the 2006 – 07 edition , these concert segments ( branded since the 2014 @-@ 15 edition as the " Billboard Hollywood Party " ) have been presented from a studio in Los Angeles by Fergie of The Black Eyed Peas . Since the 2005 – 06 edition , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve has also featured live performances from a stage in Times Square .
Since 2000 – 01 's edition , coverage has begun with a segment airing in primetime : initially airing at 10 : 00 p.m. ET / PT , beginning with the 2012 @-@ 13 edition , the show was extended to 8 : 00 p.m. ET / PT to accommodate musical retrospective specials that aired from the 2011 @-@ 12 to 2013 @-@ 14 editions . These specials primarily featured countdowns of archived music performances from the Dick Clark Productions library , including the top New Year 's Rockin ' Eve performances , and the " 30 Greatest Women in Music " . On the 2014 @-@ 15 edition , the retrospective specials were dropped , leaving the Primetime portion occupying the entire ABC primetime lineup .
Following late local programming , the main New Year 's Rockin ' Eve broadcast begins at 11 : 30 p.m. ET / PT ; this segment of the broadcast can be tape delayed ( either by ABC 's west coast feed , or at the discretion of affiliates in the Central and Mountain Time zones ) so the countdown corresponds to local time . After the conclusion of festivities from Times Square , the special continues into Part 2 , which consists of further pre @-@ recorded concert segments . Part 2 runs into the early morning hours — as late as 3 : 00 a.m. ET / PT .
Since 2005 , Ryan Seacrest has hosted the live show outside in Times Square ( along with a celebrity correspondent providing additional reports from attendees ) . From his return and until his death , Dick Clark hosted a limited number of segments from Times Square Studios approaching midnight , but still participated in the countdown and his tradition of kissing his wife , Kari Wigton , at midnight .
= = History = =
= = = Before Rockin ' Eve = = =
Prior to the premiere of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , the most well @-@ known New Year 's Eve program was the annual big band remote of bandleader Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians , broadcast from the ballroom of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . Guy Lombardo hosted 48 straight New Year 's Eve broadcasts on CBS until his death in 1977 , beginning on radio in 1928 ( and for a period , splitting with NBC Radio following midnight ET ) , and on CBS Television from 1956 to 1976 ( which also featured coverage of the ball drop in Times Square ) . Lombardo was also well known for his band 's performance of the song " Auld Lang Syne " at midnight , which helped make the standard synonymous with the New Year 's holiday in North America .
= = = Conception , premiere = = =
At the time , Dick Clark was well @-@ known to viewers as the host of American Bandstand , a music series produced from the studios of Philadelphia television station WFIL @-@ TV ( now WPVI @-@ TV ) and broadcast by ABC ( which itself aired a New Year 's Eve special on December 31 , 1959 ) .
In the 1970s , Clark felt that Guy Lombardo 's New Year 's specials were outdated and did not appeal well to younger viewers ; he believed that only older viewers would be interested in big band music accompanied by " people dancing cheek @-@ to @-@ jowl in their tuxedos and funny hats . " In response , he decided to produce a more youthful New Year 's Eve special of his own to compete . Clark 's new program would be known as New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , a name chosen to signify the major contrast between his special and the more formal atmosphere of Guy Lombardo 's special . The first edition , Three Dog Night 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 1973 , was aired by NBC on December 31 , 1972 and was hosted by the members of the rock band Three Dog Night . The special featured pre @-@ recorded musical performances from the ballroom of the Queen Mary in Long Beach , California by Blood , Sweat & Tears , Helen Reddy , Al Green , and Three Dog Night . Clark served as a reporter from Times Square for live coverage of the ball drop and arrival of 1973 . The second special , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 1974 , also on NBC , was hosted by comedian George Carlin and featured pre @-@ recorded musical performances by The Pointer Sisters , Billy Preston , Linda Ronstadt and Tower of Power once again from the Queen Mary ballroom . Beginning with the 1975 edition , the program moved to ABC and Clark assumed hosting duties .
= = = Rise in popularity = = =
After Guy Lombardo 's death in 1977 , CBS and the Royal Canadians attempted to continue their New Year 's Eve broadcasts from the Waldorf @-@ Astoria for 1977 – 78 . However , the effects of Lombardo 's absence led to a decline in viewership , allowing New Year 's Rockin ' Eve to overtake the Royal Canadians in viewership in only its fifth year on @-@ air . The threat of the new special also prompted CBS to drop the Royal Canadians entirely in 1979 in favor of a new special , Happy New Year , America , which premiered for New Year 's Eve 1979 – 80 . With its recent success , Clark began hoping that New Year 's Rockin ' Eve would become a television tradition of its own , lamenting that " Lombardo would always win [ in New York ] because of the Waldorf and 35 years of tradition , but we finally got it wrested . " Clark 's hopes soon became reality , as New Year 's Rockin ' Eve had displaced Guy Lombardo as the most popular and most @-@ watched New Year 's Eve special on American television in the years following .
The 1980 edition was co @-@ hosted by Erin Moran and John Schneider of Happy Days and The Dukes of Hazzard respectively , and continued with Clark 's goal to showcase acts that represented the previous year by featuring Barry Manilow , Blondie , Chic , The Oak Ridge Boys , and the Village People as performers . The 1988 edition was co @-@ hosted by China Beach cast members Marg Helgenberger and Brian Wimmer from the Cocoanut Grove club at the Ambassador Hotel . Mark Curry and Holly Robinson of the ABC sitcom Hangin ' with Mr. Cooper co @-@ hosted for 1993 – 94 , with segments at Walt Disney World featuring performances by acts such as Brooks and Dunn and Kiss , along with the marriage of two California firefighters , Laura Turpin and Bob Hutnyan .
The 1994 – 95 edition was co @-@ hosted with Margaret Cho and Steve Harvey , and included musical performances from Melissa Etheridge , Hootie & the Blowfish and Salt @-@ N @-@ Pepa .
The 1996 – 97 edition was co @-@ hosted by Stacey Dash and Donald Faison of the ABC comedy series Clueless , and included performances by Jann Arden , Kiss , " Weird Al " Yankovic , The Presidents of the United States of America , and The Tony Rich Project . This edition also marked the 25th anniversary of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve ; Clark marked this accomplishment by discussing the greatest challenges he had faced hosting the special ; including being unable to hear his director over the loud crowds of Times Square , harsh weather conditions , and a year where the emcee had to contend with a group of 30 nude attendees in the background . Clark aimed to continue hosting the special through the year 2000 . Ultimately , Clark hosted the program nearly uninterrupted through 2004 .
The popularity of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve also resulted in Clark making appearances on other television series to reference his role . In a Y2K @-@ themed segment of The Simpsons ' Halloween special " Treehouse of Horror X " entitled " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " , Clark made a cameo appearance hosting a New Year 's Eve event in Springfield . The Y2K bug caused the emcee to melt , exposing him as a robot . In an interview following the episode 's airing with its writer , Ron Hauge , Clark said that the episode gave the " biggest response " he had ever gotten from anything he had ever done . Clark made a further appearance during the pilot episode of fellow Matt Groening series Futurama , " Space Pilot 3000 " , where Clark 's head ( as preserved in a jar ) is seen hosting a version of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve leading into the year 3000 . In the 1994 film Forrest Gump , footage of Clark from the first edition of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve is seen on a television at a bar during a scene of the film taking place on New Year 's Eve in 1972 . New Year 's Rockin ' Eve was also the subject of an episode of the sitcom Friends , " The One with the Routine " , where characters Ross and Monica Geller attend a studio taping as audience members , and try to get on @-@ camera by performing a dance number to draw attention to themselves .
= = = ABC 2000 Today , 2001 primetime expansion = = =
New Year 's Rockin ' Eve was temporarily placed on hiatus for New Year 's Eve 1999 – 2000 . Instead , Clark participated in ABC News 's day @-@ long telecast , ABC 2000 Today , which as part of an international broadcast consortium , televised festivities from around the world celebrating the arrival of the year 2000 . Clark joined host Peter Jennings and ABC News reporter Jack Ford as correspondents for the festivities from Times Square . Clark took on a similar role on ABC 2000 Today as he did on New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , including conducting his traditional countdown alongside Ford at midnight on the East Coast . However , unlike New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , festivities from Times Square were also broadcast live across the entire country instead of tape @-@ delayed for the West Coast , since the special broadcast midnight festivities in other cities and time zones for the remainder of the night , as they had done throughout the day .
Clark , Ford , and Jennings were among a total of more than 1 @,@ 000 members of the ABC News division that were part of the broadcast . They were all under the direction of ABC 's Roger Goodman . The ABC 2000 Today telecast overall also received a Peabody Award . Reflecting on the event , Clark was enthusiastic about his participation , feeling that New Year 's Eve 2000 was one of the biggest nights he had ever spent in Times Square .
New Year 's Rockin ' Eve returned to ABC the following New Year 's Eve for the arrival of 2001 . The 2000 – 01 edition also introduced a new primetime hour at 10 : 00 p.m. ET / PT , which featured additional segments and music performances to lead into the main program . Clark felt positive about the program 's expansion into primetime – believing that viewers , no matter where they were , wanted to know what was going on in Times Square on New Year 's Eve . Clark was joined by Fox & Friends anchor Steve Doocy , and Michelle Madison as reporters in Times Square . Comedian Wayne Brady hosted concert segments in Hollywood , which included performances by Lonestar , Boyz II Men , 98 Degrees , Baha Men , and Third Eye Blind among others .
The 2002 edition of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , its 30th edition , featured pre @-@ recorded concert performances from tours by Aerosmith , Destiny 's Child , and Elton John during the primetime hour , followed by studio segments ( again hosted by Wayne Brady ) featuring performances by Blink @-@ 182 , Bush , Busta Rhymes , Jessica Simpson , LFO , The O 'Jays , and Pink . The primetime hour of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2002 was also preceded by ABC 2002 , a follow @-@ up to the ABC 2000 special , hosted by Peter Jennings from the Rose Center for Earth and Space . The two @-@ hour special featured a " meaningful and reflective " view on New Year 's celebrations from around the world , and also included performances by Arlo Guthrie , Sting , and U2 . Clark personally felt that 2002 , since it was the first in the wake of the September 11 attacks , was the most " nerve @-@ racking " New Year 's Eve he had ever experienced .
= = = Dick Clark 's stroke , effects on Rockin ' Eve = = =
On December 6 , 2004 , it was reported that Clark had been hospitalized after suffering from a minor stroke . Despite Clark indicating his participation in New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2005 in a prepared statement , reports soon surfaced that the stroke may had been serious enough to prevent him from hosting at all . It was officially announced on December 14 that Dick Clark would not be hosting , and that Regis Philbin would fill in for Clark . In a statement , Clark said that he was thankful that Philbin was able to quickly step in on short notice to host the show , and hoped that he would do a good job . Philbin was optimistic about his role , considering it the " best temp job ever . "
Various personalities paid tribute to Clark throughout the night on New Year 's Eve ; the New Year 's Rockin ' Eve broadcast featured special celebrity messages for Clark , and revelers in Times Square were seen with signs saluting Clark . During CNN 's coverage , revelers in Times Square told CNN 's Jason Carroll that Philbin was " all right " filling in for Clark ( but still had Anderson Cooper and Carroll too ) . Mayor Michael Bloomberg also spoke with Philbin on Clark 's absence during the show , noting that " it isn 't that we don 't like Regis , but we want [ Clark ] back next year . " Philbin 's hosting received mixed reviews : Richard Huff of the New York Daily News noted that Philbin 's hosting was " stiff " at first , and suggested that he would have performed better if he had a co @-@ host to interact with like his daytime talk show . In conclusion , he considered Philbin 's performance to be " suitable – although not spectacular . " Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times believed that Philbin was feeling " surprisingly nervous " in his role at host , and felt that " rowdy crowds " ( which Philbin chose to avoid by staying in the studio ) and the success of Rod Stewart 's career ( which Philbin pounced on to promote his new album , " When You 're Smiling " ) were bothering him .
= = = = Dick Clark 's return = = = =
In August 2005 , ABC announced that Dick Clark would return to New Year 's Rockin ' Eve for its 2006 edition , marking his first television appearance since the stroke . For that broadcast , it was also announced Clark would be joined by a new co @-@ host , media personality and American Idol host Ryan Seacrest . Seacrest had previously hosted Fox 's competing New Year 's Eve Live — which , ironically , would be hosted by Philbin that year . Speaking to USA Today , Seacrest reminisced on having watched New Year 's Rockin ' Eve in his childhood , stating that " I knew when I was on other shows , I knew we weren 't going to beat Dick Clark . He is New Year 's Eve . " As a part of a long @-@ term deal with Dick Clark Productions , Seacrest also became an executive producer for the special . In an interview with People Magazine in December 2005 , Seacrest revealed that while Clark had not completely recovered from the stroke , and that his speech was not exactly like how it was beforehand , Clark had made great progress since the original diagnosis .
Alongside pre @-@ recorded performances from Hollywood hosted by actress and pop singer Hilary Duff , the 2006 edition also featured a live performance by Mariah Carey directly inside Times Square – the first such performance in the show 's history . Live performances from Times Square became a regular feature during future editions of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve .
During the program , Clark made limited on @-@ air appearances , but still conducted his traditional countdown , and also recollected on his recent experiences :
Public curiosity over Clark 's condition ( how he talked ) and his return to television helped Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2006 draw in over 20 million viewers throughout the night , and score a 7 @.@ 1 audience share among the key demographic of 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . Reaction to Clark 's appearance was mixed . While some TV critics ( including Tom Shales of The Washington Post , in an interview with the CBS Radio Network ) felt he was not in good enough shape to do the broadcast , stroke survivors and many of Clark 's fans praised the emcee for being a role model for people dealing with post @-@ stroke recovery . The New York Times ' Brian Stelter compared Seacrest 's new role as co @-@ host of Rockin ' Eve to being like a " traffic cop " , " tossing to bands and correspondents and to Mr. Clark for the countdown . "
= = = = Ryan Seacrest becomes host = = = =
Following the 2006 edition , Dick Clark Productions announced that Seacrest had agreed to remain a host for future editions of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve . As he was still afflicted with speech impediments that resulted from dysarthria , a lingering effect of his stroke , Clark 's role in the special was reduced ; he continued to make limited on @-@ air appearances from Times Square Studios as co @-@ host near midnight , and still conducted his traditional countdown , but Seacrest hosted the majority of the program outside in Times Square itself .
The 2008 edition featured live performances from Times Square by Carrie Underwood , Miley Cyrus , and the Jonas Brothers . Fergie hosted concert segments from Hollywood , which also featured performances by Akon , Natasha Bedingfield , Sean Kingston , OneRepublic , Plain White T 's , Taylor Swift and will.i.am. Seacrest 's increased role as host was recognized beginning on the 2009 edition , where the special was officially re @-@ titled Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest . It featured live performances by the Jonas Brothers , Taylor Swift , and Lionel Richie , with Kellie Pickler serving as a correspondent . Hollywood segments featured performances by Fall Out Boy , Jesse McCartney , Natasha Bedingfield , Ne @-@ Yo , The Pussycat Dolls , Solange , Robin Thicke and will.i.am.
For its 2010 edition , headlining performances in Times Square included Daughtry , and Jennifer Lopez ( who infamously wore a dark @-@ colored catsuit for her performance to mixed reviews ) , while Melissa Rycroft served as a correspondent . Fergie hosted concert segments on @-@ location from Las Vegas , Nevada , featuring performances by her group The Black Eyed Peas , Colbie Caillat , Robin Thicke , Keri Hilson , Selena Gomez , Justin Bieber , David Guetta , and Orianthi . American Idol season 8 runner @-@ up Adam Lambert was also reportedly scheduled to perform , but was dropped from both Rockin ' Eve and a scheduled appearance on fellow ABC program Jimmy Kimmel Live ! in response to his controversial performance at the American Music Awards ( which are also produced by Dick Clark Productions ) . Neither ABC nor Dick Clark Productions ever confirmed whether or not Lambert had been booked at all , however .
The 2011 edition featured live performances by Kesha and Taio Cruz , and actress Jenny McCarthy served as a reporter from Times Square . Fergie reprised her role as host for the pre @-@ recorded Hollywood segments , which included performances by Avril Lavigne ( who performed the world premiere of " What the Hell " , the first single from her then @-@ upcoming album Goodbye Lullaby ) , Natasha Bedingfield ( who performed her latest single " Strip Me " ) , Jennifer Hudson , Ne @-@ Yo , Train , Mike Posner , Willow Smith , Jason Derülo , Far East Movement , La Roux , Kesha , Drake , and closing the show , the supergroup NKOTBSB ( the combined Backstreet Boys and New Kids on the Block ) . Viewership for the 2011 edition peaked at around 19 million viewers .
= = = 40th anniversary ; death of Dick Clark = = =
Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest 2012 , was once again hosted by Seacrest , with Clark co @-@ hosting what would become his final appearance on the program . Fergie co @-@ hosted for the sixth consecutive year for the pre @-@ taped Hollywood segments , while comedian Jenny McCarthy returned for her second year corresponding from Times Square . Musical guests in Times Square included Lady Gaga ( who also joined Mayor Michael Bloomberg in activating the ball drop ) , Justin Bieber , Pitbull and Hot Chelle Rae . Performers in the Hollywood segments included Taio Cruz , Nicki Minaj , Blink @-@ 182 , Florence + the Machine , LMFAO , Gym Class Heroes , OneRepublic , The Band Perry , will.i.am , Christina Perri , and Robin Thicke . To celebrate the 40th anniversary of the first edition of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , the primetime portion of the show was preceded by a two @-@ hour retrospective special focusing on memorable music performances from the show 's 40 @-@ year history .
New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2012 brought ABC 's highest ratings on New Year 's Eve since ABC 2000 Today ; an average 8 @.@ 4 million viewers watched the 40th anniversary retrospective , the primetime hour brought in 12 @.@ 9 million viewers , and the first hour of the main broadcast peaked at 22 @.@ 6 million viewers . These numbers exclude viewership from locations such as bars and New Year 's Eve parties , as they are not counted in the Nielsen ratings .
On April 18 , 2012 , Dick Clark died after suffering a heart attack following surgery to fix an enlarged prostate . Following Clark 's death , ABC declined to comment on future New Year 's coverage , nor did Dick Clark Productions comment on the future of the franchise .
= = = 2013 @-@ present = = =
In August 2012 , ABC confirmed via a press release that New Year 's Rockin ' Eve would return for its 2012 – 13 edition . Ryan Seacrest , Jenny McCarthy and Fergie reprised their roles as host , Times Square reporter and Hollywood host , respectively . Carly Rae Jepsen , Neon Trees , Psy with MC Hammer , and Taylor Swift performed live in Times Square , while the Hollywood segments of the show included performances by Brandy , Flo Rida , Ellie Goulding , Jason Aldean , Justin Bieber , Karmin , OneRepublic , Pitbull and The Wanted . The primetime hour of the program was preceded by a two @-@ hour tribute special , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve Celebrates Dick Clark . Clark 's legacy was also recognized by the Times Square Alliance , organizers of the ball drop : a triangular Waterford Crystal panel engraved with Dick Clark 's name was presented to his widow Kari Wigton , and installed on the ball .
On October 23 , 2013 , Dick Clark Productions confirmed the 2013 – 14 edition of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , and announced that Ryan Seacrest had signed a multi @-@ year deal of unspecified length to continue serving as host and executive producer of the special . Seacrest stated that he would " forever be both sentimental and grateful " about his involvement in the special , and that he was " excited to work together to create new traditions and fun moments on the show that only live television can deliver . " Fellow producer Allen Shapiro credited Seacrest 's involvement in New Year 's Rockin ' Eve for its " extended and expanded " success . Fergie and McCarthy reprised their roles once again , and the primetime portion of the program was preceded by a two @-@ hour special , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve Presents the 30 Greatest Women in Music . The Hollywood segments included performances by Ariana Grande , Capital Cities , Daughtry , Fall Out Boy , The Fray , Enrique Iglesias , Jason Derülo , Jennifer Hudson , and Robin Thicke . Blondie , Icona Pop , Macklemore and Ryan Lewis , and Miley Cyrus performed in Times Square , and the special also featured a performance by Billy Joel , broadcast live from Barclays Center . In Canada , the special was aired in simulcast for first time by City , replacing its coverage of concert festivities at Toronto 's Nathan Phillips Square ( City continued to sponsor the event , however ) . While viewership was down by 5 % , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve was still the highest @-@ rated among the New Year 's specials .
On February 7 , 2014 , ABC reached a long @-@ term deal with Dick Clark Productions , seeing both New Year 's Rockin Eve and the DCP @-@ produced American Music Awards remain on the network through the end of 2023 . Taylor Swift and Florida Georgia Line headlined from Times Square for the 2014 @-@ 15 edition of New Year 's Rockin Eve ; they were among 38 acts featured in total during the special . Fergie hosted the re @-@ christened Billboard Hollywood Party segments of the special , and also performed . The special featured studio appearances by Bastille , Charli XCX , Idina Menzel , Iggy Azalea , Magic ! , Meghan Trainor , One Direction , Pentatonix , Ella Henderson , and Rixton . The special featured live performances by Gavin DeGraw and Lady Antebellum from the Bash on Broadway New Year 's festivities in Nashville , and a performance by Elton John from his New Year 's concert at Barclays Center .
On October 28 , 2015 , Carrie Underwood was announced as a live headliner from Times Square for the 2015 @-@ 16 edition . She was joined by Demi Lovato , Luke Bryan , and Wiz Khalifa , the last of whom performed " See You Again " with Charlie Puth . On November 18 , One Direction was announced as a headliner for the Billboard Hollywood Party segments , in what was their final televised performance before their planned hiatus . Additional Los Angeles performers included Alessia Cara , Andy Grammer , DNCE , Ellie Goulding , Elle King , Fall Out Boy , Macklemore and Ryan Lewis , Nathan Sykes , Nick Jonas , Omi , Pentatonix , Rachel Platten , Tove Lo , and Walk the Moon . The special also featured a performance by Jimmy Buffett from his New Year 's concert at Barclays Center . New Year 's Rockin ' Eve was once again the highest rated of the New Year 's Eve specials across the major networks ; for the late @-@ night portion , while overall household viewership was down by 7 % , ratings in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic were up by 3 % .
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= French battleship Charlemagne =
Charlemagne was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the French Navy in the mid @-@ 1890s , name ship of her class . She spent most of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron ( escadre de la Méditerranée ) . Twice she participated in the occupation of the port of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos , then owned by the Ottoman Empire , once as part of a French expedition and another as part of an international squadron .
When World War I began in August 1914 , she escorted Allied troop convoys for the first two months . Charlemagne was ordered to the Dardanelles in November 1914 to guard against a sortie into the Mediterranean by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . In 1915 , she joined British ships in bombarding Turkish fortifications under the command of Rear Admiral ( contre @-@ amiral ) Emile Guépratte . The ship was transferred later that year to the squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations on the Salonica front . Charlemagne was placed in reserve and then disarmed in late 1917 . She was condemned in 1920 and later sold for scrap in 1923 .
= = Design and description = =
Charlemagne was 117 @.@ 7 metres ( 386 ft 2 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 3 metres ( 66 ft 7 in ) . At deep load , she had a draught of 7 @.@ 4 metres ( 24 ft 3 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 4 metres ( 27 ft 7 in ) aft . She displaced 11 @,@ 275 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 097 long tons ) at deep load . Her crew consisted of 727 officers and enlisted men .
The ship used three 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines , one engine per shaft . Rated at 14 @,@ 500 PS ( 10 @,@ 700 kW ) , they produced 15 @,@ 295 metric horsepower ( 11 @,@ 249 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials using steam generated by 20 Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . Charlemagne reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 14 knots ( 33 @.@ 60 km / h ; 20 @.@ 88 mph ) on her trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 050 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 030 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 200 miles ( 3 @,@ 600 nmi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Charlemagne carried her main armament of four 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of ten 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1893 guns , eight of which were mounted in individual casemates and the remaining pair in shielded mounts on the forecastle deck amidships . She also carried eight 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1893 guns in shielded mounts on the superstructure . The ship 's anti @-@ torpedo boat defences consisted of twenty 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns , fitted in platforms on both masts , on the superstructure , and in casemates in the hull . Charlemagne mounted four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside . Two of these were submerged , angled 20 ° from the ship 's axis , and the other two were above the waterline . They were provided with twelve Modèle 1892 torpedoes . As was common with ships of her generation , she was built with a plough @-@ shaped ram .
The Charlemagne @-@ class ships carried a total of 820 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 807 @.@ 7 long tons ) of Harvey armour . They had a complete waterline armour belt that was 3 @.@ 26 metres ( 10 ft 8 in ) high . The armour belt tapered from its maximum thickness of 400 mm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) to a thickness of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at its lower edge . The armoured deck was 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick on the flat and was reinforced with an additional 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) plate where it angled downwards to meet the armoured belt . The main turrets were protected by 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) of armour and their roofs were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Their barbettes were 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The outer walls of the casemates for the 138 @.@ 6 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 46 in ) guns were 55 mm thick and they were protected by transverse bulkheads 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower walls were 326 mm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) thick and its roof consisted of 50 mm armour plates . Its communications tube was protected by armour plates 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Charlemagne , named after the first Holy Roman Emperor , was authorised on 30 September 1895 as the name ship of the three battleships of her class . The ship was laid down at the Arsenal de Brest on 2 August 1894 and launched on 17 October 1895 . She was completed on 12 September 1897 and commissioned three days later .
Charlemagne was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron ( escadre du Nord ) , but , together with Gaulois , she was transferred to the 1st Battleship Division of the Mediterranean Squadron in January 1900 . On 18 July , after combined manoeuvres with the Northern Squadron , the ship participated in a naval review conducted by the President of France , Émile Loubet , at Cherbourg . She escorted Louis André , the Minister of War and Jean de Lanessan , the Minister of Marine on their tours of Corsica and Tunisia later in October . The following year , Charlemagne and the Mediterranean Squadron participated in an international naval review by President Loubet in Toulon with ships from Spain , Italy and Russia .
In October 1901 , the 1st Battleship Division , under the command of Rear Admiral Leonce Caillard , was ordered to proceed to the port of Mytilene . After landing two companies of marines that occupied the major ports of the island on 7 November , Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks . The 1st Division departed Lesbos in early December and returned to Toulon . In January – March 1902 , Charlemagne was deployed in Moroccan waters and participated in the summer fleet exercises later that year . Naval historians Paul Silverstone and Eric Gille claim that the ship collided with Gaulois on 2 March 1903 , but was not damaged . In April 1904 , she was one of the ships that escorted President Loubet during his state visit to Italy and participated in the annual fleet manoeuvers later that summer . A 100 mm cartridge spontaneously ignited in a magazine in January 1905 , but Charlemagne suffered no damage from the incident . Together with the destroyer Dart , the ship was the French contribution to an international squadron that briefly occupied Mytilene in November – December 1905 and participated in a naval review by President Armand Fallières in September of the following year . She engaged in the summer naval manoeuvres in 1907 and 1908 and was transferred to the 4th division in September 1908 .
Charlemagne was transferred back to the Northern Squadron in October 1909 . She made port visits to Oran , Cadiz , Lisbon and Quiberon before having her bottom cleaned in Brest in January 1910 . The ship participated in a large naval review by President Fallières off Cap Brun on 4 September 1911 . Charlemagne was placed in reserve in Brest in September 1912 for an overhaul ; the ship rolled 34 ° during sea trials in May 1913 , after completion of the overhaul . She was assigned to the training squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet from August 1913 until the beginning of World War I a year later .
= = = World War I = = =
Together with the older French pre @-@ dreadnoughts , Charlemagne escorted Allied troop convoys through the Mediterranean until November when she was ordered to the Dardanelles to guard against a sortie by the Goeben . During the bombardment on 25 February 1915 , the ship engaged the fort at Kum Kale with some effect . On 18 March , Charlemagne , together with Bouvet , Suffren , and Gaulois , was to penetrate deep into the Dardanelles after six British battleships suppressed the defending Turkish fortifications and attack those same fortifications at close range . After the French ships were ordered to be relieved by six other British battleships , Bouvet struck a mine and sank almost instantly while Gaulois was hit twice , one of which opened a large hole in her hull that began to flood the ship . Charlemagne escorted Gaulois to the Rabbit Islands , north of Tenedos , where the latter ship could be beached for temporary repairs . Charlemagne herself was moderately damaged during the bombardment and continued onwards to Bizerte for repairs that lasted through May .
Upon her return , she was assigned to the Dardanelles Squadron ( escadre des Dardanelles ) , although naval operations were limited to bombarding Turkish positions in support of Allied troops by that time . The ship was transferred to Salonica in October 1915 where she joined the French squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations in Greece . Charlemagne was relieved for a major refit at Bizerte in May 1916 that lasted until August . She returned to Salonica later that month and was assigned to the Eastern Naval Division ( division navale d 'Orient ) . The ship remained there until she was ordered to Toulon in August 1917 . Charlemagne was placed in reserve on 17 September and disarmed on 1 November . She was condemned on 21 June 1920 and later sold for scrap in 1923 .
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= Emily ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Emily " is the seventh episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Vince Gilligan , John Shiban and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Kim Manners . The episode explores the series ' overarching mythology . The episode premiered in the United States on December 14 , 1997 on the Fox network , earning a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 4 and being watched by 20 @.@ 94 million people in its initial broadcast . It received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Scully fights to protect her daughter ’ s life , while Mulder discovers her true origins . It is eventually discovered that Emily was created during Scully 's abduction . Emily suffers from a tumorous infection and subsequently dies .
" Emily " is the second of a two @-@ part story that began with episode six , " Christmas Carol " . The young actress who originally played Emily was terrified of the hospital setting in the episode 's sequel " Emily " , and as a result the producers had to recast the role and reshoot all footage featuring her including her scene featured in this episode . Filming for the episode was also disrupted when angry demonstrators protested at one of the show 's filming sites .
= = Plot = =
In a dream @-@ like sequence , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) walks through a desert and picks up a gold cross necklace on the ground .
Continuing from the previous episode , agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) arrives at the hospital in San Diego where Scully introduces him to Emily . Mulder tells Scully that he had Melvin Frohike look into Emily 's case : her surrogate mother is a woman named Anna Fugazzi ( slang for fake ) , and there are no true records of how Emily came into the world . Mulder , along with Scully 's family , attend a meeting regarding Emily 's adoption at the San Diego Hall of Justice . Mulder tells the Judge that Emily was conceived from Scully 's ova , which was taken from her during her abduction , which the Judge does not believe . Later , Scully receives a call from the County Children 's Center that cuts off abruptly . She and Mulder head there , where they find Emily safe , but coming down with a fever . They find a greenish cyst on the back of Emily 's neck . Later , when a nurse pierces the cyst with a needle , green liquid comes out , causing her to become gravely ill , yet Emily appears unaffected . Mulder believes that Emily has the same body chemistry that they have seen before with alien @-@ human hybrids .
Dr. Calderon , Emily 's doctor who works for a company called Prangen , refuses to transfer Emily 's medical records to the County Children 's Center , prompting Mulder to rough him up . Later , Mulder follows Calderon after he leaves his office . Scully has imaging tests conducted on Emily . Calderon goes to see the Dark Suited Men , one of whom kills him by stabbing him in the neck with an alien stiletto ; both men then morph into Calderon . Mulder follows as one of them leaves . The results of Emily 's tests show her to be suffering from a tumorous infection . The other Calderon arrives at the hospital and injects Emily with an unknown green substance ; he escapes by morphing into someone else . Scully believes that he is continuing the treatments , and the Sims were murdered because they were trying to stop him . Mulder follows the first Calderon clone into a building , where he meets Anna Fugazzi , an elderly woman in a nursing home .
The doctor tells Scully that Emily is getting worse . A woman from the adoption agency arrives and wants to stop Scully from making decisions for Emily . Mulder connects the names of the women in the nursing home to recent births and finds that Dr. Calderon was treating them . Emily reacts badly to being placed in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber . Mulder finds medical records with Scully 's name on them at the nursing home , along with a live fetus in a refrigerated chamber . Mulder finds Calderon entering soon after , and Detective Kresge arrives as well . Mulder and Kresge confront Calderon , who attacks Kresge . Despite Mulder 's warning Kresge shoots Calderon , whose wounds cause him to spew green blood which incapacitates Kresge . Mulder quickly leaves the building to avoid being affected by the blood . Calderon morphs into Kresge , and deceives Mulder and escapes . Mulder returns to the hospital , where Emily has gone into a coma . Days later Emily has died . Mulder visits Scully at the funeral chapel , telling her that Kresge is recovering and all evidence at the nursing home and Prangen is gone . The only evidence left is Emily 's body , but the agents instead find sand bags in her coffin along with Scully 's cross necklace , which she had previously given to Emily .
= = Production = =
The young actress who originally played Emily was terrified of the hospital setting in this episode , and as a result the producers had to recast the role and reshoot all footage featuring her in the previous episode " Christmas Carol " . Director Kim Manners recalls , " I called Bob Goodwin and said , ' We 're dead in the water here , pal . This little actress is not cooperating at all ' . We recast that role and started up again the next day . " The show 's casters replaced her with Lauren Diewold , who had previously appeared on an episode of Millennium . Due to the show 's shooting schedule , the producers were unable to use Gillian Anderson to reshoot the previous episode 's scenes , resulting in Anderson 's double being used instead , with the footage pieced together in the editing room .
The building used for the nursing home in this episode was picketed by anti @-@ redevelopment protesters due to the building being converted into a condominium complex . As a result , the producers kept a low profile by removing all X @-@ Files insignia from their clothing . A number of protestors still arrived , forcing the police to get involved .
= = Reception = =
" Emily " premiered on the Fox network on December 14 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 4 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 20 @.@ 94 million viewers .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics ; many were more critical of the episode than " Christmas Carol " . Todd VanDerWerff from The A.V. Club gave the episode a B and wrote that he did not " totally buy “ Emily ” [ … ] even though I like large portions of " the episode . VanDerWerff wrote positively of " most of the Scully scenes " , noting that Anderson " found some of the raw sense of hope and loss " that the shots required . However , he was critical of the episode 's plot , arguing that it only " goes through the motions " and " is about everybody getting really worked up over a little girl we ’ ve just met . " He concluded that " two @-@ parter is strongest when it grabs hold of this notion . But it ’ s at its weakest when it turns into just another episode of The X @-@ Files . " John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a 7 out of 10 , and wrote " Overall , this episode was not as strong as the previous installment , largely due to the shift from in @-@ depth character exploration to a rehashing of earlier elements of the mythology . Emily is a good plot device in terms of personalizing the conspiracy ’ s depredations just a bit more , but at times , it seems like the writers are victimizing Scully a bit more than necessary . Unlike the later mythology episodes , however , this one manages to avoid any unnecessary new elements . "
Other reviews were decidedly more mixed to negative . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two wrote that " Mulder catches up with the store and immediately this all becomes a little more formulaic . " The two praised the episode 's teaser , referring to it as " deathless prose " , but were more critical of the plot , arguing that the episode " feels too soon to see yet more sequences of people standing around emoting as they watch the dying in the hospital " , a reference to the show 's earlier arc involving Scully 's cancer . Shearman and Pearson , however , did compliment the performance of both Diewold and Anderson , and called the finale scene " wonderful " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique , on the other hand , gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one star out of four . She heavily criticized the episode 's characterization , noting that the episode 's opening sequence was " ludicrous " and its revelations were " out of the blue " . Vitaris reasoned that , because Scully had spent time with her mother , remembered fondly her sister , and reconnected her faith in God in " Redux II " , " this development just doesn 't track . " Vitaris also criticized Mulder 's antics , calling him a " thug " for beating up " an unarmed man and kicking him while he 's down . "
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= John Archibald Wheeler =
John Archibald Wheeler ( July 9 , 1911 – April 13 , 2008 ) was an American theoretical physicist . He was largely responsible for reviving interest in general relativity in the United States after World War II . Wheeler also worked with Niels Bohr in explaining the basic principles behind nuclear fission . Together with Gregory Breit , Wheeler developed the concept of Breit – Wheeler process . He is best known for linking the term " black hole " to objects with gravitational collapse already predicted early in the 20th century , for coining the terms " quantum foam " , " neutron moderator " , " wormhole " and " it from bit " , and for hypothesizing the " one @-@ electron universe " .
Wheeler earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld , and studied under Breit and Bohr on a National Research Council fellowship . In 1939 he teamed up with Bohr to write a series of papers using the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of fission . During World War II , he worked with the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago , where he helped design nuclear reactors , and then at the Hanford Site in Richland , Washington , where he helped DuPont build them . He returned to Princeton after the war ended , but returned to government service to help design and build the hydrogen bomb in the early 1950s .
For most of his career , Wheeler was a professor at Princeton University , which he joined in 1938 , remaining until his retirement in 1976 . At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs , more than any other professor in the Princeton physics department .
= = Early life and education = =
Wheeler was born in Jacksonville , Florida on July 9 , 1911 to librarians Joseph Lewis Wheeler and Mabel Archibald ( Archie ) Wheeler . He was the oldest of four children , having two younger brothers , Joseph and Robert , and a younger sister , Mary . Joseph earned a Ph.D. from Brown University and a Master of Library Science from Columbia University . Robert earned a Ph.D. in geology from Harvard University and worked as a geologist for oil companies and at colleges . Mary studied library science at the University of Denver and became a librarian . They grew up in Youngstown , Ohio , but spent a year in 1921 to 1922 on a farm in Benson , Vermont , where Wheeler attended a one @-@ room school . After they returned to Youngstown he attended Rayen High School .
After graduating from the Baltimore City College high school in 1926 , Wheeler entered Johns Hopkins University with a scholarship from the state of Maryland . He published his first scientific paper in 1930 , as part of a summer job at the National Bureau of Standards . He earned his doctorate in 1933 . His dissertation research work , carried out under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld , was on the " Theory of the Dispersion and Absorption of Helium " . He received a National Research Council fellowship , which he used to study under Gregory Breit at New York University in 1933 and 1934 , and then in Copenhagen under Niels Bohr in 1934 and 1935 . In a 1934 paper , Breit and Wheeler introduced the Breit – Wheeler process , a mechanism by which photons can be potentially transformed into matter in the form of electron @-@ positron pairs .
= = Early career = =
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill made Wheeler an associate professor in 1937 , but he wanted to be able work more closely with the experts in particle physics . He turned down an offer in 1938 of an associate professorship at Johns Hopkins University in favor of an assistant professorship at Princeton University . Although it was a lesser position , he felt that Princeton , which was building up its physics department , was a better career choice . He remained a member of the faculty there until 1976 .
In a 1937 paper " On the Mathematical Description of Light Nuclei by the Method of Resonating Group Structure " , Wheeler introduced the S @-@ matrix – short for scattering matrix – " a unitary matrix of coefficients connecting the asymptotic behavior of an arbitrary particular solution [ of the integral equations ] with that of solutions of a standard form . " Werner Heisenberg subsequently developed the idea of the S @-@ matrix in the 1940s . Due to the problematic divergences present in quantum field theory at that time , Heisenberg was motivated to isolate the essential features of the theory that would not be affected by future changes as the theory developed . In doing so he was led to introduce a unitary " characteristic " S @-@ matrix , which became an important tool in particle physics .
Wheeler did not develop the S @-@ matrix , but joined Edward Teller in examining Bohr 's liquid drop model of the atomic nucleus . They presented their results at a meeting of the American Physical Society in New York in 1938 . Wheeler 's Chapel Hill graduate student Katharine Way also presented a paper , which she followed up in a subsequent article , detailing how the liquid drop model was unstable under certain conditions . Due to a limitation of the liquid drop model , they all missed the opportunity to predict nuclear fission . The news of Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch 's discovery of fission was brought to America by Bohr in 1939 . Bohr told Leon Rosenfeld , who informed Wheeler .
Bohr and Wheeler set to work applying the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of nuclear fission . As the experimental physicists studied fission , they uncovered puzzling results . George Placzek asked Bohr why uranium seemed to fission with both very fast and very slow neutrons . Walking to a meeting with Wheeler , Bohr had an insight that the fission at low energies was due to the uranium @-@ 235 isotope , while at high energies it was mainly due to the far more abundant uranium @-@ 238 isotope . They co @-@ wrote two more papers on fission . Their first paper appeared in the Physical Review on September 1 , 1939 , the day Germany invaded Poland , starting World War II in Europe .
Considering the notion that positrons were electrons that were traveling backwards in time , he came up in 1940 with his one @-@ electron universe postulate : that there was in fact only one electron , bouncing back and forth in time . His graduate student , Richard Feynman , found this hard to believe , but the idea that positrons were electrons traveling backwards in time intrigued him and Feynman incorporated the notion of the reversibility of time into his Feynman diagrams .
= = Nuclear weapons = =
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
Soon after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II , Wheeler accepted a request from Arthur Compton to join the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago . He moved there in January 1942 , joining Eugene Wigner 's group , which was studying nuclear reactor design . He co @-@ wrote a paper with Robert F. Christy on " Chain Reaction of Pure Fissionable Materials in Solution " , which was important in the plutonium purification process . It would not be declassified until December 1955 . He gave the neutron moderator its name , replacing the term " slower downer " used by Enrico Fermi .
After the United States Army Corps of Engineers took over the Manhattan Project , it gave responsibility for the detailed design and construction of the reactors to DuPont . Wheeler became part of the DuPont design staff . He worked closely with its engineers , commuting between Chicago and Wilmington , Delaware , where DuPont had its headquarters . He moved his family to Wilmington in March 1943 . DuPont 's task was not just to build nuclear reactors , but an entire plutonium production complex at the Hanford Site in Washington . As work progressed , Wheeler relocated his family again in July 1944 , this time to Richland , Washington , where he worked in the scientific buildings known as the 300 area .
Even before the Hanford Site started up the B Reactor , the first of its three reactors , on September 15 , 1944 , Wheeler had been concerned that some nuclear fission products might turn out to be nuclear poisons , the accumulation of which would impede the ongoing nuclear chain reaction by absorbing many of the thermal neutrons that were needed to continue a chain reaction . In an April 1942 report , he predicted that this would reduce the reactivity by less than one percent so long as no fission product had a neutron capture cross section of more than 100 @,@ 000 barns . After the reactor unexpectedly shut down , and then just as unexpectedly restarted about fifteen hours later , he suspected iodine @-@ 135 , with a half life of 6 @.@ 6 hours , and its daughter product , xenon @-@ 135 , which has a half life of 9 @.@ 2 hours . Xenon @-@ 135 turned out to have a neutron capture cross @-@ section of well over 2 million barns . The problem was corrected by adding additional fuel rods to burn out the poison .
Wheeler had a personal reason for working on the Manhattan Project . His brother Joe , fighting in Italy , sent him a postcard with a simple message : " Hurry up " . It was already too late : Joe was killed in October 1944 . " Here we were , " Wheeler later wrote , " so close to creating a nuclear weapon to end the war . I couldn 't stop thinking then , and haven 't stopped thinking since , that the war could have been over in October 1944 . " Joe left a widow and baby daughter , Mary Jo , who later married physicist James Hartle .
= = = Hydrogen bomb = = =
In August 1945 Wheeler and his family returned to Princeton , where he resumed his academic career . Working with Feynman , he explored the possibility of physics with particles , but not fields , and carried out theoretical studies of the muon with Jayme Tiomno , resulting in a series of papers on the topic , including a 1949 paper in which Tiomno and Wheeler introduced the " Tiomno Triangle " , which related different forms of radioactive decay . He also suggested the use of muons as a nuclear probe . This paper , written and privately circulated in 1949 but not published until 1953 , resulted in a series of measurements of the Chang radiation emitted by muons . Muons are a component of cosmic rays , and Wheeler became the founder and first director of Princeton 's Cosmic Rays Laboratory , which received a substantial grant of $ 375 @,@ 000 from the Office of Naval Research in 1948 . He received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1946 , which allowed him to spend the 1949 – 50 academic year in Paris .
The 1949 detonation of Joe @-@ 1 by the Soviet Union prompted an all @-@ out effort by the United States , led by Teller , to develop the more powerful hydrogen bomb in response . Henry D. Smyth , Wheeler 's department head at Princeton , asked him to join the effort . Most physicists were , like Wheeler , trying to re @-@ establish careers interrupted by the war and were reluctant to face more disruption . Others had moral objections . Those who agreed to participate included Emil Konopinski , Marshall Rosenbluth , Lothar Nordheim and Charles Critchfield , but there was also now a body of experienced weapons physicists at the Los Alamos Laboratory , led by Norris Bradbury . Wheeler agreed to go to Los Alamos after a conversation with Bohr . Two of his graduate students from Princeton , Ken Ford and John Toll , joined him there .
At Los Alamos , Wheeler and his family moved into the house on " Bathtub Row " that had been occupied by Robert Oppenheimer and his family during the war . In 1950 there was no practical design for a hydrogen bomb . Calculations by Stan Ulam and others showed that Teller 's " Classical Super " would not work . Teller and Wheeler created a new design known as " Alarm Clock " , but it was not a true thermonuclear weapon . Not until January 1951 did Ulam come up with a workable design .
In 1951 Wheeler obtained permission from Bradbury to set up a branch office of the Los Alamos laboratory at Princeton , known as Project Matterhorn , which had two parts . Matterhorn S ( for stellarator , another name coined by Wheeler ) , under Lyman Spitzer , investigated nuclear fusion as a power source . Matterhorn B ( for bomb ) , under Wheeler , engaged in nuclear weapons research . Senior scientists remained disinterested and aloof from the project , so he staffed it with young graduate and post @-@ doctoral students . In January 1953 he was involved in a security breach when he lost a highly classified paper on lithium @-@ 6 and the hydrogen bomb design during an overnight train trip . This resulted in Wheeler being given an official reprimand . Matterhorn B 's efforts were crowned by the success of the Ivy Mike nuclear test at Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific , on November 1 , 1953 , which Wheeler witnessed . The yield of the Ivy Mike " Sausage " device was reckoned at 10 @.@ 4 megatons of TNT ( 44 PJ ) , about 30 percent higher than Matterhorn B had estimated . Matterhorn B was discontinued , but Matterhorn S endures as the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory .
= = Personal life = =
For 72 years , Wheeler was married to Janette Hegner , a teacher and social worker . They became engaged on their third date , but agreed to defer marriage until after he returned from Europe . They were married on June 10 , 1935 , five days after his return . They had three children : Letitia , James English and Alison Wheeler . Jobs were hard to come by during the Great Depression , but Arthur Ruark offered him a position as an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , at an annual salary of $ 2 @,@ 300 , which was less than the $ 2 @,@ 400 Janette was offered to teach at the Rye Country Day School . In their later years , she accompanied him on sabbaticals to places such as France , Los Alamos , New Mexico , the Netherlands , and Japan . Wheeler and Hegner were founding members of the Unitarian Church of Princeton , and she initiated the Friends of the Princeton Public Library . Hegner died in October 2007 at the age of 99 .
= = Later life = =
= = = Geometrodynamics = = =
After concluding his Matterhorn Project work , Wheeler resumed his academic career . In a 1955 paper he theoretically investigated the geon , an electromagnetic or gravitational wave that is held together in a confined region by the attraction of its own field . He coined the name as a contraction of " gravitational electromagnetic entity . " He found that the smallest geon was a toroid the size of the Sun , but millions of times heavier . While working on mathematical extensions to Einstein 's Theory of General Relativity in 1957 , Wheeler introduced the concept and word wormhole to describe hypothetical " tunnels " in space @-@ time . Bohr asked if they are stable and further research by Wheeler determined that they are not .
During the 1950s Wheeler formulated geometrodynamics , a program of physical and ontological reduction of every physical phenomenon , such as gravitation and electromagnetism , to the geometrical properties of a curved space @-@ time . Wormholes were just one manifestation of what Wheeler envisaged as the fabric of the universe , a chaotic sub @-@ atomic realm of quantum fluctuations , which he called " quantum foam " . For a few decades , general relativity had not been considered a very respectable field of physics , being detached from experiment . Wheeler was a key figure in the revival of the subject , leading the school at Princeton , while Dennis William Sciama and Yakov Borisovich Zel 'dovich developed the subject at Cambridge University and the University of Moscow . The work of Wheeler and his students made high contributions to the Golden Age of General Relativity . His work in general relativity included the theory of gravitational collapse . He used the term black hole in 1967 during a talk he gave at the NASA Goddard Institute of Space Studies ( GISS ) . He was also a pioneer in the field of quantum gravity due to his development , with Bryce DeWitt , of the Wheeler – DeWitt equation , which is the equation governing the " wave function of the Universe " .
= = = Quantum = = =
Alluding to Wheeler 's " mass without mass " , the festschrift honoring his 60th birthday was titled Magic Without Magic : John Archibald Wheeler : A Collection of Essays in Honor of his Sixtieth Birthday ( 1972 ) . His writing style could also attract parodies , including one by " John Archibald Wyler " that was affectionately published by a relativity journal . Wheeler wrote Geometrodynamics ( 1962 ) , and teamed up with Edwin F. Taylor to write Spacetime Physics ( 1966 ) and Scouting Black Holes ( 1996 ) . With Kent Harrison , Kip Thorne and Masami Wakano he wrote Gravitation Theory and Gravitational Collapse ( 1954 ) . This led to the voluminous general relativity textbook Gravitation ( 1973 ) , co @-@ written with Misner and Thorne . Its timely appearance during the golden age of general relativity and its comprehensiveness made it an influential relativity textbook for a generation .
Wheeler retired from Princeton University in 1976 at the age of 65 . He was the director of the Center for Theoretical Physics at the University of Texas at Austin from 1976 until 1986 , when he retired and became a professor emeritus there . Misner , Thorne and Wojciech Zurek , all former students of Wheeler , wrote that :
Looking back on Wheeler 's 10 years at Texas , many quantum information scientists now regard him , along with IBM 's Rolf Landauer , as a grandfather of their field . That , however , was not because Wheeler produced seminal re @-@ search papers on quantum information . He did not — with one major exception , his delayed @-@ choice experiment . Rather , his role was to inspire by asking deep questions from a radical conservative viewpoint and , through his questions , to stimulate others ’ research and discovery .
Wheeler 's delayed choice experiment is actually several thought experiments in quantum physics that he proposed , with the most prominent among them appearing in 1978 and 1984 . These experiments are attempts to decide whether light somehow " senses " the experimental apparatus in the double @-@ slit experiment it will travel through and adjusts its behavior to fit by assuming the appropriate determinate state for it , or whether light remains in an indeterminate state , neither wave nor particle , and responds to the " questions " asked of it by responding in either a wave @-@ consistent manner or a particle @-@ consistent manner depending on the experimental arrangements that ask these " questions " .
Over the years , Wheeler 's graduate students included Katharine Way , Richard Feynman , David Hill , Bei @-@ Lok Hu , Kip Thorne , Jacob Bekenstein , John R. Klauder , William Unruh , Robert M. Wald , Arthur Wightman , Charles Misner and Hugh Everett . Wheeler gave a high priority to teaching , and continued to teach freshman and sophomore physics , saying that the young minds were the most important . At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs , more than any other professor in the Princeton physics department .
In 1979 Wheeler spoke to the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , asking it to expel parapsychology , which had been admitted ten years earlier at the request of Margaret Mead . He called it a pseudoscience , saying he did not oppose earnest research into the questions , but he thought the " air of legitimacy " of being an AAAS @-@ Affiliate should be reserved until convincing tests of at least a few so @-@ called psi effects could be demonstrated . During his presentation Wheeler incorrectly stated that J. B. Rhine had committed fraud as a student , and was forced to retract that statement in a letter to the journal Science . His request was turned down and the Parapsychological Association remained a member of the AAAS .
= = = It from bit = = =
In 1990 Wheeler suggested that information is fundamental to the physics of the universe . According to this " it from bit " doctrine , all things physical are information @-@ theoretic in origin .
Wheeler : It from bit . Otherwise put , every it — every particle , every field of force , even the space @-@ time continuum itself — derives its function , its meaning , its very existence entirely — even if in some contexts indirectly — from the apparatus @-@ elicited answers to yes @-@ or @-@ no questions , binary choices , bits . It from bit symbolizes the idea that every item of the physical world has at bottom — a very deep bottom , in most instances — an immaterial source and explanation ; that which we call reality arises in the last analysis from the posing of yes @-@ no questions and the registering of equipment @-@ evoked responses ; in short , that all things physical are information @-@ theoretic in origin and that this is a participatory universe .
Wheeler speculated that reality is created by observers in the universe . " How does something arise from nothing ? " , he asked about the existence of space and time . He also coined the term " Participatory Anthropic Principle " ( PAP ) , a version of a Strong Anthropic Principle . From a transcript of a radio interview on " The anthropic universe " :
Wheeler : We are participators in bringing into being not only the near and here but the far away and long ago . We are in this sense , participators in bringing about something of the universe in the distant past and if we have one explanation for what 's happening in the distant past why should we need more ? Martin Redfern : Many don 't agree with John Wheeler , but if he 's right then we and presumably other conscious observers throughout the universe , are the creators — or at least the minds that make the universe manifest .
Wheeler had repeatedly reflected , since 1981 , on Benjamin Gal @-@ Or 's " Gravitism " that maintains that the expansion of the universe ( manifested by the expansion of the cold , dark voids between all non @-@ expanding , visible clusters of galaxies ) is the root @-@ cause of the Second Law of Thermodynamics and of all asymmetry in time , as an unsaturable , expanding , universal " sink " :
" I continue to reflect , again and again , on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time . "
= = Death and Legacy = =
Over the years Wheeler gathered numerous prizes and awards , including the Enrico Fermi Award in 1968 , the Franklin Medal in 1969 , the National Medal of Science in 1971 , the Einstein Prize in 1969 , the Niels Bohr International Gold Medal in 1982 , the Oersted Medal in 1983 , the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize in 1984 and the Wolf Foundation Prize in 1997 . He was a member of the American Philosophical Society , the Royal Academy , the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei , and the Century Association . He received honorary degrees from 18 different institutions and , in 2001 , Princeton used a $ 3 million gift to establish the John Archibald Wheeler / Battelle Professorship in Physics . After his death , the University of Texas named the John A. Wheeler Lecture Hall in his honor . He was influential in mentoring a generation of physicists of the Golden Age of General Relativity , who made notable contributions to quantum mechanics and gravitation .
On April 13 , 2008 , Wheeler died of pneumonia at the age of 96 in Hightstown , New Jersey .
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= Niagara Parkway =
The Niagara Parkway , formerly known as Niagara Boulevard and historically as the Niagara Road , is a scenic road in the province of Ontario that travels on the Canadian side of the Niagara River from the town of Fort Erie to Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake . The portion north of Table Rock in Niagara Falls is designated as an Ontario Scenic Highway . The Niagara Boulevard was originally the section only from Fort Erie to Chippawa and the northern portion was referred to as the Niagara Parkway .
The Niagara Parkway begins at Fort Erie in the south . It passes through several villages along the river before passing through the tourist district of Niagara Falls . North of the city it provides access to several attractions , including the Whirlpool Rapids , Butterfly Conservatory , and Brock 's Monument at Queenston Heights . The route ends at Fort George , southeast of the urban centre of Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake .
Construction on the modern Niagara Parkway began in 1908 ; it was completed from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario in 1931 as a scenic road with gardens and manicured lawns throughout its length . The parkway was referred to by Sir Winston Churchill , having been driven down it , as " the prettiest Sunday afternoon drive in the world . "
= = Route description = =
The Niagara Parkway is a two @-@ lane minor arterial road with a 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) speed limit for the majority of its length , although the section from Hiram Avenue to Upper Rapids Boulevard in Niagara Falls is a four lane divided road signed at 40 km / h ( 25 mph ) . It is 55 km ( 34 mi ) in length , crossing the entire Niagara Peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario . The route falls under the jurisdiction of the Niagara Parks Commission , an agency of the Government of Ontario , for most of its length . However , the section from Hiram Street to Glenview Avenue belongs to the City of Niagara Falls . Despite this , it is still signed as part of the Niagara Parkway . The Niagara River Recreation Trail , a mixed @-@ use pedestrian and cycling path , follows 53 km ( 33 mi ) of the length of the parkway between Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake and Fort Erie .
The parkway begins at the old Fort Erie , south of the Peace Bridge , where it is known as Lakeshore Road and connects with the Queen Elizabeth Way and the former Highway 3 . East of the Mather Circle , the road becomes known as Niagara Parkway and proceeds north through downtown Fort Erie , beneath the International Railway Bridge . It gradually curves to the east opposite the southern shore of Grand Island . Houses line the southern side of the parkway along this section . The road curves back northward as it crosses the Black Creek and passes through a sparsely populated stretch . It passes the Willoughby Historical Museum followed by the Legends on the Niagara Golf Course . Shortly thereafter , it enters Niagara Falls and meets the Welland River . Traffic is diverted west to cross the river at Portage Road , where it then resumes on the Niagara Parkway at King 's Bridge Park .
The Niagara Parkway travels alongside the Upper Rapids and passes adjacent to Horseshoe Falls . It crosses a park and enters downtown Niagara Falls , where it is known as River Road north of Clifton Hill . The parkway passes below the Rainbow Bridge ; side streets provide access to Highway 420 , but River Road itself does not meet it . As it progresses north , it passes beneath the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge before wrapping around the Whirlpool Rapids . At Victoria Avenue , River Road becomes the Niagara Parkway again . The parkway passes the Butterfly Conservatory and the Niagara Floral Clock , one of the largest floral clocks in the world with a diameter of 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) . Shortly thereafter , the parkway crosses the Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations . It passes beneath Highway 405 at the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge , the interchange with which was removed by December 2006 .
North of the bridge , the route descends the Niagara Escarpment near Brock 's Monument , a column which commemorates the death of Sir Isaac Brock during the Battle of Queenston Heights . At the bottom of the escarpment , the route passes the village of Queenston . The parkway meanders north , parallel to the river , with houses lining the western side . Approaching the town of Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake , the road becomes known as Queen 's Parade . It diverges from the river and travels northwest towards the town , ending at Fort George .
= = History = =
The Niagara Parkway is one of the oldest roads in Ontario . Predating it , an aboriginal trail along the west side of the Niagara River existed before the arrival of Europeans . The first survey along the length of the river was done by Augustus Jones in 1786 . The survey set aside a one chain reserve along the bank of the river for military purposes ; one chain being equivalent to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) . Despite this reserve , early settlers extended their fences to the river . In 1791 , the Land Board ordered that the fences be removed to permit the reserve 's use as a public road . The Niagara Road quickly became the primary route between Fort Erie and Fort George . Its importance grew with the declaration of war against the Americans in June 1812 . During the war , the road became vital for the movement of militia and supplies , and accordingly it was one of the primary frontiers of the war .
When the First Welland Canal was opened in 1829 , the Niagara Road became a towpath for vessels exiting the Welland River . Oxen on the road would tow boats against the rapid current of the Niagara River as they exited the canal and continued south to Lake Erie . In 1833 , a large cut was made to connect the canal with Port Colborne , eliminating the use of the road as a towpath . It continued to be used as a public road until the government gave the reserve to the Niagara Parks Commission in 1891 .
In 1908 , after receiving approval from the government , the Parks Commission began to expropriate land along the length of the river . The broadened strip of land was used to construct a new paved parkway , which was opened in segments . The new parkway was ornamental and designed to be aesthetically pleasing , a prime consideration of road construction at that time . The section south of the falls was completed first , opening in 1912 . It was extended north to the Whirlpool Rapids , incorporating the existing River Road , by 1915 . The section between the rapids and Queenston was opened between 1921 and 1923 . Finally , the remaining section between Queenston and Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake opened in 1931 , completing the present parkway .
In mid @-@ August 1943 , Sir Winston Churchill came to Canada to attend the Quebec Conference , a then @-@ secret meeting in Quebec City to discuss a strategy for the invasion of France which would come to be known as D @-@ Day . Prior to the conference , he met with William Lyon Mackenzie King several times . Between the meetings and conference , Churchill visited Niagara Falls and was driven along the Niagara Parkway , after which he described it as " the prettiest Sunday afternoon drive in the world . "
On May 30 , 1977 , the City of Niagara Falls assumed River Road between Hiram Street , north of the Rainbow Bridge , and Glenview Avenue , east of Victoria Avenue . This section is still designated as part of the Niagara Parkway despite not being under the jurisdiction of the Niagara Parks Commission .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Niagara Parkway . The entire route is located in the Regional Municipality of Niagara .
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= The Sea ( Corinne Bailey Rae album ) =
The Sea is the second studio album by English singer @-@ songwriter Corinne Bailey Rae , released on 20 January 2010 by EMI . It is the follow @-@ up to her eponymous 2006 debut and was conceived following her hiatus from recording , taken in the wake of her husband Jason Rae 's death . She recorded the album at Limefield Studios in Manchester , England during 2009 , working mostly with a host of session musicians and the record producers Steve Brown and Steve Chrisanthou . The Sea features songs written by Rae before and after her husband 's death , touching on themes of love , lament , and solace .
In the United Kingdom , The Sea debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . It also charted at number seven on the Billboard 200 in the United States , where it reached sales of 156 @,@ 000 by April 2010 . A critical success , The Sea received mostly positive reviews and was nominated for the 2010 Mercury Prize . Rae toured in promotion of the album on The Sea Tour in early 2010 .
= = Writing and recording = =
Following the multi @-@ platinum and award @-@ winning success of her eponymous debut album in 2006 , Corinne Bailey Rae began to work on songs for a follow @-@ up album at the end of 2007 . She took a hiatus from music , however , after the death of her husband , Scottish saxophonist Jason Rae , in March 2008 to an accidental overdose of methadone and alcohol . For a long period of time , Rae said , " I didn 't really hear any songs . Normally in my everyday life , I 'd be in the car and come up with a little line , or I 'd look at something and try to describe it ... I didn 't really think in that way anymore . Nothing was coming in . " After months of grief and isolation , Rae revisited her work the following year and composed additional material for The Sea .
The Sea contains songs written before and after the death of Rae 's husband , all of which she said resonated with her : " The circumstances have cast it all in a different light . It began as a ' before and after ' record , but it 's become an ' after ' record " . The ballad " I 'd Do It All Again " was written by Rae in January 2008 after an argument with her husband . She told NME that writing the rest of the album helped her handle the different emotions she felt after her husband 's death : " When I started writing that I was thinking , ' I don 't really want this song to go into the world , ' cause it 's so naked … ' But I had to " . " I Would Like to Call it Beauty " , she said , was written about finding beauty in the " darkest times " , later telling journalist Sean O 'Hagan :
" There is something miraculous that pushes you along , makes you keep going , makes you carry on . It 's really about the mystery of that . In fact , the whole album is about that in a way ; it 's about loss but it 's also about hope , about keeping going and trying to find that beauty . "
Rae recorded most of The Sea in 2009 at Manchester 's Limefield Studios . She co @-@ produced the record mostly with Steve Brown and Steve Chrisanthou , both of whom had worked on her debut album . Rae pursued a sound more aggressive than on her debut . During the recording process , Rae listened to the 1973 Sly & the Family Stone record Fresh and Curtis Mayfield 's There 's No Place Like America Today ( 1975 ) , as well as the music of Nina Simone and Leonard Cohen . A live band was used in the album 's recording , which was also a departure from her debut . " On the first album , it was me and a producer in a basement going though hundreds of snare drum sounds to find the right one " , she recalled . " With a live band , you can stretch out more and try new things out without feeling you 're having to undo this meticulously built @-@ up track " .
The album was titled after the recurring theme of water in songs such as " Diving for Hearts " and " I Would Like to Call It Beauty " , while the music was said by Rae to possess " a kind of tidal movement to it too , in the way that we recorded the songs . You know , sometimes it would just be me and my guitar . Then we 'd really sort of swell up into these big arrangements , only to then retreat back to it just being me and my guitar again . " According to Chris Mugan from The Independent , The Sea was a departure from the polished sound of Rae 's debut album , while Paste magazine 's Steve Labate said Rae expanded on her debut 's mix of contemporary R & B and older soul music by incorporating pop rock , singer @-@ songwriter influences , and occasional elements of bossa nova and trip hop . In the opinion of Craig McLean from The Daily Telegraph , the record 's music evoked Simone 's singing and the 1968 Van Morrison album Astral Weeks .
= = Release and reception = =
Before releasing The Sea , Rae showcased songs from the album on a preview concert tour in late 2009 , playing venues in England , Canada , Los Angeles , and New York . She premiered the songs during a 23 November 2009 performance at The Tabernacle in London , her first complete gig since her hiatus from the music scene . She also showcased its songs on 7 December at New York City 's Hiro Ballroom , which was recorded for the public television series Live from the Artists Den . Rae also promoted the album with guest performances on the talk shows Today and Later ... with Jools Holland . Three singles were released from the album : " I 'd Do It All Again " on 12 January , " Paris Nights / New York Mornings " on 29 March , and " Closer " on 2 August . Rae 's record label EMI sent the singles to music video / radio stations of multiple formats , including urban adult contemporary , smooth jazz and adult album alternative .
When The Sea was released in 2010 , it debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart , and number seven on the Billboard 200 in the US , where it sold 53 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . On 19 February , the album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , and by April , it had sold 156 @,@ 000 copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan . On 27 February 2010 , Rae embarked on the European leg of her supporting tour for the album , The Sea Tour , which featured singer @-@ songwriter Daniel Merriweather as her opening act ; the tour began its North American leg on 9 April .
The Sea received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 78 , based on 21 reviews . AllMusic 's David Jeffries called it " a testament to Rae 's artistic growth " , and Kitty Empire from The Observer found it " saturated in feeling and graced by superior musicianship " . Steve Leftridge of PopMatters said it was " richer " than her debut , with a " darker and more sophisticated sonic palette " . Q credited Rae for making the album never sound " exploitative or mawkish , just truthful and real " . In the Los Angeles Times , Powers deemed the album a " remarkable accomplishment " and " a step toward something — Rae 's inner peace , and her next artistic breakthrough — that has its own considerable rewards " . In a less enthusiastic review , The Observer 's Graeme Thompson felt the album 's strong points offered " glimpses of a new horizon shining beyond the riptides of pain and sorrow " , but at times it sounded " dull and flat " . Slant Magazine 's Nick Day was more critical , finding the music forgettable and the lyrics introspective but vague . Hot Press critic Patrick Freyne believed the music exhibited an " excessive tastefulness " while panning the contributions of the session musicians , whom he said were " technically proficient " but sounded soulless .
At the end of 2010 , The Sea was named the year 's best album by The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan , while Powers ranked it ninth on her year @-@ end list of 2010 's best albums . It was also nominated for the 2010 Mercury Prize , awarded annually for the best record from the UK or Ireland ; Rae lost out to The xx 's self @-@ titled 2009 album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Super Rich Kids =
" Super Rich Kids " is a song by American recording artist Frank Ocean , and the fifth single from his debut studio album , Channel Orange . It was first performed live by Ocean in 2011 and then on his channel ORANGE tour in 2012 . The single was released in March 2013 . The song is in the style of R & B and neo soul , and includes references to and samples of the songs " Bennie and the Jets " by Elton John , " Got to Give It Up " by Marvin Gaye , and " Real Love " by Mary J. Blige . It addresses young , wealthy characters ' ennui and fears of the financial crisis with dry humor . The song received positive critical responses and charted on the Billboard R & B Songs chart and the UK singles and R & B chart . The song also appeared on the TV show Gossip Girl and the film The Bling Ring .
= = Background = =
" Super Rich Kids " was written by Frank Ocean , Malay , Earl Sweatshirt , Kirk Robinson , Nathaniel Robinson Jr . , Roy Hammond , Mark Morales and Mark Rooney and produced by Malay . Ocean and Malay came up with " Super Rich Kids " on their first day working together on Ocean 's debut album , channel ORANGE . According to Ocean , the 2000 film Traffic was an inspiration for the song . Ocean first performed the song during his debut solo tour in 2011 , and later performed it on the Channel Orange tour . The single release was originally announced on January 23 , 2013 . It was released in Britain on March 11 , and in the United States on the 17th .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
" Super Rich Kids " is an R & B and neo soul ballad set in common time and a slow half @-@ time groove tempo of 60 beats per minute . The key the song is in is E ♭ major , with a chord progression of E ♭ maj9 − G ♭ 6 / A ♭ − D ♭ maj7 − B ♭ 7sus4 − B ♭ aug followed throughout the song . The song includes a piano part that references the thumping piano line of Elton John 's 1973 song " Bennie and the Jets " , and horns and synth arpeggios are also present . According to The Quietus , " a stomping piano and the steady smack of kickdrum anchors the ghostly crowd noise from a vast débutantes ball , as the synths quiver both nauseously and as subtly as candle @-@ smoke in a floor draft . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
" Super Rich Kids " addresses young , wealthy characters ' ennui and fears of the financial crisis with dry humor . The song 's chorus takes the lyrics from Mary J. Blige 's " Real Love " . The track includes a verse from Earl Sweatshirt , which , according to Complex , is a reminder of Ocean as " OFWGKTA at the end of the day . " Paste Magazine said that " Earl 's low verses push Ocean way up into his vocal range . "
According to Sound and Motion Magazine , the track
" is exactly as the title suggests ; Frank ’ s view on the children of parents who have inherited massive trust funds without the grasp of what a huge responsibility it is and the good they could do . From expensive cars to a different woman every night , the alleged social elite stumble through a charmed existence where the real world is buffered from them and then they breed a new generation with the same attitude . The track also contains brief glimpses into what he perceives as an alternative view of loneliness and isolation where all the super rich want is a love that ’ s not about money or anything material . "
" Super Rich Kids " is described by Muso 's Guide as " a contemporary version of a Jay McInerney novel , " and by The Independent as " something Carole King knocked out in the 1970s . " HipHopDX.com said that " at no point are the lyrics judgemental . If anything they ’ re compassionate . " The song also takes samples from Marvin Gaye 's " Got to Give It Up " , and a reference to the 1970s sitcom Good Times ( the " Dy @-@ no @-@ mite ! " catchphrase of the character J.J. Evans ) .
= = Critical reception = =
The single was positively reviewed by critics . Sound and Motion magazine said that it " could easily be listened to repeatedly or just set on in the background for an evening 's entertainment . " Muso 's Guide said the song " could be viewed as one of those tail end singles from a brilliant album that doesn 't stand strong on its own ( Can anyone remember ' Until The End of Time ' from FutureSex / LoveSounds or ' Broken @-@ Hearted Girl ' from I am ... Sasha Fierce ? ) . Ocean , proving his talent as a songwriter , and a jaded voice for this frustrated introspective generation is able to find something profound from a superficial world . " The song became an Editor 's Pick on djbooth.net.
Critical reactions of the song in reviews of channel ORANGE were also positive . Time called the track a " stand out , tying together the album ’ s two themes of class and love . " Billboard , in a track @-@ by @-@ track review , said that " the steadiness of the beat is immediately familiar but wholly fresh -- it 's like Ocean snatched ' Benny and the Jets ' and threw the composition down a trap door into another universe . " No Ripcord said that " it 's so incongruous against the crass commercialism and consuming greed that pervades so much of popular culture that it 's astonishing . "
Complex listed Earl Sweatshirt 's appearance in the song # 15 on their " 25 Best Guest Verses of 2012 " .
= = In other media = =
" Super Rich Kids " appeared on the Gossip Girl episode " Monstrous Ball " , along with four other Frank Ocean tracks : " Lost " , " Pyramids " , " Sweet Life " and " Thinkin Bout You " . The song also appears as the seventeenth track on the soundtrack for the film The Bling Ring . The song was also covered by Misha B.
= = Lawsuit = =
In 2014 , record label TufAmerica filled a copyright lawsuit against Vivendi and Universal Music Group for the sampling of Mary J. Blige 's " Real Love " in " Super Rich Kids " . This was because , according to the lawsuit , the sample included a sample of " Impeach the President " .
= = Chart positions = =
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= Jovan Vladimir =
Jovan Vladimir or John Vladimir ( Serbian Cyrillic : Јован Владимир ; c . 990 – 22 May 1016 ) was the ruler of Duklja , the most powerful Serbian principality of the time , from around 1000 to 1016 . He ruled during the protracted war between the Byzantine Empire and the First Bulgarian Empire . Vladimir was acknowledged as a pious , just , and peaceful ruler . He is recognized as a martyr and saint , with his feast day being celebrated on 22 May .
Jovan Vladimir had a close relationship with Byzantium but this did not save Duklja from the expansionist Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria , who conquered the principality in around 1010 and took Vladimir prisoner . A medieval chronicle asserts that Samuel 's daughter , Theodora Kosara , fell in love with Vladimir and begged her father for his hand . The tsar allowed the marriage and returned Duklja to Vladimir , who ruled as his vassal . Vladimir took no part in his father @-@ in @-@ law 's war efforts . The warfare culminated with Tsar Samuel 's defeat by the Byzantines in 1014 and death soon after . In 1016 , Vladimir fell victim to a plot by Ivan Vladislav , the last ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire . He was beheaded in front of a church in Prespa , the empire 's capital , and was buried there . He was soon recognized as a martyr and saint . His widow , Kosara , reburied him in the Prečista Krajinska Church , near his court in southeastern Duklja . In 1381 , his remains were preserved in the Church of St Jovan Vladimir near Elbasan , and since 1995 they have been kept in the Orthodox cathedral of Tirana , Albania . The saint 's remains are considered Christian relics , and attract many believers , especially on his feast day , when the relics are taken to the church near Elbasan for a celebration .
The cross Vladimir held when he was beheaded is also regarded as a relic . Traditionally under the care of the Andrović family from the village of Velji Mikulići in southeastern Montenegro , the cross is only shown to believers on the Feast of Pentecost , when it is carried in a procession to the summit of Mount Rumija . Jovan Vladimir is regarded as the first Serbian saint and the patron saint of the town of Bar in Montenegro . His earliest , lost hagiography was probably written sometime between 1075 and 1089 ; a shortened version , written in Latin , is preserved in the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja . His hagiographies in Greek and Church Slavonic were first published , respectively , in 1690 and 1802 . The saint is classically depicted in icons as a monarch wearing a crown and regal clothes , with a cross in his right hand and his own head in his left hand . He is fabled to have carried his severed head to his place of burial .
= = Life = =
Duklja was an early medieval Serbian principality whose borders coincided for the most part with those of present @-@ day Montenegro . The state rose greatly in power after the disintegration of Serbia that followed the death of its ruler , Prince Časlav , around 943 . Though the extent of Časlav 's Serbia is uncertain , it is known that it included at least Raška ( now part of Central Serbia ) and Bosnia . Raška had subsequently come under Duklja 's political dominance , along with the neighboring Serbian principalities of Travunia and Zachlumia ( in present @-@ day Herzegovina and south Dalmatia ) . The Byzantines often referred to Duklja as Serbia .
Around 1000 , Vladimir , still a boy , succeeded his father Petrislav as the ruler of Duklja . Petrislav is regarded as the earliest ruler of Duklja whose existence can be confirmed by primary sources , which also indicate that he was in close relations with Byzantium . The principality consisted of two provinces : Zenta in the south and Podgoria in the north . A local tradition has it that Vladimir 's court was situated on the hillock called Kraljič , at the village of Koštanjica near Lake Skadar , in the Krajina region of southeastern Montenegro . Near Kraljič lie the ruins of the Prečista Krajinska Church ( dedicated to Theotokos ) , which already existed in Vladimir 's time . According to Daniele Farlati , an 18th @-@ century ecclesiastical historian , the court and residence of Serbian rulers once stood in Krajina .
Vladimir 's reign is recounted in Chapter 36 of the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja , completed between 1299 and 1301 ; Chapters 34 and 35 deal with his father and uncles . These three chapters of the chronicle are most likely based on a lost biography of Vladimir written in Duklja sometime between 1075 and 1089 . Both the chronicle and the 11th @-@ century Byzantine historian John Skylitzes described Vladimir as a wise , pious , just , and peaceful ruler .
Vladimir 's reign coincided with a protracted war between the Byzantine Emperor Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) and the ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire , Tsar Samuel ( r . 980 – 1014 ) . Basil II might have sought the support of other Balkan rulers for his fight against Samuel , and he intensified diplomatic contacts with Duklja for this purpose . A Serbian diplomatic mission , most likely sent from Duklja , arrived in the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 992 and was recorded in a charter of the Great Lavra Monastery , written in 993 .
In 1004 or 1005 , Emperor Basil recovered from Samuel the city of Dyrrhachium , the major stronghold on the Adriatic coast , south of Duklja . Since 1005 , Basil had also controlled the coastal lands north and south of that city , parts of the Byzantine Theme of Dyrrhachium . Byzantium thus established a territorial contact with Prince Vladimir 's Duklja , which was in turn connected to the Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia , consisting of Adriatic towns northwest of Duklja . The Republic of Venice , an ally of Byzantium , militarily intervened in Dalmatia in 1000 to protect the towns from attacks by Croats and Narentines . Venetian rule over Dalmatia on behalf of Basil was confirmed by the emperor in 1004 or 1005 . Svetoslav Suronja , a Venetian ally , was crowned Croatian king . Venice , the Dalmatian towns , Croatia , and Vladimir 's Duklja , were thus aligned in a compact pro @-@ Byzantine bloc connected to Byzantium via Dyrrhachium .
The close relations with Byzantium , however , did not help Prince Vladimir . Samuel attacked Duklja in 1009 or 1010 , as part of his campaign aimed at breaking up that pro @-@ Byzantine bloc , which could have threatened him . Vladimir retreated with his army and many of his people to his fortress on a hill named Oblik , close to the southeastern tip of Lake Skadar . According to the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja , he performed a miracle there : the hill was infested with venomous snakes , but when he offered up a prayer to the Lord , their bites became harmless .
Part of Samuel 's army lay siege to the hill , and the remainder attacked the nearby coastal town of Ulcinj , which was part of the fortification system of the Theme of Dyrrhachium . Vladimir eventually surrendered , a decision the chronicle attributed to his wish to deliver his people from famine and the sword . He was sent to a prison in Samuel 's capital of Prespa , located in western Macedonia . Having failed to conquer Ulcinj , which received men and supplies by sea from Dalmatian towns , the tsar directed his forces towards Dalmatia . There , he burned the towns of Kotor and Dubrovnik , and ravaged the region as far northwest as Zadar . He then returned to Bulgaria via Bosnia and Raška . A consequence of this campaign was the Bulgarian occupation of Duklja , Travunia , Zachlumia , Bosnia , and Raška . Venetian , and indirectly Byzantine power in Dalmatia was weakened . Samuel had succeeded in breaking up the pro @-@ Byzantine bloc .
The chronicle states that while Vladimir languished in the Prespa prison , praying day and night , an angel of the Lord appeared to him and foretold that he would shortly be freed , but that he would die a martyr 's death . His fate in captivity was described in a romantic story involving him and Theodora Kosara , Tsar Samuel 's daughter . This is the chronicle 's description of how they met :
It came to pass that Samuel 's daughter , Cossara , was animated and inspired by a beatific soul . She approached her father and begged that she might go down with her maids and wash the head and feet of the chained captives . Her father granted her wish , so she descended and carried out her good work . Noticing Vladimir among the prisoners , she was struck by his handsome appearance , his humility , gentleness and modesty , and the fact that he was full of wisdom and knowledge of the Lord . She stopped to talk to him , and to her his speech seemed sweeter than honey and the honeycomb .
Kosara then begged her father for Vladimir 's hand , and the tsar granted her request . He restored his new son @-@ in @-@ law to the throne of Duklja . In reality , the marriage was probably a result of Samuel 's political assessment : he may have decided that Vladimir would be a more loyal vassal if he was married to his daughter . Resolving thus the question of Duklja , Samuel could concentrate more troops in Macedonia and Thessaly , the main site of his conflict with Byzantium . The chronicle claims that the tsar also gave Vladimir the whole territory of Dyrrachium . The prince could in fact have been given a northern part of that territory , which was partially under Samuel 's rule . A brief note on Vladimir by John Skylitzes may indicate that the prince also received some territory in Raška . His paternal uncle Dragimir , ruler of Travunia and Zachlumia , who had retreated before Samuel 's army , was given back his lands to rule , also as the tsar 's vassal .
Thereafter , as recorded in the chronicle , " Vladimir lived with his wife Cossara in all sanctity and chastity , worshipping God and serving him night and day , and he ruled the people entrusted to him in a Godfearing and just manner . " There are no indications that Vladimir took any part in his father @-@ in @-@ law 's war efforts . The warfare culminated in Samuel 's disastrous defeat by the Byzantines in 1014 , and on 6 October that same year , the tsar died of a heart attack . He was succeeded by his son , Gavril Radomir , whose reign was short : his cousin Ivan Vladislav killed him in 1015 and ruled in his stead . Vladislav sent messengers to Vladimir demanding his attendance at the court in Prespa , but Kosara advised him not to go and went there herself instead . Vladislav received her with honor and urged Vladimir to come as well , sending him a golden cross as a token of safe conduct . The chronicle relates the prince 's reply :
We believe that our Lord Jesus Christ , who died for us , was suspended not on a golden cross , but on a wooden one . Therefore , if both your faith and your words are true , send me a wooden cross in the hands of religious men , then in accordance with the belief and conviction of the Lord Jesus Christ , I will have faith in the life @-@ giving cross and holy wood . I will come .
Two bishops and a hermit came to Vladimir , gave him a wooden cross , and confirmed that the tsar had made a pledge of faith on it . Vladimir kissed the cross and clutched it to his chest , collected a few followers , and set off for Prespa . As he arrived , on 22 May 1016 , he went into a church to pray . When he exited the church , he was struck down by Vladislav 's soldiers and beheaded . According to Skylitzes , Vladimir believed Vladislav 's pledge , told to him by the Bulgarian archbishop David . He then allowed himself to fall into Vladislav 's hands , and was executed . The motivation behind the murder is unclear . Since Samuel 's defeat in 1014 , the Bulgarians had been losing battle after battle , and Vladislav probably suspected or was informed that Vladimir planned to restore Duklja 's alliance with Byzantium . This alliance would be particularly disturbing for Tsar Vladislav because of the proximity of Duklja to Dyrrhachium , which was a target of the tsar 's war efforts .
In early 1018 Vladislav led an unsuccessful attack against Dyrrhachium , outside whose walls he found his death . The chronicle asserts that Vladimir appeared before Vladislav when he dined in his camp outside Dyrrhachium , and slew him while he cried for help . In the same year , the Byzantine army — led by the victorious Emperor Basil — terminated the First Bulgarian Empire . As Vladimir and Kosara had no children , his successor was his uncle Dragimir , ruler of Travunia and Zachlumia . Accompanied by soldiers , he set off for Duklja to establish himself as its ruler , probably in the first half of 1018 . When he came to Kotor , the town 's inhabitants ambushed and killed him after inviting him to a banquet , and his soldiers returned to Travunia . Duklja was not mentioned again in the sources until the 1030s . Some scholars believe that it was placed under direct Byzantine rule around 1018 , while others believe it remained a Byzantine vassal state under an unknown native ruler .
= = Cult = =
Jovan Vladimir was buried in Prespa , in the same church in front of which he was martyred . His relics soon became famous as miraculously healing , attracting many people to his tomb . Shortly after his death he was recognized as a martyr and saint , being commemorated on 22 May , his feast day . At that time , saints were recognized without any formal rite of canonization . Vladimir was the first ruler of a Serbian state who was elevated to sainthood . The rulers from the Nemanjić dynasty , who reigned over the Serbian state which grew around Raška , would almost all be canonized — starting with Nemanja , the saintly founder of the dynasty .
Several years after his burial , Kosara transported the remains to Duklja . She interred him in the Prečista Krajinska Church , near his court , in the region of Skadarska Krajina . The relics drew many devotees to the church , which became a center of pilgrimage . Kosara did not remarry ; at her request , she was interred in Prečista Krajinska , at the feet of her husband . In around 1215 — when Krajina was under the rule of Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanjić — the relics were presumably removed from this church and transported to Dyrrhachium by the troops of Michael I , the despot of Epirus . At that time Despot Michael had briefly captured from Serbia the city of Skadar , which is only about 20 km ( 12 mi ) east of the church . Jovan Vladimir was mentioned as the patron saint of Dyrrhachium in a Greek liturgical text .
In 1368 Dyrrhachium was taken from the Angevins by Karlo Thopia , an Albanian lord . In 1381 he rebuilt , in Byzantine style , a church ruined in an earthquake in the narrow valley of the stream Kusha , a tributary of the Shkumbin River — near the site of the town of Elbasan in central Albania ( built in the 15th century ) . The church was dedicated to Saint Jovan Vladimir , as the inscription which Thopia placed above its south entrance declared in Greek , Latin , and Serbian . The saint 's relics were kept in a reliquary , a wooden casket , which was enclosed in a shrine , 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in height , within the church .
Serbian scholar Stojan Novaković theorized that Vladimir was buried near Elbasan immediately after his death . Novaković conjectured that the earthquake which ruined the old church happened during Thopia 's rule , and that Thopia reinstated the relics in the rebuilt church . If Vladimir was previously buried in Duklja , Novaković reasoned , he would not be absent , as he was , from Serbian sources written during the reign of the Nemanjić dynasty , who ruled over Duklja ( later named Zeta ) from 1186 to 1371 . Novaković did not consider the idea that the relics might have been removed from Duklja to Dyrrhachium in around 1215 . He commented on the chronicle 's account that Kosara transported Vladimir 's body " to a place known as Krajina , where his court was " : While his court was possibly in the region of Krajina before his captivity , after he married Kosara it could have been near Elbasan , in the territory of Dyrrachium he received from Tsar Samuel . He was interred near the latter court , which was replaced in the chronicle with the former .
An Orthodox monastery grew around the church near Elbasan , and became the center of veneration of Saint Jovan Vladimir , which was limited to an area around the monastery . In the latter half of the 15th century , the territory of present @-@ day Albania was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire , in which Islam was the privileged religion . After losing the Battle of Vienna in 1683 , the Ottomans went on the defensive in Europe . In the climate of revival of Christianity in the Ottoman Empire , a hagiography of the saint and a service to him were written in Greek in 1690 at the monastery . It stood under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Ohrid , which became a notable spiritual and artistic force during the leadership of Archbishop Joasaph from 1719 to 1745 . In this period , the veneration of Saint Jovan Vladimir was promoted in southern Albania and western Macedonia , as well as beyond the archbishopric , in Bulgaria and among the Serbs in the Kingdom of Hungary .
The monastery became the see of the newly founded Archbishopric of Dyrrhachium in the second half of the 18th century . In more recent times the monastery fell into disrepair , and in the 1960s it was closed by Albania 's Communist authorities ; in 1967 the reliquary with the saint 's relics was moved to St Mary 's Church in Elbasan . The dilapidated monastery was returned to the Church in the 1990s . The restoration of its church and other buildings was completed in 2005 . Since around 1995 the relics have been kept in the Orthodox cathedral of Tirana , the capital of Albania , and are brought back to the monastery only for the saint 's feast day .
Each year on the Feast of Saint Jovan Vladimir , a great number of devotees come to the monastery , popularly known as Shingjon among Albanians . In the morning , the reliquary is placed at the center of the church under a canopy , before being opened . After the morning liturgy has been celebrated , chanting priests carry the reliquary three times around the church , followed by the devotees , who hold lit candles . The reliquary is then placed in front of the church , to be kissed by the believers . The priests give them pieces of cotton that have been kept inside the reliquary since the previous feast . There are numerous stories about people , both Christians and Muslims , who were healed after they prayed before the saint 's relics .
On the eve of the Feast of Saint Jovan Vladimir , an all @-@ night vigil is celebrated in the churches dedicated to the saint , as is celebrated in other Orthodox churches on the eves of their patron saints ' feasts . The liturgical celebration of Vladimir 's feast day begins on the evening of 21 May , because , in the Orthodox Church , the liturgical day is reckoned from one evening to the next . Despite the name of the service , the all @-@ night vigil is usually not held throughout the entire night , and may last only for two hours . In the Church of St Jovan Vladimir near Elbasan , it lasts from 9 pm to 3 am . Hymns either to Jovan Vladimir or to another saint whose commemoration falls on 22 May , are chanted , on that liturgical day , at set points during services in all Orthodox churches .
Saint Jovan Vladimir is the patron saint of the modern @-@ day town of Bar in south Montenegro , built at its present location in 1976 about 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the site of the old town of Bar , which was destroyed in a war and abandoned in 1878 . A religious procession celebrating the saint passes on his feast day through the town 's streets with church banners and icons . The procession is usually led by the Serbian Orthodox Metropolitan of Montenegro and the Littoral . The bronze sculpture King Jovan Vladimir , 4 m ( 13 ft ) in height , was installed at the central square of Bar in 2001 ; it is a work by sculptor Nenad Šoškić . Although Vladimir was only a prince , he is referred to as " king " in the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja . He is called the Holy King in southeastern Montenegro , and hence the hillock thought to be the site of his court is named Kraljič ( kralj means " king " ) .
= = = Cross of Vladimir = = =
A cross , held by tradition to be the one that Jovan Vladimir received from Ivan Vladislav , and had in his hands when he was martyred , is a highly valued relic . It is under the care of the Andrović family from the village of Velji Mikulići near Bar and , according to the Androvićs , has been for centuries . The cross is made of yew wood plated with silver , with a brass ball attached to its lower arm , into which a stick is inserted when the cross is carried . The cross is 45 cm ( 18 in ) high , 38 cm ( 15 in ) wide , and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
According to Russian scholars Ivan Yastrebov and Pavel Rovinski , the cross was originally kept in the Prečista Krajinska Church , in which Kosara had interred Vladimir . The peak of Islamization of the Krajina region was reached at the end of 18th century . The church was torn down , though it is uncertain when and by whom , but the cross was preserved by the people of the region . They believed that it could protect against evil and ensure a rich harvest , and kept it as sacred , although they had converted to Islam . The cross was later taken from them by the neighboring clan of Mrkojevići . As they too converted to Islam , they entrusted the cross to the Andrović family — their Orthodox Christian neighbors . The Mrkojevići considered it more appropriate for the cross to be kept in a Christian home , rather than in a Muslim one .
The cross , followed by a religious procession , is carried each year on the Feast of Pentecost from Velji Mikulići to the summit of Mount Rumija . The procession is preceded by a midnight liturgy in the village 's Church of St Nicholas . After the liturgy , the ascent begins up a steep path to the 1 @,@ 593 m ( 5 @,@ 226 ft ) summit of Rumija . The cross , carried by a member of the Andrović family , leads the procession , followed by an Orthodox priest and the other participants . Catholics and Muslims of the region have traditionally participated in the procession . It is carefully observed that no one precedes the cross ; to do so is considered a bad omen . The ascending devotees sing :
In the past , the standard @-@ bearer of the Mrkojevići clan , a Muslim , walked next to the cross with a flag in his left and a knife in his right hand , ready to use it if anyone attempted to take the cross . The clan especially feared that the participants from Krajina might try to recover the sacred object . At the end of 19th century the number of Muslims in the procession dropped as their religious and political leaders disapproved of their participation in it . After World War II , Yugoslavia 's socialist government discouraged public religious celebrations , and the procession was not held between 1959 and 1984 .
Tradition has it that a church dedicated to the Holy Trinity stood at the summit until it was razed by the Ottomans ; in another version , the church crumbled after a boy and a girl sinned within . Before 2005 , there was a custom to pick up a stone at a certain distance from the peak and carry it to the supposed site of the church in the belief that when a sufficient quantity of stones were collected , the church would rebuild itself . A new church dedicated to the Holy Trinity was consecrated on the site by the Serbian Orthodox Church on 31 July 2005 .
The procession arrives at the peak before dawn , and at sunrise the morning liturgy begins . After prayers have been offered , the procession goes back to Velji Mikulići , again following the cross . The participants would formerly gather on a flat area 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the peak , where they would spend some five or six hours in a joyous celebration and sports , and have a communal meal . On the way back , some people pick the so @-@ called herb of Rumija ( Onosma visianii ) , whose root is reputed for its medicinal properties . The procession ends at the Church of St Nicholas , and folk festivities at Velji Mikulići continue into the night . Until the next Feast of Pentecost , the cross is kept at a secret location . It was formerly known only to two oldest male members of the Andrović family , and since around 2000 the Androvićs have appointed a committee to keep the cross .
= = = Hagiography and iconography = = =
The oldest preserved hagiography of Saint Jovan Vladimir is contained in Chapter 36 of the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja . This chronicle , written in Latin , was completed between 1299 and 1301 in the town of Bar , then part of the Serbian Kingdom . Its author was Rudger , the Catholic Archbishop of Bar , who was probably of Czech origin . He wrote Chapter 36 as a summary of an older hagiography of Vladimir , written in Duklja most likely sometime between 1075 and 1089 . This is the period when Duklja 's rulers from the Vojislavljević dynasty endeavored to obtain the royal insignia from the Pope , and to elevate the Bar Bishopric to an archbishopric . They represented Prince Vladimir as the saintly founder of their dynasty ; they were , according to the chronicle , descendants of his uncle Dragimir . The Vojislavljevićs succeeded in those endeavors , though Vladimir was not recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church . Despite its hagiographic nature , Chapter 36 contains a lot of reliable historical data . Chapters 34 and 35 , which deal with Vladimir 's father and uncles , are probably based on the prologue of the 11th @-@ century hagiography . Chapters 1 – 33 of the chronicle are based on oral traditions and its author 's constructions , and are for the most part dismissed by historians .
The hagiography in the chronicle is the source for the " Poem of King Vladimir " composed in the 18th century by a Franciscan monk from Dalmatia , Andrija Kačić Miošić . The poem is part of Miošić 's history of the South Slavs in prose and verse , written in the Croatian vernacular of Dalmatia . This book was first printed in Venice in 1756 and was soon read beyond Dalmatia , including Serbia and Bulgaria ( then under Ottoman rule , as was most of the Balkans ) . The " Poem of King Vladimir " is composed in a manner derived from the style of the South Slavic oral epics . It describes Vladimir 's captivity in Bulgaria , the love between Kosara and him , Tsar Samuel 's blessing of their marriage , and their wedding . It concludes with the newlyweds setting off for Vladimir 's court , which Miošić places in the Herzegovinian city of Trebinje .
The Greek akolouthia on Saint Jovan Vladimir , containing his hagiography , prayers to him , and hymns to be chanted in church services on his feast day , was printed in Venice in 1690 . The book was reprinted with small changes in 1774 and 1858 . It was written from oral traditions by the deputy of the Orthodox Archbishop of Ohrid , Cosmas , who resided at the Monastery of St Jovan Vladimir , near Elbasan . Copies of the book were distributed to other Orthodox churches and individuals . The akolouthia was also published in 1741 in Moscopole , an Aromanian center in southeastern Albania , as part of a compilation dedicated to saints popular in that region . A shorter hagiography of the saint , based on his life contained in this akolouthia , was included in the Synaxarium composed by Nicodemus the Hagiorite , printed in Venice ( 1819 ) and Athens ( 1868 ) . Cosmas 's text was the basis for the Church Slavonic akolouthias on the saint , which appeared in Venice ( 1802 ) and Belgrade ( 1861 ) . The latter was printed as part of the third edition of Srbljak , a compendium of akolouthias on Serb saints , published by the Serbian Orthodox Church . The saint 's life in English , translated from Church Slavonic , appeared in the book Lives of the Serbian Saints , published in London in 1921 by the Anglican Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge .
In Cosmas 's writing , the saint was named " Jovan from Vladimir " ; his father was Nemanja ( historically , Grand Prince of Raška from 1166 to 1196 ) , and his grandfather was Simeon ( Bulgarian Tsar from 893 to 927 ) . He married a daughter of Samuel , the tsar of Bulgaria and Ohrid . He succeeded his father as emperor of Albania , Illyria , and Dalmatia . After Byzantine Emperor Basil defeated Tsar Samuel , Emperor Jovan defeated Basil . He also fought against the Bogomil and Messalian heretics . From his early youth , Jovan Vladimir longed for the Kingdom of God . After he was married , he prayed day and night , and abstained from intercourse with his wife . She was a heretic like her brother , whom she incited to kill Jovan . When the two brothers @-@ in @-@ law rode together , accompanied by soldiers , the heretic suddenly struck Jovan with a sword at a mountain pass named Derven , but could not cut him . Only when Jovan gave him his own sword was the murderer able to cut off his head . Jovan caught it in the air and rode on to the church he had built near Elbasan . There he put his head down , saying , " Lord Jesus Christ , in your hands I place my spirit , " and died ; it was AD 899 . He was buried in the church , which then became the scene of many miracles . The saint 's beneficent power is described in the hagiography :
According to Vladimir 's life in Church Slavonic , he succeeded his father Petrislav as the ruler of Serbian lands ; he ruled from the town of Alba . He was captured and imprisoned by the Bulgarian ruler Samuel . After marrying Samuel 's daughter Kosara , he returned to his country . Emperor Basil , having overcome Bulgaria , attacked the Serbian lands , but Vladimir repulsed him . Basil advised the new Bulgarian ruler , Vladislav , to kill Vladimir by trickery . Vladislav invited Vladimir to visit him , as if to discuss the needs of their peoples . When Kosara came to him instead , Vladislav received her with apparent kindness ; therefore Vladimir came as well . Vladislav was able to cut off his head only after Vladimir gave him his own sword . The saint then carried his severed head to the church he had built near Alba , and died there ; it was AD 1015 . He was buried in the church . During Vladislav 's siege of Dyrrachium , Vladimir appeared before his murderer when he dined , and slew him while he cried for help . The saint 's relics then gushed myrrh , curing various illnesses . The kontakion which is contained , among other hymns , in the Church Slavonic akolouthia published as part of Srbljak , praises the saint :
In a Bulgarian liturgical book written in 1211 , Vladimir was included in a list of tsars of the First Bulgarian Empire : " To Boris , . . . Samuel , Gavril Radomir , Vladimir , and Vladislav , ancient Bulgarian tsars , who inherited both the earthly and the heavenly empires , Memory Eternal . " According to the earliest work of Bulgarian historiography composed in 1762 by Paisius of Hilendar , Vladimir , also named Vladislav , was a Bulgarian tsar and saint . His father was Aron , Tsar Samuel 's brother . His wife and her brother murdered him because of his pure life and Orthodox faith . Paisius combined Ivan Vladislav and Jovan Vladimir into one character attributed with Vladislav 's parentage and Vladimir 's sainthood .
An important model for the iconography of Saint Jovan Vladimir is an engraving in the 1690 edition of the Greek akolouthia . It is a work by Venetian engraver Isabella Piccini . She depicted the saint with a mustache and short beard , wearing a cloak and a crown inscribed with lilies , holding a cross in his right hand , and his severed head in his left hand . A portable icon in Saint Catherine 's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula , dated around 1700 , shows the saint mounted on horseback .
An icon of Saints Marina and Jovan Vladimir , dated 1711 , is part of the iconostasis of the Monastery of St Naum near Ohrid in western Macedonia . The icon 's position on the iconostasis indicates that Vladimir was an important figure of local veneration . He was often depicted in the company of Saints Clement and Naum in Macedonian churches . A number of 18th @-@ century painters from central and southern Albania painted the saint in churches of the region , especially in the area of Moscopole . A portable icon of the saint was created in 1739 at the Ardenica Monastery in southwestern Albania . It depicts him seated on a throne , surrounded by twelve panels showing scenes of his life and miracles . Saint Jovan Vladimir is represented on frescos in three monasteries of Mount Athos : Hilandar , Zograf , and Philotheou ; and three Bulgarian monasteries : Rila , Troyan , and Lozen .
Hristofor Žefarović , an artist from Macedonia , painted the frescos in the rebuilt church of the Serbian Monastery of Bođani , in the Bačka region ( then part of the Kingdom of Hungary ) in 1737 . There , he depicted Jovan Vladimir in a row of six Serb saints , wearing a crown and sceptre , clad in a full @-@ length tunic , loros ( a type of stole ) , and chlamys . In the same row stands another Serb saint from present @-@ day Montenegro , Stefan Štiljanović . Žefarović 's frescos in Bođani are regarded as the earliest work showing Baroque traits in the Serbian art . Žefarović created in 1742 in Vienna a copperplate with scenes of the saint 's life and miracles . Its printed impressions were disseminated to many Orthodox Christian homes in the Balkans . The same author included him among the rulers and saints whom he illustrated in his Stemmatographia .
A lithography in the 1858 edition of the Greek akolouthia shows the saint wearing a crown with a double lily wreath , his right foot on a sword . He holds a cross , a sceptre , and an olive branch in his right hand , while his crowned severed head is in his left hand . He wears an ermine cloak and a robe with floral designs , adorned with large gems surrounded by pearls . The Greek text beneath the illustration names the saint as Jovan Vladimir , the pious Emperor of all Albania and Bulgaria , the graceful Wonderworker and Great Martyr , and true Myrrh @-@ gusher . In his hagiography included in the Synaxarium of Nicodemus the Hagiorite , the saint is referred to as Emperor of the Serbs ( τῶν Σέρβων βασιλεύς ) .
= = = Legends = = =
Several legends about Jovan Vladimir have been recorded in western Macedonia . One has it that , after he was beheaded , he brought his head to the Monastery of St John of Bigor . On a hill above the village of Pesočani in the Municipality of Debarca , there is a locality called Vladimirovo , at which some ruins can be seen . The locals claimed that Vladimir was born there , and brought his severed head there . The Church of St Athanasius near Pesočani , now in ruins , is reputed to have been built by Vladimir . People from the region gathered there each year on the eve of his feast day . They lit candles on the remains of the church 's walls , and prayed to the saint . Tradition has it that the Monastery of St Naum had a bell tower named after the saint , in the foundation of which a portion of his relics was placed .
In the western fringe of Macedonia , which is now part of Albania , Jovan Vladimir was remembered as a saintly ruler , cut down by his father @-@ in @-@ law , an emperor , who believed some slander that he was a womanizer . The enraged emperor , accompanied by soldiers , found Vladimir on a mountain pass named Qafë Thanë ( also known as Derven ) , on the road between the Macedonian town of Struga and Elbasan . He struck his son @-@ in @-@ law with a sword , but could not cut him . Only when Vladimir gave him his own sword was the emperor able to cut off his head . Vladimir took his severed head and went toward the site of his future church . There stood an oak , under which he fell after the tree bowed down before him . The saint was interred in the church which was subsequently built at that place and dedicated to him .
According to a legend recorded in the Greek hagiography , Jovan Vladimir built the church near Elbasan . Its location , deep in a dense forest , was chosen by God , and an eagle with a shining cross on its head showed it to Vladimir . After the saint was decapitated , he brought his head to the church , and was buried inside . A group of Franks once stole the casket with his miraculous relics . The casket turned out to be extremely heavy , breaking the backs of hinnies on which the Franks carried it . They eventually put it in the Shkumbin River to take it to the sea , but the river flooded , and the casket — radiating light — went back upstream toward the church . The inhabitants of that area took it out of the water and returned it to the church in a festive procession .
A group of thieves stole , on a summer day , horses that belonged to the Monastery of St Jovan Vladimir . When they came to the nearby stream of Kusha to take the horses across , it appeared to them like an enormous river . They moved away from it in fear , but when they looked back from a distance , the stream appeared small . As they approached it again , the Kusha again became huge and impassable . After several such attempts to cross the stream , the thieves realized that this was a miracle of the saint , so they released the monastery 's horses and ran away in horror .
A possible legend of Prince Vladimir was recorded by Branislav Nušić in the 19th century in the city of Korçë , southeastern Albania , close to Macedonia . Ruins on top of a hill above Korçë were said to be remains of the court of a Latin ( Catholic ) king , whose kingdom neighbored the state of an Orthodox emperor . The king asked the hand of the emperor 's daughter , who agreed to become his wife only if he built an Orthodox church . He did so , and she married him , but on the first night of marriage she killed him . She then became a nun , and the king 's body was taken somewhere — he was not buried near his court . Macedonian Slavs inhabiting Saint Achillius Island in the Small Prespa Lake in Greece told of an emperor named Mirče . He lived on their island , where he was killed by a cousin of his out of jealousy , and his body was taken via Ohrid to Albania .
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= United States at the 2008 Summer Paralympics =
The United States sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , China . A total of 213 U.S. competitors took part in 18 sports ; the only 2 sports Americans did not compete in were soccer 5 @-@ a @-@ side and 7 @-@ a @-@ side . The American delegation included 16 former members of the U.S. military , including 3 veterans of the Iraq War . Among them were shot putter Scott Winkler , who was paralyzed in an accident in Iraq , and swimmer Melissa Stockwell , a former United States Army officer who lost her left leg to a roadside bomb in the war .
The United States finished third in the gold and overall medal count , behind host nation China and Great Britain . The finish was an improvement from the 2004 Paralympics , where the U.S. finished fourth in the gold and overall medal count . The U.S. saw significant gains in Paralympic swimming , winning 17 gold medals and 44 total medals , 9 more than they took home from Athens . U.S. swimmers set a total of 16 world records , 23 Paralympic records , 48 Pan American records and 99 American records . U.S. coverage of the Games was provided by the Universal Sports Television Network and the official website of the U.S. Paralympic Team , usparalympics.org.
= = Disability classifications = =
Every participant at the Paralympics had their disability grouped into one of five disability categories : amputation ( either congenital or sustained through injury or illness ) ; cerebral palsy ; wheelchair athletes ( often overlapping with other categories ) ; visual impairment ( including blindness ) ; and les autres ( any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories , for example dwarfism or multiple sclerosis ) . Each Paralympic sport then had its own classifications , depending on the specific physical demands of the competition . Events were given a code , made of numbers and letters , describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing . Some sports , such as athletics , divided athletes by both the category and severity of their disabilities . Other sports , such as swimming , grouped competitors from different categories together , the only separation being based on the severity of the disability .
Athletes may have competed against individuals with different classifications in the same event . For example , track and field athlete Jim Bob Bizzell competed in the men 's 200 meters T44 ; the prefix T designated a track event and 44 was the disability classification . Although he finished behind Oscar Pistorius ( competing under the T43 class ) , Bizell set a world record in the T44 classification . For specific classification information , see the pages for individual sports at 2008 Summer Paralympics # Sports .
= = Medalists = =
The following American athletes won medals at the games ; all dates are for September 2008 . In the ' by discipline ' sections below , medalists ' names are in bold .
= = Archery = =
The American archery team consisted of seven men and one woman . The highest placed finishers were Lindsey Carmichael and Jeff Fabry , who each won a bronze medal . T. J. Pemberton and Joe Bailey competed against each other in the quarterfinals of the men 's individual compound open , with Pemberton winning and going on to finish fourth in that event .
= = Track and field ( athletics ) = =
The American track and field team consisted of 26 men and 17 women . Among them was shot putter Scott Winkler , a U.S. Army veteran who was paralyzed in Tikrit , Iraq in 2003 after he fell off a truck while holding 50 pounds of ammunition . The team set six world records and won a total of nine gold , fourteen silver , and five bronze medals , two more medals than the team won in Athens . Jessica Galli won five medals , more than any other team member , while Amanda McGrory , Tatyana McFadden , and Jim Bob Bizzell each won at least three medals . Jeremy Campbell was the only U.S. track and field athlete to win two golds .
Men
Legend : Q – Qualifiers for the final as decided on a basis of rank within heat ; WR = World Record ; PR = Paralympic Record
Women
Legend : Q – Qualifiers for the final as decided on a basis of rank within heat ; WR = World Record ; PR = Paralympic Record
= = Boccia = =
The U.S. boccia team consisted of a single competitor , T. J. Hawker . Hawker lost his four pool stage matches and did not advance to the knock @-@ out stage .
= = Cycling = =
The initial members of the 2008 U.S. Paralympic Cycling Team were named on June 6 , 2008 after the 2008 U.S. Paralympics Cycling National Championships in Morrison , Colorado . The final roster included thirteen athletes ( seven men and six women ) . The team entered the Games with a goal of two gold and ten medals total . They surpassed their goal , finishing with fourteen medals : five gold , five silver , and four bronze .
Factor time
To ensure a fair event when athletes with differing disabilities compete , times achieved were sometimes modified by a percentage rate , to produce a result known as " Factor Time " . It is this time that decided the result of the races , and is listed below . Where this differs from the actual time recorded , actual time is also listed .
= = = Road = = =
Men
Women
= = = Track = = =
Men
Women
= = Equestrian = =
The only equestrian events held in the Paralympic Games are in the Dressage discipline . Five American riders competed , in both individual and team events .
= = Goalball = =
Goalball is a Paralympic sport played by athletes who are blind and visually impaired . At the 2008 Paralympics , the U.S. men 's goalball team hoped to repeat their bronze medal performance in Athens , but lost to Sweden in the final . The U.S. women 's goalball team improved on their silver medal performance in Athens , defeating China in the gold medal match .
Men
Women
= = Judo = =
Jordan Mouton was selected as the only U.S. representative in the women 's division at the 2008 U.S. Paralympic Trials for Judo . All four American men went uncontested at the Trials and were automatically selected for the team . Greg DeWall , a first @-@ time Paralympian , won a bronze medal in the Men 's + 100 kilogram class .
= = Powerlifting = =
The U.S. powerlifting team consisted of two competitors , Mary Stack and Andy Wise . All of Stack 's lifts were declared invalid . She faltered and missed on her first two attempts to lift 110 kg . On her third attempt , Stack managed to lift the weight but the judges did not accept the lift and she was disqualified . Wise completed two valid lifts , the maximum of which was 150 kg , and finished in eleventh place .
Key : NMR = No marks recorded
= = Rowing = =
The 2008 U.S. Paralympic Rowing Team was selected after the 2008 U.S. Rowing National Championships in West Windsor , N.J. and was composed of nine athletes . This was the first time rowing has appeared as a medal sport in the Paralympic Games . Laura Schwanger , who has multiple sclerosis and won ten medals in track and field across three Paralympics , battled back from breast cancer treatment to win a bronze medal in women 's single sculls at age 49 . The U.S. mixed coxed four team rallied in the final 100 m of their 1000 m race to take the silver medal .
Qualification Legend : R = Repechage ; FA = Final A ( medal ) ; FB = Final B ( non @-@ medal )
= = Sailing = =
The United States entered crews in all three of the sailing events , held in the Qingdao International Sailing Centre . Maureen McKinnon @-@ Tucker and Nick Scandone clinched a gold medal in the SKUD @-@ 18 class with two races left in the series . First @-@ time Paralympian John Ruf won a bronze medal in a competitive 2 @.@ 4 mR final race , where the top seven players of the fleet started within single @-@ digit points of each other .
= = Shooting = =
The U.S. sent two athletes ( one man and one woman ) to compete in the shooting events at the Paralympics .
= = Swimming = =
The 2008 U.S. Paralympic Swimming Trials were held on April 3 – 5 at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis , Minnesota . A total of 38 swimming athletes ( 20 male and 18 female ) were selected to represent the U.S. at the 2008 Paralympic Games . Melissa Stockwell , a former United States Army officer who lost her left leg to a roadside bomb , became the first Iraq War veteran to be selected for the Paralympics . The roster also included Dave Denniston , an NCAA champion in the 200 @-@ yard breast stroke , two @-@ time Olympic hopeful , and world record breaker who was paralyzed in a 2005 sledding accident .
The U.S. Paralympic Swimming Team left Beijing with 17 gold , 14 silver and 13 bronze medals . The total of 44 medals was 9 more than they took home from Athens . Out of the 38 athletes on the team , 19 received a medal . U.S. swimmers set a total of 16 world records , 23 Paralympic records , 48 Pan American records and 99 American records .
Men
* Listed as finishing heats in ninth place , but started the final in place of eighth @-@ place qualifier Rudy Garcia @-@ Tolson Legend : Q – Qualifiers for the next round as decided on a time only basis . Ranks shown are overall rank against competitors in all heats ; WR = World Record ; PR = Paralympic Record
Women
Legend : Q – Qualifiers for the next round as decided on a time only basis . Ranks shown are overall rank against competitors in all heats ; WR = World Record ; PR = Paralympic Record
= = Table tennis = =
The United States sent four athletes ( three men and one woman ) to compete in Paralympic table tennis .
Men
Women
= = Volleyball = =
The U.S. women 's sitting volleyball team upset world number one Netherlands in five sets to reach the gold medal match , where they lost to China for a silver medal . The men 's sitting volleyball team failed to qualify for the Paralympics after losing to Brazil at the 2007 Parapan American Games .
Women 's sitting volleyball
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
The United States qualified for both men 's and women 's wheelchair basketball tournaments at the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation qualifying tournaments for the Americas . The men 's team finished in fourth place after losing to Great Britain in the bronze final . The women 's team successfully defended their 2004 gold medal with a win over Germany .
Men
* Iran withdrew from its quarterfinal match against the United States on September 19 , 2008 . The match had been rescheduled from 11 : 15am to 9 : 00am , but was changed without any logical reason according to the head of Iran 's delegation . As a result , the U.S. was awarded the win by the score of 20 – 0 and automatically advanced to the semi @-@ finals .
Women
= = Wheelchair fencing = =
The United States sent five athletes ( four men and one woman ) to compete in wheelchair fencing .
= = Wheelchair rugby = =
At the Paralympics teams in the sport of wheelchair rugby are made up of mixed classification quadriplegic athletes of both sexes . The United States qualified by winning the 2006 World Wheelchair Rugby Championships and went on to win its third gold medal since wheelchair rugby was introduced as a demonstration sport at the 1996 Atlanta Paralympics .
= = Wheelchair tennis = =
The American wheelchair tennis team consisted of nine players . Lee Hinson , Paul Moran , Jon Rydberg and Stephen Welch competed in the men 's events , Beth Arnoult and Kaitlyn Verfuerth competed in the women 's events , and Brent Poppen , Nick Taylor and David Wagner competed in the mixed quadriplegic events . The tennis team was coached by Dan James , with Jason Hartnett as assistant coach , David Schobel as team leader , and Bill Taylor as the personal care assistant . Taylor and Wagner successfully defended their title in mixed doubles , which they had won four years earlier at the 2004 Paralympics . The two men competed against each other in the bronze medal match of the mixed singles event , with Wagner prevailing .
= = Media coverage = =
U.S. coverage of the 2008 Paralympic Games was provided by the Universal Sports Television Network . Daily live and delayed highlight shows as well as coverage of the opening and closing ceremonies was available on @-@ demand at UniversalSports.com from September 6 – 17 . Daily video highlights were also available at the official website of the U.S. Paralympic Team , usparalympics.org. The Universal Sports television broadcast began on October 8 , followed by seven days of three @-@ hour segments of coverage and a special presentation highlighting the events that was broadcast by NBC on October 18 . A 90 @-@ minute documentary was presented by NBC on November 9 , and was followed by another broadcast of the Games on Universal Sports from November 10 – 16 .
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= Wendover Cut @-@ off =
The Wendover Cut @-@ off , also called the Wendover Road or Wendover Route , is a two @-@ lane highway in the western part of Tooele County in the U.S. state of Utah . Stretching 40 @.@ 3 miles ( 64 @.@ 9 km ) from Wendover to Knolls across the Bonneville Salt Flats , a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert , the cut @-@ off was once part of the primary link between the Nevada state line and Salt Lake City . In 2012 , between 240 and 250 vehicles used the cut @-@ off near its western terminus in Wendover on an average day .
The first roadway across the Great Salt Lake Desert was completed in 1917 as a single @-@ lane highway . It was added to the Utah state highway system in 1919 , and replacement plans had begun to arise as soon as 1921 . In 1923 , the current cut @-@ off was approved for construction and was opened to the traveling public in 1925 . The United States Numbered Highway System brought the arrival of the U.S. Route 40 ( US @-@ 40 ) designation to the highway , on the same day the Lincoln Highway Association agreed to abandon their southerly route to Ely , and route the Lincoln Highway along the cut @-@ off . Later , the cut @-@ off was also designated as part of US @-@ 50 and US @-@ 50 Alternate ( US @-@ 50 Alt ) . Upon the completion of the parallel Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) , the previous U.S. Route designations were deleted from the United States Numbered Highway System , and the cut @-@ off was turned over to the county .
= = Route description = =
The Wendover Cut @-@ off begins at a T @-@ intersection with concurrent Utah State Route 58 ( SR @-@ 58 ) and I @-@ 80 Business in the eastern portion of Wendover , south of Danger Cave . The cut @-@ off travels due east by I @-@ 80 to the north and the now Union Pacific Central Corridor railroad tracks to the south . Leppy Pass Road , exit 4 on I @-@ 80 , provides access to the Bonneville Speedway north of the Interstate . Between SR @-@ 58 and Leppy Pass Road , the highway is designated Federal Aid Route 2654 . Further south , a rest area was built along the southern side of I @-@ 80 , however no road access was provided between the rest area and the cut @-@ off . Metaphor : The Tree of Utah was built on the northern side of I @-@ 80 in the middle of the salt flats further east from the rest area . Before terminating at I @-@ 80 the highway veers north and forms a diamond interchange in the unincorporated community of Knolls . A frontage road continues on the northern side of I @-@ 80 after this interchange . The land that the cut @-@ off was built upon was once compared to as being " as flat as a billiard table . " Unlike more traditional steel or iron culverts , the cut @-@ off uses all timber culverts , as the salt erodes the metal ones too quickly .
Although maintained as part of the Tooele County road network , the portion of the cut @-@ off designated Federal Aid Route 2654 is surveyed by the Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) to measure traffic volumes . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , UDOT calculated between 240 and 250 vehicles used the cut @-@ off near its western terminus . By comparison , traffic on the parallel I @-@ 80 between the Nevada state line and Leppy Pass Road ( the Bonneville Speedway exit , and the end of Federal Aid Route 2654 on the cut @-@ off ) ranges between 6 @,@ 765 and 7 @,@ 345 vehicles per day .
= = History = =
The Western Pacific Railroad line , part of the Feather River Route , that parallels the cut @-@ off was built between 1906 and 1907 , filling a causeway with rock and gravel at a great cost . Along the route across the Great Salt Lake Desert , the railroad served the communities of Arinosa , Barro , and Salduro , which were also served by the new road . The Union Pacific Railroad merged with the Missouri Pacific Railroad and the Western Pacific in December 1982 .
= = = First roads = = =
The Lincoln Highway was the first modern interstate highway completed across the Great Salt Lake Desert , however it was quickly succeeded by the Victory Highway upon its completion . The route of the Lincoln Highway was about 40 miles ( 64 km ) further south of the Victory Highway , and present day I @-@ 80 , and is mostly inaccessible since it lies inside of military areas . The Lincoln Highway also terminated in Ely and not in Wendover . The original route west of Dugway was part of the Pony Express Trail , used between 1860 and 1861 by the Pony Express , and travelers who became disabled near Fish Springs were told to set fire to tumbleweed , as it could be seen by rescuers up to 20 miles ( 32 km ) away .
In December 1919 , the Utah State Legislature approved the newly constructed single @-@ lane Victory Highway as part of the state 's highway system . The Victory Highway was a 3 @,@ 271 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @,@ 264 km ) interstate highway linking New York City to San Francisco in honor of those who served during Great War . The road was constructed after $ 30 thousand ( equivalent to $ 4 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) was approved by the legislature , and another $ 10 thousand ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) was approved by the Salt Lake City Council in September 1914 . Heavy equipment from the nearby Utah @-@ Salduro Company , a potash company , were used during the construction of the single @-@ lane roadway . Tooele County had originally proposed a new gravel road along the salt flats to replace the single @-@ lane highway in 1921 ; however this was met with resistance from county residents , citing the lack of necessity .
= = = Current road = = =
Secretary of Agriculture Henry C. Wallace approved construction of the current two @-@ lane Wendover Cut @-@ Off in 1923 , and the Western Pacific Railroad provided a discounted freight rate to bring in the construction materials to construct the cut @-@ off . Sodium chloride was used as a binder in the road which was under construction by October 1924 , and the $ 380 thousand ( equivalent to $ 26 @.@ 8 million in 2015 ) road was opened by Secretary of Agriculture William M. Jardine and Bureau of Public Roads commissioner Thomas MacDonald on June 13 , 1925 . The cost of the road was part of an estimated $ 1 @.@ 07 billion ( equivalent to $ 75 @.@ 6 billion in 2015 ) 57 @,@ 063 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 91 @,@ 834 km ) road network across the contiguous United States . The opening ceremony of the highway was held in Salduro . The Engineering News @-@ Record called the road " a remarkable piece of construction . "
The Lincoln Highway Association lobbied the U.S. Government to get the Lincoln Highway route to Ely added to the United States Numbered Highway System after the passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 , however the Wendover Cut @-@ off along the Victory Highway was selected instead . The Victory Highway Association called the cut @-@ off the " shortest and most feasible route across the Great Salt Lake Desert " . The US @-@ 40 designation was applied to the Wendover Cut @-@ off on October 20 , 1926 , the same day the Lincoln Highway Association conceded and approved the routing of the Lincoln Highway along the cut @-@ off , abandoning their southerly route to Ely . The US @-@ 50 designation had been applied to the cut @-@ off by 1939 , and by 1957 the US @-@ 50 designation had given way to US @-@ 50 Alt .
In 1959 , radiation clouds crossed the cut @-@ off , spreading radiation between Knolls and Wendover from nuclear tests being conducted at the nearby Dugway Proving Ground . Estimates by the Deseret News put the exposure at 215 @.@ 5 curies ( 7 @.@ 97 TBq ) ; by comparison the Three Mile Island accident only released 15 curies ( 0 @.@ 56 TBq ) of radiation .
During the construction of I @-@ 80 , the cut @-@ off was identified as a frontage road for the new controlled @-@ access highway . One @-@ hundred sixty thousand dollars ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) was spent to repave the cut @-@ off during construction of I @-@ 80 . The US @-@ 40 designation was deleted by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) , in concurrence with UDOT , on August 18 , 1974 , and the US @-@ 50 Alt designation was deleted by AASHTO , also in concurrence with UDOT , on August 27 , 1976 , in effect turning the cut @-@ off over to Tooele County as a county road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Tooele County .
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= Garry Schyman =
Garry Schyman ( born 1954 ) is an American film , television , and video game music composer . He graduated from the University of Southern California with a degree in music composition in 1978 , and began work in the television industry , writing music for such television series as Magnum , P.I. and The A @-@ Team . By 1986 , he was composing for movies such as Judgement and Hit List . At the request of a friend in 1993 , he composed the music for the video game Voyeur , but after creating the music for two more games he left the industry , citing the low budgets and poor quality of video game music at the time . He continued to compose for film and television , only to return to video games for 2005 's Destroy All Humans ! . Finding that in his absence the quality and perceived importance of video game music had risen substantially , he has since composed for several games , writing the scores to BioShock and Dante 's Inferno among others . He still composes for film however , his latest being Brush with Danger directed by young Indonesian director Livi Zheng . He has won numerous awards for his video game scores , including several " soundtrack of the year " awards . Throughout his career , he has worked on over 25 television shows , 10 films , and 13 video games .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Schyman graduated from the University of Southern California in 1978 with a degree in music composition . He intended to compose music for film and television , going so far as to present two student film scores at his senior recital , which was an unconventional move at the time . Upon graduation , through one of his friend 's father , the actor Dennis Weaver , he was invited to watch a recording session for the music of a television show Weaver was working in . There , he met a ghost composer for the show , who in turn told him about a job composing for Lutheran television which he applied for and was hired . He also met the composers Pete Carpenter and Mike Post , the titled composers for the show Weaver had been acting in . They were working on four to five shows each week , and brought him on board as a ghost composer to help them create music for several shows , such as Magnum , P.I. and The Greatest American Hero , for which he is credited for starting in 1980 .
= = = Career = = =
Schyman continued to work in television music composition for the next two decades , working on shows such as The A @-@ Team and Land 's End . Beginning in 1986 he also began to compose music for movies such as Never Too Young to Die . Schyman moved into video game composition with Voyeur , released in 1993 , after being asked to by his friend Robert Weaver , an executive at Philips , which was creating and publishing the game for its CD @-@ i system . He used a live orchestra to score the game , one of the first video games to do so . The soundtrack won the Cybermania Award for best soundtrack . He scored the sequel , released in 1996 , and 1995 's Off @-@ World Interceptor , but afterward Weaver left the company and the games division of Phillips was shut down . Rather than move to a new video game company Schyman left the industry and did not return for almost a decade , later stating that he felt that it was " not a very interesting place for composers at that time " as the budgets were low and the technical music quality poor .
After " orchestral work in TV took a nosedive " , according to Variety , he returned to the industry in 2005 when THQ approached him to compose the soundtrack to Destroy All Humans ! after his agent sent them a demo tape . They offered him a budget large enough for an orchestra and were looking for a style that he found interesting , reminiscent of 1950s movies , and he eagerly accepted the opportunity . The score was appreciated by critics , and was nominated for the Game Audio Network Guild 's " Best Original Instrumental Song " and " Music of the Year " awards . Feeling that in his absence the industry had moved towards wanting " strong orchestral music that is iconic and interesting " and that television music was moving towards " ambient music " that he found uninteresting to compose , he went on to compose scores for several more video games since then . He has composed the score for all three Destroy All Humans ! games as well as several others such as BioShock and Dante 's Inferno . His score for Destroy All Humans ! 2 was nominated for the Game Audio Network Guild 's " Music of the Year " award , while his score for BioShock won numerous awards , including several soundtrack of the year awards .
In addition to his commercial work , he has written a 15 @-@ minute viola concerto entitled " Zingaro " , published by Century City Masterworks . He also composed the song " Praan " , originally written by Rabindranath Tagore for Matt Harding 's " Dancing 2008 " viral video , which earned him the " Best Music Video " award at the Hollywood Music Awards , and the song " Trip the Light " ( sung by Alicia Lemke ) for Matt Harding 's " Dancing 2012 " . Some of Schyman 's work from BioShock has been performed by a live orchestra in the Video Games Live international concert tour from 2007 to date . In addition , " Welcome to Rapture " from BioShock was performed by the Metropole Orchestra at the Games in Concert 3 event in Utrecht , The Netherlands on November 15 , 2008 . In 2010 music from BioShock 2 and Dante 's Inferno had their live performance premieres in Sweden with the Malmo symphony orchestra .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Though he is not opposed to doing work on TV or film scores , Schyman currently prefers to compose music for video games as he feels video game soundtracks give him more freedom and a greater technical challenge . He has said that the video games industry is filled with " nice people whose egos were in check " , which was not always his experience in the film and television industries . However , he feels that his television and film career has been " a great experience " and he " still love [ s ] scoring film and TV " . He names his favorite composer " at the moment " as Gustav Mahler , and some of his favorite music as that from artists such as Prokofiev and Bartók . He enjoys music from the early to mid @-@ 20th century , and finds that it influences many of his scores , such as the ones to BioShock and Dante 's Inferno .
When he first started composing Schyman scored his music by playing it on the piano without the aid of computers , but now he composes digitally using Digital Performer and " the latest technology " . He considers himself to be a " very intuitive composer " , in that he has " something in my mind ’ s ear that I want to achieve " and improvises until the music he is creating matches up with it . He finds that the hardest part of composing for a project is finding the basic concept for the music that he wants to use , rather than composing any of the individual pieces . Although he has written a concerto , Schyman does not regularly compose " art music " pieces , as he finds his commercial work to be " satisfying music from a creative standpoint " .
= = Discography = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Reckoning ( Smallville ) =
" Reckoning " is the twelfth episode of the fifth season of the superhero television series Smallville and the hundredth episode of the overall series . It originally aired on The WB in the United States on January 26 , 2006 , and on E4 in the United Kingdom on March 27 , 2006 . The episode was written by Kelly Souders and Brian Peterson , and directed by Greg Beeman . The series follows the adventures of the young Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) in the town of Smallville , Kansas , before he becomes Superman . In this episode , Clark reveals his secret to Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) , but there are consequences . Jonathan Kent ( John Schneider ) and Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) learn the results of the senatorial election and the life of someone Clark loves is taken from him .
There were originally two potential plotlines for the episode before it was decided that one of the main characters would be killed . This concept was positively received by studio executives . Schneider compared his departure to that of John Wayne in The Cowboys . The theme of the episode was that Clark had to accept the consequences of his decisions . To keep the identity of the imminently deceased secret , the script was given to fewer people and the network issuing promotional trailers that featured the possible deaths of both Lana and Jonathan .
Upon its premiere , " Reckoning " earned a Nielsen household rating of 2 @.@ 2 , and was watched by approximately 6 @.@ 28 million viewers in the United States ; along with an estimated 375 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom . The episode received generally positive reviews from commentators , who felt that Jonathan 's death was both emotional and pivotal . One faction of fans was unhappy with the choice of Jonathan , preferring that Lana would have been killed instead .
= = Plot = =
Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) sits in his loft holding a piece of coal , waiting for Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) to arrive . He then takes her to the Kawatche Caves , where they are transported to the Fortress of Solitude . Lana is in shock as she looks around at the Fortress . Clark expresses fear that Lana is drifting away because of his secret , so he decides to reveal his powers to her . Clark then uses the coal to make a diamond ring and proposes marriage . Afterward , Clark reveals what he did to his parents , Jonathan and Martha Kent ( John Schneider and Annette O 'Toole ) , who tell him that he is old enough to make decisions on his own without the advice of his father . After some initial doubt , Lana returns to the Kent farm to accept Clark 's proposal .
Lois Lane ( Erica Durance ) holds an election party for Jonathan at the Talon , where his supporters learn that he defeated Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) in the Kansas State Senate race . Lana gets a call from Lex and meets him at his mansion . After seeing Lana 's engagement ring , Lex realizes that Lana knows Clark 's secret and reacts aggressively . Lana leaves , but Lex follows in an attempt to apologize . Distracted , she does not see the school bus as it hits her car and she is killed . Clark realizes that Lana 's life is the price that Jor @-@ El ( Terence Stamp ) promised to collect when he resurrected Clark in " Hidden " . Jor @-@ El provides a crystal that will allow Clark to reset the day , but warns him that the universe will find someone else 's life to exchange for hers . When Clark takes the crystal , he is sent back to the moment that Lana appeared in his barn . This time , Clark decides not to reveal his secret , which causes Lana to break up with him . Upset , Clark goes to Metropolis and tells Chloe Sullivan ( Allison Mack ) everything , including how he had already lived the day , and his proposal to Lana . Chloe promises to keep an eye on Lana to prevent the accident .
At the election party , Lana arrives with Chloe , but she leaves again when Lex calls . This time Lex kisses her when he learns of her break up , which causes Lana to leave . Lex pursues Lana again , but this time Clark arrives in time to stop the bus . Jonathan goes to the farm after receiving a mysterious call during the party , and is greeted by Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) . Lionel insinuates he knows Clark 's secret and shows a picture to Jonathan , which causes Jonathan to begin punching Lionel in anger . Jonathan dismisses Lionel and laboriously walks into the yard , breathing heavily . Martha and Clark drive up and catch him as he stumbles to the ground . After taking a final look at his family , Jonathan dies in the arms of Martha and Clark . At Jonathan 's funeral , all of Clark 's close friends attend , as well as the Luthors . Clark is the last person at the grave site as everyone leaves . He picks up a handful of dirt to sprinkle into his father 's grave .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Originally , the writers developed two potential plotlines for the episode : Clark and Lana would get married and one of Clark 's parents would die . The producers eventually chose only to kill one of the parents . The producers also debated the idea of other characters dying , but realized that none would have as much resonance as one of Clark 's parents . Once the basic plot was decided , a group of Smallville writers used whiteboards to flesh out the story . The story went into development , and the details were arranged . After the main story line was developed , the supervising producers presented it to several of the executive vice presidents at The WB Television Network . The executives enjoyed the story : Michael Roberts , a senior executive , called the episode 's plot " great " and noted that " the conceit is really cool " .
Writers Kelly Souders and Brian Peterson explained that the title , " Reckoning " , had been decided on before the script was finalized . Peterson explained that the theme revolved around the idea that " you reap what you sow " . The idea was an expansion from " Hidden " , in which Clark was resurrected by his biological father Jor @-@ El , who also informed Clark that the life of someone he loves would be exchanged in the future as payment for bringing Clark back . Peterson expounded further that the plot of the episode would show that " Clark is not God " . Jonathan Kent 's death had been requested by executive producers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar at the " beginning of the season " according to Souders . The idea was specifically chosen to be featured in the show 's 100th episode .
Gough explained that the reason Jonathan Kent was chosen to die was because " going into season five , this is the year the boy becomes the man , so at some point the mentor / father figure has to die , in order for Clark to ultimately step up and really embrace his destiny . " Schneider was happy with the way Jonathan Kent was killed . He argued that his character exited the show " like a hero " . Furthermore , he drew comparisons to John Wayne , finding it " An empowering death . " Originally , a scene had been shot featuring Clark bringing his father 's dead body to the Fortress of Solitude . However , the scene was ultimately cut because , according to Gough , " It was something that sounded great on paper , but it felt like a bit of a stutter step in the episode . " Gough later called the scene " morbid " .
Once the rough script was formulated it was sent to Gough and Millar for additional notes . Next , drafts were sent to the production studio and the network , who also made notes . Finally , Souders and Peterson re @-@ wrote the episode ; the script went through 10 drafts . The final version was finished " two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half [ to ] three weeks " before production began . Normally a script for a Smallville episode would go to about 40 different people , including " sets , props , and wardrobe " , but because the episode featured the death , the production staff and writers kept it " top secret " . In fact , the script for the episode was printed on red paper in an attempt to keep it " under wraps " .
= = = Filming = = =
Director Greg Beeman found shooting the episode difficult , because his father had recently died . Beeman noted , " I left from his funeral to go to Vancouver to direct the episode , so the emotions were very poignant for me . " During filming , artificial snow had to be continuously shoveled on the sets because the cast and crew kept trampling through it . Steve Oben , the costume set supervisor for the series , jokingly called the Fortress of Solitude the " Fortress of Styrofoam " and explained that a huge hurdle for the scenes in the fortress was to make sure that the synthetic snow would not stick to the actors during filming .
Souders stated that the production staff wanted the climactic scene of Lana 's death to be a " big event " . Originally , staff wanted the car accident to be caused by a train . However , the show was not able to afford the special effects to pull the scene off , and so , the sequence was re @-@ written to feature a bus crash . Souders noted that if the show had been unable to afford the bus wreck , it would have been re @-@ written into a " little car wreck " . The Lana 's entire sequence death was choreographed by Christopher Sayour — series stunt coordinator and Welling 's stunt double . Sayour described the scene as " important to me and important to a lot of people " . The car crash was a collage of several different shots . First , Kreuk was filmed driving a car on a process trailer with a mounted camera . A separate shot was filmed with a stunt double driving a lead car that was attached to a dummy car driving down a road at high speed . A bus was then driven in a perpendicular direction . The dummy car was attached with a detonator so that when the bus hit it , it would detach and not pull the lead car with it . The timing for the crash was practiced several times during rehearsals . After the car was smashed by the bus , Kreuk was positioned on the ground to give the effect that she was actually in the car wreck .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Reckoning " originally aired in the United States on January 26 , 2006 on The WB . The network promoted the episode with videos of " snowy coffins " suggesting that either Lana or Jonathan would die . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 2 , meaning that roughly 2 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 6 @.@ 28 million viewers and ranked as the seventy @-@ first most – watched episode of the week . The episode was the second @-@ most watched fifth season episode , after the earlier entry , " Aqua " , which was seen by 6 @.@ 40 million viewers . It aired in the United Kingdom on E4 on March 27 , 2006 and reached 375 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the fourth most – watched program that week .
" Reckoning " received mostly positive reviews from commentators . Various critics felt that the death of Jonathan Kent was a poignantly emotional choice , although others expressed their preference that Lang would have died . This was especially true for fans , who angrily opined their views on various Smallville fan sites . Michael Ausiello from TV Guide wrote , " Watch [ ' Reckoning ' ] because it 's one of the best hours of TV this season — and I 'm not even a big Smallville fan . " Vic Holtreman from Screenrant gave the episode a largely positive review and called it " a great episode overall " . He called the scenes leading up to the funeral " quite moving " and noted that the loss of Jonathan Kent was a blow , not only for the emotional state of the series ' main characters , but also for the audience . However , Holtreman mocked the " old moon @-@ pie eye ’ d Clark / Lana situation " and the fact that " Lana didn 't die " . Omar Gallaga from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B – and noted that the death of Jonathan Kent " still stings " . Chris Carabott from TV Fanatic named the episode the second best Smallville episode , coming after ninth season entry " Absolute Justice " . He wrote that " The death of Jonathan Kent is one of the most pivotal moments of Smallville . " Carabott noted that the ramifications of the episode helped to " shape [ Clark into ] the man he has become " . Michael Duffy , in the chapter " Sacrifice or Salvation ? Smallville 's Heroic Survival amid Changing Television Trends " of the book called The Smallville Chronicles : Critical Essays on the Television Series , called the episode " momentous " and noted that the presence of clips at Jonathan 's funeral from " Reckoning " in the eighth season premiere " Odyssey " helped to " subtly resituate and creatively reboot the Smallville universe " during the show 's later life .
The production staff for Smallville were very happy with the finished result . Gough and Millar wrote that the episode was a " tour de force of writing , directing , and acting . " They jokingly noted that if , by the end of the episode , the audience was not " weeping " , then " shame on you " . Allison Mack called the entry " thrilling and exciting " . Welling noted that Schneider 's departure from the series was " bittersweet " . Producer Rob Maier was particularly proud of the final cut , noting , " The highlight of season five was the hundredth episode [ ' Reckoning ' ] . It was a remarkable show . "
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= Gila monster =
The Gila monster ( Heloderma suspectum , / ˈhiːlə / HEE @-@ lə ) is a species of venomous lizard native to the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexican state of Sonora . A heavy , slow @-@ moving lizard , up to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) long , the Gila monster is the only venomous lizard native to the United States and one of only two known species of venomous lizards in North America , the other being its close relative , the Mexican beaded lizard ( H. horridum ) . Though the Gila monster is venomous , its sluggish nature means it represents little threat to humans . However , it has earned a fearsome reputation and is sometimes killed despite being protected by state law in Arizona .
= = Description , taxonomy and etymology = =
In this species , the largest extant lizard native to North America north of the Mexican border ( non @-@ natives like green iguanas are larger ) , snout @-@ to @-@ vent length is from 26 to 36 cm ( 10 to 14 in ) . The tail is about 20 % of the body size and the largest specimens may reach 51 to 56 cm ( 20 to 22 in ) in total length . Body mass is typically in the range of 350 to 700 g ( 0 @.@ 77 to 1 @.@ 54 lb ) , with 11 males having been found to average 468 g ( 1 @.@ 032 lb ) . Reportedly , the very heaviest , largest specimens can weigh as much as 2 @,@ 300 g ( 5 @.@ 1 lb ) .
The Gila monster has one close living relative , the beaded lizard ( H. horridum ) , as well as many extinct relatives in the Helodermatidae , the evolutionary history of which may be traced back to the Cretaceous period . The genus Heloderma has existed since the Miocene , when H. texana lived , and fragments of osteoderms from the Gila monster have been found in late Pleistocene ( 10 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 years ago ) deposits near Las Vegas , Nevada . Because the helodermatids have remained relatively unchanged morphologically , they are occasionally regarded as living fossils . Although the Gila monster appears closely related to the monitor lizards ( varanids ) of Africa , Asia and Australia , their wide geographical separation and the unique features not found in the varanids indicate the Gila monster is better placed in a separate family .
The name " Gila " refers to the Gila River Basin in the U.S. states of New Mexico and Arizona , where the Gila monster was once plentiful . Heloderma means " studded skin " , from the Ancient Greek words helos ( ἧλος ) , " the head of a nail or stud " , and derma ( δέρμα ) , " skin " . Suspectum comes from the describer , paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope , who suspected the lizard might be venomous due to the grooves in the teeth .
= = Distribution and habitats = =
The Gila monster is found in the Southwestern United States and Mexico , a range including Sonora , Arizona , parts of California , Nevada , Utah , and New Mexico ( potentially including Baja California ) . They inhabit scrubland , succulent desert , and oak woodland , seeking shelter in burrows , thickets , and under rocks in locations with ready access to moisture . In fact , Gila monsters seem to like water and can be observed immersing themselves in puddles of water after a summer rain . They avoid living in open areas such as flats and farmland .
= = Ecology = =
Gila monsters spend 90 % of their time underground in burrows or rocky shelters . They are active in the morning during the dry season ( spring and early summer ) ; later in the summer , they may be active on warm nights or after a thunderstorm . They maintain a surface body temperature of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Gila monsters are slow in sprinting ability , but they have relatively high endurance and maximal aerobic capacity ( VO2 max ) for a lizard . They are preyed upon by coyotes and raptors .
= = = Diet = = =
The Gila monster eats small birds , mammals , frogs , lizards , insects , and carrion . The Gila monster feeds primarily on bird and reptile eggs , and eats infrequently ( only five to ten times a year in the wild ) , but when it does feed , it may eat up to one @-@ third of its body mass . It uses its extremely acute sense of smell to locate prey , especially eggs . Its sense of smell is so keen , it can locate and dig up chicken eggs buried 15 cm ( 6 in ) deep and accurately follow a trail made by rolling an egg .
Prey may be crushed to death if large or eaten alive if small , swallowed head @-@ first , and helped down by muscular contractions and neck flexing . Unusually , after food has been swallowed , the Gila monster immediately resumes tongue flicking and search behavior , probably as a result of a history of finding clumped prey such as eggs and young in nests . Gila monsters are able to climb trees and cacti in search of eggs .
= = Venom = =
= = = Pioneer beliefs = = =
In the Old West , the pioneers believed a number of myths about the Gila monster , including that the lizard had foul or toxic breath and that its bite was fatal . The Tombstone Epitaph of Tombstone , Arizona , wrote about a Gila monster that a local person caught on May 14 , 1881 :
This is a monster , and no baby at that , it being probably the largest specimen ever captured in Arizona . It is 27 inches long and weighs 35 lb . It was caught by H. C. Hiatt on the road between Tombstone and Grand Central Mill and was purchased by Messrs. Ed Baker and Charles Eastman , who now have it on exhibition at Kelley 's Wine House , next door above Grand Hotel , Allen Street . Eastern people who have never seen one of these monsters should not fail to inspect his Aztecship , for they might accidentally stumble upon one some fine day and get badly frightened , except they know what it is .
On May 8 , 1890 , southeast of Tucson , Arizona Territory , Empire Ranch owner Walter Vail captured and thought he had killed a Gila monster . He tied it to his saddle and it bit the middle finger of his right hand and wouldn 't let go . A ranch hand pried open the lizard 's mouth with a pocketknife , cut open his finger to stimulate bleeding , and then tied saddle strings around his finger and wrist . They summoned Dr. John C. Handy of Tucson , who took Vail back to Tucson for treatment , but Vail experienced swollen and bleeding glands in his throat for sometime afterward .
Dr. Handy 's friend , Dr. George Goodfellow of Tombstone , was among the first to research the actual effects of Gila monster venom . Scientific American reported in 1890 that " The breath is very fetid , and its odor can be detected at some little distance from the lizard . It is supposed that this is one way in which the monster catches the insects and small animals which form a part of its food supply — the foul gas overcoming them . " Goodfellow offered to pay local residents $ 5 @.@ 00 for Gila monster specimens . He bought several and collected more on his own . In 1891 he purposefully provoked one of his captive lizards into biting him on his finger . The bite made him ill and he spent the next five days in bed , but he completely recovered . When Scientific American ran another ill @-@ founded report on the lizard 's ability to kill people , he wrote in reply and described his own studies and personal experience . He wrote that he knew several people who had been bitten by Gila monsters but had not died from the bite .
Goodfellow published articles about rattlesnake and Gila monster bites in Scientific American and Southern California Practitioner .
= = = Delivery = = =
The Gila monster produces venom in modified salivary glands in its lower jaw , unlike snakes , whose venom is produced in the upper jaw . The Gila monster lacks the musculature to forcibly inject the venom ; instead , the venom is propelled from the gland to the tooth by chewing . Capillary action brings the venom out of the tooth and into the victim . The teeth are loosely anchored , which allows them to be broken off and replaced throughout life . Gila monsters have been observed to flip over while biting the victim , presumably to aid the flow of the venom into the wound . Because the Gila monster 's prey consists mainly of eggs , small animals , and otherwise " helpless " prey , the Gila monster 's venom is thought to have evolved for defensive rather than for hunting use . A defensive use would explain the Gila monster 's bright warning coloration .
= = = Toxicity = = =
Although the venom is a neurotoxin as toxic as that of a coral snake , H. suspectum produces only small amounts . The Gila monster 's bite is not fatal to healthy adult humans . No reports of fatalities have been confirmed after 1939 , and those recorded prior to that year are possibly iatrogenic , or resulting from attempts to treat the bite itself . The Gila monster can bite quickly ( especially by swinging its head sideways ) and hold on tenaciously and painfully . If bitten , the victim may need to fully submerge the attacking lizard in water to break free from its bite . Symptoms of the bite include excruciating pain , edema , and weakness associated with a rapid drop in blood pressure .
More than a dozen peptides and other substances have been isolated from the Gila monster 's venom , including hyaluronidase , serotonin , phospholipase A2 , and several kallikrein @-@ like glycoproteins responsible for the pain and edema caused by a bite . Four potentially lethal toxins have been isolated from the Gila monster 's venom , including horridum venom , which causes hemorrhage in internal organs and exophthalmos ( bulging of the eyes ) , and helothermine , which causes lethargy , partial paralysis of the limbs , and hypothermia in rats . Most are similar in form to vasoactive intestinal peptide ( VIP ) , which relaxes smooth muscle and regulates water and electrolyte secretion between the small and large intestines . These bioactive peptides are able to bind to VIP receptors in many different human tissues . One of these , helodermin , has been shown to inhibit the growth of lung cancer .
The constituents of the lizard 's venom that have received the most attention from researchers are the bioactive peptides , including helodermin , helospectin , exendin @-@ 3 , and exendin @-@ 4 . Exendin @-@ 4 has formed the basis of a class of medications for the treatment of type 2 diabetes , known as Glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 agonists . Exenatide was the first product in the class to reach the market and was launched in 2005 .
= = = Drug research = = =
In 2005 , the US Food and Drug Administration approved the drug exenatide ( marketed as Byetta ) for the management of type 2 diabetes . It is a synthetic version of a protein , exendin @-@ 4 , derived from the Gila monster 's saliva . In a three @-@ year study with people with type 2 diabetes , exenatide led to healthy sustained glucose levels and progressive weight loss . The effectiveness is because the lizard protein is about 50 % identical to glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 analog ( GLP @-@ 1 ) , a hormone released from the human digestive tract that helps to regulate insulin and glucagon . The lizard protein remains effective much longer than the human hormone , helping diabetics keep their blood sugar levels under control . Exenatide slows the emptying of the stomach and causes a decrease in appetite , contributing to weight loss . The saliva of the Gila monster contains many chemicals which can be deadly . One of these has been shown to affect memory . Several companies have been researching the abilities of this chemical to help memory loss due to various diseases such as Alzheimer ’ s disease , schizophrenia , and ADHD . Gilatide , derived from exendin @-@ 4 , has been shown to dramatically heighten memory in a study with mice . Gilatide is likely to be researched further to provide help to Alzheimer ’ s patients .
= = Life history = =
The Gila monster emerges from hibernation in January or February and mates in May and June . The male initiates courtship by flicking his tongue to search for the female 's scent . If the female rejects his advances , she will bite him and crawl away . When successful , copulation has been observed to last from 15 minutes to as long as two and a half hours . The female lays eggs in July or August , burying them in sand 5 in ( 13 cm ) below the surface . The clutch consists of two to 12 eggs : five is the average . The incubation lasts nine months , as the hatchlings emerge during April through June the following year . The hatchlings are about 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long and can bite and inject venom upon hatching . The juveniles typically have larger bands of pink scales than adults , although the banded Gila monster ( H. s. cinctum ) has a tendency to retain the band pattern . H. suspectum sexually matures at three to five years old . After egg @-@ laying , adult Gila monsters gradually spend less time on the surface to avoid the hottest part of the summer ( although they may be active in the evening ) , eventually starting their hibernation around November .
Little is known about the social behavior of H. suspectum , but they have been observed engaging in male @-@ male combat , in which the dominant male lies on top of the subordinate one and pins it with its front and hind limbs . Both lizards arch their bodies , pushing against each other and twisting around in an effort to gain the dominant position . A wrestling match ends when the pressure exerted forces them to separate , although bouts may be repeated one after the other . These bouts are typically observed just before the mating season . Those with greater strength and endurance are thought to win more often and enjoy greater reproductive success . Although the Gila monster has a low metabolism and one of the lowest lizard sprint speeds , it has one of the highest aerobic scope values ( the increase in oxygen consumption from rest to maximum metabolic exertion ) among lizards , allowing them to engage in intense aerobic activity for a sustained period of time . Males have been observed to have higher aerobic scopes than females , presumably because of sexual selection for a trait advantageous in prolonged combat . The Gila monster may live up to 20 years in the wild , or 30 in captivity .
= = Conservation status = =
Urban sprawl and habitat destruction has adversely affected Gila monster numbers . In 1952 , they became the first venomous animal to be given legal protection . Gila monsters are listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN . In 1963 , the San Diego Zoo became the first zoo to successfully breed Gila monsters in captivity .
= = = Relationship with humans = = =
Though the Gila monster is venomous , its laggard movement means it poses little threat to humans . However , it has earned a fearsome reputation and is often killed by humans because of fear . Among Native American tribes , the Gila monster had a mixed standing . The Apache believed its breath could kill a man , and the Tohono O 'Odham and the Pima believed it possessed a spiritual power that could cause sickness . In contrast , the Seri and the Yaqui believed the Gila monster 's hide had healing properties . The Gila monster has even starred as a monster in a B movie , The Giant Gila Monster ( though the titular monster was actually portrayed by a Mexican beaded lizard ) . It played a minor role in the motion picture The Treasure of the Sierra Madre . Myths about the animal include that the animal 's breath is toxic enough to kill humans , that it can spit venom and that it can leap several feet in the air to attack . Another myth held that the Gila monster did not have an anus and therefore expelled waste from its mouth , the source of its venom and " fetid breath " . The official mascot of Eastern Arizona College located in Thatcher , Arizona is Gila Hank , a gun @-@ toting , cowboy hat @-@ wearing Gila monster . A similar character as an old western outlaw was seen in 2011 animated film Rango , called Bad Bill ; the character was voiced by Ray Winstone .
= = Gallery = =
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= ACC Championship Game =
The Dr Pepper ACC Football Championship Game is an American college football game held on the first Saturday in December by the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) each year to determine its football champion . The game pits the champion of the Coastal Division against the champion of the Atlantic Division in a game that follows the conclusion of the regular season . The game 's corporate sponsor is Dr Pepper . The current champion are the Clemson Tigers of the Atlantic Division .
= = History = =
Before the 2004 college football season , the Atlantic Coast Conference determined its champion via round @-@ robin play during the course of the regular season and there was no conference championship game . In 2004 , the Atlantic Coast conference added two teams — Virginia Tech and Miami — expanding the league to 11 teams . At the time , college football teams were limited by the NCAA to 11 regular @-@ season games , three or four of which typically featured teams outside the home team 's conference . Following the 2004 season , the league added a 12th team — Boston College — and became eligible to hold a championship game at the conclusion of the 2005 season .
The conference was divided into two divisions of six teams each . The team with the best conference record in each division is selected to participate in the championship game . In the inaugural championship game , which took place at the end of the 2005 college football season , the Florida State Seminoles defeated Virginia Tech 27 – 22 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . In the 2006 game , two other teams faced off as Georgia Tech played Wake Forest . Wake defeated Georgia Tech 9 – 6 . For the 2007 game , Jacksonville was awarded a one @-@ year extension as host , and the game remained in Jacksonville . Virginia Tech returned to the ACC Football Championship game and faced off against Boston College . Tech won the game , 30 – 16 , and returned to the championship in 2008 to defeat Boston College again 30 – 12 . In 2009 , Georgia Tech defeated Clemson , 39 – 34 , but was forced to vacate the ACC championship by the NCAA .
Following the 2007 game the Gator Bowl Committee — organizers of the ACC Football Championship game in Jacksonville — announced they would not seek another contract extension due to falling attendance . With Jacksonville 's withdrawal from future site selection , the ACC selected Tampa , Florida and Charlotte , North Carolina as future sites of the game . The 2008 and 2009 games were held in Tampa , while the 2010 and 2011 games were held in Charlotte . In 2008 , the Coastal Division champion was the designated " home " team .
= = Conference expansion = =
In 1990 , the eight @-@ team Atlantic Coast Conference added Florida State to the league , creating a new nine @-@ team ACC . Though Florida State was the only school added to the conference , some league officials discussed offering one or more other schools — Navy , Pittsburgh , Syracuse , South Carolina , Miami , West Virginia , Boston College , Rutgers , or Virginia Tech — an offer to join the league . For various reasons , however , no other team was extended an offer . Throughout the 1990s , the Atlantic Coast Conference remained at nine members . Ironically , South Carolina was a charter member of the ACC that left in 1971 .
The nearby Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) , which also encompasses college football teams in the American South , also expanded in 1990 . Instead of adding one team , as did the ACC , the then 10 @-@ team SEC added two — the University of Arkansas and the University of South Carolina . The expansion made the SEC the first 12 @-@ school football conference and thus the first eligible to hold a conference championship game under NCAA rules ( the first game was held in 1992 ) . The SEC enjoyed increased television ratings and revenue through the 1990s and by 2003 was earning over $ 100 million annually , with revenues shared out among member schools .
Officials of other leagues took note of the financial boon that followed SEC expansion to twelve teams . Atlantic Coast Conference representatives began discussing expansion to twelve schools in the first years of the new century , who began publicly pursuing the possibility of expansion anew in 2003 . On May 13 , 2003 , representatives voted in favor of extending invitations to three schools . The only certain school was the University of Miami , while the other two spots were still being debated . Initially , the league favored admitting Miami , Syracuse University , and Boston College . After a month of debate , however , the ACC elected to extend formal invitations to Miami , Boston College , and Virginia Tech , which joined after initially being overlooked . This came years after these schools were considered for ACC membership in the early 1990s but nothing had ever came to fruition . Pittsburgh and Syracuse would also eventually join the ACC after rejections in 1990 and 2003 , becoming members in 2013 .
Miami and Virginia Tech began official ACC play with the 2004 college football season . After the league settled a lawsuit resulting from the departure of the three former Big East Conference teams , Boston College began ACC play in the 2005 season . With the league officially at 12 teams , it became eligible to hold a conference championship football game .
= = Site selection = =
Even before the announcement proclaiming the ACC 's expansion to 12 teams , several cities and sports organizations were preparing bids to host the ACC Football Championship Game . The prospect of tens of thousands of visitors could provide a multimillion @-@ dollar economic boost for a host city and region while requiring few , if any , additional facilities . One early contender was the city of Charlotte , North Carolina . Even before Virginia Tech , Miami , and Boston College were chosen as the ACC 's picks to expand , Carolinas Stadium Corporation , the owner and operator of Charlotte 's Ericsson Stadium ( as it was called then ) lobbied heavily for Charlotte 's selection . Other early options included Orlando , Tampa , Atlanta , and Jacksonville .
Shortly after negotiations for the location of the game began during the spring of 2004 , the ACC announced that it had signed a new , seven @-@ year television contract with ABC @-@ TV and ESPN . As part of the deal , the ACC would earn over $ 40 million in revenue a year in exchange for the networks ' exclusive right to televise the ACC Football Championship Game along with several high @-@ profile regular season games . Revenues would be divided among the 12 ACC member schools .
In July 2004 the ACC began deliberations about which bid to accept . On August 19 , 2004 , league officials announced that Jacksonville would host the game in 2005 and 2006 . The league would then have the option to re @-@ select Jacksonville for an additional one or two @-@ year contract . Charlotte was the first runner @-@ up in the competition .
For its first three years , the championship game was held at EverBank Field ( known as Alltel Stadium in 2005 and 2006 and Jacksonville Municipal Stadium in 2007 ) . That contract expired after the 2007 season . In December 2007 , the ACC awarded the next four games to Tampa ( first two ) and Charlotte ( next two ) . Raymond James Stadium was the venue for the Tampa games in 2008 and 2009 , while the Bank of America Stadium provided the venue for the Charlotte games in 2010 and 2011 . Charlotte hosted the game again in 2012 and 2013 . In February 2014 it was announced that Charlotte would continue to host the game through at least 2019 .
= = Team selection = =
Following the absorption of Virginia Tech and Miami into the ACC , questions arose about how an 11 @-@ team league could fairly select participants in the conference championship game . A divisional structure involving two six @-@ team divisions competing for two championship @-@ game slots would not be possible . In addition , the ACC could not continue to select its champion via round @-@ robin play since there were now 11 teams and only seven or eight conference games available per team . Even the NCAA 's addition of a 12th game to the regular season did little to relieve the conference 's problem . Prior to the 2004 college football season , the ACC requested a waiver to the NCAA 's rule requiring conferences to have 12 @-@ plus teams before having a conference championship game . Before the season began , however , the NCAA rejected the ACC 's application , and the league had to use a semi @-@ round @-@ robin format to select a champion during the 2004 football season . After that season , the inclusion of Boston College as the ACC 's 12th team solved the problem of enabling the ACC to have a championship football game .
On October 18 , 2004 , the ACC announced its new football structure with two divisions . Each six @-@ team division plays a round @-@ robin schedule within the division and a rotation of three conference games against teams from the opposing division . The two teams with the best conference records in each division earn places to the championship game . In the event of a tie in records within one division , divisional records and the results of head @-@ to @-@ head games are considered .
Also , in the games between the two divisions , each team has a permanent rival team that is played every year . Hence , every year , there are these football games : Georgia Tech vs. Clemson ; North Carolina vs. North Carolina State ; Louisville vs. Virginia ; Syracuse vs. Pittsburgh ; Duke vs. Wake Forest ; Florida State vs. Miami ; and Boston College vs. Virginia Tech .
Notre Dame joined the conference as a non @-@ divisional member in 2014 and , while playing five ACC teams each season , is not eligible for the championship game .
= = = Divisions = = =
Non @-@ divisional :
Notre Dame
= = Results = =
Winners are listed in bold . Rankings are from the Coaches Poll released prior to the game .
* Georgia Tech was forced to vacate this win due to NCAA violations .
= = Results by team = =
* Georgia Tech appeared in four ACC Football Championship Games , but the Yellow Jackets ' one win was later vacated .
Louisville , Miami , North Carolina State , Pittsburgh , Syracuse , and Virginia have yet to make an appearance in an ACC Football Championship Game .
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= 1986 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1986 Giro d 'Italia was the 69th running of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours races . The Giro started in Palermo , on 12 May , with a 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) prologue and concluded in Merano , on 2 June , with a 108 @.@ 6 km ( 67 @.@ 5 mi ) mass @-@ start stage . A total of 171 riders from nineteen teams entered the 22 @-@ stage race , that was won by Italian Roberto Visentini of the Carrera – Inoxpran team . The second and third places were taken by Italian riders Giuseppe Saronni and Francesco Moser , respectively .
Swiss rider Urs Freuler was the first rider to wear the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) . The race lead was passed between five riders across the first five days of racing . Saronni gained the overall lead after the conclusion of the sixth stage and maintained an advantage through the fifteenth day of racing . As the race crossed several Alpine passes in the sixteenth stage , Visentini gained the race lead due to his strong performance on the stage . Visentini then defended the race lead until the race 's conclusion on 2 June .
Amongst the other classifications that the race awarded , Guido Bontempi of Carrera – Inoxpran won the points classification , Pedro Muñoz of Fagor won the mountains classification , and Gis Gelati @-@ Oece 's Marco Giovannetti completed the Giro as the best neo @-@ professional in the general classification , finishing eighth overall . Supermercati Brianzoli finishing as the winners of the team classification , ranking each of the twenty teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time .
= = Teams = =
A total of nineteen teams were invited to participate in the 1986 Giro d 'Italia . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 171 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager are introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place at the Palazzo dei Normanni on 11 May . From the riders that began this edition , 143 made it to the finish in Merano .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton did not include the 1985 winner , Bernard Hinault . An El Mundo Deportivo writer believed LeMond , Moser , and Saronni to be the favorites to win the overall crown . In addition , the writer felt that Pedro Muñoz had the best chances to win the race , out of all the Spanish riders entering the event . Atala @-@ Ofmega sports director Franco Criblori believed that Saronni 's results would depend on what form he could maintain in the mountains . In addition , Criblori thought Dutchman Johan van der Velde and Swiss rider Niki Rüttimann were two foreigners to consider for a high place in the general classification .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1986 edition of the Giro d 'Italia was revealed to the public on television by head organizer Vincenzo Torriani on 8 February 1986 . It contained four time trials , three of which were individual and one of which was a team event . There were twelve stages containing categorized climbs , of which three had summit finishes : stage 14 , to Sauze d 'Oulx ; stage 16 , to Foppolo ; and stage 19 , to Peio . The organizers chose to include no rest days . Torriani did not want to interfere with the World Cup being held in Mexico . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 140 km ( 87 mi ) shorter , contained two less rest days , and the same amount of time trials . In addition , this race contained the same amount of stages , but one less set of half stages .
l 'Unita writer Gino Sala believed the route to be more challenging than the routes within the past few years . He criticized the route for the stage three team time trial for going over dangerous roads . Author Bill McGann believed Torriani designed the route to be relatively flat in order to increase the likelihood of Italian riders Giuseppe Saronni and Francesco Moser winning the race . Five @-@ time champion Eddy Merckx believed the route to be " decapitated . "
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) prologue that navigated through the streets of Palermo , which was won by Urs Freuler by one second over the second @-@ placed finisher . Later that day , the first mass @-@ start stage was raced . The leg was marred by a large crash about 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from the finish which saw Emilio Ravasio sustain heavy injuries and continue to race until the end of the leg . Shortly after the stage , he fell into a coma , only to die two weeks later . Sergio Santimaria won the stage through a field sprint , and , with the time bonus , he earned race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) . Stage 2 also culminated with a bunch sprint where Skala @-@ Skil 's Jean @-@ Paul van Poppel took the lead with 150 m ( 492 @.@ 1 ft ) left and held on to win , as well as take the overall lead . The third stage was a team time trial that traveled around Sicily . Del Tongo @-@ Colnago won the time trial by nine seconds over Supermercati Brianzoli @-@ Essebi , which put their rider Giuseppe Saronni into the pink jersey . Gianbattista Baronchelli rode away on a climb late into the fourth stage and rode by himself to victory , earning the race lead in the process . American Greg LeMond won the fifth stage after attacking a few kilometers from the finish . Saronni led the peloton across the finish line two seconds after LeMond crossed the finish line .
In the race 's sixth stage , Roberto Visentini won the leg after attacking a few kilometers from the finish . Saronni regained the race lead after finishing second on the stage and earning a fifteen @-@ second time bonus . The next two stages both resulted in a bunch sprint , with Guido Bontempi winning stage 7 and Franco Chioccioli , stage 8 . The ninth stage contained the climbs of Monte Terminillo and La Forca and was considered one of the tougher stages in the race . Malvor @-@ Bottecchia @-@ Vaporella rider Acácio da Silva won the stage as the top of the general classification rankings remained unchanged from the previous days .
The twelfth stage of the race was a 46 km ( 28 @.@ 6 mi ) individual time trial that stretched from Sinalunga to Siena . Lech Piasecki of Del Tongo @-@ Colnago won the stage and was one of five riders to complete the course in under an hour . Due to his strong time on the stage , Saronni increased his advantage over all of his rivals except for Visentini who finished quicker . The next day of racing saw several breakaway groups try to form , but all with no success as the main field finished the stage together with a field sprint that was won by van Poppel . The race 's fourteenth stage saw the race head back into the mountains , with a summit finish to Sauze d 'Oulx . As the peloton made its way up the final cllimb , Pedro Muñoz , Martin Earley , and Stefano Giuliani formed a breakaway group out in front . With about three kilometers left in the stage , Earley attacked and went on to win the stage after riding by himself for the remainder of the stage . Dag Erik Pedersen won the next stage through a bunch sprint .
The sixteenth stage saw the race travel across several mountain passes in the Alps , with Muñoz winning the stage after attacking on the day 's final climb of the day . Visentini , who finished third on the stage , gained enough time on Saronni to take the overall lead from him by over a minute . Bontempi won his fourth stage of the race after out @-@ sprinting the rest of the peloton for the victory the day after . The next leg of the race was another individual time trial that was 36 km ( 22 mi ) in length and very flat . Francesco Moser won the stage by forty @-@ nine seconds over the second placed rider and his time , when coupled with the performance of the other riders , moved him into third overall . Panasonic – Merckx – Agu rider Johan van der Velde won the next leg of the race after attacking on a descent before the stage 's final climb to Peio .
The twentieth stage of the race came down to a field sprint that was won by Bontempi . The penultimate stage of the race traversed several mountain passes in the Dolomites . Four riders escaped off the front of the peloton , meanwhile the general classification contenders remained together behind the leading group . As the leading group neared the finish , da Silva attacked and went on to win the stage by seven seconds . The general classification contenders finished together , despite attacks from LeMond . The race 's final stage began and ended in Merano and 108 @.@ 6 km ( 67 @.@ 5 mi ) . Belgian Eric Van Lancker won the leg by means of a bunch sprint .
Three riders achieved multiple stage victories : Bontempi ( stages 7 , 10 , 11 , 17 , and 20 ) , da Silva ( stages 9 and 21 ) , and van Poppel ( stages 2 and 13 ) . Stage wins were achieved by eleven of the nineteen competing squads , eight of which won multiple stages . Carrera @-@ Inoxpran collected a total of six stage wins through two riders , Bontempi and Visentini ( stage 6 ) . Del Tongo @-@ Colnago amassed a total of two stage victories through the team time trial and Piasecki ( stage 12 ) . Skala @-@ Skil also collected two stage successes with van Poppel . Ariostea – Gres achieved the same feat with individual stage wins from Santimaria ( stage 1 ) and Pedersen ( stage 15 ) . Fagor also secured two stage wins through Earley ( stage 14 ) and Muñoz ( stage 16 ) . Supermercati Brianzoli @-@ Essebi obtained two stage victories with Baronchelli ( stage 4 ) and Moser ( stage 18 ) . Malvor @-@ Bottecchia @-@ Vaporella also collected two stage successes with da Silva . Panasonic @-@ Merckx @-@ Agu recorded two stage victories with van der Velde ( stage 19 ) and Van Lancker ( stage 22 ) . Atala @-@ Ofmega , La Vie Claire , and Ecoflam @-@ Jollyscarpe @-@ BFB Bruc. all won a single stage at the Giro , the first through Freuler ( prologue ) , the second through LeMond ( stage 5 ) , and the third by Chioccioli ( stage 8 ) .
= = Classification leadership = =
Four different jerseys were worn during the 1986 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category ( first being the highest ) , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo Pordoi . The first rider to cross the Pordoi Pass was Spanish rider Pedro Muñoz . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but considering only neo @-@ professional cyclists ( in their first three years of professional racing ) . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
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= Roza Shanina =
Roza Georgiyevna Shanina ( Russian : Ро ́ за Гео ́ ргиевна Ша ́ нина , IPA : [ ˈrozə ɡʲɪˈorɡʲɪɪvnəˈʂanʲɪnə ] ; 3 April 1924 – 28 January 1945 ) was a Soviet sniper during World War II who was credited with fifty @-@ nine confirmed kills , including twelve soldiers during the Battle of Vilnius . Shanina volunteered for the military after the death of her brother in 1941 and chose to be a marksman on the front line . Praised for her shooting accuracy , Shanina was capable of precisely hitting enemy personnel and making doublets ( two target hits by two rounds fired in quick succession ) .
In 1944 , a Canadian newspaper described Shanina as " the unseen terror of East Prussia " . She became the first Soviet female sniper to be awarded the Order of Glory and was the first servicewoman of the 3rd Belorussian Front to receive it . Shanina was killed in action during the East Prussian Offensive while shielding the severely wounded commander of an artillery unit . Shanina 's bravery received praise already during her lifetime , but came at odds with the Soviet policy of sparing snipers from heavy fights . Her combat diary was first published in 1965 .
= = Early life = =
Roza Shanina was born on 3 April 1924 in the Russian village of Yedma ( Arkhangelsk Oblast ) to Anna Alexeyevna Shanina , a kolkhoz milkmaid , and Georgiy ( Yegor ) Mikhailovich Shanin , a logger who had been disabled by a wound received during World War I. Roza was reportedly named after the Marxist revolutionary Rosa Luxemburg and had six siblings : one sister Yuliya and five brothers : Mikhail , Fyodor , Sergei , Pavel and Marat . The Shanins also raised three orphans . Roza was above average height , with light brown hair and blue eyes , and spoke in a Northern Russian dialect . After finishing four classes of elementary school in Yedma , Shanina continued her education in the village of Bereznik . As there was no school transport at the time , when she was in grades five through seven Roza had to walk 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) to Bereznik to attend middle school . On Saturdays , Shanina again went to Bereznik to take care of her ill aunt Agnia Borisova .
At the age of fourteen , Shanina , against her parents ' wishes , walked 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) across the taiga to the rail station and travelled to Arkhangelsk to study at the college there ( the trek was later attested by Shanina 's school teacher Alexander Makaryin ) . Shanina left home with little money and almost no possessions ; and before moving to the college dormitory she lived with her elder brother Fyodor . Later in her combat diary Shanina would recall Arkhangelsk 's stadium Dinamo , and the cinemas , Ars and Pobeda . Shanina 's friend Anna Samsonova remembered that Roza sometimes returned from her friends in Ustyansky District to her college dormitory between 2 : 00 and 3 : 00 am . As the doors were locked by that time , the other students tied several bedsheets together to help Roza climb into her room . In 1938 , Shanina became a member of the Soviet youth movement Komsomol .
Two years later , Soviet secondary education institutes introduced tuition fees , and the scholarship fund was cut . Shanina received little financial support from home and on 11 September 1941 , she took a job in kindergarten No. 2 ( lately known as Beryozka ) in Arkhangelsk , with which she was offered a free apartment . She studied in the evenings and worked in the kindergarten during the daytime . The children liked Shanina and their parents appreciated her . Shanina graduated from college in the 1941 – 42 academic year , when the Soviet Union was in the grip of World War II .
= = Tour of duty = =
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union , Arkhangelsk was bombed by the Luftwaffe , and Shanina and other townspeople were involved in firefighting and mounted voluntary vigils on rooftops to protect the kindergarten . Shanina 's two elder brothers had volunteered for the military . In December 1941 , a death notification was received for her 19 @-@ year @-@ old brother Mikhail , who had died during the Siege of Leningrad . In response , Shanina went to the military commissariat to ask for permission to serve . Two more of Shanina 's brothers died in the war . At that time the Soviet Union had begun deploying female snipers because they had flexible limbs , and it was believed that they were patient , careful and cunning . In February 1942 , Soviet women between the ages of 16 and 45 became eligible for the military draft , but Shanina was not drafted that month as the local military commissariat wanted to pinion her out of war 's way . She first learned to shoot at a shooting range . On 22 June 1943 , while still living in the dormitory , Shanina was accepted into the Vsevobuch program for universal military training . After Shanina 's several applications , the military commissariat finally allowed her to enroll in the Central Female Sniper Academy , where she met Aleksandra " Sasha " Yekimova and Kaleriya " Kalya " Petrova , who became her closest friends , with Shanina calling them " the vagrant three " . Honed to a fine point , Shanina scored highly in training and graduated from the academy with honours . She was offered to stay as an instructor there , but refused due to a call of duty . In 1941 – 1945 a total of 2 @,@ 484 Soviet female snipers were deployed for the war and their combined tally of kills is estimated to be at least 11 @,@ 280 .
After the momentous victory in the Battle of Stalingrad the Soviet troops proceeded to nationwide counter @-@ offensives and Shanina on 2 April 1944 joined the 184th Rifle Division , where a separate female sniper platoon had been formed . Shanina was appointed a commander of that platoon . Three days later , southeast of Vitebsk , Shanina killed her first German soldier . In Shanina 's own words , recorded by an anonymous author , her legs gave way upon that first encounter and she slid down into the trench , saying , " I 've killed a man . " Concerned , the other women ran up saying , " That was a fascist you finished off ! " Seven months later , Shanina wrote in her diary that she was now killing the enemy in cold blood and saw the meaning of her life in her actions . She wrote that if she had to do everything over again , she would still strive to enter the sniper academy and would go to the front again .
For her actions in the battle for the village of Kozyi Gory ( Smolensk Oblast ) , Shanina was awarded her first military distinction , the Order of Glory 3rd Class on 17 April 1944 . She became the first Soviet female sniper and the first servicewoman of the 3rd Belorussian Front to receive that order . According to the report of Major Degtyarev ( the commander of the 1138th Rifle Regiment ) for the corresponding commendation list , between 6 and 11 April Shanina killed 13 enemy soldiers while subjected to artillery and machine gun fire . By May 1944 , her sniper tally increased to 17 confirmed enemy kills , and Shanina was praised as a precise and brave soldier . The same year , on 9 June , Shanina 's portrait was featured on the front page of the Soviet newspaper Unichtozhim Vraga .
When Operation Bagration commenced in the Vitebsk region on 22 June 1944 , it was decided that female snipers would be withdrawn . They voluntarily continued to support the advancing infantry anyway , and despite the Soviet policy of sparing snipers , Shanina asked to be sent to the front line . Although her request was refused , she went anyway . Shanina was later sanctioned for going to the front line without permission , but did not face a court martial . She wanted to be attached to a battalion or a reconnaissance company , turning to the commander of the 5th Army , Nikolai Krylov . Shanina also wrote twice to Joseph Stalin with the same request .
From 26 to 28 June 1944 , Shanina participated in the elimination of the encircled German troops near Vitebsk during the Vitebsk – Orsha Offensive . As the Soviet army advanced further westward , from 8 to 13 July of the same year , Shanina and her sisters @-@ in @-@ arms took part in the struggle for Vilnius , which had been under German occupation since 24 June 1941 . The Germans were finally driven out from Vilnius on 13 July 1944 . During the Soviet summer offensives of that year Shanina managed to capture three Germans .
From her time at the military academy , Shanina became known for her ability to score doublets ( two target hits made in quick succession ) . During one period she crawled through a muddy communications trench each day at dawn to a specially camouflaged pit which overlooked German @-@ controlled territory . She wrote , " the unconditional requirement — to outwit the enemy and kill him — became an irrevocable law of my hunt " . Shanina successfully used counter @-@ sniper tactics against a German cuckoo sniper hidden in a tree , by waiting until dusk when the space between the tree branches would be backlit by sunlight and the sniper 's nest became visible . On one occasion , Shanina also made use of selective fire from a submachine gun .
= = = Diary = = =
Shanina enjoyed writing and would often send letters to her home village and to her friends in Arkhangelsk . She started writing a combat diary ; although diaries were strictly prohibited in the Soviet military , there were some furtive exceptions , such as The Front Diary of Izrael Kukuyev and The Chronicle of War of Muzagit Hayrutdinov . To preserve military secrecy , Shanina termed the killed and wounded " blacks " and " reds " respectively in her diary . Shanina kept the diary from 6 October 1944 to 24 January 1945 .
After Shanina 's death , the diary , consisting of three thick notebooks , was kept by the war correspondent Pyotr Molchanov for twenty years in Kiev . An abridged version was published in the magazine Yunost in 1965 , and the diary was transferred to the Regional Museum of Arkhangelsk Oblast . Several of Shanina 's letters and some data from her sniper log have also been published .
= = = East Prussia = = =
In August 1944 advancing Soviet troops had reached the Soviet border with East Prussia and by 31 August of that year Shanina 's battle count reached 42 kills . The following month the Šešupė River was crossed . Shanina 's 184th Rifle Division became the first Soviet unit to enter East Prussia . At that time , two Canadian newspapers , the Ottawa Citizen and Leader @-@ Post , reported that according to an official dispatch from the Šešupė River front , Shanina killed five Germans in one day as she crouched in a sniper hideout . Later in September her sniper tally had reached 46 kills , of which 15 were made on German soil and seven during an offensive . On 17 September , Unichtozhim Vraga credited Shanina with 51 hits . In the third quarter of 1944 , Shanina was given a short furlough and visited Arkhangelsk . She returned to the front on October 17 for one day , and later received an honourable certificate from the Central Committee of Komsomol . On 16 September 1944 , Shanina was awarded her second military distinction , the Order of Glory 2nd Class for intrepidity and bravery displayed in various battles against the Germans in that year .
On 26 October 1944 Shanina became eligible for the Order of Glory 1st Class for her actions in a battle near Schlossberg ( now Dobrovolsk ) , but ultimately received the Medal for Courage instead . Shanina was awarded the medal on 27 December for the gallant posture displayed during a German counter @-@ offensive on 26 October . There Shanina fought together with Captain Igor Aseyev , a Hero of the Soviet Union , and witnessed his death on 26 October . Shanina , who served as an assistant platoon commander , was ordered to commit the female snipers to combat . She was among the first female snipers to receive the Medal for Courage . Schlossberg was finally retaken from Germans by the troops of the 3rd Belorussian Front on 16 January 1945 during the Insterburg – Königsberg Operation .
On 12 December 1944 , an enemy sniper shot Shanina in her right shoulder . She wrote in her diary that she had not felt the pain , " the shoulder was just scalded with something hot . " Although the injury , which Shanina described as " two small holes " , seemed minor to her , she needed an operation and was incapacitated for several days . She reported in her diary that the previous day she had a prophetic dream in which she was wounded in exactly the same place .
On 8 January 1945 Nikolai Krylov formally allowed Shanina to participate in front @-@ line combat , albeit with great reluctance : previously Shanina was denied that permission by the commander of the 184th Rifle Division and the military council of the 5th Army as well . Five days later , the Soviets launched the East Prussian Offensive , which prompted heavy fighting in East Prussia . By 15 January , travelling with divisional logistics , Shanina reached the East Prussian town of Eydtkuhnen ( now Chernyshevskoye ) , where she used white military camouflage . Several days later , she experienced friendly fire from a Katyusha rocket launcher and wrote in her diary , " Now I understand why the Germans are so afraid of Katyushas . What a fire ! " At the border of East Prussia , Shanina killed 26 enemy soldiers . The last unit she served in was the 144th Rifle Division . According to the online Book of Memory of Arkhangelsk Oblast , Shanina served in the 205th Special Motorized Rifle Battalion of that division . Shanina had hoped to go to university after the war , or if that was not possible , to raise orphans .
In the course of her tour of duty Shanina was mentioned in despatches several times . Her final sniper tally reached fifty @-@ nine confirmed kills ( fifty @-@ four , according to other sources ) , including twelve kills during the Battle of Vilnius , with sixty @-@ two enemies knocked out of action . Domestically her achievements were acknowledged particularly by the war correspondent Ilya Ehrenburg and in the newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda , which said that Shanina was one of the best snipers in her unit and that even veteran soldiers were inferior to her in shooting accuracy . Shanina 's exploits were also reported in the Western press , particularly in Canadian newspapers , where she was called " the unseen terror of East Prussia " . She paid no special attention to the achieved renown , and once wrote that she had been overrated . On 16 January 1945 Shanina wrote in her combat diary : " What I 've actually done ? No more than I have to as a Soviet man , having stood up to defend the motherland . " She also wrote , " The essence of my happiness is fighting for the happiness of others . It 's strange , why is it that in grammar , the word " happiness " can only be singular ? That is counter to its meaning , after all . ... If it turns necessary to die for the common happiness , then I 'm braced to . "
= = = Death = = =
In the face of the East Prussian Offensive , the Germans tried to strengthen the localities they controlled against great odds . In a diary entry dated 16 January 1945 , Shanina wrote that despite her wish to be in a safer place , some unknown force was drawing her to the front line . In the same entry she wrote that she had no fear and that she had even agreed to go " to a melee combat " . The next day , Shanina wrote in a letter that she might be on the verge of being killed because her battalion had lost 72 out of 78 people . Her last diary entry reports that German fire had become so intense that the Soviet troops , including herself , had sheltered inside self @-@ propelled guns . On 27 January Shanina was severely injured while shielding a wounded artillery officer . She was found by two soldiers disemboweled , with her chest torn open by a shell fragment . Despite attempts to save her , Shanina died the following day near the Richau estate ( later a Soviet settlement of Telmanovka ) , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) southeast of the East Prussian village of Ilmsdorf ( Novobobruysk ) . Nurse Yekaterina Radkina remembered Shanina telling her that she regretted having done so little . By the day of Shanina 's death the Soviets had overtaken several major East Prussian localities , including Tilsit , Insterburg and Pillau , and approached Königsberg . Recalling the moment Shanina 's mother received notification of her daughter 's death , her brother Marat wrote : " I clearly remembered mother 's eyes . They weren 't teary anymore . ... ' That 's all , that 's all ' — she repeated " . Shanina was buried under a spreading pear tree on the shore of the Alle River — now called the Lava — and was later reinterred in the settlement of Znamensk , Kaliningrad Oblast .
= = Posthumous honours = =
In 1964 – 65 a renewed interest in Shanina arose in the Soviet press , largely due to the publication of her diary . The newspaper Severny Komsomolets asked Shanina 's contemporaries to write what they knew about her . Streets in Arkhangelsk , Shangaly and Stroyevskoye were named after her , and the village of Yedma has a museum dedicated to Shanina . The local school where she studied in 1931 – 35 has a commemorative plate . In Arkhangelsk , regular shooting competitions were organized among members of the paramilitary DOSAAF sport organisation for the Roza Shanina Prize , while Novodvinsk organized an open shooting sports championship in her memory . The village of Malinovka in Ustyansky District started to hold annual cross @-@ country ski races for the Roza Shanina Prize .
In 1985 , the Council of Veterans of the Russian Central Women Sniper Academy unsuccessfully requested the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union to posthumously bestow the Order of Glory 1st Class on Shanina ( which would have made her a Full Cavalier of that order ) . In the same year , Russian author Nikolai Zhuravlyov published the book Posle boya vernulas ( Returned After Battle ) . Its title refers to Shanina 's words , " I will return after the battle , " which she uttered after receiving a note from her battalion commander urging her to return to the rear immediately . Verses have been composed about Shanina , such as those by writer Nikolai Nabitovich . A small memorial stele dedicated to Shanina ( part of a three @-@ piece monument ) was erected in Bogdanovsky settlement , Ustyansky District .
In 2000 , Shanina 's name appeared on the war memorial stone of the Siberian State Technological University , although there is no evidence she had any affiliation with it during her life . Russian author Viktor Logvinov controversially wrote in the 1970s that Shanina had studied in the Siberian Forestry Institute and that she was the daughter of an " old Krasnoyarsk communist " . The claim was continued by Krasnoyarsk publications in later years , particularly in 2005 . In 2013 , a wall of memory , featuring graffiti portraits of six Russian war honorees , including Roza Shanina , was opened in Arkhangelsk .
= = Character and personal life = =
The war correspondent Pyotr Molchanov , who had frequently met Shanina at the front , described her as a person of unusual will with a genuine , bright nature . Shanina described herself as " boundlessly and recklessly talky " during her college years . She typified her own character as like that of the Romantic poet , painter and writer Mikhail Lermontov , deciding , like him , to act as she saw fit . Shanina dressed modestly and liked to play volleyball . According to Shanina 's sister @-@ in @-@ arms Lidiya Vdovina , Roza used to sing her favourite war song " Oy tumany moi , rastumany " ( " O My Mists " ) each time she cleaned her weapon . Shanina had a straightforward character and valued courage and the absence of egotism in people . She once told a story when " about half a hundred frenzied fascists with wild cries " attacked a trench accommodating twelve female snipers , including Shanina : " Some fell from our well @-@ aimed bullets , some we finished with our bayonets , grenades , shovels , and some we took prisoners , having restrained their arms . "
Shanina 's personal life was thwarted by war . On 10 October 1944 , she wrote in her diary , " I can 't accept that Misha Panarin doesn 't live anymore . What a good guy ! [ He ] has been killed ... He loved me , I know , and I him ... My heart is heavy , I 'm twenty , but I have no close [ male ] friend " . In November 1944 , Shanina wrote that she " is flogging into her head that [ she ] loves " a man named Nikolai , although he " doesn 't shine in upbringing and education " . In the same entry she wrote that she did not think about marriage because " it 's not the time now " . She later wrote that she " had it out " with Nikolai and " wrote him a note in the sense of ' but I 'm given to the one and will love no other one ' " . Ultimately in her last diary record , filled with sombre tones , Shanina wrote that she " cannot find a solace " now and is " of no use to anyone " .
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= Holliday junction =
A Holliday junction is a branched nucleic acid structure that contains four double @-@ stranded arms joined together . These arms may adopt one of several conformations depending on buffer salt concentrations and the sequence of nucleobases closest to the junction . The structure is named after the molecular biologist Robin Holliday , who proposed its existence in 1964 .
In biology , Holliday junctions are a key intermediate in many types of genetic recombination , as well as in double @-@ strand break repair . These junctions usually have a symmetrical sequence and are thus mobile , meaning that the four individual arms may slide though the junction in a specific pattern that largely preserves base pairing . Additionally , four @-@ arm junctions similar to Holliday junctions appear in some functional RNA molecules .
Immobile Holliday junctions , with asymmetrical sequences that lock the strands in a specific position , were artificially created by scientists to study their structure as a model for natural Holliday junctions . These junctions also later found use as basic structural building blocks in DNA nanotechnology , where multiple Holliday junctions can be combined into specific designed geometries that provide molecules with a high degree of structural rigidity .
= = Structure = =
Holliday junctions may exist in a variety of conformational isomers with different patterns of coaxial stacking between the four double @-@ helical arms . Coaxial stacking is the tendency of nucleic acid blunt ends to bind to each other , by interactions between the exposed bases . There are three possible stacking conformers : an unstacked form and two stacked forms . The unstacked form dominates in the absence of divalent cations such as Mg2 + , because of electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged backbones of the strands . In the presence of at least about 0 @.@ 1 mM Mg2 + , the electrostatic repulsion is counteracted and the stacked structures predominate . As of 2000 , it was not known with certainty whether the electrostatic shielding was the result of site @-@ specific binding of cations to the junction , or the presence of a diffuse collection of the ions in solution .
The unstacked form is a nearly square planar , extended conformation . On the other hand , the stacked conformers have two continuous double @-@ helical domains separated by an angle of about 60 ° in a right @-@ handed direction . Two of the four strands stay roughly helical , remaining within each of the two double @-@ helical domains , while the other two cross between the two domains in an antiparallel fashion .
The two possible stacked forms differ in which pairs of the arms are stacked with each other ; which of the two dominates is highly dependent on the base sequences nearest to the junction . Some sequences result in an equilibrium between the two conformers , while others strongly prefer a single conformer . In particular , junctions containing the sequence A @-@ CC bridging the junction point appear to strongly prefer the conformer that allows a hydrogen bond to form between the second cytosine and one of the phosphates at the junction point . While most studies have focused on the identities of the four bases nearest to the junction on each arm , it is evident that bases farther out can also affect the observed stacking conformations .
In junctions with symmetrical sequences , the branchpoint is mobile and can migrate in a random walk process . The rate of branch migration varies dramatically with ion concentration , with single @-@ step times increasing from 0 @.@ 3 − 0 @.@ 4 ms with no ions to 270 − 300 ms with 10 mM Mg2 + . The change in rate is correlated with the formation of the stacked versus the unstacked structures .
Holliday junctions with a nick , or break in one of the strands , at the junction point adopt a perpendicular orientation , and always prefer the stacking conformer that places the nick on a crossover strand rather than a helical strand .
RNA Holliday junctions assume an antiparallel stacked conformation at high magnesium concentrations , a perpendicular stacked conformation at moderate concentrations , and rotate into a parallel stacked conformation at low concentrations , while even small calcium ion concentrations favor the antiparallel conformer .
= = Biological function = =
The Holliday junction is a key intermediate in homologous recombination , a biological process that increases genetic diversity by shifting genes between two chromosomes , as well as site @-@ specific recombination events involving integrases . They are additionally involved in repair of double @-@ strand breaks . In addition , cruciform structures involving Holliday junctions can arise to relieve helical strain in symmetrical sequences in DNA supercoils . While four @-@ arm junctions also appear in functional RNA molecules , such as U1 spliceosomal RNA and the hairpin ribozyme of the tobacco ringspot virus , these usually contain unpaired nucleotides in between the paired double @-@ helical domains , and thus do not strictly adopt the Holliday structure .
The Holliday junctions in homologous recombination are between identical or nearly identical sequences , leading to a symmetric arrangement of sequences around the central junction . This allows a branch migration process to occur where the strands move through the junction point . Cleavage , or resolution , of the Holliday junction can occur in two ways . Cleavage of the original set of strands leads to two molecules that may show gene conversion but not chromosomal crossover , while cleavage of the other set of two strands causes the resulting recombinant molecules to show crossover . All products , regardless of cleavage , are heteroduplexes in the region of Holliday junction migration .
Many proteins are able to recognize or distort the Holliday junction structure . One such class contains junction @-@ resolving enzymes that cleave the junctions , sometimes in a sequence @-@ specific fashion . Such proteins distort the structure of the junction in various ways , often pulling the junction into an unstacked conformation , breaking the central base pairs , and / or changing the angles between the four arms . Other classes are branch migration proteins that increase the exchange rate by orders of magnitude , and site @-@ specific recombinases . In prokaryotes , Holliday junction resolvases fall into two families , integrases and nucleases , that are each structurally similar although their sequences are not conserved .
In eukaryotes , two primary models for how homologous recombination repairs double @-@ strand breaks in DNA are the double @-@ strand break repair ( DSBR ) pathway ( sometimes called the double Holliday junction model ) and the synthesis @-@ dependent strand annealing ( SDSA ) pathway . In the case of double strand breakage , the 3 ' end is degraded and the longer 5 ' end invades the contiguous sister chromatid , forming a replication bubble . As this bubble nears the broken DNA , the longer 5 ' antisense strand again invades the sense strand of this portion of DNA , transcribing a second copy . When replication ends , both tails are reconnected to form two Holliday Junctions , which are then cleaved in a variety of patterns by proteins . An animation of this process can be seen here .
Double @-@ strand DNA breaks in bacteria are repaired by the RecBCD pathway of homologous recombination . Breaks that occur on only one of the two DNA strands , known as single @-@ strand gaps , are thought to be repaired by the RecF pathway . Both the RecBCD and RecF pathways include a series of reactions known as branch migration , in which single DNA strands are exchanged between two intercrossed molecules of duplex DNA , and resolution , in which those two intercrossed molecules of DNA are cut apart and restored to their normal double @-@ stranded state . Homologous recombination occurs in several groups of viruses . In DNA viruses such as herpesvirus , recombination occurs through a break @-@ and @-@ rejoin mechanism like in bacteria and eukaryotes . In bacteria , branch migration is facilitated by the RuvABC complex or RecG protein , molecular motors that use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to move the junction . The junction must then be resolved into two separate duplexes , restoring either the parental configuration or a crossed @-@ over configuration . Resolution can occur in either a horizontal or vertical fashion during homologous recombination , giving patch products ( if in same orientation during double strand break repair ) or splice products ( if in different orientations during double strand break repair ) . RuvA and RuvB are branch migration proteins , while RuvC is a junction @-@ resolving enzyme .
There is evidence for recombination in some RNA viruses , specifically positive @-@ sense ssRNA viruses like retroviruses , picornaviruses , and coronaviruses . There is controversy over whether homologous recombination occurs in negative @-@ sense ssRNA viruses like influenza .
= = = Resolution = = =
In budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Holliday junctions can be resolved by four different pathways that account for essentially all Holliday junction resolution in vivo . The pathway that produces the majority of crossovers in S. cerevisiae budding yeast , and possibly in mammals , involves proteins EXO1 , MLH1 @-@ MLH3 heterodimer ( called MutL gamma ) and SGS1 ( ortholog of Bloom syndrome helicase ) . The MLH1 @-@ MLH3 heterodimer binds preferentially to Holliday junctions . It is an endonuclease that makes single @-@ strand breaks in supercoiled double @-@ stranded DNA . The MLH1 @-@ MLH3 heterodimer promotes the formation of crossover recombinants . While the other three pathways , involving proteins MUS81 @-@ MMS4 , SLX1 and YEN1 , respectively , can promote Holliday junction resolution in vivo , absence of all three nucleases has only a modest impact on formation of crossover products .
Double mutants deleted for both MLH3 ( major pathway ) and MMS4 ( minor pathway ) showed dramatically reduced crossing over compared to wild @-@ type ( 6- to 17 @-@ fold ) ; however spore viability was reasonably high ( 62 % ) and chromosomal disjunction appeared mostly functional .
Although MUS81 is a component of a minor crossover pathway in the meiosis of budding yeast , plants and vertebrates , in the protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila , MUS81 appears to be part of an essential , if not the predominant crossover pathway . The MUS81 pathway also appears to be the predominant crossover pathway in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe .
The MSH4 and MSH5 proteins form a hetero @-@ oligomeric structure ( heterodimer ) in yeast and humans . In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH4 and MSH5 act specifically to facilitate crossovers between homologous chromosomes during meiosis . The MSH4 / MSH5 complex binds and stabilizes double Holliday junctions and promotes their resolution into crossover products . An MSH4 hypomorphic ( partially functional ) mutant of S. cerevisiae showed a 30 % genome wide reduction in crossover numbers , and a large number of meioses with non exchange chromosomes . Nevertheless , this mutant gave rise to spore viability patterns suggesting that segregation of non @-@ exchange chromosomes occurred efficiently . Thus in S. cerevisiae proper segregation apparently does not entirely depend on crossovers between homologous pairs .
= = Use in DNA nanotechnology = =
DNA nanotechnology is the design and manufacture of artificial nucleic acid structures as engineering materials for nanotechnology rather than as the carriers of genetic information in living cells . The field uses branched DNA structures as fundamental components to create more complex , rationally designed structures . Holliday junctions are thus components of many such DNA structures . As isolated Holliday junction complexes are too flexible to assemble into large ordered arrays , structural motifs with multiple Holliday junctions are used to create rigid " tiles " that can then assemble into larger " arrays " .
The most common such motif is the double crossover ( DX ) complex , which contains two Holliday junctions in close proximity to each other , resulting in a rigid structure that can self @-@ assemble into larger arrays . The structure of the DX molecule forces the Holliday junctions to adopt a conformation with the double @-@ helical domains directly side @-@ by @-@ side , in contrast to their preferred angle of about 60 ° . The complex can be designed to force the junctions into either a parallel or antiparallel orientation , but in practice the antiparallel variety are more well @-@ behaved , and the parallel version is rarely used .
The DX structural motif is the fundamental building block of the DNA origami method , which is used to make larger two- and three @-@ dimensional structures of arbitrary shape . Instead of using individual DX tiles , a single long scaffold strand is folded into the desired shape by a number of short staple strands . When assembled , the scaffold strand is continuous through the double @-@ helical domains , while the staple strands participate in the Holliday junctions as crossover strands .
Some tile types that retain the Holliday junction 's native 60 ° angle have been demonstrated . One such array uses tiles containing four Holliday junctions in a parallelogram arrangement . This structure had the benefit of allowing the junction angle to be directly visualized via atomic force microscopy . Tiles of three Holliday junctions in a triangular fashion have been used to make periodic three @-@ dimensional arrays for use in X @-@ ray crystallography of biomolecules . These structures are named for their similarity to structural units based on the principle of tensegrity , which utilizes members both in tension and compression .
= = History = =
Robin Holliday proposed the junction structure that now bears his name as part of his model of homologous recombination in 1964 , based on his research on the organisms Ustilago maydis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae . The model provided a molecular mechanism that explained both gene conversion and chromosomal crossover . Holliday realized that the proposed pathway would create heteroduplex DNA segments with base mismatches between different versions of a single gene . He predicted that the cell would have a mechanism for mismatch repair , which was later discovered . Prior to Holliday 's model , the accepted model involved a copy @-@ choice mechanism where the new strand is synthesized directly from parts of the different parent strands .
In the original Holliday model for homologous recombination , single @-@ strand breaks occur at the same point on one strand of each parental DNA . Free ends of each broken strand then migrate across to the other DNA helix . There , the invading strands are joined to the free ends they encounter , resulting in the Holliday junction . As each crossover strand reanneals to its original partner strand , it displaces the original complementary strand ahead of it . This causes the Holliday junction to migrate , creating the heteroduplex segments . Depending on which strand was used as a template to repair the other , the four cells resulting from meiosis might end up with three copies of one allele and only one of the other , instead of the normal two of each , a property known as gene conversion .
Holliday 's original model assumed that heteroduplex DNA would be present on both chromosomes , but experimental data on yeast refuted this . An updated model by Matt Meselson and Charley Radding in 1975 introduced the idea of branch migration . Further observations in the 1980s led to the proposal of alternate mechanisms for recombination such as the double @-@ strand break model ( by Jack Szostak , Frank Stahl , and others ) and the single @-@ strand annealing model . A third , the synthesis @-@ dependent strand annealing model , did not involve Holliday junctions .
The first experimental evidence for the structure of the Holliday junction came from electron microscopy studies in the late 1970s , where the four @-@ arm structure was clearly visible in images of plasmid and bacteriophage DNA . Later in the 1980s , enzymes responsible for initiating the formation of , and binding to , Holliday junctions were identified , although as of 2004 the identification of mammalian Holliday junction resolvases remained elusive ( however , see section " Resolution of Holliday junctions , " above for more recent information ) . In 1983 , artificial Holliday junction molecules were first constructed from synthetic oligonucleotides by Nadrian Seeman , allowing for more direct study of their physical properties . Much of the early analysis of Holliday junction structure was inferred from gel electrophoresis , FRET , and hydroxyl radical and nuclease footprinting studies . In the 1990s , crystallography and nucleic acid NMR methods became available , as well as computational molecular modelling tools .
Initially , geneticists assumed that the junction would adopt a parallel rather than antiparallel conformation , because that would place the homologous duplexes in closer alignment to each other . Chemical analysis in the 1980s showed that the junction actually preferred the antiparallel conformation , a finding that was considered controversial , and Robin Holliday himself initially doubted the findings . The antiparallel structure later became widely accepted due to X @-@ ray crystallography data on in vitro molecules , although as of 2004 the implications for the in vivo structure remained unclear , especially the structure of the junctions is often altered by proteins bound to it .
The conceptual foundation for DNA nanotechnology was first laid out by Nadrian Seeman in the early 1980s . A number of natural branched DNA structures were known at the time , including the DNA replication fork and the mobile Holliday junction , but Seeman 's insight was that immobile nucleic acid junctions could be created by properly designing the strand sequences to remove symmetry in the assembled molecule , and that these immobile junctions could in principle be combined into rigid crystalline lattices . The first theoretical paper proposing this scheme was published in 1982 , and the first experimental demonstration of an immobile DNA junction was published the following year . Seeman developed the more rigid double @-@ crossover ( DX ) motif , suitable for forming two @-@ dimensional lattices , demonstrated in 1998 by him and Erik Winfree . In 2006 , Paul Rothemund first demonstrated the DNA origami technique for easily and robustly creating folded DNA structures of arbitrary shape . This method allowed the creation of much larger structures than were previously possible , and which are less technically demanding to design and synthesize . The synthesis of a three @-@ dimensional lattice was finally published by Seeman in 2009 , nearly thirty years after he had set out to achieve it .
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= Power : A New Social Analysis =
Power : A New Social Analysis by Bertrand Russell ( 1st imp . London 1938 , Allen & Unwin , 328 pp . ) is a work in social philosophy written by Bertrand Russell . Power , for Russell , is one 's ability to achieve goals . In particular , Russell has in mind social power , that is , power over people .
The volume contains a number of arguments . However , four themes have a central role in the overall work . The first theme given treatment in the analysis is that the lust for power is a part of human nature . Second , the work emphasises that there are different forms of social power , and that these forms are substantially interrelated . Third , Power insists that " organisations are usually connected with certain kinds of individuals " . Finally , the work ends by arguing that " arbitrary rulership can and should be subdued " .
Throughout the work , Russell 's ambition is to develop a new method of conceiving the social sciences as a whole . For him , all topics in the social sciences are merely examinations of the different forms of power – chiefly the economic , military , cultural , and civil forms ( Russell 1938 : 4 ) . Eventually , he hoped that social science would be robust enough to capture the " laws of social dynamics " , which would describe how and when one form of power changes into another . ( Russell 1938 : 4 – 6 ) As a secondary goal of the work , Russell is at pains to reject single @-@ cause accounts of social power , such as the economic determinism he attributes to Karl Marx . ( Russell 1938 : 4 , 95 )
= = The work = =
The new social analysis examines at least four general topics : the nature of power , the forms of power , the structure of organisations , and the ethics of power .
= = = Nature of power = = =
Russell 's view of human nature , like that of Thomas Hobbes , is somewhat pessimistic . By Russell 's account , the desire to empower oneself is unique to human nature . No other animals besides Homo sapiens , he argues , are capable of being so unsatisfied with their lot , that they should try to accumulate more goods than meet their needs . The " impulse to power " , as he calls it , does not arise unless one 's basic desires have been sated . ( Russell 1938 : 3 ) Then the imagination stirs , motivating the actor to gain more power . In Russell 's view , the love of power is nearly universal among people , although it takes on different guises from person to person . A person with great ambitions may become the next Caesar , but others may be content to merely dominate the home . ( Russell 1938 : 9 )
This impulse to power is not only " explicitly " present in leaders , but also sometimes " implicitly " in those who follow . It is clear that leaders may pursue and profit from enacting their own agenda , but in a " genuinely cooperative enterprise " , the followers seem to gain vicariously from the achievements of the leader . ( Russell 1938 : 7 – 8 )
In stressing this point , Russell is explicitly rebutting Friedrich Nietzsche 's infamous " master @-@ slave morality " argument . Russell explains :
" Most men do not feel in themselves the competence required for leading their group to victory , and therefore seek out a captain who appears to possess the courage and sagacity necessary for the achievement of supremacy ... Nietzsche accused Christianity of inculcating a slave @-@ morality , but ultimate triumph was always the goal . ' Blessed are the meek , for they shall inherit the earth . ' " ( Russell 1938 : 9 , emphasis his ) .
The existence of implicit power , he explains , is why people are capable of tolerating social inequality for an extended period of time ( Russell 1938 : 8 ) .
However , Russell is quick to note that the invocation of human nature should not come at the cost of ignoring the exceptional personal temperaments of power @-@ seekers . Following Adler ( 1927 ) — and to an extent echoing Nietzsche – he separates individuals into two classes : those who are imperious in a particular situation , and those who are not . The love of power , Russell tells us , is probably not motivated by Freudian complexes , ( i.e. , resentment of one 's father , lust for one 's mother , drives towards Eros and Thanatos ( Love and Death drives , which constitute the basis of all human drives , etc . , ) but rather by a sense of entitlement which arises from exceptional and deep @-@ rooted self @-@ confidence . ( Russell 1938 : 11 )
The imperious person is successful due to both mental and social factors . For instance , the imperious tend to have an internal confidence in their own competence and decisiveness which is relatively lacking in those who follow . ( Russell 1938 : 13 ) In reality , the imperious may or may not actually be possessed of genuine skill ; rather , the source of their power may also arise out of their hereditary or religious role . ( Russell 1938 : 11 )
Non @-@ imperious persons include those who submit to a ruler , and those who withdraw entirely from the situation . A confident and competent candidate for leadership may withdraw from a situation when they lack the courage to challenge a particular authority , are timid by temperament , simply do not have the means to acquire power by the usual methods , are entirely indifferent to matters of power , and / or are moderated by a well @-@ developed sense of duty . ( Russell 1938 : 13 – 17 )
Accordingly , while the imperious orator will tend to prefer a passionate crowd over a sympathetic one , the timid orator ( or subject ) will have the opposite preferences . The imperious orator is interested mostly in a mob that is more given to rash emotion than to reflection . ( Russell 1938 : 18 ) The orator will try to engineer two ' layers ' of belief in his crowd : " a superficial layer , in which the power of the enemy is magnified so as to make great courage seem necessary , and a deeper layer , in which there is a firm conviction of victory " ( Russell 1938 : 18 ) . By contrast , the timid will seek a sense of belonging , and " the reassurance which is felt in being one of a crowd who all feel alike " ( Russell 1938 : 17 ) .
When any given person has a crisis in confidence , and is placed in a terrifying situation , they will tend to behave in a predictable way : first , they submit to the rule of those who seem to have greater competence in the most relevant task , and second , they will surround themselves with that mass of persons who share a similarly low level of confidence . Thus , people submit to the rule of the leader in a kind of emergency solidarity . ( Russell 1938 : 9 – 10 )
= = = Forms of power = = =
To begin with , Russell is interested in classifying the different ways in which one human being may have power over another — what he calls the " forms of power " . The forms may be subdivided into two : influence over persons , and the psychological types of influence . ( Russell 1938 : 24 @,@ 27 )
To understand how organisations operate , Russell explains , we must first understand the basic methods by which they can exercise power at all — that is , we must understand the manner in which individuals are persuaded to follow some authority . Russell breaks the forms of influence down into three very general categories : " the power of force and coercion " ; the " power of inducements " , such as operant conditioning and group conformity ; and " the power of propaganda and / or habit " ( Russell 1938 : 24 ) .
To explain each form , Russell provides illustrations . The power of mere force is like the tying of a rope around a pig 's belly and lifting it up to a ship while ignoring its cries . The power of inducements is likened to two things : either conditioning , as exemplified by circus animals which have been trained to perform this @-@ or @-@ that trick for an audience , or group acquiescence , as when the leader among sheep is dragged along by chains to get the rest of the flock to follow . Finally , the power of propaganda is akin to the use of carrot and stick to influence the behaviour of a donkey , in the sense that the donkey is being persuaded that making certain actions ( following the carrot , avoiding the stick ) would be more or less to their benefit . ( Russell 1938 : 24 )
Russell makes a distinction between traditional , revolutionary , and naked forms of psychological influence . ( Russell 1938 : 27 ) These psychological types overlap with the forms of influence in some respects : for instance , " naked power " can be reduced to coercion alone . ( Russell 1938 : 63 ) But the other types are distinct units of analysis , and require separate treatments .
= = = = Naked and economic power = = = =
When force is used in the absence of other forms , it is called " naked power " . In other words , naked power is the ruthless exertion of force without the desire for , or attempt at , consent . In all cases , the sources of naked power are the fears of the powerless and the ambitions of the powerful ( Russell 1938 : 127 ) . As an example of naked power , Russell recalls the story of Agathocles , the son of a potter who became the tyrant of Syracuse . ( Russell 1938 : 69 – 72 )
Russell argues that naked power arises within a government under certain social conditions : when two or more fanatical creeds are contending for governance , and when all traditional beliefs have decayed . A period of naked power may end by foreign conquest , the creation of stability , and / or the rise of a new religion ( Russell 1938 : 74 ) .
The process by which an organisation achieves sufficient prominence that it is able to exercise naked power can be described as the rule of three phases ( Russell 1938 : 63 ) . According to this rule , what begins as fanaticism on the part of some crowd eventually produces conquest by means of naked power . Eventually , the acquiescence of the outlying population transforms naked power into traditional power . Finally , once a traditional power has taken hold , it engages in the suppression of dissent by the use of naked power .
For Russell , economic power is parallel to the power of conditioning . ( Russell 1938 : 25 ) However , unlike Marx , he emphasises that economic power is not primary , but rather , derives from a combination of the forms of power . By his account , economics is dependent largely upon the functioning of law , and especially , property law ; and law is to a large degree a function of the power over opinion , which cannot be entirely explained by wage , labour , and trade . ( Russell 1938 : 95 )
Ultimately , Russell argues that economic power is attained through the ability to defend one 's territory ( and to conquer other lands ) , to possess the materials for the cultivation of one 's resources , and to be able to satisfy the demands of others on the market . ( Russell 1938 : 97 – 101 , 107 )
= = = = The power of ( and over ) opinion = = = =
In Russell 's model , power over the creeds and habits of persons is easy to miscalculate . He claims that , on the one hand , the economic determinists had underestimated the power of opinion . However , on the other hand , he argues that the case is easy to make that all power is power over opinion : for " Armies are useless unless the soldiers believe in the cause for which they are fighting ... Law is impotent unless it is generally respected . " ( Russell 1938 : 109 ) Still , he admits that military force may cause opinion , and ( with few exceptions ) be the thing that imbues opinion with power in the first place :
" We thus have a kind of see @-@ saw : first , pure persuasion leading to the conversion of a minority ; then force exerted to secure that the rest of the community shall be exposed to the right propaganda ; and finally a genuine belief on the part of the great majority , which makes the use of force again unnecessary . " ( Russell 1938 : 110 )
Thus , although " the power over opinion " may occur with or without force , the power of a creed arises only after a powerful and persuasive minority has willingly adopted the creed .
The exception here is the case of Western science , which seemingly rose in cultural appeal despite being unpopular with establishment forces . Russell explains the popularity of science is not grounded on a general respect for reason , but rather is grounded entirely on the fact that science produces technology , and technology produces things that people desire . Similarly , religion , advertising , and propaganda all have power because of their connections with the desires of their audiences . Russell 's conclusion is that reason has very limited , though specific , sway over the opinions of persons . For reason is only effective when it appeals to desire . ( Russell 1938 : 111 – 112 )
Russell then inquires into the power that reason has over a community , as contrasted with fanaticism . It would seem that the power of reason is that it is able to increase the odds of success in practical matters by way of technical efficiency . The cost of allowing for reasoned inquiry is the tolerance of intellectual disagreement , which in turn provokes scepticism and dims the power of fanaticism . Conversely , it would seem that a community is stronger and more cohesive if there is widespread agreement within it over certain creeds , and reasoned debate is rare . If these two opposing conditions are both to be fully exploited for short @-@ term gains , then it would demand two things : first , that some creed be held both by the majority opinion ( through force and propaganda ) , and second , that the majority of intellectual class concurs ( through reasoned discussion ) . In the long @-@ term , however , creeds tend to provoke weariness , light scepticism , outright disbelief , and finally , apathy . ( Russell 1938 : 123 – 125 )
Russell is acutely aware that power tends to coalesce in the hands of a minority , and no less so when it comes to power over opinion . The result is " systematic propaganda " , or the monopoly over propaganda by the state . Perhaps surprisingly , Russell avers that the consequences of systematic propaganda are not as dire as one might expect . ( Russell 1938 : 114 – 115 ) A true monopoly over opinion leads to careless arrogance among leaders , as well as to indifference to the well @-@ being of the governed , and a lack of credulity on behalf of the governed towards the state . In the long @-@ term , the net result is :
" [ to ] delay revolution , but to make it more violent when it comes . When only one doctrine is officially allowed , men get no practice in thinking or in weighing alternatives ; only a great wave of passionate revolt can dethrone orthodoxy ; and in order to make the opposition sufficiently whole @-@ hearted and violent to achieve success , it will seem necessary to deny even what was true in governmental dogma " ( Russell 1938 : 115 ) .
By contrast , the shrewd propagandist of the contemporary state will allow for disagreement , so that false established opinions will have something to react to . In Russell 's words : " Lies need competition if they are to retain their vigour . " ( Russell 1938 : 115 )
= = = = Revolutionary versus traditional power = = = =
Among the psychological types of influence , we have a distinction between " traditional , naked , and revolutionary power " . ( Naked power , as noted earlier , is the use of coercion without any pretense to legitimacy . )
By " traditional power " , Russell has in mind the ways in which people will appeal to the force of habit to justify a political regime . It is in this sense that traditional power is psychological and not historical ; since traditional power is not entirely based on a commitment to some linear historical creed , but rather , on mere habit . Moreover , traditional power need not be based on actual history , but rather be based on imagined or fabricated history . Thus he writes that " Both religious and secular innovators – at any rate those who have had most lasting success – have appealed , as far as they could , to tradition , and have done whatever lay in their power to minimise the elements of novelty in their system . " ( Russell 1938 : 40 )
The two clearest examples of traditional power are the cases of " kingly power " and " priestly power " . Russell traces both back historically to certain roles which served some function in early societies . The priest is akin to the medicine man of a tribe , who is thought to have unique powers of cursing and healing at their disposal ( Russell 1938 : 36 ) . In most contemporary cases , priests rely on religious social movements grounded in charismatic authority , which have been more effective at usurping power than those religions that lack iconic founders ( Russell 1938 : 39 – 40 ) . The history of the king is more difficult to examine , and the researcher can only speculate on their origins . At the very least , the power of kingship seems to be advanced by war , even if warmaking was not the king 's original function ( Russell 1938 : 56 ) .
When the forms of traditional power come to an end , there tends to be a corresponding change in creeds . If the traditional creeds are doubted without any alternative , then the traditional authority relies more and more on the use of naked power . And where the traditional creeds are wholly replaced with alternative ones , traditional power gives rise to revolutionary power ( Russell 1938 : 82 ) .
" Revolutionary power " contrasts with traditional power in that it appeals to popular assent to some creed , and not merely popular acquiescence or habit . Thus , for the revolutionary , power is a means to an end , and the end is some creed or other . Whatever its intentions , the power of the revolutionary tends to either devolve back into naked power over time , or else to transform into traditional power ( Russell 1938 : 82 ) .
The revolutionary faces at least two special problems . First , the transformation back into naked power occurs when revolutionary power has been around for a long period without achieving a resolution to its key conflict . At some point , the original goal of the creed tends to be forgotten , and consequently , the fanatics of the movement change their goals and aspire toward mere domination ( Russell 1938 : 92 ) . Second , the revolutionary must always deal with the threat of counter @-@ revolutionaries , and is hence faced with a dilemma : because revolutionary power must by definition think that the original revolution was justified , it " cannot , logically , contend that all subsequent revolutions must be wicked " ( Russell 1938 : 87 ) .
A transition into traditional power is also possible . Just as there are two kinds of traditional power — the priestly and the kingly — there are two kinds of revolutionary power , namely , the " soldier of fortune " and " the divine conqueror " . Russell classes Benito Mussolini and Napoleon Bonaparte as soldiers of fortune , and Adolf Hitler , Oliver Cromwell , and Vladimir Lenin as divine conquerors ( Russell 1938 : 12 ) . Nonetheless , the traditional forms bear only an imperfect relationship , if any , to the revolutionary forms .
= = = Structure of organisations = = =
Having introduced the reader to the forms of power , Russell applies those forms to a selection of organisations . The purpose of discussing organisations is that they seem to be one of the most common sources of social power . By an " organization " , Russell means a set of people who share some activities , and directed at common goals , which is typified by a redistribution of power ( Russell 1938 : 128 ) . Organizations differ in size and type , though common to them all is the tendency for inequality of power to increase as membership increases .
An exhaustive list of the types of organisation would be impossible , since the list would be as long as a list of human reasons to organise themselves in groups . However , Russell takes interest in only a small sample of organisations . The army and police , economic organisations , educational organisations , organisations of law , political parties , and churches are all recognised as societal entities . ( Russell 1938 : 29 – 34 @,@ 128 @,@ 138 @-@ 140 )
The researcher might also measure the organisation by its use of communication , transportation , size , and distribution of power relative to the population . ( Russell 1938 : 130 @,@ 132 @-@ 134 ) Improved abilities to communicate and transport tend to stabilise larger organisations and disrupt smaller ones .
Any given organisation cannot be easily reduced to a particular form of power . For instance , the police and army are quite obviously instruments of force and coercion , but it would be facile to say that they have power simply because of their ability to physically coerce . Rather , the police are regarded as instruments of a legitimate institution by some population , and the organisation depends upon propaganda and habit to maintain popular deference to their authority . Similarly , economic organisations operate by the use of conditioning , in the form of money ; but the strength of an economy arguably depends in large part on the functional operation of law enforcement which makes commerce possible , by the regulation of peace and property rights . ( Russell 1938 : 25 @,@ 95 )
The general effect of an organisation , Russell believes , is either to increase the well @-@ being of persons , or to aid the survival of the organisation itself : " [ I ] n the main , the effects of organisations , apart from those resulting from governmental self @-@ preservation , are such as to increase individual happiness and well @-@ being . " ( Russell 1938 : 170 )
= = = = Organizations and individuals = = = =
The types of relationship which any given individual may share with any given organisation can be assessed according to whether the organisation facilitates or suppresses the will of the person . The line between suppression and facilitation of the will is not absolute , but relative . An organisation may benefit one person or class of persons , while doing harm to another . Thus , for example , the police exist to enforce law and order , and this facilitates the will of the general populace ; yet they also suppress the will of the criminal . ( Russell 1938 : 166 – 171 )
Of those whose wills are facilitated by an organisation , kinds include " the gentleman , the sage , the economic magnate , the political statesman " , and " the covert manager " ( or political wire @-@ puller ) . Each beneficiary of power is parasitic upon certain kinds of organisations , and has certain key traits which uniquely put them at advantage ( Russell 1938 : 29 – 34 ) :
Thus , a political wire @-@ puller such as Grigori Rasputin enjoys power best when playing off another person 's hereditary power , or when the organisation benefits largely from an air of mystery . By contrast , the wirepuller suffers a wane in power when the organizational élite is made up of competent individuals ( Russell 1938 : 34 ) .
Of those whose wills may be suppressed , we may include " customers , voluntary members , involuntary members " , and " enemies " ( in order of ascending severity ) . Each form of membership is paired with typical forms of suppression . The will of the customer may be thwarted through fraud or deception , but this at least may be beneficial in providing the customer with the symbolic pleasure of some material goods . Voluntary organisations are able to threaten sanctions , such as expulsion , on its members . Voluntary organisations serve the positive function of providing relatively benign outlets for the human passion for drama , and for the impulse to power . Involuntary membership abandons all pretense to the benign . The clearest example of this kind of organisation , for Russell , is the State . ( Russell 1938 : 171 – 173 )
Organizations may also be directed specifically at influencing persons at some stage of life . Thus , we have midwives and doctors who are legally obliged to deliver the baby ; as the child grows , the school , parents , and mass media come to the fore ; as they reach working age , various economic organisations pull for the agent 's attention ; the church and the institution of marriage impact the actor in obvious ways ; and finally , the State may provide a pension to the elderly ( Russell 1938 : 166 – 168 ) .
= = = = Forms of governance = = = =
The forms of governance are the familiar ways in which organisations set up their leadership structures : as monarchies , oligarchies , and democracies . In these ways , any organisation – be it economic , or political – is able to seek out its goals .
Each form of government has its own merits and failings :
Russell notes that monarchy arises more naturally than any other form of government , and is most cohesive . All that a monarchy requires to remain in power is , first , for the population to be afraid of the monarch ; and second , that the inner circle of supporters be inspired with both confidence and an implicit lust for power . ( Russell 1938 : 149 – 150 )
However , monarchies have severe problems . Contra Hobbes , no monarchy can be said to arise from a [ [ social contract ] ] within the wide population . Moreover , if a monarchy is hereditary , then the royal offspring will likely have no skill at governance ; and if not , then civil war will ensue to determine the next in line . Finally , and perhaps most obviously , the monarch is not necessarily compelled to have any regard for the well @-@ being of his or her subjects ( Russell 1938 : 150 – 151 ) .
Oligarchy , or rule of a few over the many , comes in many different guises :
Hereditary landed aristocracy , which ( Russell argues ) tends to be " conservative , proud , stupid , and rather brutal " ( Russell 1938 : 151 ) ;
The bourgeoisie , a merchant class who had to earn their wealth . Historically , by Russell 's account , they have tended to be more clever , astute , and diplomatic ;
The industrial class , who are of " a totally different type " from the bourgeoisie , and are more apt to coerce than to behave diplomatically , due in large part to the impersonal relationships they have with their employees ; and
The ideological élite . Ideological élites tend to allow for the reversion into monarchy , as well as admit to heavy censorship . However , their rule also has certain strengths . For instance , they are more likely to arrive at common agreement immediately after a revolution ; they cannot represent a hereditary or economic minority of the population ; and they tend towards being more politically conscious and active . ( Russell 1983 : 152 – 153 )
Democracy , or the rule of the many over themselves . The rule of the masses is positive , in that it is less likely to lead to civil war than the alternatives . An ambivalent feature of democracy is the fact that representatives are forced to compromise their ideologies to stay in power , which can curb both positive and negative tendencies . On the negative side , democracies are not very good at dealing with subjects that demand expert authority or quick decisions . Moreover , a democracy is easily corruptible by politicians with agendas . Also , a democracy may easily slip into popular apathy which allows for corrupt politicians to go unchecked ( Russell 1938 : 154 – 159 ) .
= = = Ethics of power = = =
Having completed those chapters which analyse the relevant aspects of power in social life , Russell shifts his focus onto the philosophical issues that are connected with those problems . Moving into this new terrain , he wonders what can be done to curb the efforts of those who love power . The answers can be found either in possible collective actions , or in individual duties .
= = = = Positive and private morality = = = =
There is a distinction between positive and private forms of morality . Positive morality tends to be associated with traditional power and following ancient principles with a narrow focus ; for example , the norms and taboos of marital law . Personal morality is associated with revolutionary power and the following of one 's own conscience . ( Russell 1938 : 186 – 206 )
The dominant social system will have some impact on the reigning positive moral codes of the population . In a system where filial piety is dominant , there will be greater emphasis in a culture upon the wisdom of the elderly . ( Russell 1938 : 188 – 189 ) In a monarchy , the culture will be encouraged to believe in a morality of submission , with cultural taboos placed upon use of the imagination ; both of which increase social cohesion by encouraging the self @-@ censorship of dissent . ( Russell 1938 : 190 – 191 ) Priestly power is not as impressive , even when it is in full bloom . At its peak , priestly power depends on not being opposed by kingly power and not being usurped by a morality of conscience ; and even then , it faces the threat of wide scepticism . ( Russell 1938 : 192 – 193 ) Still , some moral convictions do not seem to have any source at all in the power elite : for example , the treatment of homosexuality in the early twentieth century does not seem to be tied to the success of a particular rulership . ( Russell 1938 : 194 )
Russell wonders whether some other basis for ethics can be found besides positive morality . Russell associates positive morality with conservatism , and understands it as a way of acting which stifles the spirit of peace and fails to curb strife . ( Russell 1938 : 197 ) Meanwhile , personal morality is the ultimate source of positive morality , and is more grounded in the intellect . ( Russell 1938 : 198 – 199 ) However , personal morality is so deeply connected with the desires of individuals that , if it were left to be the sole guide to moral conduct , it would lead to the social chaos of the " anarchic rebel " . ( Russell 1938 : 206 )
Advocating a compromise between positive and private morality , Russell first emphasises that there is such a thing as moral progress , a progress which may occur through revolutions . ( Russell 1938 : 199 ) Second , he provides a method by which we can test whether a particular sort of private morality is a form of progress :
" An individual may perceive a way of life , or a method of social organisation , by which more of the desires of mankind could be satisfied than under the existing method . If he perceives truly , and can persuade men to adopt his reform , he is justified [ in rebellion ] . " ( Russell 1938 : 206 )
= = = = Philosophy of power = = = =
Individual resistance to power can take two diametrically opposed forms : those which indulge the impulse to power , and those who seek to quell the impulse to power entirely .
Some of those who have attempted to find an escape from the impulse to power have resorted to forms of quietism or pacifism . One major proponent of such approaches was the philosopher Laozi . From Russell 's perspective , such views are incoherent , since they only deny themselves coercive power , but retain an interest in persuading others to their cause ; and persuasion is a form of power , for Russell . Moreover , he argues that the love of power can actually be a good thing . For instance , if one feels a certain duty towards their neighbours , they may attempt to attain power to help those neighbours ( Russell 1938 : 215 – 216 ) . In sum , the focus of any policy should not be on a ban on kinds of power , but rather , on certain kinds of use of power ( Russell 1938 : 221 ) .
Other thinkers have emphasised the pursuit of power as a virtue . Some philosophies are rooted in the love of power because philosophies tend to be coherent unification in the pursuit of some goal or desire . Just as a philosophy may strive for truth , it may also strive for happiness , virtue , salvation , or , finally , power . Among those philosophies which Russell condemns as rooted in love of power : all forms of idealism and anti @-@ realism , such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte 's solipsism ; certain forms of Pragmatism ; Henri Bergson 's doctrine of Creative evolution ; and the works of Friedrich Nietzsche ( Russell 1938 : 209 – 214 ) .
According to Russell 's outlook on power , there are four conditions under which power ought to be pursued with moral conviction . First , it must be pursued only as a means to some end , and not as an end in itself ; moreover , if it is an end in itself , then it must be of comparatively lower value than one 's other goals . Second , the ultimate goal must be to help satisfy the desires of others . Third , the means by which one pursues one 's goal must not be egregious or malign , such that they outweigh the value of the end ; as ( for instance ) the gassing of children for the sake of future democracy ( Russell 1938 : 201 ) . Fourth , moral doctrines should aim toward truth and honesty , not the manipulation of others ( Russell 1938 : 216 – 218 ) .
To enact these views , Russell advises the reader to discourage cruel temperaments which arise out of a lack of opportunities . Moreover , the reader should encourage the growth of constructive skills , which provide the person with an alternative to easier and more destructive alternatives . Finally , they should encourage cooperative feeling , and curb competitive desires ( Russell 1938 : 219 – 220 , 222 ) .
= = = = Taming arbitrary rule = = = =
Among the issues demanding collective ethical action , Russell identifies " political rule " , " economic competition " , " propagandistic competition " , and " psychological life " . To make positive changes in each of these spheres of collective behaviour , Russell believed that power would need to be made more diffuse and less arbitrary .
To succeed in the taming of arbitrary political rule , Russell says , a community 's goal ought to be to encourage democracy . Russell insists that the beginning of all ameliorative reforms to government must presuppose democracy as a rule . Even lip service to oligarchies – for example , support for purportedly benevolent dictators – must be dismissed as fantastic . ( Russell 1938 : 226 )
Moreover , democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons , so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority . To prevent this result , people must have a well @-@ developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will , and respect for the discretion of the individual . ( Russell 1938 : 227 )
Collective action should be restricted to two domains . First , it should be used to treat problems that are primarily " geographical " , which include issues of sanitation , transportation , electricity , and external threats . Second , it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order ; for instance , speech that incites the breaking of law ( Russell 1938 : 227 – 228 ) . The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well @-@ defined area , in which case , political devolution is preferable .
In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government , Russell encounters a dilemma . He notes that , the smaller the democracy , the more empowerment the citizen feels ; yet the larger the democracy , the more the citizen 's passions and interests are inflamed . In both situations , the result is voter fatigue . ( Russell 1938 : 229 ) There are two possible solutions to this problem : to organise political life according to vocational interests , as with unionisation ; or to organise it according to interest groups . ( Russell 1938 : 229 – 230 )
A federal government is only sensible , for Russell , when it has limited but well @-@ defined powers . Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation @-@ states ( Russell 1938 : 197 , 230 – 31 ) . On his view , the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace ( Russell 1938 : 230 @-@ 31 ) . On the world stage , democracy would be impossible , because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race .
One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service . Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces , which in turn undermine democracy . Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance . He advocates , first , the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence , to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police ( Russell 1938 : 232 ) . Second , the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes : one which presumes the innocence of the accused , the other presuming guilt ( Russell 1938 : 233 ) .
Competition , for Russell , is a word that may have many uses . Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies , it may also be used to speak of competition between states , between ideologues , between classes , rivals , trusts , workers , etc . On this topic , Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions : " First , in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful ? Secondly , in what cases is it desirable on non @-@ technical grounds ? " ( Russell 1938 : 176 ) . In asking these questions , he has two concerns directly in mind : economic competition , and the competition of propaganda .
The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives : the moral point of view and the technical point of view .
From the view of the technician , certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority . For Russell , it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard , and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature , such as railways and water treatment . By contrast , smaller organisations ( like businesses ) are best suited to create products that are customised and local . ( Russell 1938 : 176 – 177 ; 234 )
From the view of the ethicist , competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses ( Russell 1938 : 177 ) . Indeed , by Russell 's account , economic power and political power are both capable of devastation :
" In democratic countries , the most important private organisations are economic . Unlike secret societies , they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality , since they do not threaten to kill their enemies , but only to starve them . " ( Russell 1938 : 147 )
Since they are morally equivalent , perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones : namely , the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres ( Russell 1938 : 234 ) .
By ' economic democracy ' , Russell means a kind of democratic socialism , which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries ( railways , water , television ) . In order for this to operate effectively , he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons . ( Russell 1938 : 238 – 240 )
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy , and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny . If either condition fail , then nationalisation is undesirable . In delivering this warning , Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control . He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry . In the same way , shareholders own parts of companies , but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO ( Russell 1938 : 235 ) .
Control over propaganda is another matter . When forming his argument here , Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill . Russell argues that Mill 's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak , so long as it is balanced against the harm principle ; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm . For example , the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors , but that would surely harm the governor , at the very least ( Russell 1938 : 179 ) .
Russell replaces Mill 's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives : the perspective of the governor , the citizen , the innovator , and the philosopher . The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities , and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination . Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects , and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance , for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism . Relatedly , the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence ( Russell 1938 : 179 – 182 ) .
The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech , since they engage in innovation despite social resistance . Innovators may be separated into three categories : the hard millenarians , who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others , and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds ; the virtuous millenarians , who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages , and so are supportive of free speech ; and the progressives , who cannot foresee the direction of future progress , but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it . For the philosopher , free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt , and to grow in their prudential duties . ( Russell 1938 : 182 – 185 )
In any case , the citizen 's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell . He believes that a true public square could be operated by state @-@ run media outlets , like the BBC , which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters . For certain other topics , like art and science , the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed . ( Russell 1938 : 185 )
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell 's views on education . ( Russell 1938 : 242 – 251 ) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues , for Russell : the " sense of self @-@ reliance and confidence " necessary for autonomous action ; and the humility required to " submit to the will of the majority " when it has spoken . ( Russell 1938 : 244 ) The last chapter of Power : A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students , from an educator 's point of view .
Two major conditions are necessary . First , the citizen / student must be free from hatred , fear , and the impulse to submit . ( Russell 1938 : 244 – 245 ) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student 's temperament in this regard , and so , economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities . But reform to the education system is also necessary , in particular , to foster in the student a kindness , curiosity , and intellectual commitment to science . The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism . ( Russell 1938 : 246 )
Moreover , the student must have good instructors , who emphasise reason over rhetoric . Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy , since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy ( Russell 1938 : 248 ) . To foster a critical mind , he suggests , the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one 's feelings over one 's thoughts . For example , the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations : one fantastic place which is given a dull overview , and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements . In teaching history , the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives , and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each . ( Russell 1938 : 247 ) In all cases , the object would be to encourage self @-@ growth , a willingness to be " tentative in judgment " , and " responsiveness to evidence " . ( Russell 1938 : 250 )
The work ends with the following words :
Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals , when they see children , think : ' Here is material that I can manipulate ' ... All this , to any person with natural affection for the young , is horrible ; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can , so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics ... This is the task of a liberal education : to give a sense of the value of things other than domination , to help create wise citizens of a free community , and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve ( Russell 1938 : 251 ) .
= = Historical context = =
Power ( 1938 ) is written with a mind toward the political ills that marred the headlines of the day . The work appeared at the brink of World War II , and contains more than one pointed reference to the dictatorships of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy , and one reference to the persecution of German Czechoslovakians . ( Russell 1938 : 147 ) When his remarks treat of current affairs , they are often pessimistic . " Although men hate one another , exploit one another , and torture one another , they have , until recently , given their reverence to those who preached a different way of life . " ( Russell 1938 : 204 ; emphasis added ) As Kirk Willis remarked on Russell 's outlook during the 1930s , " the foreign and domestic policies of successive national governments repelled him , as did the triumph of totalitarian regimes on the continent and the seemingly inexorable march to war brought in their wake ... Despairing that war could be avoided and convinced that such a European @-@ wide conflict would herald a new dark age of barbarism and bigotry , Russell gave voice to his despondency in Which Way to Peace ? ( 1936 ) – not so much a reasoned defence of appeasement as an expression of defeatism " . ( Russell 1938 : xxii @-@ xxiii )
Ultimately , with his new analysis in hand , Russell hoped to instruct others on how to tame arbitrary power . He hoped that a stable world government composed of sovereign nation @-@ states would eventually arise which would dissuade nations from engaging in war . In context , this argument was made years after the dissolution of the League of Nations ( and years before the creation of the United Nations ) . Also , at many times during the work , Russell also mentions his desire to see a kind of socialism take root . This was true to his convictions of the time , during a phase in his career where he was convinced in the plausibility of guild socialism . ( Sledd 1994 ; Russell 1918 )
= = Critical reception = =
Russell , a famous logician and epistemologist , had many side @-@ interests in history , politics , and social philosophy . The paradigmatic public intellectual , Russell wrote prolifically in the latter topics to a wide and receptive audience . As one scholar writes , " Russell 's prolific output spanned the whole range of philosophical and political thought , and he has probably been more widely read in his own lifetime than any other philosopher in history " . ( Griffin : 129 )
However , his writings in political philosophy have been relatively neglected by those working in the social sciences . From the point of view of many commentators , Power : A New Social Analysis has proven itself to be no exception to that trend . Russell would later comment that his work " fell rather flat " ( Russell 1969 ) . Both Samuel Brittan and Kirk Willis , who wrote the preface and introduction to the 2004 edition ( respectively ) , both observed the relative lack of success of the work ( Russell 1938 : viii , xxiv – xxv ) .
One reason why Power might be more obscure than competing texts in political philosophy is that it is written in a historical style which is not in keeping with its own theoretical goals . Willis remarked that , with hindsight , " Some of the responsibility for its tepid reception ... rests with the book itself . A work of political sociology rather than of political theory , it does not in fact either offer a comprehensive new social analysis or fashion new tools of social investigation applicable to the study of power in all times or places . " ( Russell 1938 : xxv )
Willis 's review , written more than half a century past the original writing of the volume , is in some respects a gentler way of phrasing the work 's immediate reception . One of Russell 's contemporaries wrote : " As a contribution to social science ... or to the study of government , the volume is very disappointing ... In this pretentious volume , Russell shows only the most superficial familiarity with progress made in the study of social phenomena or in any special field of social research , either with techniques of inquiry , or with materials assembled , or with interpretations developed ... it seems doubtful that the author knows what is going on in the world of social science . " ( Merriam , 1939 ) Indeed , the very preface of the work candidly states : " As usual , those who look in Russell 's pronouncements for dotty opinions will be able to find a few " . ( Russell 1938 : x ) Still , some scholars , like Edward Hallet Carr , found the work of some use . ( Carr 2001 : 131 )
Russell is routinely praised for his analytic treatment of philosophical issues . One commentator , quoted in ( Griffin : 202 ) , observes that " In the forty @-@ five years preceding publication of Strawson 's ' On Referring ' , Russell 's theory was practically immune from criticism . There is not a similar phenomenon in contemporary analytic philosophy " . Yet Power , along with many of his later works in social philosophy , is not obviously analytic . Rather , it takes the form of a series of examinations of semi @-@ related topics , with a narrative dominated by historical illustrations . Nevertheless , Brittan emphasised the strengths of the treatise by remarking that it can be understood as " an enjoyable romp through history , in part anticipating some of the 1945 History of Western Philosophy , but ranging wider " ( Russell 1938 : vii ) .
In his autobiography ( 1967 – 69 ) , Russell summarised the implications of Power , a new social analysis :
= = Chapter listing = =
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= Gobrecht dollar =
The Gobrecht dollar , minted from 1836 to 1839 , was the first silver dollar struck for circulation by the United States Mint since production of that denomination was officially halted in 1806 . The coin was struck in small numbers to determine whether the reintroduced silver dollar would be well received by the public .
In 1835 , Director of the United States Mint Samuel Moore resigned his post , and Robert M. Patterson assumed the position . Shortly after , Patterson began an attempt to redesign the nation 's coinage . After Mint Chief Engraver William Kneass suffered a stroke later that year , Christian Gobrecht was hired as an engraver . On August 1 , Patterson wrote a letter to Philadelphia artist Thomas Sully laying out his plans for the dollar coin . He also asked Titian Peale to create a design for the coin . Sully created an obverse design depicting a seated representation of Liberty and Peale a reverse depicting a soaring bald eagle , which were converted into coin designs by Gobrecht . After the designs were created and trials struck , production of the working dies began in September 1836 .
After a small quantity was struck for circulation , the Mint received complaints regarding the prominent placement of Gobrecht 's name on the dollar , and the design was modified to incorporate his name in a less conspicuous position . In January 1837 , the legal standard for the percentage of precious metal in silver coins was changed from 89 @.@ 2 % to 90 % , and the Gobrecht dollars struck after that point reflect this change . In total , 1 @,@ 900 Gobrecht dollars were struck during the official production run . Production of the Seated Liberty dollar , which utilized the same obverse design as the Gobrecht dollar , began mintage in 1840 . In the 1850s , Mint officials controversially re @-@ struck the coins without authorization .
= = Background = =
= = = 1804 dollar = = =
The first silver dollars struck by the United States Mint were minted in 1794 . In 1804 , the Mint unofficially ended production of silver dollars because many of the coins produced since that denomination had first been struck in 1794 were exported for their silver content to Eastern Asia , especially Canton ( modern day Guangzhou ) . In 1806 , then Secretary of State James Madison issued an order officially halting mintage of the coins . In 1831 , Mint Director Samuel Moore noticed a reversal ; a large shipment of Spanish dollars had recently been shipped from Canton to the United States . Later that year , President Andrew Jackson , at Moore 's request , lifted the prohibition .
No further action was taken until the summer of 1834 , when officials suggested that proof coin sets be prepared as gifts for Asian dignitaries . After examining Mint records , personnel incorrectly concluded that the last Draped Bust dollars minted were dated 1804 , so they chose that date for the coins . It is unknown why the current date was not used , but numismatic historian R.W. Julian suggests the coins were predated to prevent coin collectors from becoming angered when they would be unable to obtain the newly dated coins , which were struck in very small numbers . It is unknown precisely how many 1804 dollars were struck , though eight are known to be extant .
= = = Design = = =
Later , in 1835 , Mint officials began preparations for a series of silver dollars which , unlike the 1804 dollar , were intended to enter circulation in order to determine whether the denomination would be well received by the public . In June 1835 , Moore resigned his post as director , and was replaced by Robert M. Patterson . Shortly thereafter , Director Patterson approached two well @-@ known Philadelphia artists , Titian Peale and Thomas Sully , to create a design that would be used to overhaul most of the American coins then in production . Mint Chief Engraver Kneass prepared a sketch based on Patterson 's conception , but soon suffered a stroke , leaving him partially incapacitated . Following Kneass ' stroke , government officials approved Patterson 's urgent request that Philadelphia medallist Christian Gobrecht be hired immediately to fulfill the duties of engraver ; Director Moore requested the same prior to his resignation , but no action was taken immediately .
In a letter dated August 1 , 1835 , Patterson proposed that Sully create a Seated Liberty figure for the obverse , suggesting that the " figure be in a sitting posture — sitting , for example , on a rock . " Patterson also suggested that the seated figure should hold in her right hand a pileus atop a pole to be " emblematic of Liberty " . Numismatic historian Don Taxay notes the similarity between Patterson 's Seated Liberty concept and designs already in use on British copper coinage : " Liberty thus emerged as a refurbished Britannia , her trident replaced by a staff and pileus . " In the same letter , Patterson also informed Sully of his vision for the reverse , which Peale would execute : " I propose an Eagle flying , and rising in flight , amidst a constellation , irregularly dispersed , of 24 stars [ representing the number of states then forming the Union ] , and carrying in its claws a scroll with the words E PLURIBUS UNUM " . Patterson preferred a soaring eagle because he believed that the heraldic eagle commonly used on American coins , which he dismissed as a " mere creature of imagination " , was unappealing as a design . According to a common story , the flying eagle seen on the Gobrecht dollar was modeled after Peter , the Mint 's pet eagle , who was taxidermied after his death by becoming caught in a coining press and remains on display at the Mint to this day .
In September 1835 , Thomas Sully received from Patterson a set of British coins and medals to help guide him while creating the Seated Liberty design . Sully sent Patterson three rough sketches near the beginning of October , and those were given to Gobrecht , who in turn set about making a copper engraving of the design . Gobrecht completed the engraving on October 14 , and Patterson presented prints created from it to several government officials in an effort to gain their approval . President Jackson , Treasury Secretary Levi Woodbury , and the rest of the cabinet all approved of the design . On October 17 , while Jackson and his cabinet were reviewing the design , Woodbury wrote Patterson giving permission to proceed with creating dies for the new coins based on the prints . In January 1836 , die trials were conducted in soft metal . These pieces were then circulated among the public for suggestions . Patterson then authorized production of a steel obverse die ; the reverse could not yet be created because Peale had yet to complete his design to Patterson 's satisfaction . While Peale continued his work , Gobrecht began work on a design for a gold dollar , which occupied much of his time at the Mint . On April 9 , Patterson wrote a letter to the Treasury secretary in which he included several of Peale 's drawings ; Patterson viewed one of the designs as the best created to date . Despite the director 's approval of the design , he instructed Peale to continue until Patterson was satisfied . This was evidently achieved , because Patterson had Gobrecht to begin work on a reverse die in June . In August , Patterson sent a uniface striking of the reverse die to President Jackson , who approved designs for both sides of the coin
= = Production = =
In September 1836 , Chief Coiner Adam Eckfeldt began sinking the working dies that would be used to strike the coins . However , before production could begin , Patterson ordered that Gobrecht 's name be added to the dollar . His name appeared as " C. GOBRECHT F " , short for " Christian Gobrecht Fecit " , meaning " Christian Gobrecht made it " . The Gobrecht dollar was first struck in December 1836 . Several pieces were produced and distributed throughout Philadelphia . Despite a positive reception for the overall design , many criticized the prominent display of Gobrecht 's name on the coin . Gobrecht requested that his name be removed entirely from the face of the coin ; instead , the engraver was instructed to change its size and placement at the behest of Patterson .
When the full @-@ scale production began , the reverse eagle was surrounded by 26 stars rather than 24 as Patterson had originally requested of Sully , as the states of Arkansas and Michigan had been admitted to the Union since Patterson 's letter was penned in 1835 . Some of the Gobrecht dollars produced were struck with ' medal alignment ' , meaning that the obverse and reverse images both face upward when the coin is rotated around its vertical axis . For the 1837 production ( which kept the 1836 date ) , Patterson ordered that the coins be struck in coin alignment , the opposite of medal alignment , and the practice with current US coins ( the two faces both are upright when the coin is rotated about its horizontal axis ) . An act of January 18 , 1837 , officially changed the legal standard for silver coins from 89 @.@ 2 % to 90 % silver . Numismatic historian Walter Breen asserts that those pieces struck before the passage of this act are technically patterns ( or coins created to test their design , composition or other points ) , as they were not authorized by Congress . In total , 1 @,@ 000 pieces dated 1836 were struck in 89 @.@ 2 % silver and 600 in 90 % silver . Gobrecht dollars struck prior to passage of the act weighed 26 @.@ 96 grams ( 0 @.@ 951 oz ) , while those struck later weighed 26 @.@ 73 grams ( 0 @.@ 943 oz ) .
Persistent public demand for the new coins prompted Woodbury to contact Patterson , requesting more silver dollars . In 1838 , the design was modified to remove the stars from the reverse . Throughout the production run , a number of different Gobrecht dollar patterns , which differed from the general issues , were struck . A small number were struck bearing the date of 1838 that did not bear Gobrecht 's initials in any form . In total , 300 dollars of this type dated 1839 were struck for circulation , all in medal alignment . Patterson 's trial issue had evidently been a success , as full @-@ scale production of the Seated Liberty dollar began in 1840 . The Seated Liberty dollar utilized an obverse design based on that of the Gobrecht dollar , though the reverse was altered from a soaring to a heraldic eagle .
= = = Restrikes = = =
Following an increase in coin collecting among the public in the mid @-@ nineteenth century , there arose considerable demand for older American coins . Mint Director James Ross Snowden began selling restrikes of Gobrecht dollars and trading them for rare medals ( especially those depicting or relating to former President George Washington ) , which were then added to the Mint 's coin collection , then known as a coin cabinet . The money generated from selling the restrikes went toward purchasing new items for the coin cabinet . The restrikes created under Snowden 's tenure were likely struck in 1859 and 1860 , but the practice was largely halted after the eruption of a public scandal ; other Mint employees were creating and selling restrikes of early American coins for their own profit . All Gobrecht dollar restrikes , when tilted on their axis , depict the reverse eagle flying level , rather than upward as it is depicted on the coins struck during the official production run . It is unknown precisely why the orientation of the eagle was altered , though it is believed by many numismatists that Snowden did this intentionally to make restrikes distinguishable from originals . Numismatic historian Walter Breen suggests that Snowden simply used the alignment because that was the same used on the Flying Eagle cent , which began production in 1856 . Mint Engraver James B. Longacre , its designer , had borrowed Gobrecht and Peale 's eagle reverse for the one @-@ cent coin 's obverse .
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= Oscar Wilde =
Oscar Fingal O 'Flahertie Wills Wilde ( 16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900 ) was an Irish playwright , novelist , essayist , and poet . After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s , he became one of London 's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s . He is remembered for his epigrams , his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray , his plays , as well as the circumstances of his imprisonment and early death .
Wilde 's parents were successful Anglo @-@ Irish Dublin intellectuals . Their son became fluent in French and German early in life . At university , Wilde read Greats ; he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist , first at Dublin , then at Oxford . He became known for his involvement in the rising philosophy of aestheticism , led by two of his tutors , Walter Pater and John Ruskin . After university , Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles .
As a spokesman for aestheticism , he tried his hand at various literary activities : he published a book of poems , lectured in the United States and Canada on the new " English Renaissance in Art " , and then returned to London where he worked prolifically as a journalist . Known for his biting wit , flamboyant dress and glittering conversation , Wilde became one of the best @-@ known personalities of his day .
At the turn of the 1890s , he refined his ideas about the supremacy of art in a series of dialogues and essays , and incorporated themes of decadence , duplicity , and beauty into his only novel , The Picture of Dorian Gray ( 1890 ) . The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely , and combine them with larger social themes , drew Wilde to write drama . He wrote Salome ( 1891 ) in French in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to the absolute prohibition of Biblical subjects on the English stage . Unperturbed , Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s , which made him one of the most successful playwrights of late Victorian London .
At the height of his fame and success , while his masterpiece , The Importance of Being Earnest ( 1895 ) , was still on stage in London , Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for libel . The Marquess was the father of Wilde 's lover , Lord Alfred Douglas . The charge carried a penalty of up to two years in prison . The trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest and trial for gross indecency with men . After two more trials he was convicted and imprisoned for two years ' hard labour .
In 1897 , in prison , he wrote De Profundis , which was published in 1905 , a long letter which discusses his spiritual journey through his trials , forming a dark counterpoint to his earlier philosophy of pleasure . Upon his release he left immediately for France , never to return to Ireland or Britain . There he wrote his last work , The Ballad of Reading Gaol ( 1898 ) , a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life . He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46 .
= = Early life = =
Oscar Wilde was born at 21 Westland Row , Dublin ( now home of the Oscar Wilde Centre , Trinity College ) , the second of three children born to Sir William Wilde and Jane Wilde , two years behind William ( " Willie " ) . Wilde 's mother , under the pseudonym " Speranza " ( the Italian word for ' Hope ' ) , wrote poetry for the revolutionary Young Irelanders in 1848 and was a lifelong Irish nationalist . She read the Young Irelanders ' poetry to Oscar and Willie , inculcating a love of these poets in her sons . Lady Wilde 's interest in the neo @-@ classical revival showed in the paintings and busts of ancient Greece and Rome in her home . William Wilde was Ireland 's leading oto @-@ ophthalmologic ( ear and eye ) surgeon and was knighted in 1864 for his services as medical adviser and assistant commissioner to the censuses of Ireland . He also wrote books about Irish archaeology and peasant folklore . A renowned philanthropist , his dispensary for the care of the city 's poor at the rear of Trinity College , Dublin , was the forerunner of the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital , now located at Adelaide Road . On his father 's side Wilde was descended from a Dutchman , Colonel de Wilde , who went to Ireland with King William of Orange 's invading army in 1690 . On his mother 's side Wilde 's ancestors included a bricklayer from County Durham who emigrated to Ireland sometime in the 1770s .
Wilde was baptised as an infant in St. Mark 's Church , Dublin , the local Church of Ireland ( Anglican ) church . When the church was closed , the records were moved to the nearby St. Ann 's Church , Dawson Street . Davis Coakley references a second baptism by a Catholic priest , Father Prideaux Fox , who befriended Oscar 's mother circa 1859 . According to Fox 's own testimony written by him years later in Donahoe 's Magazine in 1905 , Jane Wilde would visit his chapel in Glencree , Co Wicklow for Mass and would take her sons with her . She then asked Father Fox to baptise her sons . Fox described it in this way :
" I am not sure if she ever became a Catholic herself but it was not long before she asked me to instruct two of her children , one of them being the future erratic genius , Oscar Wilde . After a few weeks I baptized these two children , Lady Wilde herself being present on the occasion . "
In addition to his children with his wife , Sir William Wilde was the father of three children born out of wedlock before his marriage : Henry Wilson , born in 1838 , and Emily and Mary Wilde , born in 1847 and 1849 , respectively , of different maternity to Henry . Sir William acknowledged paternity of his illegitimate children and provided for their education , but they were reared by his relatives rather than with his wife and legitimate children .
In 1855 , the family moved to No. 1 Merrion Square , where Wilde 's sister , Isola , was born in 1857 . The Wildes ' new home was larger and , with both his parents ' sociality and success , it soon became a " unique medical and cultural milieu " . Guests at their salon included Sheridan Le Fanu , Charles Lever , George Petrie , Isaac Butt , William Rowan Hamilton and Samuel Ferguson .
Until he was nine , Oscar Wilde was educated at home , where a French bonne and a German governess taught him their languages . He then attended Portora Royal School in Enniskillen , County Fermanagh . Until his early twenties , Wilde summered at the villa , Moytura House , his father built in Cong , County Mayo . There the young Wilde and his brother Willie played with George Moore .
Isola died aged nine of meningitis . Wilde 's poem " Requiescat " is written to her memory .
" Tread lightly , she is near
Under the snow
Speak gently , she can hear
the daisies grow "
= = University education : 1870s = =
= = = Trinity College , Dublin = = =
Wilde left Portora with a royal scholarship to read classics at Trinity College , Dublin , from 1871 to 1874 , sharing rooms with his older brother Willie Wilde . Trinity , one of the leading classical schools , placed him with scholars such as R. Y. Tyrell , Arthur Palmer , Edward Dowden and his tutor , J. P. Mahaffy who inspired his interest in Greek literature . As a student Wilde worked with Mahaffy on the latter 's book Social Life in Greece . Wilde , despite later reservations , called Mahaffy " my first and best teacher " and " the scholar who showed me how to love Greek things " . For his part , Mahaffy boasted of having created Wilde ; later , he named him " the only blot on my tutorship " .
The University Philosophical Society also provided an education , discussing intellectual and artistic subjects such as Rossetti and Swinburne weekly . Wilde quickly became an established member – the members ' suggestion book for 1874 contains two pages of banter ( sportingly ) mocking Wilde 's emergent aestheticism . He presented a paper entitled " Aesthetic Morality " . At Trinity , Wilde established himself as an outstanding student : he came first in his class in his first year , won a scholarship by competitive examination in his second , and then , in his finals , won the Berkeley Gold Medal , the University 's highest academic award in Greek . He was encouraged to compete for a demyship to Magdalen College , Oxford – which he won easily , having already studied Greek for over nine years .
= = = Magdalen College , Oxford = = =
At Magdalen , he read Greats from 1874 to 1878 , and from there he applied to join the Oxford Union , but failed to be elected .
Attracted by its dress , secrecy , and ritual , Wilde petitioned the Apollo Masonic Lodge at Oxford , and was soon raised to the " Sublime Degree of Master Mason " . During a resurgent interest in Freemasonry in his third year , he commented he " would be awfully sorry to give it up if I secede from the Protestant Heresy " . He was deeply considering converting to Catholicism , discussing the possibility with clergy several times . In 1877 , Wilde was left speechless after an audience with Pope Pius IX in Rome . He eagerly read Cardinal Newman 's books , and became more serious in 1878 , when he met the Reverend Sebastian Bowden , a priest in the Brompton Oratory who had received some high profile converts . Neither his father , who threatened to cut off his funds , nor Mahaffy thought much of the plan ; but mostly Wilde , the supreme individualist , balked at the last minute from pledging himself to any formal creed . On the appointed day of his baptism , Father Bowden received a bunch of altar lilies instead . Wilde retained a lifelong interest in Catholic theology and liturgy .
While at Magdalen College , Wilde became particularly well known for his role in the aesthetic and decadent movements . He wore his hair long , openly scorned " manly " sports though he occasionally boxed , and decorated his rooms with peacock feathers , lilies , sunflowers , blue china and other objets d 'art , once remarking to friends whom he entertained lavishly , " I find it harder and harder every day to live up to my blue china . " The line quickly became famous , accepted as a slogan by aesthetes but used against them by critics who sensed in it a terrible vacuousness . Some elements disdained the aesthetes , but their languishing attitudes and showy costumes became a recognised pose . Wilde was once physically attacked by a group of four fellow students , and dealt with them single @-@ handedly , surprising critics . By his third year Wilde had truly begun to create himself and his myth , and saw his learning developing in much larger ways than merely the prescribed texts . This attitude resulted in his being rusticated for one term , when he nonchalantly returned to college late from a trip to Greece with Prof. Mahaffy .
Wilde did not meet Walter Pater until his third year , but had been enthralled by his Studies in the History of the Renaissance , published during Wilde 's final year in Trinity . Pater argued that man 's sensibility to beauty should be refined above all else , and that each moment should be felt to its fullest extent . Years later , in De Profundis , Wilde called Pater 's Studies ... " that book that has had such a strange influence over my life " . He learned tracts of the book by heart , and carried it with him on travels in later years . Pater gave Wilde his sense of almost flippant devotion to art , though it was John Ruskin who gave him a purpose for it . Ruskin despaired at the self @-@ validating aestheticism of Pater , arguing that the importance of art lies in its potential for the betterment of society . Ruskin admired beauty , but believed it must be allied with , and applied to , moral good . When Wilde eagerly attended Ruskin 's lecture series The Aesthetic and Mathematic Schools of Art in Florence , he learned about aesthetics as simply the non @-@ mathematical elements of painting . Despite being given to neither early rising nor manual labour , Wilde volunteered for Ruskin 's project to convert a swampy country lane into a smart road neatly edged with flowers .
Wilde won the 1878 Newdigate Prize for his poem " Ravenna " , which reflected on his visit there the year before , and he duly read it at Encaenia . In November 1878 , he graduated with a double first in his B.A. of Classical Moderations and Literae Humaniores ( Greats ) . Wilde wrote to a friend , " The dons are ' astonied ' beyond words – the Bad Boy doing so well in the end ! "
= = Apprenticeship of an aesthete : 1880s = =
= = = Debut in society = = =
After graduation from Oxford , Wilde returned to Dublin , where he met again Florence Balcombe , a childhood sweetheart . She became engaged to Bram Stoker and they married in 1878 . Wilde was disappointed but stoic : he wrote to her , remembering " the two sweet years – the sweetest years of all my youth " they had spent together . He also stated his intention to " return to England , probably for good . " This he did in 1878 , only briefly visiting Ireland twice .
Unsure of his next step , he wrote to various acquaintances enquiring about Classics positions at Oxford or Cambridge . The Rise of Historical Criticism was his submission for the Chancellor 's Essay prize of 1879 , which , though no longer a student , he was still eligible to enter . Its subject , " Historical Criticism among the Ancients " seemed ready @-@ made for Wilde – with both his skill in composition and ancient learning – but he struggled to find his voice with the long , flat , scholarly style . Unusually , no prize was awarded that year . With the last of his inheritance from the sale of his father 's houses , he set himself up as a bachelor in London . The 1881 British Census listed Wilde as a boarder at 1 ( now 44 ) Tite Street , Chelsea , where Frank Miles , a society painter , was the head of the household . Wilde spent the next six years in London and Paris , and in the United States where he travelled to deliver lectures .
He had been publishing lyrics and poems in magazines since his entering Trinity College , especially in Kottabos and the Dublin University Magazine . In mid @-@ 1881 , at 27 years old , Poems collected , revised and expanded his poetic efforts . The book was generally well received , and sold out its first print run of 750 copies , prompting further printings in 1882 . It was bound in a rich , enamel , parchment cover ( embossed with gilt blossom ) and printed on hand @-@ made Dutch paper ; Wilde presented many copies to the dignitaries and writers who received him over the next few years . The Oxford Union condemned the book for alleged plagiarism in a tight vote . The librarian , who had requested the book for the library , returned the presentation copy to Wilde with a note of apology . Richard Ellmann argues that Wilde 's poem " Hélas ! " was a sincere , though flamboyant , attempt to explain the dichotomies he saw in himself :
To drift with every passion till my soul
Is a stringed lute on which all winds can play
Punch was less enthusiastic , " The poet is Wilde , but his poetry 's tame " was their verdict .
= = = America : 1882 = = =
Aestheticism was sufficiently in vogue to be caricatured by Gilbert and Sullivan in Patience ( 1881 ) . Richard D 'Oyly Carte , an English impresario , invited Wilde to make a lecture tour of North America , simultaneously priming the pump for the US tour of Patience and selling this most charming aesthete to the American public . Wilde journeyed on the SS Arizona , arriving 2 January 1882 , and disembarking the following day . Originally planned to last four months , it continued for almost a year due to the commercial success . Wilde sought to transpose the beauty he saw in art into daily life . This was a practical as well as philosophical project : in Oxford he had surrounded himself with blue china and lilies , and now one of his lectures was on interior design . When asked to explain reports that he had paraded down Piccadilly in London carrying a lily , long hair flowing , Wilde replied , " It 's not whether I did it or not that 's important , but whether people believed I did it " . Wilde believed that the artist should hold forth higher ideals , and that pleasure and beauty would replace utilitarian ethics .
Wilde and aestheticism were both mercilessly caricatured and criticised in the press ; the Springfield Republican , for instance , commented on Wilde 's behaviour during his visit to Boston to lecture on aestheticism , suggesting that Wilde 's conduct was more a bid for notoriety rather than devotion to beauty and the aesthetic . T.W. Higginson , a cleric and abolitionist , wrote in " Unmanly Manhood " of his general concern that Wilde , " whose only distinction is that he has written a thin volume of very mediocre verse " , would improperly influence the behaviour of men and women . Though his press reception was hostile , Wilde was well received in diverse settings across America ; he drank whiskey with miners in Leadville , Colorado and was fêted at the most fashionable salons in every city he visited .
= = = London life and marriage = = =
His earnings , plus expected income from The Duchess of Padua , allowed him to move to Paris between February and mid @-@ May 1883 . Whilst there he met Robert Sherard , whom he entertained constantly . " We are dining on the Duchess tonight " , Wilde would declare before taking him to a fancy restaurant . In August he briefly returned to New York for the production of Vera , his first play , after it was turned down in London . He reportedly entertained the other passengers with " Ave Imperatrix ! , A Poem on England " , about the rise and fall of empires . E.C. Stedman , in Victorian Poets describes this " lyric to England " as " manly verse – a poetic and eloquent invocation " . The play was initially well received by the audience , but when the critics wrote lukewarm reviews attendance fell sharply and the play closed a week after it had opened .
Wilde was left to return to England and lecturing on topics including Personal Impressions of America , The Value of Art in Modern Life , and Dress .
In London , he had been introduced in 1881 to Constance Lloyd , daughter of Horace Lloyd , a wealthy Queen 's Counsel . She happened to be visiting Dublin in 1884 , when Wilde was lecturing at the Gaiety Theatre . He proposed to her , and they married on 29 May 1884 at the Anglican St. James Church in Paddington in London . Constance 's annual allowance of £ 250 was generous for a young woman ( equivalent to about £ 23 @,@ 500 in current value ) , but the Wildes had relatively luxurious tastes , and they had preached to others for so long on the subject of design that people expected their home to set new standards . No. 16 , Tite Street was duly renovated in seven months at considerable expense . The couple had two sons , Cyril ( 1885 ) and Vyvyan ( 1886 ) . Wilde became the sole literary signatory of George Bernard Shaw 's petition for a pardon of the anarchists arrested ( and later executed ) after the Haymarket massacre in Chicago in 1886 .
Robert Ross had read Wilde 's poems before they met , and was unrestrained by the Victorian prohibition against homosexuality , even to the extent of estranging himself from his family . By Richard Ellmann 's account , he was a precocious seventeen @-@ year @-@ old " so young and yet so knowing , was determined to seduce Wilde " . According to Daniel Mendelsohn , Wilde , who had long alluded to Greek love , was " initiated into homosexual sex " by Ross , while his " marriage had begun to unravel after his wife 's second pregnancy , which left him physically repelled " .
= = Prose writing : 1886 – 91 = =
= = = Journalism and editorship : 1886 – 89 = = =
Criticism over artistic matters in the Pall Mall Gazette provoked a letter in self @-@ defence , and soon Wilde was a contributor to that and other journals during the years 1885 – 87 . He enjoyed reviewing and journalism ; the form suited his style . He could organise and share his views on art , literature and life , yet in a format less tedious than lecturing . Buoyed up , his reviews were largely chatty and positive . Wilde , like his parents before him , also supported the cause of Irish Nationalism . When Charles Stewart Parnell was falsely accused of inciting murder Wilde wrote a series of astute columns defending him in the Daily Chronicle .
His flair , having previously only been put into socialising , suited journalism and did not go unnoticed . With his youth nearly over , and a family to support , in mid @-@ 1887 Wilde became the editor of The Lady 's World magazine , his name prominently appearing on the cover . He promptly renamed it The Woman 's World and raised its tone , adding serious articles on parenting , culture , and politics , keeping discussions of fashion and arts . Two pieces of fiction were usually included , one to be read to children , the other for the ladies themselves . Wilde worked hard to solicit good contributions from his wide artistic acquaintance , including those of Lady Wilde and his wife Constance , while his own " Literary and Other Notes " were themselves popular and amusing .
The initial vigour and excitement he brought to the job began to fade as administration , commuting and office life became tedious . At the same time as Wilde 's interest flagged , the publishers became concerned anew about circulation : sales , at the relatively high price of one shilling , remained low . Increasingly sending instructions to the magazine by letter , he began a new period of creative work and his own column appeared less regularly . In October 1889 , Wilde had finally found his voice in prose and , at the end of the second volume , Wilde left The Woman 's World . The magazine outlasted him by one volume .
If Wilde 's period at the helm of the magazine was a mixed success from an organizational point of view , one can also argue that it played a pivotal role in his development as a writer and facilitated his ascent to fame . Whilst Wilde the journalist supplied articles under the guidance of his editors , Wilde the editor is forced to learn to manipulate the literary marketplace on his own terms .
= = = Shorter fiction = = =
Wilde published The Happy Prince and Other Tales in 1888 , and had been regularly writing fairy stories for magazines . In 1891 he published two more collections , Lord Arthur Savile 's Crime and Other Stories , and in September A House of Pomegranates was dedicated " To Constance Mary Wilde " . " The Portrait of Mr. W. H. " , which Wilde had begun in 1887 , was first published in Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine in July 1889 . It is a short story , which reports a conversation , in which the theory that Shakespeare 's sonnets were written out of the poet 's love of the boy actor " Willie Hughes " , is advanced , retracted , and then propounded again . The only evidence for this is two supposed puns within the sonnets themselves .
The anonymous narrator is at first sceptical , then believing , finally flirtatious with the reader : he concludes that " there is really a great deal to be said of the Willie Hughes theory of Shakespeare 's sonnets . " By the end fact and fiction have melded together . Arthur Ransome wrote that Wilde " read something of himself into Shakespeare 's sonnets " and became fascinated with the " Willie Hughes theory " despite the lack of biographical evidence for the historical William Hughes ' existence . Instead of writing a short but serious essay on the question , Wilde tossed the theory amongst the three characters of the story , allowing it to unfold as background to the plot . The story thus is an early masterpiece of Wilde 's combing many elements that interested him , conversation , literature and the idea that to shed oneself of an idea one must first convince another of its truth . Ransome concludes that Wilde succeeds precisely because the literary criticism is unveiled with such a deft touch .
Though containing nothing but " special pleading " , it would not , he says " be possible to build an airier castle in Spain than this of the imaginary William Hughes " we continue listening nonetheless to be charmed by the telling . " You must believe in Willie Hughes , " Wilde told an acquaintance , " I almost do , myself . "
= = = Essays and dialogues = = =
Wilde , having tired of journalism , had been busy setting out his aesthetic ideas more fully in a series of longer prose pieces which were published in the major literary @-@ intellectual journals of the day . In January 1889 , The Decay of Lying : A Dialogue appeared in The Nineteenth Century , and Pen , Pencil and Poison , a satirical biography of Thomas Griffiths Wainewright , in the Fortnightly Review , edited by Wilde 's friend Frank Harris . Two of Wilde 's four writings on aesthetics are dialogues : though Wilde had evolved professionally from lecturer to writer , he retained an oral tradition of sorts . Having always excelled as a wit and raconteur , he often composed by assembling phrases , bons mots and witticisms into a longer , cohesive work .
Wilde was concerned about the effect of moralising on art , he believed in art 's redemptive , developmental powers : " Art is individualism , and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force . There lies its immense value . For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type , slavery of custom , tyranny of habit , and the reduction of man to the level of a machine . " In his only political text , The Soul of Man Under Socialism , he argued political conditions should establish this primacy , and concluded that the government most amenable to artists was no government at all . Wilde envisions a society where mechanisation has freed human effort from the burden of necessity , effort which can instead be expended on artistic creation . George Orwell summarised , " In effect , the world will be populated by artists , each striving after perfection in the way that seems best to him . "
This point of view did not align him with the Fabians , intellectual socialists who advocated using state apparatus to change social conditions , nor did it endear him to the monied classes whom he had previously entertained . Hesketh Pearson , introducing a collection of Wilde 's essays in 1950 , remarked how The Soul of Man Under Socialism had been an inspirational text for Tsarist revolutionaries in Russia but laments that in the Stalinist era " it is doubtful whether there are any uninspected places in which it could now be hidden " .
Wilde considered including this pamphlet and The Portrait of Mr. W.H. , his essay @-@ story on Shakespeare 's sonnets , in a new anthology in 1891 , but eventually decided to limit it to purely aesthetic subjects . Intentions packaged revisions of four essays : The Decay of Lying , Pen , Pencil and Poison , The Truth of Masks ( first published 1885 ) , and The Critic as Artist in two parts . For Pearson the biographer , the essays and dialogues exhibit every aspect of Wilde 's genius and character : wit , romancer , talker , lecturer , humanist and scholar and concludes that " no other productions of his have as varied an appeal " . 1891 turned out to be Wilde 's annus mirabilis , apart from his three collections he also produced his only novel .
= = = The Picture of Dorian Gray = = =
The first version of The Picture of Dorian Gray was published as the lead story in the July 1890 edition of Lippincott 's Monthly Magazine , along with five others . The story begins with a man painting a picture of Gray . When Gray , who has a " face like ivory and rose leaves " , sees his finished portrait , he breaks down . Distraught that his beauty will fade while the portrait stays beautiful , he inadvertently makes a Faustian bargain in which only the painted image grows old while he stays beautiful and young . For Wilde , the purpose of art would be to guide life as if beauty alone were its object . As Gray 's portrait allows him to escape the corporeal ravages of his hedonism , Wilde sought to juxtapose the beauty he saw in art with daily life .
Reviewers immediately criticised the novel 's decadence and homosexual allusions ; The Daily Chronicle for example , called it " unclean " , " poisonous " , and " heavy with the mephitic odours of moral and spiritual putrefaction " . Wilde vigorously responded , writing to the editor of the Scots Observer , in which he clarified his stance on ethics and aesthetics in art – " If a work of art is rich and vital and complete , those who have artistic instincts will see its beauty and those to whom ethics appeal more strongly will see its moral lesson . " He nevertheless revised it extensively for book publication in 1891 : six new chapters were added , some overtly decadent passages and homo @-@ eroticism excised , and a preface was included consisting of twenty two epigrams , such as " Books are well written , or badly written . That is all . " Contemporary reviewers and modern critics have postulated numerous possible sources of the story , a search Jershua McCormack argues is futile because Wilde " has tapped a root of Western folklore so deep and ubiquitous that the story has escaped its origins and returned to the oral tradition . " Wilde claimed the plot was " an idea that is as old as the history of literature but to which I have given a new form " . Modern critic Robin McKie considered the novel to be technically mediocre , saying that the conceit of the plot had guaranteed its fame , but the device is never pushed to its full .
= = Theatrical career : 1892 – 95 = =
= = = Salomé = = =
The 1891 census records the Wildes ' residence at 16 Tite Street , where he lived with his wife Constance and two sons . Wilde though , not content with being better known than ever in London , returned to Paris in October 1891 , this time as a respected writer . He was received at the salons littéraires , including the famous mardis of Stéphane Mallarmé , a renowned symbolist poet of the time . Wilde 's two plays during the 1880s , Vera ; or , The Nihilists and The Duchess of Padua , had not met with much success . He had continued his interest in the theatre and now , after finding his voice in prose , his thoughts turned again to the dramatic form as the biblical iconography of Salome filled his mind . One evening , after discussing depictions of Salome throughout history , he returned to his hotel and noticed a blank copybook lying on the desk , and it occurred to him to write in it what he had been saying . The result was a new play , Salomé , written rapidly and in French .
A tragedy , it tells the story of Salome , the stepdaughter of the tetrarch Herod Antipas , who , to her stepfather 's dismay but mother 's delight , requests the head of Jokanaan ( John the Baptist ) on a silver platter as a reward for dancing the Dance of the Seven Veils . When Wilde returned to London just before Christmas the Paris Echo referred to him as " le great event " of the season . Rehearsals of the play , starring Sarah Bernhardt , began but the play was refused a licence by the Lord Chamberlain , since it depicted biblical characters . Salome was published jointly in Paris and London in 1893 , but was not performed until 1896 in Paris , during Wilde 's later incarceration .
= = = Comedies of society = = =
Wilde , who had first set out to irritate Victorian society with his dress and talking points , then outrage it with Dorian Gray , his novel of vice hidden beneath art , finally found a way to critique society on its own terms . Lady Windermere 's Fan was first performed on 20 February 1892 at St James 's Theatre , packed with the cream of society . On the surface a witty comedy , there is subtle subversion underneath : " it concludes with collusive concealment rather than collective disclosure " . The audience , like Lady Windermere , are forced to soften harsh social codes in favour of a more nuanced view . The play was enormously popular , touring the country for months , but largely trashed by conservative critics . It was followed by A Woman of No Importance in 1893 , another Victorian comedy , revolving around the spectre of illegitimate births , mistaken identities and late revelations . Wilde was commissioned to write two more plays and An Ideal Husband , written in 1894 , followed in January 1895 .
Peter Raby said these essentially English plays were well @-@ pitched , " Wilde , with one eye on the dramatic genius of Ibsen , and the other on the commercial competition in London 's West End , targeted his audience with adroit precision " .
= = = Queensberry family = = =
In mid @-@ 1891 Lionel Johnson introduced Wilde to Lord Alfred Douglas , an undergraduate at Oxford at the time . Known to his family and friends as " Bosie " , he was a handsome and spoilt young man . An intimate friendship sprang up between Wilde and Douglas and by 1893 Wilde was infatuated with Douglas and they consorted together regularly in a tempestuous affair . If Wilde was relatively indiscreet , even flamboyant , in the way he acted , Douglas was reckless in public . Wilde , who was earning up to £ 100 a week from his plays ( his salary at The Woman 's World had been £ 6 ) , indulged Douglas 's every whim : material , artistic or sexual .
Douglas soon dragged Wilde into the Victorian underground of gay prostitution and Wilde was introduced to a series of young , working class , male prostitutes from 1892 onwards by Alfred Taylor . These infrequent rendezvous usually took the same form : Wilde would meet the boy , offer him gifts , dine him privately and then take him to a hotel room . Unlike Wilde 's idealised , pederastic relations with Ross , John Gray , and Douglas , all of whom remained part of his aesthetic circle , these consorts were uneducated and knew nothing of literature . Soon his public and private lives had become sharply divided ; in De Profundis he wrote to Douglas that " It was like feasting with panthers ; the danger was half the excitement ... I did not know that when they were to strike at me it was to be at another 's piping and at another 's pay . "
Douglas and some Oxford friends founded a journal , The Chameleon , to which Wilde " sent a page of paradoxes originally destined for the Saturday Review " . " Phrases and Philosophies for the Use of the Young " was to come under attack six months later at Wilde 's trial , where he was forced to defend the magazine to which he had sent his work . In any case , it became unique : The Chameleon was not published again .
Lord Alfred 's father , the Marquess of Queensberry , was known for his outspoken atheism , brutish manner and creation of the modern rules of boxing . Queensberry , who feuded regularly with his son , confronted Wilde and Lord Alfred about the nature of their relationship several times , but Wilde was able to mollify him . In June 1894 , he called on Wilde at 16 Tite Street , without an appointment , and clarified his stance : " I do not say that you are it , but you look it , and pose at it , which is just as bad . And if I catch you and my son again in any public restaurant I will thrash you " to which Wilde responded : " I don 't know what the Queensberry rules are , but the Oscar Wilde rule is to shoot on sight " . His account in De Profundis was less triumphant : " It was when , in my library at Tite Street , waving his small hands in the air in epileptic fury , your father ... stood uttering every foul word his foul mind could think of , and screaming the loathsome threats he afterwards with such cunning carried out " . Queensberry only described the scene once , saying Wilde had " shown him the white feather " , meaning he had acted in a cowardly way . Though trying to remain calm , Wilde saw that he was becoming ensnared in a brutal family quarrel . He did not wish to bear Queensberry 's insults , but he knew to confront him could lead to disaster were his liaisons disclosed publicly .
= = = The Importance of Being Earnest = = =
Wilde 's final play again returns to the theme of switched identities : the play 's two protagonists engage in " bunburying " ( the maintenance of alternative personas in the town and country ) which allows them to escape Victorian social mores . Earnest is even lighter in tone than Wilde 's earlier comedies . While their characters often rise to serious themes in moments of crisis , Earnest lacks the by @-@ now stock Wildean characters : there is no " woman with a past " , the principals are neither villainous nor cunning , simply idle cultivés , and the idealistic young women are not that innocent . Mostly set in drawing rooms and almost completely lacking in action or violence , Earnest lacks the self @-@ conscious decadence found in The Picture of Dorian Gray and Salome .
The play , now considered Wilde 's masterpiece , was rapidly written in Wilde 's artistic maturity in late 1894 . It was first performed on 14 February 1895 , at St James 's Theatre in London , Wilde 's second collaboration with George Alexander , the actor @-@ manager . Both author and producer assiduously revised , prepared and rehearsed every line , scene and setting in the months before the premiere , creating a carefully constructed representation of late @-@ Victorian society , yet simultaneously mocking it . During rehearsal Alexander requested that Wilde shorten the play from four acts to three , which the author did . Premieres at St James 's seemed like " brilliant parties " , and the opening of The Importance of Being Earnest was no exception . Allan Aynesworth ( who played Algy ) recalled to Hesketh Pearson , " In my fifty @-@ three years of acting , I never remember a greater triumph than [ that ] first night . " Earnest 's immediate reception as Wilde 's best work to date finally crystallised his fame into a solid artistic reputation . The Importance of Being Earnest remains his most popular play .
Wilde 's professional success was mirrored by an escalation in his feud with Queensberry . Queensberry had planned to insult Wilde publicly by throwing a bouquet of rotting vegetables onto the stage ; Wilde was tipped off and had Queensberry barred from entering the theatre . Fifteen weeks later Wilde was in prison .
= = Trials = =
= = = Wilde v. Queensberry = = =
On 18 February 1895 , the Marquess left his calling card at Wilde 's club , the Albemarle , inscribed : " For Oscar Wilde , posing somdomite " [ sic ] . Wilde , encouraged by Douglas and against the advice of his friends , initiated a private prosecution against Queensberry for libel , since the note amounted to a public accusation that Wilde had committed the crime of sodomy .
Queensberry was arrested on a charge of criminal libel , a charge carrying a possible sentence of up to two years in prison ( Libel Act of 1843 ) . Under the Act , Queensberry could avoid conviction for libel only by demonstrating that his accusation was in fact true , and furthermore that there was some " public benefit " to having made the accusation openly . Queensberry 's lawyers thus hired private detectives to find evidence of Wilde 's homosexual liaisons to prove the fact of the accusation . They decided on a strategy of portraying Wilde as a depraved older man who habitually enticed naive youths into a life of vicious homosexuality to demonstrate that there was some public interest in making the accusation openly , ostensibly to warn off other youths who might otherwise have become entrapped by Wilde .
Wilde 's friends had advised him against the prosecution at a Saturday Review meeting at the Café Royal on 24 March 1895 ; Frank Harris warned him that " they are going to prove sodomy against you " and advised him to flee to France . Wilde and Douglas walked out in a huff , Wilde saying " it is at such moments as these that one sees who are one 's true friends " . The scene was witnessed by George Bernard Shaw who recalled it to Arthur Ransome a day or so before Ransome 's trial for libelling Douglas in 1913 . To Ransome it confirmed what he had said in his 1912 literary book on Wilde ; that Douglas 's rivalry for Wilde with Robbie Ross and his arguments with his father had resulted in Wilde 's public disaster ; as Wilde wrote in De Profundis . Douglas lost his case . Shaw included an account of the argument between Harris , Douglas and Wilde in the preface to his play The Dark Lady of the Sonnets .
The libel trial became a cause célèbre as salacious details of Wilde 's private life with Taylor and Douglas began to appear in the press . A team of private detectives had directed Queensberry 's lawyers , led by Edward Carson QC , to the world of the Victorian underground . Wilde 's association with blackmailers and male prostitutes , cross @-@ dressers and homosexual brothels was recorded , and various persons involved were interviewed , some being coerced to appear as witnesses since they too were accomplices to the crimes of which Wilde was accused .
The trial opened on 3 April 1895 amid scenes of near hysteria both in the press and the public galleries . The extent of the evidence massed against Wilde forced him to declare meekly , " I am the prosecutor in this case " . Wilde 's lawyer , Sir Edward George Clarke , opened the case by pre @-@ emptively asking Wilde about two suggestive letters Wilde had written to Douglas , which the defence had in its possession . He characterised the first as a " prose sonnet " and admitted that the " poetical language " might seem strange to the court but claimed its intent was innocent . Wilde stated that the letters had been obtained by blackmailers who had attempted to extort money from him , but he had refused , suggesting they should take the £ 60 ( equal to £ 6 @,@ 300 today ) offered , " unusual for a prose piece of that length " . He claimed to regard the letters as works of art rather than something of which to be ashamed .
Carson , a fellow Dubliner who had attended Trinity College , Dublin at the same time as Wilde , cross @-@ examined Wilde on how he perceived the moral content of his works . Wilde replied with characteristic wit and flippancy , claiming that works of art are not capable of being moral or immoral but only well or poorly made , and that only " brutes and illiterates , " whose views on art " are incalculably stupid " , would make such judgements about art . Carson , a leading barrister , diverged from the normal practice of asking closed questions . Carson pressed Wilde on each topic from every angle , squeezing out nuances of meaning from Wilde 's answers , removing them from their aesthetic context and portraying Wilde as evasive and decadent . While Wilde won the most laughs from the court , Carson scored the most legal points . To undermine Wilde 's credibility , and to justify Queensberry 's description of Wilde as a " posing ... somdomite " , Carson drew from the witness an admission of his capacity for " posing " , by demonstrating that he had lied about his age on oath . Playing on this , he returned to the topic throughout his cross @-@ examination .
Carson then moved to the factual evidence and questioned Wilde about his acquaintances with younger , lower @-@ class men . Wilde admitted being on a first @-@ name basis and lavishing gifts upon them , but insisted that nothing untoward had occurred and that the men were merely good friends of his . Carson repeatedly pointed out the unusual nature of these relationships and insinuated that the men were prostitutes . Wilde replied that he did not believe in social barriers , and simply enjoyed the society of young men . Then Carson asked Wilde directly whether he had ever kissed a certain servant boy , Wilde responded , " Oh , dear no . He was a particularly plain boy – unfortunately ugly – I pitied him for it . " Carson pressed him on the answer , repeatedly asking why the boy 's ugliness was relevant . Wilde hesitated , then for the first time became flustered : " You sting me and insult me and try to unnerve me ; and at times one says things flippantly when one ought to speak more seriously . "
In his opening speech for the defence , Carson announced that he had located several male prostitutes who were to testify that they had had sex with Wilde . On the advice of his lawyers , Wilde dropped the prosecution . Queensberry was found not guilty , as the court declared that his accusation that Wilde was " posing as a Somdomite " [ sic ] was justified , " true in substance and in fact . " Under the Libel Act 1843 , Queensberry 's acquittal rendered Wilde legally liable for the considerable expenses Queensberry had incurred in his defence , which left Wilde bankrupt .
= = = Regina v. Wilde = = =
After Wilde left the court , a warrant for his arrest was applied for on charges of sodomy and gross indecency . Robbie Ross found Wilde at the Cadogan Hotel , Knightsbridge , with Reginald Turner ; both men advised Wilde to go at once to Dover and try to get a boat to France ; his mother advised him to stay and fight . Wilde , lapsing into inaction , could only say , " The train has gone . It 's too late . " Wilde was arrested for " gross indecency " under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 , a term meaning homosexual acts not amounting to buggery ( an offence under a separate statute ) . At Wilde 's instruction , Ross and Wilde 's butler forced their way into the bedroom and library of 16 Tite Street , packing some personal effects , manuscripts , and letters . Wilde was then imprisoned on remand at Holloway where he received daily visits from Douglas .
Events moved quickly and his prosecution opened on 26 April 1895 . Wilde pleaded not guilty . He had already begged Douglas to leave London for Paris , but Douglas complained bitterly , even wanting to give evidence ; he was pressed to go and soon fled to the Hotel du Monde . Fearing persecution , Ross and many others also left the United Kingdom during this time . Under cross examination Wilde was at first hesitant , then spoke eloquently :
Charles Gill ( prosecuting ) : What is " the love that dare not speak its name " ?
Wilde : " The love that dare not speak its name " in this century is such a great affection of an elder for a younger man as there was between David and Jonathan , such as Plato made the very basis of his philosophy , and such as you find in the sonnets of Michelangelo and Shakespeare . It is that deep spiritual affection that is as pure as it is perfect . It dictates and pervades great works of art , like those of Shakespeare and Michelangelo , and those two letters of mine , such as they are . It is in this century misunderstood , so much misunderstood that it may be described as " the love that dare not speak its name , " and on that account of it I am placed where I am now . It is beautiful , it is fine , it is the noblest form of affection . There is nothing unnatural about it . It is intellectual , and it repeatedly exists between an older and a younger man , when the older man has intellect , and the younger man has all the joy , hope and glamour of life before him . That it should be so , the world does not understand . The world mocks at it , and sometimes puts one in the pillory for it .
This response was counter @-@ productive in a legal sense as it only served to reinforce the charges of homosexual behaviour . The trial ended with the jury unable to reach a verdict . Wilde 's counsel , Sir Edward Clarke , was finally able to get a magistrate to allow Wilde and his friends to post bail . The Reverend Stewart Headlam put up most of the £ 5 @,@ 000 surety required by the court , having disagreed with Wilde 's treatment by the press and the courts . Wilde was freed from Holloway and , shunning attention , went into hiding at the house of Ernest and Ada Leverson , two of his firm friends . Edward Carson approached Frank Lockwood QC , the Solicitor General and asked " Can we not let up on the fellow now ? " Lockwood answered that he would like to do so , but feared that the case had become too politicised to be dropped .
The final trial was presided over by Mr Justice Wills . On 25 May 1895 Wilde and Alfred Taylor were convicted of gross indecency and sentenced to two years ' hard labour . The judge described the sentence , the maximum allowed , as " totally inadequate for a case such as this , " and that the case was " the worst case I have ever tried " . Wilde 's response " And I ? May I say nothing , my Lord ? " was drowned out in cries of " Shame " in the courtroom .
= = Imprisonment = =
Wilde entered prison on 25 May 1895 , and was released on 18 May 1897 .
He first entered Newgate Prison in London for a week for processing , then was moved to Pentonville Prison , where the " hard labour " to which he had been sentenced consisted of many hours of walking a treadmill and picking oakum ( separating the fibres in scraps of old navy ropes ) , and where prisoners were allowed to read only the Bible and The Pilgrim 's Progress . Prisoners were not allowed to speak to each other , and , when out of their cells , were required to wear a cap with a thick veil so they would not be recognised by other prisoners .
A few months later he was moved to Wandsworth Prison in London . Inmates there also followed the regimen of " hard labour , hard fare and a hard bed " , which wore harshly on Wilde 's delicate health . In November he collapsed during chapel from illness and hunger . His right ear drum was ruptured in the fall , an injury that later contributed to his death . He spent two months in the infirmary .
Richard B. Haldane , the Liberal MP and reformer , visited Wilde and had him transferred in November to Reading Gaol , 30 miles ( 48 km ) west of London on 23 November 1895 . The transfer itself was the lowest point of his incarceration , as a crowd jeered and spat at him on the railway platform . Here , he spent the remainder of his sentence , and was assigned the third cell on the third floor of C ward – and thereafter was addressed and identified only by " C33 " – the number of his cell , the third cell on the third floor of C ward .
About five months after Wilde arrived at Reading Gaol , Charles Thomas Wooldridge , a trooper in the Royal Horse Guards , was brought to Reading to await his trial for murdering his wife on 29 March 1896 ; on 17 June Wooldridge was sentenced to death and returned to Reading for his execution , which took place on Tuesday , 7 July 1896 – the first hanging at Reading in 18 years . From Wooldridge 's hanging , Wilde later wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol .
Wilde was not , at first , even allowed paper and pen but Haldane eventually succeeded in allowing access to books and writing materials . Wilde requested , among others : the Bible in French ; Italian and German grammars ; some Ancient Greek texts , Dante 's Divine Comedy , Joris @-@ Karl Huysmans 's new French novel about Christian redemption En Route , and essays by St Augustine , Cardinal Newman and Walter Pater .
Between January and March 1897 Wilde wrote a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ word letter to Douglas . He was not allowed to send it , but was permitted to take it with him upon release . In reflective mode , Wilde coldly examines his career to date , how he had been a colourful agent provocateur in Victorian society , his art , like his paradoxes , seeking to subvert as well as sparkle . His own estimation of himself was : one who " stood in symbolic relations to the art and culture of my age " . It was from these heights that his life with Douglas began , and Wilde examines that particularly closely , repudiating him for what Wilde finally sees as his arrogance and vanity : he had not forgotten Douglas 's remark , when he was ill , " When you are not on your pedestal you are not interesting . " Wilde blamed himself , though , for the ethical degradation of character that he allowed Douglas to bring about in him and took responsibility for his own fall , " I am here for having tried to put your father in prison . " The first half concludes with Wilde forgiving Douglas , for his own sake as much as Douglas 's . The second half of the letter traces Wilde 's spiritual journey of redemption and fulfilment through his prison reading . He realised that his ordeal had filled his soul with the fruit of experience , however bitter it tasted at the time .
... I wanted to eat of the fruit of all the trees in the garden of the world ... And so , indeed , I went out , and so I lived . My only mistake was that I confined myself so exclusively to the trees of what seemed to me the sun @-@ lit side of the garden , and shunned the other side for its shadow and its gloom .
Wilde was released from prison on 18 May 1897 and sailed immediately for France . He would never return to Britain or to Ireland .
On his release , he gave the manuscript to Ross , who may or may not have carried out Wilde 's instructions to send a copy to Douglas ( who later denied having received it ) . De Profundis was partially published in 1905 , its complete and correct publication first occurred in 1962 in The Letters of Oscar Wilde .
= = Decline : 1897 – 1900 = =
= = = Exile = = =
Though Wilde 's health had suffered greatly from the harshness and diet of prison , he had a feeling of spiritual renewal . He immediately wrote to the Society of Jesus requesting a six @-@ month Catholic retreat ; when the request was denied , Wilde wept . " I intend to be received into the Catholic Church before long " , Wilde told a journalist who asked about his religious intentions .
He spent his last three years in impoverished exile . He took the name " Sebastian Melmoth " , after Saint Sebastian , and the titular character of Melmoth the Wanderer ; a Gothic novel by Charles Maturin , Wilde 's great @-@ uncle . Wilde wrote two long letters to the editor of the Daily Chronicle , describing the brutal conditions of English prisons and advocating penal reform . His discussion of the dismissal of Warder Martin for giving biscuits to an anaemic child prisoner , repeated the themes of the corruption and degeneration of punishment that he had earlier outlined in The Soul of Man Under Socialism .
Wilde spent mid @-@ 1897 with Robert Ross in the seaside village of Berneval @-@ le @-@ Grand in northern France , where he wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol , narrating the execution of Charles Thomas Wooldridge , who murdered his wife in a rage at her infidelity ; it moves from an objective story @-@ telling to symbolic identification with the prisoners as a whole . No attempt is made to assess the justice of the laws which convicted them , but rather the poem highlights the brutalisation of the punishment that all convicts share . Wilde juxtaposes the executed man and himself with the line " Yet each man kills the thing he loves " . Wilde too was separated from his wife and sons . He adopted the proletarian ballad form , and the author was credited as " C33 " , Wilde 's cell number in Reading Gaol . He suggested that it be published in Reynold 's Magazine , " because it circulates widely among the criminal classes – to which I now belong – for once I will be read by my peers – a new experience for me " . It was an immediate roaring commercial success , going through seven editions in less than two years , only after which " [ Oscar Wilde ] " was added to the title page , though many in literary circles had known Wilde to be the author . It brought him a little money .
Although Douglas had been the cause of his misfortunes , he and Wilde were reunited in August 1897 at Rouen . This meeting was disapproved of by the friends and families of both men . Constance Wilde was already refusing to meet Wilde or allow him to see their sons , though she sent him money – a meagre three pounds a week . During the latter part of 1897 , Wilde and Douglas lived together near Naples for a few months until they were separated by their families under the threat of cutting off all funds .
Wilde 's final address was at the dingy Hôtel d 'Alsace ( now known as L 'Hôtel ) , on rue des Beaux @-@ Arts in Saint @-@ Germain @-@ des @-@ Prés , Paris . " This poverty really breaks one 's heart : it is so sale [ filthy ] , so utterly depressing , so hopeless . Pray do what you can " he wrote to his publisher . He corrected and published An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest , the proofs of which , according to Ellmann , show a man " very much in command of himself and of the play " , but he refused to write anything else : " I can write , but have lost the joy of writing " .
He wandered the boulevards alone , and spent what little money he had on alcohol . A series of embarrassing encounters with English visitors , or Frenchmen he had known in better days , drowned his spirit . Soon Wilde was sufficiently confined to his hotel to joke , on one of his final trips outside , " My wallpaper and I are fighting a duel to the death . One of us has got to go . " On 12 October 1900 he sent a telegram to Ross : " Terribly weak . Please come . " His moods fluctuated ; Max Beerbohm relates how their mutual friend Reginald ' Reggie ' Turner had found Wilde very depressed after a nightmare . " I dreamt that I had died , and was supping with the dead ! " " I am sure " , Turner replied , " that you must have been the life and soul of the party . " Turner was one of the very few of the old circle who remained with Wilde right to the end , and was at his bedside when he died .
= = = Death = = =
By 25 November Wilde had developed cerebral meningitis . Robbie Ross arrived on 29 November and sent for a priest , and Wilde was conditionally baptised into the Catholic Church by Fr Cuthbert Dunne , a Passionist priest from Dublin ( the sacrament being conditional because of the doctrine that one may be baptised only once ) , Wilde having been baptised in the Church of Ireland , and having moreover a recollection of Catholic baptism as a child , a fact later attested to by the minister of the sacrament , Fr Lawrence Fox . Fr Dunne recorded the baptism :
As the voiture rolled through the dark streets that wintry night , the sad story of Oscar Wilde was in part repeated to me ... Robert Ross knelt by the bedside , assisting me as best he could while I administered conditional baptism , and afterwards answering the responses while I gave Extreme Unction to the prostrate man and recited the prayers for the dying . As the man was in a semi @-@ comatose condition , I did not venture to administer the Holy Viaticum ; still I must add that he could be roused and was roused from this state in my presence . When roused , he gave signs of being inwardly conscious ... Indeed I was fully satisfied that he understood me when told that I was about to receive him into the Catholic Church and gave him the Last Sacraments ... And when I repeated close to his ear the Holy Names , the Acts of Contrition , Faith , Hope and Charity , with acts of humble resignation to the Will of God , he tried all through to say the words after me .
Wilde died of cerebral meningitis on 30 November 1900 . Different opinions are given as to the cause of the meningitis : Richard Ellmann claimed it was syphilitic ; however , Merlin Holland , Wilde 's grandson , thought this to be a misconception , noting that Wilde 's meningitis followed a surgical intervention , perhaps a mastoidectomy ; Wilde 's physicians , Dr Paul Cleiss and A 'Court Tucker , reported that the condition stemmed from an old suppuration of the right ear ( from the prison injury , see above ) treated for several years ( une ancienne suppuration de l 'oreille droite d 'ailleurs en traitement depuis plusieurs années ) and made no allusion to syphilis .
= = = Burial = = =
Wilde was initially buried in the Cimetière de Bagneux outside Paris ; in 1909 his remains were disinterred and transferred to Père Lachaise Cemetery , inside the city . His tomb there was designed by Sir Jacob Epstein , It was commissioned by Robert Ross , who asked for a small compartment to be made for his own ashes , which were duly transferred in 1950 . The modernist angel depicted as a relief on the tomb was originally complete with male genitalia , which have since been vandalised ; their current whereabouts are unknown . In 2000 , Leon Johnson , a multimedia artist , installed a silver prosthesis to replace them .
In 2011 the tomb was cleaned of the many lipstick marks left there by admirers , and a glass barrier was installed to prevent further marks or damage .
The epitaph is a verse from The Ballad of Reading Gaol :
And alien tears will fill for him
Pity 's long @-@ broken urn ,
For his mourners will be outcast men ,
And outcasts always mourn .
= = Biographies = =
Wilde 's life continues to fascinate , and he has been the subject of numerous biographies since his death . The earliest were memoirs by those who knew him : often they are personal or impressionistic accounts which can be good character sketches , but are sometimes factually unreliable . Frank Harris , his friend and editor , wrote a biography , Oscar Wilde : His Life and Confessions ( 1916 ) ; though prone to exaggeration and sometimes factually inaccurate , it offers a good literary portrait of Wilde . Lord Alfred Douglas wrote two books about his relationship with Wilde . Oscar Wilde and Myself ( 1914 ) , largely ghost @-@ written by T.W.H. Crosland , vindictively reacted to Douglas 's discovery that De Profundis was addressed to him and defensively tried to distance him from Wilde 's scandalous reputation . Both authors later regretted their work . Later , in Oscar Wilde : A Summing Up ( 1939 ) and his Autobiography he was more sympathetic to Wilde . Of Wilde 's other close friends , Robert Sherard , Robert Ross , his literary executor ; and Charles Ricketts variously published biographies , reminiscences or correspondence . The first more or less objective biography of Wilde came about when Hesketh Pearson wrote Oscar Wilde : His Life and Wit ( 1946 ) . In 1954 Vyvyan Holland published his memoir Son of Oscar Wilde , which recounts the difficulties Wilde 's wife and children faced after his imprisonment . It was revised and updated by Merlin Holland in 1989 .
Oscar Wilde , a critical study by Arthur Ransome was published in 1912 . The book only briefly mentioned Wilde 's life , but subsequently Ransome ( and The Times Book Club ) were sued for libel by Lord Alfred Douglas . The trial in April 1913 was in a way a re @-@ run of the trial ( s ) of Oscar Wilde . The trial resulted from Douglas 's rivalry with Robbie Ross for Wilde ( and his need of money ) . Douglas lost ; De Profundis which was read in part at the trial disproved his claims ( Ross had shown Ransome the full text of it ) .
Wilde 's life was still waiting for independent , true scholarship when Richard Ellmann began researching his 1987 biography Oscar Wilde , for which he posthumously won a National ( USA ) Book Critics Circle Award in 1988 and a Pulitzer Prize in 1989 . The book was the basis for the 1997 film Wilde , directed by Brian Gilbert and starring Stephen Fry as the title character .
Neil McKenna 's 2003 biography , The Secret Life of Oscar Wilde , offers an exploration of Wilde 's sexuality . Often speculative in nature , it was widely criticised for its pure conjecture and lack of scholarly rigour . Thomas Wright 's Oscar 's Books ( 2008 ) explores Wilde 's reading from his childhood in Dublin to his death in Paris . After tracking down many books that once belonged to Wilde 's Tite Street library ( dispersed at the time of his trials ) , Wright was the first to examine Wilde 's marginalia .
Wilde 's charm also had a lasting effect on Parisian literati , who produced several original biographies and monographs on him . André Gide , on whom Wilde had such a strange effect , wrote , In Memoriam , Oscar Wilde ; Wilde also features in his journals . Thomas Louis , who had earlier translated books on Wilde into French , produced his own L 'esprit d 'Oscar Wilde in 1920 . Modern books include Philippe Jullian 's Oscar Wilde , and L 'affaire Oscar Wilde , ou , Du danger de laisser la justice mettre le nez dans nos draps ( The Oscar Wilde Affair , or , On the Danger of Allowing Justice to put its Nose in our Sheets ) by Odon Vallet , a French religious historian .
= = Selected works = =
Ravenna ( 1878 )
Poems ( 1881 )
The Happy Prince and Other Stories ( 1888 , fairy stories )
Lord Arthur Savile 's Crime and Other Stories ( 1891 , stories )
House of Pomegranates ( 1891 , fairy stories )
Intentions ( 1891 , essays and dialogues on aesthetics )
The Picture of Dorian Gray ( first published in Lippincott 's Monthly Magazine July 1890 , in book form in 1891 ; novel )
The Soul of Man under Socialism ( 1891 , political essay )
Lady Windermere 's Fan ( 1892 , play )
A Woman of No Importance ( 1893 , play )
An Ideal Husband ( performed 1895 , published 1898 ; play )
The Importance of Being Earnest ( performed 1895 , published 1898 ; play )
De Profundis ( written 1897 , published variously 1905 , 1908 , 1949 , 1962 ; epistle )
The Ballad of Reading Gaol ( 1898 , poem )
= = Tributes = =
In 2012 , Wilde was inducted into the Legacy Walk , an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people .
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= Pavillon de Flore =
The Pavillon de Flore , part of the Palais du Louvre in Paris , France , stands at the southwest end of the Louvre , near the Pont Royal . It was originally constructed in 1607 – 1610 , during the reign of Henry IV , as the corner pavilion between the Tuileries Palace to the north and the Louvre 's Grande Galerie to the east . The pavilion was entirely redesigned and rebuilt by Hector Lefuel in 1864 – 1868 in a highly decorated Second Empire Neo @-@ Baroque style . The most famous sculpture on the exterior of the Louvre , Jean @-@ Baptiste Carpeaux 's The Triumph of Flora , was added below the central pediment of the south facade at this time . The Tuileries Palace was destroyed by fire in 1871 , and a north facade , similar to the south facade , was added to the pavilion by Lefuel in 1874 – 1879 . Currently , the Pavillon de Flore is part of the Musée du Louvre .
= = Location = =
The Pavillon de Flore is in central Paris , on the Right Bank ( French : Rive Droite ) and is connected to the Louvre . It is directly adjacent to the Pont Royal on the Quai François Mitterrand ( formerly Quai du Louvre , renamed on October 26 , 2003 ) , which is between the Passerelle Léopold @-@ Sédar Senghor and the Pont du Carrousel . Its geographic coordinates are 48 ° 51 ′ 40 ″ N 2 ° 19 ′ 50 ″ E.
= = = Metro access = = =
= = History = =
= = = Henry IV and the Grand Design = = =
The Pavillon de Flore was part of a larger plan , devised during the reign of King Henry IV , to connect the Palais du Louvre and Palais des Tuileries via two long wings at their north and south ends . First , the Petite Galerie , running south from the Palais du Louvre to the River Seine , was connected to the Grande Galerie . The latter was constructed east to west along the Seine until it reached the Tuileries , where it was terminated with the Pavillon de Flore , at the time , known as the Gros Pavillon de la Rivière ( " Large River Pavilion " ) . The cornerstone of the pavilion was laid in 1607 . Its design has traditionally been assigned to Jacques Androuet II du Cerceau , who is also thought to have designed the adjacent western section of the Grande Galerie . ( The design of the eastern section of the Grande Galerie is traditionally assigned to Louis Métezeau . ) The Palais des Tuileries was extended south from the Pavillon Bullant to the Pavillon de Flore via the Petite Galerie des Tuileries . Work on the Grand Design was abandoned following the assassination of Henry IV in 1610 . However , by this time , the building of the Grande Galerie , the Petite Galerie des Tuileries , and the Gros Pavillon de la Rivière had been completed . ( In the 19th century , a second long gallery , matching the Grande Galerie , was constructed from west to east along the Rue de Rivoli , from the Pavillon de Marsan at the north end of the Palais des Tuileries to the north end of an expanded Palais du Louvre , finally completing Henry IV 's Grand Design . )
= = = Louis XIV = = =
King Louis XIV danced in Isaac de Benserade 's Ballet royal de Flore in February 1669 at the Tuileries , possibly in the Salle des Ballets located on the first floor of the pavilion . It has been suggested that this is when the name Pavillon de Flore came into use , although the earliest known written mention is in 1726 . Pavillon de Flore is the name used today , although other names have been used in between .
= = = Marie Antoinette = = =
For several years , the apartments of Marie Antoinette were located within the structure .
= = = French Revolution = = =
During the French Revolution , the Pavillon de Flore was renamed Pavillon de l 'Égalité ( House of Equality ) . Under its new name , it became the meeting point for several of the Committees of the period . Many other committees of the Revolutionary Government occupied the Palais des Tuileries ( referred to by contemporaries as the Palace of the Nation ) during the time of the National Convention . Notable occupiers included the Monetary Committee , the Account and Liquidation Examination Committee . However , the most famous was the Committee of Public Safety .
The Committee of Public Safety ( French : Comité de salut public ) was the principal and most renowned body of the Revolutionary Government , forming the de facto executive branch of France during the Reign of Terror . Run by the Jacobins under Robespierre , the group of twelve centralized denunciations , trials , and executions . The committee was responsible for the deaths of thousands , mostly by guillotine . The executive body was initially installed in the apartments of Marie @-@ Antoinette , situated on the first floor , but also gradually overtook the offices of Louis XVI . The governing body met twice a day and the executions themselves were carried out across the gardens . During the structure 's use by the Committee of Public Safety , it was described as follows :
The Committee of Public Safety sat in the Pavillon de Flore , at the opposite end of the Tuileries on the river bank … Any one who had business with this awful body had to grope his way along gloomy corridors , that were dimly lighted by a single lamp at either end . The room in which the Committee sat round a table of green cloth was incongruously gay with the clocks , the bronzes , the mirrors , the tapestries , of the ruined country .
= = = First Empire = = =
Pope Pius VII stayed in the building while preparing to crown Napoléon I Emperor of the French . While residing there , the Pope received various " bodies of the State , the clergy , and the religious corporations . " Additionally , Emperor Napoléon 's procession began at the Pavillon de Flore .
= = = Second Empire = = =
The pavilion underwent significant structural alteration during the reign of Napoléon III , who in 1861 authorized its complete demolition and reconstruction under the supervision of architect Hector Lefuel . Performed between 1864 and 1868 , Lefuel 's reconstruction added significant detail and sculpture to the work , which is thus noted as an example of Second Empire Neo @-@ Baroque architecture . Furthermore , Napoléon III commissioned sculptor Jean @-@ Baptiste Carpeaux to create a piece that would evoke " Flore " ( in English Flora ) , the Roman goddess who represents flowers and spring .
The structure formed the corner edifice of a combined Palais du Louvre and Palais des Tuileries complex until the Palais des Tuileries was destroyed during the Paris Commune insurrection in 1871 . On May 23 , 1871 , incendiary fires set by twelve members of the Paris Commune , a revolutionary government that briefly ruled Paris from the March 26 , 1871 to May 28 , 1871 , inflicted severe damage to the Palais des Tuileries .
= = = The Third Republic and later = = =
The ruins of the Tuileries Palace were pulled down in 1882 during the French Third Republic . The Pavillon de Flore and the Pavillon de Marsan are the only portions of the Palais des Tuileries complex still in existence .
The destruction of the Tuileries Palace affected the aesthetic relationship between the Palais du Louvre and the Arc de Triomphe , as it could now be seen that the two structures were not on the same axis . The Palais des Tuileries had served to disguise the fact that the Palais du Louvre is skewed slightly ( 6 @.@ 33 ° ) relative to the Axe historique ( also known as the Voie Triomphale ) , a seven @-@ kilometre straight line of structures and thoroughfares , including the Place de la Concorde , Champs @-@ Élysées , the Arc de Triomphe and the Grande Arche de La Défense .
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= James Sullivan ( governor ) =
James Sullivan ( April 22 , 1744 – December 10 , 1808 ) was a lawyer and politician in Massachusetts . He was an early associate justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court , served as the state 's attorney general for many years , and as governor of the state from 1807 until his death .
Sullivan was born and raised in Berwick , Maine ( then part of Massachusetts ) , and studied law with his brother John . After establishing a successful law practice , he became actively involved in the Massachusetts state government during the American Revolutionary War , and was appointed to the state 's highest court in March 1776 . He was involved in drafting the state constitution and the state 's ratifying convention for the United States Constitution . After resigning from the bench in 1782 he returned to private practice , and was appointed Attorney General in 1790 . During his years as judge and attorney general he was responsible for drafting and revising much of the state 's legislation as part of the transition from British rule to independence . While attorney general he worked with the commission that established the border between Maine and New Brunswick , and prosecuted several high @-@ profile murder cases .
Sullivan was a political partisan , supporting the Democratic @-@ Republican Party and subscribing to Jeffersonian republican ideals . He supported John Hancock and Samuel Adams in their political careers , and was a frequent contributor , often under one of many pseudonyms , to political dialogue in the state 's newspapers . He ran unsuccessfully for governor several times before finally winning the office in 1807 . He died in office during his second term .
In addition to his political pursuits Sullivan engaged in charitable and business endeavors . He was a leading proponent of the Middlesex Canal and the first bridge between Boston and Cambridge , and was instrumental in the development of Boston 's first public water supply . He was the founding president of the Massachusetts Historical Society , and held membership in a variety of other charitable organizations . He wrote one of the first histories of his native Maine , and a legal text on land titles . Legal historian Charles Warren calls him one of the most important legal figures of the time in Massachusetts .
= = Life = =
James Sullivan was born on April 22 , 1744 , the fourth son of John Sullivan and Margery Brown Sullivan , in Berwick , in a part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay that is now the state of Maine . Sullivan 's father was from County Limerick , and his mother was a child aboard the ship on which they came over . When she was older he wooed and wed her . The elder Sullivan was a schoolteacher and farmer in Berwick . Sullivan was educated at home , and any prospects for military service were dashed when his foot was crushed in a childhood accident . He was also afflicted with epilepsy while relatively young , and suffered generally mild seizures ( but sometimes lasting several hours ) for the rest of his life . While convalescing from his foot injury he read a great deal , learning Latin and the classics . His elder brother John , who was studying law , was instructed to supply his brother with law books and training . Sullivan studied law in his brother 's law practice in Durham , New Hampshire , and was eventually admitted to the bar in Massachusetts . He established a practice first in Georgetown , then shortly afterward in Biddeford , where he was the town 's first resident lawyer . In 1768 he married Hetty Odiorne , the daughter of a successful Portsmouth , New Hampshire merchant .
Sullivan 's law practice flourished , and by the time he was 30 , he was one of York County 's leading citizens . He supplemented his legal work by acting as an agent for Boston @-@ based merchant interests , including John Hancock , one of Boston 's wealthiest men . For his services as a lawyer defending land claims , in 1773 Sullivan was offered a tract within one of the claims he defended . He accepted , and the property was organized as Limerick Plantation , named after the birthplace of his father . In 1775 he helped settle the town ( personally assisting in the clearing of land ) , which on March 6 , 1787 would be incorporated as the town of Limerick . According to John Adams , Sullivan used his financial rewards to invest in local real estate , including farmlands and mills .
= = = Revolution = = =
Sullivan was an early and outspoken opponent of British colonial policies leading to the revolution . He was elected to the provincial assembly in 1774 . When it first met in June , Sullivan was a leader in calling for a Continental Congress . When Governor Thomas Gage indefinitely delayed the next meeting of the assembly the following October , its members met anyway , establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress . This body exercised de facto control over Massachusetts during the early years of the American Revolutionary War . In addition to sitting in the provincial congress , Sullivan was a leading organizer of colonial defenses in York County , sitting on its committee of correspondence and other bodies . He was sent in 1775 as part of a commission to inspect the troops and facilities at Fort Ticonderoga in upstate New York , which was nominally under the control of Benedict Arnold , who had been issued a Massachusetts colonel 's commission and succeeded in capturing it with the assistance of Ethan Allen . The arduous journey made Sullivan ill for several months afterward .
In late 1775 Sullivan was a member of the committee that drafted legislation establishing the Massachusetts State Navy . Under its terms , three positions were established for admiralty judges ; Sullivan was appointed to be the admiralty judge for the eastern district ( i.e. Maine ) in addition to his other duties . During his period of service in the provincial congress he drafted a large amount of legislation and was tireless in his activities on many committees . He resigned this post when in March 1776 he was offered a seat on the Superior Court of Judicature ( as the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court was then known ) .
= = = Judicial service and postwar activities = = =
At the time of his appointment to the bench , the position was seen as particularly risky , because it was a clear representation of anti @-@ British authority whose placeholders were thought to be risking their lives should the British succeed in putting down the rebellion . The most noteworthy case Sullivan sat on was a preliminary hearing in Commonwealth v. Nathaniel Jennison , one of the Quock Walker cases where the court in 1783 decided that slavery was incompatible with the state constitution . Sullivan publicly expressed opposition to slavery , and predicted in his writings that the issue would become contentious in the future .
Sullivan participated in the 1779 convention that drafted the new state constitution . Between 1780 and 1782 he and the rest of the court were active in harmonizing the state 's laws with the document , revising and discarding old statutes , and assisting in the drafting of new ones .
In 1779 Sullivan was awarded an honorary degree from Harvard College . He served on the court until 1782 , when he resigned because his salary was insufficient to meet his expenses , and he could no longer afford to cover the difference . He opened a law office in Boston , and moved into a house in Menotomy ( now Arlington , then still part of Cambridge ) . Although he was elected to represent Massachusetts at the Congress of the Confederation from 1782 to 1783 he did not attend , again for financial reasons . He was politically active in the state , however , supporting John Hancock and then Samuel Adams for governor . He was a prolific writer , contributing frequently to the political discourse that took place in Massachusetts ' many newspapers under a variety of pseudonyms .
In 1787 Sullivan participated in the defense of individuals charged in participation in Shays ' Rebellion , an uprising in the rural parts of the state begun the previous year . This activity earned him criticism from stalwart pro @-@ government members of the Massachusetts Bar .
When Massachusetts debated ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788 , Sullivan was one of a number of Massachusetts politicians who expressed reservations about the document , but generally supported ratification . In the debate he proposed that the convention conditionally adopt the Constitution , subject to Congress considering and acting on a suite of amendments . The seven amendments Sullivan proposed were primarily designed to increase state powers at the expense of Congress and the federal courts ; for example , one would have allowed state supreme courts to issues writs of habeas corpus for persons charged with federal crimes .
= = = Attorney General = = =
John Hancock rewarded Sullivan for his support in 1790 with an appointment as the state 's attorney general , a post he held until 1807 . Although he supported the Democratic @-@ Republican Party , his views were relatively moderate , so he retained the post of state attorney general despite the dominance of the Federalists in the state .
Much of Sullivan 's legal work after independence was framed by republican ideals . His republicanism was expressed in wide @-@ ranging support for individual rights , including those of women , children , and minorities , and manifested in letters to contemporaries including John Adams , cases he argued as a lawyer , and decisions he made as a judge . As attorney general he defended the state in a Loyalist recovery action involving the rights of married women ( who at the time had few rights under the common law doctrine of coverture ) , arguing that Loyalist William Martin 's wife had in her own right abandoned the property in question .
Sullivan supported harsh laws confiscating the property of Loyalists who fled the country or fought with the British , although he later took on as clients personal friends who were Loyalists seeking to recover their property . In his native Maine he had a mixed record , representing the state against large @-@ scale land proprietors , but also taking work from the latter ( who included some of the most powerful politicians in the state ) . His interest in the tangled difficulties surrounding land titles in Maine prompted him to write a seminal work on the subject in 1801 , The History of Land Titles in Massachusetts .
The two cases with the highest profile that Sullivan prosecuted while attorney general were both criminal cases . In 1801 he prosecuted the Dedham murderer Jason Fairbanks , who had retained Federalist Harrison Gray Otis as his defense council . Fairbanks was convicted of murdering a local woman , but escaped after his conviction , and was eventually captured near the Canadian border and hanged . Sullivan and Otis faced off again in 1807 in the sensational trial of Thomas Selfridge , accused of murdering Charles Austin . Selfridge , an older Federalist attorney , had been retained to assist in the collection of a debt from Austin 's Republican father . In the politically charged atmosphere of the day in Boston , Selfridge , fearing for his own safety , had armed himself with a dueling pistol . The younger Austin had , apparently on his own initiative , sought to beat Selfridge with a cane , and Selfridge fatally shot him in the encounter . Selfridge was defended by a cadre of Federalist lawyers including Otis and Christopher Gore , and was acquitted of murder by a jury whose foreman was Patriot and Federalist Paul Revere .
Sullivan continued to take private legal work even while he served as attorney general . In a career spanning more than forty years , his law practice was among the largest and most successful in the state . He was an acknowledged expert on admiralty law , and is described by legal historian Charles Warren as one of the most important legal figures of the time in Massachusetts .
= = = Maine – New Brunswick border commission = = =
In 1796 Sullivan was appointed by Secretary of State Timothy Pickering to be the United States agent to the binational commission established under the terms of the Jay Treaty to formalize the border between Maine and the British ( now Canadian ) province of New Brunswick . The southern portion of the border had been defined as the Saint Croix River in the 1783 1783 Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolutionary War , but there was some question as to which river this actually was , because the area was at the time sparsely peopled , poorly surveyed , and maps of the area contained conflicting references to the named river .
Sullivan 's responsibility was to gather relevant maps and legal documents , and then present a legal case for the United States ' claim for what the border should be . In addition to researching materials in Massachusetts archives , Sullivan spent a significant amount of time exploring the poorly surveyed and remote Passamaquoddy Bay , attempting to build a case that the Magaguadavic River was the river intended by the treaty negotiators . Which river it was hinged on the location of a 1604 French settlement on an island in the river , and the commissioners and agents explored the area and ordered surveys . The surveys located evidence of the settlement on Saint Croix Island , after which the commission fixed the southern portion of the border on what is now known as the Saint Croix River . ( The disposition of some islands in the bay was not settled , and the northern portion of the border would not be fixed until the 1842 Webster @-@ Ashburton Treaty . )
= = = Governor = = =
Sullivan received the Republican nomination for governor in 1797 and 1798 , but lost to Federalist Increase Sumner ( in 1798 by a landslide after the XYZ Affair lent strength to the Federalist cause ) . Republicanism eventually began gaining ground in Massachusetts , and Sullivan was again nominated in 1805 and 1806 for governor , losing both times to the popular incumbent Governor Caleb Strong . In 1806 the Republicans gained control of the Massachusetts legislature , which managed to very nearly deny Strong a narrow victory . With fewer than 200 votes in the balance , the Republican @-@ controlled legislature scrutinized the returns in a partisan manner , discarding ballots that had misspelled Strong 's name while retaining those that misspelled Sullivan 's and performing tallies in ways that favored their candidate . This process concluded with a finding that Strong in fact lacked a majority of votes , which was what was then required to carry the election , as opposed to the modern plurality requirement . Strong 's Federalist allies in the legislature were able to publicize the partisan nature of the analysis , resulting in a hostile public backlash . He was proclaimed the winner after further , less biased , analysis corrected the count in his favor . In 1807 Sullivan again faced Strong , but was this time decisively victorious , carrying the eastern counties ( present @-@ day Maine ) by a wide margin amid a series of Republican victories throughout New England .
Although Sullivan sought in some ways to be a moderate voice in the highly partisan disagreements between Federalists and Republicans , he supported the policy of President Thomas Jefferson in embargoing trade with Great Britain and France , who were then embroiled in the Napoleonic Wars . The Embargo Act of 1807 had a significant negative impact on shipping interests based in Massachusetts ports , and Federalists sought to use this , and the threats of war emanating from the Jefferson administration , to unseat Sullivan in 1808 . Federalist Senator Timothy Pickering wrote an open letter raising the specter of war and charging Jefferson with failing to publish critical documents in ongoing negotiations . He then asked Sullivan to formally send it to the state legislature , with the view that this would imply Sullivan 's agreement with its content . Sullivan refused , after which Federalists used that fact to charge that Republicans generally were withholding damaging information . Sullivan 's defense included letters by Senator John Quincy Adams countering the Federalist charges . While this was sufficient to ensure Sullivan 's reelection in 1808 , control of the legislature was returned to the Federalists . Republicans were unhappy with Sullivan 's handling of the political attacks , and for his refusal to remove Federalists from patronage positions in the government .
The Federalist legislature immediately launched attacks on Sullivan and the Republicans , which Sullivan was not immediately able to respond to . In the spring of 1808 , before the May opening of the legislature , Sullivan 's health began to decline ( epilepsy and an " organic disease of the heart " ) , so he was unable to seize the initiative . When he finally made his speech to the assembly , he failed to respond to the political aspects of the dispute , and called for national unity in dealing with outside interests . His warnings to Jefferson on the nature of the contentious disputes going on in the state were attributed by Jefferson to his declining mental state . Cognizant of Sullivan 's precarious health , the Federalists sought a delay in electing a slate of electors for the Electoral College in the 1808 presidential election . Sullivan , who would have vetoed a slate of Federalist electors ( as they were then chosen by the legislature and not by popular vote , the Federalist legislative majority would have assured this ) , he acquiesced in the hopes that elective actions in other states would moot the decision made in Massachusetts . Sullivan also came under criticism by political partisans on both sides for issuing large numbers of exemptions to the embargo , ostensibly to avoid civil strife in the event of a grain shortage .
When the legislature met in November , it rejected a proposal by Sullivan that popular elections determine the state 's electoral slate , and instead chose a Federalist slate supporting Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for president in a vote boycotted by many Republicans . Based on widespread opinion that the Federalists were likely to lose the presidential election , Sullivan , his health failing , forwarded the electoral votes on to Congress . He died in office on December 10 , 1808 , aged 64 , and was interred in Boston 's Granary Burying Ground in a tomb shared by colonial governor Richard Bellingham .
= = Business , economic development , and charity = =
In addition to his political and legal activities , Sullivan engaged in a wide variety of civic and charitable work . He was a founding member and the first president of the Massachusetts Historical Society , was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and was involved with the Massachusetts Humane Society , the Society for the Propagation of the Faith among the Indians , and a charitable society that supported Congregationalist ministers .
Sullivan was a major moving force and leading director of the company that oversaw the Middlesex Canal ( construction of which began in 1793 ) . The canal connected the Merrimack River at present @-@ day Lowell ( then still East Chelmsford ) to the port of Boston , ending roughly at Sullivan Square , which is named in his honor . He was deeply involved in the canal , purchasing the necessary land and supervising the construction . At the same time he was also involved in the company formed to build the first bridge across the Charles River connecting Boston to Cambridge , and was instrumental in the development of Boston 's first public water supply , a wooden aqueduct from Jamaica Pond .
= = Family and legacy = =
Sullivan 's brothers were active participants in the Revolutionary War . John , Daniel , and Eben , all served in the Continental Army . John served with some distinction until he retired from the army to enter New Hampshire politics in 1779 ; Eben was captured in the Battle of The Cedars in 1776 , and spent some time as a captive among the Mohawk , where he was subjected to torture ; Daniel was also captured in action and died aboard a British prison ship . Sullivan , Maine is named for his brother Daniel , one of the early settlers of that area , and several places in New Hampshire are named for John . In 1808 , while Sullivan was governor , a small fortification now known as Fort Sullivan was constructed in Calais , Maine . Who it is named for is uncertain : one early Eastport historian states that John and James are both likely candidates , preferring John for his association with General Henry Dearborn , who ordered the fort 's construction .
Sullivan and his first wife Hettie had nine children , two of whom died young , and one son who died in 1787 due to the hardships of militia service during Shays ' Rebellion . Hettie died in 1786 , and he afterward married Martha Langdon , the widowed sister of New Hampshire politician John Langdon .
Sullivan 's enduring interest in Maine led him to write The History of the District of Maine ( published in 1795 ) , the first work to document that history . Maine historian Charles Clark writes that Sullivan 's History , while neither thoroughly researched nor particularly well written , is an " un @-@ self @-@ conscious expression of romantic nationalism " that is " picturesque , romantic , [ and ] inspired " . Sullivan also predicted that Maine would eventually separate from Massachusetts , because " it is so large and populous , and its situation so peculiar , that it cannot remain long " a part of the other state .
= = Works = =
Sullivan , James ( 1784 ) . Strictures in the Rev. Mr. Thatcher 's Pamphlet . Boston : Benjamin Edes and Sons .
Sullivan , James ( 1795 ) . The History of the District of Maine . Boston : I. Thomas and E. T. Andrews . OCLC 15730995 .
Sullivan , James ( 1801 ) . The History of Land Titles in Massachusetts . Boston : I. Thomas and E. T. Andrews . OCLC 60728198 .
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= Malacostraca =
Malacostraca is the largest of the six classes of crustaceans , containing about 40 @,@ 000 living species , divided among 16 orders . Its members , the malacostracans , display a great diversity of body forms and include crabs , lobsters , crayfish , shrimp , krill , woodlice , scuds ( Amphipoda ) , mantis shrimp and many other less familiar animals . They are abundant in all marine environments and have colonised freshwater and terrestrial habitats . They are segmented animals , united by a common body plan comprising 20 body segments ( rarely 21 ) , and divided into a head , thorax , and abdomen .
= = Etymology = =
The name Malacostraca was coined by the French zoologist Pierre André Latreille in 1802 . He was curator of the arthropod collection at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris . The name comes from the Greek roots μαλακός ( malakós , meaning " soft " ) and ὄστρακον ( óstrakon , meaning " shell " ) . The name is misleading , since the shell is only soft immediately after moulting , and is usually hard . Malacostracans are sometimes contrasted with entomostracans , a name applied to all crustaceans outside the Malacostraca , and named after the obsolete taxon Entomostraca .
= = Description = =
The class Malacostraca includes about 40 @,@ 000 species , and " arguably ... contains a greater diversity of body forms than any other class in the animal kingdom " . Its members are characterised by the presence of three tagmata ( specialized groupings of multiple segments ) – a five @-@ segmented head , an eight @-@ segmented thorax and an abdomen with six segments and a telson , except in the Leptostraca , which retain the ancestral condition of seven abdominal segments . Malacostracans have abdominal appendages , a fact that differentiates them from all other major crustacean taxa except Remipedia . Each body segment bears a pair of jointed appendages , although these may be lost secondarily .
= = = Tagmata = = =
The head bears two pairs of antennae , the first of which is often biramous ( branching into two parts ) and the second pair bear exopods ( outer branches ) which are often flattened into antennal scales known as scaphocerites . The mouthparts consist of pairs each of mandibles , maxillules ( second pair of mouthparts ) and maxillae . Usually a pair of stalked compound eyes is present , although in some taxa the eyes are unstalked , reduced or lost .
Up to three thoracic segments may be fused with the head to form a cephalothorax ; the associated appendages turn forward and are modified as maxillipeds ( accessory mouthparts ) . A carapace may be absent , present or secondarily lost , and may cover the head , part or all of the thorax and some of the abdomen . It is variable in form and may be fused dorsally with some of the thoracic segments or occasionally be in two parts , hinged dorsally . Typically , each of the thoracic appendages is biramous and the endopods are the better developed of the branches , being used for crawling or grasping . Each endopod consist of seven articulating segments ; the coxa , basis , ischium , merus , carpus , propodus and dactylus . In decapods , the claw is formed by the articulation of the dactylus against an outgrowth of the propodus . In some taxa , the exopods are lost and the appendages are uniramous .
There is a clear demarcation between the thorax and the six or seven @-@ segmented abdomen . In most taxa , each abdominal segment except the last carries a pair of biramous pleopods used for swimming , burrowing , gas exchange , creating a current or brooding eggs . The first and second abdominal pleopods may be modified in the male to form gonopods ( accessory copulatory appendages ) . The appendages of the last segment are typically flattened into uropods , which together with the terminal telson , make up the " tail fan " . It is the sudden flexion of this tail fan that provides the thrust for the rapid escape response of these crustaceans and the tail fan is also used in steering . In Leptostraca , the appendages on the telson instead form caudal rami ( spine @-@ like protrusions ) .
= = = Internal anatomy = = =
The digestive tract is straight and the foregut consists of a short oesophagus and a two @-@ chambered stomach , the first part of which contains a gizzard @-@ like " gastric mill " for grinding food . The walls of this have chitinous ridges , teeth and calcareous ossicles . The fine particles and soluble material are then moved into the midgut where chemical processing and absorption takes place in one or more pairs of large digestive caeca . The hindgut is concerned with water reclamation and the formation of faeces and the anus is situated at the base of the telson .
Like other crustaceans , malacostracans have an open circulatory system in which the heart pumps blood into the hemocoel ( body cavity ) where it supplies the needs of the organs for oxygen and nutrients before diffusing back to the heart . The typical respiratory pigment in malacostracans is haemocyanin . Structures that function as kidneys are located near the base of the antennae . A brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae , there are ganglia in each segment and a collection of major ganglia below the oesophagus . Sensory organs include compound eyes ( often stalked ) , ocelli ( simple eyes ) , statocysts and sensory bristles . The naupliar eye is a characteristic of the nauplius larva and consists of four cup @-@ shaped ocelli facing in different directions and able to distinguish between light and darkness .
= = Ecology = =
Malacostracans live in a wide range of marine and freshwater habitats , and three orders have terrestrial members : Amphipoda ( Talitridae ) , Isopoda ( Oniscidea , the woodlice ) and Decapoda ( terrestrial hermit crabs , crabs of the families Ocypodidae , Gecarcinidae , and Grapsidae , and terrestrial crayfish ) . They are abundant in all marine ecosystems , and most species are scavengers , although some , such as the porcelain crabs , are filter feeders , and some , such as mantis shrimps , are carnivores .
= = Life cycle = =
Most species of malacostracans have distinct sexes ( a phenomenon known as gonochorism ) , although a few species exhibit hermaphroditism . The female genital openings or gonopores are located on the sixth thoracic segment or its appendages , while the male gonopores are on the eighth segment or its appendages , or in a small number of species , on the seventh . The naupliar larval stages are often reduced and take place before hatching , but where they occur , a metamorphosis usually occurs between the larval and the adult forms . Primitive malacostracans have a free @-@ swimming naupliar larval stage .
= = Mating = =
Mating behavior has been studied in the freshwater shrimp Caridina ensifera . Multiple paternity , common in the Malacostrica , also occurs in C. ensifera . Reproductive success of sires was found to correlate inversely with their genetic relatedness to the mother . This finding suggests that sperm competition and / or pre- and post @-@ copulatory female choice occurs . Female choice may increase the fitness of progeny by avoiding inbreeding that can lead to expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations .
= = Phylogenetics = =
The monophyly of Malacostraca is widely accepted . This is supported by several common morphological traits which are present throughout the group and is confirmed by molecular studies . However , a number of problems make it difficult to determine the relationships between the orders of Malacostraca . These include differences in mutation rates in different lineages , different patterns of evolution being apparent in different sources of data , including convergent evolution , and long branch attraction .
There is less agreement on the status of the subclass Phyllocarida with its single extant order , Leptostraca , depending on whether foliaceous ( leaf @-@ like ) limbs have a single or multiple origin . Some authors advocate placing Phyllocarida in Phyllopoda , a group used in former classification systems , which would then include branchiopods , cephalocarids and leptostracans . A molecular study by American biologists Trisha Spears and Lawrence Abele concluded that phylogenetic evidence did not support the monophyly of this grouping , and that Phyllocarida should be regarded as a subclass of Malacostraca that had diverged from the main lineage at an early date .
= = = Subclass Phyllocarida = = =
Leptostraca is the only extant order of Phyllocarida , the other two orders , Archaeostraca and Hoplostraca being extinct . Leptostracans are thought to be the most primitive of the malacostracans and date back to the Cambrian period . They range in length from 1 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) , most being suspension feeders though some are carnivores or scavengers . They have a two part carapace which encloses the head , the whole thorax and part of the abdomen and are the only malcostracans with seven abdominal segments . Three families are known with several genera and about twenty species . They are found worldwide from the intertidal zone to the deep ocean , all but one species being benthic ( living on the seabed ) .
= = = Subclass Hoplocarida = = =
Stomatopoda is the only extant order of Hoplocarida , the other two orders , Aeschronectida and Archaeostomatopoda being extinct . Stomatopodans , commonly known as mantis shrimps , range in length from 5 to 36 cm ( 2 to 14 in ) and are predators . They have a dorso @-@ ventrally flattened body and a shield @-@ like carapace and are armed with powerful , raptorial claws normally carried in a folded position . There are about 300 species , most living in tropical and subtropical seas although some live in temperate areas . They are benthic , mostly hiding in cracks and crevices or living in burrows , some emerging to forage while others are ambush predators .
= = = Subclass Eumalacostraca = = =
The Eumalocostraca contains the vast majority of the approximately 40 @,@ 000 living species of malacostracans and consists of three superorders , Syncarida , Peracarida and Eucarida . Syncaridans are mostly small and found in freshwater and subterranean habitats . Peracaridans are characterised by having a marsupium in which they brood their young . They are found in marine , freshwater and terrestrial habitats and include Amphipoda , Cumacea , Isopoda and Mysida . Eucarida includes lobsters , crabs , shrimps , prawns and krill .
= = = Fossil record = = =
The first malacostracans appeared sometime in the Cambrian , when animals belonging to the Phyllocarida appeared .
= = Classification = =
The following classification of living malacostracans is based on An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea ( 2001 ) by the American marine biologists Joel W. Martin , curator of crustaceans at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County , and George E. Davies . Extinct orders have been added to this and are indicated by an obelisk ( † ) .
Class Malacostraca Latreille , 1802
Subclass Phyllocarida Packard , 1879
† Archaeostraca Claus 1888
† Hoplostraca Schram , 1973
Leptostraca Claus , 1880
Subclass Hoplocarida Calman , 1904
† Aeschronectida Schram , 1969
† Archaeostomatopoda Schram , 1969
Stomatopoda Latreille , 1817
Subclass Eumalacostraca Grobben , 1892
Superorder Syncarida Packard , 1885
† Palaeocaridacea Brooks , 1979
Bathynellacea Chappuis , 1915
Anaspidacea Calman , 1904
Superorder Peracarida Calman , 1904
Spelaeogriphacea Gordon , 1957
Thermosbaenacea Monod , 1927
Lophogastrida Sars , 1870
Mysida Haworth , 1825
Mictacea Bowman et al . , 1985
Amphipoda Latreille , 1816
Isopoda Latreille , 1817
Tanaidacea Dana , 1849
Cumacea Krøyer , 1846
Superorder Eucarida Calman , 1904
Euphausiacea Dana , 1852
Amphionidacea Williamson , 1973
Decapoda Latreille , 1802
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= 11 ( Bryan Adams album ) =
11 is the eleventh studio album by Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Bryan Adams . The album was released by Polydor Records on March 17 , 2008 . 11 was the first release of new Adams material since Colour Me Kubrick in 2005 and the first studio album in four years since Room Service . Adams , Jim Vallance , Eliot Kennedy , Gretchen Peters , Trevor Rabin and Robert John " Mutt " Lange received producing and writing credits . Similar to Adams ' previous material , the themes in 11 are mainly based on love , romance , and relationships . 11 received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics .
Three songs were released from the album in various forms : " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " , " Tonight We Have the Stars " and " She 's Got a Way " , of which all were released internationally . " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " was the only one to have any lasting effects on the music chart , reaching mostly the Top 50 , Top 100 and Top 200 in Europe and Canada . Adams was nominated for a Juno Award in the category " Best Artist " in 2009 for this record .
The album peaked within the top ten in eleven territories worldwide , including Canada ( with sales just below 10 @,@ 000 units in its first week ) , the United Kingdom , Germany , Denmark and Switzerland . 11 charted within the top twenty in three other territories . The album has sold approximately half @-@ a @-@ million copies , which might be considered somewhat disappointing compared to Adams previous albums sales . However CD sales dropped for all artists during this time across the board .
The track " Flower Grown Wild " , was reportedly written about the now deceased Amy Winehouse .
= = Conception = =
In an interview on Canada AM , Adams said the title 11 was picked because it was his 11th studio album , when soundtrack album Spirit : Stallion of the Cimarron is included . In addition , Adams mentioned there was no hidden meaning behind the title , it was his eleventh studio release and contained eleven tracks , " there are no secondary meanings " as Adams later mentioned in an interview with the BBC . The album 's cover was taken during a photo shoot in a hotel in Switzerland , while Adams was doing a self @-@ photo story for an Italian men 's magazine . Adams ended up liking the photo so much that he ended up using it as the album 's cover
As with the previous album , Room Service , significant portions of the album were produced while on tour . According to co @-@ writer Jim Vallance modern technology and equipment made it a lot easier to record the album . Adams recorded the album while on tour , making use of the time between playing on stage and readying himself for the next gig . Vallance and Adams recorded the album normally while sitting backstage or in an hotel room with small devices which they usually carried along on tours , but especially during their off days . Adams , in an interview , mentioned that when recording a song , they needed to set up mattresses against the windows , and having microphones run through the toilet .
11 was originally going to be an acoustic record , aiming for the " soft @-@ hard approach " perfected by the British rock group , The Who . However , after a long tour , some of the acoustic songs started growing on him , which led to changes . Adams would record for a few hours , until he wheeled the whole recording kit back onstage . " It makes me a little more interested in going on tour , " he said in retrospect . Adams who was never fully committed to the idea of creating a full @-@ fledged acoustic album , decided not to after seeing an acoustic band opening for him during one of his concerts . What he saw made him certain that he was not able to create such an album .
= = Writing and themes = =
When the writing season for 11 had ended , Adams and his companions had written 30 songs . After a selection process , 19 of these songs were removed , however some of them made it to the deluxe edition released later in 2008 . The first single , " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " was written in 2007 , and went through two or three changes before Adams made the finishing touches . Originally , it had another title , and a different melody , and as Adams later put it ; " in the course of listening to the music and spending time with it , you do end up changing it .
Adams hadn 't worked together on an album with Vallance since the late @-@ 1980s . They teamed up after , as Adams said , " throwing ideas back and forth " from 2003 until the album was released . Vallance would send MP3 audio files by e @-@ mail to Adams during the recording seasons . Adams would then add some elements to them and send them back . They continued doing this until a song was completed ; Vallance claimed it took longer for them to write songs than during their previous collaborations , but felt the end product was just as good .
The main themes in the album , in Adams words are ; " searching for something " . The lyrical meaning behind track number four , " Oxygen " is what a person needs in order to survive . In other words " The person you are with is giving you the air you breathe " , and that people in general " need each other 100 % . " The album 's first single , " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " is about keeping an open mind . " The theme of " Broken Wings " is about " somebody who taught me how to fly " , a metaphor which for " putting your trust in somebody who can give you faith and the belief that you can succeed . " " Something to Believe In " is based upon the affirmation of life and faith , while " Walk on By " warns the listener of distrustfulness . As with other albums , according to Adams , he likes to end the album with a melancholic song , such as " Something to Believe In " in 11 , it 's not the last track however . " Flowers Gone Wild " touches on the same theme as two songs he wrote in the early 1980s , " Cover Girl " and " The Best Is Yet To Come " , are based upon the murdered playboy bunny Dorothy Stratten . But also people with misplaced emotions and their unfulfilled needs , which are pushed forth by the media , which Adams says , leads people to lose their " sense of decency " . Adams explained further ; " It 's a sort of new love affair with an old story , devouring our celebrities and leaving them when we are done . "
= = Release = =
The finishing touches to the album were done in September 2007 , but the European release of the album was delayed until March 2008 . The album was released independently in the United States exclusively through Wal @-@ Mart and Sam 's Club retail stores on May 13 , 2008 . The deal was brokered one month after the albums international release . On October 5 , 2008 a Deluxe Edition of 11 was announced on Adams website . The album featured new tracks and contained a DVD . The Deluxe Edition was released on November 10 , 2008 in the UK , and November 11 , in Canada . The new CD featured the original 11 tracks , a new song " Saved " and the inclusion of two B @-@ sides , " Way of the World " and " Miss America " . The remix of " She 's Got a Way " replaces the original version , but includes another remix done by Chicane . The DVD features Adams , and his backing band , rehearsing the material from the album . It also contains behind the scenes footages .
= = = Critical response = = =
11 overall received mixed , but mostly unflattering reviews from critics . Music reviewer Chris Jones from the BBC wrote generally positively about 11 in his review . He concluded that it was another strong album , even if Adams voice sounded dispassionate on some tracks . The Canadian website Jam ! gave the album an average review . Reviewer Darryl Stedan found the lyrics clichéd , predictable and , while not criticising it , described it as an album " that didn 't really mean much . " Ryan Wasoba from the alternatively weekly magazine , Houston Press wrote favorably of the record in a backhanded way , commenting that 11 's appeal laid in its " inoffensiveness " and " digestibility " . In another favorable review , Daily Mail writer Adrian Thrills said the album highlight was " Oxygen " , commenting on the similarities with the music of Bob Dylan . Amy O 'Brian of The Vancouver Sun wrote favorably of the new album , while at the same time criticising it for its clichés , bad lyrics and for its too @-@ familiar melodies , and concluded , " It 's cheesy and overdone , but the truth is that it just might give Adams his first hit in a decade . "
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the record two out of five stars , saying that Adams ' " fondness for obvious hooks " had " flattened into clichés " . Matt O 'Leary from Virgin Media criticised the album for Adams 's " over @-@ familiar trademark " and very clichéd , made the over @-@ familiar sound of 11 a little more " irksome " . O 'Leary gave the album two out of five stars . The Sunday Times reviewer Steve Jelbert wrote , " Eleven studio albums into his career , the Canadian rocker returns with a set so devoid of surprises that it could easily have been created with a computer program . " He continued by criticising the album for what he saw as mundane lyrical metaphors , attempts of copying U2 and rigid one @-@ note basslines . He concluded however that the album was better than Lenny Kravitz latest effort , It Is Time for a Love Revolution . Chuck Arnold and Christina Tapper of People gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and stated that the 11 songs " show that , at 48 , Adams is still capable of capturing the essence of young , unbridled love . Sure , the guy can get sappy , but he 's always sincere . "
= = = Chart and commercial performance = = =
11 was Adams ' first studio album to be released in four years , since Room Service in 2004 . In the album 's first week of release it sold just below 10 @,@ 000 units in Canada , and debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart and stayed on the chart for four weeks . This marked the first time since Waking Up the Neighbours in 1991 , that Adams was able to top the Canadian record chart . In the United States , it debuted at number 80 on the Billboard 200 on the charts issue date of May 31 , 2008 and stayed on the chart for four weeks . 11 was Adams ' first studio album since 18 til I Die in the US to crack the top 100 . 11 stayed longer on the American and Canadian record than did Room Service . 11 peaked at three on the European Albums Chart and stayed on the chart for ten weeks , the album and reached seven at the Independent Albums Chart and stayed there for five weeks . At the 2009 Juno Awards Adams was nominated for " Artist of the Year " due to 11 .
Internationally , 11 was a commercial success . The album peaked at number one in two countries , India and Switzerland . It also charted within the top ten in several countries , including the United Kingdom , Switzerland , India , Germany , Austria , Denmark , Portugal and The Netherlands . France was the album 's least successful charting territory , peaking within the top 200 at number 157 . Switzerland was the only country in Europe were 11 managed to top a record chart . After staying there for a full 13 weeks if fell off the chart from 81 . Because of sales of over 15 @,@ 000 units , the album was certified gold in Switzerland and Denmark . The album has sold over half a million units worldwide .
The first single , " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " was released as a download only single in the UK on March 17 , 2008 . Although it was officially released to US radio on March 1 , 2008 , it proved somewhat popular on Adult Contemporary radio stations where it peaked at # 21 . In Canada " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " was officially released to radio in March , 2008 . The song reached the top 50 on the Canadian Hot 100 where it peaked at # 47 . " Tonight We Have the Stars " , the second single , was released as a digital single on June 6 , 2008 . The third and last single , " She 's Got a Way " was released in September and did not chart anywhere in North America or Europe .
= = 11 Tour = =
In support of 11 , Adams started the " 11 concerts , 11 cities " tour , having concerts in 11 different countries in just 11 days . The intimate shows at some spectacular venues will see Adams perform an acoustic set , on stage , with just his guitar and harmonica . The London show was on the March 11 , 2008 at St. James Church in Piccadilly . The last stop of his 11 days concert tour was in Copenhagen , Denmark on March 17 . After the " 11 concerts , 11 cities " tour , Adams continued to promote his album , this time on an acoustic tour touring with such musical acts as Foreigner and Rod Stewart . Later , in an interview , he was asked what song he felt sounded the best acoustically , Adams responded ;
" Well , they all work acoustically , because they were all written on an acoustic guitar . This album started out as an acoustic record and halfway through I sort of switched gears and decided to make sort of an acoustic rock record . When I play the songs live , it has actually sort of led me into a path of this next tour , which is my first American acoustic tour . I feel confident enough with these songs and with the songs in the past that the show is going to be quite interesting , sort of hearing these songs stripped down completely , just myself and a guitar . "
What is interesting is this was to be the beginning of Adams 's Bare Bones tour , which still tours the world in between his usually band shows .
= = Track listing = =
Source :
= = Personnel = =
There were 11 personnel members .
Bryan Adams – guitar , vocals , bass ( tracks 1 – 3 ) , production
Keith Scott – guitar ( tracks 2 – 5 , 7 , 9 , 12 – 14 )
Colin Cripps – guitar ( all except tracks 8 , 11 , 13 ) , backing vocals ( track 7 )
Gary Breit – hammond organ , piano ( tracks 1 – 3 , 5 , 7 – 10 , 12 , 14 )
Eliot Kennedy – bass ( tracks 4 , 6 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 14 ) , piano ( tracks 6 , 12 ) , backing vocals ( tracks 7 , 13 )
Norm Fisher – bass ( track 13 )
Robert John " Mutt " Lange – bass ( track 5 ) , production ( tracks 1 , 5 )
Mickey Curry – drums ( tracks 1 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 13 )
Pat Steward – drums ( tracks 2 – 5 , 8 , 12 and 14 ) , tambourine ( track 14 )
Jim Vallance – drums ( track 10 )
Máire Breatnach – fiddle ( track 8 ) , viola ( track 11 )
= = = Additional personnel = = =
There were 13 additional personnel members .
Pointless Brothers – backing vocals ( track 6 )
Kathleen Edwards – backing vocals ( track 7 )
Teese Gohl – string arrangement ( tracks 7 , 8 )
Gavin Greenway – string arrangement ( track 11 )
Hal Beckett – string conductor ( tracks 7 , 8 , 11 )
Bob Clearmountain – mixing
Olle Romo – editing
Ben Dobie – recording
Bryan Gallant – additional recording
Kirk Mcnally – additional recording
Roger Monk – string recording ( track 8 )
Chicane – remixer for track 15
J. Hockley – additional production and recording for track 15
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Florida mouse =
The Florida mouse ( Podomys floridanus ) is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae . It is the only species in the genus Podomys , which is the only mammal genus endemic to Florida . The Florida mouse ( also known as the big @-@ eared deermouse , the Florida deermouse , and the gopher mouse ) is found only in a limited area in central peninsular Florida and in one small area in the Florida panhandle . The mouse inhabits some of Florida 's hottest and driest areas in the high pinelands , sandhills , flatlands , and coastal scrub .
The mouse is an omnivore , measures 195 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) in total length , has relatively large ears , and displays brown to orange upperparts and white underparts . The mouse breeds throughout the year , and raises its two or three young per litter in the nesting chambers and passages it constructs in the burrow of the gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus ) . Real estate development and a decline in the gopher tortoise population threaten the mouse 's future . The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN .
= = Description = =
The Florida mouse displays a soft and silky pelage , brown above and orange on the cheeks , shoulders , and lower sides . Underparts are white . The young are gray . The species has a skunk @-@ like odor . The mouse has relatively large , nearly naked ears ( 16 mm long or more ) , a relatively short tail approximately 80 % of total body length , and large hind feet ( 24 mm long or more ) with five , rather than the usual six , plantar tubercles . There is no difference in appearance between males and females .
The mouse looks like Peromyscus , and was once placed as a monotypic subgenus in the genus Peromyscus The greater size and distinctive coloration of Podomys floridanus distinguish it from the cotton mouse ( Peromyscus gossypinus ) and oldfield mouse ( Peromyscus polionotus ) , which also occur in Florida .
In 1973 , a biochemical polymorphism study was conducted in four sample areas of the species . Electrophoretically demonstrable variation was found in one or more populations at 15 of 39 ( 38 % ) of the loci examined , and two and sometimes three alleles per locus were detected . At the least , the findings give an indication of the kind of genetic variation that may be found between populations within a species . The amount of variation was similar to findings in examinations of Peromyscus polionotus , Sigmodon , and Dipodomys .
Average measurements reported in 1993 of 30 adults were : total length 195 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) 178 – 220 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 7 in ) ; tail 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) 80 – 101 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 0 in ) ; hind foot 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) 24 – 28 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 – 1 @.@ 10 in ) ; ear 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) 16 – 21 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 – 0 @.@ 85 in ) . The diploid number is 48 and dentition 1 / 1 0 / 0 0 / 0 3 / 3 total 16 .
= = Taxonomy = =
The mouse was first described by Frank Chapman in 1889 in a paper in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History , from a specimen collected at Gainesville , Florida . The species was named as a separate subgenus of Peromyscus by Wilfred Hudson Osgood in 1909 , but generic recognition was disputed in the 1980s . Michael Carleton and Guy Musser supported the ranking in 1993 . No subspecies have been described .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Podomys is the only mammal genus endemic only to Florida . The Florida mouse is found coast to coast in central peninsular Florida . An isolated population is found in the Florida panhandle at Franklin County , Florida . The species occurs from north @-@ central Florida south to Highlands County and Sarasota County . It is found along the Atlantic coast from St. Johns County south to Miami @-@ Dade County .
The mouse inhabits some of Florida 's driest locations . It is common in the sand pine ( Pinus clausa ) scrub and the high pinelands of turkey oak ( Quercus laevis ) and longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) , and is found in the slash pine ( Pinus elliottii ) and turkey oak habitat of the southern ridge sandhills , and in scrubby flatlands , and in coastal scrub associations . Home ranges average roughly 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) , and are smaller in the flatlands . Populations are greater in the scrub and flatlands than in the highlands . Its largest populations may occur within Ocala National Forest and the scrubs along Lake Wales Ridge .
= = Behavior = =
The Florida mouse is nocturnal , and is active throughout the year except on especially cold nights . The mouse can climb , but is primarily a terrestrial species . In laboratory experiments , P. floridanus used its forepaws to dig and throw substrate backwards while other species mainly used their hindfeet to do the same .
= = = Shelter = = =
The Florida mouse has been called the gopher mouse because it shares the long , deep burrow of the gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus ) . The mouse makes nest chambers , small side passages , sometimes a pad of oak leaves and wiregrasses for chamber floors , and small chimney openings in the roof of the burrow . It uses these openings , the main entrance , and side passages for entrance to and exit from the burrow . In the absence of gopher tortoise burrows , the mouse will use those of the oldfield mouse ( Peromyscus polionotus ) or will make its own .
= = = Diet = = =
The Florida mouse is an omnivore and its diet consists of acorns when available , insects , seeds , nuts , fungi , and other plant material and vertebrates . A 1987 report indicates the mouse feeds on engorged ticks ( Ornithodorus turicata americanus ) that parasitize gopher frogs ( Rana areolata ) and gopher tortoises .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Florida mice breed throughout the year with a peak between July and December , a lesser peak in January and February , and a lull or cessation in April and May . Unlike most murids , copulatory behavior lacks intravaginal thrusting , the intromission thrust is more intense than the dismount , there is no lock , and ejaculation occurs with every thrust .
Gestation is about 23 or 24 days . The mice dig side burrows off the main burrow of the gopher tortoise , line them with shredded plant material , and use them as nurseries . In eight litters of young conceived in the wild but born in the laboratory , litter size numbers varied from two to four for an average of 3 @.@ 1 per litter . The young are born in nests in the burrow . Newborn weigh 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 067 – 0 @.@ 102 oz ) and measure in total length 44 mm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) ; tail length 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) ; and hind foot length 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) . Teeth begin appearing on the fourth day , the young are active and agile about the 10th day , and the eyes open about the 16th day . Nursing is virtually non @-@ stop for the first two weeks of life . Weaning occurs at three to four weeks , and the young display adult behavior at this time .
= = = Survival = = =
Ectoparasites are seven species of mites , five ticks , five fleas , a louse , and the subdermal botfly larva , Cuterebra . Known endoparasites are three species of protozoans found in fecal smears , one trematode , four cestodes , seven nematodes , and nymphal pentastomids found in various internal organs .
In 2010 , exact population size was unknown , but estimated to be in the several thousands and decreasing . Presumed predators are snakes , birds of prey , bobcats , raccoons , and foxes . A high number of shortened tails have been observed in the mice and a modified integument in the tail facilitates tail loss , probably as an anti @-@ predator mechanism .
Few wild individuals have a lifespan of over a year , though captive individuals may live for several years . One captive male lived seven years , four months .
= = Relations with humans and conservation = =
The species in all probability has little or no direct impact or influence on human interests and concerns but agricultural and real estate development are a threat to the species ' very narrow habitat . Collecting specimens in the dry ridges is complicated by the millions of ants which eat the bait in the trap the moment it is set on the ground . Live collecting is the alternative , but the bait is usually digested by the time the animal is taken from the trap , making food research difficult if not impossible .
As early as 1998 , the Florida mouse was a federal C2 candidate taxon , and considered Threatened by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals . The mouse was named a Species of Special Concern by the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission . The Florida mouse inhabits a restricted habitat in the United States and that habitat is threatened not only by agricultural and real estate development but by wildfire suppression . Habitat decline is expected to continue into the future . The mouse is dependent upon gopher tortoise burrows , but disease and habitat loss are responsible for decline in the tortoise population . Red imported fire ants ( Solenopsis invicta ) threaten both tortoise and mouse populations . The IUCN has listed the species as Vulnerable and recommends further study of the species , maintenance of viable populations of gopher tortoises , and the preservation and management of suitable habitat for the species . The mouse is protected on several conservation lands across central Florida . Occurrences of the Florida mouse are protected at Archbold Biological Station , Ocala National Forest , and others .
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= Guy Fawkes Night =
Guy Fawkes Night , also known as Guy Fawkes Day , Bonfire Night and Firework Night , is an annual commemoration observed on 5 November , primarily in Great Britain . Its history begins with the events of 5 November 1605 , when Guy Fawkes , a member of the Gunpowder Plot , was arrested while guarding explosives the plotters had placed beneath the House of Lords . Celebrating the fact that King James I had survived the attempt on his life , people lit bonfires around London , and months later the introduction of the Observance of 5th November Act enforced an annual public day of thanksgiving for the plot 's failure .
Within a few decades Gunpowder Treason Day , as it was known , became the predominant English state commemoration , but as it carried strong Protestant religious overtones it also became a focus for anti @-@ Catholic sentiment . Puritans delivered sermons regarding the perceived dangers of popery , while during increasingly raucous celebrations common folk burnt effigies of popular hate @-@ figures , such as the pope . Towards the end of the 18th century reports appear of children begging for money with effigies of Guy Fawkes and 5 November gradually became known as Guy Fawkes Day . Towns such as Lewes and Guildford were in the 19th century scenes of increasingly violent class @-@ based confrontations , fostering traditions those towns celebrate still , albeit peaceably . In the 1850s changing attitudes resulted in the toning down of much of the day 's anti @-@ Catholic rhetoric , and the Observance of 5th November Act was repealed in 1859 . Eventually the violence was dealt with , and by the 20th century Guy Fawkes Day had become an enjoyable social commemoration , although lacking much of its original focus . The present @-@ day Guy Fawkes Night is usually celebrated at large organised events , centred on a bonfire and extravagant firework displays .
Settlers exported Guy Fawkes Night to overseas colonies , including some in North America , where it was known as Pope Day . Those festivities died out with the onset of the American Revolution . Claims that Guy Fawkes Night was a Protestant replacement for older customs like Samhain are disputed , although another old celebration , Halloween , has lately increased in popularity , and according to some writers , may threaten the continued observance of 5 November .
= = Origins and history in England = =
Guy Fawkes Night originates from the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 , a failed conspiracy by a group of provincial English Catholics to assassinate the Protestant King James I of England and replace him with a Catholic head of state . In the immediate aftermath of the 5 November arrest of Guy Fawkes , caught guarding a cache of explosives placed beneath the House of Lords , James 's Council allowed the public to celebrate the king 's survival with bonfires , so long as they were " without any danger or disorder " . This made 1605 the first year the plot 's failure was celebrated . The following January , days before the surviving conspirators were executed , Parliament passed the Observance of 5th November Act , commonly known as the " Thanksgiving Act " . It was proposed by a Puritan Member of Parliament , Edward Montagu , who suggested that the king 's apparent deliverance by divine intervention deserved some measure of official recognition , and kept 5 November free as a day of thanksgiving while in theory making attendance at Church mandatory . A new form of service was also added to the Church of England 's Book of Common Prayer , for use on that date .
Little is known about the earliest celebrations . In settlements such as Carlisle , Norwich and Nottingham , corporations provided music and artillery salutes . Canterbury celebrated 5 November 1607 with 106 pounds of gunpowder and 14 pounds of match , and three years later food and drink was provided for local dignitaries , as well as music , explosions and a parade by the local militia . Even less is known of how the occasion was first commemorated by the general public , although records indicate that in Protestant Dorchester a sermon was read , the church bells rung , and bonfires and fireworks lit .
= = = Early significance = = =
According to historian and author Antonia Fraser , a study of the earliest sermons preached demonstrates an anti @-@ Catholic concentration " mystical in its fervour " . Delivering one of five 5 November sermons printed in A Mappe of Rome in 1612 , Thomas Taylor spoke of the " generality of his [ a papist 's ] cruelty , " which had been " almost without bounds " . Such messages were also spread in printed works like Francis Herring 's Pietas Pontifica ( republished in 1610 as Popish Piety ) , and John Rhode 's A Brief Summe of the Treason intended against the King & State , which in 1606 sought to educate " the simple and ignorant … that they be not seduced any longer by papists " . By the 1620s the Fifth was honoured in market towns and villages across the country , though it was some years before it was commemorated throughout England . Gunpowder Treason Day , as it was then known , became the predominant English state commemoration . Some parishes made the day a festive occasion , with public drinking and solemn processions . Concerned though about James 's pro @-@ Spanish foreign policy , the decline of international Protestantism , and Catholicism in general , Protestant clergymen who recognised the day 's significance called for more dignified and profound thanksgivings each 5 November .
What unity English Protestants had shared in the plot 's immediate aftermath began to fade when in 1625 James 's son , the future Charles I , married the Catholic Henrietta Maria of France . Puritans reacted to the marriage by issuing a new prayer to warn against rebellion and Catholicism , and on 5 November that year , effigies of the pope and the devil were burnt , the earliest such report of this practice and the beginning of centuries of tradition . During Charles 's reign Gunpowder Treason Day became increasingly partisan . Between 1629 and 1640 he ruled without Parliament , and he seemed to support Arminianism , regarded by Puritans like Henry Burton as a step toward Catholicism . By 1636 , under the leadership of the Arminian Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud , the English church was trying to use 5 November to denounce all seditious practices , and not just popery . Puritans went on the defensive , some pressing for further reformation of the Church .
Bonfire Night , as it was occasionally known , assumed a new fervour during the events leading up to the English Interregnum . Although Royalists disputed their interpretations , Parliamentarians began to uncover or fear new Catholic plots . Preaching before the House of Commons on 5 November 1644 , Charles Herle claimed that Papists were tunnelling " from Oxford , Rome , Hell , to Westminster , and there to blow up , if possible , the better foundations of your houses , their liberties and privileges " . A display in 1647 at Lincoln 's Inn Fields commemorated " God 's great mercy in delivering this kingdom from the hellish plots of papists " , and included fireballs burning in the water ( symbolising a Catholic association with " infernal spirits " ) and fireboxes , their many rockets suggestive of " popish spirits coming from below " to enact plots against the king . Effigies of Fawkes and the pope were present , the latter represented by Pluto , Roman god of the underworld .
Following Charles I 's execution in 1649 , the country 's new republican regime remained undecided on how to treat 5 November . Unlike the old system of religious feasts and State anniversaries , it survived , but as a celebration of parliamentary government and Protestantism , and not of monarchy . Commonly the day was still marked by bonfires and miniature explosives , but formal celebrations resumed only with the Restoration , when Charles II became king . Courtiers , High Anglicans and Tories followed the official line , that the event marked God 's preservation of the English throne , but generally the celebrations became more diverse . By 1670 London apprentices had turned 5 November into a fire festival , attacking not only popery but also " sobriety and good order " , demanding money from coach occupants for alcohol and bonfires . The burning of effigies , largely unknown to the Jacobeans , continued in 1673 when Charles 's brother , the Duke of York , converted to Catholicism . In response , accompanied by a procession of about 1 @,@ 000 people , the apprentices fired an effigy of the Whore of Babylon , bedecked with a range of papal symbols . Similar scenes occurred over the following few years . On 17 November 1677 , anti @-@ Catholic fervour saw the Accession Day tilt marked by the burning of a large effigy of the pope — his belly filled with live cats " who squalled most hideously as soon as they felt the fire " — and two effigies of devils " whispering in his ear " . Two years later , as the exclusion crisis reached its zenith , an observer noted that " the 5th at night , being gunpowder treason , there were many bonfires and burning of popes as has ever been seen " . Violent scenes in 1682 forced London 's militia into action , and to prevent any repetition the following year a proclamation was issued , banning bonfires and fireworks .
Fireworks were also banned under James II , who became king in 1685 . Attempts by the government to tone down Gunpowder Treason Day celebrations were , however , largely unsuccessful , and some reacted to a ban on bonfires in London ( born from a fear of more burnings of the pope 's effigy ) by placing candles in their windows , " as a witness against Catholicism " . When James was deposed in 1688 by William of Orange — who importantly , landed in England on 5 November — the day 's events turned also to the celebration of freedom and religion , with elements of anti @-@ Jacobitism . While the earlier ban on bonfires was politically motivated , a ban on fireworks was maintained for safety reasons , " much mischief having been done by squibs " .
= = = Guy Fawkes Day = = =
William III 's birthday fell on 4 November , and for orthodox Whigs the two days therefore became an important double anniversary . William ordered that the thanksgiving service for 5 November be amended to include thanks for his " happy arrival " and " the Deliverance of our Church and Nation " . In the 1690s he re @-@ established Protestant rule in Ireland , and the Fifth , occasionally marked by the ringing of church bells and civic dinners , was consequently eclipsed by his birthday commemorations . From the 19th century , 5 November celebrations there became sectarian in nature . Its celebration in Northern Ireland remains controversial , unlike in Scotland , where bonfires continue to be lit in various Caledonian cities . In England though , as one of 49 official holidays , for the ruling class 5 November became overshadowed by events such as the birthdays of Admiral Edward Vernon , or John Wilkes , and under George II and George III , with the exception of the Jacobite Rising of 1745 , it was largely " a polite entertainment rather than an occasion for vitriolic thanksgiving " . For the lower classes , however , the anniversary was a chance to pit disorder against order , a pretext for violence and uncontrolled revelry . At some point , for reasons that are unclear , it became customary to burn Guy Fawkes in effigy , rather than the pope . Gradually , Gunpowder Treason Day became Guy Fawkes Day . In 1790 The Times reported instances of children " ... begging for money for Guy Faux " , and a report of 4 November 1802 described how " a set of idle fellows ... with some horrid figure dressed up as a Guy Faux " were convicted of begging and receiving money , and committed to prison as " idle and disorderly persons " . The Fifth became " a polysemous occasion , replete with polyvalent cross @-@ referencing , meaning all things to all men " . Lower class rioting continued , with reports in Lewes of annual rioting , intimidation of " respectable householders " and the rolling through the streets of lit tar barrels . In Guildford , gangs of revellers who called themselves " guys " terrorised the local population ; proceedings were concerned more with the settling of old arguments and general mayhem , than any historical reminiscences . Similar problems arose in Exeter , originally the scene of more traditional celebrations . In 1831 an effigy was burnt of the new Bishop of Exeter Henry Phillpotts , a High Church Anglican and High Tory who opposed Parliamentary reform , and who was also suspected of being involved in " creeping popery " . A local ban on fireworks in 1843 was largely ignored , and attempts by the authorities to suppress the celebrations resulted in violent protests and several injured constables .
On several occasions during the 19th century The Times reported that the tradition was in decline , being " of late years almost forgotten " , but in the opinion of historian David Cressy , such reports reflected " other Victorian trends " , including a lessening of Protestant religious zeal — not general observance of the Fifth . Civil unrest brought about by the union of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800 resulted in Parliament passing the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 , which afforded Catholics greater civil rights , continuing the process of Catholic Emancipation in the two kingdoms . The traditional denunciations of Catholicism had been in decline since the early 18th century , and were thought by many , including Queen Victoria , to be outdated , but the pope 's restoration in 1850 of the English Catholic hierarchy gave renewed significance to 5 November , as demonstrated by the burnings of effigies of the new Catholic Archbishop of Westminster Nicholas Wiseman , and the pope . At Farringdon Market 14 effigies were processed from the Strand and over Westminster Bridge to Southwark , while extensive demonstrations were held throughout the suburbs of London . Effigies of the 12 new English Catholic bishops were paraded through Exeter , already the scene of severe public disorder on each anniversary of the Fifth . Gradually , however , such scenes became less popular . With little resistance in Parliament , the thanksgiving prayer of 5 November contained in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer was abolished , and in March 1859 the Anniversary Days Observance Act repealed the Observance of 5th November Act . As the authorities dealt with the worst excesses , public decorum was gradually restored . The sale of fireworks was restricted , and the Guildford " guys " were neutralized in 1865 , although this was too late for one constable , who died of his wounds . Violence continued in Exeter for some years , peaking in 1867 , when incensed by rising food prices and banned from firing their customary bonfire , a mob was twice in one night driven from Cathedral Close by armed infantry . Further riots occurred in 1879 , but there were no more bonfires in Cathedral Close after 1894 . Elsewhere , sporadic instances of public disorder persisted late into the 20th century , accompanied by large numbers of firework @-@ related accidents , but a national Firework Code and improved public safety has in most cases brought an end to such things .
= = = Songs , Guys and decline = = =
One notable aspect of the Victorians ' commemoration of Guy Fawkes Night was its move away from the centres of communities , to their margins . Gathering wood for the bonfire increasingly became the province of working @-@ class children , who solicited combustible materials , money , food and drink from wealthier neighbours , often with the aid of songs . Most opened with the familiar " Remember , remember , the fifth of November , Gunpowder Treason and Plot " . The earliest recorded rhyme , from 1742 , is reproduced below alongside one bearing similarities to most Guy Fawkes Night ditties , recorded in 1903 at Charlton on Otmoor :
Organised entertainments also became popular in the late 19th century , and 20th @-@ century pyrotechnic manufacturers renamed Guy Fawkes Day as Firework Night . Sales of fireworks dwindled somewhat during the First World War , but resumed in the following peace . At the start of the Second World War celebrations were again suspended , resuming in November 1945 . For many families , Guy Fawkes Night became a domestic celebration , and children often congregated on street corners , accompanied by their own effigy of Guy Fawkes . This was sometimes ornately dressed and sometimes a barely recognisable bundle of rags stuffed with whatever filling was suitable . A survey found that in 1981 about 23 percent of Sheffield schoolchildren made Guys , sometimes weeks before the event . Collecting money was a popular reason for their creation , the children taking their effigy from door to door , or displaying it on street corners . But mainly , they were built to go on the bonfire , itself sometimes comprising wood stolen from other pyres ; " an acceptable convention " that helped bolster another November tradition , Mischief Night . Rival gangs competed to see who could build the largest , sometimes even burning the wood collected by their opponents ; in 1954 the Yorkshire Post reported on fires late in September , a situation that forced the authorities to remove latent piles of wood for safety reasons . Lately , however , the custom of begging for a " penny for the Guy " has almost completely disappeared . In contrast , some older customs still survive ; in Ottery St Mary men chase each other through the streets with lit tar barrels , and since 1679 Lewes has been the setting of some of England 's most extravagant 5 November celebrations , the Lewes Bonfire .
Generally , modern 5 November celebrations are run by local charities and other organisations , with paid admission and controlled access . In 1998 an editorial in the Catholic Herald called for the end of " Bonfire Night " , labelling it " an offensive act " . Author Martin Kettle , writing in The Guardian in 2003 , bemoaned an " occasionally nannyish " attitude to fireworks that discourages people from holding firework displays in their back gardens , and an " unduly sensitive attitude " toward the anti @-@ Catholic sentiment once so prominent on Guy Fawkes Night . David Cressy summarised the modern celebration with these words : " the rockets go higher and burn with more colour , but they have less and less to do with memories of the Fifth of November ... it might be observed that Guy Fawkes ' Day is finally declining , having lost its connection with politics and religion . But we have heard that many times before . "
= = = Similarities with other customs = = =
Historians have often suggested that Guy Fawkes Day served as a Protestant replacement for the ancient Celtic and Nordic festivals of Samhain , pagan events that the church absorbed and transformed into All Hallow 's Eve and All Souls ' Day . In The Golden Bough , the Scottish anthropologist James George Frazer suggested that Guy Fawkes Day exemplifies " the recrudescence of old customs in modern shapes " . David Underdown , writing in his 1987 work Revel , Riot , and Rebellion , viewed Gunpowder Treason Day as a replacement for Hallowe 'en : " just as the early church had taken over many of the pagan feasts , so did Protestants acquire their own rituals , adapting older forms or providing substitutes for them " . While the use of bonfires to mark the occasion was most likely taken from the ancient practice of lighting celebratory bonfires , the idea that the commemoration of 5 November 1605 ever originated from anything other than the safety of James I is , according to David Cressy , " speculative nonsense " . Citing Cressy 's work , Ronald Hutton agrees with his conclusion , writing , " There is , in brief , nothing to link the Hallowe 'en fires of North Wales , Man , and central Scotland with those which appeared in England upon 5 November . " Further confusion arises in Northern Ireland , where some communities celebrate Guy Fawkes Night ; the distinction there between the Fifth , and Halloween , is not always clear . Despite such disagreements , in 2005 David Cannadine commented on the encroachment into British culture of late 20th @-@ century American Hallowe 'en celebrations , and their effect on Guy Fawkes Night :
Nowadays , family bonfire gatherings are much less popular , and many once @-@ large civic celebrations have been given up because of increasingly intrusive health and safety regulations . But 5 November has also been overtaken by a popular festival that barely existed when I was growing up , and that is Halloween ... Britain is not the Protestant nation it was when I was young : it is now a multi @-@ faith society . And the Americanised Halloween is sweeping all before it — a vivid reminder of just how powerfully American culture and American consumerism can be transported across the Atlantic .
Reporting on the same topic , in 2012 the BBC 's Tom de Castella concluded :
It 's probably not a case of Bonfire Night decline , but rather a shift in priorities ... there are new trends in the bonfire ritual . Guy Fawkes masks have proved popular and some of the more quirky bonfire societies have replaced the Guy with effigies of celebrities in the news – including Lance Armstrong and Mario Balotelli – and even politicians . The emphasis has moved . The bonfire with a Guy on top – indeed the whole story of the Gunpowder Plot – has been marginalised . But the spectacle remains .
Another celebration involving fireworks , the five @-@ day Hindu festival of Diwali ( normally observed between mid @-@ October and November ) , in 2010 began on 5 November . This led The Independent to comment on the similarities between the two , its reporter Kevin Rawlinson wondering " which fireworks will burn brightest " .
= = In other countries = =
Gunpowder Treason Day was exported by settlers to colonies around the world , including members of the Commonwealth of Nations such as Australia , New Zealand , Canada and various Caribbean nations . The day is still marked in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , and in Saint Kitts and Nevis , but a fireworks ban by Antigua and Barbuda during the 1990s reduced its popularity in that country . In Australia , Sydney ( founded as a penal colony in 1788 ) saw at least one instance of the parading and burning of a Guy Fawkes effigy in 1805 , while in 1833 , four years after its founding , Perth had Gunpowder Treason Day listed as a public holiday . By the 1970s , Guy Fawkes Night had become less common in Australia . Some measure of celebration remains in New Zealand , Canada and South Africa .
In North America the commemoration was at first paid scant attention , but the arrest of two boys caught lighting bonfires on 5 November 1662 in Boston suggests , in historian James Sharpe 's view , that " an underground tradition of commemorating the Fifth existed " . In parts of North America it was known as Pope Day , celebrated mainly in colonial New England , but also as far south as Charleston . In Boston , founded in 1630 by Puritan settlers led by John Winthrop , an early celebration was held in 1685 , the same year that James II assumed the throne . Fifty years later , again in Boston , a local minister wrote " a Great number of people went over to Dorchester neck where at night they made a Great Bonfire and plaid off many fireworks " , although the day ended in tragedy when " 4 young men coming home in a Canoe were all Drowned . " Ten years later the raucous celebrations were the cause of considerable annoyance to the upper classes and a special Riot Act was passed , to prevent " riotous tumultuous and disorderly assemblies of more than three persons , all or any of them armed with Sticks , Clubs or any kind of weapons , or disguised with vizards , or painted or discolored faces , on in any manner disguised , having any kind of imagery or pageantry , in any street , lane , or place in Boston . " With inadequate resources , however , Boston 's authorities were powerless to enforce the Act . In the 1740s gang violence became common , with groups of Boston residents battling for the honour of burning the pope 's effigy . But by the mid @-@ 1760s these riots had subsided , and as colonial America moved towards revolution , the class rivalries featured during Pope Day gave way to anti @-@ British sentiment . In author Alfred Young 's view , Pope Day provided the " scaffolding , symbolism , and leadership " for resistance to the Stamp Act in 1764 – 65 , forgoing previous gang rivalries in favour of unified resistance to Britain .
The passage in 1774 of the Quebec Act , which guaranteed French Canadians free practice of Catholicism in the Province of Quebec , provoked complaints from some Americans that the British were introducing " Popish principles and French law " . Such fears were bolstered by opposition from the Church in Europe to American independence , threatening a revival of Pope Day . Commenting in 1775 , George Washington was less than impressed by the thought of any such resurrections , forbidding any under his command from participating :
As the Commander in Chief has been apprized of a design form 'd for the observance of that ridiculous and childish custom of burning the Effigy of the pope — He cannot help expressing his surprise that there should be Officers and Soldiers in this army so void of common sense , as not to see the impropriety of such a step at this Juncture ; at a Time when we are solliciting , and have really obtain 'd , the friendship and alliance of the people of Canada , whom we ought to consider as Brethren embarked in the same Cause . The defence of the general Liberty of America : At such a juncture , and in such Circumstances , to be insulting their Religion , is so monstrous , as not to be suffered or excused ; indeed instead of offering the most remote insult , it is our duty to address public thanks to these our Brethren , as to them we are so much indebted for every late happy Success over the common Enemy in Canada .
Generally , following Washington 's complaint , American colonists stopped observing Pope Day , although according to The Bostonian Society some citizens of Boston celebrated it on one final occasion , in 1776 . The tradition continued in Salem as late as 1817 , and was still observed in Portsmouth , New Hampshire , in 1892 . In the late 18th century , effigies of prominent figures such as two Prime Ministers of Great Britain , the Earl of Bute and Lord North , and the American traitor General Benedict Arnold , were also burnt . In the 1880s bonfires were still being lit in some New England coastal towns , although no longer to commemorate the failure of the Gunpowder Plot . In the area around New York , stacks of barrels were burnt on election day eve , which after 1845 was a Tuesday early in November .
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= Daara J =
Daara J ( pronounced [ daːɻa ʄiː ] , which means " the school " in Wolof ) are a Senegalese rap duo that consists of N 'Dongo D and Faada Freddy . Their music takes influence from hip hop , Afro @-@ Cuban rhythms , and reggae and is performed in English , French , Spanish , and Wolof .
Daara J was formed in 1997 and quickly became popular in Senegal from the release of their first cassette album , Daara J. They followed in 1999 with a more politically themed recording , Xalima , which integrated numerous musical ideas and instruments from Senegal and other African countries . 2003 's Boomerang was critically acclaimed and furthered the combination of various musical and lyrical influences of the previous two recordings . Activism has also been an important aspect of the group 's philosophy since it was founded .
= = Formation = =
Daara J , formed in 1997 , was originally a trio that consisted of Faada Freddy , N 'Dongo D and Lord Alajiiman . Lord Alajiiman performed and toured throughout the world with the group until 2008 when the group split . Since then , Alajiman evolves in a solo career while contributing to the development of the music sector in Senegal . Daara J was formed when all of its members were in high school , where they were studying accounting . The rappers were influenced by American hip hop artists such as Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five and Afrika Bambaataa but also listened to their parents ' music , which included artists such as Sly & the Family Stone and Aretha Franklin , and musical styles which included Cuban music . Faada Freddy cites the group 's major inspiration as Das EFX . Originally , the members took instrumentals of hip hop tracks from the United States and France to rap over . Later they purchased a drum machine , but even with this equipment , a member of the group would have to imitate the other instruments in the song with his voice . Positive Black Soul , another Senegalese rap group , encouraged Daara J to record and perform .
= = Daara J and Xalima = =
Daara J and Xalima were both released on the label Déclic . The group 's 1998 eponymous debut album was produced by the reggae musician Mad Professor and was successful locally , selling 15 @,@ 000 copies . Their next album was released in 1999 and titled Xalima ( English : Quill and Ink ) . The album was politically themed and included guest performances from other Senegalese artists playing instruments such as the kora and balafon .
= = Boomerang = =
The group moved to Wrasse Records to release Boomerang in 2003 . It featured performances by guests including Rokia Traoré . The album 's title is based on the idea that hip hop music was born in Africa , spread around the world , then returned to the continent . Daara J note similarities between rap and tassou — a traditional African verbal performance technique used to discuss the social and political environment , daily life , and future aspirations . They believe it traveled from Africa by way of the United States slave trade . A year after the release of the album , Daara J won the Best African Act award from BBC Radio 3 .
The album itself was described as " one of the hip hop albums of the century " by the British newspaper The Observer and was successful on European music charts . Other reviews have been positive ; Matthew Pollesel of Splendid Magazine praised the album for its lyrical content : " ... as Daara J show throughout Boomerang , it 's possible to get the meaning of those words just by listening to the things that surround them — the intensity of the rappers ' delivery , the quality of the beats , and how well all those other factors coalesce around the words . And on that score , Daara J 's message comes through loud and clear . " However , Katharina Lobeck of BBC Music noted that one of the tracks , the R & B @-@ influenced " Hip Hop Civilization " is " too generically soppy for even the most hardened R & B fans " , but went on to say that the album is " a successful sonic adventure which thrives on its defiance of the margins of established sales categories " .
The group has made appearances at various WOMAD festivals around the world , the Live 8 concert in Eden Project , and Africa Calling . Daara J has also performed with other hip hop artists and groups including Public Enemy , Wyclef Jean , and Mos Def .
= = Activism = =
Like many other African hip hop groups including Positive Black Soul , Daara J takes an activist stance . Faada Freddy states : " We tell of peace and how we can live together because there are lots of conflicts going on nowadays . We 're here on behalf of the Africans to remind everybody that it shouldn 't be like that . There 's always a solution . Rather than fussing and fighting we should we 'd better learn to live in peace and live together , because that 's the only way to survive . " The group is especially focused on educating the world about Africa . Faada Freddy has also stressed the importance of understanding life on the continent : " Nowadays people are tending to show the negative part of Africa but Africa is not only about AIDS , heartache , corruption and all that even though it exists just like everywhere else . But Africa has a lot to provide . " In the Senegalese election of 2000 , Daara J were involved in editing speeches for political leaders and the promotion of that year 's campaign against corruption .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
1998 : Daara J
1999 : Xalima
2003 : Boomerang
2010 : School Of Life
= = Discography Faada Freddy = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = EPs = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Idi Amin =
Idi Amin Dada ( / ˈiːdi ɑːˈmiːn / ; c . 1923 – 28 – 16 August 2003 ) was the third President of Uganda , ruling from 1971 to 1979 . Amin joined the British colonial regiment the King 's African Rifles in 1946 , serving in Kenya and Uganda . Eventually , Amin held the rank of major general in the post @-@ colonial Ugandan Army , and became its commander before seizing power in the military coup of January 1971 , deposing Milton Obote . He later promoted himself to field marshal while he was the head of state .
Amin 's rule was characterized by human rights abuses , political repression , ethnic persecution , extrajudicial killings , nepotism , corruption , and gross economic mismanagement . The number of people killed as a result of his regime is estimated by international observers and human rights groups to range from 100 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 .
During his years in power , Amin shifted in allegiance from being a pro @-@ Western ruler enjoying considerable Israeli support to being backed by Libya 's Muammar Gaddafi , Zaire 's Mobutu Sese Seko , the Soviet Union , and East Germany . In 1975 , Amin became the chairman of the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) , a Pan @-@ Africanist group designed to promote solidarity of the African states . During the 1977 – 1979 period , Uganda was a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights . Amin did however enjoy the support of the American CIA , which helped deliver bombs and other military equipment to Amin 's Army and helped take part in military operations with Amin 's forces in Uganda . In 1977 , when Britain broke diplomatic relations with Uganda , Amin declared he had defeated the British and added " CBE " , for " Conqueror of the British Empire " , to his title . Radio Uganda then announced his entire title : " His Excellency President for Life , Field Marshal Alhaji Dr. Idi Amin Dada , VC , DSO , MC , CBE " .
Dissent within Uganda and Amin 's attempt to annex the Kagera province of Tanzania in 1978 , led to the Uganda – Tanzania War and the demise of his eight @-@ year regime , leading Amin to flee into exile to Libya and then Saudi Arabia , where he lived until his death on 16 August 2003 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Amin never wrote an autobiography nor did he authorize any official written account of his life , so there are discrepancies regarding when and where he was born . Most biographical sources hold that he was born in either Koboko or Kampala around 1925 . Other unconfirmed sources state Amin 's year of birth from as early as 1923 to as late as 1928 . Amin 's son Hussein has stated that his father was born in Kampala in 1928 . According to Fred Guweddeko , a researcher at Makerere University , Idi Amin was the son of Andreas Nyabire ( 1889 – 1976 ) . Nyabire , a member of the Kakwa ethnic group , converted from Roman Catholicism to Islam in 1910 , and changed his name to Amin Dada . He named his first @-@ born son after himself . Abandoned by his father at a young age , Idi Amin grew up with his mother 's family in a rural farming town in northwestern Uganda . Guweddeko states that Amin 's mother was Assa Aatte ( 1904 – 1970 ) , an ethnic Lugbara and a traditional herbalist who treated members of Buganda royalty , among others . Amin joined an Islamic school in Bombo in 1941 . After a few years , he left school with only a fourth @-@ grade English @-@ language education , and did odd jobs before being recruited to the army by a British colonial army officer .
= = = Colonial British Army = = =
Amin joined the King 's African Rifles ( KAR ) of the British Colonial Army in 1946 , as an assistant cook . In later life he falsely claimed he was forced to join the Army during World War II and that he served in the Burma Campaign . He was transferred to Kenya for infantry service as a private in 1947 , and served in the 21st KAR infantry battalion in Gilgil , Kenya until 1949 . That year his unit was deployed to Northern Kenya to fight against Somali rebels in the Shifta War . In 1952 , his brigade was deployed against the Mau Mau rebels in Kenya . He was promoted to corporal the same year , then to sergeant in 1953 .
In 1959 , Amin was made Afande ( warrant officer ) , the highest rank possible for a Black African in the colonial British Army of that time . Amin returned to Uganda the same year and , in 1961 , he was promoted to lieutenant , becoming one of the first two Ugandans to become commissioned officers . He was assigned to quell the cattle rustling between Uganda 's Karamojong and Kenya 's Turkana nomads . In 1962 , following Uganda 's independence from the United Kingdom , Amin was promoted to captain and then , in 1963 , to major . He was appointed Deputy Commander of the Army in 1964 and , the following year , to Commander of the Army . In 1970 , he was promoted to commander of all the armed forces .
Amin was an athlete during his time in both the British and Ugandan army . At 193 cm ( 6 ft 4 in ) tall and powerfully built , he was the Ugandan light heavyweight boxing champion from 1951 to 1960 , as well as a swimmer . Idi Amin was also a formidable rugby forward , although one officer said of him : " Idi Amin is a splendid type and a good ( rugby ) player , but virtually bone from the neck up , and needs things explained in words of one letter " . In the 1950s , he played for Nile RFC . There is a frequently repeated urban myth that he was selected as a replacement by East Africa for their match against the 1955 British Lions . Amin , however , does not appear on the team photograph or on the official team list . Following conversations with a colleague in the British Army , Amin became a keen fan of Hayes Football Club – an affection that would remain for the rest of his life .
= = = Commander of the Army = = =
In 1965 , Prime Minister Milton Obote and Amin were implicated in a deal to smuggle ivory and gold into Uganda from the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The deal , as later alleged by General Nicholas Olenga , an associate of the former Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba , was part of an arrangement to help troops opposed to the Congolese government trade ivory and gold for arms supplies secretly smuggled to them by Amin . In 1966 , the Ugandan Parliament demanded an investigation . Obote imposed a new constitution abolishing the ceremonial presidency held by Kabaka ( King ) Mutesa II of Buganda , and declared himself executive president . He promoted Amin to colonel and army commander . Amin led an attack on the Kabaka 's palace and forced Mutesa into exile to the United Kingdom , where he remained until his death in 1969 .
Amin began recruiting members of Kakwa , Lugbara , South Sudanese , and other ethnic groups from the West Nile area bordering South Sudan . The South Sudanese had been residents in Uganda since the early 20th century , having come from South Sudan to serve the colonial army . Many African ethnic groups in northern Uganda inhabit both Uganda and South Sudan ; allegations persist that Amin 's army consisted mainly of South Sudanese soldiers .
= = = Seizure of power = = =
Eventually a rift developed between Amin and Obote , exacerbated by the support Amin had built within the army by recruiting from the West Nile region , his involvement in operations to support the rebellion in southern Sudan and an attempt on Obote 's life in 1969 . In October 1970 , Obote took control of the armed forces , reducing Amin from his months @-@ old post of commander of all the armed forces to that of commander of the army .
Having learned that Obote was planning to arrest him for misappropriating army funds , Amin seized power in a military coup on 25 January 1971 , while Obote was attending a Commonwealth summit meeting in Singapore . Troops loyal to Amin sealed off Entebbe International Airport and took Kampala . Soldiers surrounded Obote 's residence and blocked major roads . A broadcast on Radio Uganda accused Obote 's government of corruption and preferential treatment of the Lango region . Cheering crowds were reported in the streets of Kampala after the radio broadcast . Amin announced that he was a soldier , not a politician , and that the military government would remain only as a caretaker regime until new elections , which would be announced when the situation was normalised . He promised to release all political prisoners .
Amin gave former King ( Kabaka ) of Buganda and President , Sir Edward Mutesa ( who had died in exile ) , a state funeral in April 1971 , freed many political prisoners , and reiterated his promise to hold free and fair elections to return the country to democratic rule in the shortest period possible .
= = = Presidency = = =
= = = = Establishment of military rule = = = =
On 2 February 1971 , one week after the coup , Amin declared himself President of Uganda , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Armed Forces , Army Chief of Staff , and Chief of Air Staff . He announced that he was suspending certain provisions of the Ugandan constitution , and soon instituted an Advisory Defence Council composed of military officers with himself as the chairman . Amin placed military tribunals above the system of civil law , appointed soldiers to top government posts and parastatal agencies , and informed the newly inducted civilian cabinet ministers that they would be subject to military discipline . Amin renamed the presidential lodge in Kampala from Government House to " The Command Post " . He disbanded the General Service Unit ( GSU ) , an intelligence agency created by the previous government , and replaced it with the State Research Bureau ( SRB ) . SRB headquarters at the Kampala suburb of Nakasero became the scene of torture and executions over the next few years . Other agencies used to persecute dissenters included the military police and the Public Safety Unit ( PSU ) .
Obote took refuge in Tanzania , having been offered sanctuary there by the Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere . Obote was soon joined by 20 @,@ 000 Ugandan refugees fleeing Amin . The exiles attempted but failed to regain Uganda in 1972 , through a poorly organised coup attempt .
= = = = Persecution of ethnic and political groups = = = =
Amin retaliated against the attempted invasion by Ugandan exiles in 1972 , by purging the army of Obote supporters , predominantly those from the Acholi and Lango ethnic groups . In July 1971 , Lango and Acholi soldiers were massacred in the Jinja and Mbarara barracks , and , by early 1972 , some 5 @,@ 000 Acholi and Lango soldiers , and at least twice as many civilians , had disappeared . The victims soon came to include members of other ethnic groups , religious leaders , journalists , artists , senior bureaucrats , judges , lawyers , students and intellectuals , criminal suspects , and foreign nationals . In this atmosphere of violence , many other people were killed for criminal motives or simply at will . Bodies were often dumped into the River Nile .
The killings , motivated by ethnic , political , and financial factors , continued throughout Amin 's eight @-@ year reign . The exact number of people killed is unknown . The International Commission of Jurists estimated the death toll at no fewer than 80 @,@ 000 and more likely around 300 @,@ 000 . An estimate compiled by exile organizations with the help of Amnesty International puts the number killed at 500 @,@ 000 . Among the most prominent people killed were Benedicto Kiwanuka , a former prime minister and chief justice ; Janani Luwum , the Anglican archbishop ; Joseph Mubiru , the former governor of the central bank of Uganda ; Frank Kalimuzo , the vice chancellor of Makerere University ; Byron Kawadwa , a prominent playwright ; and two of Amin 's own cabinet ministers , Erinayo Wilson Oryema and Charles Oboth Ofumbi .
Amin recruited his followers from his own tribe , the Kakwas , along with South Sudanese . By 1977 , these three groups formed 60 percent of the 22 top generals and 75 percent of the cabinet . Similarly , Muslims formed 80 percent and 87 @.@ 5 percent of these groups even though they were only 5 percent of the population . This helps explain why Amin survived eight attempted coups . The army grew from 10 @,@ 000 to 25 @,@ 000 by 1978 . Amin 's army was largely a mercenary force . Half the soldiers were South Sudanese and 26 percent Congolese , with only 24 percent being Ugandan , mostly Muslim and Kakwa .
We are determined to make the ordinary Ugandan master of his own destiny and , above all , to see that he enjoys the wealth of his country . Our deliberate policy is to transfer the economic control of Uganda into the hands of Ugandans , for the first time in our country 's history .
In August 1972 , Amin declared what he called an " economic war " , a set of policies that included the expropriation of properties owned by Asians and Europeans . Uganda 's 80 @,@ 000 Asians were mostly from the Indian subcontinent and born in the country , their ancestors having come to Uganda when the country was still a British colony . Many owned businesses , including large @-@ scale enterprises , which formed the backbone of the Ugandan economy . On 4 August 1972 , Amin issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the 60 @,@ 000 Asians who were not Ugandan citizens ( most of them held British passports ) . This was later amended to include all 80 @,@ 000 Asians , except for professionals , such as doctors , lawyers , and teachers . A plurality of the Asians with British passports , around 30 @,@ 000 , emigrated to the UK . Others went to Australia , Canada , India , Kenya , Pakistan , Sweden , Tanzania , and the U.S. Amin expropriated businesses and properties belonging to the Asians and handed them over to his supporters . The businesses were mismanaged , and industries collapsed from lack of maintenance . This proved disastrous for the already declining economy .
In 1977 , Henry Kyemba , Amin 's health minister and a former official of the first Obote regime , defected and resettled in the UK . Kyemba wrote and published A State of Blood , the first insider exposé of Amin 's rule .
= = = = International relations = = = =
Initially , Amin was supported by Western powers such as Israel , West Germany and , in particular , Great Britain . During the late 1960s , Obote 's move to the left , which included his Common Man 's Charter and the nationalisation of 80 British companies , had made the West worried that he would pose a threat to Western capitalist interests in Africa and make Uganda an ally of the Soviet Union . Amin , who had served with the King 's African Rifles and taken part in Britain 's suppression of the Mau Mau uprising prior to Ugandan independence was known by the British as " intensely loyal to Britain " ; this made him an obvious choice as Obote 's successor . Although some have claimed that Amin was being groomed for power as early as 1966 , the plotting by the British and other Western powers began in earnest in 1969 , after Obote had begun his nationalisation programme .
Following the expulsion of Ugandan Asians in 1972 , most of whom were of Indian descent , India severed diplomatic relations with Uganda . The same year , as part of his " economic war " , Amin broke diplomatic ties with the UK and nationalised eighty @-@ five British @-@ owned businesses .
That year , relations with Israel soured . Although Israel had previously supplied Uganda with arms , in 1972 Amin expelled Israeli military advisers and turned to Muammar Gaddafi of Libya and the Soviet Union for support . Amin became an outspoken critic of Israel . In return , Gaddafi gave financial aid to Amin . In the 1974 French @-@ produced documentary film General Idi Amin Dada : A Self Portrait , Amin discussed his plans for war against Israel , using paratroops , bombers , and suicide squadrons .
The Soviet Union became Amin 's largest arms supplier . East Germany was involved in the General Service Unit and the State Research Bureau , the two agencies which were most notorious for terror . Later during the Ugandan invasion of Tanzania in 1979 , East Germany attempted to remove evidence of its involvement with these agencies .
In 1973 , U.S. Ambassador Thomas Patrick Melady recommended that the United States reduce its presence in Uganda . Melady described Amin 's regime as " racist , erratic and unpredictable , brutal , inept , bellicose , irrational , ridiculous , and militaristic " . Accordingly , the United States closed its embassy in Kampala .
In June 1976 , Amin allowed an Air France airliner from Tel Aviv to Paris hijacked by two members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – External Operations ( PFLP @-@ EO ) and two members of the German Revolutionäre Zellen to land at Entebbe Airport . There the hijackers were joined by three more . Soon after , 156 non @-@ Jewish hostages who did not hold Israeli passports were released and flown to safety , while 83 Jews and Israeli citizens , as well as 20 others who refused to abandon them ( among whom were the captain and crew of the hijacked Air France jet ) , continued to be held hostage . In the subsequent Israeli rescue operation , codenamed Operation Thunderbolt ( popularly known as Operation Entebbe ) , on the night of 3 – 4 July 1976 , a group of Israeli commandos were flown in from Israel and seized control of Entebbe Airport , freeing nearly all the hostages . Three hostages died during the operation and 10 were wounded ; 7 hijackers , about 45 Ugandan soldiers , and 1 Israeli soldier , Yoni Netanyahu , were killed . A fourth hostage , 75 @-@ year @-@ old Dora Bloch , an elderly Jewish Englishwoman who had been taken to Mulago Hospital in Kampala before the rescue operation , was subsequently murdered in reprisal . The incident further soured Uganda 's international relations , leading the United Kingdom to close its High Commission in Uganda .
Uganda under Amin embarked on a large military build @-@ up , which raised concerns in Kenya . Early in June 1975 , Kenyan officials impounded a large convoy of Soviet @-@ made arms en route to Uganda at the port of Mombasa . Tension between Uganda and Kenya reached its climax in February 1976 , when Amin announced that he would investigate the possibility that parts of southern Sudan and western and central Kenya , up to within 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) of Nairobi , were historically a part of colonial Uganda . The Kenyan Government responded with a stern statement that Kenya would not part with " a single inch of territory " . Amin backed down after the Kenyan army deployed troops and armored personnel carriers along the Kenya – Uganda border .
= = = Deposition and exile = = =
By 1978 , the number of Amin 's supporters and close associates had shrunk significantly , and he faced increasing dissent from the populace within Uganda as the economy and infrastructure collapsed as a result of the years of neglect and abuse . After the killings of Bishop Luwum and ministers Oryema and Oboth Ofumbi in 1977 , several of Amin 's ministers defected or fled into exile . In November 1978 , after Amin 's vice president , General Mustafa Adrisi , was injured in a car accident , troops loyal to him mutinied . Amin sent troops against the mutineers , some of whom had fled across the Tanzanian border . Amin accused Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere of waging war against Uganda , ordered the invasion of Tanzanian territory , and formally annexed a section of the Kagera Region across the boundary .
In January 1979 , Nyerere mobilised the Tanzania People 's Defence Force and counterattacked , joined by several groups of Ugandan exiles who had united as the Uganda National Liberation Army ( UNLA ) . Amin 's army retreated steadily , and , despite military help from Libya 's Muammar Gaddafi , Amin was forced to flee into exile by helicopter on 11 April 1979 , when Kampala was captured . He escaped first to Libya , where he stayed until 1980 , and ultimately settled in Saudi Arabia , where the Saudi royal family allowed him sanctuary and paid him a generous subsidy in return for his staying out of politics . Amin lived for a number of years on the top two floors of the Novotel Hotel on Palestine Road in Jeddah . Brian Barron , who covered the Uganda – Tanzania war for the BBC as chief Africa correspondent , together with cameraman Mohamed Amin of Visnews in Nairobi , located Amin in 1980 , and secured the first interview with him since his deposition .
During interviews he gave during his exile in Saudi Arabia , Amin held that Uganda needed him , and never expressed remorse for the nature of his regime . In 1989 , he attempted to return to Uganda , apparently to lead an armed group organised by Colonel Juma Oris . He reached Kinshasa , Zaire ( now the Democratic Republic of the Congo ) , before Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko forced him to return to Saudi Arabia .
= = = Death = = =
On 19 July 2003 , one of Amin 's wives , Madina , reported that he was in a coma and near death at the King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre in Jeddah , Saudi Arabia , from kidney failure . She pleaded with the Ugandan President , Yoweri Museveni , to allow him to return to Uganda for the remainder of his life . Museveni replied that Amin would have to " answer for his sins the moment he was brought back " . Amin 's family decided to disconnect life support and Amin died at the hospital in Jeddah on 16 August 2003 . He was buried in Ruwais Cemetery in Jeddah in a simple grave without any fanfare . After Amin 's death , David Owen revealed that when he was the British Foreign Secretary , he had proposed having Amin assassinated . He has defended this , arguing : " I 'm not ashamed of considering it , because his regime goes down in the scale of Pol Pot as one of the worst of all African regimes " .
= = Family and associates = =
A polygamist , Idi Amin married at least six women , three of whom he divorced . He married his first and second wives , Malyamu and Kay , in 1966 . In 1967 , he married Nora , and then married Nalongo Madina in 1972 . On 26 March 1974 , he announced on Radio Uganda that he had divorced Malyamu , Nora , and Kay . Malyamu was arrested in Tororo on the Kenyan border in April 1974 and accused of attempting to smuggle a bolt of fabric into Kenya . She later moved to London where she operates a restaurant in East London . In 1974 , Kay Amin died under mysterious circumstances , with her body found dismembered . Nora fled to Zaire in 1979 ; her current whereabouts are unknown .
In July 1975 , Amin staged a £ 2 Million wedding to 19 year old Sarah Kyolaba , a go @-@ go dancer with the Revolutionary Suicide Mechanised Regiment Band , nicknamed " Suicide Sarah . " The wedding was held during the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) summit meeting in Kampala , and the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organisation , Yasser Arafat served as Amin ’ s best man . The couple had four children , and enjoyed rally race driving Amin 's Citroën SM , with Sarah as navigator . Sarah was a hairdresser in Tottenham when she died in 2015 . Before she met Amin , she was living with a boyfriend , Jesse Gitta ; he vanished and it is not clear if he was beheaded , or detained before fleeing to Kenya .
By 1993 , Amin was living with the last nine of his children and one wife , Mama a Chumaru ( who appears to be his sixth and newest wife ) , the mother of the youngest four of his children . His last known child , daughter Iman , was born in 1992 . According to The Monitor , Amin married a few months before his death in 2003 .
Sources differ widely on the number of children Amin fathered ; most say that he had 30 to 45 . Until 2003 , Taban Amin ( born 1955 ) , Idi Amin 's eldest son , was the leader of West Nile Bank Front ( WNBF ) , a rebel group opposed to the government of Yoweri Museveni . In 2005 , he was offered amnesty by Museveni , and in 2006 , he was appointed Deputy Director General of the Internal Security Organisation . Another of Amin 's sons , Haji Ali Amin , ran for election as Chairman ( i.e. mayor ) of Njeru Town Council in 2002 but was not elected . In early 2007 , the award @-@ winning film The Last King of Scotland prompted one of his sons , Jaffar Amin ( born in 1967 ) , to speak out in his father 's defence . Jaffar Amin said he was writing a book to rehabilitate his father 's reputation . Jaffar is the tenth of Amin 's 40 official children by seven official wives .
On 3 August 2007 , Amin 's son ( with Sarah ) , Faisal Wangita ( born in 1983 ) , was convicted for playing a role in a murder in London .
Among Amin 's closest associates was the British @-@ born Bob Astles , who is considered by many to have been a malignant influence and by others as having been a moderating presence . Isaac Malyamungu was an instrumental affiliate and one of the more feared officers in Amin 's army .
= = Erratic behaviour , self @-@ bestowed titles , and media portrayal = =
Amin 's egotistical behaviour and mental health have been the subjects of much speculation throughout his reign and life . He was described as having a quick @-@ change and violent short temper ; being charming , happy , and charismatic one minute and then suddenly angry , violent , and brutal the next , with little or no warning . Many have speculated that his behaviour was either the result of long @-@ term syphilis of the brain or possibly undiagnosed and untreated bipolar disorder . As the years progressed , Amin 's behaviour became more erratic , unpredictable , and outspoken . After the United Kingdom broke off all diplomatic relations with his regime in 1977 , Amin declared he had defeated the British , and conferred on himself the decoration of CBE ( Conqueror of the British Empire ) . His full self @-@ bestowed title ultimately became : " His Excellency , President for Life , Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada , VC , DSO , MC , Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Seas and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular " , in addition to his officially @-@ stated claim of being the uncrowned King of Scotland . He never received the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) or the Military Cross ( MC ) . He conferred a doctorate of law on himself from Makerere University as well as the Victorious Cross ( VC ) , a medal made to emulate the British Victoria Cross .
Amin became the subject of rumours and myths , including a widespread belief that he was a cannibal . Some of the unsubstantiated rumours , such as the mutilation of one of his wives , were spread and popularised by the 1980 film Rise and Fall of Idi Amin and alluded to in the film The Last King of Scotland in 2006 , a movie which earned actor Forest Whitaker an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Amin .
During Amin 's time in power , popular media outside of Uganda often portrayed him as an essentially comic and eccentric figure . In a 1977 assessment typical of the time , a Time magazine article described him as a " killer and clown , big @-@ hearted buffoon and strutting martinet " . The comedy @-@ variety series Saturday Night Live aired four Amin sketches between 1976 – 79 , including one in which he was an ill @-@ behaved houseguest in exile , and another in which he was a spokesman against venereal disease . In a Benny Hill show transmitted in January 1977 , Hill portrayed Amin sitting behind a desk that featured a placard reading " ME TARZAN , U GANDA " .
The foreign media were often criticised by Ugandan exiles and defectors for emphasizing Amin 's self @-@ aggrandizing eccentricities and taste for excess while downplaying or excusing his murderous behavior . Other commentators even suggested that Amin had deliberately cultivated his eccentric reputation in the foreign media as an easily parodied buffoon in order to defuse international concern over his administration of Uganda .
= = Portrayal in media and literature = =
= = = Film and television dramatisations = = =
Victory at Entebbe ( 1976 ) , a TV film about Operation Entebbe . Julius Harris plays Amin . Godfrey Cambridge was originally cast as Amin , but died of a heart attack on the set . Amin commented on Cambridge 's death , saying that it was " punishment from God " .
Raid on Entebbe ( 1977 ) , a film depicting the events of Operation Entebbe . Yaphet Kotto portrays Amin as a charismatic , but short @-@ tempered political and military leader .
In Mivtsa Yonatan ( 1977 ; also known as Operation Thunderbolt ) , an Israeli film about Operation Entebbe , Jamaican @-@ born British actor Mark Heath portrays Amin , who in this film is first angered by the Palestinian terrorists whom he later comes to support .
Comedian Richard Pryor portrayed a parodied version of Amin in his namesake show in 1977 .
Rise and Fall of Idi Amin ( 1981 ) , a film recreating Idi Amin 's atrocities . Amin is played by Kenyan actor Joseph Olita .
The Naked Gun : From the Files of Police Squad ! ( 1988 ) , a comedy film in which Amin , portrayed by Prince Hughes in a cameo appearance , is one of the real @-@ life figures in the Beirut meeting where he helps plan to attack the United States at the beginning of the movie . Frank Drebin injures Amin 's hand after blocking a punch with a spittoon , and uses it to knock Amin out a window .
Mississippi Masala ( 1991 ) , a film depicting the resettlement of an Indian family after the expulsion of Asians from Uganda by Idi Amin . Joseph Olita again plays Amin in a cameo .
The Last King of Scotland ( 2006 ) , a film adaptation of Giles Foden 's 1998 novel of the same name . For his portrayal of Idi Amin , Forest Whitaker won the Academy Award , British Academy Film Award , Broadcast Film Critics Association Award , Golden Globe Award , and Screen Actors Guild Award , thus becoming the fourth black actor to win the Oscar for Best Actor .
= = = Documentaries = = =
General Idi Amin Dada : A Self Portrait ( 1974 ) , directed by French filmmaker Barbet Schroeder .
Idi Amin : Monster in Disguise ( 1997 ) , a television documentary directed by Greg Baker .
The Man Who Ate His Archbishop 's Liver ? ( 2004 ) , a television documentary written , produced , and directed by Elizabeth C. Jones for Associated @-@ Rediffusion and Channel 4 .
The Man Who Stole Uganda ( 1971 ) , World In Action first broadcast 5 April 1971 .
Inside Idi Amin 's Terror Machine ( 1979 ) , World In Action first broadcast 13 June 1979 .
A Day in the Life of a Dictator ( 2013 ) , directed by Hendrick Dusollier
= = = Books = = =
State of Blood : The Inside Story of Idi Amin ( 1977 ) by Henry Kyemba
The General Is Up by Peter Nazareth
Ghosts of Kampala : The Rise and Fall of Idi Amin ( 1980 ) by George Ivan Smith
The Last King of Scotland ( 1998 ) by Giles Foden ( fictional )
Idi Amin Dada : Hitler in Africa ( 1977 ) by Thomas Patrick Melady
General Amin ( 1975 ) by David Martin
I Love Idi Amin : The Story of Triumph under Fire in the Midst of Suffering and Persecution in Uganda ( 1977 ) by Festo Kivengere
Impassioned for Freedom : Uganda , Struggle Against Idi Amin ( 2006 ) by Eriya Kategaya
Confessions of Idi Amin : The chilling , explosive expose of Africa 's most evil man – in his own words ( 1977 ) compiled by Trevor Donald
" Kahawa " by Donald Westlake ; a thriller in which Amin is a minor character , but Amin 's Uganda is portrayed in detail .
Culture of the Sepulchre ( 2012 ) by Madanjeet Singh ( former Indian Ambassador to Uganda ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 08573 @-@ 1
= = = Music and audio = = =
" Idi Amin – the Amazin ' Man song " ( 1975 ) by John Bird
" Idi Amin " ( 1978 ) by Mighty Sparrow
" Idi Amin " ( 1978 ) by Black Randy and the Metrosquad
" Springtime in Uganda " ( 2004 ) by Blaze Foley ( posthumous release )
The Collected Broadcasts of Idi Amin ( 1975 ) based on The Collected Bulletins of President Idi Amin ( 1974 ) and Further Bulletins of President Idi Amin ( 1975 ) by Alan Coren , portraying Amin as an amiable , if murderous , buffoon in charge of a tin @-@ pot dictatorship . It was a British comedy album parodying Ugandan dictator Idi Amin , released in 1975 on Transatlantic Records . Performed by John Bird and written by Alan Coren , it was based on columns he wrote for Punch magazine
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= New York University =
New York University ( NYU ) is a private , nonsectarian American research university based in New York City . Founded in 1831 , NYU is one of the largest private non @-@ profit institutions of American higher education . University rankings compiled by U.S. News and World Report , Times Higher Education and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU among the top 34 universities in the world . NYU is organized into more than 20 schools , colleges , and institutes , located in six centers throughout Manhattan and Downtown Brooklyn . NYU 's main campus is located at Greenwich Village in Lower Manhattan with institutes and centers on the Upper East Side , academic buildings and dorms down on Wall Street , and the Brooklyn campus located at MetroTech Center in Downtown Brooklyn . The University also established NYU Abu Dhabi , NYU Shanghai and maintains 11 other Global Academic Centers in Accra , Berlin , Buenos Aires , Florence , London , Madrid , Paris , Prague , Sydney , Tel Aviv and Washington , D.C.
NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1950 . NYU counts 36 Nobel Prize winners , four Abel Prize winners , four Turing Award winners , four Fields Medal winners , over 30 National Medals for Science , Technology and Innovation , Arts and Humanities recipients , over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners , over 30 Academy Award winners , as well as several Russ Prize , Gordon Prize and Draper Prize winners , and dozens of Emmy , Grammy , and Tony Award winners among its faculty and alumni . NYU also has many MacArthur and Guggenheim Fellowship holders as well as hundreds of National Academy of Sciences , National Academy of Engineering and American Academy of Arts and Sciences members , and a plethora of members of the United States Congress and heads of state of countries all over the world , among its past and present graduates and faculty . The alumni of NYU are among the wealthiest in the world , and include seventeen living billionaires .
NYU 's sports teams are called the Violets , the colors being the trademarked hue " NYU Violet " and white ; the school mascot is the bobcat . Almost all sporting teams participate in the NCAA 's Division III and the University Athletic Association .
= = History = =
Albert Gallatin , Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison , declared his intention to establish " in this immense and fast @-@ growing city ... a system of rational and practical education fitting for all and graciously opened to all " . A three @-@ day @-@ long " literary and scientific convention " held in City Hall in 1830 and attended by over 100 delegates debated the terms of a plan for a new university . These New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright , status , or social class . On April 18 , 1831 , an institution was established , with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the city 's landed class of merchants , bankers , and traders . Albert Gallatin was elected as the institution 's first president . On April 21 , 1831 , the new institution received its charter and was incorporated as the University of the City of New York by the New York State Legislature ; older documents often refer to it by that name . The university has been popularly known as New York University since its beginning and was officially renamed New York University in 1896 . In 1832 , NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four @-@ story Clinton Hall , situated near City Hall . In 1835 , the School of Law , NYU 's first professional school , was established . Although the impetus to found a new school was partly a reaction by evangelical Presbyterians to what they perceived as the Episcopalianism of Columbia College , NYU was created non @-@ denominational , unlike many American colleges at the time .
It became one of the nation 's largest universities , with an enrollment of 9 @,@ 300 in 1917 . NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding . The university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus . NYU also had a desire to follow New York City 's development further uptown . NYU 's move to the Bronx occurred in 1894 , spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken . The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was . As a result , most of the university 's operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there . NYU 's administrative operations were moved to the new campus , but the graduate schools of the university remained at Washington Square . In 1914 , Washington Square College was founded as the downtown undergraduate college of NYU . In 1935 , NYU opened the " Nassau College @-@ Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead , Long Island " . This extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University .
In 1950 , NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities , a nonprofit organization of leading public and private research universities .
In the late 1960s and early 1970s , financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the city 's institutions , including NYU . Feeling the pressures of imminent bankruptcy , NYU President James McNaughton Hester negotiated the sale of the University Heights campus to the City University of New York , which occurred in 1973 . In 1973 , the New York University School of Engineering and Science merged into Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn , which eventually merged into NYU in 2014 forming the present Tandon School of Engineering . After the sale of the Bronx campus , University College merged with Washington Square College . In the 1980s , under the leadership of President John Brademas , NYU launched a billion @-@ dollar campaign that was spent almost entirely on updating facilities . The campaign was set to complete in 15 years , but ended up being completed in 10 . In 2003 President John Sexton launched a $ 2 @.@ 5 billion campaign for funds to be spent especially on faculty and financial aid resources .
In 2009 , the university responded to a series of New York Times interviews that showed a pattern of labor abuses in its fledgling Abu Dhabi location , creating a statement of labor values for Abu Dhabi campus workers . A 2014 follow @-@ up article in The Times found that while some conditions had improved , contractors for the multibillion @-@ endowment university were still frequently subjecting their workers to third @-@ world labor conditions . The article documented that these conditions included confiscation of worker passports , forced overtime , recruitment fees and cockroach @-@ filled dorms where workers had to sleep under beds . According to the article , workers who attempted to protest the NYU contractors ' conditions were promptly arrested . The university responded the day of the article with an apology to the workers . Another report was published and it maintains that those who were on strike were arrested by police who then promptly abused them in a police station . Many of those who were not local were then deported to their country . A 2014 follow @-@ up article in The Times found that some conditions had improved . In 2015 , NYU compensated thousands of migrant workers on its Abu Dhabi complex .
NYU was the founding member of the League of World Universities , an international organization consisting of rectors and presidents from urban universities across six continents . The league and its 47 representatives gather every two years to discuss global issues in education . L. Jay Oliva formed the organization in 1991 just after he was inaugurated president of New York University .
NYU 's board of trustees is currently one of the largest and most powerful in American academia .
= = = University logo = = =
The university logo , the upheld torch , is derived from the Statue of Liberty , signifying NYU 's service to New York City . The torch is depicted on both the NYU seal and the more abstract NYU logo , designed in 1965 by renowned graphic designer Tom Geismar of the branding and design firm Chermayeff & Geismar . There are at least two versions of the possible origin of the university color , violet . Some believe that it may have been chosen because violets are said to have grown abundantly in Washington Square and around the buttresses of the Old University Building . Others argue that the color may have been adopted because the violet was the flower associated with Athens , the center of learning in ancient Greece .
= = = Cultural setting = = =
Washington Square and Greenwich Village have been hubs of cultural life in New York City since the early 19th century . Much of this culture has intersected with NYU at various points in its history . Artists of the Hudson River School , the United States ' first prominent school of painters , settled around Washington Square . Samuel F.B. Morse , a noted artist who also pioneered the telegraph and created the Morse Code , served as the first chair of Painting and Sculpture . He and Daniel Huntington were early tenants of the Old University Building in the mid @-@ 19th century . ( The University rented out studio space and residential apartments within the " academic " building . ) As a result , they had notable interaction with the cultural and academic life of the university .
In the 1870s , sculptors Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens and Daniel Chester French lived and worked near the Square . By the 1920s , Washington Square Park was nationally recognized as a focal point for artistic and moral rebellion . As such , the Washington Square campus became more diverse and bustled with urban energy , contributing to academic change at NYU . Famed residents of this time include Eugene O 'Neill , John Sloan , and Maurice Prendergast . In the 1930s , the abstract expressionists Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning , and the realists Edward Hopper and Thomas Hart Benton had studios around Washington Square . In the 1960s the area became one of the centers of the beat and folk generation , when Allen Ginsberg and Bob Dylan settled there . This led to tension with the university , which at the time was in the midst of an aggressive facilities expansion phase . In 1975 , the university opened The Grey Art Gallery at 100 Washington Square East , housing the NYU art collection and featuring museum quality exhibitions .
= = = Budget and fundraising = = =
NYU has successfully completed a seven @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 5 billion campaign , surpassing expectations by raising more than $ 3 billion over the seven @-@ year period . Started in 2001 , this campaign was the university 's largest in its history , in which they planned to " raise $ 1 million per day for scholarships and financial aid , faculty building , new academic initiatives , and enhancing NYU 's physical facilities " . The campaign included a $ 50 million gift from the Tisch family ( after which one building and the art school are named ) and a $ 60 million gift from six trustees called " The Partners Fund " , aimed at hiring new faculty . On October 15 , 2007 the university announced that the Silver family donated $ 50 million to the School of Social Work , which will be renamed as a result . This is the largest donation ever to a school of social work in the United States .
The 2007 – 2008 academic year was the most successful fundraising year to date for NYU , with the school raising $ 698 million in only the first 11 months of the year , representing a 70 % increase in donations from the prior year . The University also recently announced plans for NYU 's Call to Action , a new initiative to ask alumni and donors to support financial aid for students at NYU .
The university has announced a 25 @-@ year strategic development plan , scheduled to coincide with its bicentennial in 2031 . Included in the " NYU 200 " plans are increasing resident and academic space , hiring additional exemplary faculty , and involving the New York City community in a transparent planning process . Additionally , NYU hopes to make their buildings more environmentally friendly , which will be facilitated by an evaluation of all campus spaces . As a part of this plan , NYU purchased 118 million kilowatt @-@ hours of wind power during the 2006 – 2007 academic year – the largest purchase of wind power by any university in the country and any institution in New York City . For 2007 , the university expanded its purchase of wind power to 132 million kilowatt @-@ hours . As a result , the EPA ranked NYU as one of the greenest colleges in the country in its annual College & University Green Power Challenge .
NYU consistently ranks as one of the top fundraising institutions in the country , raising $ 449 @.@ 34 million in 2013 and $ 455 @.@ 72 million in 2014 . NYU is also the 19th wealthiest university in America with $ 5 @.@ 3 billion in cash and investments in fiscal year 2014 .
= = Campus = =
Most of NYU 's buildings in Manhattan are located across a roughly 230 @-@ acre ( 930 @,@ 000 m2 ) area bounded by Houston Street to the south , Broadway to the east , 14th Street to the north , and Sixth Avenue ( Avenue of the Americas ) to the west . The core of NYU consists of buildings that surround Washington Square Park .
With approximately 11 @,@ 000 undergraduate and graduate residents , NYU had the seventh @-@ largest university housing system in the U.S. as of 2007 , and one of the largest among private schools .
= = = Washington Square campus = = =
Since the late 1970s , the central part of NYU has been its Washington Square campus in the heart of Greenwich Village . The Washington Square Arch is an unofficial symbol of NYU . Until 2007 , NYU had held its commencement ceremonies in Washington Square Park , but moved the ceremonies to Yankee Stadium in 2008 because of renovations to Washington Square .
In the 1990s , NYU became a " two square " university by building a second community around Union Square , in close proximity to Washington Square . NYU 's Union Square community primarily consists of the priority residence halls of Carlyle Court , Palladium Residence Hall , Alumni Hall , Coral Tower , Thirteenth Street Hall , University Hall , Third North Residence Hall , and Founders Hall .
NYU operates theaters and performance facilities that are often used by the university 's music conservatory and Tisch School of the Arts . External productions are also occasionally held in NYU 's facilities . The largest performance accommodations at NYU are the Skirball Center for Performing Arts ( 850 seats ) at 566 LaGuardia Place , just south of Washington Square South , and the Eisner @-@ Lubin Auditorium ( 560 seats ) in the Kimmel Center . Recently , the Skirball Center hosted important speeches on foreign policy by John Kerry and Al Gore . The Skirball Center is the largest performing arts facility south of 42nd Street .
= = = = Bobst Library = = = =
The Elmer Holmes Bobst Library , built between 1967 and 1972 , is the largest library at NYU and one of the largest academic libraries in the United States . Designed by Philip Johnson and Richard Foster , the 12 @-@ story , 425 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 39 @,@ 500 m2 ) structure sits on the southern edge of Washington Square Park ( at 70 Washington Square South ) and is the flagship of an eight @-@ library , 4 @.@ 5 million @-@ volume system . Bobst Library offers one Multidisciplinary Reference Center , a Research Commons , 28 miles ( 45 km ) of open @-@ stacks shelving , and approximately 2 @,@ 000 seats for student study . The library is visited by more than 6 @,@ 800 users each day , and circulates more than one million books annually .
Bobst 's Avery Fisher Center for Music and Media is one of the world 's largest academic media centers , where students and researchers use more than 95 @,@ 000 audio and video recordings per year . The Digital Studio offers a constantly evolving , leading @-@ edge resource for faculty and student projects and promotes and supports access to digital resources for teaching , learning , research and arts events .
Bobst Library is also home to significant special collections . The Fales Collection houses one of the finest collections of English and American fiction in the United States , the unique Downtown Collection , documenting the New York literary avante @-@ garde arts scene from the 1970s to the present , and the Food and Cookery Collection , which documents American food history with a focus on New York City . Bobst Library also houses the Tamiment Library , one of the finest collections in the world for scholarly research in labor history , socialism , anarchism , communism , and American radicalism . Tamiment includes the Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives , the Archives of Irish America , the Center for the Cold War and the U.S. , and the Frederic Ewen Academic Freedom Center .
= = = = New facilities = = = =
Since the early 2000s , NYU has developed new facilities on and around its Washington Square Campus . The Kimmel Center for University Life was built in 2003 as the primary location for the university 's student services offices . It also houses the Skirball Center for the Performing Arts , the Rosenthal Pavilion , the Eisner & Lubin Auditorium , and the Loeb Student Center . The School of Law built Furman Hall in 2004 , incorporating elements of two historic buildings into the new facade , one of which had been occupied by poet Edgar Allan Poe .
In 2005 , NYU announced the development of a new life science facility on Waverly Place , the first new NYU science building since the opening of Meyer Hall in 1971 . In November 2005 , NYU announced plans to build a 26 @-@ floor , 190 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 18 @,@ 000 m2 ) residence hall on 12th Street . The residence hall , named " Founders Hall " , accommodates approximately 700 undergraduates and contains a host of other student facilities . It is currently the tallest building in the East Village .
= = = Brooklyn campus = = =
NYU 's Brooklyn campus is located at MetroTech Center , an urban academic @-@ industrial research park , and is only a few subway stops from the Washington Square campus . It houses the School of Engineering , the Center for Urban Science and Progress and also several of Tisch School of the Arts and Steinhardt School of Culture , Education , and Human Development 's degree programs . The Brooklyn campus also houses NYU 's Game Center Open Library , which is the largest collection of games held by any university in the world . In 2014 , NYU Langone Medical Center acquired a 125 @,@ 000 square feet ( 11 @,@ 600 m2 ) healthcare facility in Brooklyn . The NYU shuttle bus system connects the Brooklyn campus with the Washington Square campus .
= = = Other campuses and facilities = = =
The New York University School of Medicine is situated near the East River waterfront at 550 First Avenue between East 30th and 34th Streets . The campus hosts the medical school , Tisch Hospital , and the Rusk Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine . Other NYU Centers across the city include NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases and the Bellevue Hospital Center . NYU 's Silver School of Social Work ( formerly Ehrenkranz School of Social Work ) manages branch campus programs in Westchester County at Manhattanville College , in Rockland County at St. Thomas Aquinas College , and on Staten Island at the City University of New York 's College of Staten Island .
In Sterling Forest , near Tuxedo , NYU has a research facility that contains institutes , in particular the Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine . The Midtown Center at 11 West 42nd Street is home to the NYU Schack Institute of Real Estate . The Woolworth Building in the financial district is home to NYU 's professional studies and education programs .
NYU has two units located on the Upper East Side . The Institute for the Study of the Ancient World , a discrete entity within NYU , independent of any other school or department of the university , is located on East 84th Street , while the New York University Institute of Fine Arts , a graduate school of art history and fine arts , is located at the James B. Duke Building at 1 East 78th Street .
The Tandon School of Engineering has locations in Brooklyn and Manhattan . It is one of the oldest private engineering schools in the United States .
NYU has international houses on its Manhattan campus , including the Deutsches Haus , La Maison Française , Casa Italiana Zerilli Marimò , the Glucksman Ireland House , the King Juan Carlos I of Spain Center , the Hagop Kevorkian Center , an Africa House and a China House .
= = = = Campuses abroad = = = =
Tisch School of the Arts , Asia was NYU 's first branch campus abroad . The result of a partnership between Tisch School of the Arts and the Singapore Government , it offered Master of Fine Arts degrees in animation and digital arts , dramatic writing , film and international media producing . The campus opened in fall 2007 with the intention to enroll approximately 250 students . Anticipated enrolment figures were not achieved , financial irregularities were alleged and President Pari Sara Shirazi was dismissed from her post by NYU in November 2011 . She subsequently announced her intention to commence legal proceedings against NYU alleging wrongful termination and defamation . In a letter to the Tisch Asia community dated November 8 , 2012 , Dean Mary Schmidt Campbell announced that the campus would close after 2014 with recruitment and admission of new students suspended with immediate effect .
NYU has a host of foreign facilities used for study abroad programs , referred to as Global Academic Centers . As of 2012 , NYU operates 14 academic sites – both degree @-@ granting research university campuses and study abroad sites – in Africa , Asia and the Middle East , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America , including undergraduate academic @-@ year and summer study abroad programs in New York City , Florence , London , Paris , Prague , Berlin , Accra , Madrid , Shanghai , Buenos Aires , Tel Aviv , Abu Dhabi , Sydney , and Washington , D.C. One of the most noteworthy is the 57 @-@ acre ( 230 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus of NYU Florence Villa LaPietra in Italy , bequeathed by the late Sir Harold Acton to NYU in 1994 .
In fall 2010 , NYU Abu Dhabi ( NYUAD ) opened as the university 's first overseas " Portal Campus " with an inaugural class of 150 students . Unlike NYU 's other study abroad centers , NYUAD functions as a separate liberal arts college within a university , offering complete degree programs to students admitted directly to NYUAD . NYUAD recruits students from all over the world and describes itself as the " World 's Honor College " . The main campus for NYUAD is under construction on Saadiyat Island and is scheduled to open in 2014 . Until then the school operates from a campus located in downtown Abu Dhabi . The campus construction and operational costs are entirely funded by the Abu Dhabi government .
In 2011 , NYU announced plans to open another portal campus , New York University Shanghai , for the fall semester of 2013 . It was set to have about 3 @,@ 000 undergraduate students , the majority of whom would be Chinese . It was approved by the Ministry of Education of the People 's Republic of China in January 2011 . NYU 's local partner will be East China Normal University ( ECNU ) . ECNU 's president Yu Lizhong will be the chancellor and play a major role in government relations while Jeffrey S. Lehman , former president of Cornell amongst other positions , will serve as vice chancellor and have " free rein in academic affairs " .
In spring 2014 , NYU opened a new campus in Paris , in the student area of the Quartier Latin , where NYU Law set up an EU Regulatory Policy Clinic taught by Alberto Alemanno and Vincent Chauvet .
= = = Residence halls = = =
NYU houses approximately 11 @,@ 000 undergraduate and graduate residents , and had the seventh @-@ largest university housing system in the U.S. as of 2007 , and one of the largest among private schools . NYU 's undergraduate housing system consists of more than 20 residence halls . Uniquely , many of NYU 's residence halls are converted apartment complexes or old hotels . In general , NYU residence halls receive favorable ratings , and some are opulent . Many rooms are spacious and contain amenities considered rare for individual college residence hall rooms , such as kitchens , lavatories , living rooms and common areas . The university operates its own transit system to transport its students by bus to its campus .
Undergraduate students are guaranteed housing during their enrollment at NYU . Most freshman residence halls are located near the Washington Square area . While nearly all of the residence halls that primarily house sophomores are located near the Union Square area , two former residence halls were located in the Financial District and one is still in use in Chinatown . All of NYU 's residence halls are governed by the Inter @-@ Residence Hall Council ( IRHC ) , an umbrella student council organization .
In 2007 , the National Association of College and University Residence Halls ( NACURH ) named NYU the National School of the Year for IRHC and NRHH 's strong efforts over the past year . In addition , NYU was named the National Program of the Year for UltraViolet Live , the annual inter @-@ hall competition that raises funds for Relay For Life .
= = = Sustainability = = =
NYU has made the greening of its campus a large priority . For example , NYU has been the largest university purchaser of wind energy in the U.S. since 2009 . With this switch to renewable power , NYU is achieving benefits equivalent to removing 12 @,@ 000 cars from the road or planting 72 @,@ 000 trees . In May 2008 , the NYU Sustainability Task Force awarded $ 150 @,@ 000 in grants to 23 projects that would focus research and efforts toward energy , food , landscape , outreach , procurement , transportation and waste . These projects include a student @-@ led bike @-@ sharing program modeled after Paris ' Velib program with 30 bikes free to students , staff , and faculty . NYU received a grade of " B " on the College Sustainability Report Card 2010 from the Sustainable Endowments Institute .
NYU purchased 118 million kilowatt @-@ hours of wind power during the 2006 – 2007 academic year – the largest purchase of wind power by any university in the country and any institution in New York City . For 2007 , the university expanded its purchase of wind power to 132 million kilowatt @-@ hours .
The EPA ranked NYU as one of the greenest colleges in the country in its annual College & University Green Power Challenge .
= = Academics = =
= = = Schools and colleges = = =
New York University comprises the following schools and colleges :
Arts & Science
College of Arts and Science
Graduate School of Arts and Science
Liberal Studies
Center for Urban Science and Progress
College of Dentistry
College of Global Public Health
Rory Meyers College of Nursing
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences
Gallatin School of Individualized Study
Institute of Fine Arts
Institute for the Study of the Ancient World
Leonard N. Stern School of Business
NYU Abu Dhabi
NYU Shanghai
Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service
Silver School of Social Work
School of Law
School of Medicine
School of Professional Studies
Steinhardt School of Culture , Education , and Human Development
Tandon School of Engineering
Tisch School of the Arts
Arts and Science is currently NYU 's largest academic division . It has three subdivisions : the College of Arts and Science , the Graduate School of Arts and Science , and the Liberal Studies program . The College of Arts and Science and Liberal Studies program are undergraduate divisions , and the former has existed since the founding of NYU .
Undergraduate divisions are also found in the College of Dentistry , College of Nursing , Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences , Gallatin School of Individualized Study , Leonard N. Stern School of Business , NYU Abu Dhabi , NYU Shanghai , Tandon School of Engineering , Silver School of Social Work , School of Professional Studies , Steinhardt School of Culture , Education , and Human Development , and the Tisch School of the Arts . Postgraduate divisions are found in all of NYU 's schools and colleges .
= = = Research = = =
NYU manages one of the largest annual collegiate research budgets of any university in the United States . In 2014 , NYU received $ 524 million in research grants from the National Science Foundation alone .
= = = Admissions = = =
Admission to NYU 's undergraduate programs is highly selective , with 18 @,@ 500 admitted from an applicant pool of 60 @,@ 322 ( 31 % ) for the class of 2019 .
Total freshman enrollment is 5 @,@ 917 for the 2015 – 2016 academic year , representing 49 states and 91 countries , with 19 % as non @-@ US citizens . Most freshmen have a typical unweighted GPA of 3 @.@ 5 / A ( 90 – 95 % ) and are in the top 10 % of their high school graduating class . The middle 50 % of freshmen score between 1900 and 2150 on the SAT and between 29 and 32 on the ACT . The student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio at the New York campus is 10 : 1 , and less than that at the Abu Dhabi and Shanghai campuses . The average scholarship amount awarded to freshmen is $ 29 @,@ 528 , and 21 % of freshmen received Pell Grants .
= = = Rankings = = =
Nationally , NYU is ranked 14th in the Center For World University Rankings , 15th by Global Language Monitor , 17th by QS World University Rankings , 19th in the Academic Ranking of World Universities , 24th by Business Insider , and 32nd by U.S. News & World Report .
Globally , NYU is ranked 18th in the Center for World University Rankings , 17th in International Colleges and Universities , 27th in the Academic Ranking of World Universities , 30th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings , and 53rd in the QS World University Rankings . Additionally , NYU is ranked 20th in the THE World Reputation Rankings .
U.S. News & World Report ranks NYU 's graduate schools 6th for law , 6th for public policy , 9th for math ( 1st for applied math ) , 10th for Occupational therapy under Steinhardt School of Culture , Education , and Human Development , 10th for business , 11th for economics , 15th for political science , 19th for medical school research , 20th for education , 21st for nursing , 27th for physical therapy , 29th for computer science , 30th for psychology , and 46th for engineering .
Globally , NYU 's social sciences are ranked 8th by the Academic Ranking of World Universities , 15th by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings , and 16th by the QS World University Rankings . NYU is globally ranked 11th for psychology by The QS World University Ranking . The Social Psychology Network ranks NYU 5th for industrial / organizational psychology , 14th for clinical psychology , and U.S. News & World Report ranks NYU 9th for social psychology and 9th for behavioral neuroscience .
U.S. News & World Report ranks the New York University School of Law 1st for tax law and 1st for international law . The publication also ranks The Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service 6th in public policy . The NYU Department of Philosophy is globally ranked 1st by the The Philosophical Gourmet Report and the QS World University Rankings . In The Los Angeles Times , NYU Tisch School of Arts is ranked 1st for film by Ranker . NYU is ranked 1st for New Ivies by college resource guide Unigo . In 2006 , NYU was named by Kaplan as one of the " New Ivies " . The annual Global Employability Survey in The New York Times ranks NYU 11th nationally and 29th globally for employability . For four consecutive years NYU has been ranked as America 's " # 1 dream school " by the Princeton Review . NYU is consistently ranked as a " Top 10 Dream College " for both parents and students according to The Princeton Review . Alongside Stanford University , Harvard College , Princeton University , and Massachusetts Institute of Technology , NYU is one of few universities to regularly appear in the top 10 list for both parents and students . NYU ranks 19th in the world based on the number of patents generated .
= = Student life = =
= = = Student government = = =
The Student Senators Council is the governing student body at NYU . The SSC has been involved in controversial debates on campus , including a campuswide ban on the sale of Coca @-@ Cola products in 2005 , and the Graduate Student Organizing Committee unionization in 2001 and subsequent strike in 2005 . This ban was lifted by the University Senate on February 5 , 2009 .
= = = Student organizations = = =
NYU has over 450 student clubs and organizations on campus . In addition to the sports teams , fraternities , sororities , and study clubs , there are many organizations on campus that focus on entertainment , arts , and culture . These organizations include various student media clubs : for instance , the daily student newspaper the Washington Square News , the NYU Local daily blog , The Plague comedy magazine , " Washington Square Local web @-@ based satire news source , and the literary journals Washington Square Review and The Minetta Review , as well as student @-@ run event producers such as the NYU Program Board and the Inter @-@ Residence Hall Council . It also operates radio station WNYU @-@ FM 89 @.@ 1 with a diverse college radio format , transmitting to the entire New York metropolitan area from the original campus , and via booster station WNYU @-@ FM1 which fills in the signal in lower Manhattan from atop one of the Silver Towers , next to the football field at the Washington Square campus .
The New York University Mock Trial team is consistently ranked as one of the best collegiate mock trial teams in the country . NYU has qualified for the National Championship Tournament for 10 consecutive seasons and placed in the top 10 during each of those years . In the 2009 – 2010 season , NYU won the 26th National Championship Tournament in Memphis over rival Harvard . The following season , they qualified for the final round once more only to be the runners @-@ up to UCLA . In the American Mock Trial Association 's 2015 – 2016 power rankings , NYU ranks third , behind Harvard and Yale .
During the University Heights era , an apparent rift evolved with some organizations distancing themselves from students from the downtown schools . The exclusive Philomathean Society operated from 1832 to 1888 ( formally giving way in 1907 and reconstituted into the Andiron Club ) . Included among the Andiron 's regulations was " Rule No.11 : Have no relations save the most casual and informal kind with the downtown schools " . The Eucleian Society , rival to the Philomathean Society , was founded in 1832 . The Knights of the Lamp was a social organization founded in 1914 at the School of Commerce . This organization met every full moon and had a glowworm as its mascot . The Red Dragon Society , founded in 1898 , is thought to be the most selective society at NYU . In addition , NYU 's first yearbook was formed by fraternities and " secret societies " at the university .
NYU has traditions which have persisted across campuses . Since the beginning of the 20th century initiation ceremonies have welcomed incoming NYU freshmen . At the Bronx University Heights Campus , seniors used to grab unsuspecting freshmen , take them to a horse @-@ watering trough , and then dunk them head @-@ first into what was known colloquially as " the Fountain of Knowledge " . This underground initiation took place until the 1970s . Today freshmen take part in university @-@ sponsored activities during what is called " Welcome Week " . In addition , throughout the year the university traditionally holds Apple Fest ( an apple @-@ themed country fest that began at the University Heights campus ) , the Violet Ball ( a dance in the atrium of Bobst Library ) , Strawberry Fest ( featuring New York City 's longest Strawberry Shortcake ) , and the semi @-@ annual midnight breakfast where Student Affairs administrators serve free breakfast to students before finals .
Students publish a campus comedy magazine , The Plague . Like many college humor magazines , this often pokes fun at popular culture as well as campus life and the idiosyncrasies of New York University . The Plague was founded in 1978 by Howard Ostrowsky along with Amy Burns , John Rawlins , Joe Pinto and Dan Fiorella , and is currently published once per semester . It is not NYU 's first humor magazine , as The Medley was a humor magazine published by the Eucleian Society from 1913 to 1950 .
= = = Greek life = = =
Some of the first fraternities in the country were formed at NYU . Greek life first formed on the NYU campus in 1837 when Psi Upsilon chartered its Delta Chapter . The first fraternities at NYU were social ones . With their athletic , professional , intellectual , and service activities , later groups sought to attract students who also formed other groups . Since then , Greek letter organizations have proliferated to include 25 social fraternities and sororities . As of 2014 , approximately 13 % of NYU students are members of fraternities or sororities .
Four governing boards oversee Greek life at the university . The Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) has jurisdiction over all twelve recognized fraternities on campus . Eight sororities are under the jurisdiction of the Panhellenic Council ( PhC ) , which features seven national sororities ( ΔΦΕ , ΑΕΦ , ΑΣΤ , ΠΒΦ , KKΓ , ZTΑ , ΔΓ ) and two local sororities ( AΦΖ and ΘΦΒ ) . Five multicultural organizations maintain membership in the Multicultural Greek Council ( MGC ) , including two fraternities and three sororities . All three of the aforementioned boards are managed under the auspices of the Inter @-@ Greek Council .
Greek organizations have historical significance at NYU . Delta Phi Epsilon , Zeta Psi , Alpha Epsilon Pi , Tau Delta Phi , Alpha Kappa Psi and Delta Sigma Pi were founded at NYU . Zeta Psi Fraternity of North America was chartered in 1847 , Delta Sigma Pi in 1907 , and Alpha Epsilon Pi in 1913 . Delta Phi Epsilon was founded in 1917 . The NYU Gamma chapter of Delta Phi , founded in 1841 , is the longest continuously active fraternity chapter in the world , having never gone inactive since its establishment . Delta Phi is also the oldest continuously active fraternity in the United States , being the only organization in the original Union Triad to remain active since its institute . The NYU Gamma chapter of Zeta Beta Tau is the oldest active ZBT chapter in the country .
= = = ROTC = = =
NYU does not have an ROTC program on campus . However , NYU students may participate in the U.S. Army ROTC program through NYC Army ROTC , headquartered at Fordham University .
= = Athletics = =
NYU 's sports teams are referred to as the NYU Violets , the colors being the trademarked hue " NYU Violet " and white . Since 1981 , the school mascot has been a bobcat , whose origin can be traced back to the abbreviation then being used by the Bobst Library computerized catalog — short : Bobcat . NYU 's sports teams include baseball , men 's and women 's varsity basketball , cross country , fencing , golf , soccer , softball , swimming and diving , tennis , track and field , volleyball , and wrestling . All of NYU 's sports teams participate in the NCAA 's Division III and the University Athletic Association , with the exception of fencing , which participates in Division I. While NYU has had All @-@ American football players , the school has not had a varsity football team since 1952 .
NYU students also compete in club and intramural sports , including badminton , baseball , basketball , crew , cycling , equestrianism , ice hockey , lacrosse , martial arts , rugby , softball , squash , tennis , triathlon , and ultimate . The Coles Sports and Recreation Center serves as the home base of several of NYU 's intercollegiate athletic teams . Many of NYU 's varsity teams play their games at various facilities and fields throughout Manhattan because of the scarcity of space for playing fields near campus . In 2002 , NYU opened the Palladium Athletic Facility as the second on @-@ campus recreational facility .
= = Faculty and alumni = =
NYU has 470 @,@ 000 living alumni as of 2015 . At least thirty @-@ six Nobel Prize winners winners are affiliated with NYU . Notable graduating classes include among others , 1941 , which graduated three later Nobel Prize laureates ( Julius Axelrod , Gertrude B. Elion and Clifford Shull ) , Olympic Gold Medalist John Woodruff , sportscaster Howard Cosell and sociologist Morris Janowitz ; 1951 included professor emeritus at MIT and former DARPA director Jack Ruina and Cathleen Synge Morawetz , first woman recipient of National Medal of Science ; 1957 included Pulitzer Prize winning author Frank McCourt and president of Technion @-@ Israel Institute of Technology Josef Singer ; 1964 included former Chief Engineer of NASA Johnson Space Center , Jay Greene and film director Martin Scorsese ; and 1977 included : former Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan ; IRS Commissioner Mark Everson ; INSEAD Dean Gabriel Hawawini ; Pulitzer , Oscar and Tony Award winner John Patrick Shanley ; NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman ; NASDAQ CEO Robert Greifeld ; Ma Ying @-@ jeou president of Republic of China ( Taiwan ) ; Guillermo Endara president of Republic of Panama , Clive Davis music industry executive , and Cathy Minehan , Federal Reserve Chairman Boston .
= = = Postgraduation statistics = = =
NYU ranked 7th among the World ’ s top 100 universities for producing millionaires , as compiled by Times Higher Education World University Rankings . NYU ranked 5th globally among universities with the highest number of alumni worth $ 30 million or more , as compiled by ABC News . CNBC ranked NYU 4th globally among universities with the most billionaire graduates .
= = In popular culture = =
NYU has been portrayed in books , movies and television shows , and the campus of NYU has been the backdrop for a number of different books and movies .
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= Dusky shark =
The dusky shark ( Carcharhinus obscurus ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , occurring in tropical and warm @-@ temperate continental seas worldwide . A generalist apex predator , the dusky shark can be found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and adjacent pelagic waters , and has been recorded from a depth of 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . Populations migrate seasonally towards the poles in the summer and towards the equator in the winter , traveling hundreds to thousands of kilometers . One of the largest members of its genus , the dusky shark reaches 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) in length and 347 kg ( 765 lb ) in weight . It has a slender , streamlined body and can be identified by its short round snout , long sickle @-@ shaped pectoral fins , ridge between the first and second dorsal fins , and faintly marked fins .
Adult dusky sharks have a broad and varied diet , consisting mostly of bony fishes , sharks and rays , and cephalopods , but also occasionally crustaceans , sea stars , bryozoans , sea turtles , marine mammals , carrion , and garbage . This species is viviparous with a three @-@ year reproductive cycle ; females bear litters of 3 – 14 young after a gestation period of 22 – 24 months , after which there is a year of rest before they become pregnant again . Females are capable of storing sperm for long periods , as their encounters with suitable mates may be few and far between due to their nomadic lifestyle and low overall abundance . Dusky sharks are one of the slowest @-@ growing and latest @-@ maturing sharks , not reaching adulthood until around 20 years of age .
Because of its slow reproductive rate , the dusky shark is very vulnerable to human @-@ caused population depletion . This species is highly valued by commercial fisheries for its fins , used in shark fin soup , and for its meat , skin , and liver oil . It is also esteemed by recreational fishers . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable off the eastern United States , where populations have dropped to 15 – 20 % of 1970s levels . The dusky shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans due to its large size , but there are few attacks attributable to it .
= = Taxonomy = =
French naturalist Charles Alexandre Lesueur published the first scientific description of the dusky shark in an 1818 issue of Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia . He placed it in the genus Squalus and gave it the specific epithet obscurus ( Latin for " dark " or " dim " ) , referring to its coloration . Subsequent authors have recognized this species as belonging to the genus Carcharhinus . Lesueur did not designate a type specimen , though he was presumably working from a shark caught in North American waters .
Many early sources gave the scientific name of the dusky shark as Carcharias ( later Carcharhinus ) lamiella , which originated from an 1882 account by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert . Although Jordan and Gilbert referred to a set of jaws that came from a dusky shark , the type specimen they designated was later discovered to be a copper shark ( C. brachyurus ) . Therefore , C. lamiella is not considered a synonym of C. obscurus but rather of C. brachyurus . Other common names for this species include bay shark , black whaler , brown common gray shark , brown dusky shark , brown shark , common whaler , dusky ground shark , dusky whaler , river whaler , shovelnose , and slender whaler shark .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Teeth belonging to the dusky shark are fairly well represented in the fossil record , though assigning Carcharhinus teeth to species can be problematic . Dusky shark teeth dating to the Miocene ( 23 @-@ 5 @.@ 3 Ma ) have been recovered from the Kendeace and Grand Bay formations in Carriacou , the Grenadines , the Moghra Formation in Egypt , Polk County , Florida , and possibly Cerro La Cruz in northern Venezuela . Teeth dating to the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene ( 11 @.@ 6 @-@ 3 @.@ 6 Ma ) are abundant in the Yorktown Formation and the Pungo River , North Carolina , and from the Chesapeake Bay region ; these teeth differ slightly from the modern dusky shark , and have often been misidentified as belonging to the oceanic whitetip shark ( C. longimanus ) . Dusky shark teeth have also been recovered from the vicinity of two baleen whales in North Carolina , one preserved in Goose Creek Limestone dating to the Late Pliocene ( c . 3 @.@ 5 Ma ) , and the other in mud dating to the Pleistocene @-@ Holocene ( c . 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) .
In 1982 , Jack Garrick published a phylogenetic analysis of Carcharhinus based on morphology , in which he placed the dusky shark and the Galapagos shark ( C. galapagensis ) at the center of the " obscurus group " . The group consisted of large , triangular @-@ toothed sharks with a ridge between the dorsal fins , and also included the bignose shark ( C. altimus ) , the Caribbean reef shark ( C. perezi ) , the sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) , and the oceanic whitetip shark . This interpretation was largely upheld by Leonard Compagno in his 1988 phenetic study , and by Gavin Naylor in his 1992 allozyme sequence study . Naylor was able to further resolve the interrelationships of the " ridge @-@ backed " branch of Carcharhinus , finding that the dusky shark , Galapagos shark , oceanic whitetip shark , and blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) comprise its most derived clade .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the dusky shark extends worldwide , albeit discontinuously , in tropical and warm @-@ temperate waters . In the western Atlantic Ocean , it is found from Massachusetts and the Georges Bank to southern Brazil , including the Bahamas and Cuba . In the eastern Atlantic Ocean , it has been reported from the western and central Mediterranean Sea , the Canary Islands , Cape Verde , Senegal , Sierra Leone , and possibly elsewhere including Portugal , Spain , Morocco , and Madeira . In the Indian Ocean , it is found off South Africa , Mozambique , and Madagascar , with sporadic records in the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and perhaps the Red Sea . In the Pacific Ocean , it occurs off Japan , mainland China and Taiwan , Vietnam , Australia , and New Caledonia in the west , and from southern California to the Gulf of California , around Revillagigedo , and possibly off northern Chile in the east . Records of dusky sharks from the northeastern and eastern central Atlantic , and around tropical islands , may in fact be of Galapagos sharks . Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite evidence suggest that Indonesian and Australian sharks represent distinct populations .
Residing off continental coastlines from the surf zone to the outer continental shelf and adjacent oceanic waters , the dusky shark occupies an intermediate habitat that overlaps with its more specialized relatives , such as the inshore sandbar shark , the pelagic silky shark ( C. falciformis ) and oceanic whitetip shark , the deepwater bignose shark , and the islandic Galapagos shark and silvertip shark ( C. albimarginatus ) . One tracking study in the northern Gulf of Mexico found that it spends most of its time at depths of 10 – 80 m ( 33 – 262 ft ) , while making occasional forays below 200 m ( 660 ft ) ; this species has been known to dive as deep as 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . It prefers water temperatures of 19 – 28 ° C ( 66 – 82 ° F ) , and avoids areas of low salinity such as estuaries .
The dusky shark is nomadic and strongly migratory , undertaking recorded movements of up to 3 @,@ 800 km ( 2 @,@ 400 mi ) ; adults generally move longer distances than juveniles . Sharks along both coasts of North America shift northward with warmer summer temperatures , and retreat back towards the equator in winter . Off South Africa , young males and females over 0 @.@ 9 m ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) long disperse southward and northward respectively ( with some overlap ) from the nursery area off KwaZulu @-@ Natal ; they join the adults several years later by a yet @-@ unidentified route . In addition , juveniles spend spring and summer in the surf zone and fall and winter in offshore waters , and as they approach 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) in length begin to conduct a north @-@ south migration between KwaZulu @-@ Natal in the winter and the Western Cape in summer . Still @-@ larger sharks , over 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) long , migrate as far as southern Mozambique . Off Western Australia , adult and juvenile dusky sharks migrate towards the coast in summer and fall , though not to the inshore nurseries occupied by newborns .
= = Description = =
One of the largest members of its genus , the dusky shark commonly reaches a length of 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 ft ) and a weight of 160 – 180 kg ( 350 – 400 lb ) ; the maximum recorded length and weight are 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) and 347 kg ( 765 lb ) respectively . Females grow larger than males . This shark has a slender , streamlined body with a broadly rounded snout no longer than the width of the mouth . The nostrils are preceded by barely developed flaps of skin . The medium @-@ sized , circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . The mouth has very short , subtle furrows at the corners and contains 13 @-@ 15 ( typically 14 ) tooth rows on either side of both jaws . The upper teeth are distinctively broad , triangular , and slightly oblique with strong , coarse serrations , while the lower teeth are narrower and upright , with finer serrations . The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long .
The large pectoral fins measure around one @-@ fifth as long as the body , and have a falcate ( sickle @-@ like ) shape tapering to a point . The first dorsal fin is of moderate size and somewhat falcate , with a pointed apex and a strongly concave rear margin ; its origin lies over the pectoral fin free rear tips . The second dorsal fin is much smaller and is positioned about opposite the anal fin . A low dorsal ridge is present between the dorsal fins . The caudal fin is large and high , with a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The dermal denticles are diamond @-@ shaped and closely set , each bearing five horizontal ridges leading to teeth on the posterior margin . This species is bronzy to bluish gray above and white below , which extends onto the flanks as a faint lighter stripe . The fins , particularly the underside of the pectoral fins and the lower caudal fin lobe ) darken towards the tips ; this is more obvious in juveniles .
= = Biology and ecology = =
As an apex predator positioned at the highest level of the trophic web , the dusky shark is generally less abundant than other sharks that share its range . However , high concentrations of individuals , especially juveniles , can be found at particular locations . Adults are often found following ships far from land , such as in the Agulhas Current . A tracking study off the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina reported an average swimming speed of 0 @.@ 8 km / h ( 0 @.@ 50 mph ) . The dusky shark is one of the hosts of the sharksucker ( Echeneis naucrates ) . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Anthobothrium laciniatum , Dasyrhynchus pacificus , Platybothrium kirstenae , Floriceps saccatus , Tentacularia coryphaenae , and Triloculatum triloculatum , the monogeneans Dermophthirius carcharhini and Loimos salpinggoides , the leech Stibarobdella macrothela , the copepods Alebion sp . , Pandarus cranchii , P. sinuatus , and P. smithii , the praniza larvae of gnathiid isopods , and the sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) .
Full @-@ grown dusky sharks have no significant natural predators . Major predators of young sharks include the ragged tooth shark ( Carcharias taurus ) , the great white shark ( Carcharodon carcharias ) , the bull shark ( C. leucas ) , and the tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) . Off KwaZulu @-@ Natal , the use of shark nets to protect beaches has reduced the populations of these large predators , leading to a dramatic increase in the number of juvenile dusky sharks ( a phenomenon called " predator release " ) . In turn , the juvenile sharks have decimated populations of small bony fishes , with negative consequences for the biodiversity of the local ecosystem .
= = = Feeding = = =
The dusky shark is a generalist that takes a wide variety of prey from all levels of the water column , though it favors hunting near the bottom . A large individual can consume over a tenth of its body weight at a single sitting . The bite force exerted by a 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long dusky shark has been measured at 60 kg ( 130 lb ) over the 2 mm2 ( 0 @.@ 0031 in2 ) area at the tip of a tooth . This is the highest figure thus far measured from any shark , though it also reflects the concentration of force at the tooth tip . Dense aggregations of young sharks , forming in response to feeding opportunities , have been documented in the Indian Ocean .
The known diet of the dusky shark encompasses pelagic fishes , including herring and anchovies , tuna and mackerel , billfish , jacks , needlefish and flyingfish , threadfins , hairtails , lancetfish , and lanternfish ; demersal fishes , including mullets , porgies , grunts , and flatheads , eels , lizardfish , cusk eels , gurnards , and flatfish ; reef fishes , including barracudas , goatfish , spadefish , groupers , scorpionfish , and porcupinefish ; cartilaginous fishes , including dogfish , sawsharks , angel sharks , catsharks , thresher sharks , smoothhounds , smaller requiem sharks , sawfish , guitarfish , skates , stingrays , and butterfly rays ; and invertebrates , including cephalopods , decapod crustaceans , barnacles , and sea stars . Very rarely , the largest dusky sharks may also consume sea turtles , marine mammals ( mainly as carrion ) , and human refuse .
In the northwestern Atlantic , around 60 % of the dusky shark 's diet consists of bony fishes , from over ten families with bluefish ( Pomatomus saltatrix ) and summer flounder ( Paralichthys dentatus ) being especially important . Cartilaginous fishes , mainly skates and their egg cases , are the second @-@ most important dietary component , while the lady crab ( Ovalipes ocellatus ) is also a relatively significant food source . In South African and Australian waters , bony fishes are again the most important prey type . Newborn and juvenile sharks subsist mainly on small pelagic prey such as sardines and squid ; older sharks over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long broaden their diets to include larger bony and cartilaginous fishes . The run of the southern African pilchard ( Sardinops sagax ) , occurring off the eastern coast of South Africa every winter , is attended by medium and large @-@ sized dusky sharks . Pregnant and post @-@ partum females do not join , possibly because the energy cost of gestation leaves them unable to pursue such swift prey . One South African study reported that 0 @.@ 2 % of the sharks examined had preyed upon bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other requiem sharks , the dusky shark is viviparous : the developing embryos are initially nourished by a yolk sac , which is converted into a placental connection to the mother once the yolk supply is exhausted . Mating occurs during spring in the northwestern Atlantic , while there appears to be no reproductive seasonality in other regions such as off South Africa . Females are capable of storing masses of sperm , possibly from multiple males , for months to years within their nidamental glands ( an organ that secretes egg cases ) . This would be advantageous given the sharks ' itinerant natures and low natural abundance , which would make encounters with suitable mates infrequent and unpredictable .
With a gestation period estimated at up to 22 – 24 months and a one @-@ year resting period between pregnancies , female dusky sharks bear at most one litter of young every three years . The litter size ranges from 3 to 16 , with 6 to 12 being typical , and does not correlate with female size . Sharks in the western Atlantic tend to produce slightly smaller litters than those from the southeastern Atlantic ( averaging 8 versus 10 pups per litter ) . Depending on region , birthing may occur throughout the year or over a span of several months : newborn sharks have been reported from late winter to summer in the northwestern Atlantic , in summer and fall off Western Australia , and throughout the year with a peak in fall off southern Africa . Females move into shallow inshore habitats such as lagoons to give birth , as such areas offer their pups rich food supplies and shelter from predation ( including from their own species ) , and leave immediately afterward . These nursery areas are known along the coasts of KwaZulu @-@ Natal , southwestern Australia , western Baja California , and the eastern United States from New Jersey to North Carolina .
Newborn dusky sharks measure 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 0 m ( 2 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long ; pup size increases with female size , and decreases with litter size . There is evidence that females can determine the size at which their pups are born , so as to improve their chances of survival across better or worse environmental conditions . Females also provision their young with energy reserves , stored in a liver that comprises one @-@ fifth of the pup 's weight , which sustains the newborn until it learns to hunt for itself . The dusky shark is one of the slowest @-@ growing shark species , reaching sexual maturity only at a substantial size and age ( see table ) . Various studies have found growth rates to be largely similar across geographical regions and between sexes . The annual growth rate is 8 – 11 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) over the first five years of life . The maximum lifespan is believed to be 40 – 50 years or more .
= = Human interactions = =
The dusky shark is considered to be potentially dangerous to humans because of its large size , though little is known of how it behaves towards people underwater . As of 2009 , the International Shark Attack File lists it as responsible for six attacks on people and boats , three of them unprovoked and one fatal . However , attacks attributed to this species off Bermuda and other islands were probably in reality caused by Galapagos sharks . Shark nets used to protect beaches in South Africa and Australia entangle adult and larger juvenile dusky sharks in some numbers . From 1978 to 1999 , an average of 256 individuals were caught annually in nets off KwaZulu @-@ Natal ; species @-@ specific data is not available for nets off Australia . Young dusky sharks adapt well to display in public aquariums .
The dusky shark is one of the most sought @-@ after species for shark fin trade , as its fins are large and contain a high number of internal rays ( ceratotrichia ) . In addition , the meat is sold fresh , frozen , dried and salted , or smoked , the skin is made into leather , and the liver oil is processed for vitamins . Dusky sharks are taken by targeted commercial fisheries operating off eastern North America , southwestern Australia , and eastern South Africa using multi @-@ species longlines and gillnets . The southwestern Australian fishery began in the 1940s and expanded in the 1970s to yield 500 – 600 tons per year . The fishery utilizes selective demersal gillnets that take almost exclusively young sharks under three years old , with 18 – 28 % of all newborns captured in their first year . Demographic models suggest that the fishery is sustainable , provided that the mortality rate of sharks over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long is under 4 % .
In addition to commercial shark fisheries , dusky sharks are also caught as bycatch on longlines meant for tuna and swordfish ( and usually kept for its valuable fins ) , and by recreational fishers . Large numbers of dusky sharks , mostly juveniles , are caught by sport fishers off South Africa and eastern Australia . This shark was once one of the most important species in the Florida trophy shark tournaments , before the population collapsed .
= = = Conservation = = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable in the northwestern Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico . The American Fisheries Society has also assessed North American dusky shark populations as Vulnerable . Its very low reproductive rate renders the dusky shark extremely susceptible to overfishing .
Stocks off the eastern United States are severely overfished ; a 2006 stock assessment survey by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) showed that its population had dropped to 15 – 20 % of 1970s levels . In 1997 , the dusky shark was identified as a Species of Concern by the NMFS , meaning that it warranted conservation concern but there was insufficient information for listing on the U.S. Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) . Commercial and recreational retention of dusky sharks was prohibited in 1998 , but this has been of limited effectiveness due to high bycatch mortality on multi @-@ species gear . In addition , some 2 @,@ 000 dusky sharks were caught by recreational fishers in 2003 despite the ban . In 2005 , North Carolina implemented a time / area closure to reduce the impact of recreational fishing . To aid conservation efforts , molecular techniques using polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) have been developed that can identify whether marketed shark parts ( e.g. fins ) are from prohibited species like the dusky shark , versus similar allowed species such as the sandbar shark .
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= Second Battle of Kharkov =
The Second Battle of Kharkov , was an Axis counter @-@ offensive in the region around Kharkov ( now Kharkiv ) against the Red Army Izium bridgehead offensive conducted 12 – 28 May 1942 , on the Eastern Front during World War II . Its objective was to eliminate the Izium bridgehead over Seversky Donets or the " Barvenkovo bulge " ( Russian : Барвенковский выступ ) which was one of the Soviet offensive 's staging areas . After a winter counter @-@ offensive that drove German troops away from Moscow and also depleted the Red Army 's reserves , the Kharkov offensive was a new Soviet attempt to expand upon their strategic initiative , although it failed to secure a significant element of surprise .
On 12 May 1942 , Soviet forces under the command of Marshal Semyon Timoshenko launched an offensive against the German 6th Army from a salient established during the winter counter @-@ offensive . After initial promising signs , the offensive was stopped by German counterattacks . Critical errors by several staff officers and by Joseph Stalin , who failed to accurately estimate the 6th Army 's potential and overestimated their own newly trained forces , led to a German pincer attack which cut off advancing Soviet troops from the rest of the front . The operation caused almost 300 @,@ 000 Soviet casualties compared to just 20 @,@ 000 for the Germans and their allies .
= = Background = =
= = = General situation on the Eastern Front = = =
By late February 1942 , the Soviet winter counter @-@ offensive , had pushed German forces from Moscow on a broad front and then ended in mutual exhaustion . Stalin was convinced that the Germans were finished and would collapse by the spring or summer 1942 , as he said in his speech of 7 November 1941 . Stalin decided to exploit this perceived weakness on the Eastern Front by launching a new offensive in the spring . Stalin 's decision faced objections from his advisors , including the Chief of the Red Army General Staff , General Boris Shaposhnikov , and generals Aleksandr Vasilevsky and Georgy Zhukov , who argued for a more defensive strategy . Vasilevsky wrote " Yes , we were hoping for [ German reserves to run out ] , but the reality was more harsh than that " . According to Zhukov , Stalin did believe that the Germans were able to carry out operations simultaneously along two strategic axes , he was sure that the opening of spring offensives along the entire front would destabilize the German Army , before it had a chance to initiate what could be a mortal offensive blow on Moscow . Despite the caution urged by his generals , Stalin decided to try to keep the German forces off @-@ balance through " local offensives " .
= = = Choosing the strategy = = =
After the conclusion of the winter offensive , Stalin and the Soviet Armed Forces General Staff ( Stavka ) believed that the eventual German offensives would aim for Moscow , with a big offensive to the south as well , mirroring Operation Barbarossa and Operation Typhoon in 1941 . Although Stavka believed that the Germans had been defeated before Moscow , the seventy divisions which faced Moscow remained a threat . Stalin , most generals and front commanders believed that the principal effort would be a German offensive towards Moscow . Emboldened by the success of the winter offensive , Stalin was convinced that local offensives in the area would wear down German forces , weakening German efforts to mount another operation to take Moscow . Stalin had agreed to prepare the Red Army for an " active strategic defence " but later gave orders for the planning of seven local offensives , stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea . One area was Kharkov , where action was originally ordered for March .
Early that month , the Stavka issued orders to Southwestern Strategic Direction headquarters for an offensive in the region , after the victories following the Rostov Strategic Offensive Operation and the Barvenkovo – Lozovaya Offensive Operation in the Donbas region . The forces of Marshal Semyon Timoshenko and Lieutenant General Kirill Moskalenko penetrated German positions along the northern Donets River , east of Kharkov . Fighting continued into April , with Moskalenko crossing the river and establishing a tenuous bridgehead at Izium . In the south , the Soviet 6th Army had limited success defending against German forces , which managed to keep a bridgehead of their own on the east bank of the river . Catching the attention of Stalin , it set the pace for the prelude to the eventual offensive intended to reach Pavlohrad and Sinelnikovo and eventually Kharkov and Poltava .
By 15 March , Soviet commanders introduced preliminary plans for an offensive towards Kharkov , assisted by a large number of reserves . On 20 March , Timoshenko held a conference in Kupiansk to discuss the offensive and a report to Moscow , prepared by Timoshenko 's chief of staff , General Lieutenant Ivan Baghramian , summed up the conference , although arguably leaving several key intelligence features out . The build @-@ up of Soviet forces in the region of Barvenkovo and Vovchansk continued well into the beginning of May . Final details were settled following discussions between Stalin , Stavka and the leadership of the Southwestern Strategic Direction led by Timoshenko throughout March and April , with one of the final Stavka directives issued on 17 April .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Soviet order of battle = = =
By 11 May 1942 , the Red Army was able to allocate six armies under two fronts , amongst other units . The Soviet Southwestern Front had the 21st Army , 28th Army , 38th Army and the 6th Army . By 11 May , the 21st Tank Corps had been moved into the region with the 23rd Tank Corps , with another 269 tanks . There were also three independent rifle divisions and a rifle regiment from the 270th Rifle Division , concentrated in the area , supported by the 2nd Cavalry Corps in Bogdanovka . The Soviet Southern Front had the 57th and 9th armies , along with thirty rifle divisions , a rifle brigade and the 24th Tank Corps , the 5th Cavalry Corps and three Guards rifle divisions . At its height , the Southern Front could operate eleven guns or mortars per kilometer of front .
Forces regrouping in the sector ran into the rasputitsa , which turned much of the soil into mud . This caused severe delays in the preparations and made reinforcing the Southern and Southwestern Front take longer than expected . Senior Soviet representatives criticized the front commanders for poor management of forces , an inability to stage offensives and for their armchair generalship . Because the regrouping was done so haphazardly , the Germans received some warning of Soviet preparations . Moskalenko , the commander of the 38th Army , placed the blame on the fact that the fronts did not plan in advance to regroup and showed a poor display of front management . ( He commented afterwards that it was no surprise that the " German @-@ Fascist command divined our plans " . )
= = = Soviet leadership and manpower = = =
The primary Soviet leader was Marshal Semyon Timoshenko , a veteran of World War I and the Russian Civil War . Timoshenko had achieved some success at the Battle of Smolensk in 1941 but was eventually defeated . Timoshenko orchestrated the victory at Rostov during the winter counter @-@ attacks and more success in the spring offensive at Kharkov , before to the battle . Overseeing the actions of the army was Military Commissar Nikita Khrushchev .
The average Soviet soldier suffered from inexperience . With the Soviet debacle of the previous year ameliorated only by the barest victory at Moscow , most of the original manpower of the Red Army had been killed , wounded or captured by the Germans , with casualties of almost 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 just from the Battle of Moscow . The typical soldier in the Red Army was a conscript and had little to no combat experience and tactical training was practically nonexistent . Coupled with the lack of trained soldiers , the Red Army also began to suffer from the loss of Soviet industrial areas and a temporary strategic defence was considered necessary .
The General Chief of Staff , Marshal Vasilevsky , recognised that the Soviet Army of 1942 was not ready to conduct big offensive operations against the well @-@ trained German army , because it did not have quantitative and qualitative superiority over the Wehrmacht and because leadership was being rebuilt after the defeats of 1941 . ( This analysis is retrospective and is an analysis on Soviet conduct during their strategic offensives in 1942 , and even beyond , such as Operation Mars in October 1942 and the Battle of Târgul Frumos in May 1944 . )
= = = German preparations = = =
Unknown to the Soviet forces , the German 6th Army , under the newly appointed General Paulus , was issued orders for Operation Fredericus on 30 April 1942 . This operation was to crush the Soviet armies within the Izium salient south of Kharkov , created during the Soviet spring offensives in March and April . This task was given to the 6th Army and the final directive issued on 30 April gave a start date of 18 May .
The Germans had made a big effort to reinforce Army Group South and transferred Field Marshal Fedor von Bock , former commander of Army Group Center during Operation Barbarossa and Operation Typhoon . On 5 April 1942 , Hitler issued Directive 41 , which made the south the main area of operations under Case Blue the summer campaign , at the expense of the other fronts . The divisions of Army Group South were brought up to full strength in late April and early May . The strategic objective was illustrated after the victories of Erich von Manstein and the 11th Army in the Crimea . The main objective remained Caucasus , its oil fields and as a secondary objective , the city of Stalingrad .
The plan to begin Operation Fredericus in April led to more forces being allocated to the area of the German 6th Army . Unknown to the Soviet forces , the German army was regrouping in the center of operations for the offensive around Kharkov . On 10 May , Paulus submitted his final draft of Operation Fridericus and feared a Soviet attack . By then , the German army opposite Timoshenko was ready for the operation towards Caucasus .
= = Soviet offensive = =
= = = Initial success = = =
The Red Army offensive began at 6 : 30 a.m. on 12 May 1942 , led by a concentrated hour @-@ long artillery bombardment and a final twenty @-@ minute air attack upon German positions . The ground offensive began with a dual pincer movement from the Volchansk and Barvenkovo salients at 7 : 30 a.m. The German defences were knocked out by air raids , artillery @-@ fire and coordinated ground attacks against German fortifications . The fighting was so fierce that the Soviets inched forward their second echelon formations , preparing to throw them into combat as well . Fighting was particularly ferocious near the Soviet village of Nepokrytaia , where the Germans launched three local counter @-@ attacks . By dark the deepest Soviet advance was 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . Moskalenko , discovered the movement of several German reserve units and realised that the attack had been opposed by two German divisions , not the one expected , indicating poor Soviet reconnaissance and intelligence @-@ gathering before the battle . A captured diary of a dead German general alluded to the Germans knowing about Soviet plans in the region .
Next day Paulus obtained three infantry divisions and a panzer division for the defence of Kharkov and the Soviet advance was slow , achieving little success except on the left flank . Bock had warned Paulus not to counter @-@ attack without air support , although this was later reconsidered , when several Soviet tank brigades broke through VIII Corps ( General Walter Heitz ) in the Volchansk sector , only 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from Kharkov . In the first 72 hours the 6th Army lost 16 battalions conducting holding actions and local counter @-@ attacks in the heavy rain and mud . By 14 May the Red Army had made impressive gains , several Soviet divisions were so depleted that they were withdrawn and Soviet tank reserves were needed to defeat the German counter @-@ attacks , German losses were estimated to be minimal , with only 35 – 70 tanks believed to have been knocked out in the 3rd and 23rd Panzer divisions .
= = = Luftwaffe = = =
Hitler immediately turned to the Luftwaffe to help blunt the offensive . At this point , its close support corps was deployed in the Crimea , taking part in the siege of Sevastopol . 8th Air Corps under the command of Wolfram von Richthofen was initially ordered to deploy to Kharkov from the Crimea , but the command was rescinded . In an unusual move , Hitler kept it in the Crimea , but did not put the corps under the command of Luftflotte 4 ( Air Fleet 4 ) , which already contained 6th Air Corps , under the command of General Kurt Pflugbeil , and Fliegerführer Süd ( Flying Command South ) , a small anti @-@ shipping command based in the Crimea . Instead , he allowed Richthofen to take charge of all operations over Sevastopol . The siege in the Crimea was not over , and the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula had not yet been won . Still , Hitler was pleased with the progress there and content to keep Richthofen where he was and withdraw air support from Fliegerkorps VIII in order to prevent a Soviet breakthrough at Kharkov . The use of the Luftwaffe to compensate for the German Army 's lack of firepower suggested that the OKW saw the Luftwaffe primarily as a ground support arm . This angered Richthofen who complained that the Luftwaffe was treated as " the army 's whore " . Now that he was not being redeployed to Kharkov , Richthofen also complained about the withdrawal of his units to the region , arguing that the Kerch and Sevastopol battles were ongoing and owing to the transfer of aerial assets to Kharkov , victory in the Crimea was no longer guaranteed . In reality , the Soviet units at Kerch were already routed and the Axis position at Sevastopol was comfortable .
The news that powerful air support was on its way to bolster the 6th Army boosted German morale . Army commanders , such as Paulus and Bock , placed so much confidence in the Luftwaffe that they ordered their forces not to risk an attack without air support . In the meantime , Fliegerkorps VI , was forced to use every available aircraft . Although meeting more numerous Soviet air forces , he achieved air superiority and limited the German ground forces ' losses to Soviet aviation , but with some crews flying more than 10 missions per day . By 15 May , Pflugbeil was reinforced and received Kampfgeschwader 27 ( Bomber Wing 27 , or KG 27 ) , Kampfgeschwader 51 ( KG 51 ) , Kampfgeschwader 55 ( KG 55 ) and Kampfgeschwader 76 ( KG 76 ) equipped with Junkers Ju 88 and Heinkel He 111 bombers . Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 ( Dive Bomber Wing 77 , or StG 77 ) also arrived to add direct ground support . Pflugbeil now had 10 bomber , six fighter and four Junkers Ju 87 Stuka Gruppen ( Groups ) . Logistical difficulties meant that only 54 @.@ 5 per cent were operational .
= = = German defence = = =
German close air support also began to take its toll , forcing units such as the Soviet 38th Army onto the defensive . It ranged over the front , operating dangerously close to the changing frontline . Air interdiction and direct ground support damaged Soviet supply lines and rear areas , also inflicting large losses on their armoured formations . General Franz Halder remarked the air attacks went a long way to breaking the Soviet offensive . The Soviet air force could do very little to stop these air attacks . Not only did the Luftwaffe attack the enemy , it also carried out vital supply missions . Bombers dropped supplies to encircled German units , which could continue to hold out until a counter @-@ offensive relieved them .
On 14 May , the Germans continued to attack Soviet positions in the north in localised offensives and by then , the Luftwaffe had gained air superiority over the Kharkov sector , forcing Timoshenko to move his own air assets forward in order to effectively counter the bolstered Luftflotte 4 . The Luftwaffe won air superiority over their numerically superior , but technically inferior opponents . The air battles depleted the Soviet fighter strength , allowing the German strike aircraft the chance to influence the land battle even more . Nonetheless , the Soviet forces pushed on , disengaging from several minor battles and changing the direction of their thrusts . However , in the face of continued resistance and local counterattacks , the Soviet attack ebbed , especially when combined with the invariably heavy air raids . By the end of the day , the 28th Army could no longer conduct offensive operations against German positions .
Ironically , the Soviet southern pincer did not suffer as terribly as had the shock groups in the north . They achieved spectacular success the first three days of combat , with a deep penetration of German positions . Although intensive fighting also marked the battles in the south , the Red Army routed several key German battalions , including many made up of personnel of foreign descent , including some Hungarian units . The success of the Southern Shock group , however , has been attributed to the fact that the early penetrations in the north had directed German reserves there , thus limiting the reinforcements to the south . But , by 14 May , Hitler had briefed General Ewald von Kleist and ordered his 1st Panzer Army to grab the initiative in a bold counteroffensive , setting the pace for the final launching of Operation Friderikus .
= = = Second phase of the offensive = = =
On 15 and 16 May , another attempted Soviet offensive in the north met the same resistance encountered on the three first days of the battle . German bastions continued to hold out against Soviet assaults . The major contribution to Soviet frustration in the battle was the lack of heavy artillery , which ultimately prevented the taking of heavily defended positions . One of the best examples of this was the defense of Ternovaya , where defending German units absolutely refused to surrender . The fighting was so harsh that , after advancing an average of five kilometers , the offensive stopped for the day in the north . The next day saw a renewal of the Soviet attack , which was largely blocked by counterattacks by German tanks ; the tired Soviet divisions could simply not hold their own against the concerted attacks from the opposition . The south , however , achieved success , much like the earlier days of the battle , although Soviet forces began to face heavier air strikes from German aircraft . The Germans , on the other hand , had spent the day fighting holding actions in both sectors , launching small counterattacks to whittle away at Soviet offensive potential , while continuously moving up reinforcements from the south , including several aircraft squadrons transferred from the Crimea . Poor decisions by the 150th Rifle Division , which had successfully crossed the Barvenkovo River , played a major part in the poor exploitation of the tactical successes of the southern shock group .
= = = 1st Panzer Army counterattacks = = =
On 17 May , supported by Fliegerkorps VI , the German army took the initiative , as Kleist 's 3rd Panzer Corps and 44th Army Corps began a counterattack on the Barvenkovo bridgehead from the area of Aleksandrovka in the south . Aided greatly by air support , Kleist was able to crush Soviet positions and advanced up to ten kilometres in the first day of the attack . Many of the Soviet units were sent to the rear that night to be refitted , while others were moved forward to reinforce tenuous positions across the front . That same day , Timoshenko reported the move to Moscow and asked for reinforcements and described the day 's failures . Vasilevsky 's attempts to gain approval for a general withdrawal were rejected by Stalin .
On 18 May , the situation worsened and Stavka suggested once more stopping the offensive and ordering the 9th Army to break out of the salient . Timoshenko and Khruschev claimed that the danger coming from Wehrmacht 's Kramatorsk group was exaggerated , and Stalin refused the withdrawal again . The consequences of losing the air battle were also apparent . On 18 May the Fliegerkorps VI destroyed 130 tanks and 500 motor vehicles , while adding another 29 tanks destroyed on 19 May .
On 19 May , Paulus , on orders from Bock , began a general offensive from the area of Merefa in the north of the bulge in an attempt to encircle the remaining Soviet forces in the Izium salient . Only then did Stalin authorize Zhukov to stop the offensive and fend off German flanking forces . However , it was already too late . Quickly , the Germans achieved considerable success against Soviet defensive positions . The 20 May saw more of the same , with the German forces closing in from the rear . More German divisions were committed to the battle that day , shattering several Soviet counterparts , allowing the Germans to press forward . The Luftwaffe also intensified operations over the Donets River to prevent Soviet forces escaping . Ju 87s from StG 77 destroyed five of the main bridges and damaged four more while Ju 88 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 3 ( KG 3 ) inflicted heavy losses on retreating motorised and armoured columns .
Although Timoshenko 's forces successfully regrouped on 21 May , he ordered a withdrawal of Army Group Kotenko by the end of 22 May , while he prepared an attack for 23 May , to be orchestrated by the 9th and 57th Armies . Although the Red Army desperately attempted to fend off advancing Wehrmacht and launched local counterattacks to relieve several surrounded units , they generally failed . By the end of May 24 , Soviet forces opposite Kharkov had been surrounded by German formations , which had been able to transfer several more divisions to the front , increasing the pressure on the Soviet flanks and finally forcing them to collapse .
= = = Soviet encirclement = = =
The 25 May saw the first major Soviet attempt to break the encirclement . German Major General Hubert Lanz described the attacks as gruesome , made en masse . By 26 May , the surviving Red Army soldiers were forced into crowded positions in an area of roughly fifteen square kilometers . Soviet attempts to break into the German encirclement from the east were continuously blocked using tenacious defensive manoeuvres and German air power . Groups of Soviet tanks and infantry that attempted to escape and succeeded in breaking through German lines were caught and destroyed by Ju 87s from StG 77 . In the face of determined German operations , Timoshenko ordered the official halt of all Soviet offensive manoeuvres on 28 May , while attacks to break out of the encirclement continued until 30 May . Nonetheless , less than one man in ten managed to break out of the " Barvenkovo mousetrap " . Beevor puts Soviet losses in terms of prisoners as 240 @,@ 000 ( with the bulk of their armour ) , while Glantz — citing Krivosheev — gives a total of 277 @,@ 190 overall Soviet casualties . Both tend to agree on a low German casualty count , with the most formative rounding being at 20 @,@ 000 dead , wounded and missing . Regardless of the casualties , Kharkov was a major Soviet setback ; it put an end to the successes of the Red Army during the winter counteroffensive .
= = Analysis and conclusions = =
Many authors have attempted to pinpoint the reasons for the Soviet defeat . Several Soviet generals have placed the blame on the inability of Stavka and Stalin to appreciate the Wehrmacht 's military power on the Eastern Front after their defeats in the winter of 1941 – 1942 and in the spring of 1942 . On the subject , Zhukov sums up in his memoirs that the failure of this operation was quite predictable , since the offensive was organized very ineptly , the risk of exposing the left flank of the Izium salient to German counterattacks being obvious on a map . Still according to Zhukov , the main reason for the stinging Soviet defeat lay in the mistakes made by Stalin , who underestimated the danger coming from German armies in the southwestern sector ( as opposed to the Moscow sector ) and failed to take steps to concentrate any substantial strategic reserves there to meet any potential German threat . Furthermore , Stalin ignored sensible advice provided by his own General Chief of Staff , who recommended organising a strong defence in the southwestern sector in order to be able to repulse any Wehrmacht attack .
Additionally , the subordinate Soviet generals ( especially South @-@ Western Front generals ) were just as willing to continue their own winter successes , and much like the German generals , under @-@ appreciated the strength of their enemies , as pointed out a posteriori by the commander of the 38th Army , Kirill Moskalenko . The Soviet winter counteroffensive weakened the Wehrmacht , but did not destroy it . As Moskalenko recalls , quoting an anonymous soldier , " these fascists woke up after they hibernated " .
Stalin 's willingness to expend recently conscripted armies , which were poorly trained and poorly supplied , illustrated a misconception of realities , both in the capabilities of the Red Army and the subordinate arms of the armed forces , and in the abilities of the Germans to defend themselves and successfully launch a counteroffensive . The latter proved especially true in the subsequent Case Blue , which led to the Battle of Stalingrad , though this was the battle in which Paulus faced an entirely different outcome .
The battle had shown the potential of the Soviet armies to successfully conduct an offensive . This battle can be seen as one of the first major instances in which the Soviets attempted to preempt a German summer offensive . This later unfolded and grew as Stavka planned and conducted Operation Mars , Operation Uranus and Operation Saturn . Although only two of the three were victories , it still offers concise and telling evidence of the ability of the Soviets to turn the war in their favor . This finalised itself after the Battle of Kursk in July 1943 . The Second Battle of Kharkov also had a positive effect on Stalin , who started to trust his commanders and his Chief of Staff more ( allowing the latter to have the last word in naming front commanders for instance ) . After the great purge in 1937 , failing to anticipate the war in 1941 , and underestimating German military power in 1942 , Stalin finally fully trusted his military .
Within the context of the battle itself , the failure of the Red Army to properly regroup during the prelude to the battle and the ability of the Germans to effectively collect intelligence on Soviet movements played an important role in the outcome . Poor Soviet performance in the north and equally poor intelligence @-@ gathering at the hands of Stavka and front headquarters , also eventually spelled doom for the offensive . Nonetheless , despite this poor performance , it underscored a dedicated evolution of operations and tactics within the Red Army which borrowed and refined the pre @-@ war theory , Soviet deep battle .
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= Aquaman ( TV pilot ) =
Aquaman is a television pilot developed by Smallville creators Al Gough and Miles Millar for The WB Television Network , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Gough and Millar wrote the pilot , which was directed by Greg Beeman . Justin Hartley starred as Arthur " A.C. " Curry , a young man living in a beachside community in the Florida Keys who learns about his powers and destiny as the Prince of Atlantis .
The Aquaman pilot was expected to debut in the fall schedule of 2006 , but following the merger of the WB and UPN , the resulting CW Network opted not to buy the series . After they passed on the pilot , it was made available online through iTunes in the United States and became the number @-@ one most downloaded television show on iTunes . It received generally favorable reviews , was later released on other online markets , and aired on Canadian television network YTV .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The concept of Aquaman stemmed from a fifth season episode of Smallville , " Aqua " . The episode featured Arthur Curry ( Alan Ritchson ) coming to Smallville to stop an underwater weapons project being developed by LuthorCorp . " Aqua " became the highest rated episode for Smallville that season , but it was never meant to be a backdoor pilot for an Aquaman series . However , as work progressed on " Aqua " , the character was recognized to have potential for his own series . Miles Millar and Alfred Gough , the creators of Smallville , also considered a series featuring Lois Lane , but felt more confident about Aquaman . Millar said , " [ Aquaman ] was the first idea where we really thought we had a franchise where we could see 100 episodes . "
Alan Ritchson was not considered for the role in the new series , because Gough and Millar did not consider it a spin @-@ off from Smallville . Gough said in November 2005 , " [ The series ] is going to be a different version of the ' Aquaman ' legend . " Gough did express the idea of a crossover with Smallville at some point . There was initial speculation that the show 's title would not be Aquaman . Tempest Keys and Mercy Reef were rumored to be the working titles for the series . The show would eventually be listed as Aquaman , when it was later released on iTunes . Greg Beeman , who has produced and directed episodes of Smallville , was hired to direct the pilot .
= = = Casting = = =
The role of Arthur Curry was originally given to Will Toale , after Gough and Millar saw over 400 candidates from England , Australia , Canada and the United States . Before filming began , Toale was replaced with Justin Hartley . A CW spokesman said , " We have made the decision to go in a different direction with the Aquaman role and wish [ Toale ] the best of luck in all of his endeavors . " Graham Bentz was cast as a young Arthur Curry , while Adrianne Palicki was cast as a Siren named Nadia . Ving Rhames , Amber McDonald , Denise Quiñones , Rick Peters , and Lou Diamond Phillips filled in the rest of the regular cast members .
Four of the cast members guest starred on Smallville before the Aquaman pilot . Denise Quiñones played Andrea Rojas in the season five episode " Vengeance " , while Adrianne Palicki appeared in the season three episode " Covenant " . Rick Peters was cast as Bob Rickman in the season one episode " Hug " . Kenny Johnson , who briefly appears as the Sheriff in the pilot 's opening , guest starred in the season five episode " Mortal " .
= = = Filming = = =
Production was based in North Miami , Florida ; filming began in March 2006 with an estimated budget of $ 7 million . Practical and exterior footage was shot around Coconut Grove , Miami . Some scenes were filmed on location at the Homestead Joint Air Reserve Base adjacent to Homestead , Florida . The 482nd Fighter Wing Airmen were used as extras while filming at the base , along with several of their fighter aircraft . The production was expected to continue in June of that year , had it been given the greenlight .
Some of the actors received training from Staff Sergeant Leo Castellano on the proper way to present arms . Much of the filming took place underwater ; Hartley filmed his underwater scenes without a tank , breathing from the safety divers ' tanks around him for the scenes out on the ocean . Hartley had never been scuba diving and was not a diver , but did say that he was a good swimmer . Entity FX , the firm which did the special effects for Smallville since its second season , was contracted to work on the Aquaman pilot .
= = Cast and characters = =
Justin Hartley as Arthur " A.C. " Curry / Aquaman : The central character of the show . He runs a dive shop in his day @-@ to @-@ day life . However , Arthur is aware of his special abilities , but uses them for fun before learning in the pilot episode of his destiny as the lost Prince of Atlantis .
Lou Diamond Phillips as Tom Curry : A Coast Guard officer . While in his rookie year , he rescues the infant Arthur ( then named Orin ) , Atlanna , and McCaffery from shark @-@ infested waters . He later falls in love with Atlanna , marrying her and adopting her son .
Denise Quiñones as Lt. Rachel Torres : A fighter pilot . She meets Arthur when he rescues her after her jet crashes in the ocean . She is then asked by Brigman to aid in his investigation .
Rick Peters as Admiral Brigman : A U.S. Navy officer who has been investigating the apparent resurfacing of people around Mercy Reef who were lost in the Bermuda Triangle , some , as much as 40 years ago .
Ving Rhames as McCaffery : A lighthouse keeper and A.C. ' s mentor . He is also an Atlantean .
Amber McDonald as Eva : A.C. ' s business partner ; together they run a dive shop in Tempest Keys . The two are close friends .
Adrianne Palicki as Nadia : A siren and the villain of the story . She is the one responsible for the murder of Atlanna .
Daniella Wolters as Atlanna : A.C. ' s mother ; she was taken from him when he was young , and her disappearance has mystified A.C. ever since . She was the first to call him " Orin " .
= = Pilot summary = =
A.C. and his mother Atlanna are flying over the Bermuda Triangle . As they get closer , Atlanna 's necklace begins to glow and a surge of light and energy erupts from the ocean , causing cyclones which bring their plane down . Atlanna is kidnapped by a siren , but not before giving A.C. her necklace and calling him Orin . Ten years later , A.C. is charged for releasing dolphins from a marine park . His father bails him out of trouble , but gives him a stern lecture on responsibility . Later , A.C. tells his friend Eva that he felt like the dolphins were calling to him . While he 's working , he is approached by a lighthouse keeper who identifies himself as McCaffery . The Coast Guard picks up an unidentified man , floating in the Bermuda Triangle and pleading to warn Orin . Lt. Torres is sent to investigate the area . A.C. is also at the Triangle , and his necklace triggers another surge of light , which causes Torres to crash her jet . Brigman transports the John Doe to another facility , and persuades Torres to join his team . Brigman is looking for a connection between the disappearances of thousands of individuals , and their reappearance years later without ever aging a day .
That evening , A.C. meets Nadia and she convinces him to go swimming . In the water , Nadia reveals herself to not only be a Siren , but the one that took his mother . A.C. barely escapes with a little help from McCaffery . McCaffery explains that he , Arthur and Arthur 's mother were all exiled from Atlantis , and that A.C. is the prince of Atlantis . Arthur convinces Eva to leave Tempest Key for a few days , but it comes too late as Nadia injures Eva and captures Arthur . When he wakes up , A.C. finds that Nadia has also captured McCaffery and she is bringing them both back to Atlantis to be executed . Breaking free using a flask of water to enhance his strength , A.C. destroys Nadia by putting a spear through her head . The next morning , McCaffery explains that there will be more creatures that will come looking for A.C. and that he should have started his training years prior . A.C. agrees to start his training , and McCaffery leaves him with Henry IV Part 1 and Part 2 to read . McCaffery informs Arthur who would rather just skip to the ending that " It isn 't about the ending , it 's about the journey . "
Ideas for future episodes focused on environmental threats , such as " ocean polluters " and " evil oil companies . " The first 13 episodes already planned out , with a possible story arc involving McCaffery being captured and taken back to Atlantis . Stories regarding mythology were set to play a small role in later episodes . Gough and Millar chose to go with a more classic version , from the comics , of Aquaman 's mythology . Gough stated , " Unlike Superman , there really isn 't a set core mythology for Arthur Curry . There are a couple different versions of it . We went with the most classic one . "
= = Abilities and weakness = =
Hartley explained that Arthur would be aware of his powers at the beginning of the series and would have no problem using them for personal gain . Hartley felt this played against the typical superheroes , because his character was not afraid to flaunt his abilities . Gough explained A.C. would be able to swim faster than humans , breathe underwater , as well as have super strength while underwater . He also stated that exposure to water on land would give him powers . The extent of his speed is shown in the pilot , when Arthur is able to keep up with a fighter jet flying above him . The extent of A.C. ' s ability to breathe underwater was not elaborated upon , but he is seen swimming near the bottom of the ocean near the start of the pilot . When A.C. is talking to Eva about releasing captive dolphins , he tells her that he felt as though the dolphins were somehow calling to him . In the comics , one of Aquaman 's powers is the ability to communicate with sea life . Gough likened A.C. ' s not having access to water to Clark 's growing weak around kryptonite in Smallville – if A.C. does not get water , he will dehydrate and weaken . Water gives him a power boost and enables producers to explore stories on land .
= = Release = =
The pilot was considered to have a good chance of being picked up , but ultimately the CW passed on the show . Discussing the excitement surrounding the project , Lou Diamond Phillips said , " The funny thing about the Aquaman project is that there 's so much buzz about it already . Which is amazing , I mean you don 't usually get that with a pilot , because they 're sort of sight unseen . " There were reports of two WB pilots in contention for the new CW network , one being Aquaman , which was a frontrunner . On May 18 , 2006 , when The CW announced its fall lineup Aquaman was not on the list . Dawn Ostroff , The CW 's president of entertainment , stated that it was still a midseason contender .
Gough and Miller were so passionate about the pilot that they wanted it released in some form so the fans could see it . Gough said in an interview , " The implication when a network doesn 't pick up a show is that the pilot sucks and that 's not the case . It 's not a perfect pilot by any stretch of the imagination . There are other reasons — which are a mystery to us — as to why The CW didn 't pick it up . " He mentioned a potential release as an extended episode during the sixth season of Smallville .
On July 24 , 2006 , the pilot became one of the first shows offered by Warner Brothers on the iTunes Store ( available only to US customers ) for $ 1 @.@ 99 , under the title Aquaman . Within a week , it reached the number @-@ one spot on the list of most downloaded TV shows on the digital store 's list , and it held that spot for over a week . Gough stated , " At least the pilot is now getting its day in court with the fans , and the reviews have all been very positive . " It became the first show available on iTunes which had not previously aired on a network . The pilot was released the week of March 12 , 2007 on the Xbox Live Video Marketplace . By March 24 , 2007 , the pilot reached # 6 on the Video Marketplace 's top downloads . On June 9 , 2007 , Canadian television network YTV , aired the pilot as part of their " Superhero Saturday . " Warner Home Video in association with Best Buy released the pilot as a promotional DVD on November 11 , 2007 , bundling it together with selected Smallville season sets . On February 23 , 2009 , Warner Bros. attached it as a bonus feature to the Blu @-@ ray release of Justice League : Crisis on Two Earths .
Critical response was generally positive . The pilot was found comparable in quality to Smallville , with suggestions that Aquaman was indeed worthy of a place on The CW 's schedule . The cast was well received ; in addition , Hartley was praised for his portrayal of Arthur Curry . Cinematography and underwater special effects were well received . Reviews that were not as positive did concede the show had potential . The project was commended for keeping the comic book myth fresh and exciting for a modern audience . IGN had a different opinion of the show , calling it " dead in the water " , and comparing it to " cheesy cult classics , such as Shazam ! " .
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= New York State Route 59 =
New York State Route 59 ( NY 59 ) is an east – west state highway in southern Rockland County , New York , in the United States . The route extends for 14 @.@ 08 miles ( 22 @.@ 66 km ) from NY 17 in Hillburn to U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) in Nyack . In Suffern , it has a concurrency with US 202 for 0 @.@ 05 miles ( 0 @.@ 08 km ) . NY 59 runs parallel to the New York State Thruway its entire route . The routing of NY 59 became a state highway in 1911 and was signed as NY 59 in the late 1920s .
When NY 59 was first assigned , it began at NY 17 in Suffern . A western bypass of Suffern was designated as New York State Route 339 c . 1932 ; however , it became part of a realigned NY 17 in the mid @-@ 1930s . NY 339 was reassigned to NY 17 's former routing between Hillburn and Suffern , but it was replaced again c . 1937 by an extended NY 59 . In the 1960s , proposals surfaced for the Spring Valley Bypass , a highway that would utilize the NY 59 corridor between NY 306 in Monsey and NY 45 in Spring Valley . The proposed highway was never built .
= = Route description = =
NY 59 begins at an intersection with NY 17 in Hillburn , just south of the village of Sloatsburg in southern Rockland County . It heads to the southeast as the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway , crossing over the Ramapo River and the Norfolk Southern Railway before following both into Suffern . The river leaves NY 59 just inside the village line ; however , the railroad continues to run alongside NY 59 into the center of Suffern , where both pass under the New York State Thruway near where Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 ) connects to I @-@ 287 .
Just south of the I @-@ 87 overpass , NY 59 meets US 202 at Wayne Avenue . US 202 joins NY 59 for a one block wrong way concurrency along Orange Avenue — as NY 59 eastbound is paired with US 202 westbound and vice versa — during which time both routes cross the Norfolk Southern Railway at @-@ grade . At the end of the overlap , US 202 continues south along Orange Avenue to the New Jersey state line while NY 59 forks eastward toward central Rockland County . As NY 59 leaves Suffern and enters Airmont , it passes Good Samaritan Hospital , a major hospital in Rockland County . While in Airmont , NY 59 intersects County Route 89 ( CR 89 ) and CR 85 . After leaving Airmont , NY 59 proceeds east through Monsey , where it intersects the southern terminus of NY 306 .
As NY 59 passes Spring Valley High School , it enters the village limits of Spring Valley . While in Spring Valley , NY 59 has an overlap with CR 35A for about a tenth of a mile and meets the Thruway at exit 14 . The route continues eastward into Nanuet , where NY 59 passes through a heavy commercialized area . Before its busy intersection with CR 33 , NY 59 passes The Shops at Nanuet to its south and the Rockland Plaza to its north .
Upon entering West Nyack , NY 59 intersects the Palisades Interstate Parkway ( exit 8 ) and NY 304 . The route proceeds onward , passing Palisades Center , one of the largest shopping malls in the country . Immediately after passing the Palisades Center , NY 59 briefly enters Central Nyack . Here it connects to NY 303 by way of an interchange . Before hitting the Nyack village line , NY 59 has its final interchange with the Thruway . The southbound entrance to the Tappan Zee Bridge is via Mountainview Avenue , and the northbound entrance is via Polhemus Street .
At the Nyack line , NY 59 becomes known as Main Street . As Main Street , NY 59 runs under the Thruway one final time before the Thruway heads over the bridge . The route continues toward downtown Nyack ; however , it ends at an intersection with US 9W before it reaches the central district . Main Street continues for several blocks into downtown Nyack .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
NY 59 originated as the Nyack Turnpike , which was the first major thoroughfare in Rockland County . A petition was filed in 1813 to construct the turnpike . Legislation stemming from the petition was passed on April 17 , 1816 , allowing construction to begin . The Nyack Turnpike was completed from Suffern to Nyack in the 1830s , despite many years of local opposition to the highway . Its charter was renewed multiple times throughout the 19th century , and it was designated as a toll road to help pay for its upkeep . In 1894 , the turnpike was absorbed into the Rockland County road system .
The turnpike was turned over from the county to the state of New York on July 14 , 1911 , and added to the state highway system as part of Route 39 @-@ b , an unsigned legislative route extending from Nyack ( at Broadway ) to Harriman via modern NY 59 and NY 17 . The Route 39 @-@ b designation was eliminated on March 1 , 1921 , as part of a partial renumbering of New York 's legislative route system . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of former Route 39 @-@ b between Suffern and Harriman became part of NY 17 . The remainder of the route from Nyack to Suffern was not given a number .
= = = Designation = = =
The Suffern – Nyack highway remained unnumbered until the late 1920s when was designated as NY 59 . At the time , NY 59 was routed on West Nyack Road between Nanuet and Central Nyack . The route was rendered unchanged in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . A western bypass of Suffern was designated as NY 339 c . 1932 . The north – south highway left NY 17 at the hamlet of Ramapo and followed the modern New York State Thruway and I @-@ 287 corridors south through Hillburn to the New Jersey state line . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the alignments of NY 17 and NY 339 south of Ramapo were swapped , placing NY 17 on the bypass and NY 339 on the Ramapo – Suffern route . In Suffern , NY 339 ended at a junction with US 202 just one block north of NY 59 's western terminus . NY 339 was replaced by an extended NY 59 c . 1937 .
In the early 1950s , construction began on a bypass of West Nyack Road between Nanuet and West Nyack . The highway was completed c . 1955 and became part of a realigned NY 59 . The portion of NY 59 's former routing that did not overlap NY 304 was redesignated as NY 59A . This designation was short @-@ lived as it was removed from West Nyack Road in the late 1950s . In 1960 , control of the highway was turned over to the town of Clarkstown , and parts of NY 59A 's former routing were abandoned . A local company carried out work to convert the highway into a shopping center access road ; however , Rockland County asserted that the town — and by extension the company — had no rights to perform this action . The county sued the company that helped improve the highway in 2002 .
= = = Traffic problems = = =
In 1958 , Ramapo town engineer Edwin Wallace noticed an increase in the amount of traffic passing through the village of Spring Valley , which had become the largest village in Rockland County by this time . This led Wallace to propose a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) bypass of NY 59 in Monsey and NY 45 in Hillcrest . Rockland County approved the proposed bypass two years later . In 1966 , the Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission released its long @-@ term highway report for the area . The new study replaced the Spring Valley Bypass with the NY 45 expressway , a north – south bypass of Spring Valley connecting the Garden State Parkway to the Palisades Interstate Parkway . The road would serve a steadily growing area of commercial businesses along the NY 45 corridor . No action was taken on this proposal .
With the Spring Valley Bypass plan shelved , traffic continued to pour through the Spring Valley – Nanuet area . In 1987 , a task force was introduced to come up with a plan to solve this issue . Traffic became even worse when the Nanuet Mall expanded in 1994 . NYSDOT tried to fix the worsening situation in 1995 when they reconstructed almost 3 miles ( 5 km ) of NY 59 from the eastern border of Spring Valley to exit 8 of the Palisades Interstate Parkway . The project widened the road to six lanes , helping to move traffic through the area from Grandview to Middletown Roads in Nanuet . In 1997 , the New York State Thruway Authority dropped the Spring Valley toll on the Thruway for all motorists except truckers . This helped reduce traffic on NY 59 between exits 14A and 14B .
Shortly after the traffic problems in Nanuet were reduced , the focus was shifted to West Nyack where Palisades Center was being constructed . First proposed in the late 1980s , construction finally started in 1995 . This caused major delays for motorists when a bridge was constructed from NY 59 to Palisades Center south parking lot . To keep this portion of NY 59 from being overloaded with mall goers , exit 12 of the Thruway with NY 303 was re @-@ routed through Palisades Center via Palisades Center Drive .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Rockland County .
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= Wilkins Peak =
Wilkins Peak is a small mountain located in Sweetwater County , Wyoming , between the cities of Green River and Rock Springs . It is primarily used for radio and television station transmitters , but it also serves radio needs of the FAA , EMS , and local businesses such as Questar Gas . In 2003 , a tower on the peak was knocked down by a vehicle delivering propane to customers . The tower was owned by Wyoming Public Radio and was serving the local area with programming from National Public Radio . There are numerous access roads to the peak and it is not gated and open year round , weather permitting . Along with the radio uses , the mountain is also a popular location for mountain biking and hiking . The mountain contains geology typical of its location in southwestern Wyoming .
= = Geology = =
Along with other mountains in southwestern Wyoming , Wilkins Peak is part of the Green River Formation , a formation of the intermontane Lake Gosiute environment during the Eocene epoch . Similar to its neighboring Aspen Mountain , Wilkins Peak is part of the Rock Springs Uplift , and some of the largest oil shale and trona beds in the region are located near the mountain . Wilkins Peak also has its own distinct segment of the Green River Formation , which is known as the Wilkins Peak Formation . The peak itself is 7 @,@ 650 feet ( 2 @,@ 332 m ) in elevation and is located 8 @.@ 18 miles ( 13 km ) from Rock Springs , Wyoming and 6 @.@ 3 miles ( 10 km ) from Green River , Wyoming .
= = Radio and television uses = =
Wilkins Peak holds radio towers for several FM radio and television stations . Stations include KYCS ( 95 @.@ 1 FM ) and its sister stations KFRZ ( 92 @.@ 1 FM ) and KZWB ( 97 @.@ 9 FM ) . Also on the mountain is the tower for the station KTME 89 @.@ 5 , which signed on the air in September 2010 . KTME is an affiliate of Pilgrim Radio . Several television translators transmit their signals from two small towers located in the center of Wilkins Peak . Additionally , the religious television network TBN has a translator known locally as K35CN , broadcasting from the mountain . Prior to 2009 , K22BK , the local PBS television translator , carried its signal from Wilkins Peak . K22BK was moved across the interstate to White Mountain to the same tower as its digital counterpart . In late 2009 , a new television station signed on the air from the peak . It is known as K33IX @-@ D on channel 33 ( UHF ) and carries programming from EICB TV , a Christian religious broadcast and production company , based in Cedar Hill , Texas . K35CN and K22BK have been off the air since the digital television transition in the year 2009 .
= = = FM translators = = =
Among high powered FM radio stations , Wilkins Peak is also currently host to three lower powered FM translators . K205FE carries a Gospel format on 88 @.@ 9 FM . K285FG retransmits programming from AM station KUGR on 104 @.@ 9 FM . Finally , K290BJ carries programming from KZWB 97 @.@ 9 FM .
= = = Other radio related uses = = =
Wilkins Peak also has repeater towers for local police , fire , and EMS services . The emergency radio repeaters on the mountain are used in conjunction with other repeaters located on nearby Aspen Mountain and Mansface Hill .
In September 2003 , a commercial truck delivering propane to customers on the peak knocked down the then @-@ existent KUWZ tower after the vehicle 's brakes failed . The collapse of the tower knocked out power to the mountain for several hours , and while KUWZ borrowed space from neighboring towers for several months thereafter , the station ultimately relocated its transmitter to nearby Aspen Mountain .
= = Accessing the peak = =
Wilkins Peak is not gated , and it can be reached via an unpaved road known as Wilkins Peak Road that starts on U.S. Route 191 southwest of Rock Springs , Wyoming . The mountain can also be accessed via another unpaved road that begins in the Scott 's Bottom Nature Area in Green River , Wyoming . The peak is accessible year @-@ round , weather permitting . The Green River access road is in worse shape than the Rock Springs side , and it has several road hazards such as steep grades , poor grading , and off @-@ road vehicle traffic . Along with serving radio needs , the peak also is a popular hiking and mountain biking location in the area . There are many smaller roads and trails that spring from the peak that offer varied degrees of challenge .
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= A Golden Crown =
" A Golden Crown " is the sixth episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones , first aired on May 22 , 2011 . The teleplay was written by Jane Espenson , David Benioff and D.B. Weiss from a story by Benioff and Weiss , and directed by Daniel Minahan .
The episode 's plot depicts the deterioration of the political balance of the seven kingdoms , with Eddard Stark having to deal with the Lannister aggressions while King Robert is away on a hunt . At the Eyrie , Tyrion is put on trial , and across the Narrow Sea , Viserys Targaryen is determined to force Khal Drogo to make him king .
The episode was well received by critics , who praised aspects of the King 's Landing storyline and the culmination of Viserys ' storyline .
= = Plot = =
Like previous episodes , " A Golden Crown " interweaves action happening in multiple separate locations within and around the Kingdom of Westeros .
= = = In the North = = =
Bran Stark ( Isaac Hempstead @-@ Wright ) is awakened from one of his recurring dreams of a three @-@ eyed crow with the pleasant surprise that the specially designed saddle that will allow him to ride has been finished . He goes to test it in the forest under the supervision of his brother Robb ( Richard Madden ) and Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) .
While Theon is trying to convince Robb to avenge his father for the Lannisters ' attack , a small group of wildlings ( humans who live north of the wall , outside of " civilized " lands ) , who have ventured south , capture Bran . Robb and Theon manage to kill all the men and capture the woman Osha ( Natalia Tena ) . Despite Theon 's help , Robb chastises him for endangering Bran 's life when Theon shot an arrow at the wildling who was holding Bran .
= = = In the Eyrie = = =
Tyrion ( Peter Dinklage ) is able to trick Lysa Arryn ( Kate Dickie ) into summoning a court to listen to his confession , at which he confesses various misdemeanours committed during his life , but nothing about the attempt on Bran 's life or Lysa 's husband 's death . After , Tyrion publicly demands a trial by combat , and the mercenary Bronn ( Jerome Flynn ) volunteers to fight for him . Lysa Arryn has no choice but to allow it . Bronn defeats Lysa 's champion Ser Vardis Egen ( Brendan McCormack ) by tiring the heavily armored knight and kicking him out the Moon Door , and Tyrion is allowed to walk free with Bronn as his escort , much to the dismay of the Tully sisters .
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
Eddard Stark ( Sean Bean ) awakens in his chambers with Robert ( Mark Addy ) and Cersei ( Lena Headey ) watching him . Cersei accuses Eddard of kidnapping her brother , Tyrion , and claims Eddard was drunk and attacked Jaime first , but she is silenced by a slap from Robert . After she leaves , Robert tells Eddard that he cannot rule the kingdoms if the Lannisters and Starks are at war and insists that Eddard remain the Hand of the King , or else Robert will give the position to Jaime . Robert also informs Eddard that he will be regent while Robert is away on a hunting trip .
Meanwhile , Arya ( Maisie Williams ) deals with her father 's injury and her loss of Jory during her sword @-@ dance lessons ; Syrio ( Miltos Yerolemou ) tells her it 's a perfect opportunity for her to learn to avoid distraction while fighting . In the Starks ' common room , Sansa ( Sophie Turner ) and Septa Mordane are interrupted by Prince Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) , who apologizes to Sansa for his earlier behavior and gives her a necklace , vowing that she will become his queen in an elaborate wedding ceremony . Sansa happily accepts the apology , unaware Joffrey has been forced into it by his mother .
While acting as regent , Eddard learns that Ser Gregor " The Mountain " Clegane was spotted leading brigands and attacking villages in the Riverlands . Realizing this is revenge for Tyrion 's arrest , Eddard orders Ser Beric Dondarrion ( David Michael Scott ) to secure Gregor 's arrest , strips him of his lands and titles , and summons his Lord Tywin Lannister to answer for Gregor 's actions . Fearing war with the Lannisters and for his daughters ' lives , he orders Arya and Sansa to return to Winterfell for their safety . Sansa protests and mentions Joffrey 's blond hair ; Eddard realizes something and re @-@ reads the book of lineages of the Baratheon family . Doing so , he puts the pieces together : Joffrey does not have black hair like his father , his father 's ancestors , and Robert 's bastards whom he and Jon Arryn had been researching . Eddard concludes Joffrey is not Robert 's real son .
= = = In Vaes Dothrak = = =
Daenerys ( Emilia Clarke ) takes one of the dragon eggs and places it on a glowing @-@ hot brazier . She reaches in and picks up the blisteringly hot egg . Her handmaiden rushes in to take the hot egg from her hands , burning herself in the process , but Daenerys ' hands are completely unscathed .
Daenerys begins the ritual with the Dosh Khaleen by eating the raw heart of a stallion . After some struggle , she completes the task and stands up to proclaim her unborn son as the Khal who will unite the entire world as one khalasar , and she names him Rhaego . Viserys ( Harry Lloyd ) grows angry at his sister 's increasing popularity among the Dothraki , but Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) urges patience . Viserys ignores him and sneaks away to Daenerys ' tent to steal the dragon eggs to fund a new army . However , Jorah confronts him , forcing Viserys to leave the eggs behind . Viserys storms off after a tense exchange of words between the two men .
Later , at a feast for Daenerys and Khal Drogo , a drunken Viserys draws his sword on his sister , threatening that if the Khal does not give him an army to take back the Seven Kingdoms , he will take back Daenerys and cut out her child . Khal Drogo agrees to give him the " golden crown " that he wants , and Viserys lets his guard down , allowing Drogo 's bloodriders to restrain him . Drogo melts his belt in a stewpot , and Viserys realises to his horror that the " golden crown " is actually molten gold , which Drogo pours on his head . Daenerys watches her brother 's painful death calmly , and coldly observes : " He was no dragon . Fire cannot kill a dragon . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The teleplay for " A Golden Crown " was written by Jane Espenson , David Benioff and D. B. Weiss from a story by Benioff and Weiss , based on A Game of Thrones by George R. R. Martin . The episode includes the book 's chapters 38 @-@ 41 , 44 @-@ 45 and 47 ( Bran V , Tyrion V , Eddard X , Catelyn VII , Eddard XI , Sansa III , and Daenerys V ) . Chapter 42 ( Jon V ) , dealing with Jon convincing Maester Aemon to allow Samwell to join the Watch as a steward , was removed from the series , and chapter 43 ( Tyrion VI ) was moved to episode 8 .
= = = Casting = = =
The episode introduces the recurring character of the wildling Osha . The writer of the original books , George R. R. Martin , admitted that this casting was different from his vision of the character . As he explains , he was surprised to see that actress Natalia Tena was being considered for the role since Osha had been conceived as a hard @-@ bitten older woman and the actress was " too young and too hot . " However , when he saw the audition tapes he was convinced with the new approach : " she was sensational , and I said , ' It 's gotta be her . ' "
= = = Staging and props = = =
The scene in which Daenerys has to eat a horse 's heart was filmed in The Paint Hall studio in Belfast . There , the production built the Dothraki temple in which the scene is set – a large semicircular structure of wood and woven reeds , inspired by Marsh Arab constructions . The heart actress Emilia Clarke ate was , according to Weiss , " basically a giant , three @-@ pound gummi bear covered in fake sugar blood – which has the added attraction of drawing real flies . " Through repeated takes , Clarke did have to eat much of the sugary heart . She said that it tasted of bleach and was made tough and gristly by the addition of valves made from " something like dried pasta . " Clarke did not have to act in the shots at the end of the scene in which Daenerys almost throws up the last bit of heart , as she was indeed close to vomiting at that point .
The book of lineages that helps Ned realize the truth about Joffrey 's father was prepared by Bryan Cogman , who in addition to writing episode four ( " Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things " ) also served as the show 's " lore master " and authored the background content concerning the history of Westeros that is to be included in the first season 's DVD and Blu @-@ ray release . Cogman wrote two pages ' worth of text detailing the lineage of four noble houses . The text concerning house Umber was shown in episode four , and the Baratheon text appears in episode six . Cogman also wrote text for the houses of Targaryen and Royce , but the corresponding scenes were removed from the final script for " Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things " but the Targaryen page was shown in " A Golden Crown " . Cogman said that he drew on the novels and the fan @-@ created website Wiki of Ice and Fire for reference , and invented what could not be sourced , including even some Internet fan message board names as in @-@ jokes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
For the first time since the premiere of the show the ratings decreased in relation to the previous weeks . The first airing brought 2 @.@ 4 million viewers , compared to the 2 @.@ 6 million gathered by the previous episode . With the second airing the differences shrank , bringing the total of the night to 3 @.@ 2 million , one hundred thousand viewers below the previous week 's 3 @.@ 3 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" A Golden Crown " received positive reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff from the A.V. Club gave it an A- , and Maureen Ryan from AOL TV rated it with a 70 out of 100 . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall titled his review " The rules get upended in a terrific episode . " Both Elio Garcia from westeros.org and Jace Lacob from Televisionary considered it the best episode of the series so far . In the words of reviewer Jace Lacob , the episode " revolves around changes both great and small , about the way the scales can fall from our eyes and we can see the truth that has been standing in front of us for so long . For Eddard , it 's a realization of just why Jon Arryn died , of the terrible secret he had gleaned from the book of royal lineages , and just what this could mean for the throne ... and for the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros . For Dany , it 's the brutal truth of her brother 's real nature , of his insatiable thirst for power and the twisted quality of his rampant heart . "
The Dothraki scenes that culminate with the " crowning " of Viserys Targaryen were acclaimed by the critics . Writing for Time , James Poniewozik highlighted an acting of " touching self @-@ recognition by Harry Lloyd , who did an outstanding job humanizing a villain , " and Maureen Ryan congratulated the actor for his " excellent job of showing the human side of this impetuous , cruel aristocrat " and " keeping Viserys just this side of sane in all his scenes . " The acting of Emilia Clarke , closing her arc initiated in the first episode from a frightened girl to an empowered woman was also praised . VanDerWerff commented on the difficulty to adapt such an evolution from page to screen , but concluded that " Clarke and Lloyd more than seal the deal here . " IGN 's Matt Fowler also praised Clarke and noted that Daenerys ' choice to watch Viserys die was " powerful " and an important shift in her character .
Another aspect of the show that was widely discussed among commentators was the moral dilemma presented in the episode between a pragmatic approach to ruling or remaining true to the ideals of justice and honor , exemplified in the scene where Eddard summons Tywin Lannister to the court to answer for the crimes of his bannerman Gregor Clegane . Poniewozik states that Eddard " doesn 't seem to consider that he has options : he is left to rule in the king 's place , an injustice has been committed , the law requires one path to justice and he chooses it . This makes his decision easy , but it may make his life , and others ' , difficult . " According to The Atlantic 's Scott Meslow , " Ned 's principles are , as always , admirable , and he 's clearly interested in justice . But the sad truth is that the lack of guile that makes him honorable also makes him a pretty poor king . It 's a terrible idea to order the arrest of the man who is single @-@ handedly financing your kingdom . " Myles McNutt , writing for Cultural Learnings , agreed with Meslow and concluded that " the only thing more dangerous than a reckless man asserting their [ sic ] power in Westeros is an honorable man doing the same , as it threatens the delicate framework which has propped up King Robert for so long . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The episode received three Emmy nominations in 2011 , for Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series , Miniseries , Movie or a Special ; Outstanding Hairstyling for a Single @-@ Camera Series ; and Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series .
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= Ruddy shelduck =
The ruddy shelduck ( Tadorna ferruginea ) , known in India as the Brahminy duck , is a member of the family Anatidae . It is a distinctive waterfowl , 58 to 70 cm ( 23 to 28 in ) in length with a wingspan of 110 to 135 cm ( 43 to 53 in ) . It has orange @-@ brown body plumage with a paler head , while the tail and the flight feathers in the wings are black , contrasting with the white wing @-@ coverts . It is a migratory bird , wintering in the Indian subcontinent and breeding in southeastern Europe and central Asia , though there are small resident populations in North Africa . It has a loud honking call .
The ruddy shelduck mostly inhabits inland water @-@ bodies such as lakes , reservoirs and rivers . The male and female form a lasting pair bond and the nest may be well away from water , in a crevice or hole in a cliff , tree or similar site . A clutch of about eight eggs is laid and is incubated solely by the female for about four weeks . The young are cared for by both parents and fledge about eight weeks after hatching .
In central and eastern Asia , populations are steady or rising , but in Europe they are generally in decline . Altogether , the birds have a wide range and large total population , and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed their conservation status as being of " least concern " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The ruddy shelduck ( Tadorna ferruginea ) is a member of the shelduck genus Tadorna ; in the wildfowl family Anatidae . The bird was first described in 1764 by the German zoologist and botanist Peter Simon Pallas who named it Anas ferruginea , but later it was transferred to the genus Tadorna with the other shelducks . Some authorities place it in the genus Casarca along with the South African shelduck ( T. cana ) , the Australian shelduck ( T. tadornoides ) and the Paradise shelduck ( T. variegata ) . Phylogenetic analysis shows that it is most closely related to the South African shelduck . In captivity , the ruddy shelduck has been known to hybridise with several other members of Tadorna , with several members of the dabbling duck genus Anas , and with the Egyptian goose ( Alopochen aegyptiaca ) . No subspecies are recognised .
The genus name Tadorna comes from the French " tadorne " , the common shelduck , and may originally derive from a Celtic word meaning " pied waterfowl " . The English name " sheld duck " dates from around 1700 and means the same . The species name ferruginea is Latin for " rusty " and refers to the colour of the plumage .
= = Description = =
The ruddy shelduck grows to a length of 58 to 70 cm ( 23 to 28 in ) and has a 110 – 135 cm ( 43 – 53 in ) wingspan . The male has orange @-@ brown body plumage and a paler , orange @-@ brown head and neck , separated from the body by a narrow black collar . The rump , flight feathers , tail @-@ coverts and tail feathers are black and there are iridescent green speculum feathers on the inner surfaces of the wings . Both upper and lower wing @-@ coverts are white , this feature being particularly noticeable in flight but hardly visible when the bird is at rest . The bill is black and the legs are dark grey . The female is similar but has a rather pale , whitish head and neck and lacks the black collar , and in both sexes , the colouring is variable and fades as the feathers age . The birds moult at the end of the breeding season and the male loses the black collar , but a further partial moult between December and April restores it . Juveniles are similar to the female but are a darker shade of brown .
The call is a series of loud , nasal honking notes , it being possible to discern the difference between those produced by the male and the female . The calls are made both on the ground and in the air , and the sounds are variable according to the circumstances in which they are uttered .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
There are very small resident populations of this species in north west Africa and Ethiopia , but the main breeding area of the bird is from southeast Europe across central Asia to Lake Baikal , Mongolia , and western China . Eastern populations are mostly migratory , wintering in the Indian subcontinent . This species has colonised the island of Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands , first breeding there in 1994 , and reaching a population of almost fifty pairs by 2008 . The ruddy shelduck is a common winter visitor in India where it arrives by October and departs by April . Its typical breeding habitat is large wetlands and rivers with mud flats and shingle banks , and it is found in large numbers on lakes and reservoirs . It breeds in high altitude lakes and swamps in Jammu and Kashmir . Outside the breeding season it prefers lowland streams , sluggish rivers , ponds , flooded grassland , marshes and brackish lagoons .
Although becoming quite rare in southeast Europe and southern Spain , the ruddy shelduck is still common across much of its Asian range . It may be this population which gives rise to vagrants as far west as Iceland , Great Britain and Ireland . However , since the European population is declining , it is likely that most occurrences in western Europe in recent decades are escapes or feral birds . Although this bird is observed in the wild from time to time in eastern North America , no evidence has been found that this is a genuine case of vagrancy .
This shelduck mostly frequents open locations on inland bodies of water such as lakes , reservoirs and rivers . It is seldom seen in forested areas but does occur in brackish water and saline lagoons . Though more common in the lowlands , it also inhabits higher altitudes and in central Asia is one of the few waterbirds , along with the bar @-@ headed goose ( Anser indicus ) , to be found on lakes at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) .
= = Behaviour = =
The ruddy shelduck is a mainly nocturnal bird . It is omnivorous and feeds on grasses , the young shoots of plants , grain and water plants as well as both aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates . On land it grazes on the foliage , in the water it dabbles in the shallows , and at greater depths , it up @-@ ends , but it does not dive .
The ruddy shelduck is usually found in pairs or small groups and rarely forms large flocks . However , moulting and wintering gatherings on chosen lakes or slow rivers can be very large . Gatherings of over four thousand birds have been recorded on the Koshi Barrage and in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in Nepal , and over ten thousand at Lake Gölü in Turkey .
The birds arrive at their main breeding locations in central Asia in March and April . There is a strong pair bond between the male and female and it is thought they pair for life . In their breeding quarters , the birds are very aggressive towards their own kind and towards other species . The female in particular approaches intruders with head lowered and neck outstretched , uttering anger calls . If the intruder stands its ground , the female returns to the male and runs round him , inciting him to attack . He may or may not do so . Mating takes place on the water after a brief courtship ritual involving neck stretching , head dipping and tail raising . The nesting site is often far away from water in a hole in a tree or ruined building , a crevice in a cliff , among sand @-@ dunes or in an animal burrow . The nest is constructed by the female using feathers and down and some grasses .
A clutch of about eight eggs ( range six to twelve ) is laid between late April and early June . These have a dull gloss and are creamy @-@ white , averaging 68 by 47 mm ( 2 @.@ 68 by 1 @.@ 85 in ) . Incubation is done by the female while the male stands in attendance nearby . The eggs hatch after about twenty @-@ eight days and both parents care for the young , which fledge in a further fifty @-@ five days . After breeding the adults moult , losing the power of flight for about a month while they do so . Before moulting they move to large water bodies where they can more easily avoid predation while they are flightless . The family may stay together as a group for some time ; the autumn migration starts around September and the young may mature in their second year . North African birds breed about five weeks earlier , and their breeding success is greater in wet summers .
= = Status = =
Buddhists regard the ruddy shelduck as sacred and this gives the birds some protection in central and eastern Asia , where the population is thought to be steady or even rising . The Pembo Black @-@ necked Crane Reserve in Tibet is an important wintering area for ruddy ducks , and here they receive protection . In Europe on the other hand , populations are generally declining as wetlands are drained and the birds are hunted . However , they are less vulnerable than some other waterfowl because of their adaptability to new habitats such as reservoirs .
The ruddy shelduck has a very wide range and an estimated total population size of 170 @,@ 000 to 225 @,@ 000 individuals . The overall population trend is unclear as some local populations are increasing while others are decreasing . The bird does not appear to meet the higher criteria necessary to be considered threatened , and the International Union for Conservation of Nature assesses that its conservation status is of " least concern " . It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies .
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= First Crusade =
The First Crusade ( 1095 – 1099 ) was the first of a number of crusades that attempted to recapture the Holy Lands , called by Pope Urban II in 1095 . It started as a widespread pilgrimage in western Christendom and ended as a military expedition by Roman Catholic Europe to regain the Holy Lands taken in the Muslim conquests of the Levant ( 632 – 661 ) , ultimately resulting in the recapture of Jerusalem in 1099 .
It was launched on 27 November 1095 by Pope Urban II with the primary goal of responding to an appeal from Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos , who requested that western volunteers come to his aid and help to repel the invading Seljuk Turks from Anatolia . An additional goal soon became the principal objective — the Christian reconquest of the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and the freeing of the Eastern Christians from Muslim rule .
During the crusade , knights , peasants and serfs from many regions of Western Europe travelled over land and by sea , first to Constantinople and then on towards Jerusalem . The Crusaders arrived at Jerusalem , launched an assault on the city , and captured it in July 1099 , massacring many of the city 's Muslim and Jewish inhabitants . They also established the crusader states of the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the County of Tripoli , the Principality of Antioch , and the County of Edessa .
The First Crusade was followed by the Second to the Ninth Crusades . It was also the first major step towards reopening international trade in the West since the fall of the Western Roman Empire . Due to the First Crusade being largely concerned with Jerusalem , a city which had not been under Christian dominion for 461 years , and that the crusader army , on seizure of lands , had refused to honour a brokered promise before the seizure to return gained lands to the control of the Byzantine Empire , the status of the First Crusade as defensive or aggressive in nature remains unanswered and controversial . The majority view is that it had elements of both in its nature .
= = Origin = =
The origin of the Crusades in general , and particularly that of the First Crusade , is widely debated among historians . The confusion is partially due to the numerous armies in the first crusade , and their lack of direct unity . The similar ideologies held the armies to similar goals , but the connections were rarely strong , and the unity broke down often . The Crusades are most commonly linked to the political and social situation in 11th @-@ century Europe , the rise of a reform movement within the papacy , and the political and religious confrontation of Christianity and Islam in Europe and the Middle East . Christianity had spread throughout Europe , Africa , and the Middle East in Late Antiquity , but by the early 8th century Christian rule had become limited to Europe and Anatolia after the Muslim conquests .
The Umayyad Caliphate had conquered Syria , Egypt , and North Africa from the predominantly Christian Byzantine Empire , and Hispania from the Visigothic Kingdom . In North Africa , the Umayyad empire eventually collapsed and a number of smaller Muslim kingdoms emerged , such as the Aghlabids , who attacked Italy in the 9th century . Pisa , Genoa , and the Principality of Catalonia began to battle various Muslim kingdoms for control of the Mediterranean Basin , exemplified by the Mahdia campaign and battles at Majorca and Sardinia .
Essentially , between the years 1096 and 1101 the Byzantine Greeks experienced the crusade as it arrived at Constantinople in three separate waves .
In the early summer of 1096 , the first large unruly group arrived on the outskirts of Constantinople . This wave was reported to be undisciplined and ill @-@ equipped as an army as noted in the People ’ s Crusade . This first group is often called the Peasants ’ or People ’ s Crusade . It was led by Peter the Hermit and Walter Sans Avoir and had no knowledge of or respect for the wishes of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Comnenus .
The second wave was also not under the command of the Emperor and was made up of a number of armies with their own commanders . Together , this group and the first wave numbered an estimated 60 @,@ 000 .
The second wave was led by Hugh I , Count of Vermandois , the brother of King Philip I of France . Also among the second wave were Raymond IV , Count of Toulouse and the army of Provençals . " It was this second wave of crusaders which later passed through Asia Minor , captured Antioch in 1098 and finally took Jerusalem 15 July 1099 . ”
The third wave , composed of contingents from Lombardy , France , and Bavaria , arrived in Jerusalem in the early summer of 1101 .
= = Situation in Europe = =
At the western edge of Europe and of Islamic expansion , the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula was well underway by the 11th century . It was intermittently ideological , as evidenced by the Codex Vigilanus compiled in 881 . Increasingly in the 11th century foreign knights , mostly from France , visited Iberia to assist the Christians in their efforts . Shortly before the First Crusade , Pope Urban II had encouraged the Iberian Christians to reconquer Tarragona , using much of the same symbolism and rhetoric that was later used to preach the crusade to the people of Europe .
The heart of Western Europe had been stabilized after the Christianization of the Saxon , Viking , and Hungarian peoples by the end of the 10th century . However , the breakdown of the Carolingian Empire gave rise to an entire class of warriors who now had little to do but fight among themselves . The random violence of the knightly class was regularly condemned by the church , and in response it established the Peace and Truce of God to prohibit fighting on certain days of the year . At the same time , the reform @-@ minded papacy came into conflict with the Holy Roman Emperors , resulting in the Investiture Controversy . Popes such as Gregory VII justified the subsequent warfare against the Emperor 's partisans in theological terms . It became acceptable for the Pope to utilize knights in the name of Christendom , not only against political enemies of the Papacy , but also against Al @-@ Andalus , or , theoretically , against the Seljuq dynasty in the east .
To the east of Europe lay the Byzantine Empire , composed of Christians who had long followed a separate Orthodox rite ; the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches had been in schism since 1054 . Historians have argued that the desire to impose Roman church authority in the east may have been one of the goals of the crusade , although Urban II , who launched the First Crusade , never refers to such a goal in his letters on crusading . The Seljuq Turks had taken over almost all of Anatolia after the Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 ; however , their conquests were piecemeal and led by semi @-@ independent warlords , rather than by the sultan . A dramatic collapse of the empire 's position on the eve of the Council of Clermont brought Byzantium to the brink of disaster . By the mid @-@ 1090s , the Byzantine Empire was largely confined to Balkan Europe and the northwestern fringe of Anatolia , and faced Norman enemies in the west as well as Turks in the east . In response to the defeat at Manzikert and subsequent Byzantine losses in Anatolia in 1074 , Pope Gregory VII had called for the milites Christi ( " soldiers of Christ " ) to go to Byzantium 's aid . This call was largely ignored and even opposed . The reason for this was that while the defeat at Manzikert was shocking , it had limited significance and did not lead to major difficulties for the Byzantine empire , at least in the short term .
= = Situation in the Middle East = =
Until the crusaders ' arrival the Byzantines had continually fought the Seljuqs and other Turkish dynasties for control of Anatolia and Syria . The Seljuqs , who were orthodox Sunni Muslims , had formerly ruled the Great Seljuq Empire , but by the time of the First Crusade it had divided into several smaller states after the death of Malik @-@ Shah I in 1092 .
Malik @-@ Shah was succeeded in the Anatolian Sultanate of Rum by Kilij Arslan I , and in Syria by his brother Tutush I , who died in 1095 . Tutush 's sons Fakhr al @-@ Mulk Radwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively , further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other , as well as Kerbogha , the atabeg of Mosul .
Egypt and much of Palestine were controlled by the Arab Shi 'ite Fatimid Caliphate , which was significantly smaller since the arrival of the Seljuqs . Warfare between the Fatimids and Seljuqs caused great disruption for the local Christians and for western pilgrims . The Fatimids , under the nominal rule of caliph al @-@ Musta 'li but actually controlled by vizier al @-@ Afdal Shahanshah , had lost Jerusalem to the Seljuqs in 1073 ( although some older accounts say 1076 ) ; they recaptured it in 1098 from the Artuqids , a smaller Turkish tribe associated with the Seljuqs , just before the arrival of the crusaders .
= = Historiography = =
It is now impossible to assess exactly why the First Crusade occurred , although many possible causes have been suggested by historians , most recently Jay Rubenstein . The historiography of the Crusades reflects attempts made by different historians to understand the Crusades ' complex causes and justifications . An early theory , the so @-@ called " Erdmann thesis " , developed by German historian Carl Erdmann , directly linked the Crusades to the 11th @-@ century reform movements . This first theory claimed that the exportation of violence to the east , and the assistance to the struggling Byzantine Empire were the Crusaders ' primary goals , and that the conquest of Jerusalem was more a secondary , popular goal .
Generally , subsequent historians have either followed Erdmann , with further expansions upon his thesis , or rejected it . Some historians , such as Speros Vryonis , have emphasized the influence of the rise of Islam generally , and the impact of the recent Seljuq onslaught specifically . Steven Runciman argued that the crusade was motivated by a combination of theological justification for holy war and a " general restlessness and taste for adventure " , especially among the Normans and the " younger sons " of the French nobility who had no other opportunities .
Runciman even implies that there was no immediate threat from the Islamic world , arguing that " in the middle of the 11th century the lot of the Christians in Palestine had seldom been so pleasant " . However , Runciman makes his argument only in reference to Palestine under the Fatimids c . 1029 – 1073 , not under the Seljuqs . Moreover , the source of his generally positive view of Palestinian Christians ' lot in the later 11th century is unclear , as there were very few contemporary Christian sources from Palestine writing in this period , and surviving Christian sources deriving directly from Seljuq Palestine are virtually non @-@ existent .
In opposition to Runciman 's argument , and on the basis of contemporary Jewish Cairo Geniza documents , as well as later Muslim accounts , Moshe Gil argues that the Seljuq conquest and occupation of Palestine ( c . 1073 – 1098 ) was a period of " slaughter and vandalism , of economic hardship , and the uprooting of populations " . Indeed , drawing upon earlier writers such as Ignatius of Melitene , Michael the Syrian had recorded that the Seljuqs subjected Coele @-@ Syria and the Palestinian coast to " cruel destruction and pillage " .
Thomas Asbridge argues that the First Crusade was Pope Urban II 's attempt to expand the power of the church , and reunite the churches of Rome and Constantinople , which had been in schism since 1054 . Asbridge , however , provides little evidence from Urban 's own writings to bolster this claim , and Urban 's four extant letters on crusading do not seem to express such a motive . According to Asbridge , the spread of Islam was unimportant because " Islam and Christendom had coexisted for centuries in relative equanimity " . Asbridge , however , fails to note that the recent Turkish conquests of Anatolia and southern Syria had shattered the tense but relatively stable balance of power that a somewhat revived Byzantine Empire had gradually developed with earlier Islamic powers over the course of the 10th and early 11th century .
Following the defeat at Manzikert in 1071 , Muslims had taken half of the Byzantine Empire 's territory , and such strategically and religiously important cities as Antioch and Nicaea had only fallen to Muslims in the decade before the Council of Piacenza . Moreover , the harrowing accounts of the Turkish invasion and conquest of Anatolia recorded by such Eastern Christian chroniclers as John Skylitzes , Michael Attaleiates , Matthew of Edessa , Michael the Syrian and others , which are summarized by Vryonis , seem to contradict Asbridge 's broad picture of equanimious " coexistence " between the Christian and Muslim worlds in the second half of the 11th century .
Thomas Madden represents a view almost diametrically opposed to that of Asbridge ; while the crusade was certainly linked to church reform and attempts to assert papal authority , he argues that it was most importantly a pious struggle to liberate fellow Christians , who , Madden claims , " had suffered mightily at the hands of the Turks " . This argument distinguishes the relatively recent violence and warfare that followed the conquests of the Turks from the general advance of Islam , the significance of which is dismissed by Runciman and Asbridge . Christopher Tyerman incorporates both arguments in his thesis ; namely , that the Crusade developed out of church reform and theories of holy war as much as it was a response to conflicts with the Islamic world throughout Europe and the Middle East . In Jonathan Riley @-@ Smith 's view , poor harvests , overpopulation , and a pre @-@ existing movement towards colonizing the frontier areas of Europe also contributed to the crusade ; however , he also takes care to say that " most commentators then and a minority of historians now have maintained that the chief motivation was a genuine idealism " .
Peter Frankopan has argued that the First Crusade has been fundamentally distorted by the attention paid by historians to western ( Latin ) sources , rather than Greek , Syriac , Armenian , Arabic and Hebrew material from the late 11th and 12th centuries . The expedition to Jerusalem , he argues , was conceived of not by the Pope but by the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos , in response to a dramatic deterioration of Byzantium 's position in Asia Minor and also as a result of the a state of near anarchy at the imperial court where plans to depose Alexios or even murder him were an open secret by 1094 . The appeal to Pope Urban II was a desperate move to shore up Emperor and Empire . Frankopan goes further , showing that the Crusade 's primary military targets in Asia Minor - Nicaea and Antioch - required large numbers of men with experience of siege warfare ; precisely the sort recruited by Urban during his preaching in France in 1095 @-@ 6 .
The idea that the crusades were a response to Islam dates back as far as 12th @-@ century historian William of Tyre , who began his chronicle with the fall of Jerusalem to Umar . Although the original Islamic conquests had taken place centuries before the First Crusade , more recent events would have been fresh in the minds of the European Christians of the time . For example , in 1009 the Church of the Holy Sepulchre had been destroyed by the Fatimid Caliph al @-@ Hakim bi @-@ Amr Allah ; Pope Sergius IV supposedly called for a military expedition in response , and in France , many Jewish communities were even attacked in a misdirected retaliation . Despite the Church 's rebuilding after al @-@ Hakim 's death , and pilgrimages resuming , including the Great German Pilgrimage of 1064 – 1065 , pilgrims continued to suffer attacks from local Muslims . In addition , the even more recent Turkish incursions into Anatolia and northern Syria were certainly viewed as devastating by Eastern Christian chroniclers , and it is plausible they were presented as such by the Byzantines to the Pope in order to solicit the aid of European Christians .
= = Council of Clermont = =
While the Crusades had causes deeply rooted in the social and political situations of 11th @-@ century Europe , the event actually triggering the First Crusade was a request for assistance from Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos . Alexios was worried about the advances of the Seljuqs , who had reached as far west as Nicaea , not far from Constantinople . In March 1095 , Alexios sent envoys to the Council of Piacenza to ask Pope Urban II for aid against the Turks .
Urban responded favourably , perhaps hoping to heal the Great Schism of forty years earlier , and to reunite the Church under papal primacy by helping the Eastern churches in their time of need . Alexios and Urban had previously been in close contact in 1089 and after , and had discussed openly the prospect of the ( re ) union of the Christian church . There were signs of considerable co @-@ operation between Rome and Constantinople in the years immediately before the Crusade .
In July 1095 , Urban turned to his homeland of France to recruit men for the expedition . His travels there culminated in the Council of Clermont in November , where , according to the various speeches attributed to him , he gave an impassioned sermon to a large audience of French nobles and clergy , graphically detailing the fantastical atrocities being committed against pilgrims and eastern Christians . There are five versions of the speech recorded by people who may have been at the council ( Baldric of Dol , Guibert of Nogent , Robert the Monk , and Fulcher of Chartres ) or who went on crusade ( Fulcher and the anonymous author of the Gesta Francorum ) , as well as other versions found in later historians ( such as William of Malmesbury and William of Tyre ) . All of these versions were written after Jerusalem had been captured . Thus it is difficult to know what was actually said and what was recreated in the aftermath of the successful crusade . The only contemporary records are a few letters written by Urban in 1095 .
All five versions of the speech differ widely from one another in regard to particulars . All versions , except that in the Gesta Francorum , generally agree that Urban talked about the violence of European society and the necessity of maintaining the Peace of God ; about helping the Greeks , who had asked for assistance ; about the crimes being committed against Christians in the east ; and about a new kind of war , an armed pilgrimage , and of rewards in heaven , where remission of sins was offered to any who might die in the undertaking . They do not all specifically mention Jerusalem as the ultimate goal . However , it has been argued that Urban 's subsequent preaching reveals that he expected the expedition to reach Jerusalem all along . According to one version of the speech , the enthusiastic crowd responded with cries of Deus vult ! ( " God wills it ! " ) . However , other versions of the speech do not include this detail .
= = = Recruitment = = =
Urban 's speech had been well @-@ planned : he had discussed the crusade with Adhemar of Le Puy and Raymond IV , Count of Toulouse , and instantly the expedition had the support of two of southern France 's most important leaders . Adhemar himself was present at the Council and was the first to " take the cross " . During the rest of 1095 and into 1096 , Urban spread the message throughout France , and urged his bishops and legates to preach in their own dioceses elsewhere in France , Germany , and Italy as well . However , it is clear that the response to the speech was much greater than even the Pope , let alone Alexios , expected . On his tour of France , Urban tried to forbid certain people ( including women , monks , and the sick ) from joining the crusade , but found this nearly impossible . In the end , most who took up the call were not knights , but peasants who were not wealthy and had little in the way of fighting skills , in an outpouring of a new emotional and personal piety that was not easily harnessed by the ecclesiastical and lay aristocracy . Typically , preaching would conclude with every volunteer taking a vow to complete a pilgrimage to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre ; they were also given a cross , usually sewn onto their clothes .
As Thomas Asbridge wrote , " Just as we can do nothing more than estimate the number of thousands who responded to the crusading ideal , so too , with the surviving evidence , we can gain only a limited insight into their motivation and intent . " Previous generations of scholars argued that the crusaders were motivated by greed , hoping to find a better life away from the famines and warfare occurring in France , but as Asbridge notes , " This image is ... profoundly misleading . " He argues that greed was unlikely to have been a major factor because of the extremely high cost of travelling so far from home , and because almost all of the crusaders eventually returned home after completing their pilgrimage rather than trying to carve out possessions for themselves in the Holy Land . It is difficult or impossible to assess the motives of the thousands of poor for whom there is no historical record , or even those of important knights , whose stories were usually retold by monks or clerics . As the secular medieval world was so deeply ingrained with the spiritual world of the church , it is quite likely that personal piety was a major factor for many crusaders .
Despite this popular enthusiasm , however , Urban ensured that there would be an army of knights , drawn from the French aristocracy . Aside from Adhemar and Raymond , other leaders he recruited throughout 1096 included Bohemond of Taranto , a southern Italian ally of the reform popes ; Bohemond 's nephew Tancred ; Godfrey of Bouillon , who had previously been an anti @-@ reform ally of the Holy Roman Emperor ; his brother Baldwin of Boulogne ; Hugh I , Count of Vermandois , brother of the excommunicated Philip I of France ; Robert Curthose , brother of William II of England ; and his relatives Stephen II , Count of Blois and Robert II , Count of Flanders . The crusaders represented northern and southern France , Flanders , Germany , and southern Italy , and so were divided into four separate armies that were not always cooperative , though they were held together by their common ultimate goal .
The motives of the nobility are somewhat clearer than those of the peasants ; greed was apparently not a major factor . It is commonly assumed , for example by Runciman as mentioned above , that only younger members of a family went on crusade , looking for wealth and adventure elsewhere , as they had no prospects for advancement at home . Riley @-@ Smith has shown that this was not always the case . The crusade was led by some of the most powerful nobles of France , who left everything behind , and it was often the case that entire families went on crusade at their own great expense . For example , Robert of Normandy loaned the Duchy of Normandy to his brother William II of England , and Godfrey sold or mortgaged his property to the church . According to Tancred 's biographer , he was worried about the sinful nature of knightly warfare , and was excited to find a holy outlet for violence . Tancred and Bohemond , as well as Godfrey , Baldwin , and their older brother Eustace III , Count of Boulogne , are examples of families who crusaded together . Riley @-@ Smith argues that the enthusiasm for the crusade was perhaps based on family relations , as most of the French crusaders were distant relatives . Nevertheless , in at least some cases , personal advancement played a role in Crusaders ' motives . For instance , Bohemond was motivated by the desire to carve himself out a territory in the east , and had previously campaigned against the Byzantines to try to achieve this . The Crusade gave him a further opportunity , which he took after the Siege of Antioch , taking possession of the city and establishing the Principality of Antioch .
= = People 's Crusade = =
The great French nobles and their trained armies of knights , however , were not the first to undertake the journey towards Jerusalem . Urban had planned the departure of the first crusade for 15 August 1096 , the Feast of the Assumption , but months before this , a number of unexpected armies of peasants and petty nobles set off for Jerusalem on their own , led by a charismatic priest called Peter the Hermit . Peter was the most successful of the preachers of Urban 's message , and developed an almost hysterical enthusiasm among his followers , although he was probably not an " official " preacher sanctioned by Urban at Clermont .
A century later he was already a legendary figure ; William of Tyre believed that it was Peter who had planted the idea for the crusade in Urban 's mind ( which was taken as fact by historians until the 19th century ) . It is commonly believed that Peter led a massive group of untrained and illiterate peasants who did not even have any idea where Jerusalem was , but indeed there were many knights among the peasants , including Walter Sans Avoir , who was lieutenant to Peter and led a separate army .
Lacking military discipline , in what likely seemed to the participants a strange land ( Eastern Europe ) , Peter 's fledgling army quickly found itself in trouble despite the fact they were still in Christian territory . The army led by Walter fought with the Hungarians over food at Belgrade , but otherwise arrived in Constantinople unharmed . Meanwhile , the army led by Peter , which marched separately from Walter 's army , also fought with the Hungarians , and may have captured Belgrade . At Nish the Byzantine governor tried to supply them , but Peter had little control over his followers and Byzantine troops were needed to quell their attacks . Peter arrived at Constantinople in August , where his army joined with the one led by Walter , which had already arrived , as well as separate bands of crusaders from France , Germany , and Italy . Another army of Bohemians and Saxons did not make it past Hungary before splitting up .
This unruly mob began to attack and pillage outside the city in search of supplies and food , prompting Alexios to hurriedly ferry the gathering across the Bosporus one week later . After crossing into Asia Minor , the crusaders split up and began to pillage the countryside , wandering into Seljuq territory around Nicaea . The greater experience of the Turks was overwhelming ; most of this group of the crusaders were massacred . Some Italian and German crusaders were defeated and killed at Xerigordon at the end of August . Meanwhile , Walter and Peter 's followers , who , although for the most part untrained in battle but led by about 50 knights , fought a battle against the Turks at Civitot in October . The Turkish archers destroyed the crusader army , and Walter was among the dead . Peter , who was absent in Constantinople at the time , later joined the main crusader army , along with the few survivors of Civetot .
= = = Attacks on Jews in the Rhineland = = =
At a local level , the preaching of the First Crusade ignited violence against Jews , which some historians have deemed " the first Holocaust " . At the end of 1095 and beginning of 1096 , months before the departure of the official crusade in August , there were attacks on Jewish communities in France and Germany . In May 1096 , Emicho of Flonheim ( sometimes incorrectly known as Emicho of Leiningen ) attacked the Jews at Speyer and Worms . Other unofficial crusaders from Swabia , led by Hartmann of Dillingen , along with French , English , Lotharingian and Flemish volunteers , led by Drogo of Nesle and William the Carpenter , as well as many locals , joined Emicho in the destruction of the Jewish community of Mainz at the end of May . In Mainz , one Jewish woman killed her children rather than see them killed ; the chief rabbi , Kalonymus Ben Meshullam , committed suicide in anticipation of being killed .
Emicho 's company then went on to Cologne , and others continued on to Trier , Metz , and other cities . Peter the Hermit may have been involved in violence against the Jews , and an army led by a priest named Folkmar also attacked Jews further east in Bohemia . Emicho 's army eventually continued into Hungary but was defeated by the army of Coloman of Hungary . His followers dispersed ; some eventually joined the main armies , although Emicho himself went home .
Many of the attackers seem to have wanted to force the Jews to convert , although they were also interested in acquiring money from them . Physical violence against Jews was never part of the church hierarchy 's official policy for crusading , and the Christian bishops , especially the Archbishop of Cologne , did their best to protect the Jews . A decade before , the Bishop of Speyer had taken the step of providing the Jews of that city with a walled ghetto to protect them from Christian violence and given their chief Rabbis the control of judicial matters in the quarter . Nevertheless , some also took money in return for their protection . The attacks may have originated in the belief that Jews and Muslims were equally enemies of Christ , and enemies were to be fought or converted to Christianity . Godfrey of Bouillon was rumoured to have extorted money from the Jews of Cologne and Mainz , and many of the Crusaders wondered why they should travel thousands of miles to fight non @-@ believers when there were already non @-@ believers closer to home . The attacks on the Jews were witnessed by Ekkehard of Aura and Albert of Aix ; among the Jewish communities , the main contemporary witnesses were the Mainz Anonymous , Eliezer ben Nathan , and Solomon bar Simson .
= = Princes ' Crusade = =
The four main crusader armies left Europe around the appointed time in August 1096 . They took different paths to Constantinople and gathered outside its city walls between November 1096 and April 1097 ; Hugh of Vermandois arrived first , followed by Godfrey , Raymond , and Bohemond . This time , Emperor Alexios was more prepared for the crusaders ; there were fewer incidents of violence along the way .
The size of the entire crusader army is difficult to estimate ; various numbers were given by the eyewitnesses , and equally various estimates have been offered by modern historians . Crusader military historian David Nicolle considers the armies to have consisted of about 30 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 crusaders , including 5 @,@ 000 cavalry . Raymond had the largest contingent of about 8 @,@ 500 infantry and 1 @,@ 200 cavalry .
The princes arrived in Constantinople with little food and expected provisions and help from Alexios . Alexios was understandably suspicious after his experiences with the People 's Crusade , and also because the knights included his old Norman enemy , Bohemond , who had invaded Byzantine territory on numerous occasions with his father , Robert Guiscard , and may have even attempted to organize an attack on Constantinople while encamped outside the city .
The crusaders may have expected Alexios to become their leader , but he had no interest in joining them , and was mainly concerned with transporting them into Asia Minor as quickly as possible . In return for food and supplies , Alexios requested the leaders to swear fealty to him and promise to return to the Byzantine Empire any land recovered from the Turks . Godfrey was the first to take the oath , and almost all the other leaders followed him , although they did so only after warfare had almost broken out in the city between the citizens and the crusaders , who were eager to pillage for supplies . Raymond alone avoided swearing the oath , instead pledging that he would simply cause no harm to the Empire . Before ensuring that the various armies were shuttled across the Bosporus , Alexios advised the leaders on how best to deal with the Seljuq armies that they would soon encounter .
= = = Siege of Nicaea = = =
The Crusader armies crossed over into Asia Minor during the first half of 1097 , where they were joined by Peter the Hermit and the remainder of his little army . In addition , Alexios also sent two of his own generals , Manuel Boutoumites and Tatikios , to assist the crusaders . The first objective of their campaign was Nicaea , previously a city under Byzantine rule , but which had become the capital of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum under Kilij Arslan I. Arslan was away campaigning against the Danishmends in central Anatolia at the time , and had left behind his treasury and his family , underestimating the strength of these new crusaders .
Subsequently , upon the Crusaders ' arrival , the city was subjected to a lengthy siege , and when Arslan had word of it he rushed back to Nicaea and attacked the crusader army on 16 May . He was driven back by the unexpectedly large crusader force , with heavy losses being suffered on both sides in the ensuing battle . The siege continued , but the crusaders had little success as they found they could not blockade the lake , which the city was situated on , and from which it could be provisioned . To break the city , Alexios sent the Crusaders ' ships rolled over land on logs , and at the sight of them the Turkish garrison finally surrendered on 18 June . The city was handed over to the Byzantine troops , which has often been depicted as a source of conflict between the Empire and the crusaders ; Byzantine standards flew from the walls while the crusaders were forbidden from looting the city or even entering it except in small escorted bands .
However , this policy was in accordance with the previous oaths made to Alexios , and the emperor ensured that the crusaders were well @-@ paid for their efforts . As Thomas Asbridge writes , " the fall of Nicaea was a product of the successful policy of close co @-@ operation between the crusaders and Byzantium . " After handing custody of Nicaea to the Byzantines , the crusaders resumed their march to Jerusalem . Stephen of Blois , in a letter to his wife Adela of Blois wrote that he believed the journey would take five weeks ; in reality , it took two years .
= = = Battle of Dorylaeum = = =
At the end of June , the crusaders marched on through Anatolia . They were accompanied by some Byzantine troops under Tatikios , and still harboured the hope that Alexios would send a full Byzantine army after them . They also divided the army into two more @-@ easily managed groups — one contingent led by the Normans , the other by the French . The two groups intended to meet again at Dorylaeum , but on 1 July the Normans , who had marched ahead of the French , were attacked by Kilij Arslan . Arslan had gathered a much larger army than he previously had after his defeat at Nicaea , and now surrounded the Normans with his fast @-@ moving mounted archers . The Normans " deployed in a tight @-@ knit defensive formation " , surrounding all their equipment and the non @-@ combatants who had followed them along the journey , and sent for help from the other group . When the French arrived , Godfrey broke through the Turkish lines and the legate Adhemar outflanked the Turks from the rear ; thus the Turks , who had expected to destroy the Normans and did not anticipate the quick arrival of the French , fled rather than face the combined crusader army .
The crusaders ' march through Anatolia was thereafter unopposed , but the journey was unpleasant , as Arslan had burned and destroyed everything he left behind in his army 's flight . It was the middle of summer , and the crusaders had very little food and water ; many men and horses died . Fellow Christians sometimes gave them gifts of food and money , but more often than not , the crusaders simply looted and pillaged whenever the opportunity presented itself . Individual leaders continued to dispute the overall leadership , although none of them were powerful enough to take command on their own , as Adhemar was always recognized as the spiritual leader . After passing through the Cilician Gates , Baldwin of Boulogne set off on his own towards the Armenian lands around the Euphrates ; his wife , his only claim to European lands and wealth , had died after the battle , giving Baldwin no incentive to return to Europe . Thus , he resolved to seize a fiefdom for himself in the Holy Land . Early in 1098 , he was adopted as heir by Thoros of Edessa , a ruler who was disliked by his Armenian subjects for his Greek Orthodox religion . Thoros was later killed , during an uprising that Baldwin may have instigated . Then , in March 1098 , Baldwin became the new ruler , thus creating the County of Edessa , the first of the crusader states .
= = = Siege of Antioch = = =
The crusader army , meanwhile , marched on to Antioch , which lay about halfway between Constantinople and Jerusalem . Described by Stephen of Blois as " a city great beyond belief , very strong and unassailable " , the idea of taking the city by assault was a discouraging one to the crusaders . Hoping rather to force a capitulation , or find a traitor inside the city — a tactic that had previously seen Antioch change to the control of the Byzantines and then the Seljuq Turks — the crusader army set Antioch to siege on 20 October 1097 . During the almost eight months of the siege , they were forced to defeat two large relief armies under the leadership of Duqaq and Fakhr al @-@ Mulk Radwan . Antioch was so large that the crusaders did not have enough troops to fully surround it , and as a result it was able to stay partially supplied . On 4 March 1098 , relief arrived in the form of a Crusader fleet , the " Saxon Crusade " , bringing much needed supplies from the west .
In May 1098 , Kerbogha of Mosul approached Antioch to relieve the siege . Bohemond bribed an Armenian guard named Firuz to surrender his tower , and in June the crusaders entered the city and killed most of the inhabitants . However , only a few days later the Muslims arrived , laying siege to the former besiegers . According to Raymond D 'Aguilers , it was at this point that a monk named Peter Bartholomew claimed to have discovered the Holy Lance in the city , and although some were skeptical , this was seen as a sign that they would be victorious .
On 28 June 1098 , the crusaders defeated Kerbogha in a pitched battle outside the city , a victory caused by Kerbogha 's inability to organize the different factions in his army . While the crusaders were marching towards the Muslims , the Fatimid section of the army deserted the Turkish contingent , as they feared Kerbogha would become too powerful were he able to defeat the Crusaders . According to Christian eyewitnesses , an army of Christian saints came to the aid of the crusaders during the battle and crippled Kerbogha 's army .
Stephen of Blois , a Crusade leader , was in Alexandretta when he learned of the situation in Antioch . It seemed like their situation was hopeless so he left the Middle East , warning Alexios and his army on his way back to France . Because of what looked like a massive betrayal , the leaders at Antioch , most notably Bohemond , argued that Alexios had deserted the Crusade and thus invalidated all of their oaths to him . While Bohemond asserted his claim to Antioch , not everyone agreed ( most notably Raymond of Toulouse ) , so the crusade was delayed for the rest of the year while the nobles argued amongst themselves . When discussing this period , a common historiographical viewpoint advanced by some scholars is that the Franks of northern France , the Provençals of southern France , and the Normans of southern Italy considered themselves separate " nations " , creating turmoil as each tried to increase its individual status . Others argue that while this may have had something to do with the disputes , personal ambition among the Crusader leaders might just be as easily blamed .
Meanwhile , a plague broke out , killing many among the army , including the legate Adhemar , who died on 1 August . There were now even fewer horses than before , and worse , the Muslim peasants in the area refused to supply the crusaders with food . Thus , in December , after the Arab town of Ma 'arrat al @-@ Numan was captured following a siege , history describes the first occurrence of cannibalism among the crusaders . Radulph of Caen wrote , " In Ma 'arrat our troops boiled pagan adults in cooking pots ; they impaled children on spits and devoured them grilled . " At the same time , the minor knights and soldiers had become increasingly restless and threatened to continue to Jerusalem without their squabbling leaders . Finally , at the beginning of 1099 , the march restarted , leaving Bohemond behind as the first Prince of Antioch .
= = = Continued march to Jerusalem = = =
Proceeding down the Mediterranean coast , the crusaders encountered little resistance , as local rulers preferred to make peace with them and furnish them with supplies rather than fight , with a notable exception of the abandoned siege of Arqa . On 7 June , the crusaders reached Jerusalem , which had been recaptured from the Seljuqs by the Fatimids only the year before . Many Crusaders wept upon seeing the city they had journeyed so long to reach .
= = = Siege of Jerusalem = = =
Crusaders ' arrival at Jerusalem revealed an arid countryside , lacking in water or food supplies . Here there was no prospect of relief , even as they feared an imminent attack by the local Fatimid rulers . There was no hope of trying to blockade the city as they had at Antioch ; the crusaders had insufficient troops , supplies , and time . Rather , they resolved to take the city by assault . They might have been left with little choice , as by the time the Crusader army reached Jerusalem , it has been estimated that only about 12 @,@ 000 men including 1 @,@ 500 cavalry remained . These contingents , composed of men with differing origins and varying allegiances , were also approaching another low ebb in their camaraderie ; e.g. , while Godfrey and Tancred made camp to the north of the city , Raymond made his to the south . In addition , the Provençal contingent did not take part in the initial assault on 13 June . This first assault was perhaps more speculative than determined , and after scaling the outer wall the Crusaders were repulsed from the inner one .
After the failure of the initial assault , a meeting between the various leaders was organized in which it was agreed upon that a more concerted attack would be required in the future . On 17 June , a party of Genoese mariners under Guglielmo Embriaco arrived at Jaffa , and provided the Crusaders with skilled engineers , and perhaps more critically , supplies of timber ( cannibalized from the ships ) to build siege engines . The Crusaders ' morale was raised when a priest , Peter Desiderius , claimed to have had a divine vision , of Bishop Adhemar , instructing them to fast and then march in a barefoot procession around the city walls , after which the city would fall , following the Biblical story of Joshua at the siege of Jericho . After a three days fast , on 8 July the crusaders performed the procession as they had been instructed by Desiderius , ending on the Mount of Olives where Peter the Hermit preached to them , and shortly afterward the various bickering factions arrived at a public rapprochement . News arrived shortly after that a Fatimid relief army had set off from Egypt , giving the Crusaders a very strong incentive to make another assault on the city .
The final assault on Jerusalem began on 13 July ; Raymond 's troops attacked the south gate while the other contingents attacked the northern wall . Initially the Provençals at the southern gate made little headway , but the contingents at the northern wall fared better , with a slow but steady attrition of the defence . On 15 July , a final push was launched at both ends of the city , and eventually the inner rampart of the northern wall was captured . In the ensuing panic , the defenders abandoned the walls of the city at both ends , allowing the Crusaders to finally enter .
= = = = Massacre = = = =
The massacre that followed the capture of Jerusalem has attained particular notoriety , as a " juxtaposition of extreme violence and anguished faith " . The eyewitness accounts from the crusaders themselves leave little doubt that there was great slaughter in the aftermath of the siege . Nevertheless , some historians propose that the scale of the massacre has been exaggerated in later medieval sources .
After the successful assault on the northern wall , the defenders fled to the Temple Mount , pursued by Tancred and his men . Arriving before the defenders could secure the area , Tancred 's men assaulted the precinct , butchering many of the defenders , with the remainder taking refuge in the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque . Tancred then called a halt to the slaughter , offering those in the mosque his protection . When the defenders on the southern wall heard of the fall of the northern wall , they fled to the citadel , allowing Raymond and the Provençals to enter the city . Iftikhar al @-@ Dawla , the commander of the garrison , struck a deal with Raymond , surrendering the citadel in return for being granted safe passage to Ascalon .
The slaughter continued for the rest of the day ; Muslims were indiscriminately killed , and Jews who had taken refuge in their synagogue died when it was burnt down by the Crusaders . The following day , Tancred 's prisoners in the mosque were slaughtered . Nevertheless , it is clear that some Muslims and Jews of the city survived the massacre , either escaping or being taken prisoner to be ransomed . The Eastern Christian population of the city had been expelled before the siege by the governor , and thus escaped the massacre .
= = = Establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem = = =
On 22 July , a council was held in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to establish a king for the newly created Kingdom of Jerusalem . Raymond of Toulouse at first refused to become king , perhaps attempting to show his piety , but probably hoping that the other nobles would insist upon his election anyway . Godfrey , who had become the more popular of the two after Raymond 's actions at the siege of Antioch , did no damage to his own piety by accepting a position as secular leader . Raymond was incensed at this development and took his army out into the countryside .
The exact nature and meaning of Godfrey 's title is somewhat controversial . Although it is widely claimed that he took the title Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri ( " advocate " or " defender " of the Holy Sepulchre ) , this title is only used in a letter that was not written by Godfrey . Instead , Godfrey himself seems to have used the more ambiguous term princeps , or simply retained his title of dux from Lower Lorraine . According to William of Tyre , writing in the later 12th century when Godfrey was already a legendary hero in crusader Jerusalem , he refused to wear " a crown of gold " where Christ had worn " a crown of thorns " . Robert the Monk is the only contemporary chronicler of the crusade to report that Godfrey took the title " king " .
= = = Battle of Ascalon = = =
The crusaders had attempted to negotiate with the Fatimids during their march to Jerusalem , but to no avail . After the crusaders captured Jerusalem from the Fatimids , they learned of a Fatimid army about to attack them . On 10 August Godfrey of Bouillon led the remaining troops from Jerusalem to Ascalon , a day 's march away .
The Fatimids were estimated to have as many as 50 @,@ 000 troops ( other sources estimate about 20 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 ) entering the battle . Their troops consisted of Seljuq Turks , Arabs , Persians , Kurds , and Ethiopians , led by vizier al @-@ Afdal Shahanshah . Opposing them were the crusaders , whose numbers , estimated by Raymond of Aguilers , were around 1 @,@ 200 knights and 9 @,@ 000 infantry .
On 12 August , crusader scouts discovered the location of the Fatimid camp , which the crusaders immediately marched towards . According to most crusader and Muslim accounts , the Fatimids were caught unaware . Because of a somewhat ill @-@ prepared Fatimid army , the battle was fairly short , although it still took some time to resolve , according to Albert of Aix. al @-@ Afdal Shahanshah and his army retreated into the heavily guarded and fortified city of Ascalon . The next day the crusaders learned that al @-@ Afdal Shahanshah had retreated back to Egypt via boat , so they plundered what remained of the Fatimid camp . After returning to Jerusalem most of the crusaders returned to their homes in Europe .
= = Crusade of 1101 = =
Having captured Jerusalem and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre , the crusading vow had hence been fulfilled . However , there were many who had gone home before reaching Jerusalem , and many who had never left Europe at all . When the success of the crusade became known , these people were mocked and scorned by their families and threatened with excommunication by the Pope . Many crusaders who had remained with the crusade all the way to Jerusalem also went home ; according to Fulcher of Chartres , there were only a few hundred knights left in the newfound kingdom in 1100 . Godfrey himself only ruled for one year , dying in July 1100 . He was succeeded by his brother , Baldwin of Edessa , the first person to take the title King of Jerusalem .
Among the crusaders in the Crusade of 1101 were Stephen II , Count of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois , both of whom had returned home before reaching Jerusalem . This crusade was almost annihilated in Asia Minor by the Seljuqs , but the survivors helped to reinforce the kingdom upon their arrival in Jerusalem . In the following years , assistance was also provided by Italian merchants who established themselves in Syrian ports , and from the religious and military orders of the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller , which were created during Baldwin I 's reign .
= = Aftermath = =
The First Crusade succeeded in establishing the " crusader states " of Edessa , Antioch , Jerusalem , and Tripoli in Palestine and Syria ( as well as allies along the Crusaders ' route , such as the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia ) .
Back at home in Western Europe , those who had survived to reach Jerusalem were treated as heroes . Robert of Flanders was nicknamed " Hierosolymitanus " thanks to his exploits . The life of Godfrey of Bouillon became legendary even within a few years of his death . In some cases , the political situation at home was greatly affected by crusader absences . For instance , while Robert Curthose was away on crusade the throne of England had passed to his brother Henry I of England instead , and their resultant conflict led to the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106 .
Meanwhile , the establishment of the crusader states in the east helped ease Seljuq pressure on the Byzantine Empire , which had regained some of its Anatolian territory with crusader help , and experienced a period of relative peace and prosperity in the 12th century . The effect on the Muslim dynasties of the east was gradual but important . In the wake of the death of Malik Shah I in 1092 , political instability and the division of the Great Seljuq Empire prevented a coherent defence against the Latin states . Cooperation between them remained difficult for many decades , but from Egypt to Syria to Baghdad there were calls for the expulsion of the crusaders , culminating in the recapture of Jerusalem under Saladin later in the century when the Ayyubids had united the surrounding areas .
= = Inspiration to the future = =
The success of the crusade inspired the literary imagination of poets in France , who , in the 12th century , began to compose various chansons de geste celebrating the exploits of Godfrey of Bouillon and other crusaders . Some of these , such as the Chanson d 'Antioche , are semi @-@ historical , while others are completely fanciful , describing battles with a dragon or connecting Godfrey 's ancestors to the legend of the Knight of the Swan . Together , the chansons are known as the crusade cycle .
The First Crusade was also an inspiration to artists in later centuries . In 1580 , Torquato Tasso wrote Jerusalem Delivered , a largely fictionalized epic poem about the capture of Jerusalem . George Frideric Handel composed music based on Tasso 's poem in his opera Rinaldo . The 19th @-@ century poet Tommaso Grossi also wrote an epic poem , which was the basis of Giuseppe Verdi 's opera I Lombardi alla prima crociata .
= = = Bibliographies = = =
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= McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet in Australian service =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) has operated McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighter aircraft since 1984 . The Australian Government purchased 75 " A " and " B " variants of the F / A @-@ 18 in 1981 to replace the RAAF 's Dassault Mirage III fighters . The Hornets entered service with the RAAF between 1984 and 1990 , and 71 remain in operation as of 2012 . The other four Hornets were destroyed in flying accidents during the late 1980s and early 1990s .
RAAF Hornets were first sent on a combat deployment as part of the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq . During the invasion , 14 Hornets flew patrols over Iraq , as well as close air support sorties to assist coalition ground forces . RAAF F / A @-@ 18s also provided security for the American air base at Diego Garcia between late 2001 and early 2002 , and have protected a number of high @-@ profile events in Australia . From 2015 they have been striking ISIL targets as part of Operation Okra .
Since 1999 the RAAF has put its Hornets through a series of upgrades to improve their effectiveness . However , the aircraft are becoming increasingly difficult to operate and are at risk of being outclassed by the fighters and air @-@ defence systems operated by other countries . As a result , the RAAF will begin to retire its F / A @-@ 18s in the late 2010s , and the last aircraft will leave service in the early 2020s . Under current Australian Government planning they will be replaced by up to 72 Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II fighters .
= = Selection = =
The RAAF began the initial stages of scoping a replacement for its Dassault Mirage III fighters in 1968 . The service issued an Air Staff Requirement for new fighter aircraft in December 1971 , which received a larger than expected number of proposals from manufacturers . At this time the RAAF expected to start phasing out the Mirage IIIs in 1980 . In 1973 , a team of RAAF personnel inspected the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 15 Eagle , Northrop YF @-@ 17 , Saab 37 Viggen and Dassault Mirage F1 programs , but recommended that any decisions about a suitable replacement be delayed so that several new fighters that were expected to soon become available could also be considered . In August 1974 the Australian Government decided to defer the fighter replacement project and extend the Mirage IIIs ' operational life into the 1980s . One of the four Mirage III @-@ equipped squadrons was also disbanded at this time .
Work on the Mirage replacement program resumed in 1975 , and the Tactical Fighter Project Office was established in 1976 to manage the process of selecting the RAAF 's next fighter . A request for proposals was issued in November that year and attracted eleven responses . By March 1977 the office had chosen to focus on the F @-@ 15 Eagle , General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , Dassault Mirage 2000 and Panavia Tornado , as well as the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 18A and F @-@ 18L ; the F @-@ 18A was a carrier @-@ based fighter developed from the YF @-@ 17 for the United States Navy , and the F @-@ 18L was a land @-@ based variant of this design . The Grumman F @-@ 14 Tomcat was also considered by the project office , but was regarded as unsuitable and never placed on the official shortlist . In November 1978 the F @-@ 15 and Tornado were removed from the list of aircraft being considered . The Tornado was excluded as it was principally a strike aircraft and had limited air @-@ to @-@ air capability . While the F @-@ 15 was an impressive aircraft that met or exceeded almost all of the RAAF 's requirements , it was believed that the air force did not need a fighter with such advanced capabilities and that introducing it into service could destabilise Australia 's region .
Further evaluation of the remaining aircraft took place during 1979 . Wing Commander ( and later Air Vice @-@ Marshal ) Bob Richardson test @-@ flew a Mirage 2000 in April 1979 , and reported that while the aircraft had excellent aerodynamic characteristics , its avionics , radar , fuel system , cockpit and weapons capability were inferior to those of US designs . Richardson also test @-@ flew a YF @-@ 17 that was being used as a demonstrator for the F @-@ 18L in mid @-@ 1979 , and was impressed by its capabilities . No F @-@ 18Ls had been ordered at this time , however , and the RAAF did not want to take on the risk of being the lead customer for the design . At about the same time , the RAAF rejected an offer of F @-@ 14 Tomcats that had been originally ordered by the Iranian Government but not delivered as a result of the revolution in that country . While the Tomcats were made available at a greatly reduced price , the air force judged that these aircraft were too large and complex for its requirements .
With the Mirage 2000 and F @-@ 18L rejected , the RAAF was faced with a choice between the F @-@ 16 and F @-@ 18A . Richardson and several other RAAF pilots tested United States Air Force ( USAF ) F @-@ 16Bs in 1979 and 1980 , and reported that the aircraft had excellent performance but could be difficult to control at times . The evaluation team was also concerned about the reliability of the F @-@ 16 's engine and regarded the aircraft as technologically immature . It was also noted that the aircraft 's radar was inferior to that of the F @-@ 18A , and that F @-@ 16s could not fire the beyond @-@ visual @-@ range ( BVR ) air @-@ to @-@ air missiles and long @-@ range anti @-@ shipping missiles that the F @-@ 18A was capable of operating . In contrast , the evaluation team was impressed by the F @-@ 18A , and regarded it as being a more robust and survivable aircraft as it had been designed to operate from aircraft carriers ; these features were important for operations from bare bases in northern Australia . Richardson and three other RAAF pilots test @-@ flew F @-@ 18As , and reported that the aircraft handled well , but had some deficiencies with its flight control system and engines ; these were not seen as major flaws by the evaluation team , however . The F @-@ 18A 's twin engines were considered to be its main advantage over the single @-@ engined F @-@ 16 , as research conducted by the evaluation team found that the attrition rate for single @-@ engined fighters was twice that for aircraft with two engines . Overall , however , the RAAF judged that both the F @-@ 16 and F @-@ 18A were too immature for a decision to be made in 1980 as had been originally planned , and recommended to the Government that this be deferred by a year .
The Government accepted the RAAF 's recommendation , and delayed its decision on a Mirage III replacement until late 1981 . This gave General Dynamics an opportunity to offer the improved F @-@ 16C to the RAAF . The capability of these aircraft was closer to that of the F @-@ 18 as they were equipped with BVR missiles . Richardson and another RAAF pilot test @-@ flew F @-@ 16Cs in May 1981 . The F @-@ 18 design was also improved during 1981 , and was redesignated the F / A @-@ 18 . When RAAF test pilots flew these aircraft during 1981 , they found that the deficiencies they had detected in 1980 were now addressed . Overall , the RAAF concluded that while both aircraft met its requirements and the F @-@ 16 was less expensive , the F / A @-@ 18 was the superior design as it was more technologically mature , easier to maintain during operational deployments , and likely to have a much lower attrition rate . The Government accepted this advice , and announced on 20 October 1981 that 75 F / A @-@ 18s would be ordered . As part of this announcement , Minister for Defence Jim Killen acknowledged that the F @-@ 16 would have been seven percent cheaper to purchase , but stated that the F / A @-@ 18 's lower running costs and expected attrition rate greatly reduced the difference between the lifetime cost of the two designs .
Instead of directly ordering the aircraft from McDonnell Douglas , the Australian Government purchased its F / A @-@ 18s through the US Government 's Foreign Military Sales ( FMS ) program . Ordering the aircraft via the US Government allowed the RAAF to take advantage of the superior purchasing power of the US military , and reduced the service 's project management requirements . This led to a complicated arrangement whereby the aircraft were ordered by the US Government , delivered to the US Navy , and then transferred to the RAAF once initial flight testing had taken place . The process functioned smoothly , however , and was cost effective .
= = Production = =
The RAAF 's order of 75 Hornets comprised 57 single @-@ seat " A " variant fighters and 18 two @-@ seat " B " variant operational training aircraft . It was planned that each of the three fighter squadrons and the single operational conversion unit that were to operate the F / A @-@ 18 would be allocated 16 aircraft , of which 12 were expected to be operational at any time while the other four were undergoing maintenance . The remaining eleven Hornets were labelled the " half @-@ life attrition buy " and would replace the aircraft that were expected to have been lost by 2000 ; as it happened , this greatly exceeded the RAAF 's actual losses . Deliveries were planned to start in late 1984 and be completed in 1990 . The total cost of the F / A @-@ 18 program , including the aircraft , spare parts , other equipment and modifications to the RAAF 's fighter bases , was calculated as A $ 2 @.@ 427 billion in August 1981 , but was rapidly revised upwards due to the depreciation of the Australian dollar at this time .
The Australian Hornets were very similar to the standard US Navy variants , but incorporated a number of minor modifications . These included the addition of an Instrument Landing System / Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range ( ILS / VOR ) system , a high @-@ frequency radio , a different ejection seat harness and the deletion of all equipment used only to launch the aircraft from catapults . In addition , two of the Australian aircraft were fitted with flight @-@ test instrumentation so that they could be used as part of trials .
The Government sought to use the Mirage III replacement program as a means to increase the capabilities of Australia 's manufacturing industry . Accordingly , it was decided to build the aircraft in Australia , though it was recognised that this would lead to higher costs than if the fighters were purchased directly from the United States . While the first two RAAF Hornets were built in the United States , the remainder were assembled at the Government Aircraft Factories plant at Avalon Airport in Victoria , and their engines were produced by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation at Fishermans Bend in Melbourne . Another twelve Australian companies were involved in other stages of the project . These firms were sub @-@ contracted to McDonnell Douglas and the other major US companies that produced components for the F / A @-@ 18 , and had to comply with the requirements of the FMS program . The Australian Government hoped that Singapore and New Zealand would purchase Australian @-@ built Hornets , but this did not eventuate . The Canadian Government expressed interest in purchasing 25 Australian @-@ built F / A @-@ 18As in 1988 in order to increase its force of these aircraft after they had ceased to be manufactured in the United States , but this did not lead to any sales .
The Australian Hornets began to roll off the production lines in 1984 . The first two aircraft ( serial numbers A21 @-@ 101 and A21 @-@ 102 ) were entirely built at McDonnell Douglas ' factory in St. Louis , and were handed over to the RAAF on 29 October 1984 . These aircraft remained in the United States until May 1985 for training and trials purposes . The next two Australian Hornets ( A21 @-@ 103 and A21 @-@ 104 ) were also built at St. Louis , but were then disassembled and flown to Avalon in June 1984 on board a USAF Lockheed C @-@ 5 Galaxy . The aircraft were then reassembled , and A21 @-@ 103 was rolled out at a ceremony attended by Prime Minister Bob Hawke and the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal David Evans , on 16 November . However , the aircraft 's initial test flight was delayed until 26 February 1985 by a demarcation dispute over which category of pilot was permitted to fly the aircraft .
In order to meet production targets , GAF was required to complete 1 @.@ 5 Hornets per month . Production fell behind schedule during the first half of 1987 , however , as a result of inefficiencies at the company 's factory and industrial relations problems . GAF was able to accelerate production later in the year , though some components that were planned to be manufactured in Australia were purchased from companies in the United States instead . The final cost of the Hornet project was A $ 4 @.@ 668 billion ; after adjusting for the depreciation of the Australian dollar this was $ 186 million less than the initial estimate .
The RAAF began to accept Hornets into service in 1985 . A21 @-@ 103 was formally delivered on 4 May of that year . Two weeks later , A21 @-@ 101 and 102 were flown from Naval Air Station Lemoore in California to RAAF Base Williamtown in New South Wales between 16 and 17 May 1985 . This ferry flight was conducted as a non @-@ stop journey , and USAF McDonnell Douglas KC @-@ 10 Extender tankers refuelled each of the Hornets 15 times as they crossed the Pacific . As of 2005 this remained the longest single flight to have been undertaken by F / A @-@ 18s . Despite the delays to production in 1987 , the final Australian Hornet ( A21 @-@ 57 ) was delivered on schedule at a ceremony held in Canberra on 16 May 1990 . The F / A @-@ 18As were allocated serial numbers A21 @-@ 1 through to A21 @-@ 57 and the F / A @-@ 18Bs were allocated A21 @-@ 101 to A21 @-@ 118 .
A major capital works program was also undertaken to prepare RAAF bases for the Hornets . Over $ 150 million was spent upgrading the runways , hangars and maintenance facilities at RAAF Base Williamtown , which has been the main F / A @-@ 18 base throughout the aircraft 's service . The pre @-@ existing airfield at RAAF Base Tindal in the Northern Territory was also developed into a major air base between 1985 and 1988 at a cost of $ 215 million so that it could accommodate No. 75 Squadron . Until this time the squadron had been stationed at RAAF Base Darwin which , due to its location on Australia 's north coast , was vulnerable to damage from cyclones and difficult to defend during wartime .
Owing to concerns over the airworthiness of the RAAF 's General Dynamics F @-@ 111 bombers and delays to the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II program , the Australian Government ordered 24 F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets in 2006 . This design is significantly different from the original ( or " classic " ) Hornet , however . The RAAF 's first Super Hornets entered service in 2010 and deliveries were completed the next year .
= = Maintenance and upgrades = =
Maintenance of the RAAF 's Hornets is carried out by both air force personnel and civilian contractors . Until the early 1990s , all routine servicing and a significant proportion of intensive " deeper maintenance " was undertaken by the air force . However , the share of intensive maintenance tasks outsourced to the private sector was increased during the 1990s under the RAAF @-@ wide Commercial Support Program . Under current arrangements , the four Hornet @-@ equipped units undertake all routine servicing and some of the more complex deeper maintenance tasks . The remainder of the deeper maintenance work , as well as all major refurbishments and upgrade projects , are carried out by commercial firms . BAE Systems has been the lead contractor for Hornet deeper maintenance since 2003 , and Boeing Australia has also provided maintenance services for the aircraft since it won a contract to do so in 2010 .
The RAAF 's Hornet fleet received few modifications until the late 1990s . During this period , the AN / AAS @-@ 38 " Nite Hawk " targeting pod was the only new system fitted to the aircraft . However , several Asian countries introduced Mikoyan MiG @-@ 29 fighters into service during the 1990s , raising concerns that the RAAF 's aircraft would be outclassed . The air force considered replacing the Hornet with the Eurofighter Typhoon or Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , but concluded that both aircraft were technologically immature . As a result , it was decided to upgrade the Hornets .
The Hornet Upgrade Program ( HUG ) began in 1999 , and has had three main phases . In Phase 1 , which ran from mid @-@ 2000 through 2002 , the Hornets ' computer systems , navigation system and radio were replaced . The aircraft were also fitted to operate the ASRAAM air @-@ to @-@ air missile ; these weapons replaced the AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder . HUG Phase 2 comprised four sub @-@ elements and sought to improve the Hornets ' combat performance . During Phase 2 @.@ 1 the APG @-@ 65 radar was replaced with the improved AN / APG @-@ 73 , and the aircraft were fitted with a secure voice encryption communications system as well as various updates to their computer systems . In HUG Phase 2 @.@ 2 , the most important element of the program , the Hornets were fitted with a Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System , equipment needed to share data through the Link 16 network , a new countermeasures dispensing system and several upgrades to their cockpit displays . All of the Hornets were upgraded to this standard between January 2005 and December 2006 . In Phase 2 @.@ 3 , an improved Electronic Counter Measures system was fitted to the Hornets ; the AN / ALR @-@ 2002 was originally selected , but proved unsuccessful . It was replaced by the ALR @-@ 67 Radar Warning Receiver in late 2006 . As of early 2012 , 14 Hornets had been fitted with the system and the remainder were scheduled to receive it by the end of the year . During HUG Phase 2 @.@ 4 the Hornets were modified to be able to use the AN / AAQ @-@ 28 ( v ) " LITENING " targeting pod and 37 of these systems were purchased ; this phase was completed in 2007 .
The third stage of the Hornet Upgrade Program sought to rectify airframe damage . HUG Phase 3 @.@ 1 involved minor structural work to all aircraft as they passed through other phases of the program . The centre fuselages of the ten Hornets assessed as suffering the greatest amount of structural damage were replaced in HUG Phase 3 @.@ 2 . It was originally intended that all the RAAF 's Hornets would receive new centre fuselages , but the scope of this phase of the program was reduced after it was found that the number of man @-@ hours needed to upgrade each aircraft was much greater than originally estimated . The ten aircraft were upgraded at an L @-@ 3 Communications facility in Canada , and all were returned to service by June 2010 .
The long @-@ running HUG process has complicated the RAAF 's management of its fleet of F / A @-@ 18s . At any one time , the capabilities of individual aircraft have differed considerably depending on their upgrades . Accordingly , the long @-@ standing arrangement where aircraft were almost permanently assigned to each squadron was replaced by a system where they are pooled . Attempts to allocate Hornets with similar levels of modifications from the common pool to each squadron have not been successful .
= = Armament = =
The RAAF 's Hornets have been fitted with several different types of air @-@ to @-@ air weapons . The aircraft are equipped with an internal M61A1 cannon for use against air and ground targets ; 578 rounds can be carried for this weapon . During the initial years of the Hornet 's service , the aircraft were equipped with AIM @-@ 9M Sidewinder short range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles and AIM @-@ 7M Sparrow medium @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . The Sparrows were replaced by the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM in 2002 , and in 2004 the Sidewinders were replaced by ASRAAMs . The older missiles are occasionally used in training exercises , however .
The AGM @-@ 65 Maverick air @-@ to @-@ ground tactical missile ( AGM ) can be used for close air support . A variety of unguided and guided weapons can also be used against ground targets . The Hornets carry Mark 82 , Mark 83 and Mark 84 bombs , as well as GBU @-@ 10 , GBU @-@ 12 and GBU @-@ 16 Paveway II laser @-@ guided bombs . In addition , the aircraft have operated bombs fitted with JDAM guidance kits since 2008 . The long @-@ ranged JDAM @-@ ER variant of these bombs were ordered in 2011 and will begin to enter service in 2015 . During exercises the Hornets carry BDU @-@ 33 and BDU @-@ 57 LGTR training bombs . Since November 2011 , the RAAF 's Hornets have also been equipped with AGM @-@ 158 JASSM cruise missiles . The F / A @-@ 18s main weapon in the maritime strike role is the Harpoon anti @-@ ship missile ; the RAAF initially operated the Block IC variant of this missile , but purchased Block II variants in 2003 . In addition to these weapons , the Hornets can also be fitted with 330 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 1 @,@ 200 L ) drop tanks to extend their range .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Introduction into service = = =
Four RAAF units converted to the Hornet between 1985 and 1988 . The first 14 Hornets were allocated to No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( 2OCU ) at RAAF Base Williamtown , and were used to train the pilots and instructors needed to convert the RAAF 's three fighter squadrons to the aircraft . 2OCU 's first Hornet operational conversion course began on 19 August 1985 . In addition to the unit 's training activities , 2OCU aircraft travelled widely around Australia and South East Asia during 1985 and 1986 to showcase the new aircraft . No. 3 Squadron was the first fighter unit to convert from the Mirage III , and became operational with the Hornet in August 1986 . It was followed by No. 77 Squadron in June 1987 and No. 75 Squadron in May 1988 . No. 81 Wing , whose headquarters is located at Williamtown , has commanded these four units since they converted to the F / A @-@ 18 . As of 2012 , 2OCU , No. 3 and No. 77 Squadrons are stationed at Williamtown and No. 75 Squadron is located at Tindal . In addition , two Hornets are allocated to the Aircraft Research and Development Unit at RAAF Base Edinburgh in South Australia .
The RAAF 's Mirage III pilots generally found the process of converting to the Hornet to be straightforward . While the F / A @-@ 18 was considered to be easier to fly , its more sophisticated avionics and weapons systems required improved cockpit workload management skills . The Hornets have also proven to be mechanically reliable and easy to maintain , though shortages of spare parts reduced availability rates during the early years of their service with the RAAF . The updates installed as part of the HUG process have further simplified maintenance procedures . In recent years , however , the aging aircraft have required much more servicing than was the case in the past .
To extend the Hornet 's range , four of the RAAF 's six Boeing 707 transport aircraft were converted to tankers in the early 1990s ; the first Boeing 707 tanker entered service in 1990 . The tankers were operated by No. 33 Squadron and supported the Hornet units until the 707s were retired in 2008 . These aircraft were replaced with KC @-@ 30A tanker @-@ transports in 2011 .
The RAAF has at times suffered from shortfalls of Hornet @-@ qualified pilots . The service began to experience shortages of F / A @-@ 18 and F @-@ 111 fast @-@ jet pilots in the mid @-@ 1980s due to competition from commercial airlines and relatively low recruitment rates . By June 1999 the three operational Hornet @-@ equipped squadrons had only 40 pilots , which was less than the number of aircraft allocated to these units . The RAAF claimed that the squadrons were able to meet their readiness targets , however . To overcome this shortfall , the RAAF gave its fast jet units a higher priority for aircrew , implemented measures to reduce separation rates , and recruited pilots from other countries . These reforms coincided with reduced demand for civil pilots following the 11 September attacks , and by late 2003 the RAAF 's fast @-@ jet units were at near full strength . A 2010 article in the magazine Australian Aviation stated that No. 3 Squadron typically had " about 18 pilots on strength " at any point in time . At this time the total strength of the squadron , including air and ground crew , was around 300 personnel .
= = = Training = = =
As the Hornets are multi @-@ role fighters , their pilots practice a wide range of tasks during peacetime training . Each year the three Hornet squadrons rotate between four @-@ month training " blocks " focused on air @-@ to @-@ air combat , air @-@ to @-@ ground tactics and Australian Defence Force support tasks . The units undertake the air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground " blocks " before assuming responsibility for Australian Defence Force support ( which involves operating with the Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy ) . No. 81 Wing 's headquarters oversees this training program and monitors adherence to common standards and procedures . Training sorties may include such tasks as defending air bases , infrastructure and shipping from enemy aircraft , attacking naval and ground targets , and practicing in @-@ flight refueling . More unusual tasks such as dropping naval mines have also been practiced at times . Major exercises often involve other RAAF units and aircraft , as well as units from the Army and Navy and contingents from other countries .
As part of their regular training activities , F / A @-@ 18 Hornets operate in different parts of Australia and the Asia @-@ Pacific region . Regular deployments are made to Singapore and RMAF Butterworth in Malaysia as part of Integrated Air Defence System exercises . In addition , RAAF F / A @-@ 18s have participated in exercises in the Philippines , Thailand and the United States . These deployments have seen Australian fighter squadrons range as far afield as Eielson Air Force Base in Alaska , where they took part in Red Flag – Alaska exercises in 2008 and 2011 .
Four of the RAAF 's Hornets were destroyed in flying accidents during the late 1980s and early 1990s . A21 @-@ 104 was the first aircraft to be lost when it crashed at Great Palm Island in Queensland on 18 November 1987 ; its pilot was killed . The next loss occurred on 2 August 1990 when two No. 75 Squadron Hornets ( A21 @-@ 29 and A21 @-@ 42 ) collided . A21 @-@ 42 crashed , killing the unit 's commanding officer ; the other aircraft was damaged but managed to return to base . On 5 June 1990 A21 @-@ 41 crashed 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) north @-@ east of Weipa , Queensland , killing its pilot . A21 @-@ 106 was the fourth aircraft to be lost when it crashed inland from Shoalwater Bay in Queensland on 19 May 1992 – its pilot and a passenger from the Defence Science and Technology Organisation died . As of February 2016 , all of the remaining 71 F / A @-@ 18s were still in service .
= = = Deployments = = =
In late 1990 consideration was given to deploying a squadron of F / A @-@ 18s to the Middle East as part of an expanded Australian contribution to the Gulf War . The Department of Defence opposed dispatching the aircraft on the grounds that doing so would greatly strain the fighter force in Australia , and this option was not adopted by the government . As a result , the Hornets ' only role in the war was to support the training of the Royal Australian Navy warships which were sent to the Gulf by conducting mock attacks on the vessels as they sailed from Sydney to Perth .
During late 1999 , No. 75 Squadron was placed on alert to provide close air support and air defence for the international forces deployed to East Timor as part of INTERFET . While Indonesian forces posed a potential threat to this force , no fighting eventuated and the Hornets were not required .
The first operational deployment of RAAF Hornets took place in 2001 . Following the 11 September terrorist attacks , the Australian Government agreed to deploy F / A @-@ 18s to protect the major USAF air base on the Indian Ocean island of Diego Garcia , which was being used to mount operations in Afghanistan . Four No. 77 Squadron Hornets and 70 personnel departed for the island on 9 November . No. 3 Squadron pilots and ground crew relieved the No. 77 Squadron personnel in early February 2002 . While the Hornets were occasionally scrambled in response to reports of aircraft near the base , no threat developed . The detachment returned to Australia on 21 May 2002 .
No. 75 Squadron formed part of the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq . The squadron began initial planning for this deployment in December 2002 , and intensive training was undertaken from January 2003 . To improve the unit 's readiness , air and ground crew as well as aircraft were also posted to No. 75 Squadron from other units . The Australian Government announced on 1 February that it would begin deploying RAAF aircraft , including a squadron of F / A @-@ 18s , to the Middle East . No. 75 Squadron departed from Tindal on 13 February , and arrived at Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar on the 16th of the month . The 14 F / A @-@ 18A Hornets selected for this deployment had received the HUG 2 @.@ 1 package of upgrades and recently completed major servicing . In addition to No. 75 Squadron , several experienced Hornet pilots were also posted to the USAF Combined Air and Space Operations Center in the Middle East to provide advice on how to make the best use of the squadron .
The Australian Hornets saw combat in several roles during the Iraq War . Following the outbreak of war on 20 March , No. 75 Squadron was initially used to escort high @-@ value Coalition aircraft , such as tankers and airborne early warning and control aircraft . As it rapidly became clear that the Iraqi Air Force posed no threat , from 21 March No. 75 Squadron also began to also conduct air interdiction sorties against Iraqi forces . These sorties were initially flown in support of the United States Army 's V Corps , but the squadron was rarely assigned any targets to attack . As a result , the Australian commanders in the Middle East had No. 75 Squadron reassigned to support the United States Marine Corps ' I Marine Expeditionary Force . At this time the squadron also began flying close air support sorties . During the first two weeks of the war the squadron typically flew 12 sorties per day . To avoid pilot fatigue , additional aircrew were posted to the Middle East from Australia . The number of sorties dropped to between six and ten per day from 5 April onwards as the American forces closed on Baghdad and few targets remained in southern Iraq . On 12 April , No. 75 Squadron supported elements of the Special Air Service Regiment and 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , which occupied Al Asad Airbase . During the last weeks of the war the squadron continued to fly sorties across western , central and southern Iraq to support British and American forces . In several of the squadron 's operations in the final week of the war , the Hornets made low altitude and high speed passes over Iraqi positions to encourage their defenders to surrender . No. 75 Squadron conducted its final combat sorties on 27 April . During the war the squadron flew 350 combat missions ( including 670 individual sorties ) and dropped 122 laser @-@ guided bombs . No. 75 Squadron did not suffer any casualties , and all 14 Hornets returned to Tindal on 14 May 2003 .
RAAF Hornets have also provided air defence for several high @-@ profile events in Australia since the 11 September attacks . In 2002 , Hornets patrolled over the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting ( CHOGM ) at Coolum Beach , Queensland ; this was the first time RAAF aircraft had flown air defence sorties over Australia since World War II . On 22 and 23 October that year a detachment of Hornets patrolled over Canberra during US President George W. Bush 's visit to the city . A detachment of aircraft from No. 77 Squadron was deployed to RAAF Base East Sale in March 2006 to protect the Commonwealth Games , which were being held in Melbourne . In September 2007 , Hornets patrolled over Sydney during the APEC leaders meeting there . Eight Hornets were also deployed from Williamstown to RAAF Base Pearce in October 2011 to protect the CHOGM meeting in nearby Perth . On 16 and 17 November that year , Hornets operated over Canberra and Darwin while President Barack Obama was present .
In March 2015 six F / A @-@ 18As from No. 75 Squadron were deployed to the Middle East as part of Operation Okra , replacing a detachment of Super Hornets . By the end of November 2015 the Hornets had conducted 580 sorties over Iraq , during which they dropped 363 munitions . The aircraft also flew 18 sorties over Syria in September 2015 , dropping two munitions .
= = Planned replacement = =
While the Hornet Upgrade Program has been successful , the RAAF 's Hornets are approaching retirement . It is expected that the aircraft will be increasingly expensive to operate as they age , and improvements to the fighter aircraft and air defences operated by other countries will reduce the Hornets ' combat effectiveness . Under current planning , the F / A @-@ 18s will begin to be withdrawn from service in the late 2010s , with the final aircraft being retired in the early 2020s . In the meantime , the RAAF has implemented several measures to keep the Hornets in service . These include a structural refurbishment program , increased monitoring of fatigue @-@ related issues as well as repainting the aircraft and frequently washing them to reduce the risks posed by corrosion . In 2015 the Defence Science and Technology Group conducted new statistical analysis of the Hornets ' structural condition which found that the airframes were less fatigued than previously believed , and so able to remain in service for a longer period than planned if necessary . This finding was accepted by the Directorate General Technical Airworthiness – Australian Defence Force .
The Australian Government is currently planning to replace the RAAF 's F / A @-@ 18 Hornets with Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35A Lightning II fighters from 2017 onwards . The Defence Materiel Organisation 's Project AIR 6000 Phase 2A / B specifies that up to 72 F @-@ 35A fighters will be acquired to equip three squadrons and an operational training unit . However , only 14 aircraft had been funded as at June 2012 , and the first two will be delivered in 2014 . The next twelve are scheduled to be delivered between 2017 and 2019 . The government will make a decision on funding the remainder of the aircraft at an unspecified future date . Up to 28 additional F @-@ 35As may also be ordered to replace the Super Hornets .
As a result of delays to the F @-@ 35 program , the Australian Government is considering buying additional F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets or further extending the life of the " classic " F / A @-@ 18s . Writing in 2011 , Australian Strategic Policy Institute analyst Andrew Davies recommended that , owing to the increasing difficulty and expense of keeping the aircraft operational , a program to retain the F / A @-@ 18A and B Hornets in service should only be attempted if it is expected that the F @-@ 35 will be delayed for an additional one or two years .
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= Electric vehicle warning sounds =
Electric vehicle warning sounds are a series of sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicles ( HEVs ) , plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles ( PHEVs ) , and all @-@ electric vehicles ( EVs ) travelling at low speeds . Warning sound devices were deemed necessary because vehicles operating in all @-@ electric mode produce less noise than traditional combustion engine vehicles and can make it more difficult for pedestrians , the blind , cyclists , and others , to be aware of their presence . Warning sounds may be driver triggered ( as in a horn but less urgent ) or automatic at low speeds ; in type , they vary from clearly artificial ( beeps , chimes ) to those that mimic engine sounds and those of tires moving over gravel .
Japan issued guidelines for such warning devices in January 2010 and the U.S. approved legislation on December 2010 . The European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of " Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems " for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles within 5 years .
Several automakers have developed electric warning sound devices , and since December 2011 advanced technology cars available in the market with manually activated electric warning sounds include the Nissan Leaf , Chevrolet Volt , Honda FCX Clarity , Nissan Fuga Hybrid / Infiniti M35 , Hyundai Sonata Hybrid , and the Toyota Prius ( Japan only ) . Models equipped with automatically activated systems include the 2014 BMW i3 ( option not available in the US ) , 2012 model year Toyota Camry Hybrid , 2012 Lexus CT200h , all EV versions of the Honda Fit , and all Prius family cars recently introduced in the United States , including the standard 2012 model year Prius , the Toyota Prius v , Prius c and the Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid . The 2013 Smart electric drive comes with automatically activated sounds in the U.S. and Japan and manually activated in Europe . Tesla Motors and Volkswagen do not currently include warning sounds in their electric drive vehicles , as all of them decided to add artificial sounds only when required by regulation .
= = Background = =
As a result of increased sales of hybrid electric vehicles in several countries , some members of the blind community have raised concerns about the noise reduction when those vehicles operate in all @-@ electric mode , as blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets and feel quiet hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard . Although a 2009 study found no statistically significant difference in pedestrian crashes involving quiet hybrid vehicles when compared to noisier vehicles when both types of vehicles were travelling in a straight line , it found a doubling of hybrid vehicle pedestrian crashes when reversing or parking etc. at slow speeds .
This problem is not exclusive to electric vehicles . In 2007 research at the Technical University Munich showed that ordinary vehicles in background noise are often detected too late for safe accident avoidance . The researchers measured the distances of 35 approaching vehicles to a pedestrian in the moment when they just got audible in a stationary background noise . These distances were then compared to the stopping distances of the respective cars and an algorithm was proposed to estimate them based on auditory masking .
Research conducted at the University of California , Riverside in 2008 found that hybrid cars are so quiet when operating in electric mode ( EV mode ) that they may pose a risk to the blind , small children , the elderly , runners , cyclists , and other pedestrians , as they may have only one or two seconds , depending on the context , to audibly detect the location of approaching hybrid cars when the vehicles operate at very slow speeds . This research project was funded by the National Federation of the Blind .
The experiment consisted of making audio recordings of a Toyota Prius and combustion engine Honda Accord approaching from two directions at 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) to assure that the hybrid car operated only with its electric motor . Then test subjects in a laboratory listened to the recordings and indicated when they could hear from which direction the cars approached . Subjects could locate the hum of the internal combustion engine car at 36 feet ( 11 m ) away , but could not identify the hybrid running in electric mode until it came within 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) , leaving just less than two seconds to react before the vehicle reached their position . In a second trial , the background sounds of two quietly idling combustion engine cars were added to the recordings to simulate the noise of a parking lot . Under this condition , the hybrid needed to be 74 percent closer than the conventional car before the subjects could hear from which direction the cars approached . Subjects could correctly judge the approach of the combustion car when it was about 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) feet away . This result means that under closer to normal environmental noise , a pedestrian would not be able to correctly determine the hybrid 's approach until it was one second away .
A separate 2008 study from Western Michigan University found that hybrids and conventional vehicles are equally safe when travelling more than about 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) , because tire and wind noise generate most of the audible cues at those speeds . Hybrid cars were also tested safe when leaving a stoplight and it was found that under this condition they do not pose a risk to pedestrians . All Prius models used in the study engaged their internal combustion engines when accelerating from a standstill and produced enough noise to be detected .
A 2009 study conducted by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found that crashes involving pedestrians and bicyclists have higher incidence rates for hybrid electric vehicles than internal combustion engine ( ICE ) vehicles in low @-@ speed vehicle maneuvers such as reversing or leaving a parking zone . These accidents commonly occurred in zones with low speed limits , during daytime and in clear weather . The study found that a HEV was two times more likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than was a conventional ICE vehicle when a vehicle is slowing or stopping , backing up , or entering or leaving a parking space . Vehicle maneuvers were grouped in one category considering those maneuvers that might have occurred at very low speeds where the difference between the sound levels produced by the hybrid versus ICE vehicle is the greatest . Also the study found that the incidence rate of pedestrian crashes in scenarios when vehicles make a turn was significantly higher for HEVs when compared to ICE vehicles . Similarly , The NHTSA study also concluded that the incidence rate of bicyclist crashes involving HEVs for the same kind of maneuvers was significantly higher when compared to conventional vehicles .
In September 2010 , Volvo Cars and Vattenfall , a Swedish energy company , issued a report regarding the results of the first phase of the Volvo V70 Plug @-@ in Hybrid demonstration program . Among other findings , before the trial drivers participating in the field testing were concerned about being a danger to pedestrians and cyclists due to the quietness of the electric @-@ drive vehicle . After the test several of them change their opinion and said that this issue was less of a problem than expected . Nevertheless , some test drivers said they experienced incidents of not being noticed while others said they had taken extra care in their driving with regard to this issue .
= = Regulations = =
Since 2009 the Japanese government , the U.S. Congress and the European Commission are exploring legislation to establish a minimum level of sound for plug @-@ in electric and hybrid electric vehicles when operating in electric mode , so that blind people and other pedestrians and cyclists can hear them coming and detect from which direction they are approaching . Tests have shown that vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 32 km / h ( 20 mph ) .
= = = European Union = = =
In 2011 the European Commission drafted a guideline for Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems ( AVAS ) . The goal is to present recommendations to manufacturers for a system to be installed in vehicles to provide an audible signal to pedestrians and vulnerable road users . This interim guideline is intended to provide guidance until the completion of on @-@ going research activities and the development of globally harmonized device performance specifications . The guidelines are intended for hybrid electric and pure electric highway @-@ capable vehicles . The guideline recommends that the AVAS shall automatically generate a continuous sound in the minimum range of vehicle speed from start up to approximately 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) and during reversing , if applicable for that vehicle category , and list the types of sounds that are not acceptable . It also states that the AVAS may have a pause switch to stop its operation temporarily .
On 6 February 2013 , the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten noise limits for cars to protect public health , and also to add alerting sounds to ensure the audibility of hybrid and electric vehicles to improve the safety of vulnerable road users in urban areas , such as blind , visually and auditorily challenged pedestrians , cyclists and children . The draft legislation states a number of tests , standards and measures that must first be developed for an Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems ( AVAS ) to be compulsory in the future . Now an agreement has to be negotiated with European Union countries . The approved amendment establishes that " the sound to be generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound that provides information to the pedestrians and vulnerable road users of a vehicle in operation . The sound should be easily indicative of vehicle behaviour and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine . " In April 2014 the European Parliament approved the legislation that requires the Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems , which is mandatory for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles . The new rule established a transitional period of 5 years to comply with the regulation .
= = = Japan = = =
Beginning in July 2009 the Japanese government began assessing possible countermeasures through the Committee for the Consideration of Countermeasures Regarding Quiet Hybrid and Other Vehicles , and in January 2010 the Ministry of Land , Infrastructure , Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near @-@ silent vehicles .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
The Department for Transport ( DfT ) commissioned research to gather statistics on accidents involving electric vehicles with pedestrians who are blind or vision impaired to determine whether the perceived accident risk is real and whether electric and hybrid cars are more difficult to detect audibly than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles . The DfT goal was to use the findings to establish what sort of sound should be fitted to electric vehicles .
The research was conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory , and the findings were published in 2011 . The study found little correlation between pedestrian vehicle involvement density and noise level for the majority of vehicles . In addition , the analysis found no evidence of a pattern in pedestrian vehicle involvement densities when only considering those accidents occurring on 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) or slower roads , or where the pedestrian was disabled . A previous study did not find an increased pedestrian vehicle involvement density for electric and hybrid vehicles with respect to their conventional counterparts , which raised the question as to whether added sound is necessarily required . The study also noted that some modern conventional cars are as quiet as their electric counterparts , even at low speeds .
UK organisation The Guide Dogs for the Blind Association lobbied members of the European Parliament to vote in favour of legislation to make the installation of artificial sound generators mandatory on quiet electric and hybrid vehicles .
= = = United States = = =
The Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate by unanimous consent on December 9 , 2010 and passed by the House of Representatives by 379 to 30 on December 16 , 2010 . The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound that allows blind and other pedestrians to reasonably detect a nearby electric or hybrid vehicle , and the ruling must be finalized within eighteen months . The bill was signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 4 , 2011 .
A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) in January , 2013 . It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18 @.@ 6 miles per hour ( 30 km / h ) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises . The agency selected 30 km / h as the limit because according to NHTSA measurements , this is the speed at which the sound levels of the hybrid and electric vehicles approximated the sound levels produced by similar internal combustion vehicles . According to the NHTSA proposal , carmakers would be able to pick the sounds the vehicles make from a range of choices , and similar vehicles would have to make the same sounds . The rules were scheduled to go into effect in September 2014 . The NHTSA estimates that the new warning noises would prevent 2 @,@ 800 pedestrian and cyclist injuries during the life of each model year electric and hybrid vehicle .
In February 2013 , the Association of Global Automakers and the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers , which submitted a joint comment to the NHTSA , announced their support to the rule , but asked the NHTSA to find a noise level that effectively alerts pedestrians without being excessively loud to others inside and outside of the vehicle . They also commented that the rule is too complicated , unnecessarily prescriptive , and it will cost more than necessary . Some automakers also said there is no need for electric @-@ drive vehicles to play sounds while not in motion , " since it is not clear that it helps pedestrians to hear cars that are stopped in traffic or parked . " In addition , the carmakers requested the NHTSA to make the new sound system required by 2018 instead of 2014 .
In January 2015 , the NHTSA rescheduled the date for a final ruling to the end of 2015 . Since the regulation comes into force three years after being rendered as a final rule , compliance was delayed to 2018 . In November 2015 , the NHTSA rescheduled one more time because additional coordination is necessary . A final ruling was delayed at least until mid @-@ March 2016 .
= = Specific systems = =
= = = Enhanced Vehicle Acoustics = = =
Enhanced Vehicle Acoustics ( EVA ) , a company based in Silicon Valley , California and founded by two Stanford students with the help of seed money from the National Federation of the Blind , developed an after market technology called " Vehicular Operations Sound Emitting Systems " ( VOSES ) . The device makes hybrid electric vehicles sound more like conventional internal combustion engine cars when the vehicle goes into the silent electric mode ( EV mode ) , but at a fraction of the sound level of most vehicles . At speeds higher than between 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) the sound system shuts off . The system also shuts off when the hybrid combustion engine kicks in .
VOSES uses miniature , all @-@ weather audio speakers that are placed on the hybrid 's wheel wells and emit specific sounds based on the direction the car is moving in order to minimize noise pollution and to maximize acoustic information for pedestrians . If the car is moving forward , the sounds are only projected in the forward direction ; and if the car is turning left or right , the sound changes on the left or right appropriately . The company argues that chirps , beeps and alarms are more distracting than useful , and that the best sounds for alerting pedestrians are carlike , such as " the soft purr of an engine or the slow roll of tires across pavement . " One of the EVA 's external sound systems was designed specifically for the Toyota Prius .
= = = ECTunes = = =
ECTunes is developing a system that utilizes directional sound equipment to emit noise when and where it is needed . According to the company , its technology sends audible signals only in the direction of travel , thus allowing the vehicle to be heard by those who may be in the car 's path , without disturbing others with unwelcome noise . Insero , a Danish venture company , has provided a significant investment to help ECTunes fully develop its technology .
The ECTunes system , and most others so far disclosed , use a control box , with software , digital amplifiers and weather @-@ friendly external speakers . ECTunes ' system connects to the car , and reads speed and acceleration , shutting down when the car reaches Cross @-@ over speed as set by existing regulation as well as regulation under development such as Quiet Road Transport Vehicles ( QRTV ) , at which point the tires and wind are making noise of their own . The company is currently selling products to OEM 's , mainly small series production , and to the after market , and has also a new mass production unit in prototype stage
= = = SoundRacer EVS = = =
SoundRacer AB is a Swedish manufacturer of electronic engine sound devices established 2008 to develop sound technology for improved driving experience in internal combustion engine ( ICE ) cars . In 2012 the company released their first version of an Electric Vehicle Electronic Engine Sound System , based on the same technology .
SoundRacer EVS use only real engine sound recordings as the base for the sounds , following the legislation guidelines that the sound " should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine " . As a result , the sounds will also be less likely to be disturbing compared to adding new types of synthetic sounds into the traffic environment .
The sound modules are developed to give a realistic ICE sound impression indicating if the vehicle is idling , accelerating , decelerating or cruising . The different sound characters and sound volume is determined from information about the actual speed of the vehicle and rate of speed change .
The company targets two different applications with the products : 1 . EV warning sounds , to make electric vehicles meet the upcoming legislations , and 2 . Increased driving experience to make electric vehicles more popular among customer groups that appreciate real engine sounds .
Many manufacturers of electric vehicles like cars , motorcycles and scooters are now in the process of evaluating sound systems for their products . To assist them in the prototyping process the SoundRacer EVS modules have functions that will give EV manufacturers the tools to test different sounds and settings . Several files with sounds and parameter settings , such as the speed for muting the sound , sound levels and simulated gear changing , can be created with a computer program and stored on a MicroSD card . Changing sounds and settings during test drives is then performed with a touch of a button .
SoundRacer AB delivers complete systems with CAN bus , analog and digital speed / rpm input and a selection of weather protected speakers .
= = = Fisker Automotive = = =
Fisker Automotive developed a sound @-@ generator that was incorporated in its Fisker Karma luxury plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicle , released in 2011 . According to the carmaker , the sound is designed to both alert pedestrians and enhance the driver experience , and the warning noise will be emitted automatically . The Fisker Karma emits a sound through a pair of external speakers embedded in the bumper . According to a company spokesman the sound is a mix between a " Formula One car and a starship " .
The developing process took between nine months to a year , and three sound companies sent in synthesized WAV file samples that were evaluated by Fisker employees and executives . The prospective sounds were studied in an audio chamber to allow engineers to evaluate the sounds without other noise interfering . After testing the candidate sounds in different locations relative to the vehicle , Fisker fined @-@ tune the final sound with its own equipment . The warning sound is activated when the car is traveling at less than 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) .
= = = Ford = = =
The 2012 Ford Focus Electric was planned to include warning sounds for pedestrians . Ford Motor Company developed four alternative sounds , and in June 2011 involved the electric car fans by asking them to pick their favorite from the four potential warning sounds through the Focus Electric Facebook page . However , ultimately Ford decided to hold off including warning sounds unless federal legislation required it , and no such system was implemented on the production vehicle .
= = = General Motors = = =
General Motors ' first commercially available plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicle , the Chevrolet Volt , introduced in December 2010 , includes warning sounds for pedestrians . GM 's system is called Pedestrian @-@ Friendly Alert System and it is manually activated by the driver , but future generations probably will include an active system . The automaker conducted a test with a group of the visually challenged at Milford Proving Grounds in order to evaluate the audible warning systems on the Volt when a pedestrian is in the car 's proximity . The system uses the car 's horn to emit a series of warning chirps , like a low tone of a horn , enough to provide an alert but not to startle . According to GM engineers , the biggest challenge is " developing an active system that can distinguish a pedestrian from another vehicle " ; otherwise , the sound will go off frequently , producing noise pollution instead .
= = = Hyundai = = =
Hyundai developed a warning noise for called the Virtual Engine Sound System ( VESS ) . The system , which was introduced in September 2010 on its test fleet of BlueOn electric hatchbacks , provides synthetic audio feedback mimicking the sound of an idling internal combustion engine .
The 2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid is the first mass production car manufactured by Hyundai to include the warning sound system . In 2010 the carmaker decided to have a button on the Sonata Hybrid 's instrument panel to turn the VESS on and off , but after the enactment of the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 , signed into law by President Obama in early 2011 , and learning that the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration would not allow such switches to avoid the noise device to be turned off , Hyundai decided not to install the button , and the first Sonata Hybrids destined for the U.S. market had to be altered to remove the switch .
= = = Lotus Engineering = = =
Lotus Engineering , a consultancy group of British sports carmaker Lotus Cars , partnered in 2009 with Harman Becker , a producer of audio systems , to develop and commercialize a synthetic automotive audio systems . Lotus has worked on a number of hybrid and electric vehicles and its engineers thought they would be safer if these vehicles made a noise while moving around the factory . Originally developed to cancel out intrusive noises inside a car , the noise canceling system was adapted so that it could also simulate engine sounds that change with speed and use of the throttle , providing audible " feedback " to drivers of vehicles with a silent engine . At the same time , and through the addition of external speakers , the sound system allows pedestrians to hear the noise too , but optionally there can be a different sound within the car from the one that is emitted for the outside . Lotus used a Toyota Prius to demonstrate the device but did not reveal if it intended to bring this technology to market .
Lotus ' synthetic sound system was incorporated in the Lotus Evora 414E Hybrid , a concept plug @-@ in hybrid unveiled at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show . The system , called HALOsonic Internal and External Electronic Sound Synthesis , is a suite of noise solutions that uses patented technologies from Lotus and Harman International . The audio system generates engine sounds inside the vehicle through the audio system . The system also generates the external sound through speakers mounted at the front and rear to provide a warning to increase pedestrian safety . The system comes with four driver @-@ selectable engine sounds , two of which have been designed to have characteristics of a multi @-@ cylinder conventional V6 and V12 engine .
= = = Nissan = = =
Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians or VSP is a Nissan @-@ developed warning sound system in electric vehicles . The Nissan Leaf was the first car manufactured by Nissan to include VSP , and the electric car includes one sound for forward motion and another for reverse . The VSP was also used in the Nissan Fuga hybrid launched in 2011 . The system developed makes a noise easy to hear for those outside to be aware of the vehicle approaching , but the warning sounds do not distract the car occupants inside . Nissan explained that during the development of the sound they studied behavioral research of the visually impaired and worked with cognitive and acoustic psychologists , including the National Federation of the Blind , the Detroit Institute of Ophthalmology , experts from the Vanderbilt University Medical Center and a Hollywood sound design studio .
Nissan 's Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians is a sine @-@ wave sound system that sweeps from 2 @.@ 5 kHz at the high end to a low of 600 Hz , a range that is easily audible across age groups . Depending on the speed and whether the Leaf is accelerating or decelerating , the sound system will make sweeping , high @-@ low sounds . For example , when the Leaf is started the sound will be louder , and when the car is in reverse , the system will generate an intermittent sound . The sound system ceases operation when the Nissan Leaf reaches 30 km / h ( 18 @.@ 6 mph ) and engages again as the car slows to under 25 kilometres per hour ( 16 mph ) . For the 2011 Leaf , the driver could turn off sounds temporarily through a switch inside the vehicle , but the system automatically reset to " On " at the next ignition cycle . The system is controlled through a computer and synthesizer in the dash panel , and the sound is delivered through a speaker in the front driver 's side wheel well . Nissan said that there were six or seven finalist sounds , and that sound testing included driving cars emitting various sounds past testers standing on street corners , who indicated when they first heard the approaching car . Nissan removed the ability to disable the pedestrian alert between model year 2011 and 2012 in anticipation of the U.S. ruling to be issued by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration .
The Leaf 's electric warning sound had to be removed for cars delivered in the U.K. , as the country 's law mandates that any hazard warning sound must be capable of being disabled between 11 : 00 pm and 6 : 00 am , and the Leaf 's audible warning system does not allow for such temporary deactivation . For the 2014 UK model of the car , the VSP system is enabled by default , though a button on the dash permits drivers to disable the system until the next time the car is switched on .
= = = Toyota = = =
Toyota Motor Company teamed up with Fujitsu Ten to develop an automatic warning system for hybrids and electric vehicles to alert pedestrians when the car is propelled by its electric motor . The companies also studied the development of a system that would change the alarm 's tune and volume with the assistance of an obstacle @-@ detection radar .
On August 2010 Toyota began sales of an onboard device designed to automatically emit a synthesized sound of an electric motor when the Prius is operating as an electric vehicle at speeds up to approximately 25 kilometres per hour ( 16 mph ) . The device will be available in Japan through authorized Toyota dealers and Toyota genuine parts & accessories distributors for retrofitting on the third @-@ generation Prius at a price of ¥ 12 @,@ 600 ( ~ US $ 150 ) including the consumption tax . The alert sound rises and falls in pitch according to the vehicle 's speed , thus helping indicate the vehicle 's proximity and movement to nearby pedestrians . Toyota is planning to use other versions of the device for use in gasoline @-@ electric hybrids , plug @-@ in hybrids , electric vehicles as well as fuel @-@ cell hybrid vehicles planned for mass production . The device meets the 2010 government regulations issued for hybrid and other near @-@ silent vehicles .
Toyota 's Vehicle Proximity Notification System ( VPNS ) was introduced in the United States in all 2012 model year Prius family vehicles , including the Prius v , Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid and the standard Prius . The system is being introduced to comply with the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 .
= = = Other carmakers = = =
Tesla Motors and Think Global , both manufactures of electric cars already in the market , are assessing this safety issue . Ford Motor Company is developing a system for emitting external sounds to future hybrids and electrics , including its Focus BEV , scheduled for 2011 , and a next @-@ generation hybrid and plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle planned for 2012 . Nancy Gioia , Ford 's Director for Global Electrification commented that " car companies should consider standardizing tones from future hybrids and electrics to avoid a cacophony of confusion on the streets . "
= = Criticism and controversy = =
After Nissan 's new sounds were publicized , the U.S. National Federation of the Blind issued a statement saying that " while it was pleased that the alert existed , it was unhappy that the driver was able to turn it off . " The NFB approves the Nissan Leaf 's forward motion sound , but it said the forward noise should also be used for reversing because the " intermittent sound is not as effective as a continuous sound " and that the car should emit warning sounds when it is idling , not only when it 's moving slowly . Nevertheless , their main complaint is that they don ’ t think the driver should be able to switch the sound off .
Several anti @-@ noise and electric car advocates have opposed the introduction of artificial sounds as warning for pedestrians , as they argue that the proposed system will only increase noise pollution . They also opposed U.S. pending legislation that would require generated warning sounds with no off switch for the driver .
Robert S. Wall Emerson of Western Michigan University has argued that several high @-@ end gasoline @-@ powered luxury cars are already quieter than hybrids , and according to his most recent studies , hybrid SUVs were noisier than many internal @-@ combustion vehicles . He concludes that pedestrian safety is not a hybrid issue but rather " a quiet car issue . "
= = Market availability = =
As of 1 January 2014 , most of the hybrids and plug @-@ in electric and hybrids sold make warning noises using a speaker system . Tesla Motors , Volkswagen and BMW do not currently include warning sounds in their electric @-@ drive vehicles , as all of them decided to add artificial sounds only when required by regulation .
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= Suillus quiescens =
Suillus quiescens is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae . First collected in 2002 on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of California , in association with Bishop Pine ( Pinus muricata ) , the species was scientifically described and named in 2010 . In addition to its distribution in coastal California , it was also found forming ectomycorrhizae with the roots of pine seedlings in the eastern Sierra Nevada , coastal Oregon , and the southern Cascade Mountains . It resembles Suillus brevipes , but can be distinguished from that species by its paler @-@ colored immature cap and by the tiny colored glands on the stipe that darken with age .
= = Discovery = =
Fruit bodies of the fungus were first collected in 2002 on Santa Cruz Island , in Santa Barbara County . They were named provisionally as a new species , Suillus quiescens , in conference proceedings published in 2005 . The species was officially described and named in a 2010 Mycologia publication . The specific epithet quiescens refers to the organism 's ability to wait dormant ( quiescent ) in the soil until it encounters pine roots .
= = Phylogeny = =
Based on phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region in the non @-@ functional RNA of a number of Suillus species , S. quiescens is distinct from other morphologically similar species such as S. brevipes , S. volcanalis , and S. occidentalis . The S. quiescens sequences , which were obtained from fruit bodies and from mycorrhizal root tips , formed a clade . The analysis showed that the S. quiescens sequences were matches to some unidentified Suillus sequences found from mycorrhizae of pine seedlings collected from Oregon and California .
= = Description = =
The cap ranges in shape from hemispheric to broadly convex , and has a diameter of 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The cap color is deep brown in mature specimens and lighter shades of brown in younger mushrooms . Young specimens have a sticky layer of gluten on the cap that dries out in maturity . The edge of the cap is rolled inwards in young specimens . The flesh of the cap is whitish and does not change color when bruised or cut . The tubes on the underside of the cap are light yellow to bright orange @-@ yellow ; the tube mouths are usually less than 1 mm wide . The stipe is usually between 2 and 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 and 1 @.@ 6 in ) long , less frequently reaching up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . It is either the same width throughout or slightly larger ( bulbous ) at the base . The color of the upper portion of the stipe is pale to light yellow , while the lower portion may be light brown or covered with streaks of glutinous material like that on the cap . The stipe surface is covered with fine glands that are initially slightly darker than the color of the stipe surface , but deepen to brown or nearly black after drying . The color of the spore print was not determined from the initial collections , but is thought to be yellow @-@ brown to brown based on the accumulated spore deposit seen on the surface of the caps of neighboring fruit bodies .
The elongate spores are oblong in face view , with dimensions of 6 @.@ 1 – 14 @.@ 7 by 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 7 µm . Most spores have a single large drop of oil in them . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped , two- or four @-@ spored , and measure 20 @.@ 2 – 26 @.@ 2 by 5 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 7 µm .
= = = Similar species = = =
With its short stipe and sticky cap , S. quiescens is similar to S. brevipes . It may be distinguished from the latter species by the color of the young ( light @-@ brown ) cap , the glandular dots at the top of stipes in mature specimens , and the yellowish color at the top of the stipe .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies grow together in small groups on the ground in association with Bishop Pine ( Pinus muricata ) . It is the most common Suillus species on Santa Cruz Island , its type locality and it has also been collected at Santa Rosa Island , and Point Reyes National Seashore in California . Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa , two of the four islands that make up the northern Channel Islands , have a Mediterranean climate with cool and wet winters , and warm and dry summers . Most species of Suillus do not have spores that survive in the soil for extended periods of time , but the spores of S. quiescens can tolerate the dry conditions and heat typical of California . Another study showed that viable S. quiescens spores were present in steam @-@ pasteurized soil planted in Oregon fields . The authors suggest that S. quiescens is an early successional species that fruits in young forests , and whose spores remain dormant in the soil for extended periods of time until the roots of a suitable pine host are encountered .
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= Rebecca Soni =
Rebecca Soni ( born March 18 , 1987 ) is an American former competition swimmer and breaststroke specialist who is a six @-@ time Olympic medalist . She is a former world record @-@ holder in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke ( short and long course ) and the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke ( short and long course ) , and is the first woman to swim the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke in under 2 minutes 20 seconds . As a member of the U.S. national team , she currently holds the world record in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay ( short and long course ) .
Soni has won a total of twenty @-@ two medals in major international competition , fourteen gold , seven silver , and one bronze spanning the Olympics , the World , the Universiade , and the Pan Pacific Championships . She burst onto the international scene at the 2008 Summer Olympics where she won two silver medals and one gold . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke at the Olympics , she set the world record en route to winning gold , shocking Australian favorite Leisel Jones . Four years later at the 2012 Summer Olympics , Soni successfully defended her Olympic title in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke in world record time , becoming the first woman to do so in the event .
She was named Swimming World 's World Swimmer of the Year award in 2010 and 2011 , and the American Swimmer of the Year award in 2009 , 2010 and 2011 .
= = Personal life = =
Soni was born in Freehold , New Jersey , in 1987 , the daughter of Peter and Kinga Szőnyi . Soni 's parents are of Hungarian descent ; they emigrated from Cluj @-@ Napoca , Romania . Besides English , Soni also speaks Hungarian . Soni has one older sister , Rita , who was also a swimmer . Originally a gymnast , Soni began swimming at the age of ten .
Soni is a 2005 graduate of West Windsor @-@ Plainsboro High School North in Plainsboro Township , New Jersey . In July 2006 she had a cardiac ablation . Soni attended the University of Southern California and graduated in 2009 . She majored in communication at the Annenberg School for Communication .
At USC , Soni was a six @-@ time NCAA Champion , having won the 200 @-@ yard breaststroke in 2006 through 2009 and the 100 @-@ yard breaststroke in 2008 and 2009 . Soni currently swims for the Trojan Swim Club in Los Angeles with coach Dave Salo , who also coaches breaststroke world @-@ record holder Jessica Hardy .
In August 2010 , Soni became a spokeswoman for the United Nations Foundation 's Girl Up campaign . The organization focuses on improving the lives of the world 's adolescent girls .
She dated fellow U.S. Olympic swimmer Ricky Berens from 2010 to 2012 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
As a 17 @-@ year @-@ old at the 2004 U.S. Olympic Team Trials , Soni finished 15th overall in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke and 11th overall in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . The following year , at the 2005 World Championship Trials , Soni just missed a spot on the 2005 World Aquatic team after finishing third in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke behind Tara Kirk and Kristen Caverly . Soni also placed fourth in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke . At the 2005 Summer Universiade , Soni earned her first international medals by winning silver in the 100 @-@ meter and 200 @-@ meter breaststroke and gold in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . At the 2006 World Short Course Championships , Soni finished in 4th place in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . Just a few weeks before the 2006 National Championships , Soni underwent a procedure called radiofrequency ablation to help regulate her heartbeat . Although it was not health @-@ threatening , Soni would sometimes experience a high heart rate which sometimes interfered with her training . At the 2006 National Championships , the selection meet for the 2006 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships and the 2007 World Aquatics Championships , Soni finished tenth overall in both the 100 @-@ meter and 200 @-@ meter breaststroke .
= = = 2008 = = =
= = = = 2008 Olympic Trials = = = =
At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Team Trials , Soni competed in two events , the 100 @-@ meter and 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . In the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni finished fourth in a time of 1 : 07 @.@ 80 . Usually , the top two finishers would qualify for the Olympics . However , after second @-@ place finisher Jessica Hardy withdrew from the team and third @-@ place finisher Tara Kirk missed the entry deadline , Soni was chosen to swim the event . Soni earned her berth by being the swimmer already on the team with the fastest time in the event since January 1 , 2006 . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni won with a time of 2 : 22 @.@ 60 , the third @-@ fastest finish as of that date .
= = = = 2008 Summer Olympics = = = =
At the 2008 Summer Olympics , Soni won a silver medal in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , finishing behind world record holder Leisel Jones of Australia 1 : 06 @.@ 73 to 1 : 05 @.@ 17 . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni upset the heavily favored Jones , winning the gold medal and breaking Jones 's world record with a time of 2 : 20 @.@ 22 . Jones finished second with a time of 2 : 22 @.@ 05 . After the race , Soni said , " It 's been a long road to get here , I can 't believe what just happened . " Soni then combined with Natalie Coughlin , Christine Magnuson , and Dara Torres in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay to finish second behind Australia . Soni had the second best split time in the field ( 1 : 05 @.@ 95 ) behind Jones ( 1 : 04 @.@ 58 ) .
= = = 2009 = = =
= = = = 2009 National Championships = = = =
At the 2009 National Championships Soni competed in two events , the 100 @-@ meter and 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . In the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni easily won with a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 34 . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni again exhibited dominance by finishing first with a time of 2 : 20 @.@ 38 , just off her world record pace .
= = = = 2009 World Aquatics Championships = = = =
At the 2009 World Aquatics Championships , held in Rome , Soni set a meet record in the heats of the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , with a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 66 . In the semi @-@ final , Soni recorded a time of 1 : 04 @.@ 84 to set a new world record and become the first female to finish under 1 : 05 for the event . In the final of the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni won the gold with a time of 1 : 04 @.@ 93 . Despite being the favorite in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni went out too fast in the first half of the race and faded in the final meters , ultimately placing fourth . In the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni was narrowly beaten for the gold and the world record by two one @-@ hundredths ( 0 @.@ 02 ) of a second by Russian swimmer Yuliya Yefimova .
For her performance at the World Championships , she was named the American Swimmer of the Year by Swimming World Magazine .
= = = = 2009 Duel in the Pool = = = =
Soni then competed at the 2009 Duel in the Pool , a short course meet held in December at Manchester . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni broke Leisel Jones ' world record with a time of 2 : 14 @.@ 57 . One day later , Soni swam a 1 : 02 @.@ 70 in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke to break Jones ' world record of 1 : 03 @.@ 00 .
= = = 2010 = = =
= = = = 2010 National Championships = = = =
At the 2010 National Championships , Soni qualified to compete at the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in the 100 and 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . In the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni won in a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 73 . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni easily won with a time of 2 : 21 @.@ 60 , almost five seconds ahead of second @-@ place finisher Amanda Beard .
= = = = 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships = = = =
At the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , Soni won a total of three gold medals . In the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni recorded the third fastest time in history and the fastest time recorded in a textile suit with a 1 : 04 @.@ 93 to win the gold medal ahead of Australians Leisel Jones and Sarah Katsoulis . Her time was also the fastest ever recorded in a textile swimsuit . Two days after the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni then competed in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke and the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni dominated the field with a time of 2 : 20 @.@ 69 . Leisel Jones came in second in 2 : 23 @.@ 23 and world record holder Annamay Pierse came in third with a time of 2 : 23 @.@ 65 . Less than an hour after the event , Soni competed in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay with Natalie Coughlin , Dana Vollmer and Jessica Hardy . Performing the breaststroke leg , Soni recorded a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 35 , the fastest in the field ; the American team went on to win the gold in a time of 3 : 55 @.@ 23 .
For her performance at the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , Soni was named the World Swimmer of the Year and American Swimmer of the Year by Swimming World Magazine .
= = = = 2010 Short Course World Championships = = = =
At the end of 2010 , Soni competed at the 2010 World Short Course Championships in Dubai , where she won three gold medals and one silver . Soni swept all the breaststroke events and individually set four championship records .
= = = 2011 = = =
= = = = 2011 World Aquatics Championships = = = =
Soni won her first gold medal in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke . After posting the top times in the heats ( 1 : 05 @.@ 54 ) and semi @-@ finals ( 1 : 04 @.@ 91 ) , Soni recorded a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 05 in the final for the win . Her winning time was over a second ahead of second @-@ place finisher Leisel Jones . In her second event , the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni won with a time of 2 : 21 @.@ 47 , her first gold medal in the event at a long course World Championships . However , her time in the final was slightly slower than her semi @-@ final time of 2 : 21 @.@ 03 . In the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , Soni won gold with Natalie Coughlin , Dana Vollmer , and Missy Franklin with a time of 3 : 52 @.@ 36 , over three seconds ahead of second @-@ place finisher China . Swimming the breaststroke leg , Soni had a split of 1 : 04 @.@ 71 . The final time of 3 : 52 @.@ 36 for the medley relay was the second @-@ fastest effort of all time , just behind the Chinese @-@ owned world record of 3 : 52 @.@ 19 . In her last event , the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni finished in third place behind Jessica Hardy and Yuliya Yefimova .
At the year 's end , Soni was named the World Swimmer of the Year and American Swimmer of the Year by Swimming World Magazine , and defended her titles from 2010 .
= = = 2012 = = =
= = = = 2012 Olympic Trials = = = =
At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials , the U.S. qualifying meet for the Olympics , Soni qualified for the U.S. Olympic team by finishing second in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke and first in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . Her second @-@ place finish in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke also ensured her a spot on the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . In her first event , the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni placed second behind Breeja Larson , a Texas A & M swimmer , with a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 99 , only losing by seven one @-@ hundredths ( 0 @.@ 07 ) of a second . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni placed first with a time of 2 : 21 @.@ 13 , winning by almost two seconds .
= = = = 2012 Summer Olympic Games = = = =
At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Soni won her first medal , a silver , in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , finishing 0 @.@ 08 seconds behind 15 @-@ year @-@ old Lithuanian Rūta Meilutytė and repeating her result from the 2008 Olympics . After topping the heats of the 200 @-@ metre breaststroke with a time of 2 : 21 @.@ 40 , and breaking Annamay Pierse 's world record in the semi @-@ finals with a time of 2 : 20 @.@ 00 , Soni won a gold medal in the final of the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke with a time of 2 : 19 @.@ 59 , breaking her own world record and becoming the first woman ever to break 2 minutes 20 seconds in the event . With her win , Soni became the first female to successfully defend her title in the event . In her final event , the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , she won gold with Missy Franklin , Dana Vollmer and Allison Schmitt . Swimming the breaststroke leg , she recorded a time of 1 : 04 @.@ 82 , and the U.S. team went on to set a new world record with a time of 3 : 52 @.@ 05 , bettering the previous Chinese @-@ owned record of 3 : 52 @.@ 19 set in 2009 .
= = = 2013 = = =
Soni took the year off to recover from a back injury , but returned to the 2013 World Aquatics Championships as a spectator . At the World Championships , her 200 @-@ meter breaststroke world record was broken by Denmark 's Rikke Møller Pedersen in the semi @-@ finals .
= = Personal bests = =
As of August 2 , 2012 .
= = World records = =
a Record set in a short course pool .
b Short course record with Natalie Coughlin , Dana Vollmer , and Missy Franklin .
c The first woman to swim in under 2 minutes 20 seconds in the event .
d Record set with Missy Franklin , Dana Vollmer , and Allison Schmitt .
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= HMS York ( 90 ) =
HMS York was the first of two York @-@ class heavy cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the late 1920s . She mostly served on the North America and West Indies Station before World War II . Early in the war the ship escorted convoys in the Atlantic and participated in the Norwegian Campaign in 1940 . York was transferred to the Mediterranean theatre in late 1940 where she escorted convoys and the larger ships of the Mediterranean Fleet . She was wrecked in an attack by Italian explosive motorboats of the 10th Flotilla MAS at Suda Bay , Crete in March 1941 . The ship 's wreck was salvaged in 1952 and scrapped in Bari .
= = Design and description = =
York 's design was based on the earlier County classes but was intended to be smaller and cheaper , although better armoured . She was easily distinguishable from her sister ship , Exeter , as the latter had straight masts and funnels , while those of York were angled to the rear . In addition , York also had a very tall bridge designed to clear the aircraft catapult originally planned to be carried on the superfiring ( ' B ' ) gun turret forward .
York displaced 8 @,@ 250 long tons ( 8 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 10 @,@ 620 long tons ( 10 @,@ 790 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 575 feet ( 175 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 57 feet ( 17 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 20 feet 3 inches ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving four shafts , which developed a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 25 knots ( 59 @.@ 73 km / h ; 37 @.@ 11 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . York carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 900 long tons ( 1 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 13 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 24 @,@ 600 km ; 15 @,@ 300 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 628 officers and men .
The ship mounted six 50 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns in three twin turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of four QF 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk V anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . York mounted two single 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) light AA guns ( " pom @-@ poms " ) . The ship carried two triple torpedo tube above @-@ water mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes .
York lacked a full waterline armor belt . The sides of her boiler and engine rooms were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour and sides of the magazines were protected by 4 @.@ 375 inches ( 111 @.@ 1 mm ) of armour . The transverse bulkheads at the end of her machinery rooms were 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) thick . The top and ends of the magazines were three inches thick . The lower deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . Space and weight was reserved for one catapult and its seaplane , but they were not fitted until after she was completed . A second catapult , intended to be mounted on ' B ' turret , was deleted from the design during construction .
= = Service = =
York was laid down by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , Jarrow , on 18 May 1927 , launched on 17 July 1928 and was completed on 1 May 1930 . She became the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Home Fleet upon commissioning . Between 1931 and 1934 she was commanded by Captain Richard Bevan . She served with the 8th Cruiser Squadron on the North America and West Indies Station , and was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1935 and 1936 for the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War , before returning to the American Station until the outbreak of war in September 1939 .
The ship was transferred to Halifax , Nova Scotia that same month for convoy escort duties . In October 1939 , York was assigned to Force F at Halifax , which was active in hunting for commerce raiders and protecting convoys . She was briefly refitted in Bermuda between 31 October and 22 November before she returned to Great Britain for a more thorough refit in December . Upon its completion on 9 February York was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron of Home Fleet . On 3 March 1940 the ship intercepted the German blockade runner Arucas in the Denmark Strait near Iceland , but she was scuttled by her own crew before she could be captured .
In early April 1940 , York , and the rest of her squadron , were assigned to carry troops under Plan R 4 , the British plan to invade Norway . The troops were disembarked on 8 April when the British learned of the imminent German invasion of Norway and the squadron , under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral John Cunningham , joined the bulk of the Home Fleet already at sea . On 10 April the destroyer HMS Eclipse was badly damaged by air attack and York was detailed to tow her to Lerwick for repairs . The ship , and the light cruisers HMS Manchester and HMS Birmingham , ferried the 1st Battalion of the Green Howards and other troops from Rosyth to Åndalsnes and Molde on 24 – 25 April . York returned home on 26 April . York was one of the ships used to evacuate British and French troops from Namsos , along with three French transports and a number of British destroyers , on the evening of 1 / 2 May .
= = = In the Mediterranean = = =
In August 1940 York was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , joining the 3rd Cruiser Squadron in Alexandria in late September , after escorting a convoy around the Cape of Good Hope . Two days later she participated in Operation MB.5 , where the Mediterranean Fleet escorted the light cruisers HMS Liverpool and HMS Gloucester as they ferried troops to Malta . During the Battle of Cape Passero , York sank the disabled and abandoned destroyer Artigliere on 13 October after the destroyer 's engagement with the light cruiser HMS Ajax the previous evening . A month later York and the Mediterranean Fleet executed Operation MB8 , a complex series of manoeuvers , including Operation Judgement , where the ship escorted the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious as her aircraft attacked the Italian Fleet at Taranto on the evening of 11 / 12 November . A few days later York ferried British troops from Alexandria , Egypt to Piraeus , Greece . On 26 November , York , and the rest of the 3rd Cruiser Squadron , covered a small convoy to Malta .
The Mediterranean Fleet , including York , sortied on 16 December to conduct air strikes on Italian shipping , airbases on Rhodes and to bombard Valona . In early January 1941 the ship escorted the tanker RFA Brambleleaf and four Flower @-@ class corvettes to Suda Bay , Crete and covered operations in the Eastern Mediterranean during Operation Excess . She arrived back at Alexandria on 16 January . York returned to Suda Bay in early February for operations against Italian shipping . During Operation Lustre in March , she protected troop convoys from Egypt to Greece .
= = = Fate = = =
York was disabled at Suda Bay in Crete by two Italian explosive motorboats of the Italian Regia Marina assault Flotilla Decima Flottiglia MAS , launched by the destroyers Crispi and Sella on 26 March 1941 ; the two old destroyers were fitted with special cranes to operate assault craft . Six motorboats entered the bay , led by Tenente di vascello Luigi Faggioni , and attacked three targets in pairs ; the first was York , second the tanker Pericles and last another ship at anchor . Three of the attacking boats had various problems , either mechanical or human , due to the extreme temperature conditions , but the other three successfully attacked their targets . Two motorboats , packed with 330 @-@ kilogram ( 730 lb ) charges in the bows , struck York amidships , flooding both boiler rooms and one engine room . Two British seamen were killed . All Italian sailors survived the attack and fell into British hands . The ship was run aground to prevent her from sinking . The submarine HMS Rover was used to supply electrical power to operate the cruiser 's guns for anti @-@ aircraft defence , but she was later severely damaged by air attack and had to be towed away for repairs . On 18 May , further damage was inflicted by German bombers and the ship was damaged beyond repair . Her main guns were wrecked by demolition charges on 22 May 1941 when the Allies began to evacuate Crete . York 's wreck was salvaged in February 1952 and towed to Bari to be broken up , beginning on 3 March .
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= Cabernet Sauvignon =
Cabernet Sauvignon ( French : [ kabɛʁnɛ soviˈɲɔ ̃ ] ) is one of the world 's most widely recognized red wine grape varieties . It is grown in nearly every major wine producing country among a diverse spectrum of climates from Canada 's Okanagan Valley to Lebanon 's Beqaa Valley . Cabernet Sauvignon became internationally recognized through its prominence in Bordeaux wines where it is often blended with Merlot and Cabernet Franc . From France , the grape spread across Europe and to the New World where it found new homes in places like California 's Santa Cruz Mountains , Napa Valley , New Zealand 's Hawkes Bay , Australia 's Margaret River and Coonawarra regions and Chile 's Maipo Valley and Colchagua . For most of the 20th century , it was the world 's most widely planted premium red wine grape until it was surpassed by Merlot in the 1990s .
Despite its prominence in the industry , the grape is a relatively new variety , the product of a chance crossing between Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon blanc during the 17th century in southwestern France . Its popularity is often attributed to its ease of cultivation — the grapes have thick skins and the vines are hardy and naturally low yielding , budding late to avoid frost and resistant to viticultural hazards such as rot and insects — and to its consistent presentation of structure and flavours which express the typical character ( " typicity " ) of the variety . Familiarity and ease of pronunciation have helped to sell Cabernet Sauvignon wines to consumers , even when from unfamiliar wine regions . Its widespread popularity has also contributed to criticism of the grape as a " colonizer " that takes over wine regions at the expense of native grape varieties .
The classic profile of Cabernet Sauvignon tends to be full @-@ bodied wines with high tannins and noticeable acidity that contributes to the wine 's aging potential . In cooler climates , Cabernet Sauvignon tends to produce wines with blackcurrant notes that can be accompanied by green bell pepper notes , mint and cedar which will all become more pronounced as the wine ages . In more moderate climates the blackcurrant notes are often seen with black cherry and black olives notes while in very hot climates the current flavors can veer towards the over @-@ ripe and " jammy " side . In parts of Australia , particularly the Coonawarra wine region of South Australia , Cabernet Sauvignon wines tend to have a characteristic eucalyptus or menthol notes .
= = History and origins = =
For many years , the origin of Cabernet Sauvignon was not clearly understood and many myths and conjectures surrounded it . The word " Sauvignon " is believed to be derived from the French sauvage meaning " wild " and to refer to the grape being a wild Vitis vinifera vine native to France . Until recently the grape was rumored to have ancient origins , perhaps even being the Biturica grape used to make ancient Roman wine and referenced by Pliny the Elder . This belief was widely held in the 18th century , when the grape was also known as Petite Vidure or Bidure , apparently a corruption of Biturica . There was also belief that Vidure was a reference to the hard wood ( French vigne dure ) of the vine , with a possible relationship to Carménère which was once known as Grand Vidure . Another theory was that the grapevine originated in the Rioja region of Spain .
While the period when the name Cabernet Sauvignon became more prevalent over Petite Vidure is not certain , records indicate that the grape was a popular Bordeaux planting in the 18th century Médoc region . The first estates known to have actively grown the variety ( and the likely source of Cabernet vines for other estates ) were Château Mouton and Château d 'Armailhac in Pauillac .
The grape 's true origins were discovered in 1996 with the use of DNA typing at the UC Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology , by a team led by Dr. Carole Meredith . The DNA evidence determined that Cabernet Sauvignon was the offspring of Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc and was most likely a chance crossing that occurred in the 17th century . Prior to this discovery , this origin had been suspected from the similarity of the grapes ' names and the fact that Cabernet Sauvignon shares similar aromas with both grapes — such as the blackcurrant and pencil box aromas of Cabernet franc and the grassiness of Sauvignon blanc .
= = = Offspring and White Cabernet = = =
While not as prolific in mutating as Pinot noir , nor as widely used in production of offspring , Cabernet Sauvignon has been linked to other grape varieties . In 1961 , a cross of Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache produced the French wine grape Marselan . Cygne blanc is a white @-@ berried seedling of Cabernet Sauvignon that was discovered in 1989 growing in a garden in Swan Valley , Western Australia . Cabernet blanc is a crossing of Cabernet Sauvignon and an unknown hybrid grape variety that was discovered in Switzerland in the late 20th century .
In 1977 a vine producing ' bronze ' grapes was found in the vineyards of Cleggett Wines in Australia . They propagated this mutant , registered it under the name of Malian , and sold pale red wines under that name . In 1991 one of the Bronze Cabernet vines started producing white grapes . Cleggett registered this " White Cabernet " under the name of Shalistin . Compared to its Cabernet parent , Malian appears to lack anthocyanins in the subepidermal cells but retains them in the epidermis , whereas Shalistin has no anthocyanins in either layer . The team that went on to discover the VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 genes that control grape color have suggested that a gene involved in anthocyanin production has been deleted in the subepidermis of Malian , and then subepidermal cells invaded the epidermis to produce Shalistin .
During a series of trials between 1924 and 1930 , the pollen of Cabernet Sauvignon was used to fertilize Glera vines ( the white wine grape used to make the sparkling wine Prosecco ) to create the red Italian wine grape Incrocio Manzoni 2 @.@ 15 .
In 1983 , Cabernet Sauvignon was crossed with the white German wine grape Bronner to create the white wine grape Souvignier gris .
= = Viticulture = =
While Cabernet Sauvignon can grow in a variety of climates , its suitability as a varietal wine or as a blend component is strongly influenced by the warmth of the climate . The vine is one of the last major grape varieties to bud and ripen ( typically 1 – 2 weeks after Merlot and Cabernet franc ) and the climate of the growing season affects how early the grapes will be harvested . Many wine regions in California give the vine an abundance of sunshine with few problems in ripening fully , which increases the likelihood of producing varietal Cabernet wines . In regions like Bordeaux , under the threat of inclement harvest season weather , Cabernet Sauvignon is often harvested a little earlier than ideal and is then blended with other grapes to fill in the gaps . In some regions , climate will be more important than soil . In regions that are too cool , there is a potential for more herbaceous and green bell pepper flavours from less than ideally ripened grapes . In regions where the grape is exposed to excess warmth and over @-@ ripening , there is a propensity for the wine to develop flavours of cooked or stewed blackcurrants .
The Cabernet grape variety has thriven in a variety of vineyard soil types , making the consideration of soil less of concern particularly for New World winemakers . In Bordeaux , the soil aspect of terroir was historically an important consideration in determining which of the major Bordeaux grape varieties were planted . While Merlot seemed to thrive in clay- and limestone @-@ based soils ( such as those of the Right Bank regions of the Gironde estuary ) , Cabernet Sauvignon seemed to perform better in the gravel @-@ based soil of the Médoc region on the Left Bank . The gravel soils offered the benefit of being well drained while absorbing and radiating heat to the vines , aiding ripening . Clay- and limestone @-@ based soils are often cooler , allowing less heat to reach the vines , delaying ripening . In regions where the climate is warmer , there is more emphasis on soil that is less fertile , which promotes less vigor in the vine which can keep yields low . In the Napa Valley wine regions of Oakville and Rutherford , the soil is more alluvial and dusty . Rutherford Cabernet Sauvignon has been often quoted as giving a sense of terroir with a taste of " Rutherford dust " . In the South Australian wine region of Coonawarra , Cabernet Sauvignon has produced vastly different results from grape vines planted in the region 's terra rosa soil – so much so that the red soil is considered the " boundary " of the wine region , with some controversy from wine growers with Cabernet Sauvignon planted on red soil .
In addition to ripeness levels , the harvest yields can also have a strong influence in the resulting quality and flavors of Cabernet Sauvignon wine . The vine itself is prone to vigorous yields , particularly when planted on the vigorous SO4 rootstock . Excessive yields can result in less concentrated and flavorful wine with flavors more on the green or herbaceous side . In the 1970s , a particular clone of Cabernet Sauvignon that was engineered to be virus free was noted for its very high yields @-@ causing many quality conscious producers to replant their vineyards in the late 20th century with different clonal varieties . To reduce yields , producers can plant the vines on less vigorous rootstock and also practice green harvesting with aggressive pruning of grape clusters soon after veraison .
In general , Cabernet Sauvignon has good resistance to most grape diseases , powdery mildew being the most noted exception . It is , however , susceptible to the vine diseases Eutypella scoparia and excoriose .
= = = The " green bell pepper " flavor = = =
There are a couple of noted Cabernet Sauvignon flavors that are intimately tied to viticultural and climate influences . The most widely recognized is the herbaceous or green bell pepper flavor caused by pyrazines , which are more prevalent in underripened grapes . Pyrazine compounds are present in all Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and are gradually destroyed by sunlight as the grape continues to ripen . To the human palate this compound is detectable in wines with pyrazine levels as low as 2 nanograms ( ng ) per liter . At the time of veraison , when the grapes first start to fully ripen , there is the equivalent pyrazine level of 30 ng / l . In cooler climates , it is difficult to get Cabernet Sauvignon grapes to ripen fully to the point where pyrazine is not detected . The green bell pepper flavor is not considered a wine fault but it may not be desirable to all consumers ' tastes . The California wine region of Monterey was noted in the late 20th century for its very vegetal Cabernet Sauvignon with pronounced green pepper flavor , earning the nickname of " Monterey veggies " . In addition to its cool climate , Monterey is also prone to being very windy , which can have the effect of shutting down the grape vines and further inhibiting ripeness .
Two other well known Cabernet Sauvignon flavors are mint and eucalyptus . Mint flavors are often associated with wine regions that are warm enough to have low pyrazine levels but are still generally cool , such as Australia 's Coonawarra region and some areas of Washington State . There is some belief that soil could also be a contributor to the minty notes , since the flavor also appears in some wines from the Pauillac region but not from similar climate of Margaux . Resinous Eucalyptus flavors tend to appear in regions that are habitats for the eucalyptus tree , such as California 's Napa and Sonoma valleys and parts of Australia , but there has been no evidence to conclusively prove a direct link between proximity of eucalyptus trees and the presence of that flavor in the wine .
= = Winemaking = =
In many aspects , Cabernet Sauvignon can reflect the desires and personality of the winemaker while still presenting familiar flavors that express the typical character of the variety . The most pronounced effects are from the use of oak during production . Typically the first winemaking decision is whether or not to produce a varietal or blended wine . The " Bordeaux blend " of Cabernet Sauvignon , Merlot and Cabernet franc , with potentially some Malbec , Petit Verdot or Carménère , is the classic example of blended Cabernet Sauvignon , emulated in the United States with wines produced under the " Meritage " designation . But Cabernet Sauvignon can be blended with a variety of grapes such as Shiraz , Tempranillo and Sangiovese . The decision to blend is then followed by the decision of when to do the blending — before , during or after fermentation . Due to the different fermentation styles of the grapes , many producers will ferment and age each grape variety separately and blend the wine shortly before bottling .
The Cabernet Sauvignon grape itself is very small , with a thick skin , creating a high 1 : 12 ratio of seed ( pip ) to fruit ( pulp ) . From these elements the high proportions of phenols and tannins can have a stark influence on the structure and flavor of the wine — especially if the must is subjected to long periods of maceration ( skin contact ) before fermentation . In Bordeaux , the maceration period was traditionally three weeks , which gave the winemaking staff enough time to close down the estate after harvest to take a hunting holiday . The results of these long maceration periods are very tannic and flavorful wines that require years of aging . Wine producers that wish to make a wine more approachable within a couple of years will drastically reduce the maceration time to as a little as a few days . Following maceration , the Cabernet must can be fermented at high temperatures up to 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . The temperature of fermentation will play a role in the result , with deeper colors and more flavor components being extracted at higher temperatures while more fruit flavors are maintained at lower temperature . In Australia there has been experimentation with carbonic maceration to make softer , fruity Cabernet Sauvignon wines .
The tannic nature of Cabernet Sauvignon is an important winemaking consideration . As the must is exposed to prolonged periods of maceration , more tannins are extracted from the skin and will be present in the resulting wine . If winemakers choose not to shorten the period of maceration , in favor of maximizing color and flavor concentrations , there are some methods that they can use to soften tannin levels . A common method is oak aging , which exposes the wine to gradual levels of oxidation that can mellow the harsh grape tannins as well as introduce softer " wood tannins " . The choice of fining agents can also reduce tannins with gelatin and egg whites being positively @-@ charged proteins that are naturally attracted to the negatively charged tannin molecules . These fining agents will bond with some of the tannins and be removed from the wine during filtration . One additional method is micro @-@ oxygenation which mimics some of the gradual aeration that occurs with barrel aging , with the limited exposure to oxygen aiding in the polymerization of the tannins into larger molecules , which are perceived on the palate as being softer .
= = = Affinity for oak = = =
One of the most noted traits of Cabernet Sauvignon is its affinity for oak , either during fermentation or in barrel aging . In addition to having a softening effect on the grape 's naturally high tannins , the unique wood flavors of vanilla and spice complement the natural grape flavors of blackcurrant and tobacco . The particular success of Cabernet @-@ based Bordeaux blends in the 225 liter ( 59 gallon ) barrique were a significant influence in making that barrel size one of the most popular worldwide . In winemaking , the decision for the degree of oak influence ( as well as which type of oak ) will have a strong impact on the resulting wine . American oak , particularly from new barrels , imparts stronger oak flavors that are less subtle than those imparted by French oak . Even within the American oak family , the location of the oak source also plays a role with oak from the state of Oregon having more pronounced influence on Cabernet Sauvignon than oak from Missouri , Pennsylvania and Virginia . Winemakers often use a variety of oak barrels from different locations and of different ages and blend the wine as if they are blending different grape varieties .
Winemakers can also control the influence of oak by using alternatives to the standard barrique barrels . Larger barrels have a smaller wood @-@ to @-@ wine ratio and therefore less pronounced oak flavors . Winemakers in Italy and Portugal sometimes use barrels made from other wood types such as chestnut and redwood . Another method that winemakers consider is tea bagging with oak chips or adding oak planks to the wines while fermenting or aging it in stainless steel tanks . While these methods are less costly than oak barrels , they create more pronounced oak flavors , which tend not to mellow or integrate with the rest of the wine 's components ; nor do they provide the gradual oxidation benefit of barrel aging .
= = Wine regions = =
= = = Bordeaux = = =
The Bordeaux wine region is intimately connected with Cabernet Sauvignon , even though wine is rarely made without the blended component of other grape varieties . It is the likely " birthplace " of the vine , and producers across the globe have invested heavily in trying to reproduce the structure and complexity of Bordeaux wines . While the " Bordeaux blend " of Cabernet Sauvignon , Cabernet franc and Merlot created the earliest examples of acclaimed Cabernet Sauvignon wine , Cabernet Sauvignon was first blended in Bordeaux with Syrah , a pairing that is widely seen in Australia and some vin de pays wines from the Languedoc .
The decision to first start blending Cabernet Sauvignon was partly derived from financial necessity . The sometime temperamental and unpredictable climate of Bordeaux during the " Little Ice Age " did not guarantee a successful harvest every year ; producers had to insure themselves against the risk of losing an entire vintage by planting a variety of grapes . Over time it was discovered that the unique characteristics of each grape variety can complement each other and enhance the overall quality of wine . As a base , or backbone of the wine , Cabernet Sauvignon added structure , acidity , tannins and aging potential . By itself , particularly when harvested at less than ideal ripeness , it can lack a sense of fruit or " fleshiness " on the palate which can be compensated by adding the rounder flavors of Merlot . Cabernet franc can add additional aromas to the bouquet as well as more fruitiness . In the lighter soils of the Margaux region , Cabernet @-@ based wines can lack color , which can be achieved by blending in Petit Verdot . Malbec , used today mostly in Fronsac , can add additional fruit and floral aromas .
DNA evidence has shown Cabernet Sauvignon is the result of the crossing of two other Bordeaux grape varieties — Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc — which has led grapevine historians , or ampelographers , to believe that the grape originated in Bordeaux . Early records indicate that the grape was a popular planting in the Médoc region during the 18th century . The loose berry clusters and thick skins of the grape provided a good resistance to rot in the sometimes wet maritime climate of Bordeaux . The grape continued to grow in popularity until the Powdery mildew epidemic of 1852 exposed Cabernet Sauvignon 's sensitivity to that grape disease . With vineyards severely ravaged or lost , many Bordeaux wine growers turned to Merlot , increasing its plantings to where it soon became the most widely planted grape in Bordeaux . As the region 's winemakers started to better understand the area 's terroir and how the different grape varieties performed in different region , Cabernet Sauvignon increased in plantings all along the Left Bank region of the Gironde river in the Médoc as well as Graves region , where it became the dominant variety in the wine blends . In the Right bank regions of Saint @-@ Émilion and Pomerol , Cabernet is a distant third in plantings behind Merlot & Cabernet franc .
In the wine regions of the Left Bank , the Cabernet influence of the wine has shown unique characteristics in the different regions . In Saint @-@ Estèphe and Pessac @-@ Léognan , the grape develops more mineral flavors . Aromas of violets are a characteristic of Margaux . Pauillac is noted by a strong lead pencil scent and Saint @-@ Julien by cedar and cigar boxes . The Cabernet wines of the Moulis are characterized by their soft tannins and rich fruit flavors while the southern Graves region is characterized by strong blackcurrant flavors , though in less intense wines over all . The percentage of Cabernet Sauvignon used in the blend will depend on terroir and the winemakers styles as well as the vintage . The First Growth estates of Château Mouton Rothschild and Château Latour are noted for regularly producing wines with some of the highest percentage of Cabernet — often around 75 % .
A common factor affecting the flavors of Bordeaux wines is the harvest yields of Cabernet Sauvignon . Throughout Bordeaux there is a legal maximum permitted yield of 50 hectoliters ( hl ) per hectare ( ha ) . With the aid of global warming and vigorous rootstocks , many Bordeaux vineyards can easily surpass 60 hl / ha , with some estates taking advantage of the legal loophole of plafond limite de classement ( " ceiling limit classification " ) that permits higher yields during " exceptional " years . This has had an adverse effect on the quality of production from some producers who regularly use grapes harvested at excessive yields . In recent years there has been more of an emphasis on keeping yields low , particularly for an estate 's Grand vin .
= = = = Other French regions = = = =
The Bordeaux wine region accounts for more than 60 % of the Cabernet Sauvignon grown in France . Outside of Bordeaux , Cabernet Sauvignon is found in varying quantities throughout Le Midi and in the Loire Valley . In general , Cabernet Sauvignon wines are lighter and less structured , drinkable much earlier than Bordeaux wine . In the southwest French appellation d 'origine contrôlée ( AOCs ) of Bergerac and Buzet it is used to make rosé wine . In some regions it is used to add flavor and structure to Carignan while it is blended with Négrette in Gaillac and Fronton as well as Tannat in Madiran . In Provence , the grape had some presence in the region in the mid 19th century , when viticulturist Jules Guyot recommended it as a blending partner with Syrah . In recent years , several Midi wine estates , such as Mas de Daumas Gassac have received international acclaim for their Cabernet Sauvignon blended in Hérault , with Rhône grapes like Syrah . It is often made as a single varietal in the vin de pays of the Languedoc . The influence of Australian flying winemakers has been considerable in how Cabernet Sauvignon is treated by some Languedoc wine estates , with some producers making wines that can seem like they are from the New World . Overall , the grape has not exerted it dominance of the region , generally considered less ideally situated to the dry climate than Syrah . The Languedoc producers who give serious consideration to Cabernet Sauvignon , generally rely on irrigation to compensate for the climate .
= = = Italy = = =
Cabernet Sauvignon has a long history in Italian wines , being first introduced to the Piedmont region in 1820 . In the mid @-@ 1970s , the grape earned notoriety and controversy as a component in the so @-@ called " Super Tuscan " wines of Tuscany . Today the grape is permitted in several Denominazioni di origine controllata ( DOCs ) and is used in many Indicazione Geografica Tipica ( IGT ) wines that are made outside DOC perimeters in certain regions . For most of its history the grape has been viewed with suspicion as a " foreign influence " that distracts from the native grape varieties . After decades of experimentation , the general view of Cabernet Sauvignon has improved as more winemakers find ways to complement their native grape varieties with Cabernet as a blending component .
In Piedmont , the grape was sometimes used as an " illegal " blending partner with Nebbiolo for DOC classified Barolo with the intention of adding color and more fruit flavors . In the DOCs of Langhe and Monferrato , Cabernet is a permitted blending grape with Nebbiolo as well as Barbera . Wines that are composed of all three grape varieties are often subjected to considerable oak treatment to add a sense of sweet spiciness to compensate for the high tannins of Cabernet Sauvignon and Nebbiolo as well as the high acidity of Barbera . There are varietal styles of Cabernet Sauvignon produce in Piedmont with qualities varying depending on the location . In other regions of northern Italy , such as Lombardy , Emilia @-@ Romagna and Friuli @-@ Venezia Giulia , the grape is often blended with Merlot to produce Bordeaux style blends . In the Veneto region , Cabernet Sauvignon is sometimes blended with the main grapes of Valpolicella @-@ Corvina , Molinara and Rondinella . In southern Italy , the grape is mostly used as a blending component with local varieties @-@ such as Carignan in Sardinia , Nero d 'Avola in Sicily , Aglianico in Campania and Gaglioppo in Calabria .
Cabernet Sauvignon has had a controversial history in Tuscan wine , particularly for its role in the arrivals of " Super Tuscan " in the mid @-@ 1970s . The origin of Super Tuscans is rooted in the restrictive DOC practices of the Chianti zone prior to the 1990s . During this time Chianti could be composed of no more than 70 % Sangiovese and had to include at least 10 % of one of the local white wine grapes . Many Tuscan wine producers thought they could produce a better quality wine if they were not hindered by the DOC regulations , particularly if they had the freedom to use Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend and not required to use white grape varieties . The marchese Piero Antinori was one of the first to create a " Chianti @-@ style " wine that ignored the DOC regulations , releasing a 1971 Sangiovese @-@ Cabernet Sauvignon blend known as Tignanello in 1978 . Other producers followed suit and soon the prices for these Super Tuscans were consistently beating the prices of some of the most well known Chianti . Other Tuscan wine regions followed suit , blending Cabernet Sauvignon with Sangiovese and even making varietal versions of the grape . Gradually the DOC system caught on and began allowing more regions to use the grape in their DOC designated wines . Cabernet Sauvignon in Tuscany is characterized by ripe black cherry flavors that can give a perception of sweetness as well as strong notes of blackcurrant . The wines typically reach an alcohol level around 14 % but can still maintain notable levels of acidity . When blended with Sangiovese in significant quantities , Cabernet Sauvignon can dominate the blend with most Tuscan producers aiming to find a particular balance that suits their desired style .
= = = Other Old World producers = = =
The introduction of Cabernet Sauvignon in Spanish wine occurred in the Rioja region when the Marqués de Riscal planted cuttings from Bordeaux . By 2004 , it was the sixth most widely planted red wine grape in Spain . Today it is found in some quantities in every Spanish wine region , though it is not permitted in every Denominación de Origen ( DO ) designated region . In those areas , wines with Cabernet Sauvignon are relegated to less distinguished designations such as Vino de la Tierra or Vino de Mesa . The grape is most prominent in the Catalan wine region of Penedès , where its use was revived by the estates of Bodegas Torres and Jean León . There the grape is often blended with Tempranillo . It is also primarily a blending grape in the Ribera del Duero , but producers in Navarra have found some international acclaim for their varietal wines .
In the United Kingdom , English wine producers have experimented with growing the variety in plastic tunnels which can create a greenhouse effect and protect the grapes from the less than ideal climate of the wine region . While the grape is permitted to be planted in some German wine regions ( such as the Mosel ) , the vineyard sites best suited for ripening Cabernet are generally already occupied with Riesling ; many producers are ill @-@ inclined to uproot the popular German variety in favor of Cabernet Sauvignon . In the 1980s , inexpensive Bulgarian Cabernet Sauvignon was highly touted for its value and helped to establish that country 's wine industry and garner it more international presence in the wine market . The grape is performing a similar function for many countries in Eastern Europe , including Turkey , Bulgaria , Czech Republic , Georgia , Hungary , Moldova , Romania , Slovenia , and Ukraine . It can be in the eastern Mediterranean wine regions of Cyprus , Greece , Israel and Lebanon .
= = = California = = =
In California , Cabernet Sauvignon has developed its characteristic style and reputation , recognizable in the world 's market . Production and plantings of the grape in California are similar in quantity to those of Bordeaux . The 1976 Judgment of Paris wine tasting event helped to catapult Californian Cabernet Sauvignons onto the international stage when Stag 's Leap Wine Cellars ' 1973 Stags Leap District Cabernet Sauvignon beat out classified Bordeaux estates like Château Mouton Rothschild , Château Montrose , Château Haut @-@ Brion and Château Léoville @-@ Las Cases in a blind tasting conducted by French wine experts . In the 1980s , a new epidemic of phylloxera hit California , devastating many vineyards , which needed replanting . There was some speculation that ravaged Cabernet vineyards would be replanted with other varietals ( such as those emerging from the Rhone Rangers movement ) but in fact California plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon doubled between 1988 and 1998 ; many wine regions — such as Napa Valley north of Yountville and Sonoma 's Alexander Valley — were almost completely dominated by the grape variety . It also started to gain a foothold in Dry Creek Valley , Sonoma Mountain and Mendocino County . Cabernet from Sonoma County has shown a tendency to feature anise and black olive notes while Napa County Cabernets are characterized by their strong black fruit flavors .
In California , the main stylistic difference in Cabernet Sauvignon is between hillside / mountain vineyards and those on flatter terrain like valley floors or some areas of the Central Valley . In Napa , the hillside vineyards of Diamond Mountain District , Howell Mountain , Mt . Veeder , Spring Mountain District have thinner , less fertile soils which produces smaller berries with more intense flavors , reminiscent of Bordeaux wines that require years of aging to mature . The yields are also much lower , typically in the range of 1 – 2 tons per acre in contrast to the 4 – 8 tons that can be produced in the more fertile valley floors . Wines produced from mountainside vineyards tend to be characterized by deep inky colors and strong berry aromas . Throughout California there are many wine regions that have the potential to grow Cabernet Sauvignon to full ripeness and produce fruity , full @-@ bodied wines with alcohol levels regularly above the Bordeaux average of 12 – 13 % — often in excess of 14 % .
The use of oak in California Cabernet has a long history , with many producers favoring the use of new oak barrels heavily composed of American oak . After the early 1980s ' unsuccessful trend to create more " food friendly " wines , with less ripeness and less oak influence , winemakers ' focus shifted back to oak influence , but producers were more inclined to limit and lighten the use of oak barrels , with many turning to French oak or a combination of new and older oak barrels .
= = = = Other American wine regions = = = =
Cabernet Sauvignon is the most widely planted red grape variety in Washington state according to the Washington State Wine Commission . It is generally found in the warmer sites of the Columbia Valley . The vines are choice plantings for growers due to their hardy vine stalks and resistance to the cold winter frost that is commonplace in Eastern Washington . Washington Cabernet Sauvignon is characterized by its fruitiness and easy drinking styles that are not overly tannic . Recent Washington American Viticultural Areas ( AVAs ) that have seen some success with their Cabernet Sauvignons include Red Mountain , Walla Walla Valley and parts of the Yakima Valley AVA near the Tri @-@ Cities region .
In Oregon there are small quantities of Cabernet Sauvignon planted in the warmer southern regions of the Umpqua and Rogue Valleys . It has also started to develop a presence in the Arizona , New York , Texas and Virginia wine industries @-@ particularly in the Texas Hill Country and North Fork of Long Island AVAs . Throughout the United States , Cabernet Sauvignon is made in both varietal and blended styles . Under the American system , varietal Cabernet Sauvignon can include up to 25 % other grapes .
= = = South America = = =
Cabernet Sauvignon is grown in nearly every South American country including Chile , Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Peru and Uruguay . In Chile , the wines were historically limited by the excessively high yields that were commonplace throughout the country . As producers begun to concentrate on limiting yields , regional differences began to emerge that distinguished Chilean Cabernets . For vineyard plantings along flat river valleys , the climate of the region is the most important consideration ; as plantings move to higher elevations and along hillsides , soil type is a greater concern . The wines of the Aconcagua region are noted for their ripe fruit but closed , tight structure that needs some time in the bottle to develop . In the Maipo Valley , Cabernet Sauvignon wines are characterized by their pervasive blackcurrant fruit and an earthy , dusty note . In warmer regions , such as the Colchagua Province and around Curicó , the grapes ripen more fully ; they produce wines with rich fruit flavors that can be perceived as sweet due to the ripeness of the fruit . The acidity levels of these wines will be lower and the tannins will also be softer , making the wines more approachable at a younger age .
In Argentina , Cabernet Sauvignon lags behind Malbec as the country 's main red grape but its numbers are growing . The varietal versions often have lighter fruit flavors and are meant to be consumed young . Premium examples are often blended with Malbec and produce full , tannic wines with leather and tobacco notes . In recent years , there have been increased plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon in the Uco Valley of the Mendoza Province ; the wines coming from vineyards planted at higher altitudes garner some international attention .
= = = Australia = = =
In the 1970s , the Coonawarra region first brought international attention to Australian Cabernet Sauvignons with intense fruit flavors and subtle minty notes . The Margaret River region soon followed with wines that were tightly structured with pronounced black fruit notes . In the 1980s , Australia followed California 's contemporary trend in producing lighter , more " food friendly " wines with alcohol levels around 11 @-@ 12 % percent ; by the early 1990s , the styles changed again to focus on balance and riper fruit flavors . Today Cabernet Sauvignon is the second most widely planted red wine grape in Australia , following Shiraz with which it is often blended . It can be found in several wine regions with many large producers using grapes from several states . Notable regional differences characterize Australian Cabernet Sauvignon : in addition to the wine styles of Coonawarra and Margaret River , the Barossa Valley produces big , full bodied wines while the nearby , cooler Clare Valley produces wines with more concentrated fruit , and wines of the Victorian wine region of the Yarra Valley are noted for their balance in acidity , tannins and fruit flavors .
= = = Other New World producers = = =
Since the end of apartheid , the South African wine industry has been working to reestablish itself in the world 's wine markets with many regions actively promoting their Cabernet Sauvignon . Today it is the most widely planted red wine grape in South Africa . It is produced in both varietal and blended styles ; some producers favor a Bordeaux blend , while others follow the Australian example of blending with Syrah . Early examples of South African Cabernet Sauvignon were produced by grapes planted in vineyard locations that were cooler than ideal , creating very herbaceous wines with the distinctive " green bell pepper " notes . In the mid @-@ 1990s , there was more emphasis on harvesting at fuller ripeness , and new clones were introduced that produced riper , sweeter fruit . As the vines age , and better vineyards locations are identified , regional styles are starting to emerge among South African Cabernet Sauvignons : the Stellenbosch region is noted for heavy , full bodied wines while Constantia 's wines are characterized by their herbal and minty flavors .
In New Zealand , climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon . Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island . The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region , coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils , produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors . Added focus on canopy management , which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage , and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results . The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and terroir . Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon : The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay , with their warm gravel soils , have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland . Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand 's red wine grape plantings .
= = Popularity and criticism = =
In the past century , Cabernet Sauvignon has enjoyed a swell of popularity as one of the noble grapes in the world of wine . Built partially on its historical success in Bordeaux as well as New World wine regions like California and Australia , planting the grape is considered a solid choice in any wine region that is warm enough to cultivate it . Among consumers Cabernet has become a familiar wine which has aided in its accessibility and appeal even from obscure wine regions and producers . In the 1980s , the Bulgarian wine industry was largely driven and introduced to the international wine market by the success of its Cabernet Sauvignon wines . The widespread popularity of Bordeaux has contributed to criticism of the grape variety for its role as a " colonizer " grape , being planted in new and emerging wine regions at the expense of focus on the unique local grape varieties . Some regions , such as Portugal with its abundance of native grape varieties , have largely ignored Cabernet Sauvignon as it seeks to rejuvenate its wine industry beyond Port production .
= = Wine styles = =
The style of Cabernet Sauvignon is strongly influenced by the ripeness of the grapes at harvest . When more on the unripe side , the grapes are high in pyrazines and will exhibit pronounced green bell peppers and vegetal flavors . When harvested overripe the wines can taste jammy and may have aromas of stewed blackcurrants . Some winemakers choose to harvest their grapes at different ripeness levels in order to incorporate these different elements and potentially add some layer of complexity to the wine . When Cabernet Sauvignon is young , the wines typically exhibit strong fruit flavors of black cherries and plum . The aroma of blackcurrants is one of the most distinctive and characteristic element of Cabernet Sauvignon that is present in virtually every style of the wine across the globe . Styles from various regions and producers may also have aromas of eucalyptus , mint and tobacco . As the wines age they can sometimes develop aromas associated with cedar , cigar boxes and pencil shavings . In general New World examples have more pronounced fruity notes while Old World wines can be more austere with heightened earthy notes .
= = = Ability to age = = =
In the 19th and 20th centuries , a large part of Cabernet Sauvignon 's reputation was built on its ability to age and develop in the bottle . In addition to softening some of their austere tannins , as Cabernet wines age new flavors and aromas can emerge and add to the wines ' complexity . Historically this was a trait characterized by Bordeaux with some premium examples in favorable vintages having the potential to last for over a century , but producers across the globe have developed styles that could age and develop for several decades . Even with the ability to age , some Cabernet Sauvignon wines can still be approachable a few years after vintage . In Bordeaux , the tannins of the wines tend to soften after ten years and can typically last for at least another decade @-@ sometimes longer depending on the producer and vintage . Some Spanish and Italian Cabernet Sauvignons will need similar time as Bordeaux to develop but most examples are typically made to be drunk earlier .
While New World Cabernets are characterized as being drinkable earlier than Bordeaux , premium producers such as the Californian cult wines will produce wines that need time to age and could potentially develop for two to three decades . Overall , the majority of Californian Cabernets are meant to be approachable after only a couple of years in the bottle but can still have the potential to improve further over time . Similarly many premium Australian Cabernet will also need at least ten years to develop though many are approachable after two to five years . New Zealand wines are typically meant to be consumed young and will often maintain their green herbal flavors even with extended bottle aging . South American Cabernets have very pronounced fruit flavors when they are young and the best made examples will maintain some of those flavors as they age . South African wines tend to favor more Old World styles and typically require six to eight years ' aging before they start to develop further flavors .
= = Pairing with food = =
Cabernet Sauvignon is a very bold and assertive wine that has potential to overwhelm light and delicate dishes . The wine 's high tannin content as well as the oak influences and high alcohol levels associated with many regional styles play important roles in influencing how well the wine matches with different foods . When Cabernet Sauvignon is young , all those elements are at their peak , but as the wine ages it mellows ; possibilities for different food pairings open up . In most circumstances , matching the weight ( alcohol level and body ) of the wine to the heaviness of the food is an important consideration . Cabernet Sauvignons with high alcohol levels do not pair well with spicy foods due to hotness levels of the capsaicins present in spices like chili peppers being enhanced by the alcohol with the heat accentuating the bitterness of the tannins . Milder spices , such as black pepper , pair better due to their ability to minimize the perception of tannins — such as in the classic pairings of Cabernet Sauvignon with steak au poivre and pepper @-@ crusted ahi tuna .
Fats and proteins reduce the perception of tannins on the palate . When Cabernet Sauvignon is paired with steak or dishes with a heavy butter cream sauce , the tannins are neutralized , allowing the fruits of the wine to be more noticeable . In contrast , starches such as pastas and rice will have little effect on tannins . The bitterness of the tannins can also be counterbalanced by the use of bitter foods , such as radicchio and endive , or with cooking methods that involve charring like grilling . As the wine ages and the tannins lessen , more subtle and less bitter dishes will pair better with Cabernet Sauvignon . The oak influences of the wine can be matched with cooking methods that have similar influences on the food @-@ such as grilling , smoking and plank roasting . Dishes that include oak @-@ influenced flavors and aromas normally found in Cabernet Sauvignon — such as dill weed , brown sugar , nutmeg and vanilla — can also pair well .
The different styles of Cabernet Sauvignon from different regions can also influence how well the wine matches up with certain foods . Old World wines , such as Bordeaux , have earthier influences and will pair better with mushrooms . Wines from cooler climates that have noticeable vegetal notes can be balanced with vegetables and greens . New World wines , with bolder fruit flavors that may even be perceived as sweet , will pair well with bolder dishes that have lots of different flavor influences . While Cabernet Sauvignon has the potential to pair well with bitter dark chocolate , it will not pair well with sweeter styles such as milk chocolate . The wine can typically pair well with a variety of cheeses , such as Cheddar , mozzarella and Brie , but full flavored or blue cheeses will typically compete too much with the flavors of Cabernet Sauvignon to be a complementary pairing .
= = Health benefits = =
In late 2006 , the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology published the result of studies conducted at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai that showed the beneficial relationship of resveratrol , a compound found in all red wine , in reducing the risk factors associated with Alzheimer 's disease . The study showed that resveratrol found in Cabernet Sauvignon can reduce levels of amyloid beta peptides , which attack brain cells and are part of the etiology of Alzheimer 's . Resveratrol has also been shown to promote the clearance of amyloid @-@ beta peptides . It has also been shown that non @-@ alcoholic extracts of Cabernet Sauvignon protect hypertensive rats during ischaemia and reperfusion .
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= Ian Dougald McLachlan =
Air Vice Marshal Ian Dougald McLachlan , CB , CBE , DFC ( 23 July 1911 – 14 July 1991 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born in Melbourne , he was a cadet at the Royal Military College , Duntroon , before joining the Air Force in December 1930 . After serving in instructional and general flying roles , he took command of No. 3 Squadron in December 1939 , leading it into action in the Middle East less than a year later . Awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross , he returned to Australia in 1942 to command air bases in Canberra and Melbourne . The following year he was posted to the South West Pacific , where he led successively Nos. 71 and 73 Wings . Having been promoted to group captain , he took charge of Southern Area Command in 1944 , and No. 81 Wing in the Dutch East Indies the following year .
Raised to acting air commodore in 1946 , McLachlan served as senior air staff officer for the British Commonwealth Air Group in Japan until 1948 . After leading North @-@ Eastern Area Command in 1951 – 53 , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire and posted to Britain , where he attended the Imperial Defence College . Promoted air vice marshal , he returned to Australia in 1957 as Air Officer Commanding Training Command ; in this role he carried out two major reviews focussing on the RAAF 's educational and command systems . He was Deputy Chief of the Air Staff from 1959 to 1961 , and then Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff in Washington , DC , until 1963 . Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1966 , McLachlan 's final post before retiring in 1968 was as Air Member for Supply and Equipment . He was a consultant to Northrop after leaving the RAAF , and lived in Darling Point , Sydney , until his death in 1991 .
= = Early career = =
The son of Dugald and Bertha McLachlan , Ian McLachlan was born in the Melbourne suburb of South Yarra , Victoria , on 23 July 1911 . Following education at Melbourne High School , he entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1928 . He was one of four cadets sponsored that year by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , which did not at that stage have its own officer training college . Budgetary constraints imposed by the Great Depression necessitated the transfer of these cadets out of Duntroon midway through their four @-@ year course . Although offered positions in the Australian Public Service or nominations for short @-@ term commissions with the Royal Air Force , all were determined to serve with the RAAF , apparently " delighted " at the prospect of entering their chosen service early .
Enlisting in the Air Force on 10 December 1930 , McLachlan completed his flight training the following year . He was commissioned as a pilot in 1932 , and undertook various flight @-@ instruction and general duties roles over the next five years . In 1937 , he was a member of the RAAF contingent posted to Britain to celebrate the coronation of King George VI . Ranked flight lieutenant , he was given command of No. 3 ( Army Cooperation ) Squadron , operating Hawker Demon fighters out of RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , on 4 December 1939 . He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 February 1940 , and led his unit to the Middle East on 15 July .
= = Combat service = =
= = = Middle East = = =
Sailing via Bombay , India , No. 3 Squadron arrived at Suez , Egypt , in late August 1940 . In its original army cooperation role supporting the Australian 6th Division in the North African Campaign , the squadron was equipped with obsolescent Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and Westland Lysander observation aircraft . As part of his unit 's work @-@ up for operations , McLachlan organised training exercises with the 6th Division , as well as written exams to test his men 's knowledge of army jargon and air @-@ to @-@ ground communications .
Described by historian Alan Stephens as " acerbic but capable " , McLachlan led No. 3 Squadron through the Battle of Sidi Barrani in December 1940 , followed by the Battle of Bardia and the capture of Tobruk in January 1941 . Prior to converting to Hawker Hurricanes that month , the unit was credited with destroying twelve Italian aircraft for the loss of five Gladiators and two pilots ; McLachlan shot down a Fiat CR.42 on 10 December 1940 , the same action in which fellow squadron member and future ace Gordon Steege claimed his first " kill " . Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief RAF Middle East , Air Marshal Sir Arthur Longmore , praised McLachlan and his squadron for their " high morale and adaptability to desert conditions " .
McLachlan was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) for his " fine qualities as a fighter pilot " and " determined leadership " in the face of often " overwhelming numbers of enemy aircraft " ; the citation was promulgated in the London Gazette on 11 February 1941 under the name " Ian Duncan MacLachlan " . He was the first RAAF fighter pilot to be decorated in World War II . Promoted to wing commander , he took charge of the newly established RAF Benina , Benghazi , on 13 February , handing over No. 3 Squadron to Squadron Leader Peter Jeffrey . By May 1941 , McLachlan was acting as RAAF Liaison Officer for the new Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief , RAF Middle East , Air Marshal Arthur Tedder . The Air Board in Melbourne , headed by the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , was not consulted over this change of role and took exception to the RAF 's " unilateral action " in appointing McLachlan , but eventually acquiesced and permitted him to remain at the post to coordinate facilities for RAAF personnel in the region until July , when he was recalled to Australia .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
In 1942 McLachlan took command of RAAF Station Canberra , and , later in the year , RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria . Posted for action in New Guinea , he became the inaugural commander of No. 71 Wing at Milne Bay in February 1943 . The wing consisted of No. 6 Squadron ( flying Lockheed Hudsons ) , No. 75 Squadron ( P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks ) , No. 77 Squadron ( Kittyhawks ) , and No. 100 Squadron ( Bristol Beauforts ) . It came under the control of No. 9 Operational Group , the RAAF 's " premier fighting unit " in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , whose purpose was to act as a mobile strike force in support of advancing Allied troops . In March the Beauforts took part in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , " the decisive aerial engagement " in the SWPA according to General Douglas MacArthur , though they were unable to score any hits against Japanese ships .
By June 1943 , McLachlan had been promoted group captain and given command of No. 73 Wing . He established his headquarters at Goodenough Island , where he was responsible for organising the wing into a fighter formation consisting of No. 76 Squadron ( Kittyhawks ) , No. 77 Squadron ( Kittyhawks ) and No. 79 Squadron ( Spitfires ) . As well as providing local air defence , and fighter escort for Australian bombers , the Kittyhawks were armed with incendiary and general @-@ purpose bombs so that they could engage in ground attack missions , a practice that had already been employed by Commonwealth forces in the Middle Eastern theatre . In August , the wing transferred to Kiriwina , while No. 9 Group 's other combat formation , No. 71 Wing , took over responsibility for Goodenough . Appointed senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at No. 9 Group , McLachlan handed over command of No. 73 Wing to Wing Commander Gordon Steege in October 1943 . Towards the end of his posting to No. 9 Group , McLachlan told its former commander , Air Commodore Joe Hewitt , that the USAAF was " leaping ahead " of the RAAF , which was being left to " clean up the remnants " of Japanese resistance . He feared that Australian fighter pilots especially would be " increasingly restless if the Americans took all the fighting plums " . Barely a year later , morale among senior RAAF fighter pilots had dropped to such an extent that eight of them tried to resign their commissions in the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " .
In March 1944 , McLachlan took took charge of Southern Area Command , Melbourne , with responsibility for maritime patrol , convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine warfare in southern Australian waters ; he handed over to Group Captain Charles Eaton the following January . Mentioned in despatches on 9 March 1945 for his " gallant and distinguished service " , McLachlan returned to action in the South @-@ West Pacific as commander of No. 81 Wing , which comprised Nos. 76 , 77 and 82 Squadrons , operating Kittyhawks . As part of the Australian First Tactical Air Force in the Dutch East Indies , the wing was slated to take part in Operation Oboe One , the Battle of Tarakan , in May but was unable to relocate from Noemfoor to its new base on Morotai in time . It fought in Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of Labuan , from June and was based on the island when the Pacific War ended in August 1945 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Following the end of hostilities , McLachlan volunteered to serve with the Allied occupation forces in Japan . He married Margaret Helen Chrystal on 5 January 1946 ; they had a son and a daughter . Promoted to acting air commodore on 1 March , he was appointed SASO of the British Commonwealth Air Group ( BCAIR ) , headquartered in Kure and responsible for No. 81 Wing RAAF , as well as squadrons from the Royal Air Force , Royal New Zealand Air Force , and Indian Air Force . Returning to Australia in 1948 , he served as Air Commodore Operations at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , at which time the English Electric Canberra was ordered as Australia 's first jet bomber , partly for its ability to deliver nuclear weapons . He completed his term in September 1951 and took over North @-@ Eastern Area Command , based at Townsville , Queensland . Following his appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1954 New Year 's Honours , McLachlan was posted to Britain for three years , first attending the Imperial Defence College , London , and then serving as RAF Director of Flying Training at the Air Ministry during 1955 – 56 . Raised to air vice @-@ marshal , he returned to Australia in 1957 to become Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Training Command in Melbourne .
As AOC Training Command , McLachlan undertook two reviews that would have , according to the official history of the post @-@ war RAAF , " a significant effect on the Air Force of the 1960s " . In 1957 , at the instigation of the Air Member for Personnel , Air Vice Marshal Frederick Scherger , McLachlan formed a committee to review the effectiveness of the syllabus at RAAF College for meeting the future needs of the Air Force in an age of guided missiles and nuclear weaponry . This led to a policy of cadets undertaking academic degrees , in line with similar institutions in the other armed services ; the college was subsequently renamed RAAF Academy . The official history of the RAAF considered the result to be only partially successful ; while it turned out highly educated officers , they were educated solely in a rigid scientific discipline suited to an Air Force that never came into existence , one relying on missiles rather than manned aircraft . In 1959 , McLachlan chaired a committee to review the change in the RAAF 's command structure that had taken place in 1953 – 54 , from a geographically based " area " system to a functional system consisting of Home , Maintenance Command , and Training Commands . Concluding that this had reduced duplication and improved efficiency , he proposed further rationalisation by amalgamating Training and Maintenance Commands to form a new organisation , Support Command . His plan was duly implemented , as was his recommendation that Home Command , responsible for air operations , be renamed Operational Command .
McLachlan was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1959 , before being posted to Washington , DC , as attaché heading up the Australian Joint Services Staff in 1961 . During his term in the US , Australia ordered the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber as a replacement for the Canberra . Despite what was touted as a firm timetable and cost schedule for the order , McLachlan confided to a colleague that he had serious concerns about when and if the RAAF would actually get the F @-@ 111 , and what the final cost would be . According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens , " even for such a shrewd and sardonic man as McLachlan , that was to prove a painfully prescient observation " , as the new bomber was delivered six years late and massively over budget . Following his return from Washington , McLachlan became Air Member for Supply and Equipment ( AMSE ) in February 1964 . As AMSE he sat on the Air Board , the service 's controlling body that consisted of its most senior officers , chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . In this position he worked to increase the proportion of tertiary educated supply officers , following similar achievements among engineering officers in the RAAF 's Technical Branch . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1966 New Year 's Honours , the citation noting particularly his chairmanship of the two " historic " committees that reorganised RAAF College and the Air Force 's command structure in the late 1950s . The use of electronic data processing became more widespread during McLachlan 's tenure as AMSE , and by 1968 the RAAF 's supply system had been computerised .
= = Later life = =
McLachlan completed his term as Air Member for Supply and Equipment on 23 July 1968 and retired from the RAAF ; he was divorced from his wife the same year . Upon leaving the military , he became an aeronautical consultant to the Northrop Corporation , and chairman of Information Electronics Pty Ltd from 1983 , serving in both positions until 1987 . He was also chairman of Pokolbin Winemakers from 1970 through 1975 . In retirement he continued to exercise his interest in Australia 's defence , joining in 1975 a group of pundits , including former Chief of the Air Staff Sir Alister Murdoch , who promoted the addition of nuclear weapons to the country 's arsenal . A resident of Sydney 's Darling Point , Ian McLachlan died on 14 July 1991 .
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= 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team =
The 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team represented the University of Michigan in the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season . They played their home games at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor , Michigan and competed in the Big Ten Conference . The team attempted to rebound from its worst season ( loss wise ) in its 130 @-@ year football history and succeeded at first , starting the season 4 – 0 and earning a No. 20 ranking in the polls . Over the final eight games the Wolverines went 1 – 7 however , ending the season with a 5 – 7 record and failing to qualify for a bowl game for the second straight year . 2008 and 2009 were Michigan 's first back @-@ to @-@ back sub-.500 seasons since 1962 and 1963 ; they also failed to win a road game for the first time since 1962 .
However , several individuals excelled . Brandon Graham received numerous post @-@ season accolades including Chicago Tribune Silver Football as conference Co @-@ MVP , several first and second team 2009 College Football All @-@ America Team selections , and the 2010 Senior Bowl MVP . Graham was the national statistical champion in tackles for a loss ( TFL ) and the repeat Big Ten Champion . Zoltan Mesko also received several second team All @-@ American recognitions and was a first team Academic All @-@ American . Mesko was the Big Ten punting average statistical champion . After the season , co @-@ captains Graham , Mesko and leading tackler Stevie Brown were drafted in the 2010 NFL Draft and immediately after the draft Donovan Warren signed as an undrafted free agent .
= = Preseason preview = =
In 2008 the Michigan Wolverines had possibly the worst season in the history of the program . The team finished with a 3 – 9 regular season record , failing to qualify for a postseason bowl game for the first time in 33 years . The Wolverines struggled to implement first @-@ year head coach Rich Rodriguez 's spread option offense ; Michigan was last in the Big Ten in passing offense , scoring offense , total offense and turnover margin .
Going into 2009 , there was optimism that Michigan , led by newly recruited mobile quarterback Tate Forcier , would be able to turn things around and have a winning season , or at the very least win their opening game for the first time since 2006 . The team had 10 returning offensive starters and 5 returning defensive starters . Although to some Forcier was a foregone conclusion as the starting quarterback , the battle between him , incumbent Nick Sheridan , and Denard Robinson was anticipated to be the most competitive position battle in the Big Ten Conference according to College Football News . Although the 2008 defense had been a disappointment , Obi Ezeh and Brandon Graham were considered to be a solid nucleus to build around . The team also employed a new defensive coordinator , Greg Robinson , to help guide this defensive turnaround . The key losses for the team were S Brandon Harrison , DE Tim Jamison , DT Will Johnson , RB Sam McGuffie , DT Terrance Taylor , LB John Thompson , QB Steven Threet , CB Morgan Trent .
= = Recruiting = =
The Wolverines received several commitments from 4 @-@ star blue chip players . Among the recruits are Anthony LaLota of the Hun School in Princeton , New Jersey who is ranked as the fourth offensive tackle in the nation by Scout.com and sixth strong side defensive end by Rivals.com. LaLota appeared in the U.S. Army All @-@ American game on January 3 , 2009 in San Antonio , Texas . Other top recruits included a top @-@ ten @-@ rated dual @-@ threat quarterback ( Tate Forcier – Rivals # 6 ) to run Rich Rodriguez 's spread offense , and Justin Turner who was rated as the No. 3 safety .
Michigan 's 2009 recruiting class was ranked 7th nationally by Rivals.com , and 10th by ESPN . Eight players initially committed to attend Michigan in 2009 but later decommitted and signed with a different college : Anthony Fera – K ( PSU ) , Bryce McNeal – WR ( Clemson ) , Kevin Newsome – QB ( PSU ) , Dewayne Peace – WR ( Arizona ) , Jordan Barnes – LB ( Oklahoma State ) , Pearlie Graves – DT ( Texas Tech ) , DeQuinta Jones – DT , and Shavodrick Beaver – QB ( Tulsa )
Several recruits participated in the January 3 U.S. Army All @-@ American game during which William Campbell announced his re @-@ commitment to the program . Joining Campbell and LaLota in the All @-@ America game were cornerback / safety Justin Turner , kicker Brendan Gibbons , and receivers Jeremy Gallon and Je 'Ron Stokes . Several recruits began early enrollment at Michigan for the Spring 2009 semester , including quarterback Tate Forcier , five @-@ star defensive tackle Will Campbell , running back Vincent Smith , defensive end Anthony LaLota , linebacker Brandin Hawthorne , defensive back Mike Jones and safety Vlad Emilien .
= = = Position key = = =
= = = Recruits = = =
= = Practice time limit investigation = =
In an August 30 , 2009 Detroit Free Press article , several current and former players on the 2008 and 2009 teams speaking anonymously said Michigan frequently violated the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) off @-@ season 8 @-@ hour @-@ per @-@ week and in @-@ season 20 @-@ hour @-@ per @-@ week practice limit . Rodriguez denied all of the allegations at a press conference the next day ; The New York Times quoted him as saying " We know the rules , and we follow the rules . " The University of Michigan Athletic Department 's compliance office notified both the NCAA and the Big Ten Conference of its intentions to investigate itself . Unlike the University of Michigan basketball scandal where all of the participants had left the school by the time the investigation completed and punishment was handed down , many of the athletes involved in this scandal are still students at the University of Michigan ; failure to cooperate with the investigation might result in the NCAA revoking the athletes eligibility to participate in athletic competitions . In November , the university revealed its finding that the team failed to file the proper paperwork to document the team 's training schedule .
The NCAA had the right to either accept Michigan 's findings once the athletic department 's inquiry was completed or to conduct its own investigation . On October 23 , 2009 the NCAA notified the school that it had decided to begin a formal investigation into the matter ; they expected it to be completed by December 31 , 2009 . On February 22 , 2010 , the NCAA accused Michigan of failing to comply with practice time rules and " failed to promote an atmosphere of compliance within the football program " under coach Rich Rodriguez . The university had 90 days to respond and appeared at an NCAA hearing on infractions in August . Michigan issued self @-@ sanctions on May 25 , 2010 , which included cutting practice time and placing itself on two years worth of probation . Michigan did , however , dispute the claim that Coach Rodriguez " failed to promote an atmosphere of compliance . " The NCAA handed down their final verdict in the case on November 4 , 2010 , which accepted almost all of the self @-@ sanctions that Michigan provided . Michigan was docked 130 practice hours , which was twice the number of excess hours that the university had exceeded , and placed on three years probation , which was one more than originally proposed ; but the university and Rodriguez did , however , escape the most serious charge of " failing to promote an atmosphere of compliance , " as the NCAA agreed with Michigan 's statement that the cases were not deliberate and isolated . This ruling ended the NCAA 's investigation of Michigan 's football program .
= = Preseason award watch lists = =
Several players excelled individually . The season began with numerous Wolverines on national award preseason watchlists . Brandon Graham led the way with five such recognitions for the Bednarik Award , Hendricks Award , Lombardi Award , Lott Trophy and Bronko Nagurski Trophy . David Molk was on both the Lombardi and Rimington Trophy preseason lists , while Brandon Minor was on both the Maxwell Award and Doak Walker Award lists . Obi Ezeh , Zoltan Mesko , and Stephen Schilling were preseason Butkus Award , Ray Guy Award and Lombardi candidates , respectively . As the season started , Michigan burst out with a 4 – 0 start and saw several players recognized as Big Ten Conference player of the week early in the season : Tate Forcier , Carlos Brown and Mesko . Also , several players earned midseason or finalist watchlist recognitions : Ezeh ( Butkus ) , Mesko ( Guy ) and Graham ( Hendrick ) .
During week 2 , Tate Forcier ( Offense ) and Darryl Stonum ( Special teams ) were honored by the Big Ten Conference as players of the week ( POW ) . At the same time , Forcier was also named AT & T All @-@ America Player of the Week , as well as the Davey O 'Brien National Quarterback of the Week Award and Rivals.com National Freshmen of the Week and the Rivals.com Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week honor . The following week , Carlos Brown earned co @-@ offensive POW honors along with Northwestern 's Mike Kafka . Zoltan Mesko was named the special teams player of the week on October 11 . The only statistical leader for the team was Mesko who in eight conference games averaged 45 @.@ 2 yards / punt , which was the first time a Michigan punter led the Big Ten in Conference game punting average since Paul Staroba in 1970 . Brandon Graham and Mesko were first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selections by both the coaches and the media . Donovan Warren was first @-@ team by the media and second @-@ team by the coaches and Stephen Schilling was an honorable mention on both lists .
Ezeh was one of sixteen players and three from the Big Ten for the Butkus midseason watch list . Mesko was named one of 10 semifinalists for the Ray Guy Award and one of 12 finalists for the Wuerffel Trophy . Graham was one of seven finalists for the Hendricks Award .
= = Rankings = =
Source : ESPN.com : 2009 NCAA Football Rankings
= = Schedule = =
= = Radio = =
Radio coverage for all games was on The Michigan Wolverines Football Network , and on Sirius XM Satellite Radio , as well as online at The Michigan Sports Network Online Stream . The radio announcers were ( WJR talk show host ) Frank Beckmann with play @-@ by @-@ play , Jim Brandstatter with color commentary , and Doug Karsch with sideline reports .
= = Game notes = =
= = = vs. Western Michigan = = =
In the season opener , the Wolverines played the Western Michigan Broncos at Michigan Stadium . The Wolverines scored first , midway through the first quarter , with a 27 @-@ yard touchdown ( TD ) pass from Tate Forcier to Junior Hemingway . They added to their lead five minutes later when Denard Robinson ran in a TD from 43 yards out . In the second quarter , Michigan added 17 more points : two TDs and a field goal . First was a 7 @-@ yard TD pass from Tate Forcier to Kevin Koger . 6 minutes later , Jason Olesnavage kicked a 44 @-@ yard field goal . Junior Hemingway scored Michigan 's final points when he caught a 44 @-@ yard TD pass from Tate Forcier , putting the Wolverines up 31 – 0 at halftime . Western Michigan missed a field goal just before the end of the half .
The second half was largely uneventful . Michigan was content to hold their lead ; they essentially stopped passing in the fourth quarter , with Forcier being replaced by backup David Cone midway through the period . Western Michigan finally got on the board with a fourth @-@ quarter 73 @-@ yard TD pass from Tim Hiller to Juan Nunez .
The win stopped a streak of two consecutive season opening losses . The 2007 Michigan Wolverines football team , then ranked No. 5 in the nation , lost their season opener in shocking fashion to two @-@ time defending Division I @-@ FCS champion Appalachian State . The 2008 Michigan Wolverines football team lost their opener to Utah , who would go on to finish as the only undefeated team in Division I @-@ FBS , winning the Mountain West Conference and the 2009 Sugar Bowl over Alabama .
= = = vs. Notre Dame = = =
In week 2 , Michigan renewed their long @-@ time rivalry with the visiting Notre Dame Fighting Irish . On the opening drive , Notre Dame drove the field for an unsuccessful field goal attempt . Michigan scored first late in the first quarter when Brandon Minor ran in a 2 @-@ yard TD . Notre Dame responded with a field goal by Nick Taush . Less than twenty seconds later , however , Michigan answered another touchdown on a 94 @-@ yard kickoff return by Darryl Stonum . Notre Dame came back to take the lead in the second quarter with back @-@ to @-@ back touchdown passes , 4 yards to Golden Tate and 11 yards to Michael Floyd . After another three @-@ and @-@ out by Michigan , the Irish made their way down the field but were stopped by the Wolverine defense , forcing them to kick a 42 @-@ yard field goal . Michigan got the ball back with less than 4 minutes in the half and marched down the field , but with little time left on the clock they had to settle to end the first half with a 39 @-@ yard field goal .
Michigan dominated the third quarter , constantly stopping the Irish and controlling the ball most of the period . The Wolverines scored the only points of the quarter on a 3 @-@ yard TD pass to Kevin Koger . Early in the fourth quarter , after another three @-@ and @-@ out by Notre Dame , Forcier ran in a TD himself from 31 yards out on 4th and 3 . Notre Dame came back later in the quarter , starting with a 21 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Tate . Following the touchdown the Irish attempted and failed to score a two @-@ point conversion , leaving themselves down five . After Michigan had an unsuccessful drive , Notre Dame took the lead with a 2 @-@ yard TD run by Armando Allen , who then scored on their second 2 @-@ point conversion attempt , putting the Irish ahead with less than 5 minutes remaining . Michigan responded by marching the length of the field , consuming most of the remaining time . They eventually found themselves 5 yards away from the goal line with 22 seconds left . Two plays later the Wolverines would score the game @-@ winning touchdown on a 5 @-@ yard pass from Forcier to Greg Mathews .
The victory gave the Wolverines their first 2 – 0 start since 2006 . Michigan 's all @-@ time record versus Notre Dame improved to 21 – 15 – 1 as a result of the victory . This was the highest scoring game in the history of the rivalry , with a total of 72 points between the teams .
= = = vs. Eastern Michigan = = =
In week 3 , the Wolverines hosted the Eastern Michigan Eagles from nearby Ypsilanti . Michigan opened the scoring in the first quarter with a 37 @-@ yard field goal by Jason Olesnavage . The Eagles tied the score with 43 @-@ yard field goal by Joe Carithers . Michigan regained the lead when Carlos Brown ran in a 9 @-@ yard TD near the end of the quarter . Eastern Michigan re @-@ tied the score in the second quarter with an 11 @-@ yard TD run by Andy Schmitt . Michigan responded with 2 TDs : first a 5 @-@ yard TD run by Michael Shaw , then a 90 @-@ yard TD run by Carlos Brown , the third longest TD run from scrimmage in Michigan football history . The Eagles scored their final points of the game just before halftime with a 5 @-@ yard TD run by Dwayne Priest . Michigan dominated the second half , beginning with a 13 @-@ yard TD run by Martavious Odoms . A little over a minute later QB Denard Robinson ran in a 13 @-@ yard TD . In the 4th quarter Odoms ran in another TD from 36 yards out .
With the win Michigan started 3 – 0 for the first time since 2006 . The win also made Michigan 's all @-@ time record against Eastern Michigan 9 – 0 ; and 26 – 1 all time against MAC schools . Eastern Michigan would finish the 2009 season with a winless record .
= = = vs. Indiana = = =
On their homecoming weekend , the Wolverines hosted the Indiana Hoosiers . Indiana opened the scoring with a 25 @-@ yard TD run by Tandon Doss . Michigan responded with 2 TDs by Carlos Brown , first a 61 @-@ yard TD catch , then a 41 @-@ yard TD run . Indiana tied it back up with an 11 @-@ yard TD rush by Darius Willis . In the second quarter , Indiana kicked field goals on consecutive possessions , from 24 and 20 yards . Michigan responded with a 12 @-@ yard TD run by Brandon Minor . Indiana retook the lead with its 3rd field goal of the quarter , this one from 30 yards , making the halftime score 23 – 21 Indiana .
The only points of the third quarter came from a 32 @-@ yard Indiana field goal . Michigan regained the lead in the fourth with a 7 @-@ yard rush by Forcier who leaped over a defender into the endzone . He also completed a quarterback sneak for a 2 @-@ point conversion the next play , giving Michigan a 29 – 26 lead . Indiana took the lead back on the next offensive play with an 85 @-@ yard run for a TD by Darius Willis . Michigan regained the final lead with a 26 @-@ yard Martavius Odoms TD catch , and sealed their win soon after with a controversial interception by Donovan Warren .
This was the 16th consecutive time Michigan has beaten Indiana , and the 24th consecutive conference opening win for the Wolverines at home . Michigan started the season 4 – 0 for the first time since 2006 .
= = = at Michigan State = = =
In week 5 , Michigan took their first road trip of the season to East Lansing , Michigan to play their in @-@ state rivals the Michigan State Spartans for the Paul Bunyan Trophy . After an interception , Michigan scored first with a 36 @-@ yard field goal early in the first quarter . The Spartans countered with a 1 @-@ yard TD run by Larry Caper . Each team had a field goal in the 2nd quarter : Michigan had a 42 @-@ yarder , then State had a 26 yarder , putting the Spartans up 13 – 6 at halftime .
Michigan State added to their lead at the start of the 2nd half with a 15 @-@ yard TD run by Glenn Winston . Michigan responded in the 4th quarter with a 60 @-@ yard touchdown by Darryl Stonum , and tied it up just before time expired with a 92 @-@ yard drive capped by a 9 @-@ yard TD pass by Forcier to Roy Roundtree , taking the game to overtime . On its opening drive of overtime Forcier led Michigan down to the 8 @-@ yard line but then threw a tipped interception in the end zone , ending their threat . MSU 's Larry Caper ended the game with a 23 @-@ yard TD run on 3rd down and 12 , breaking three Michigan tackles that would have forced the Spartans to kick a field goal for the win .
The Spartans outgained the Wolverines 417 to 251 in total yards and won the rushing battle 197 to 28 . It is the 37th time in the last 40 meetings that the team who has won the rushing battle won the game . Michigan State won by six points : the last six meetings between the two teams in East Lansing have been decided by seven points or less , or a difference of 25 points in all six games combined .
= = = at Iowa = = =
Week 6 brought the Wolverines to Iowa City , Iowa for a primetime duel against the Iowa Hawkeyes . Michigan went up early in the 1st with an interception that was returned 40 yards by Donovan Warren for a touchdown . Iowa responded a few minutes later with a 34 @-@ yard TD pass to Tony Moeaki from Ricky Stanzi and took the lead with a 28 @-@ yard Daniel Murray field goal soon after . Michigan responded late in the quarter when Brandon Minor ran for a touchdown from 3 yards . Iowa added 10 more points in the 2nd quarter : first a 41 @-@ yard field goal , then a 1 @-@ yard TD run by Brandon Wegher , making the halftime score 20 – 14 Iowa .
The Hawkeyes opened the third quarter by booting a 40 @-@ yard field goal . Michigan responded with a 1 @-@ yard TD run late in the 3rd by Minor . Stanzi and Moeaki connected again for a 42 @-@ yard Iowa TD in the 4th . Michigan scored on a 3 @-@ yard TD run by QB Denard Robinson with about 4 minutes left and held Iowa to a 3 @-@ play drive , getting the ball back just down by 2 points ( 28 – 30 ) . In the final minute of the game , Michigan drove down the field about 30 yards on an attempted drive to kick a game @-@ winning field goal or TD , but Robinson threw a deep interception , sealing the Hawkeyes ' victory .
Michigan turned the ball over five times and fell to 1 – 5 in Big Ten road games under Rich Rodriguez . Michigan QB Tate Forcier left the game with 7 minutes remaining in the fourth quarter ; it was later discovered that he sustained a concussion during the game . Backup quarterback Denard Robinson served as an able replacement , leading the Wolverines on the TD drive to bring them to within 2 until he threw the game @-@ losing interception on the final drive .
= = = vs. Delaware State = = =
In week 7 , Michigan hosted the Delaware State Hornets from Division @-@ I FCS , in the first ever meeting between the two teams . Michigan dominated throughout the game . They scored 7 unanswered touchdowns in the first half , four in the first quarter alone : a Michael Shaw 2 @-@ yard run , a 6 @-@ yard run by Vincent Smith , a blocked punt that was picked up by Brandon Graham for a score , and a 38 @-@ yard catch by Kelvin Grady . In the second quarter , the Wolverines added three more touchdowns , on a 4 @-@ yard run by QB Denard Robinson , a 28 @-@ yard catch by Martell Webb , and a 7 @-@ yard run by Kevin Grady . Delaware State finally got on the board just before halftime with a 26 @-@ yard field goal by Riley Flickinger .
The second half was more sedate . Neither team scored in the third quarter . In the fourth Delaware State kicked a second field goal , this time from 24 yards . Michigan 's Michael Cox responded with two more touchdowns , from 57 and later 3 yards .
Several Michigan school records were broken or tied in the blowout win . The Wolverines ' 727 yards of total offense set a new team record ; the 442 total offensive yards in the first half alone also set a team record . Their 57 @-@ point win tied the second @-@ biggest margin of victory for them since 1950 , and tied for the eighth @-@ largest margin of victory in school history . The 49 first half points was the team 's second highest ever . The 28 point first quarter also tied a school record . Because of the effectiveness of the offense , the team did not punt the ball once , the first time this has happened since 1978 .
= = = vs. Penn State = = =
In week 8 , Michigan hosted the Penn State Nittany Lions at rain soaked Michigan Stadium . Michigan got an early lead after the first drive of the game when Brandon Minor ran in a TD from one yard out . Penn State tied the score with a 10 @-@ yard TD catch by Graham Zug from Daryll Clark , and took the lead for good on a 34 @-@ yard field goal by Collin Wagner . In the second quarter Michigan surrendered a safety after a bad snap in the end zone . On the ensuing possession , the Nittany Lions scored on a 60 @-@ yard TD pass to Andrew Quarless . Michigan responded with a 23 @-@ yard field goal , making the halftime score 19 – 10 .
Penn State dominated the second half , shutting out the Wolverines . The Nittany Lions added 13 points to their lead off of two Graham Zug TD catches in the third quarter , from 11 and 17 @-@ yard respectively . Penn State capped off their victory with a 29 @-@ yard field goal in the 4th .
Michigan suffered their first home loss of the season . This was the first time the Wolverines had lost to Penn State at home since 1996 , ending a five @-@ game losing streak for the Nittany Lions in Ann Arbor . Penn State defeated Michigan for the second straight season , its first win streak versus the Wolverines since a three @-@ game streak from 1994 – 96 .
= = = at Illinois = = =
In week 9 , the Wolverines traveled to Champaign , Illinois for a Halloween afternoon contest with the Illinois Fighting Illini . Illinois scored first midway through the first quarter with a 3 @-@ yard TD run by Arrelious Benn . Michigan tied it up with a 2 @-@ yard TD run by Carlos Brown . The Wolverines kicked two field goals in the second quarter , from 29 and 42 yards out respectively , making the score at halftime 13 – 7 in their favor .
For the second straight game , Michigan was held scoreless in the second half . Illinois held the Wolverines on a goal line stand ; on the following possession , Illini RB Mikel LeShoure ran in a 70 @-@ yard TD . A few minutes later , London Davis caught a 2 @-@ yard TD pass . QB Isiah Williams ran in a TD himself from 3 yards out for Illinois ' third score of the quarter . In the fourth quarter , Illinois kicked a 23 @-@ yard field goal and capped off their scoring with a 79 @-@ yard TD run by Jason Ford . It was Michigan 's first loss at Illinois since 1983 .
= = = vs. Purdue = = =
In week 10 , Michigan hosted the Purdue Boilermakers . In the first quarter , Purdue scored first with a 35 @-@ yard TD catch by Ralph Bolden . Michigan tied the score with a 29 @-@ yard TD run by Brandon Minor . Purdue retook the lead with a 41 @-@ yard field goal by Carson Wiggs . Michigan tied the score soon after with a 51 @-@ yard field goal . In the second quarter , Michigan scored 2 touchdowns : a 55 @-@ yard rush by Brandon Minor , and a 43 @-@ yard catch by Ray Roundtree , giving the Wolverines a 14 @-@ point advantage at halftime .
Once again , Michigan collapsed in the second half . In the third quarter , Purdue 's Ralph Bolden scored his second TD of the game with a 19 @-@ yard run . Michigan QB Forcier responded with a 6 @-@ yard TD run , but the point after touchdown attempt failed . Ralph Bolden scored his third touchdown of the day soon after with a 10 @-@ yard rush . Next , Purdue 's Cortez Smith caught a 54 @-@ yard TD pass . In the fourth quarter , Purdue QB Joey Elliot ran in an 8 @-@ yard TD . Michigan 's Minor then ran in a TD from 1 @-@ yard out . The Wolverines attempted to tie the game but Forcier failed to reach the end zone on a 2 @-@ point conversion , sealing the victory for the Boilermakers . It was Michigan 's first home loss to Purdue since 1966 .
= = = at Wisconsin = = =
For their final road game of the season , the Wolverines traveled to Madison , Wisconsin to play the Wisconsin Badgers . Wisconsin scored first with a 22 @-@ yard TD pass by Scott Tolzien to Garrett Graham . Michigan tied the score with a 21 @-@ yard Tate Forcier TD pass to Vincent Smith . In the second quarter , the teams traded the lead . First , Michigan took the lead with a 37 @-@ yard Jason Olesnavage field goal . Wisconsin then went ahead with an 8 @-@ yard TD pass to Nick Toon . Michigan went back ahead when Ryan Van Bergen picked up Scott Tolzien 's fumble ( forced by Brandon Graham ) and ran it back 14 yards for a touchdown . Wisconsin responded with a 1 @-@ yard TD run by John Clay , making the halftime score 21 – 17 Wisconsin .
In the third quarter , Toon scored another TD off a 15 @-@ yard catch . Michigan responded with a 10 @-@ yard catch by Ray Roundtree . Wisconsin then scored 17 unanswered points , starting with a 7 @-@ yard TD catch by Lance Kendricks . In the fourth quarter the Badgers sealed their victory with a 1 @-@ yard TD run by Tolzien and a 28 @-@ yard field goal by Philip Welch .
The game was Michigan 's third straight loss at Wisconsin . It was also Michigan 's 6th straight conference loss , the first time this has happened since the 1958 – 59 seasons . The Wolverines ' record fell to 5 – 6 ; they needed to win next week to become bowl eligibile .
= = = vs. Ohio State = = =
In the last game of the season , Michigan hosted their arch rivals the No. 9 nationally ranked Ohio State Buckeyes , in the 106th meeting between the two teams . Ohio State scored first when Michigan QB Forcier fumbled while scrambling in the end zone ; the ball was recovered by Ohio State 's Cameron Heyward for a TD . Michigan 's only score of the first half was a 46 @-@ yard field goal . Ohio State 's Brandon Saine ran in a 29 @-@ yard TD late in the second quarter to make it 14 – 3 at halftime .
In the third quarter Michigan closed to within four off of Vincent Smith 's 18 @-@ yard TD catch . Ohio State re @-@ extended their lead to eleven a few minutes later with a 12 @-@ yard TD catch by Daniel Herron . Michigan attempted to come back in the fourth quarter , but all of their drives except the last were ended by interceptions . The Wolverines came closest with eight minutes left , when Forcier was intercepted in the end zone by Buckeye CB Devon Torrence . On their last play of the game , the Wolverines were penalized for being in an illegal formation with five players in the backfield ; this penalty was declined , giving the ball back to Ohio State on downs and ending the game after the Buckeyes ran out the clock .
It was Ohio State 's sixth straight win over Michigan , their longest winning streak of the series . QB Tate Forcier had perhaps his worst game this season , throwing four interceptions and turning over a fumble for a TD ; prior to this game he had only thrown six interceptions all year . He became just the second Michigan quarterback to throw four interceptions against Ohio State in the last 60 years . Michigan 's six @-@ game losing streak to Ohio State is the third @-@ longest streak to a single opponent in school history . The loss left Michigan 's final record at 5 – 7 , short of the six wins needed for bowl eligibility . During the game , Brandon Graham posted 5 solo tackles for a loss , to clinch the national statisitical championship .
= = Statistics = =
The offense rebounded from their 2008 performance to finish third in the Big Ten in scoring . However , Michigan ranked last in the Big Ten and 115th out of 120 Football Bowl Subdivision schools in turnover margin .
Graham was the national statistical champion in tackles for a loss ( TFL ) per game . Mesko led the Big Ten in punting average and Graham led the conference in total tackles for a loss . Graham posted 26 TFLs in 12 games , which led the nation with 2 @.@ 17 average tackles for a loss per game ( ahead of conference rival O 'Brien Schofield who was second with 1 @.@ 884 ) . Graham also defended his Big Ten total TFLs championship over Schofield by a 26 – 24 @.@ 5 margin . Mesko led the Big Ten in punting average and was eighth in the nation with a 44 @.@ 46 average .
The per game team rankings below include 120 Football Bowl Subdivision teams and 11 Big Ten Conference teams :
The per game rankings below include players who have played in 75 % of team 's games and are ranked in the top 100 national leaders and top 25 conference leaders :
= = Postseason recognition = =
At the conclusion of the season , Graham earned the Chicago Tribune Silver Football Big Ten co @-@ MVP award . Graham and Mesko earned numerous 2009 College Football All @-@ America Team recognitions . Several Michigan players earned 2009 All @-@ Big Ten Conference recognition : Graham and Mesko were first @-@ team ( coaches and media ) . Donovan Warren ( first @-@ team media and second @-@ team coaches ) and Schilling ( honorable mention coaches and media ) were also recognized . Mesko was a first @-@ team Academic All @-@ American . Graham also earned the MVP award at the January 30 , 2010 Senior Bowl .
Graham was co @-@ winner of the Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the Big Ten co @-@ MVPs with Penn State 's Daryll Clark , marking the first time the award has been shared . Three Michigan players , Warren ( Junior cornerback ) , Brandon Graham ( Senior defensive end ) , and Mesko ( Senior punter ) were named to the All Big Ten First Team , and Stephen Schilling ( Senior left guard ) received honorable mention . Offensive lineman David Moosman also received the Big Ten Sportsmanship Award . Mesko was one of fifteen FBS athletes selected as a first @-@ team Academic All @-@ American . Michigan had 10 athletes recognized as fall term of the 2009 – 10 Academic All @-@ Conference selections for being letterwinners who are in at least their second academic year at their institution and carry a cumulative grade point average : Matt Cavanaugh , Jon Conover , John Ferrara , J.B. Fitzgerald , Will Heininger , Zac Johnson , Zoltan Mesko , Tim North , Jason Olesnavage , and Mike Therman . Seniors Zoltan Mesko ( 2nd team WCFF , Scout , Rivals , AP ; honorable mention SI , CFN , PFW ) and Brandon Graham ( 1st team Scout , Rivals ; 2nd team WCFF , AP , SI , CFN ; honorable mention PFW ) were named All @-@ Americans by the Walter Camp Football Foundation , Associated Press , Sports Illustrated , Pro Football Weekly , Rivals.com & Scout.com. Graham was also a first team selection by ESPN and a second team selection by the Sporting News . Brandon Graham earned MVP honors at the January 30 , 2010 Senior Bowl with five tackles , two sacks , one forced fumble .
In December 2009 , Warren declared himself eligible for the 2010 NFL Draft . Other athletes to participate at the NFL Scouting Combine were Graham , Mesko and Minor . Graham , Mesko and Stevie Brown were drafted 13th , 150th and 251st overall , respectively . Warren went undrafted but signed with the New York Jets as an undrafted free agent .
= = 2010 NFL Draft = =
Co @-@ captains Graham , Mesko and Brown were drafted in the 2010 NFL Draft , and immediately following the draft Donovan Warren was signed by the New York Jets . Other draft weekend free agent signees included Mathews and Brandon Minor with the Chicago Bears , Mark Ortmann with the Carolina Panthers , Moosman with the Arizona Cardinals and Carlos Brown with the New Orleans Saints .
= = Roster = =
On December 12 , 2008 RB Sam McGuffie announced he was leaving Michigan for a school closer to home because of family issues . On February 16 , 2009 , starting quarterback Steven Threet told Michigan he would transfer before the start of the 2009 season . On October 27 , 2009 , starting cornerback Boubacar Cissoko was kicked off the team for missing class , workouts and study table according to his high school coach Thomas Wilcher . He also stated that he expected Cissoko to seek a transfer .
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= Carabane =
Carabane , also known as Karabane , is an island and a village located in the extreme south @-@ west of Senegal , in the mouth of the Casamance River . This relatively recent geological formation consists of a shoal and alluvium to which soil is added by accumulation in the branches and roots of the mangrove trees which cover most of the island . Along with the rest of Ziguinchor Region , Carabane has a tropical climate , cycling between a dry season and a wet season . The island was once considered an arid location where no useful plants were likely to grow , but it now supports several types of fruit tree , the most common of which are mangos and oranges . Although the nearby Basse Casamance National Park and Kalissaye Avifaunal Reserve have been closed for years because of the Casamance Conflict , Carabane has continued to attract ornithologists interested in its wide variety of birds . Various species of fish are plentiful around the island , but there are very few mammals .
The earliest known inhabitants of the island were the Jola , the ethnic group which is still the most populous on the island . The Portuguese were active in the region from the 16th century onwards ; however , they did not linger on " Mosquito Island " , the mosquitoes and black flies convincing them to establish their trading post in the town of Ziguinchor instead in 1645 . On January 22 , 1836 , the island was ceded to France by the village leader of Kagnout in return for an annual payment of 196 francs . A series of treaties between the French and the leaders of the local peoples ensued ; however , the inhabitants of Carabane did not recognize the authority of the treaties imposed upon them , resulting in lootings and abductions among French rice farmers by the Karoninka people . In 1869 , Carabane became autonomous , but it merged with Sédhiou in 1886 . Since World War II , the population of the island has gradually declined for a variety of reasons including periods of drought , the Casamance Conflict and , more recently , the sinking of the ferry Joola in 2002 . Much of the village 's ability to trade and receive tourists was lost until 2014 , when MV Aline Sitoe Diatta resumed ferry services to the island .
Although Carabane was once a regional capital , the village has since become so politically isolated from the rest of the country that it no longer fits into any category of the administrative structure decreed by the Senegalese government . The Jola account for the majority of the island 's population and Jola society has no formal hierarchy . The indigenous population was originally animist , but although the sacred groves and fetishes survive as cultural icons of Casamance , the monotheistic belief systems of Catholicism and Islam have become the most widely held in Carabane . The literacy rate is approximately 90 % . Students attend a primary school on the island , but must move at least as far as Elinkine to continue their studies .
The testimonies of explorers and colonial administrators demonstrate that Carabane has participated in rice cultivation , fishery , trade , and palm wine production for a long time . The rice cycle plays a central economic and religious role in the lives of the population . Palm oil and palm wine are very popular and traditional in the area . The fishery has long been dominated by artisan fishing , which supplies the daily needs of the island 's population ; however , broader economic possibilities have been exploited since the early 20th century . Although there have been attempts to cultivate a tourism industry on the island , the inhabitants have been reluctant to participate . Carabane was added to the list of historic sites and monuments of Senegal in 2003 .
= = Toponymy = =
The etymology of Carabane remains unclear . It could be connected to the Wolof word karabané , which means " who speaks a lot , " or possibly the Portuguese words casa and acaba , which mean " house " and " finish , " respectively . According to this hypothesis , the name means the place " where the houses are finished , " a possible allusion to the fact that this village was the first French capital in Basse Casamance . According to other sources , the name comes from karam akam , which means " the other side of the river . " These uncertainties are augmented by the instability of the spelling : Karabane with an initial K suggests a Jola or Wolof origin , while Carabane with a C would suggest a Latin derivation , most probably through Portuguese or French .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location = = =
With a total area of 57 square kilometres ( 22 sq mi ) , Carabane is the last major island in the mouth of the Casamance River in south @-@ west Senegal . It is situated 12 ° 32 ' N latitude and 16 ° 43 ' W longitude and is , by way of Elinkine , nearly 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) away from Ziguinchor , the capital of the region of the same name , and a little over 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) from Dakar , the country 's capital .
" Il faut s 'armer de patience pour rejoindre l 'île de Carabane " is a common French phrase which means " One must have patience to reach the island of Carabane " . While this adage continues to hold true , it was even more appropriate in the 19th century when , according to one traveller , a 26 @-@ hour boat trip from Rufisque ( near Dakar ) to Carabane was deemed fairly short , and was credited to a favourable wind .
Despite the seemingly close proximity to its neighbouring communities , a motorized pirogue trip to Carabane from Elinkine , the nearest village , takes about thirty minutes ; the trip once took an hour and a half by canoe . Carabane may also be accessed by a two- or three @-@ hour boat trip from Ziguinchor . Travelling from Cap Skirring via Cachouane is also possible , but as a detailed map of the region would make clear , the channels of salt water are not easily navigated .
= = = Geology = = =
A recent geological formation , Carabane consists of a shoal and alluvium . The alluvium has developed because of the saltwater streams that cut across the shoal . As pointed out by early French observers , soils in the region are generally composed of sand and clay , differing in mixture and layer according to natural and human factors . However , Carabane seems to be composed entirely of sand . The lack of clay is the reason that architecture on the island employs straw wrapped around wooden frames more often than banco mud bricks . This type of architecture is also common in the villages of Mlomp and Seleki .
In this flat and marshy area , the branches and roots of mangrove trees form dams where deposits of oyster shells naturally accumulate along with mud and plant detritus . These tangles help retain soil , a process which expands the island where the power of tidal race would normally have the opposite effect .
Rising just over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , the southern portion of the island is partially flooded during the rainy season and totally submerged every few years . At low tide , mudflats are exposed so that boats with keels are forced to dock a considerable distance from the island . When arriving at Carabane , the Joola had to stop about 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) north of the village in 8 to 10 m ( 26 to 33 ft ) of water .
The coastal erosion and salinization affecting the west of Senegal are also a source of concern on the island ; signs of erosion have been observed in Carabane since 1849 . The house of the government representative on the island has burned down twice ; each time it was rebuilt , the site of the building had to be moved further and further inland . The island 's erosion is evident when one considers that the original location of the house eventually became flooded , even at low tide . During the dry season the river has a tide @-@ dominated delta , with tidewater reaching 200 km upstream , while it is being concentrated 50 % by evaporation .
Using wells , freshwater is available at a reasonable depth for irrigation and domestic purposes . Until the installation of a pump in 2006 , however , drinking water had to be sent by boat from Elinkine .
= = = Climate = = =
The tropical climate of Basse Casamance cycles between a dry season and a wet season , which usually starts in June and ends in October . Because of the proximity to the ocean , the humidity of the air remains above 40 % and contributes to the abundance of vegetation . With the trade winds from the Azores High , the island enjoys a pleasant climate year @-@ round . In the north to north @-@ east , these winds are cool and always wet . Their presence is appreciated by kitesurfers . Agricultural activities , including rice cultivation , depend entirely on rainfall . " Wah uŋejutumu , emit elaatut " is a Jola proverb which means " If a project will not be completed , it will be because the rain did not fall . " The invocation of fetishes when there is no rain is part of traditional animist rituals . In recent decades , there has been a general decline in rainfall , which threatens rice production , increases soil salinity , and contributes to the degradation of the mangroves . In May and June , air temperature is around 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) . In January and February , the coldest months , it is around 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . Temperatures of below 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) are quite rare . In September , the temperature of surface seawater is 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) .
= = = Flora = = =
At one time , the island was considered an arid location , where coconuts were the only useful plants likely to flourish and vegetables were difficult to produce . In what has become a tropical climate , vegetation is more abundant than in the north of the country , especially during the wet season . Anxious to attract the attention of the French colonial administration which he judged insufficiently involved in the development of Casamance , administrator Emmanuel Bertrand @-@ Bocandé submitted a report which documented in great detail the plant species then present on the island . Although this report was written in 1849 , the information it contains has remained valuable even into the 21st century .
Most of Carabane is covered in mangroves , forming an impassable jungle that can only be crossed in constructed passages . Mangroves are among the few species capable of adapting to the highly saline environment , where the quantity of oxygen in the soil is low . In recent decades there has been concern that the mangroves are less prevalent . There are various reasons for the degradation , including crustaceans and the unregulated exploitation of wood . Efforts have been made to safeguard the mangroves and to educate children about their importance .
Tourists are not as attracted to the island for its mangroves as for the coconut trees which line its beaches , as featured on many of Carabane 's postcards . These palm trees are a valued resource on the island .
While not as plentiful as in other parts of Basse Casamance such as Mlomp , kapok trees are nonetheless present . Their grey wood is very light and easy to work , for which reasons it is used to construct many items , ranging from doors to dugouts . Jola canoes , which range from 6 to 8 metres ( 20 to 26 ft ) in length , are carved by adzes entirely out of one tree each , unlike the traditional Senegalese pirogue .
As for fruit trees , mangos and oranges are the most populous . Prickly pears , flamboyants , and colourful bougainvilleas brighten the scenery of hotels and camps on the island . Various organizations have contributed to the deforestation of the island .
= = = Fauna = = =
The wide variety of birds in Basse Casamance was noted by early explorers . While Basse Casamance National Park and Kalissaye Avifaunal Reserve have not been open for years due to the Casamance Conflict , Carabane has been found to be very conducive to ornithological observation . A study in 1998 discovered the following species on the island : African darter ( Anhinga rufa ) , Goliath heron ( Ardea goliath ) , palm @-@ nut vulture ( Gypohierax angolensis ) , black @-@ tailed godwit ( Limosa limosa ) , whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus ) , Eurasian curlew ( Numenius arquata ) , Caspian tern ( Sterna caspia ) , blue @-@ spotted wood @-@ dove ( Turtur afer ) , red @-@ eyed dove ( Streptopelia semitorquata ) , white @-@ rumped swift ( Apus caffer ) , woodland kingfisher ( Halcyon senegalensis ) , grey @-@ backed camaroptera ( Camaroptera brachyura ) , red @-@ bellied paradise @-@ flycatcher ( Terpsiphone rufiventer ) , pied crow ( Corvus albus ) , black @-@ rumped waxbill ( Estrilda troglodytres ) and yellow @-@ fronted canary ( Serinus mozambicus ) .
Fish are plentiful in the waters surrounding the island , where one may encounter trevallies ( Carangidae ) , Giant African threadfins ( Polydactylus quadrifilis ) , great barracudas ( Sphyraena barracuda ) , or African red snappers ( Lutjanus agennes ) . The mangroves are home to many crustaceans such as southern pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus notialis ) , sand fiddler crabs ( Uca pugilator ) , and molluscs . The shellfish population consists mostly of mangrove oysters ( Crassostrea gasar ) , which cling to uncovered mangrove roots at low tide . The red @-@ headed agama and monitor lizard make up the reptilian population of the island .
The sandbar of Carabane has very few mammals other than pets , although the French first noted the presence of monkeys in 1835 . In 1870 , other settlers noted with disgust that the natives often ate monkeys and dogs . In the early 21st century , bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) are commonly sighted off the island . The lack of tourism because of the civil unrest has benefited biodiversity . In this way , the nearby Basse Casamance National Park , which has been closed for years , has seen a remarkable return of Nile crocodiles ( Crocodylus niloticus ) , Senegalese manatees ( Trichechus senegalensis ) , and breeding birds .
On an island called Ilha dos Mosquitos ( Portuguese for " Mosquito Island " ) , the natives and their visitors continue to protect themselves with mosquito nets and Shea butter . They must also protect themselves from other , smaller insects which are no less troublesome : black flies ( Simulium ) .
= = History = =
= = = First inhabitants = = =
The traditions of the local peoples are unanimous in affirming that the oldest inhabitants of Casamance are the Bainuk people and that the left bank of the mouth of the river was first populated by the Jola . Portuguese sailors reached the west African coast in the 15th century , and in the 16th century , Portuguese traders became active in the Casamance region , mostly in search of wax , ivory , and slaves . They did not linger on " Mosquito Island " , instead founding their first trading post at Ziguinchor in 1645 .
In the late 1820s , a mulatto trader from Gorée , Pierre Baudin , moved to Itou and began planting rice and producing lime by crushing the shells of mangrove oysters and cooking them in lime kilns . The French administration treated Baudin as their representative on the island and did not send others because few of the French wanted to live on the island . Being wet and marshy , Carabane had a reputation for its poor sanitation . The local economy was based mainly on weedy rice , which was sold in Ziguinchor or to the British in The Gambia . The Baudin family used slaves to produce the rice and , despite the declaration of its official abolition in the French colonial empire in 1848 , slavery continued on the island until the early 20th century .
The colonial administration wanted to expand its influence around the river , particularly because the inhabitants of Gorée were threatened with losing part of their resources with the imminent demise of the slave trade , and also because of their competition with Saint @-@ Louis . On January 9 , 1836 , Lieutenant Malavois , who was in charge of Gorée , left for Casamance in search of a site for a trading post . The tip of Diogue , on the north shore , was first considered , but at the refusal of the Jola , it was the opposite bank which was eventually accepted .
= = = French colonization = = =
On January 22 , 1836 , the island was ceded to France by the village leader of Kagnout at an annual cost of 196 francs . Still , another treaty made Sédhiou the primary trading post of Casamance , and the exploitation of Carabane was left for some time in the hands of the Baudin family , first Pierre then his brother Jean . Each successively took on the title of Resident . With this official but ambiguous title , they were permitted to continue their trading operation so long as they regularly reported to France .
When Jean Baudin fell into disgrace due to a serious incident involving an English ship , he was replaced as Resident in October 1849 by Emmanuel Bertrand @-@ Bocandé . This multilingual , enterprising businessman and entomologist from Nantes transformed " his " island , sparking a resurgence of commercial and political activity . In 1852 , the population surpassed 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants . A cadastral map assigned tracts of 30 square metres ( 320 sq ft ) to traders and contractors . Other tracts of 15 square metres ( 160 sq ft ) were allotted for housing . Provisional concessions were granted to residents of Saint @-@ Louis and Gorée . Other than settlers , the island was mainly inhabited by animist Jola famers , whose practices were disconcerting to the settlers . Coexistence was not always easy . Christianity was practiced by the Europeans and some of the residents of Gorée , although the island did not yet have a church . Missionaries tried but were not permitted to settle on the island .
The construction of a wharf 116 metres ( 381 ft ) long allowed the berthing of larger vessels coming in from Casamance . A railed pier was built along the river in order to facilitate the transfer of goods . Carabane exported rice , but also cotton , considered to be of poor quality , which was ginned in a factory built by Bertrand @-@ Bocandé in 1840 , owned first by Maurel & Prom and then by the Casamance Company . The factory also produced almonds and crabwood ( Carapa procera ) .
Bertrand @-@ Bocandé became involved in local African politics during his time as Resident . When an intertribal conflict led to an armed raid of Carabane , he mediated the conflict . In 1850 , the island 's economic growth was disturbed because of an extensive livestock raid which precipitated further incidents the following year . In response to this conflict with the former owners of Carabane , the residents of Kagnout , Bertrand @-@ Bocandé convinced the governor of Senegal to send a warship to Carabane to frighten off the raiders . This single ship failed to faze the island 's opponents , therefore Bertrand @-@ Bocandé requested a detachment of soldiers and several other ships from the governor . When these reinforcements arrived from Gorée , the conflict was successfully ended . A treaty was signed on March 25 , establishing the sovereignty of France not only in Casamance , but also in Kagnout and Samatit . For his involvement in the conflict , Bertrand @-@ Bocandé was accepted into the Légion d 'honneur and was given a land concession . Bertrand @-@ Bocandé left the island in 1857 for a leave of absence , but he abandoned his post as Resident in 1860 . His tireless activity had a lasting effect on the island .
Meanwhile , the inhabitants of the new French territory did not recognize the authority of the treaties imposed upon them . For this reason , rice farmers in Carabane experienced lootings and abductions by the Karoninka people . Troops led by Émile Pinet @-@ Laprade attacked the Karoninka villages in March 1860 , forcing them to submission . A period of calm ensued . While the Mandinka Muslims continued , illegally , to practice slavery and trade , non @-@ Muslim villages tended to come together , accepting the Resident of Carabane as the arbitrator of their disagreements .
In 1869 , Carabane became autonomous , but it merged with Sédhiou in 1886 . Its garrison of a dozen men was regularly stricken with tropical diseases such as malaria . In 1877 , 527 people were counted on the island , mostly Jola , but also some Wolofs , Muslims , and a few Manjacks from Portuguese Guinea .
The first Catholic mission in Sédhiou was founded in 1875 and the first baptisms were celebrated that same year in Carabane . There were 17 people baptised in total , most of whom were residents of the island . The Holy Ghost Fathers ' mission in Carabane was founded in 1880 by Father Kieffer . On February 22 , he settled on the island , but he served for only two years . The staff of the colonial administration was small : the manager of a customs post with four employees , a gunner , a corporal , and six European tirailleurs . There were approximately 250 Christians in Carabane , mostly mulattos . The priest built his house out of Palmyra palm trunks . He visited nearby villages and sometimes went to Sédhiou . The founding of the mission in Carabane was followed by others in Ziguinchor ( 1888 ) , Elinkine ( 1891 ) , and several nearby locations in the 20th century . In 1900 , a Spiritan missionary , Father Wintz , wrote the first catechism in the Jola language .
Temporarily transferred to Ziguinchor , the Carabane mission closed in 1888 . Missionaries returned in 1890 and , although they immediately expanded the church building , it was still not large enough to accommodate all those who wished to attend . Thanks to subsidies by the bishop , Magloire @-@ Désiré Barthet , and to donations by the parishioners , a new church was built and inaugurated on the Catholic feast day of Saint Anne in 1897 . The mission also obtained two adjacent properties , lot # 73 on the cadastral map . By the following year , the Christian community had performed 1 @,@ 100 baptisms , as well as many catechumen .
Competition between the French and the Portuguese began to show itself in the region during this period . Because the Portuguese @-@ operated trading posts in Cacheu and Farim asked for higher prices than the French @-@ operated trading posts in Carabane and Sédhiou , the Portuguese lost many traders to the French . This trend led to the ceding of Ziguinchor to France , which was negotiated in Carabane in April 1888 between Commissioner Oliveira and Captain Brosselard @-@ Faidherbe .
In 1901 , the administrative capital of Casamance was transferred from Carabane to Ziguinchor , a status which was transferred in turn to Oussouye two years later . By 1904 , Carabane had lost several of its amenities , including its customs services , which were centralized . The island 's trading houses were abandoned and the number of Christians dwindled from 1 @,@ 000 to 300 by 1907 .
Despite the anti @-@ clerical movement 's growth in France at the time , education in Carabane continued to be administered by the Holy Ghost Fathers for the boys and by the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny for the girls . A chapel also continued to be run on the island .
In 1913 , just before the outbreak of World War I , Carabane suffered a fire which caused its business to decline . People gradually left the island in search of work in Ziguinchor and even Dakar . On December 1915 , Marcel de Coppet , administrator of Ziguinchor , visited the island in order to recruit tirailleurs . Six inhabitants of the island accepted the position : a Christian , a pagan , and four Muslims .
In the aftermath of the Great War , the Roman Catholic Church encountered great difficulties in the region . There was insufficient staffing , the cost of living was rising , and the harsh climate began to wear on the buildings . In 1920 , the diocese had , in addition to Carabane , thirteen churches and approximately thirty @-@ five chapels . The thirteen churches were located in Dakar , Saint @-@ Louis , Gorée , Rufisque , Thiès , Ngazobil , Joal , Fadiouth , Foundiougne , Kaolack , Ziguinchor , Bignona and Banjul . In 1922 , the Governor decreed which buildings were authorized to practise Catholicism . While the Carabane church was one of the buildings selected , some members blamed the colonial administration for having facilitated the expansion of Islam in the country .
In taking leadership of the diocese , Archbishop Le Hunsec noted that the island of Carabane , heavily populated when trading was concentrated there , had lost its influence and now had fewer than 500 inhabitants . He considered transferring the mission to Oussouye , which became a reality in 1927 . Starting in 1937 , the mission in Oussouye also performed baptisms and funerals in Carabane .
In the same year , a reform school was created on the island , operating until 1953 , when it was replaced by another in Nianing . A report submitted in 1938 by an educational advisor to Marcel de Coppet , Governor General of French West Africa , detailed the daily life of the prisoners in the school which housed up to 22 boys , mostly convicted for theft but also occasionally for murder .
= = = Recent history = = =
Carabane 's population continued to decline gradually after World War II . In 1950 , the construction of a seminary was planned in Carabane , but it was transferred to a new building in Nyassia in 1959 . The Carabane mission closed its doors during the wet season of 1953 , 83 years after its inception . The nuns and their interns moved to Ziguinchor .
Senegal 's independence was declared on August 20 , 1960 , and after the dissolution of the short @-@ lived Mali Federation , Casamance saw the arrival of officials coming from the north . Although many of them were Wolofs and Muslims , they did not know the Jola country and its traditions . The periods of drought that ravaged the Sahel in the 1970s forced peanut farmers to move to regions where rice was all that grew .
Discontent began to spread among the people , which sometimes escalated to violence . Casamance has since experienced years of conflict which put local initiatives in jeopardy , such as nature reserves and the first network of villages . In 1998 , in the middle of the conflict , the French commune of Bon @-@ Encontre committed to providing Carabane with humanitarian aid , both economically and culturally . Carabane has remained one of the calmest areas of Casamance throughout the conflict . Nonetheless , a few small incidents were reported around April 2000 . The rebels may have wanted to take advantage of Carabane 's reputation to attract media attention .
The ceasefire of 2004 brought relative peace , but in the meantime , the sinking of the Joola in 2002 claimed the lives of many inhabitants of Carabane and curtailed much of its ability to engage in trade and accept tourists for several years . Considering the problems brought on by the conflict along with the threat of coastal erosion on the island , some fear the worst . Thus , after years of development and community outreach , Carabane is experiencing difficulties in a number of ways .
= = Society = =
= = = Administration = = =
Formerly an administrative district in its own right , even a regional capital , Carabane is now just one of 23 villages in the rural community of Diembéring , of which Kabrousse , Cap Skirring , and Boucott @-@ Diembéring are the largest centres . This rural community is located in the Kabrousse Arrondissement . It is part of Oussouye Department , the smallest and least central of the three departments in Ziguinchor Region . In a country which includes some 13 @,@ 000 villages , the village is considered , by a 1972 decree , the elementary entity in the administrative body of the nation . Each is administered by a leader , assisted by a council . After consultation , the nomination of a leader is established by the prefect and approved by the Minister of the Interior . Under Senegalese law , the leader of the village has certain prerogatives , including law enforcement , tax collection , and keeping of vital records in the village .
While this administrative structure was decreed by a government anxious to deal with interlocutors , such a restructuring has not taken place in Casamance . Jola society is devoid of any formal hierarchy . It has no leader with genuine permanent authority . Instead , there are village elders who meet when important decisions need to be made . According to Italian anthropologist Paolo Palmeri , the leader of the village has very little power in reality , as he is merely responsible for relations with the national administration . He simply allows the village to continue practicing its traditions . In a society where politics are inextricably linked to religion , the real holders of power are the fetish priests . The very notion of a village is almost inappropriate in this context : it might be more appropriately considered a clan or an aggregation of kinship . Other specialists , such as Christian Sina Diatta , compare Jola communities to those of mound @-@ building termites , in which each member performs a specific function and where the queen is easily replaceable .
= = = Population = = =
In 2003 , the village of Carabane 's official population count stood at 396 people and 55 households , but it fluctuates with the seasons and sometimes reaches some 1 @,@ 750 people , according to local sources . Most of the population is Jola . The Jola are very distinct from other major ethnic groups in Senegal by their language , egalitarian society , freedom from political hierarchy , and lack of slavery . Their traditions have persevered because of their independent spirit as well as their geographical isolation . This ethnic group accounts for 80 to 90 % of the residents of Basse Casamance , but only 6 to 8 % of the total population of Senegal . They are the largest ethnic group in Carabane , followed by Wolofs , Lebous , and Serers ( including Niominka fishermen ) . Manjacks also live on the island , some of whom came from Saint @-@ Louis and Gorée at the time of the first colonization . Two communities from neighbouring countries , one from Guinea ( the Susu people ) and the other from Guinea @-@ Bissau , have settled on the other side of the island at a distance from the village . There are also seasonal workers who come to fish : Ghanaians , Guineans , and Gambians .
The indigenous population was originally animist , but while the fetishes and sacred groves dedicated to initiation rites such as boukout survive as cultural icons of Casamance , the monotheistic belief systems of Catholicism and Islam have become the most widely held in Carabane . The 1988 census reported that Muslims account for 94 % of the population of Senegal , but only 26 @.@ 5 % of the population of Oussouye Department , where Carabane is located . Still , this department is largely rural , while Carabane has historically supported great ethnic diversity . Islam has not been practiced by Wolof and Serer fishermen since the 19th century , but the colonial administration brought with it many translators , guides , and secretaries from Dakar , many of whom were Muslim .
= = = Education and health = = =
Founded in 1892 , the Carabane school was one of the first in the region . It began as an all @-@ boys school , but in 1898 , three nuns belonging to the indigenous congregation of the Daughters of the Holy Heart of Mary began teaching classes for girls . Soon , there were 60 students . A school infrastructure description in the region in 1900 reveals that the boys ' school in Carabane was open from December to August each year , and that holidays ran from September to November , when parents needed their children in the fields to help cultivate rice . In 1903 , when Carabane lost its status as capital , the school was instructing 63 boys and 102 girls . In 1914 , it had only 56 boys and 26 girls , a situation similar to that in Bignona .
Carabane has a new primary school , École François Mendy , inaugurated on January 21 , 2006 , hosting six classes . The literacy rate is approximately 90 % . Students may continue their studies at the middle school in Elinkine , the Aline Sitoe Diatta High School in Oussouye , and then a university in either Dakar or Ziguinchor . Carabane 's kindergarten is located in a community house , called " House of Women and Children , " founded in 1988 under the auspices of Caritas Ziguinchor .
In 1895 , the government established a medical post in Carabane , but it closed the following year . In 1898 , the Daughters of the Holy Heart of Mary opened a clinic at the same time as the girls ' school .
As of 2010 , the village has a health facility which is connected to that of Oussouye and Ziguinchor . It provides vaccinations , family planning consultations , and prenatal information . A maternity hospital was founded in 1991 which is decorated with a fresco by Malang Badji , one of the most famous artists in the region .
The Ph.D. thesis published in 2003 , La part de l 'autre : une aventure humaine en terre Diola , meaning " Part of the Other : A Human Adventure in Jola Territory , " describes the health challenge present on the island in a more general context .
In particular , the location of the island does not allow easy access to serious or urgent medical assistance . There is a pirogue @-@ ambulance for the transportation of people off the island in the case of medical emergencies .
= = Economy = =
The testimonies of explorers and colonial administrators demonstrate that Carabane has participated in rice cultivation , fishery , trade , and palm wine production for centuries . The island experienced a decline in the 20th century , when Ziguinchor emerged as the regional capital , and more recently because of the negative economic consequences resulting from the Casamance Conflict and the Joola tragedy .
= = = Transportation and energy = = =
From the colonizers ' perspective , Carabane 's position at the mouth of the river was an undeniable asset . In the 20th and 21st centuries , in terms of trade and tourism issues , this location is more of a disadvantage because it effectively separates the island from the rest of the country .
While a direct route by sea has not been available since the sinking of the Joola , the traveller from Dakar may use various other means of transportation in order to arrive in Basse Casamance . Some national roads connect to Ziguinchor , down the N1 to Kaolack . The N4 and N5 roads cross the Gambia ( both the country and the river ) , the former running through Nioro du Rip to Farafenni , and the latter crossing the river to Banjul . The two roads merge in Bignona before descending to Ziguinchor . However , traffic is forbidden on both roads between 7 p.m. and 10 a.m. , and the routes are subject to frequent accidents and constant demining operations . Alternatively , it is possible to travel by plane to the airport in Ziguinchor or Cap Skirring , or to travel by boat to one of these locations . Reaching Carabane from either town is relatively straightforward .
By boat , the distance between Dakar and Carabane is 265 kilometres ( 143 nmi ) , although Ziguinchor is only 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) away . Before the launch of the Joola , other boats , mostly well @-@ worn ones , made the connection : first Cap Skirring , then the Casamance Express , and then Island Karabane . In January 1991 , a brand new ferry went into operation . Like its predecessors , it connected Dakar to Ziguinchor , stopping near Carabane where canoes could reach the island . On September 26 , 2002 , 180 extra passengers boarded the already overloaded ship at this stop , and a few hours later , the Joola sank . For security reasons , the Joola 's successor , the Wilis , stopped calling at Carabane , to the great displeasure of the inhabitants . Tourists became rare after that , and from time to time , inhabitants of the island found it necessary to move to Dakar or Ziguinchor . Significant modifications to the MV Aline Sitoe Diatta , which replaced the Wilis in March 2008 , were considered to allow it to stop safely at the island , and the construction of a berth was announced . Souleymane Ndéné Ndiaye , who later became Prime Minister of Senegal , laid the first stone of the berth in July 2008 , and the entire construction project was financed by the Senegalese government at an estimated cost of 12 billion West African CFA francs . On April 26 , 2014 , the MV Aline Sitoe Diatta stopped at the Carabane berth for the first time , improving transportation for locals and tourists . As of 2015 , the ferry stops at Carabane four times each week in the middle of its trips between Dakar and Ziguinchor .
= = = Agriculture and aquaculture = = =
= = = = Rice cultivation = = = =
In Basse Casamance , the rice cycle structures the lives of the population and plays a central economic and religious role . The Jola , who constitute 80 to 90 % of the population of Basse Casamance , practice a unique form of rice cultivation . Descriptions of the techniques used in the late 15th century , recorded by the first Portuguese explorers , show them to be similar to those still in use , particularly with respect to flooding and transplanting . Only the varieties of rice have changed .
The basic tool used is the kayendo , a kind of wooden spade or shovel ranging from 40 to 70 centimetres ( 16 to 28 in ) , surrounded by a sharp wrought iron blade and attached to a very long , straight , cylindrical neck . The two parts are connected by strips of torn Palmyra palm leaves . The main part is manufactured from a very hard wood measuring 2 to 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 6 ft 7 in to 8 ft 2 in ) in length . The kayendo is mainly used to plough rice fields , but is also used for other purposes , such as excavation and construction . Men perform the clearing and ploughing while the women take care of the sowing , replanting , and weeding as well as the harvesting between October and January .
An even checkerboard plot model dominates the green landscape during the rainy season , which becomes more austere after harvest . The rice fields differ only in terms of soil type and location . Where mangroves are populous , such as in Carabane , the rice paddy fields between them must be protected from the channels of saltwater which overflow during high tide . Rice farmers must therefore build levees , dig ditches , and create ponds . The fish and shrimp which subsequently become trapped are harvested at the end of the rainy season , when the basins are emptied . The plots of land which were safeguarded from flooding are then cleared and ploughed . Several years of drainage are required to desalinate the soil .
Although practised in Basse Casamance for centuries , rice cultivation has been threatened since the late 1960s . Productivity has declined because many workers have opted for life in the city , even though they continue to support their community . The drought of the 1970s and 1980s further aggravated the situation .
= = = = Palm oil and palm wine = = = =
Among the agricultural activities practised during the dry season , which halts work in the rice fields , the most traditional are those related to the exploitation of African oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis ) , which provides two products which are very popular in the region : palm oil and palm wine . Palm oil is an essential ingredient in local cuisine . As a carefully preserved condiment , it is combined with plain rice on holidays . The oil comes from the fruit clusters which are picked by men and then deseeded , allowed to dry , crushed in a mortar , and boiled by women .
Palm wine ( called bunuk or bounouk in the Jola language ) is an alcoholic drink derived from the natural fermentation of palm sap , so is not strictly a wine , which is produced by the fermentation of grapes . The recent partial Islamization of the region has not challenged its consumption . Fruit clusters are collected exclusively by the men . Supported by a strap , the harvester climbs the tree , cuts the bud , and holds out a funnel which allows the resulting fluid to flow drip by drip into an elongated calabash or , more recently , a bottle . The alcohol content of palm wine develops throughout the day . The locals consume large quantities on a daily basis , and even more at banquets and ceremonies dedicated to fetishes . Palm wine is often traded for rice or sold in the city . Many Jola proverbs attest the popularity of the drink , such as Bunuk abajut birto , which means " With palm wine , one never stands up , " or Ulako , kumusaet jígabulaju , which means " Sit down , don 't spill the palm wine . "
= = = = Aquaculture = = = =
The island 's proximity to the river and the ocean suggests that the area is suited to fishing and related activities , yet the indigenous people , mostly land @-@ dwellers , have long been content to practise artisan fishing , just to supply their own daily needs . Pirogues cut from the trunks of kapok trees are most often used , along with traps , nets , baskets , and fences . In the early 20th century , experienced fishermen from other parts of Senegal , along with others from Mali , Guinea , and Ghana , developed deep @-@ sea fishing on the island and introduced new equipment .
The collection of shellfish , especially oysters , is another traditional activity which still takes place in Casamance , which is one of three oyster @-@ producing regions in Senegal , along with Petite Côte and Sine @-@ Saloum . Oysters collect on the roots of mangrove trees which are uncovered at low tide . They are harvested during the dry season , mainly by women , who control , from harvest to distribution , an activity that requires little investment and provides them with some financial independence . Oysters are an important component of the family diet . Rich in dietary minerals and vitamin C , they are the second largest source of animal protein among the Jola people after fish , followed by chicken , and pork . Oysters are readily associated with rice , the staple food , and in times of shortage , even replace it . Locally , oysters are boiled or grilled on a wood fire and consumed with a spicy sauce . Those destined for sale or preservation , however , are sun @-@ dried or smoked . In some villages , including Carabane , they are kept alive for several weeks before being transported to market . Oysters are also a source of income , and Carabane is located in the center of the collection zone , which is one of the reasons why boats formerly called at the island . Oysters were once easily transported from Carabane to Dakar , where they were either sold by the pickers themselves or by hawkers .
Crustaceans , such as sand fiddler crabs and shrimp , among the mangroves also occupy a significant place in the local economy . While a large number of shrimp species inhabit the Senegambian area , a single family exists in Casamance : Penaeidae . Southern pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus notialis ) are the most commonly collected . They were traditionally caught as part of local artisan fishing by men , women , and children . Shrimp collection in the area experienced significant development in the 1960s , following the establishment of European industrial units . The local fishermen switched to this method , and there was an increased presence of fishermen from other areas . A study in 2005 revealed the extent to which the shrimp population in the region has been depleted , citing multiple causes , including diminishing rainfall , over @-@ salinization of the estuary , and poorly controlled harvesting . Along with the mangrove degradation , the civil unrest , and the inadequate fishery regulation , Casamance has had to deal with the closure in 2003 of a major industrial complex in Ziguinchor which treated and exported shrimp and other crustaceans and employed more than 2 @,@ 000 people .
Grouped into cooperatives , women play a leading role in the island 's economy . Notably through microcredit , they engage in fishing @-@ related activities , such as smoking fish and processing shrimp , oysters , and shellfish in general . As there is no industrial activity on the island ( the closest such activity is in Ziguinchor ) , the island is experiencing a rural exodus of young people . They return to help their parents in the rice fields and participate in religious ceremonies during the dry season , but they tend to settle off the island permanently .
= = = Tourism = = =
The Republic of Senegal placed an emphasis on tourism early in its history . The results were promising , and developing the industry further became a priority in the country 's 4th Economic and Social Plan ( 1973 – 1977 ) . Casamance subsequently became the main tourist destination in the country . Already having been described in the 19th century by Captain Brosselard @-@ Faidherbe as a kind of Brazil in Africa , Carabane seemed well @-@ placed to attract visitors in search of exoticism as well as vacationers seeking sandy beaches and kite surfing .
At the same time , national and even international controversy threatened the industry from the beginning . Those who opposed tourism in Senegal described it as a new form of colonialism while supporters saw it as a panacea that would cure the country of underdevelopment . The idea of alternative tourism was discussed . Several towns in Basse Casamance , including Carabane , were selected to test an integrated agritourism managed by the villagers themselves . In the early 1970s , the agritourism promoter Christian Saglio , a young French sociologist who later became the director of the Leopold Sedar Senghor French Institute in Dakar , believed in Carabane 's potential . He stated that he wanted to make the island the " Gorée of Casamance " , using it as a hub for other camps . Saglio suggested the restoration of old buildings and canopy beds .
Despite his fervour , Saglio 's negotiations with the local people were unsuccessful . Niomoune and Carabane were the first two villages to attempt to apply this innovative approach , but both failed . The inhabitants were reluctant to participate , and the young inexperienced promoter had to abandon some of his ethnographic theories in favour of being careful to understand the daily realities of villages . The project was eventually abandoned , and the Catholic missions house was transformed by the nuns themselves into a modern , functional building . Despite the failure of Saglio 's initiative in Carabane , agritourist camps were set up over the following decade in a dozen other nearby towns .
While Carabane 's tourism sector has suffered because it has not taken part in the network of villages , tourists have avoided travelling to Casamance in general because of the civil unrest . The signing of a ceasefire in 2004 allowed tourism to resume , but not to the extent it had reached before the conflict .
Tour operators continue to advertise the island as a lost paradise surrounded by mangroves where travellers ' exotic dreams come to life , but this type of discovery tourism is not as popular as traditional beach @-@ related tourism . Thus , visitors from France , Spain , and Italy often combine tours of the cases á impluvium in Enampore or Mlomp with a few days of relaxation in Carabane . The area is also very conducive to the interests of fishing enthusiasts . Along the beach , small stalls offer traditional crafts and clothes at prices lower than those in Cap Skirring or Saly . Badji Malang , a local painter , potter , sculptor , and poet , has created a camp in the area .
Although remaining separate from the local tourism network , Carabane has demonstrated its support for social solidarity and holism by joining GENSEN ( Global Ecovillage Network Senegal ) , a network of Senegalese ecovillages .
= = = Historic sites = = =
Carabane has many historic sites , such as the Catholic mission house built in 1880 which has since been turned into a hotel , a Brittany @-@ style church building which is no longer in use , and a former slave @-@ trade building . There is also a French cemetery where a Troupes de marine @-@ Captain with the name Aristide Protet was shot with a poisoned arrow and buried standing up in front of the sea , according to his last wishes . Some tour guides falsely claim that this was Auguste Léopold Protet , the founder of the city of Dakar , but the name Aristide Protet is clearly shown on the tomb 's plaque .
Near the beach are ruins of buildings , pontoons , and wells , with a large tree in the center . A huge piece of metal in its midst bears the inscription CEO Forrester & Co . Vauxhall Foundry . 18 Liverpool S3 .
Carabane was added to the list of historic sites and monuments of Senegal in 2003 . An application for Carabane to become a World Heritage Site was filed with UNESCO on November 18 , 2005 .
Inspired by Gorée 's example , Carabane is attempting to pay homage to victims of slavery by starting a small museum like the House of Slaves . Like Gorée and Saint @-@ Louis , Carabane places great importance on its cultural heritage . The architectural reminders of this heritage require significant restoration as they have experienced considerable degradation . In 1964 , French anthropologist Louis @-@ Vincent Thomas posed the question of whether Carabane should be preserved , and this question continues to be relevant . The local people suggest that the entire Diogue – Nikine – Carabane area needs saving .
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= Andha Naal =
Andha Naal ( English : That Day ) is a 1954 Indian Tamil @-@ language mystery @-@ thriller film produced by A. V. Meiyappan and directed by Sundaram Balachander . It is the first film noir in Tamil cinema , and the first Tamil film to be made without songs , dance and stunt scenes . The story , which is set in the milieu of World War II , is about the murder of a radio engineer Rajan ( Sivaji Ganesan ) . The suspects are Rajan 's wife Usha ( Pandari Bai ) , the neighbour Chinnaiah Pillai ( P. D. Sambandam ) , Rajan 's brother Pattabi ( T. K. Balachandran ) , Rajan 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Hema ( Menaka ) , and Rajan 's mistress Ambujam ( Suryakala ) . Each one 's account of the incident points to a new suspect .
Before the casting of Ganesan , S. V. Sahasranamam and N. Viswanathan were chosen for the lead role but were later dismissed because they were unconvincing to the filmmakers . The story and dialogue were written by Javar Seetharaman , who also played a prominent role as an investigation officer in the film . Cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao and the background score was composed by AVM Productions ' own music troupe , " Saraswathy Stores Orchestra " . The film 's length of 12 @,@ 500 feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m ) was shorter than most contemporaneous Tamil films .
Andha Naal was released on 13 April 1954 , a Puthandu ( Tamil New Year ) release . It was critically acclaimed and was awarded the " Best Film Award " by the Madras Filmfans ' Association and a Certificate of Merit for Second Best Feature Film in Tamil at the 2nd National Film Awards in 1955 . Despite being a commercial failure during its release , the film has acquired a cult status over the years and is regarded as a milestone in Tamil cinema . In 2013 , Andha Naal was included in CNN @-@ News18 's list of the " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " .
= = Plot = =
On the night of 11 October 1943 , the Japanese bomb the Indian city of Madras ( now Chennai ) . The next morning in Triplicane , Rajan , a radio engineer and communications researcher , is found murdered with his own hand gun . His neighbour Chinnaiah Pillai hears the gunshot and makes a complaint to the police . Purushothaman Naidu , a local police inspector , arrives at Rajan 's house and starts investigating the murder . In the meantime , Crime Investigation Department ( C.I.D. ) officer Sivanandam joins Naidu to help the investigation . Naidu suggests that the killer could be a thief who must have killed Rajan for the money found at the crime scene . However , Sivanandam is unconvinced with Naidu 's idea because the sum of money present matches the withdrawal entry in the bank passbook found in the same room . Rajan was about leave Madras in anticipation of the bombings .
The two policemen question five people in and around Rajan 's house , most of whom are family members or friends of Rajan . The first person to be questioned is Rajan 's wife Usha , who is unable to speak due to grief . Sivanandam and Naidu feel embarrassed and are reluctant to question her further . They begin interrogating Pillai , who reported the murder . Pillai proposes that the killer is probably Pattabi , Rajan 's younger brother , and recalls a confrontation between Pattabi and Rajan . Pattabi asked for his share of the family property to be apportioned and given to him . Rajan refused to give Pattabi his share , feeling that he and his wife would squander it . Pillai concludes that this may have prompted Pattabi to kill Rajan .
Sivanandam and Naidu decide to interrogate Pattabi , who feels remorse for Rajan 's death and states that he did not treat his brother well and failed to understand his good intentions . He recounts an incident in which his wife Hema had fought with Rajan for not apportioning the property . Pattabi states that Hema could have killed Rajan for the money as she loses sanity when overpowered by anger . Sivanandam briefly leaves Naidu to interrogate Hema . She is initially impudent and refuses to give a statement about the crime , but she later yields when threatened that her husband will be arrested . She reveals Rajan 's extramarital affair with a dancer named Ambujam , who is pregnant with Rajan 's child . As Rajan treated the news with a reckless attitude , Hema proposes that Ambujam could have killed Rajan . When questioned , Ambujam accuses Pillai of the murder , saying that he was her foster father who wanted her to stay away from Rajan , after the three met during a picnic . As their relationship continued , Pillai became infuriated and wanted to end the affair .
Sivanandam inquires Usha , who tells him how she and Rajan fell in love . Sivanandam tricks Usha using a leaky fountain pen to collect her fingerprints . That evening , Sivanandam meets all the suspects along with Naidu at Rajan 's house and carries out an exercise in which the suspects — including Usha — must shoot Sivanandam as though he is Rajan using revolvers loaded with fake bullets . All the suspects shoot , but Usha bursts into tears and fails to shoot . Sivanandam then orders an apparent arrest of Pattabi and Hema . Unable to bear the torture , Usha reveals the truth : Rajan was a radio engineer who wanted to sell radios to the poor at an affordable price . Unable to get any support from the government , he went to Japan where his work was appreciated . He became a spy working for Japan , selling India 's military secrets to the Japanese . Usha learnt about this and tried to reform him . But , Rajan does not mind betraying India . Usha could not stop Rajan and tries to shoot him . She changes her decision but pulls the trigger accidentally , killing Rajan . After revealing the truth , Usha commits suicide .
= = Cast = =
Sivaji Ganesan as Rajan , a radio engineer
Pandari Bai as Usha , Rajan 's wife
Javar Seetharaman as C.I.D. Officer Sivanandam
P. D. Sambandam as Chinniah Pillai
T. K. Balachandran as Pattabi , Rajan 's younger brother
Menaka as Hema , Rajan 's sister @-@ in @-@ law
Suryakala as Ambujam , Rajan 's mistress
= = Production = =
Sundaram Balachander , a " multi @-@ faceted " film personality entered films as an actor in 1934 and apprenticed under director Krishna Gopal for the film Idhu Nijama ( 1948 ) , a supernatural thriller . Following the success of Idhu Nijama , Balachander directed En Kanavar ( 1948 ) and Kaithi ( 1951 ) , both made on similar themes . After acting in a few more films , he decided to make a film based on his own story . Balachander wrote a play in in the narrative style of Akira Kurosawa 's Japanese film Rashomon ( 1950 ) , and showed it to Koothapiran of All India Radio , who rejected it . Balachander then approached AVM Productions founder A. V. Meiyappan and told him the story ; the latter agreed to adapt the story into a film . When Balachander told Meiyappan that he wanted no scenes featuring songs or stunts , the latter was opposed ; he wanted to include at least one song . However , Balachander responded by saying that even a solitary song in the film would " ruin the tempo " . Meiyappan eventually agreed to finance the film because he liked the story , and had trust in Balachander 's talent . Andha Naal thus became the first Tamil film that did not have any songs or dance sequences , and remained AVM Productions ' only film directed by Balachander .
The lead role of the radio engineer Rajan was initially offered to S. V. Sahasranamam , who was removed after some days of shooting because Balachander and Meiyappan were not satisfied with his performance and felt he looked " too old " to play the role . The filmmakers then engaged newcomer N. Viswanathan , a Tamil professor from Calcutta . After some footage featuring him was shot , the makers were again unconvinced with Viswanathan 's work ; they dismissed him and replaced him with Sivaji Ganesan . Meiyappan had introduced Ganesan in Parasakthi ( 1952 ) , and was very keen to have him play the lead role . Balachander was initially hesitant to approach Ganesan because he was unsure whether the latter would accept a negative role . In his autobiography , Ganesan stated that the film was almost completed before he was approached . He agreed to be a part of the film because he found the story interesting and thought portraying a variety of characters would interest the audience . Ganesan initially charged ₹ 40 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to ₹ 2 @.@ 8 million or US $ 42 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) which Meiyappan could not afford to pay . He offered Ganesan ₹ 25 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to ₹ 1 @.@ 8 million or US $ 26 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , but Ganesan refused . Balachander , however , told Ganesan that Meiyappan would pay him ₹ 1 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to ₹ 71 @,@ 000 or US $ 1 @,@ 100 in 2016 ) for every day they shot the film , and Ganesan obliged , believing the film would take long to complete To his dismay , Balachander completed the shoot in 17 days . Andha Naal was one of the earliest films in which Ganesan portrays an antihero . The screenplay and dialogue were written by Javar Seetharaman , who also appeared in the film as a C.I.D. officer , and gave a voiceover in the beginning of the film in the scene before Rajan is shot dead . Pandari Bai was selected to play Rajan 's wife . Malayalam actor T. K. Balachandran , actresses Suryakala and Menaka , and P. D. Sambandam formed the rest of the cast .
Muktha Srinivasan , who would later become one of Tamil cinema 's established directors , assisted Balachander with this film . Cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao , and the editor was S. Surya . The background score was performed by Saraswathy Stores Orchestra , AVM Productions ' music troupe . No credit to the story is given in the introduction credits . The photography of the film was markedly different from most earlier films in Tamil cinema . Rao used the " painting with light " technique , which captures the shadow of the actors to reflect their " mood and character " . Meiyappan was initially dissatisfied with Ganesan 's performance and wanted the scenes to be reshot . When Balachander refused , Meiyappan demanded that the footage canned be burnt , but Balachander again refused , and instead reshot Ganesan 's scenes . The film 's final cut was less than 12 @,@ 500 feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m ) — shorter than most contemporaneous Tamil films .
= = Themes and influences = =
Regarded as the first film noir in Tamil cinema , Andha Naal is set in the milieu of South @-@ East Asian theatre of World War II where the Japanese bombed the Indian city of Madras in 1943 . Residents of the city moved to nearby hill stations to protect themselves from further bombings and invasions . Though various sources , including Ganesan , have stated that the film was inspired by Rashomon , film historian Randor Guy notes that this notion is erroneous , that Andha Naal was actually adapted from the 1950 British film The Woman in Question directed by Anthony Asquith , and that there was only a " thematic resemblance " between Andha Naal and Rashomon . According to Jason P. Vest , in his book Spike Lee : Finding the Story and Forcing the Issue , the three films follow a nonlinear narrative by presenting diverging accounts of the same incident . In his 2015 book Madras Studios , film historian Swarnavel Eswaran Pillai notes that Andha Naal has nothing to do with Rashomon except for its whodunit plot , where the murder is explored in various angles . He also notes that Andha Naal ends with the mystery being solved , unlike Rashomon . According to B. Vijayakumar of The Hindu , Andha Naal is " probably " the first spy film in South India .
The main theme of Andha Naal is patriotism . It tells how unemployment and desolation of youngsters will lead to them becoming traitors . If a country does not appreciate talented young men for their efforts , they could turn against the nation . Ganesan 's character Rajan turns into a traitor by selling military secrets to Japan because his idea was rejected by the Indian government . This role was influenced from T. S. Balaiah 's character in the 1946 Tamil film Chitra . Pillai compared Pandari Bai 's character Usha in Andha Naal to her character in Parasakthi ( 1952 ) because in both films she is ideologically driven , but in the former , " it is the idea of the Indian nation that she pledges her allegiance to . " The Times of India compared Andha Naal to Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) for its similar lighting and camera angles .
The film uses a Tamil saying " Kolaiyum Seival patthini " ( a virtuous wife may even kill her own husband ) as a clue to the identity of the culprit . The story of the blind men and an elephant is referenced in the narrative , when Sivanandam notes how each suspects ' account of Rajan 's death contradicts that of the others . Usha is depicted as a virtuous wife and a patriot who loves her country . When she discovers that her husband has betrayed India , she does not hesitate to kill him . The Directorate of Film Festivals describes Naidu as a conscientious officer , and Sivanandam as a " brilliant , eccentric but not so serious " man .
= = Release and reception = =
Andha Naal was released on 13 April 1954 , a Puthandu ( Tamil New Year ) release , to critical acclaim , but did not succeed commercially because the audience were not impressed with a film without songs . The film was considered " revolutionary " for taking this move . In theatres , the viewers were disappointed after the first scene in which Ganesan is shot dead , and many even walked out . The theatre owners had to persuade them to watch the entire film . Its commercial failure led Meiyappan to avoid making any more films without song sequences . The film was later re @-@ released after the announcement of the 2nd National Film Awards and became a box @-@ office success . Moser Baer and AP International have released the film on home video .
Andha Naal won critical praise , in spite of its poor performance at the box @-@ office . At the 2nd National Film Awards , the film won a Certificate of Merit for the Second Best Feature Film in Tamil , and a " Best Film " Award from the Madras Filmfans ' Association in 1955 . Contemporary critics lauded Meiyappan and Balachander for the experimental film . Ganesan 's role as an antihero won critical acclaim ; many critics said that Pandari Bai 's role as his patriotic wife " overshadowed " Ganesan 's performance . Many contemporary critics expected the film to be a " trendsetter " but it failed to inspire many thematically similar films in Tamil . Several years later , Balachander 's wife Shanta recalled that he was not affected by the film 's failure as he was " delighted that he pulled it off " , with the performances of Ganesan , Pandari Bai and the other actors being praised .
In a review dated 1 May 1954 , the magazine Kumudam praised Meiyappan 's courage in trusting the potential of " young talents like S. Balachandar and Javert Seetharaman who are redefining Tamil cinema " . It noted that if AVM had publicised the film as a thriller , " the warning that there are no songs or dances in the film would not have been so terrifying " . The magazine gave the verdict , " Success of art ; failure of narrative " . In the same month , a meeting was organised by the " Film Fans Association " in Madras to congratulate Meiyappan , Balachander , the actors and other crew members of the film . V. C. Gopalaratnam , the president of the association , said that Meiyappan " had displayed his pioneering spirit and zeal in producing a novel type of Tamil picture , without either songs or dances , relying for its success purely on the story and the portrayal of characters " . The magazine Gundoosi encouraged fans to see Andha Naal if they " really want Tamil cinema to progress " . In June 2008 , The Times of India gave the film a rating of four out of five , stating that it had a " timeless feel both in terms of story telling and presentation . " The reviewer praised the performances of Ganesan and Pandari Bai , and concluded , " Javar Seetharaman 's brilliant screenplay coupled with S Balachander 's subtle direction make this one of Tamil cinema 's finest offering so far . " Writing for Deccan Chronicle , Logesh Balachandran said , " [ Pandari Bai 's ] role as a patriotic woman in Andha Naal ... will always be memorable . "
= = Legacy = =
Andha Naal has been described by French film historian Yves Thoraval as a revolution in Tamil cinema for the absence of songs and dances . Though largely ignored during its release , it has since attained cult status in Tamil cinema , and in addition to becoming a trendsetter for Tamil films without songs , it set the benchmark in Tamil cinema for its noir @-@ style lighting in some of its dramatic sequences . In 2001 , journalist S. Muthiah called Andha Naal the " best film " produced by Meiyappan . He noted that it " proved that a song @-@ and @-@ danceless film could also be a hit . " In July 2007 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight Tamil film directors to list their all @-@ time favourite Tamil films ; three of them — K. Balachander , Mani Ratnam and Ameer — named Andha Naal . Malaysian author Devika Bai , writing for New Straits Times , described Andha Naal as Balachander 's magnum opus , and Balachander as " Tamil cinema ’ s Father of Film Noir " .
The film is regarded by many critics as Balachander 's best work . Encouraged by the film 's critical success , Balachander went on to direct and act in several more films of the same genre — Avana Ivan ( 1962 ) , Bommai ( 1964 ) and Nadu Iravil ( 1965 ) . Andha Naal inspired several later whodunit films — including Puthiya Paravai ( 1964 ) , Kalangarai Vilakkam ( 1965 ) , Sigappu Rojakkal ( 1978 ) , Moodu Pani ( 1980 ) and Pulan Visaranai ( 1990 ) , and several songless Tamil films such as Unnaipol Oruvan ( 1965 ) , Kudisai ( 1979 ) , Veedu ( 1988 ) and Uchi Veyil ( 1990 ) . Researcher and ethnographer Preeti Mudliar compared Ratha Kanneer ( 1954 ) to Andha Naal because in both films , " the sin of foreignness is [ neutralised ] by a chaste Tamil woman , the virtuous wife " . Director Chimbu Deven acknowledged Andha Naal as an influence on his 2014 film Oru Kanniyum Moonu Kalavaanikalum in its end credits .
The film was screened in the " Tamil Retrospective Section " of the 14th International Film Festival of India in 1991 . In 2008 , Randor Guy praised Andha Naal for " being the first Tamil film which had no dance , song or stunt sequence and for Balachandar ’ s impressive direction and fine performances by Sivaji Ganesan and Pandari Bai " . In March 2012 , film historian Mohan V. Raman told The Times of India that Andha Naal , being the first film noir in Tamil cinema , was " among the significant black and white films of yore " , along with Mayabazar ( 1957 ) and Uthama Puthiran ( 1940 ) . In a 2013 interview with the Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan , Malayalam filmmaker Adoor Gopalakrishnan listed Andha Naal as one of his earliest favourites in Tamil cinema . In April 2013 , Andha Naal was included in CNN @-@ News18 's list of " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " . In mid @-@ April 2014 , the film was screened at the Russian Cultural Centre , Chennai , to mark its diamond jubilee anniversary .
Film Heritage Foundation announced in March 2015 that they would be restoring Andha Naal along with a few other Indian films from 1931 to 1965 as a part of their restoration projects carried out in India and abroad in accordance to international parameters . The foundation , however , stated that they would not colourise any of the films as they " believe in the original repair as the way the master or the creator had seen it . " Filmmaker Shivendra Singh Dungarpur also believes that the film requires restoration on a " priority basis " . A 30 @-@ minute play adaptation of the film was staged in April 2016 and was directed by Balachander 's son Raman . In the same month , Balachander 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law Dharma Raman wrote for The Hindu , " The few films he produced , directed , acted , sang and composed music for , stand the test of time and are worth celebrating . "
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= Mycena fonticola =
Mycena fonticola is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family . First reported in 2007 , it is known only from central Honshu , in Japan , where it grows on dead leaves and twigs in low @-@ elevation forests dominated by oak trees . The fruit body of the fungus has a smooth , violet @-@ brown cap up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and a slender stem up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . Distinguishing microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the relatively large , distinctly amyloid spores ( turning blue to black when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , the smooth , spindle @-@ shaped cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) , the absence of pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) , the diverticulate hyphae of the cap cuticle , and the absence of clamp connections .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
The fungus was first collected by Japanese mycologist Haruki Takahashi in 1999 , and described as a new species along with seven other Japanese Mycenas in a 2007 publication . The mushroom 's Japanese name is Izumino @-@ ashinagatake ( イズミノアシナガタケ ) . The specific epithet fonticola is derived from Latin , and means " dweller in fountain " .
According to Takahashi , various macro- and microscopic features suggest that this species is best classified in the section Fragilipedes ( Fr . ) Quél . , as defined by the Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus .
= = Description = =
The cap is 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and ranges in shape from conical to convex to bell @-@ shaped . The surface has radially arranged shallow grooves extending almost to the center of the cap . The cap surface is somewhat hygrophanous ( changing color as it loses or absorbs water ) , dry , and smooth . It is colored violet @-@ brown when young , then becomes somewhat paler from the margin . The white flesh is up to 1 mm thick , and lacks any distinctive odor or taste . The stem is long and slender compared to the size of the cap , typically 7 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 to 0 @.@ 10 in ) thick , cylindrical , slightly enlarged at the base , and hollow . It is grayish @-@ brown to violet @-@ brown at the top , gradually becoming violet @-@ brown on the lower portion . The stem surface is initially pruinose ( appearing to be covered with a fine whitish powder ) , but becomes smooth in age . The stem base bears large , bristle @-@ like coarse white hairs . The gills are adnexed ( narrowly attached to the stem ) , with between 23 – 27 reaching the stem . The gills are up to 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) broad , thin , and have a whitish or with a grayish hue ; the gills edges are the same color as the gill faces .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are ellipsoid , smooth , colorless , distinctly amyloid ( absorbing iodine stain from Melzer 's reagent ) , thin @-@ walled , and measure 11 @.@ 5 – 14 by 6 – 8 µm . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 17 – 28 by 6 – 8 µm , club @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored . The basidioles ( immature or aborted basidia ) are club @-@ shaped . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the gills edges ) are 32 – 39 by 5 – 12 µm , abundant , spindle @-@ shaped to roughly club @-@ shaped , often apically broadly rounded , smooth , colorless , and thin @-@ walled . They form a sterile gill edge . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill faces ) are absent in this species . The hymenophoral tissue ( tissue of the hymenium @-@ bearing structure ) is made of thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 7 – 15 µm wide , cylindrical , smooth , colorless , and dextrinoid ( staining reddish to reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent ) . The cap cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 2 – 5 µm wide , cylindrical , and densely covered with warty or finger @-@ like thin @-@ walled diverticulae that are colorless or contain cytoplasmic brownish pigment . The layer of hyphae underlying the cap cuticle are parallel , colorless or with cytoplasmic brownish pigment , dextrinoid , and have short and inflated cells measuring up to 30 µm wide . The stem cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 3 – 5 µm wide , and cylindrical . These hyphae are covered with scattered , thin @-@ walled warty or finger @-@ like diverticulae that can be either colorless , or contain brownish pigment in the cytoplasm . The flesh of the stem is made of longitudinally running , cylindrical hyphae that are 5 – 17 µm wide , smooth , colorless , and dextrinoid . Clamp connections are absent in all tissues of this species .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena mustea is another similar Mycena that was discovered and reported concurrently with M. fonticola ; it differs in forming a pale grayish purple cap with a low and broad umbo . Microscopically , it has club @-@ shaped cheilocystidia with several apical short finger @-@ like outgrowths , and nondiverticulate hyphae in the stem cuticle .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena fonticola is known only from Kanagawa , Japan . Fruit bodies are found solitary or scattered , on dead leaves and twigs in low @-@ elevation forests dominated by the oak species Quercus myrsinaefolia and Q. serrata .
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= Kanae Yamamoto ( artist ) =
Kanae Yamamoto ( 山本 鼎 , Japanese : [ ka.na.e ] , 24 October 1882 – 8 October 1946 ) was a Japanese artist , known primarily for his prints and yōga Western @-@ style paintings . He is credited with originating the sōsaku @-@ hanga ( " creative prints " ) movement , which aimed at self @-@ expressive printmaking , in contrast to the commercial studio systems of ukiyo @-@ e and shin @-@ hanga . He initiated movements in folk arts and children 's art education that continue to be influential in Japan .
Kanae trained as a wood engraver in the Western style before studying Western @-@ style painting . While at art school he executed a two @-@ colour print of a fisherman he had sketched on a trip to Chiba . Its publication ignited an interest in the expressive potential of prints that developed into the sōsaku @-@ hanga movement . Kanae spent 1912 to 1916 in Europe and brought ideas back to Japan gleaned from exhibitions of peasant crafts and children 's art in Russia . In the late 1910s he founded movements the promotion of creative peasant crafts and in children 's art education ; the latter quickly gained adherents but was suppressed under Japan 's growing militarism . These ideas experienced a revival after World War II .
Though always a supporter , Kanae left behind printmaking in the 1920s and devoted his artistic output to painting until he suffered a stroke in 1942 . He spent his remaining years in mountainous Nagano in the city of Ueda , where the Kanae Yamamoto Memorial Museum was erected in 1962 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and training ( 1882 – 1907 ) = = =
Kanae Yamamoto descended from the Irie clan of hatamoto — samurai in the direct service of the Tokugawa shogunate of feudal Japan in Edo ( modern Tokyo ) . His grandfather died 1868 in the Battle of Ueno , during the Boshin War which led to the fall of the Shogunate and the Meiji Restoration which returned power to the Emperor . This orphaned Kanae 's father Ichirō , and thereafter he grew up in Okazaki in Aichi Prefecture ; how he got there is a matter of speculation . The specialist in Chinese medicine
Ryōsai Yamamoto , from line of specialists in traditional Chinese medicine took in Ichirō with the intention of raising him to marry his daughter Take , the eldest of the family 's nine children .
Kanae was born 24 October 1882 in the Tenma @-@ dōri 1 @-@ chōme neighbourhood of Okazaki . Ryōsai intended Ichirō to continue the family profession , but when the Meiji government announced it would grant medical licenses only to those who practised Western medicine , Ichirō moved to Tokyo to study it shortly after Kanae 's birth . He lodged in the household of Mori Ōgai 's father , where he performed household duties to earn his keep . To advance his studies he took part the clandestine digging up of fresh graves to find bodies for dissection .
When he was five Kanae and his mother joined Ichirō in Tokyo and settled in a tenement house in the San 'ya area . His mother did sewing work to help support the family , and with her sister Tama provided maid service to the Mori household , and thus Kanae often met his younger cousin , Kaita Murayama , who like Kanae was to make a career in art . The painter Harada Naojirō , whom Ōgai had befriended when the two were studying in Germany , asked Kanae 's mother , whom he had seen at the Mori household , to model for the painting Kannon Bodhisattva Riding the Dragon of 1890 . Such occurrences may have contributed to attracting Kanae to art .
Ichirō raised his son under the influence of the liberal educational principles of Nakae Chōmin . Ichirō was responsible for the welfare of five of his wife 's siblings , and so at age 11 , after four years of primary school , the family finances did not permit Kanae 's schooling to continue . He became an apprentice wood engraver and mastered Western techniques of tonal gradation in the workshop of Sakurai Torakichi in Shiba . His training focused on book and newspaper illustration , and included letterpress printing and photoengraving . His skill developed quickly and soon won praise from those he worked with . During this time printing technology underwent rapid change , brought to the forefront by the First Sino @-@ Japanese War , which was reported in a variety of media , from paintings and woodblock prints to photographs . Kanae completed his apprenticeship at 18 , followed by an obligatory year of service with Sakurai . By 1896 Ichirō had earned his medical license and set up a practice in Kangawa ( now part of Ueda ) , a village in Nagano Prefecture .
The rapid change in printing technology led Kanae to doubt his future prospects in wood engraving . He aspired to become a painter but knew his yet @-@ indebted father was not in a position to pay for art school . He secretly enrolled at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts in 1902 , where he studied yōga Western @-@ style painting . His instructors there included Masaki Naohiko , Tōru Iwamura , and Kuroda Seiki .
To pay for school Kanae worked odd printing jobs for employers such as the Hochi Shimbun newspaper , and from February 1903 lodged at the home of his friend Hakutei Ishii , the eldest son of the artist Ishii Teiko . Kanae and the other aspiring artists lodged there talked into the night about art and hired a model for life drawing once a month .
= = = Prints and sōsaku hanga ( 1904 – 1911 ) = = =
Kanae joined a group of friends in July 1904 on a trip to Chōshi in Chiba Prefecture where they stayed near the mouth of the Tone River . There he made a sketch of a fisherman dressed in ceremonial clothing overlooking a harbour . When he returned , he used the sketch as the basis of a wood engraving . He engraved on both sides of a single piece of wood : the one side he printed in ochre , which filled in all the spaces except the towel on the fisherman 's head ; the other he printed in black , which provided outlines and details . At the time , the art establishment saw woodblock printing as a commercial venture beneath the station of an aspiring fine artist .
Hakutei noticed the print and had it published in the July issue of the literary magazine Myōjō . In a column in the issue Ishii promoted the print as revolutionary , as it had been done as a means of painterly spontaneous self @-@ expression , and used methods Ishii associated with ukiyo @-@ e traditions . Soon the style Ishii dubbed tōga became a popular topic within Myōjō circles . This was to grow into the sōsaku @-@ hanga ( " creative prints " ) movement .
Early works by Kanae Yamamoto
In summer 1905 Kanae visited his parents in Nagano , where he produced the oil painting Mosquito Net , the earliest of his oil paintings to be made public . That September Kanae , Hakutei and Tsuzurō Ishii , and some other friends founded the short @-@ lived magazine Heitan in which they published a number of their prints . It was in Heitan that the word hanga first appeared . The word was used interchangeably with tōga until the magazine came to an end in April 1906 ; thereafter tōga fell out of use and hanga went on to become the modern Japanese word for prints in general .
Kanae learned in 1906 of the finincial strain his parents still faced with their continuing responsibility for his mother 's siblings . He moved out of the Ishiis ' home on 8 March 1906 and rented a residence in Morikawa @-@ chō in Hongō Ward of Tokyo determined to pursue financial independence . He graduated on 2 April 1906 from the Tokyo School of Fine Arts , and in his graduation yearbook declared the French painter Pierre Puvis de Chavannes his favourite artist . He took work at Rakuten Kitazawa 's Tokyo Puck , a cartoon humour magazine patterned after the American Puck .
Kanae felt disappointed at hand @-@ printing 's gradual loss of prestige in Japan ; to revive interest he wrote a four @-@ part series of articles in 1907 for the art magazine Mizu @-@ e examing a wide variety of printing media and techniques . Kanae , Hakutei , and a former art @-@ school classmate of Kanae 's , Morita Tsunetomo , founded the monthly magazine Hōsun. whose first issue appeared 15 May 1907 . It was patterned on such European magazines as Cocorico , Jugend , Simplicissimus . The contents were primarily literature , criticism , and art cartoons , and its publishers paid fine attention to details of graphic design . They printed the magazine on fine paper at an unusually large size and mixed colour reproduction with black @-@ and @-@ white . Kanae 's contributions included his own prints , haiku poetry , and the carving of printing blocks for the designs of others . Kanae 's former engraving teacher Sakurai Torakichi furnished the photographic printing plates . The first issue was eight pages and included a supplementary print of Shiba Park by Kanae . The young artists distributed the issue themselves to bookstores . It sold well , and the circle of contributors grew , as did the page count , which expanded to sixteen .
Tokyo during the Meiji period ( 1868 – 1912 ) had a great openness to foreign — especially European — influence , and Western trends in art were quickly replacing traditional Japanese ones until word spread of the impact exported ukiyo @-@ e had had on art in the West . Artists who had all but abandoned the culture of the Edo period began to reconsider it and mix elements of it with Western approaches . Kanae took part in meetings of the Pan no Kai group of writers and artists whose goal was to replicate the atmosphere of Parisian cafés such as Café Guerbois of the Impressionists . At one of these rowdy bohemian meetings , a drunken Kanae fell through a window and landed in the garden below , wrapped in a shōji paper screen ; he returned to the gathering as if nothing had happened . The police kept watch over these meetings whose members they suspected of having socialist sympathies and held grudges over caricatures some of the members had published . Pan no Kai waned and came to and end in 1911 .
Kanae wanted to revive the spirit of Edo @-@ period ukiyo @-@ e in his prints , and to this end in 1911 he founded the Tokyo Print Club to produce and distribute such prints . He advertised for members in Hōsun , but after the magazine 's demise most of the associated artists left Tokyo and the only member he could recruit was Hanjirō Sakamoto . The pair began a series titled Sōga @-@ butai sugata ( " Stage Figure Sketches " ) of portraits of kabuki actors in the vein of the yakusha @-@ e genre of ukiyo @-@ e . The subjects were sketched from performances at the just @-@ built Imperial Theatre and were captioned in French on the front and on the back in Japanese . Though Kanae had announced that prints were to come from thirty @-@ four theatre pieces only three sets of four prints — two by each artist in each set — appeared in June , July , and September that year . The work represents a major turning point in his career as he turned away from the Western techniques that had defined his work toward a more Japanese approach such as the use of flat areas of colour . The prints failed to sell at first but began to find buyers only after he had left for France the following year . As Kanae was away the printer was not able to issue a second printing to meet the demand .
Kanae had come to neglect Hōsun as he devoted himself to Sōga @-@ butai sugata . Hakutei and Tsunetomo had left Tokyo , and that July the magazine came to an end after thirty @-@ five issues .
= = = Europe ( 1912 – 1916 ) = = =
Kanae had wanted to marry Mitsu Ishii , but her family forbade it — especially her mother and brother Hakutei . This rejection embittered him and he broke his friendship with Hakutei , though he remained friends with Tsuruzō . Kanae wished to study painting in Paris , so his father organized the distribution and sale of his son 's work to raise funds for it while he was away . He set off on the Tango Maru from Kobe on 6 July 1912 , and fifty @-@ three days later landed in Marseilles . While on board he made what was likely the first of the prints he father was to sell for him by subscription : titled Wild Chickens , it depicted three Chinese prostitutes with bound feet inspired by prostitutes he saw when he passed through Shanghai . He printed it in Paris , where in his first few months he studied etching at the École des Beaux @-@ Arts .
Upon arrival Kanae contacted the painter Sanzo Wada , who had been in Paris since 1907 . Wada introduced him to Kunishirō Mitsutani , and Kanae soon moved into a studio next to Mitsutani 's . He found French difficult to master and associated mostly with expatriate Japanese artists such as Ryuzaburo Umehara and Sōtarō Yasui . His closest friend there was Misei Kosugi , a contributor to Hōsun who arrived in March 1913 to spend a year travelling Europe .
In 1913 the writer Tōson Shimazaki visited Kanae , whom he had known from Ueda . The two shared the recent experience of having been denied a marriage . Tōson wrote of the print On the Deck that Kanae was finding difficult to finish : a print of a long @-@ haired woman on the deck of the Tango Maru as it was in Singapore . It was made with six cherry woodblocks on mulberry washi paper , materials Kanae had brought from Japan . The print was sent to Japan that May . The pair went to seaside Brittany for six weeks from that July , and soon were joined by a number of other artists , all of whom were drawn there by the tales of the beauty of the region Kuroda Seiki had written in the 19th century . Kanae was particularly productive of prints while in Brittany .
Kanae felt isolated from the culture and found little art there that he appreciated . He disliked the paintings of van Gogh , Monet , and Édouard Manet . He liked the works of Renoir and Sisley , and Puvis de Chavannes , admired the paintings of Cézanne , but denied any connection between them and those of the Cubists whose works he denigrated ; he wrote that only one in three thousand paintings of Matisse were good .
Kanae imagined himself a realist and was distressed at the avant @-@ garde that was coming to dominate the European art world ; he found it difficult to comprehend and reconcile it with his understanding of a realist ideal in Western art . His disappointment and confusion impacted his productivity ; he produced few of the prints that were supposed to fund his stay , and the language barrier made it difficult to find buyers . A Tokyo agent of his committed suicide after appropriating money from Kanae and other clients . He could not bring himself to reveal his and his parents ' financial situation , so he had another agent , Rokurō Watanabe , send money to Paris just so he could send it back to his parents , who were under pressure from a loan shark . Along with his disappointment in the Western art world , Kanae witnessed first @-@ hand the impact Japanese art had had there . Though he kept such thoughts to himself he began to feel a sense of the superiority of Japanese art — of the same traditions he had denied himself during his years of training .
Kanae managed to acquire funds from connections and refused to return early to Japan despite the urgings of friends and associates . Troubles thickened in mid @-@ 1914 when World War I broke out and he learned that Mitsu Ishii had married . The war drove him from Paris to London where he stayed for four months , much of it sick with bronchitis . He returned to Paris on 11 January 1915 , but work was scarce and the museums were closed . He resolved to return to Japan the following spring , but first moved with a group of Japanese compatriots to Lyon where he found work that brought in enough money for a trip to Italy in March 1916 to see the Renaissance masterpieces . Upon returning to Lyon he learned of the death of Sakurai and finally prepared to go back to Japan .
The least expensive route for Kanae to Japan was through Russia . He set off from Paris on 30 June 1916 via England , Norway , and Sweden . In Moscow he met the Japanese consul and the social critic Noburu Katagami ; the latter introduced him to proletarian art and encouraged him to visit Yasnaya Polyana , Leo Tolstoy 's home which he had made into a farmers ' school . The experienced moved Kanae , who later was to write , " While I was staying in Moscow in the summer of 1916 , I felt that I had two important missions . One was promotion of children 's free painting and the other was establishment of farmers ' art . " Kanae visited the Moscow Kustar ' Museum , which had exhibited peasant arts and crafts since 1885 . He praised its sturdy quality and ethnic design , and lamented that industrialization had brought about a degradation in its perceived value and was threatening its survival . An exhibition of children 's art impressed Kanae with its free expressiveness .
Towards the end of 1916 Kanae made the long rail trip across Siberia . Along the way he received a telegram from the poet Hakushū Kitahara . The two had been negotiating the hand of Kitahara 's sister Ieko and had finally reached an agreement .
= = = Return to Japan and later career ( 1916 – 1935 ) = = =
Kanae returned to Japan in December 1916 and took over Sakurai 's struggling printing company , which he renamed Seiwadō . In autumn 1917 he had seventeen yōga oil paintings displayed at the Nihon Bijutsuin 's Inten exhibition . The same year he married Ieko Kitahara , had an instruction book on oil painting published , and finished a number of prints whose subscriptions had been paid for .
Kanae aimed at putting together a creative prints association . In June 1918 Kanae co @-@ founded the Nihon Sōsaku @-@ Hanga Kyōkai ( " Japan Creative Print Cooperative Society " ) with lithographer Kazuma Oda , etcher Takeo Terasaki , and woodblock artist Kogan Tobari ; this last had been a member of the Pan no Kai and had also recently returned from several years in Europe . The group held its first exhibition at the art gallery in the Mitsukoshi building in Nihonbashi on 15 – 20 January 1919 . It represented 277 works by 26 artists , including seventeen woodblock prints and two etchings by Kanae . The show drew twenty thousand visitors and was widely reported in the media , including a special sōsaku @-@ hanga issue that March of the prominent art magazine Mizu @-@ e which included an article in which Kanae outlined the principles of the artform and the goals of the Nihon Sōsaku @-@ Hanga Kyōkai . That May the show was repeated at the Mitsukoshi location in Osaka .
In 1919 Kanae founded the Japan Children 's Free Drawing Association and held its first exhibition . The public was impressed by its democratic ideals , as the idea of democratic education was gaining momentum in Japan during the Taishō period ( 1912 – 26 ) . Kanae propounded the importance of teaching students freedom , without which they cannot grow , and denigrated the tradition of teaching drawing through copying . He promoted this ideas in 1921 with the book Free Drawing Education and the monthly magazine Education of Arts and Freedom . Kanae 's methods were widely adopted , and it became common for teachers to take students outdoors to draw from nature . These ideas did not escape criticism , and the rise of militarism in Japan put an end to Kanae 's movement in 1928 ; it was not to be revived until after World War II .
Later in 1919 Kanae moved to Ueda , the mountainous Nagano village where his parents lived . He secured funding from the Ministry of Education , Ministry of Agriculture , and Mitsubishi to set up a school that December to teach to the rural population arts and crafts skills they could use to augment their incomes during the long winter months as part of a peasant art movement that combined creativity and utility , inspired by the peasant crafts he had seen in Russia .
In 1921 , brothers @-@ in @-@ law Rinzō Satake and Shōkō Sasaki consulted with Kanae to develop a pastel crayon with an oil binder ; development took three years and resulted in the world 's first oil pastel , marketed under the name Cray @-@ Pas through the Sakura Color Products Corporation .
The peasant art movement had success in intellectual and government circles . A show at Mitsukoshi of works by sixteen youths was well received . In 1923 Kanae established the Japan Peasant Art Institute which expanded throughout the country with the help of increased government funding in 1925 . Critics of the movement saw it as an anachronism or of stripping rural handicrafts of their original charm through commercialism ; Kanae saw movement as motivated by a desire to keep creative vitality alive , and not by a sense of nostalgia or desire to preserve older ways .
The police suspected Kanae of socialist sympathies as he had brought the idea from Russia . The police so harassed him that he asked Un 'ichi Hiratsuka , who was teaching frame @-@ making there , to give up wearing his Russian @-@ style jacket and to cut his long hair . Kanae 's initial enthusiasm dwindled over the next five years — funding shrank , finding other patrons was wearying , the village mayor went bankrupt , and his attempts to find ways for the farmers to make money off their artwork found little success . After five years the venture went bankrupt .
Kanae turned his focus from printmaking to painting . He was a founding member in 1922 of the Shunyōkai association for painters who wished to maintain connections with Japanese traditions in the face of the Westernization of academic painting in Japan . He was editor of the association 's members ' magazine Atorie . He continued to promote the work of print artists and the legitimacy of prints as art . In 1928 the magazine devoted an issue to sōsaku hanga , and from the same year Shunyōkai included a prize in the print category in its annual exhibitions .
In 1924 Kanae travelled to Taiwan for a month to observe local folk craft and advise the government on how to develop the industry . The utilitarian craftwork of the aboriginal Taiwanese people impressed him beyond his expectations . Taiwanese authorities thought to promote the production of bamboo and rattan craftwork , but Kanae thought they could not compete with similar products from Japan and promoted instead the production of products both traditional and new with a distinctive local flavour using traditional designs for sale as souvenirs and exports .
After the 1919 show , Kanae passed the leadership of the Nihon Sōsaku @-@ Hanga Kyōkai to Kōshirō Onchi . In 1931 it became the more comprehensive Nihon Hanga Kyōkai ( " Japan Print Cooperative Society " ) . The same year the Seiwadō printing company went out of business .
= = = Return to painting and final years ( 1935 – 1946 ) = = =
In 1935 Kanae settled in Tokyo and returned to painting full @-@ time . He produced a number of oils and watercolours that were exhibited in January 1940 at the Mitsukoshi gallery . The show was well received and attended , and in a dinner that followed Kanae proclaimed , " I shall live until May of my eighty @-@ fifth year . Therefore , I am going to sit back now , and drink sake , and paint to my heart 's content . "
While at by Lake Haruna in Gunma Prefecture in 1942 Kanae suffered a cerebral hemorrhage which partially paralyzed him and hindered his ability to paint . He continued to paint as much as he could for the rest of his life , hindered by war shortages , and turned to watercolour when oil painting was too demanding under his disability . In spring 1943 he moved to Ueda in Nagano where he spent his remaining years . He died on 8 October 1946 undergoing surgery for a volvulus at the Nisshindō hospital in Ueda .
= = Style = =
In his prints , Kanae 's primary tool was a curved @-@ blade chisel ; in ukiyo @-@ e this tool was normally for clean up and a straight chisel for the main carving . His carving followed the Western approach of carving out planes and lines to appear in white , whereas the traditional Japanese technique was to carve around the lines to be printed .
Prints by Kanae Yamamoto
Paintings by Kanae Yamamoto
= = Legacy = =
When an idea excited him he would bury himself in it . Sacrifice meant nothing . It was the same with creative hanga , his school , and his free @-@ art movement . He was a selfless man , a passionate man , a man of great sensitivity . I guess if I had to describe him in one word it would be — artist .
Kanae 's European work had an immediate effect on artists of his generation . In them Kōshirō Onchi saw the potential of the woodcut medium , though his style owes more to European artists . Un 'ichi Hiratsuka came to believe " a real artist ... must cut his own blocks and do his own printing " as " Dürer and Bewick worked " . Sōsaku @-@ hanga artists followed Kanae 's lead in using a curved chisel to carve out planes rather than to define lines as in Japanese tradition .
The dating of most of Kanae 's work is uncertain . It is believed that the works he signed in Roman characters were made after he returned to Japan from Europe . The number of copies of Kanae 's prints is unknown ; it is supposed the subscription prints he made in Europe numbered around 25 to 50 . Kanae made few printings of the Fisherman print — perhaps only one or two — and none have survived . The Ishiis discovered the block in their house decades later , and Oliver Statler had Hashimoto Okiie make forty copies of a commemorative edition in 1960 .
Modern Japanese thought on art education begins with Kanae 's Free Drawing Education approach . His stature in the history of child art and art education is similar to that of Franz Cižek 's in the West . Elementary schools teachers took to his ideas quickly in the wake of their dissatisfaction with the New Textbooks of Drawing textbooks the government had mandated in 1910 that emphasized copying and neglected personal expression . Yamamoto 's was the first public criticism of the textbooks , and his methods led to a sharp decline in their use in the 1920s . Yamamoto encouraged teachers to take children outdoors to sketch , a practice that continues to be common in Japanese elementary schools . Though Japanese militarism put his ideas on hold from the late 1920s educators revived and expanded them beginning in the 1950s .
The municipal Kanae Yamamoto Memorial Museum in Ueda in Nagano Prefecture dates from 1962 . It houses 1 @,@ 800 items , including artwork and documents by Kanae and early examples of peasant crafts and children 's artwork done under his instruction .
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= Tropical Storm Bertha ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Bertha was a minimal tropical storm that made landfall twice along the Gulf Coast of the United States in August 2002 . The second tropical storm of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season , Bertha developed in the northern Gulf of Mexico out of a trough of low pressure that extended into the Atlantic on August 4 . It quickly organized and reached tropical storm strength before making landfall on southeastern Louisiana . Bertha turned to the southwest over the state , and re @-@ entered the Gulf of Mexico on August 7 . It remained disorganized due to proximity to land , and after making landfall on south Texas , Bertha dissipated on August 9 .
Bertha was one of only three tropical cyclones to make landfall on both Louisiana and Texas ; the others being Allison in 2001 and Fern in 1971 . Heavy surf killed one person in Florida . The storm dropped moderate amounts of rainfall along its path , peaking at over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in eastern Louisiana and southern Mississippi . Damage was light , totaling to only $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD , $ 240 @,@ 000 2008 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A non @-@ tropical trough at the surface extended from the northern Gulf of Mexico across Florida into the western Atlantic Ocean . On August 3 , the western portion developed into a low pressure area . The eastern portion slowly organized and ultimately developed into Tropical Storm Cristobal . The low pressure area in the Gulf of Mexico steadily organized , and late on August 4 the circulation was organized enough for the National Hurricane Center to classify it as Tropical Depression Two while located 40 miles ( 65 km ) east of Port Eads , Louisiana . Northeasterly wind shear initially prevented organization of the cloud pattern , though the depression was able to strengthen to become Tropical Storm Bertha about five hours after it formed .
Outflow became much better organized as Bertha became a tropical storm , and well @-@ defined banding features persisted to the north of the storm . Though convection waned , forecasters predicted the friction between land and the warm atmosphere to redevelop more deep convection , potentially resulting in further strengthening . However , the storm failed to intensify , and Bertha made landfall near Boothville , Louisiana as a minimal tropical storm early on August 5 . It slowly weakened over the swampy portions of southeastern Louisiana , and degenerated to a tropical depression later on the 5th after crossing Lake Ponchartrain . Initially it was expected that a ridge of high pressure to its north would keep Bertha moving to the west and result in it slowly dissipating . However , it turned to the southwest , and reached the Gulf of Mexico again on August 7 . The circulation persisted over land , and Tropical Depression Bertha quickly redeveloped convection . Though the environment was not unfavorable , its proximity to land prevented re @-@ strengthening to tropical storm status . Though the system showed periods of increased organization as it moved southwestward , Bertha remained a weak tropical depression until making landfall on south Texas to the east of Kingsville on August 9 . Bertha weakened quickly over land , and dissipated over southern Texas ten hours after making landfall .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning from Pascagoula , Mississippi to the mouth of the Mississippi River as Bertha became a tropical storm . The warning occurred 90 minutes before the storm made landfall . All warnings were discontinued when Bertha weakened to a tropical depression over Louisiana . No watches or warnings were required for Texas , due to the improbability of it re @-@ intensifying .
The National Weather Service advised boats along the Gulf coast to remain at port . The service also issued a coastal flood watch from Alabama through the Florida Panhandle . A flood watch was issued for portions of eastern Louisiana and southwestern Mississippi .
= = Impact = =
The area of low pressure preceding the development of Bertha produced rough surf and rip currents along the Florida coastline . In Perdido Key State Recreation Area , two children were swimming in an unguarded area when they swept away by the currents . Their grandfather attempted to rescue them , but drowned in the rough waters . Another family rescued the two children . The large circulation of Bertha produced light rainfall across Florida , with Pensacola and Destin reporting 2 @.@ 75 inches . Extreme southern portions of Alabama received over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) of rain from the storm , while western Dauphin Island reported over 5 inches ( 125 mm ) .
Upon making landfall , Waveland , Mississippi recorded a peak storm surge of 4 @.@ 12 feet ( 1 @.@ 26 m ) . Sustained winds there peaked at 31 mph ( 50 km / h ) , and a peak gust of 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) . Tropical Storm Bertha produced moderate to heavy precipitation across southern Mississippi , including a total of 10 @.@ 25 inches ( 260 @.@ 35 mm ) in Pascagoula . In Moss Point , the rainfall resulted in flooding which entered 15 to 20 houses and several cars . The rainfall also flooded roadways and streets . Damage in Mississippi totaled to $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD , $ 60 @,@ 000 2008 USD ) .
The storm dropped heavy rainfall in Louisiana , which peaked at 10 @.@ 25 inches in Norwood . Storm tides were generally 1 to 2 feet ( .3 to .6 m ) above normal , while the mouth of the Bayou Dupre recorded a storm tide of 3 @.@ 79 feet ( 1 @.@ 16 m ) . The rainfall led to flash flooding in places , and also a few overflowed rivers in St. Tammany Parish . The flooding covered several roadways and bridges , and entered a few businesses and houses in East Feliciana Parish . Damage in Louisiana totaled to $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD , $ 180 @,@ 000 2008 USD ) .
In Texas , Bertha produced a storm tide of 3 feet ( .9 m ) at Baffin Bay . Only light rainfall occurred in the state , with a few isolated areas receiving over 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of precipitation .
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= SMS Kaiser Barbarossa =
SMS Kaiser Barbarossa ( His Majesty 's Ship Emperor Barbarossa ) was a German pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Kaiser Friedrich III class . The ship was built for the Imperial Navy , which had begun a program of expansion at the direction of Kaiser Wilhelm II . She was constructed at Schichau , in Danzig . Kaiser Barbarossa was laid down in August 1898 , launched on 24 April 1900 , and commissioned in June 1901 , at the cost of 20 @,@ 301 @,@ 000 Marks . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two twin gun turrets .
Kaiser Barbarossa served with the German navy from her commissioning in 1901 , though her active career was limited by two lengthy stays in dry @-@ dock . The first was for repairs following damage to her rudder in 1903 , which lasted until early 1905 , and the second for a major modernization , which began immediately after the conclusion of repair work in 1905 and lasted until late 1907 . She returned to service for another two years , before being decommissioned in 1909 and placed in the reserve division . She continued to participate in fleet training exercises for the next three years .
Following the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters were mobilized as coastal defense ships in the V Battle Squadron and assigned to the North and Baltic Seas . She saw no combat during the war , and due to a shortage of crews , the ships were withdrawn from active duty in February 1915 and relegated to secondary duties . Kaiser Barbarossa was briefly used as a torpedo target ship for most of 1915 and thereafter spent the remainder of the war as a prison ship in Wilhelmshaven . Following the end of the war in 1918 , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned and sold for scrap metal . The ship was broken up in 1919 – 20 .
= = Design = =
Kaiser Barbarossa was 125 @.@ 3 m ( 411 ft 1 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 89 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 25 m ( 27 ft 1 in ) aft . She displaced up to 11 @,@ 785 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 599 long tons ) at full load . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one screw propeller . Steam was provided by four Thornycroft boilers and eight cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Kaiser Barbarossa 's powerplant was rated at 13 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 12 @,@ 820 ihp ; 9 @,@ 560 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . The ship had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 420 nmi ( 6 @,@ 330 km ; 3 @,@ 940 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a normal crew of 39 officers and 612 enlisted men .
The ship 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns , twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns all mounted in casemates , and twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) machine cannon in single mounts . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . The ship 's belt armor was 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and the deck was 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor plating , and the secondary casemates received 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Kaiser Wilhelm II , the Emperor of Germany , believed that a strong navy was necessary for the country to expand its influence outside continental Europe . As a result , he initiated a program of naval expansion in the late 1880s ; the first battleships built under this program were the four Brandenburg @-@ class ships . These were immediately followed by the five Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleships , of which Kaiser Barbarossa was a member . Kaiser Barbarossa 's keel was laid down on 3 August 1898 , at the Schichau @-@ Werke in Danzig , under construction number 640 . She was ordered under the contract name " A " as an addition to the fleet . Kaiser Barbarossa was launched on 21 April 1900 . The then @-@ Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Alfred von Tirpitz , the State Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA — Imperial Navy Office ) , gave the launching speech , and the new battleship was christened by Princess Luise Sofie of Prussia , Wilhelm II 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . Sea trials began on 4 May 1901 , during which two tests were recorded : a 50 @-@ hour endurance test and a 6 @-@ hour speed test . The former produced a sustained speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) , while the latter saw a maximum speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) , and on 10 June she was commissioned into the fleet in Kiel . The final cost of the vessel was 20 @,@ 301 @,@ 000 marks .
Following her commissioning , Kaiser Barbarossa was assigned to the I Squadron of the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) , which shortly thereafter went on a cruise to Spain . While moored in Cadiz , the ships met the four Brandenburg @-@ class ships , which were returning from their expedition to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in China . From 22 August to 21 September , Kaiser Barbarossa participated in the annual autumn maneuvers of the entire fleet . While in the Danzig Bay , the fleet conducted a naval review for the visiting Tsar Nicholas II of Russia . The winter cruise in December went to southern Norway . In April and May 1902 , the squadron went on a training cruise to Britain , followed by a tour of the Kiel Week sailing regatta in late June . The ships then took part in another training cruise to Norway in July and then the autumn maneuvers , which began in the Baltic and concluded in the North Sea with a fleet review in the Jade . During the exercise , which lasted from 17 August to 18 September , Kaiser Barbarossa and the rest of I Squadron were assigned to play the roles of both the German fleet and hostile forces . The usual winter cruise went to Bergen , Norway , that year .
In 1903 , the fleet , which was composed of only one squadron of modern battleships , was reorganized as the " Active Battle Fleet . " Kaiser Barbarossa remained in the I Squadron along with her sister ships and the newest Wittelsbach @-@ class battleships , while the older Brandenburg @-@ class ships were placed in reserve in order to be rebuilt . The first quarter of 1903 followed the usual pattern of training exercises . The squadron went on a training cruise in the Baltic , followed by a voyage to Spain that lasted from 7 May to 10 June . The ship suffered some damage to her rudder , which necessitated temporary repairs at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Kiel from the end of July to 21 August . She thereafter took part in the autumn maneuvers and the winter cruise in the eastern Baltic and the Skagerrak . The autumn maneuvers consisted of a blockade exercise in the North Sea , a cruise of the entire fleet first to Norwegian waters and then to Kiel in early September , and finally a mock attack on Kiel . The exercises concluded on 12 September . The winter training cruise began on 23 November in the eastern Baltic and continued into the Skagerrak in early December . On 15 December , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned for permanent repairs to her rudder , which lasted until January 1905 . She did not return to service , however , and instead began a major reconstruction .
During the modernization , four of her 15 cm guns were removed and two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were added . All twelve 1 @-@ pounder guns were removed , as was the ship 's stern @-@ mounted torpedo tube . Kaiser Barbarossa 's superstructure was also cut down to reduce the ship 's tendency to roll excessively and her military masts were replaced with lighter pole masts . The ship 's funnels were also lengthened . Kaiser Barbarossa 's modernization was completed by 1 October 1907 , when she was recommissioned for service . By that time , the newest Deutschland @-@ class battleships were coming into service ; along with the Braunschweig @-@ class battleships , these provided enough modern battleships to create two full battle squadrons . Consequently , the Heimatflotte was renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) . Kaiser Barbarossa returned to her place in the I Squadron and she participated in the normal routine of divisional , squadron , and fleet maneuvers and cruises without incident over the next year . The summer fleet cruise in May that year went to the Azores and returned to Kiel on 13 August . The autumn maneuvers lasted from 27 August to 7 September . Divisional exercises in the Baltic immediately followed from 7 to 13 September .
On 17 September 1909 , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned and assigned to the Reserve Division in the Baltic Sea . By that time , the new dreadnought battleships , which rendered Kaiser Barbarossa and her sister ships thoroughly obsolete , were beginning to come into service with the fleet . In early 1910 , Kaiser Barbarossa was assigned to the Training Squadron , which operated in the Baltic in April . She was reactivated to participate in the autumn maneuvers that year in the provisional III Squadron ; after the conclusion of the exercises on 10 September , she was placed back in reserve . More modernization work was done at the Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel . From 31 July to 15 September , she was reactivated again to take part in the autumn maneuvers in the III Squadron . She thereafter returned to the Reserve Division in early 1912 .
= = = World War I = = =
As a result of the outbreak of World War I , Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters were brought out of reserve and mobilized as the V Battle Squadron on 5 August 1914 . The ships were prepared for war very slowly , and they were not ready for service in the North Sea until the end of August . They were initially tasked with coastal defense , though they served in this capacity for a very short time . In mid @-@ September , the V Squadron was transferred to the Baltic , under the command of Prince Heinrich . He initially planned to launch a major amphibious assault on Windau , but a shortage of transports forced a revision of the plan . Instead , the V Squadron was to carry the landing force , but this too was cancelled after Heinrich received false reports of British warships having entered the Baltic on 25 September . Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters returned to Kiel the following day , disembarked the landing force , and then proceeded to the North Sea , where they resumed guard ship duties . Before the end of the year , the V Squadron was once again transferred to the Baltic .
After returning to the Baltic , Prince Heinrich ordered a foray toward Gotland . On 26 December 1914 , the battleships rendezvoused with the Baltic cruiser division in the Bay of Pomerania and then departed on the sortie . Two days later , the fleet arrived off Gotland to show the German flag , and was back in Kiel by 30 December . The squadron returned to the North Sea for guard duties , but was withdrawn from frontline service in February 1915 . Shortages of trained crews in the High Seas Fleet , coupled with the risk of operating older ships in wartime , necessitated the deactivation of Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters . Her crew was reduced on 5 March , only to be replaced on 11 April so the ship could be used as a torpedo target ship ; this service lasted until 9 November . Ten days later , she was decommissioned for the last time , and in 1916 she was disarmed . Kaiser Barbarossa was thereafter employed as a floating prison for prisoners of war in Wilhelmshaven . In November 1918 , Germany sought an end to the war and signed the First Armistice at Compiègne , which temporarily ended hostilities so a peace treaty could be negotiated . Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , which formally ended the war and was signed on 28 June 1919 , Germany was permitted to retain only six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types . " Accordingly , the ship was struck from the naval list on 6 December 1919 and sold to ship @-@ breakers . Kaiser Barbarossa was broken up for scrap metal in Rüstringen in 1919 and 1920 .
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= Robert Howe ( Continental Army officer ) =
Robert Howe ( 1732 – December 14 , 1786 ) was a Continental Army general from North Carolina during the American Revolutionary War . The descendant of a prominent family in North Carolina , Howe was one of five generals , and the only major general , in the Continental Army from that state . He also played a role in the colonial and state governments of North Carolina , serving in the legislative bodies of both .
Howe served in the colonial militia during the French and Indian War and commanded Fort Johnston at the mouth of the Cape Fear River . He also served as a colonel of Royal Governor William Tryon 's artillery during the War of the Regulation . Howe suffered greatly when Tryon , a personal friend , became Governor of New York , and he staunchly opposed Tryon 's successor . He became active in organizing efforts within North Carolina and among the American colonies between 1773 and 1775 and was an active member of the North Carolina Provincial Congress . At the outset of the Revolutionary War , Howe was promoted to brigadier general and was heavily involved in actions in the Southern Department , commanding the Continental Army and Patriot militia forces in defeat in the First Battle of Savannah .
Howe 's career as a military commander was contentious and consumed primarily by conflict with political and military leaders in Georgia and South Carolina . In 1778 , he fought a duel with Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina which was spurred in part by Howe 's conflict with South Carolina 's state government . Political and personal confrontations , combined with Howe 's reputation as a womanizer among those who disfavored him , eventually led to the Continental Congress stripping him of his command over the Southern Department . He was then sent to New York , where he served under General George Washington in the Hudson Highlands , although Howe did not have a successful or significant career in that theater . He sat as a senior officer on the court @-@ martial board that sentenced to death John André , a British officer accused of assisting Benedict Arnold in the latter 's plot to change allegiance and deliver West Point to the British . Howe himself was accused of attempting to defect to the British , but the accusations were cast aside at the time as having been based in a British attempt to cause further discord in the Continental Army . Howe also played a role in putting down several late @-@ war mutinies by members of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Lines in New Jersey and Philadelphia and returned home to North Carolina in 1783 . He again became active in state politics , but died in December 1786 while en route to a session of the North Carolina House of Commons .
= = Early life and family = =
Howe was born in 1732 to Job Howe ( also spelled " Howes " ) , the grandson of colonial Governor James Moore , who presided over the southern portion of the Province of Carolina . Job was also a descendant of Governor John Yeamans . Howe 's mother may have been Job 's first wife Martha , who was the daughter of colonial North Carolina jurist Frederick Jones . Job Howe 's ancestors had been planters and political figures in South Carolina during the late 17th and early 18th centuries . Prior to Howe 's birth , his family left Charleston to settle on the banks of the Cape Fear River in the Province of North Carolina . Howe 's father was a member of the extended Moore family , formerly of South Carolina , who settled the lower Cape Fear River and collectively owned more than 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ; 120 sq mi ) of farmland on it by the 1730s . Job Howe died in 1748 , leaving his estate and the wealth of his parents to Robert . Robert had two brothers and two sisters , all of whom were mentioned in Job 's will .
As a young boy , Howe may have been sent to England to obtain an education , although several sources doubt that Howe made the journey . At some point between 1751 and 1754 , after completing his education , Howe married Sarah Grange , who was heiress to a large fortune . Howe had numerous affairs , fathering an unknown number of children in and out of wedlock , including a son , Robert ; two daughters , Mary and Ann ; and up to four additional daughters whose mothers ' names are not recorded . Howe was widely considered a womanizer by contemporaries ; by 1772 he became estranged from Grange , and the two separated . In the year of their formal separation , Howe recorded a deed for the support of his wife .
Loyalist sympathizer and diarist Janet Schaw described Howe prior to the revolution :
... very like a Gentleman , much more so indeed than any thing I have seen in the Country . He is deemed a horrid animal , a sort of a woman @-@ eater that devours every thing that comes in his way , and that no woman can withstand him . But be not in pain for your friend , I do assure you they overrate his merits , and as I am certain it would be in the power of mortal women to withstand him , so am I convinced he is not so voracious as he is represented .
Howe inherited a large amount of assets from his grandmother and , upon the death of his father , became the owner of " Howe 's Point " , a rice plantation near what was formerly known as Barren Inlet ( now called Mason Inlet ) . The site of the former plantation is located on the mainland directly across from Figure Eight Island . Howe also owned a plantation called " Mount Misery " in what was Bladen County . His grandmother had provided Howe with slaves and money with which Howe was intended to build his fortune .
= = Colonial political and military service = =
Around 1755 , Howe captained a militia company in Bladen County , and was appointed a justice of the peace for that county in 1756 . Howe was elected to the colonial Assembly from Bladen County in 1760 and served until 1762 . In 1764 , the Assembly created Brunswick County , and Howe was both appointed its justice of the peace and re @-@ elected to the Assembly from the new county . Howe would be re @-@ elected six more times from Brunswick County . In 1765 , Howe worked with other colonial leaders such as Hugh Waddell , Abner Nash , and Cornelius Harnett to found the Wilmington Sons of Liberty organization , which was active in protesting the Stamp Act 1765 that taxed most printed materials . At the time , the members of the Sons of Liberty did not consider their resistance to be rebellion , as it was based on the idea that government officials who performed acts in opposition to the will of the people were not acting with full authority . After the resolution of the Stamp Act Crisis , Howe was made an officer of the provincial exchequer . Despite the Cape Fear River area being the epicenter of Stamp Act protests in North Carolina , Howe took no substantial part in the active confrontations with Governor William Tryon , due in large part to their personal friendship and the patronage provided by the Governor for Howe 's political ambitions .
During the French and Indian War , Howe served alongside provincial soldiers from Virginia . In 1766 , he was commissioned as a captain of militia and was given command of Fort Johnston , located at the entrance of the Cape Fear River in present @-@ day Southport , North Carolina . Howe served in this capacity between 1766 and 1767 , and again between 1769 and 1773 . Although satisfied with this position , Howe ultimately desired to obtain a commission in the regular British Army , which was traditionally a prerequisite for the commander of Fort Johnston . Howe was never granted this commission , despite Tryon 's support . In the 1768 session of the colonial assembly , Howe played a prominent role by introducing a bill to remedy a currency shortage in the colony . His bill would have led to the acceptance of commodities as legal tender in the province , but it was not passed . The Regulator movement was in part based on the grievances farmers in the North Carolina backcountry had about back taxes and pressure from private creditors , both of which Howe 's 1768 bill had attempted to address .
Despite his efforts to reform the province 's policies , Howe was made a colonel of artillery by Governor Tryon and served under the Governor against armed protesters in the piedmont during the War of the Regulation . Howe was among the Governor 's entourage when he confronted the Regulators in Hillsborough in 1768 , and in 1771 , at the Battle of Alamance , Howe served in a dual role as a commander of artillery and quartermaster general . In early 1773 , when Josiah Quincy II visited North Carolina to foster cooperation between Southern activists and those in Boston , he investigated the causes of the War of the Regulation to which he had been sympathetic . Howe served as Quincy 's guide and with the assistance of Cornelius Harnett and William Hooper convinced Quincy that the Regulator movement had been unjustified and wrong to take up arms against Tryon . Quincy found Howe to be a " most happy compound of the man of sense , the sword , the Senate , and the buck ... a favorite of the man of sense and the female world " , continuing to say that " [ Howe ] has faults and vice – but alas who is without them . " More importantly , however , Quincy 's visit with Howe , Hooper , and Harnett engendered a desire among those present to open up inter @-@ colonial lines of communication in order to coordinate responses to future impositions by the British government .
Howe 's private fortunes were never stable , and between 1766 and 1775 , he was forced to mortgage land and sell slaves to generate funds . In 1770 , Howe was able to purchase Kendal Plantation on the Cape Fear River , a 400 @-@ acre ( 160 ha ; 0 @.@ 63 sq mi ) rice plantation , but in 1775 , he mortgaged it for around ₤ 214 . While the causes of Howe 's financial misfortunes are unknown , several contemporary critics held that the cause was Howe 's need to keep up appearances among the ruling elite , while Josiah Martin , Tryon 's successor as Royal Governor , believed Howe 's misfortunes were evidence of his potential for malfeasance with the public money . In particular , Martin believed that Howe was intentionally under @-@ staffing Fort Johnston in order to pocket excess funds the colonial assembly had appropriated for the garrison there , which was a common form of embezzlement among previous commanders and other royal officials . Howe , as a legislator and public official , had a poor working relationship with Martin , and Martin deprived him of his appointed offices – the captaincy of Fort Johnston and his position with the provincial exchequer – shortly after the new governor 's arrival . A legislative confrontation in 1770 over the Provincial Assembly 's attempts to pass a law authorizing attachment of real property in North Carolina owned by persons living in England placed Howe in direct confrontation with Martin , who preferred a requirement that colonial subjects seek relief from courts in England rather than in North Carolina . Martin believed that Howe 's virulent opposition to the new governor 's policies was driven by Howe 's anger at being deprived of his valuable appointed positions .
= = Revolutionary political and militia service = =
In December 1773 , the North Carolina colonial assembly created a committee of correspondence , to which Howe , as well as Richard Caswell , John Harvey , John Ashe , Joseph Hewes , and Samuel Johnston were appointed . That committee was tasked with corresponding with other colonies to coordinate plans of resistance to British attempts to tax or otherwise burden the colonists . Beginning in 1774 , Howe was a member of the Wilmington and Brunswick County Committees of Safety , and in August of that year , served as a member of a committee that organized the collection of corn , flour , and pork to be sent to Boston . At the time , the Port of Boston had been closed by one of the Intolerable Acts , specifically the Boston Port Act , which was in reaction to the Boston Tea Party and other protests against the Tea Act .
When the First Provincial Congress convened on August 25 , 1774 , Howe served as a member of that body representing Brunswick County . The First Provincial Congress quickly passed a bill banning the exportation of all pitch , tobacco , tar , and other trade goods to England and banned the importation of British tea into North Carolina . Also in 1774 , Howe penned several documents expressing what would become known as Patriot or " whig " sympathies , including an address demanding reforms from Royal Governor Josiah Martin . On April 7 , 1775 , Howe delivered an address to the colonial assembly formally rebuffing Governor Martin 's demands that the extra @-@ legal Second Provincial Congress be dissolved . Howe 's response as adopted by the assembly led to Martin proroguing the colonial legislative body . In 1775 , when Howe received news of the Battles of Lexington and Concord , the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War , he began to drill the local militia , using the unusual combination of drums and fiddles as opposed to the standard fifes and drums .
On July 15 , 1775 , Howe led 500 militiamen from Brunswick Town on a raid on the governor 's mansion with the intent of kidnapping Governor Martin . The plot failed when Martin made an early @-@ morning escape from Fort Johnston , fleeing to HMS Cruizer on July 19 . Howe ordered the militia to put the fort 's structures to the torch , starting with the home of its commanding officer and Howe 's successor , Captain John Collet , who had previously been accused of corruption by the Committee of Safety . After fleeing , Martin made a proclamation on August 8 , 1775 , that attributed the growing unrest in North Carolina to what he termed " ' the basest and most scandalous Seditious and inflammatory falsehoods ' " propagated by the Committee of Safety in Wilmington .
Howe once again represented Brunswick County in the Third Provincial Congress in Hillsborough beginning on August 20 , 1775 , and was appointed to the committee charged with developing a test oath for members of the legislative body . The oath declared allegiance to the King of England but denied the power of Parliament to tax to American colonies . During the Fourth North Carolina Provincial Congress in 1776 , Howe was noted to have proclaimed that " ' Independence seems to be the word . I know not one of the dissenting voice . ' "
= = Continental Army service = =
= = = Burning of Norfolk = = =
On September 1 , 1775 , the Third North Carolina Provincial Congress appointed Howe to lead the newly created Second North Carolina Regiment of the Continental Army as its colonel . Initially , Howe headquartered his command in New Bern during the fall of 1775 and was charged by the Provincial Congress with protecting the northern half of North Carolina up to the border with Virginia . At the time , British forces under the command of John Murray , 4th Earl of Dunmore , the last Royal Governor of the Colony of Virginia , were ravaging the tidewater region of Virginia . Howe , of his own initiative , brought his North Carolina troops into Virginia , arriving shortly after the Battle of Great Bridge . Howe then directed the occupation of Norfolk , Virginia , which had recently been abandoned by Loyalist forces , and assumed command of the various North Carolina and Virginia units there . The region around Norfolk was being occupied by Loyalist militia units under Dunmore 's command .
Howe , as senior officer chosen over the more junior William Woodford of Virginia , engaged in contentious negotiations over access to supplies with the captains of British ships anchored off Norfolk , which were by that time overcrowded with Loyalist refugees . The situation deteriorated , and Norfolk was burned on January 1 , 1776 , in an action started by British marines and a bombardment by Royal Navy vessels and completed by Patriot forces . The fire raged on for two more days , and Howe ordered most of the buildings that remained standing to be razed before he withdrew , to further render the location useless to the British . During Howe 's time in command at Norfolk , Woodford described the North Carolinian as a " brave , prudent & spirited commander " . On December 22 , 1775 , Howe was formally thanked by the Virginia Convention , and on April 27 , 1776 , he received the same honor from the Fourth North Carolina Provincial Congress .
= = = Charleston , 1776 – 1777 = = =
In March 1776 , Howe was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General by the Second Continental Congress along with fellow North Carolinian James Moore . Howe and Moore were two of five North Carolinians to be given a general 's commission in the Continental Army . Initially , Howe was given command of all Continental forces in Virginia , but soon both he and Moore were ordered to South Carolina . Howe arrived first as the presence of the British Army and Royal Navy under the command of General Henry Clinton at the mouth of the Cape Fear River delayed Moore 's descent . When Clinton arrived off the coast of North Carolina , he issued a proclamation offering a pardon to anyone who had taken up arms against the crown with the explicit exception of Howe and fellow revolutionary Cornelius Harnett , then serving as president of the North Carolina Provincial Council , the executive body in the revolutionary state . Howe 's plantation , Kendal , was sacked by the British during their maneuvers around Wilmington .
Upon arriving in Charleston , Howe acted as an adjutant to Major General Charles Lee , who had been appointed Commander of the Southern Department of the Continental Army . Howe directly commanded the South Carolina militia during the First Siege of Charleston in June 1776 and was assigned command over the defenses of the city proper . Lee was recalled to the North to assist General George Washington , and in his absence , James Moore was appointed Commander of the Southern Department . Howe was left in command of Charleston and Savannah , Georgia in Lee 's absence , and in September 1776 , he became embroiled in a controversy involving the provincial assembly of South Carolina allowing its officers to recruit soldiers from North Carolina 's continental line units . Howe pleaded with the Provincial Congress of North Carolina to allow South Carolina to recruit within the former state 's borders because of the greater number of white males in that state . Eventually , North Carolina acceded to that request but only after ordering Howe to reclaim the North Carolinians who had already been lured away by the South Carolinians . The South Carolina Council took offense and demanded that Howe pay the recruitment bonuses for the men if he wished to have them back . With James Moore 's death on April 15 , 1777 , Howe assumed command of the Southern Department .
= = = Florida and political conflict 1777 – 1778 = = =
Howe 's style of command was quick to cause discontent , and on August 20 , 1777 , the South Carolina Assembly protested against Howe 's right to command soldiers within the borders of South Carolina . He was nonetheless promoted to the rank of major general on October 20 , 1777 , the only North Carolinian to reach that rank in the Continental Army . Howe often deferred to the civil leadership of the various states that made up his command , often referring conflicts with state officials to the Continental Congress to resolve . Of particular note was an early conflict with Georgia 's state government , which insisted that the governor of that state retain command of the state 's militia during military engagements . When asked for an official opinion , Congress sided with Howe , who believed that command of the militia should be relinquished to him during such engagements . Complicating matters , however , was the fact that Congressional funding for military expenditures was given over to the states rather than the army officers , forcing Howe to rely on state governments for funding .
In 1778 , he was ordered to act on a plan developed by General Charles Lee to assault British West Florida – a plan that Howe disfavored . A previous expedition in 1777 , in which Howe did not directly participate , had ended quickly in failure . Congress overrode Howe 's concerns about the expedition and directed him to proceed in conjunction with Georgia 's militia into Florida . The combined Army 's progress into Florida was made slow by a lack of provisions and particularly by a lack of slaves who Howe requested be made available to build roads and perform pioneering functions for the march southward .
On June 29 , 1778 , Howe captured Fort Tonyn on the St. Marys River , which forms a portion of the border between Georgia and Florida . Georgia Governor John Houstoun refused to give up command of his militia to the Continental Army general and declined to participate in Howe 's council . To make matters worse , when South Carolina militia units arrived in Georgia under the command of Colonel Andrew Williamson , their commander also refused to allow Howe to command that state 's militia units . Shortly after this minor incursion , the British received reinforcements and pressed toward Savannah . By July 14 , 1778 , Howe was forced to pull his units back north and returned to Charleston . The general received much of the blame for the expedition 's failure , as Georgia officials were quick to cast aspersions on the Continental command , which was compounded by Congress ' failure to understand Howe 's inability to control the Georgia militia despite their prior determination of his command authority over militia units .
= = = Duel with Christopher Gadsden , 1778 = = =
Howe 's squabbles with local political and militia leaders were not his sole difficulties . On August 30 , 1778 , Howe engaged in a pistol duel with Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina over an offense Gadsden perceived stemming from his resignation in 1777 while under Howe 's command . This controversy , like many in which Howe was involved , centered on the conflict between the Continental Army and state governments ' desires to retain local control over their officers and soldiers . Gadsden responded to the perceived offense by drafting and circulating a letter attacking Howe 's intelligence and ability as a commander and questioning Howe 's legal authority to issue orders to South Carolina Continentals . Howe took offense and demanded satisfaction from Gadsden on August 17 , 1778 .
During the duel , Colonel Charles Pinckney , father of South Carolina Governor Charles Pinckney , served as Howe 's second , while Colonel Barnard Elliot served as second to Gadsden . Howe , shooting first , missed his shot at eight paces , although the ball grazed Gadsden 's ear . Gadsden then intentionally fired above his own left shoulder and demanded Howe fire again , a demand Howe refused . At the conclusion of the duel , the participants made amends and parted ways . The affair did not end privately , as the South Carolinian and American Gazette published a full story covering the duel on September 3 , 1778 , and in the same month , the ill @-@ fated Major John André , the British officer who would later serve as a facilitator for Benedict Arnold 's change of allegiance , published an 18 @-@ stanza satirical poem about the duel set to the tune of Yankee Doodle .
= = = Removal from command and the Battle of Savannah , 1778 = = =
After allegations circulated in South Carolina about Howe 's dalliances with a woman , the Continental Congress finally removed him from command of the Southern Department on September 25 , 1778 , replacing him with Major General Benjamin Lincoln . Howe remained with the Southern army and commanded it from Savannah . While awaiting Lincoln 's arrival in Savannah with reinforcements , Howe set up defenses around that city , preparing for an imminent attack . Governor Houstoun sparred again with Howe , refusing to grant him more than meager militia support .
During the First Battle of Savannah on December 29 , 1778 , the British landed near the city , and under the command of Archibald Campbell , managed to flank Howe 's army , which was drawn up in the open for battle , by taking a path through a marshy area Howe believed was impassable . Howe had previously ordered a scout to look for any paths through the swamp , but Campbell 's route , which was shown to the British commander by a slave , remained unknown to the Patriots . Howe 's position was otherwise strong and defensible , but the appearance of the British in the Patriot rear caused a panic . The militia under Howe 's command fled instantly , and more than 500 Patriots and Continental Army soldiers were killed or captured . The ensuing defeat gave Savannah to the British , for which Howe received much blame . On January 3 , 1779 , Howe formally relinquished his command to Lincoln .
Howe 's failure at Savannah led to criticism from Georgia state officials , who believed he had abandoned the state to the British , as well as from fellow Continental Army generals , such as William Moultrie , who criticized Howe for even attempting to resist the British while being so greatly outnumbered . During his testimony before a later court – martial , Howe claimed that he knew about the pathway through the swamp taken by the British , but stated that he did not defend it because he believed the chance of an attack along the path was " so remote " . This contradicted earlier testimony from Georgia militia officer George Walton , who stated that Howe did not know about the path prior to the battle and that Howe told Walton that he was mistaken in believing a path through the swamps existed .
= = = Hudson Valley and Connecticut , 1779 = = =
After Lincoln 's arrival , Howe was ordered to join the Continental Army in the North , which he rejoined on May 19 , 1779 . Suffering from injuries caused by a fall , Howe was unable to undertake any duties for a month after his arrival . Initially , Howe was charged with defending Connecticut from British raids , such as those conducted by his former mentor , William Tryon , and Tryon 's adjutant , Edmund Fanning . Howe 's headquarters were in Ridgefield , Connecticut .
On June 18 , 1779 , shortly after the Battle of Stony Point , Howe was ordered to assist General Israel Putnam in assaulting a British fortification at Verplanck 's Point , which sat across the Hudson River from Stony Point . Howe was charged with commanding the artillery barrage and infantry assault of that position , but was given too few field pieces , entrenching tools , provisions , and little ammunition to make a serious attempt at taking the fortification . He advised Washington that an assault would be unfeasible and called off the siege with Washington 's consent . Historians have noted that Howe 's inability to take the British fortifications damaged his career and that he was never again given a major command . Contemporaries such as General William Irvine criticized Howe as " having a talent ... of finding many supposed obstructions , and barely plausible pretences for his delay " in assaulting Verplanck 's Point .
After Stony Point , Howe was assigned first to the command of the left wing of Washington 's army composed of Massachusetts brigades under Generals John Nixon and John Glover , with his command again in Ridgefield , Connecticut . While military action was infrequent in Howe 's region of control , he was integral in the recruitment and cultivation of a substantial spy network which provided the Patriots with information about British positions on Manhattan and along the Long Island Sound .
= = = West Point and Benedict Arnold conspiracy , 1779 – 1780 = = =
As part of his command duties , Howe was chosen by Washington as president of the court – martial convened to determine the propriety of General Benedict Arnold 's conduct while serving as the commandant of Philadelphia in 1778 and 1779 . During that time , Arnold was alleged to have conducted business with British merchants and to have undertaken private business transactions that were inappropriate given his position , among other improprieties . The tribunal , which met at Howe 's headquarters in Middletown , Connecticut , adjourned for several months due to a threatened British attack but reconvened in December 1779 and closed in January 1780 . During the interlude in the fall of 1779 , Howe was ordered by Washington to move into position to attack the British in conjunction with an expected combined French naval and land @-@ based assault , although the French assault in New York never materialized . The court @-@ martial rendered its decision on January 26 , 1780 , finding Arnold guilty of breaching the articles of war by permitting a vessel from an enemy port into Philadelphia and recommended that he be reprimanded by Washington .
Howe was made commandant of the Continental Army fortifications at West Point on February 21 , 1780 . He held that command immediately prior to Benedict Arnold 's conspiracy to turn over control of that stronghold to the British . Arnold and several supporters in Congress had eventually convinced Washington to give him command of the fortifications on August 3 , 1780 . Howe remained active in the upper Hudson River valley during the remainder of the war , particularly in overseeing his network of spies in the area , including double agent Joshua Hett Smith , who would later play a key role in Arnold 's treason and prosecution . During this time , evidence arose implicating Howe in discussions with the British , though the evidence was dismissed by Washington as merely rumors stirred up by British General Henry Clinton . Howe served on the court @-@ martial board that convicted of espionage and sentenced to death Major John André , the British officer tasked with facilitating Arnold 's conspiracy .
= = = Pennsylvania mutinies and war 's end , 1781 – 1783 = = =
In 1781 , Howe assisted in putting down the Pompton Mutiny in New Jersey , which was inspired by the slightly earlier Pennsylvania Line Mutiny . Washington ordered Howe to surround the camp and arrange for the court @-@ martial and execution of two of its ringleaders . In the fall of 1781 , Howe requested permission to go with Washington to Virginia for what was anticipated to be the final campaign against the British , but Washington refused . Instead , Howe was required to appear before a court – martial in Philadelphia which was opened to inquire into Howe 's actions in the defense of Savannah in 1778 . The tribunal , led by Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , opened on December 7 , 1781 , and closed on January 23 , 1782 , acquitting Howe of any wrongdoing at Savannah with " the Highest Honor " . Assistant Adjutant General John Carlisle ordered Howe to convene a court – martial to investigate the conduct of General Alexander McDougall in the spring of 1782 . McDougall was a personal friend of Howe 's , but the tribunal convicted him of the minor offense of releasing confidential details from a council of war meeting in 1776 to persons who were not permitted to have such information . Again in 1783 , Howe was called on to put down the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 , which had caused the Continental Congress to flee Philadelphia .
= = Post @-@ war career and death = =
After putting down the second Pennsylvania mutiny in 1783 , Howe participated in the establishment of the Society of the Cincinnati and was the second officer to sign the national charter , with his signature appearing directly below that of von Steuben . Howe thereafter returned to his North Carolina plantation , Kendal , which was upriver from the more famous Orton Plantation owned by Howe 's distant relatives . Also in 1783 , Howe became a founding member of the North Carolina Society of the Cincinnati and was a signatory to its " Institution " or charter . During much of 1783 and 1784 , Howe returned frequently to Philadelphia , New York , and other cities in the northeast in an attempt to settle accounts and obtain back payments he claimed he was owed by Congress . He was again forced to mortgage his plantation but eventually received a monetary settlement from Congress of $ 7 @,@ 000 in 1785 .
During 1785 , Howe was appointed by the Congress of the Confederation to establish treaties with several western Indian tribes but did not actually travel with commissioners George Rogers Clark , Richard Butler , and Samuel Holden Parsons , who finalized the Treaty of Fort Finney without Howe in 1786 . Howe assisted Benjamin Smith in planning for the construction of Bald Head Light and actively worked to assist former Loyalists who sought to return to their prior lives in North Carolina by defending them against the judiciary of the state .
In the summer of 1786 , he was elected a member of the North Carolina House of Commons . On his way to a meeting of the legislative body , Howe fell ill , and died on December 14 , 1786 , in Bladen County . Howe 's remains were buried on property he owned in what later became Columbus County , North Carolina , although the exact location of his burial has not been discovered . A cenotaph was placed in Southport 's Old Smithville Burying Ground honoring him and wife Sara .
= = Legacy = =
Howe has been remembered primarily in a negative light based on his lack of military successes and reputation , although North Carolina historian Hugh Rankin noted in a biographical sketch that " his opportunities came at times when he did not have proper field strength to gain favorable recognition . " During the 1903 session of the United States House of Representatives , Congressman John Dillard Bellamy introduced a bill to erect an equestrian statue of Howe in Wilmington in order to commemorate the general 's service ; this bill was not passed . In 1940 , the State of North Carolina cast and erected a highway historical marker to commemorate Howe 's service . The marker stands on North Carolina Highway 133 in Belville , North Carolina . The 1955 film The Scarlet Coat featured a performance by actor John McIntire as Howe during the height of the Benedict Arnold conspiracy .
= = = Evidence of attempted treason = = =
Several scholars have raised questions regarding Howe 's actions as the unofficial spymaster of the Hudson Valley , all of which center on evidence that suggests Howe attempted to bargain with the British in exchange for a commission as an officer in the regular British Army , similar to the bargain struck by Benedict Arnold in 1780 . As early as 1776 , after Howe was appointed a brigadier general , a Loyalist merchant named Henry Kelly advised Secretary of State for the Colonies George Germain , 1st Viscount Sackville that Howe could be easily tempted to join the British , and further claimed that Howe could offer a great deal to the British in their war effort .
In 1780 , after Benedict Arnold 's attempted treason had been exposed , Captain Beesly Edgar Joel , a British defector and former officer in the British Army , claimed that another officer besides Arnold had attempted to defect , and after interrogation Joel named Howe as that officer . Joel cited Edmund Fanning , William Tryon 's secretary , as the source for his information . Joel further described Howe 's method of communicating with the British , which was by means of a frequently imprisoned @-@ and @-@ exchanged prisoner who would convey messages between the parties . While neither Washington or the Congressional Board of War believed Joel 's story due to their suspicion of Joel as a British spy , Joel was later commissioned by Thomas Jefferson and the Virginia government to lead a Patriot militia unit against Loyalists in that state . Furthermore , William Smith , a New York Loyalist and the brother of Howe 's agent and Arnold 's co @-@ conspirator Joshua Hett Smith , noted in his diary on April 29 , 1780 , that his brother , Thomas Smith , had been informed that a commissary had come over to the British with " information " from the Patriots in much the same manner as Joel had described . On September 28 , 1780 , William Smith told Henry Clinton that he believed " Bob " Howe would be willing to turn on the Patriots .
Later historians , including Douglas Southall Freeman , have frequently dismissed allegations that Howe attempted to defect , believing them to have been fabrications used by Joel to ingratiate himself with the Patriot government . The only full @-@ length book treatment of Howe 's life discusses the allegations of attempted treason in a single page . On the other hand , Freeman 's judgment was based primarily on Washington 's assessment of the allegations , but Washington did not have access to the potentially corroborating evidence in William Smith 's diary . Another possibility is that Howe had merely attempted to spread word among the British of his possible treason in order to conceal his management of the vast spy network at his control ; this tactic was utilized by other spymasters in Continental employ such as Philip Schuyler . Philip Ranlet , an American historian who studied Howe 's career and motivations , has contrasted Schuyler 's otherwise shining reputation with Howe 's record of failures and draws the conclusion that Howe likely was attempting to defect . To date , no firm evidence exists which either absolves Howe or proves him guilty of attempted treason .
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