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= Leslie Nielsen =
Leslie William Nielsen , OC ( 11 February 1926 – 28 November 2010 ) was a Canadian actor , comedian , and producer . He appeared in more than 100 films and 150 television programs , portraying more than 220 characters .
Nielsen was born in Regina , Saskatchewan . He enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air Force and later worked as a disc jockey before receiving a scholarship to study theatre at the Neighborhood Playhouse . Making his acting debut in 1948 , he made more than 50 television appearances two years later . Nielsen made his film debut in 1956 , with supporting roles in several drama , western , and romance films produced between the 1950s and the 1970s , with Nielsen crossing genres in both television and films .
Although his notable performances in the films Forbidden Planet and The Poseidon Adventure gave him standing as a serious actor , Nielsen later gained enduring recognition for his deadpan comedy roles during the 1980s and the early 1990s , after being cast against type for the Zucker , Abrahams and Zucker comedy film Airplane ! . Nielsen specialized in his portrayal of characters oblivious to and complicit in their absurd surroundings , which gave him a reputation as a comedian . Airplane ! marked Nielsen 's turning point , which made him " the Olivier of spoofs " according to film critic Roger Ebert ; his work on the film also led to further success in the genre with The Naked Gun film series , which are based on their earlier short @-@ lived television series Police Squad ! , in which he also starred . Nielsen received a variety of awards and was inducted into the Canada and Hollywood Walks of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Nielsen was born on 11 February 1926 in Regina , Saskatchewan . His mother , Mabel Elizabeth ( née Davies ) , was a Welsh immigrant , and his father , Ingvard Eversen Nielsen , was a Danish @-@ born constable in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . Nielsen had two brothers ; the elder , Erik Nielsen ( 1924 – 2008 ) , was Deputy Prime Minister of Canada from 1984 to 1986 .
His half @-@ uncle , Jean Hersholt , was an actor known for his portrayal of Dr. Christian in a radio series of that name and the subsequent television series and films . In a 1994 Boston Globe article , Nielsen explained , " I did learn very early that when I would mention my uncle , people would look at me as if I were the biggest liar in the world . Then I would take them home and show them 8 @-@ by @-@ 10 glossies , and things changed quite drastically . So I began to think that maybe this acting business was not a bad idea , much as I was very shy about it and certainly without courage regarding it . My uncle died not too long after I was in a position to know him . I regret that I had not a chance to know him better . "
Nielsen lived for several years in Fort Norman ( now Tulita ) , Northwest Territories where his father was with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . His father was a troubled man who beat his wife and sons , and Leslie longed to escape . When he graduated from high school at 17 , he joined the Royal Canadian Air Force even though he was legally deaf ( he wore hearing aids most of his life ) . Following graduation from Victoria School of Performing and Visual Arts in Edmonton , Nielsen enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air Force and trained as an aerial gunner during World War II . He was too young to be fully trained or sent overseas . He worked briefly as a disc jockey at a Calgary , Alberta , radio station , before enrolling at the Lorne Greene Academy of Radio Arts , Toronto . While studying in Toronto , Nielsen received a scholarship to the Neighborhood Playhouse . He noted , " I couldn 't refuse , but I must say when you come from the land of the snow goose , the moose and wool to New York , you 're bringing every ton of hayseed and country bumpkin that you packed . As long as I didn 't open my mouth , I felt a certain security . But I always thought I was going to be unmasked : ' OK , pack your stuff . ' ' Well , what 's the matter ? ' ' We 've discovered you have no talent ; we 're shipping you back to Canada . ' " He moved to New York City for his scholarship , studying theatre and music at the Neighborhood Playhouse , while performing in summer stock theatre . Afterward , he attended the Actors Studio , until making his first television appearance in 1948 on an episode of Studio One , alongside Charlton Heston , for which he was paid $ 75 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Nielsen 's career began in dramatic roles on television during " Television 's Golden Age " , appearing in almost 50 live programs in 1950 alone . He said there " was very little gold , we only got $ 75 or $ 100 per show . " He narrated documentaries and commercials and most of his early work as a dramatic actor was uneventful . Hal Erickson of Allmovie noted that " much of Nielsen 's early work was undistinguished ; he was merely a handsome leading man in an industry overstocked with handsome leading men . " In 1956 he made his feature film debut in the Michael Curtiz @-@ directed musical film The Vagabond King . In the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , Nielsen remembered Curtiz as " a sadist , a charming sadist , but a sadist " . Nielsen called this film " The Vagabond Turkey " . Though the film was not a success , producer Nicholas Nayfack offered him an audition for the science fiction film Forbidden Planet , resulting in Nielsen 's taking a long contract with Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) .
Forbidden Planet became an instant success , and roles in other MGM films such as Ransom ! ( 1956 ) , The Opposite Sex ( 1956 ) and Hot Summer Night ( 1957 ) followed . In 1957 he won the lead role opposite Debbie Reynolds in the romantic comedy Tammy and the Bachelor , which , as a Chicago Tribune critic wrote in 1998 , made people consider Nielsen a dramatic actor and handsome romantic lead . However , dissatisfied with the films he was offered , calling the studios " a Tiffany , which had forgotten how to make silver " , Nielsen left MGM after auditioning for Messala in the 1959 Ben @-@ Hur . Stephen Boyd got the role . After leaving the studios , Nielsen landed the lead role in the Disney miniseries The Swamp Fox , as American Revolutionary War hero Francis Marion . In a 1988 interview he reflected on the series , saying , " That was a great experience , because the Disney people didn 't do their shows like everyone else , knocking out an episode a week . ... We only had to do an episode a month , and the budgets were extremely high for TV at that time . We had location shooting rather than cheap studio backdrops , and very authentic costumes . " Eight episodes were produced and aired between 1959 and 1961 .
His television appearances include Justice , Alfred Hitchcock Presents , Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea , The Virginian , and The Wild Wild West . In 1961 , he was the lead in a Los Angeles police drama called The New Breed . He guest @-@ starred in a 1964 episode of Daniel Boone with Fess Parker in a minor but credited role . In 1968 , he had a major role in the pilot for the police series Hawaii Five @-@ O , and appeared in one of the seventh @-@ season episodes . In 1969 , he had the leading role as a police officer in The Bold Ones : The Protectors .
In 1972 , Nielsen appeared as the ship 's captain in the The Poseidon Adventure . He also starred in the William Girdler 's 1977 action film , Project : Kill . His last dramatic role before mainly comedy roles was the 1979 Canadian disaster film City on Fire , in which he played a corrupt mayor . In 1980 , he guest @-@ starred as Sinclair on the CBS miniseries The Chisholms .
= = = Airplane ! and The Naked Gun = = =
Nielsen 's supporting role of Dr. Rumack in Zucker , Abrahams and Zucker 's 1980 's Airplane ! was a watershed in his career . The film , a parody of disaster films such as Zero Hour ! and Airport , was based on building a comedy around the actors known for dramatic roles . Other stars included Robert Stack , Peter Graves , and Lloyd Bridges . Nielsen 's deadpan delivery contrasted with the absurdity surrounding him . When asked , " Surely you can 't be serious ? " , he responded with a curt , " I am serious . And don 't call me Shirley . " In several interviews he reflected on the line : " I thought it was amusing , but it never occurred to me that it was going to become a trademark . It 's such a surprise ... the thing comes out , people say , ' What did he say ? ! ' " Nielsen said he was " ... pleased and honored that [ he ] had a chance to deliver that line . " The comedic exchange was at # 79 on the American Film Institute 's AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes . The American Film Institute included the film in its list of the top ten comedy films of all time in 2008 , and a 2007 survey in the United Kingdom judged it the second greatest comedy film of all time , while in 2012 Empire magazine voted it No. 1 in The 50 Funniest Comedies Ever poll . Critics praised the film , which also proved a long @-@ term success with audiences . In 2010 Airplane ! was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress .
The directors cast Nielsen for his ability to play like " a fish in water " , saying " You could have cast funny people and done it with everybody winking , goofing off , and silly ... we wanted people to be oblivious to the comedy . " For Nielsen , Airplane ! marked a shift from dramatic roles to deadpan comedy . When it was suggested his role in Airplane ! was against type , Nielsen protested that he had " always been cast against type before " , and that comedy was what he always wanted to do . The same directors cast Nielsen in a similar style , in their TV series Police Squad ! . The series introduced Nielsen as Frank Drebin , the stereotypical police officer modelled after serious characters in earlier police series .
Police Squad 's opening sequence was based on the 1950s show M Squad , which starred Lee Marvin , which opened with footage of a police car roving through a dark urban setting with a big band playing a jazz song in the background . The voice @-@ over and the show 's organization into acts with an epilogue was homage to Quinn Martin police dramas including The Fugitive , The Streets of San Francisco , Barnaby Jones , The F.B.I. , and Cannon . Nielsen portrayed a serious character whose one @-@ liners appeared accidental next to the pratfalls and sight gags that were happening around him . Although the show lasted only six episodes Nielsen received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series .
Six years after cancellation of Police Squad ! , the film The Naked Gun : From the Files of Police Squad ! returned Nielsen to his role as Frank Drebin . It involved a ruthless drug king trying hypnosis to assassinate Queen Elizabeth II . Drebin , like the doctor in Airplane ! , seemed unaware of the absurdity of the scenes he was in , even while contributing to it . Nielsen did many of his own stunts : " You have an idea of how you 're going to do something , and it 's your vision ... unless you do it , it really doesn 't stand a chance . " This movie grossed over $ 78 million and was well received by critics . Ebert 's 3 ½ – star review ( out of four ) noted , " You laugh , and then you laugh at yourself for laughing . "
The Naked Gun spawned two sequels : The Naked Gun 2 ½ : The Smell of Fear ( 1991 ) and Naked Gun 33 ⅓ : The Final Insult ( 1994 ) . Naked Gun 2 ½ grossed more than the original , with $ 86 @.@ 9 million , while Naked Gun 33 ⅓ grossed $ 51 @.@ 1 million . Nielsen remained open to a fourth Naked Gun film , although he doubted that it would be produced — " I don 't think so " , he said in 2005 . " If there hasn 't been one by now , I doubt it . I think it would be wonderful . "
Nielsen briefly appeared on the World Wrestling Federation program in the summer of 1994 on WWF Monday Night Raw ; capitalizing on Frank Drebin . Nielsen ( and George Kennedy ) were hired as sleuths to unravel the mystery of The Undertaker who had disappeared at January 's Royal Rumble event . At SummerSlam 1994 , in a Naked Gun parody , they were hot on the case ( in fact , they were standing on a case ) . Although they did not find The Undertaker , the case had been closed ( the literal case had been shut ) and thus , they solved the mystery . In 1990 , Nielsen appeared as a Frank Drebin character in advertisements in the United Kingdom for Red Rock Cider .
Non @-@ comedic roles after Airplane ! included Prom Night ( 1980 ) and Creepshow ( 1982 ) , both horror films , and as a dramatic and unsympathetic character in the 1986 comedy Soul Man . His last dramatic role was as Allen Green , a violent client of a prostitute killed in self @-@ defence by Barbra Streisand 's character , Claudia Draper , in Martin Ritt 's courtroom drama Nuts ( 1987 ) .
= = = Later comedies = = =
Subsequent to Airplane ! and The Naked Gun , Nielsen portrayed similar styled roles in a number of other films . These mostly emulated the style of The Naked Gun with varying success and often targeted specific films : many were panned by critics and most performed poorly . Repossessed ( 1990 ) and 2001 : A Space Travesty ( 2001 ) were parodies of The Exorcist and 2001 : A Space Odyssey , respectively . Both attempted absurd comedy but were poorly received . Even a leading role in a Mel Brooks comic horror , Dracula : Dead and Loving It , failed to generate much box office excitement , although it did gain a following later release to video . Both 1996 's Spy Hard and 1998 's Wrongfully Accused , a parody of James Bond films and The Fugitive , were popular on video but not well received by critics .
His attempt at children 's comedies met additional criticism . Surf Ninjas ( 1993 ) and Mr. Magoo ( 1997 ) had scathing reviews . Several critics were disappointed that Nielsen 's role in Surf Ninjas was only " an extended cameo " and Chris Hicks recommended that viewers " avoid any comedy that features Leslie Nielsen outside of the Naked Gun series . " Jeff Miller of the Houston Chronicle panned Mr. Magoo , a live action remake of the 1950s cartoon , by saying , " I 'm supposed to suggest how the film might be better but I can 't think of anything to say other than to make the film again . "
Nielsen 's first major success since The Naked Gun came in a supporting role in Scary Movie 3 ( 2003 ) . His appearance as President Harris led to a second appearance in its sequel , Scary Movie 4 ( 2006 ) . This was the first time Nielsen had reprised a character since Frank Drebin . In one scene , Nielsen appeared almost nude , and one critic referred to the scene as putting " the ' scary ' in Scary Movie 4 . "
= = = Video , stage , and celebrity productions = = =
Nielsen also produced instructional golf videos , which were not presented in a serious style , beginning with 1993 's Bad Golf Made Easier . The videos combined comedy with golf techniques . The series spawned two additional sequels , Bad Golf My Way ( 1994 ) and Stupid Little Golf Video ( 1997 ) . Nielsen also co @-@ wrote a fictional autobiography titled The Naked Truth . The book portrayed Nielsen as a popular actor with a long history of prestigious films .
In his eighties , Nielsen performed serious roles on screen and stage ( such as his one @-@ man theatre show Darrow , in which he played Clarence Darrow ) , as well as providing voice @-@ overs and appearances for commercials ; cartoons like Zeroman where he had the leading role / voice ; children 's shows , such as Pumper Pups , which he narrated , in addition to comedic film roles . The sibling relationship with his elder brother , the Honourable Erik Nielsen , a former Deputy Prime Minister of Canada , served as the premise of an HBO mockumentary entitled The Canadian Conspiracy in which Leslie Nielsen appeared , along with other prominent Canadian @-@ born media personalities . He was a celebrity contestant on CBS 's Gameshow Marathon , where he played The Price Is Right , Let 's Make a Deal , Beat the Clock , and Press Your Luck for charity .
= = = Final acting years = = =
Beginning in February 2007 , Nielsen began playing a small role as a doctor in the humorous yet educational television show Doctor * Ology . The show chronicles real @-@ life medical techniques and technology , on the Discovery Channel . Nielsen said : " There are any number of things that you think about when you ponder if you hadn 't been an actor , what would you be , and I 've always said I 'd like to be an astronaut or a doctor . I have such admiration for doctors . I just don 't know how you go around to thank them enough for coming up with the world 's most remarkable new discoveries . "
In 2007 , Nielsen starred in the drama Music Within . In 2008 , he portrayed a version of Uncle Ben for Superhero Movie , a spoof of superhero films . He then appeared in the 2008 parody An American Carol , which David Zucker directed , produced and co @-@ wrote . He appeared in the 2009 parody Stan Helsing . Nielsen portrayed the Doctor in the Spanish horror comedy Spanish Movie , a spoof comedy like Scary Movie , but making fun of popular Spanish films .
Nielsen appeared in more than 100 films and 1 @,@ 500 television episodes , portraying more than 220 characters .
= = Personal life = =
Nielsen married four times : nightclub singer Monica Boyar ( 1950 – 1956 ) , Alisande Ullman ( 1958 – 1973 ) , Brooks Oliver ( 1981 – 1983 ) and Barbaree Earl ( 2001 – 2010 ) . Nielsen had two daughters from his second marriage , Maura and Thea Nielsen .
Nielsen often played golf . He joked , " I have no goals or ambition . I do , however , wish to work enough to maintain whatever celebrity status I have so that they will continue to invite me to golf tournaments . " His interest in the sport led him to comedic instructional films .
Nielsen was a practical joker , and known for pranking people with a portable hand @-@ controlled fart machine : " he always had that fart machine with him . " His epitaph read : " Let ' er rip " , a final reference to his favourite practical joke .
Nielsen was legally deaf and wore hearing aids for most of his life . Because of this impairment , he supported the Better Hearing Institute . Later in life , Nielsen had knee osteoarthritis . He participated in an educational video from The Arthritis Research Centre of Canada ( ARC ) , demonstrating the physical examination of a patient with knee osteoarthritis .
= = Death = =
In November 2010 , Nielsen was admitted to a Fort Lauderdale , Florida , hospital with pneumonia . On 28 November , Doug Nielsen , Nielsen 's nephew , told the CJOB radio station that 84 @-@ year @-@ old Nielsen had died in his sleep from pneumonia around 5 : 30 pm EST surrounded by family and friends . He was interred in Fort Lauderdale 's Evergreen Cemetery . As a final bit of humor , Nielsen chose " Let ' er rip " as his epitaph .
= = Achievements = =
Among his awards , in 1995 Nielsen received UCLA 's Jack Benny Award . In 1988 , he became the 1,884th personality to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6541 Hollywood Blvd . In 2001 he was inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame . The following year he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada , although he was also a naturalized US citizen . With his American status , he maintained his Canadian heritage : " There 's no way you can be a Canadian and think you can lose it ... Canadians are a goodly group . They are very aware of caring and helping . " On 19 May 2005 , during the centennial gala of his birth province , Saskatchewan , Leslie Nielsen was introduced to HM Queen Elizabeth II .
In 1997 , a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs , California , Walk of Stars was dedicated to him .
On 20 February 2002 , Nielsen was named an honorary citizen of West Virginia and an Ambassador of Mountain State Goodwill . Nielsen visited the state many times to speak and visit friends . In 2003 , in honour of Nielsen , Grant MacEwan College named its school of communications after him . Also in 2003 , the Alliance of Canadian Cinema , Television and Radio Artists awarded him the ACTRA Award of Excellence .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video = = =
1993 : Bad Golf Made Easier
1994 : Bad Golf My Way
1997 : Stupid Little Golf Video
1997 : National Geographic Video : The Savage Garden
Nielsen also appeared in a promotional video for Layman Allen 's mathematics game called " Equations " and in the Seaworld San Antonio Summer Nights 4 @-@ D show " Pirates 4 @-@ D " .
= = Writings = =
1993 : The Naked Truth
1995 : Leslie Nielsen 's Stupid Little Golf Book with Henry Beard
1996 : Bad Golf My Way with Henry Beard
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= Kids Can Say No ! =
Kids Can Say No ! is a 1985 British short educational film produced and directed by Jessica Skippon and written by Anita Bennett . It is intended to teach children between ages five and eight how to avoid situations where they might be sexually abused , how to escape such situations , and how to get help if they are abused . In the film , Australian celebrity Rolf Harris is in a park with a group of four children and tells them about proper and improper physical intimacy , which he calls " yes " and " no " feelings . The film has four role @-@ playing scenes in which children encounter paedophiles , with Harris and the children discussing each scene .
Harris said that he came up with the idea for the film on a 1982 Canadian tour when he saw Vancouver 's Green Thumb Theatre production of Feeling Yes , Feeling No , a play about child sexual abuse . Kids Can Say No ! , released in October 1985 on VHS in the United Kingdom , was the first British children 's film about sexual abuse and was purchased by police forces , educational institutions , and libraries across Europe . Upon the film 's release , The Times obtained opinions from four sexual @-@ abuse experts , who unanimously opposed using Kids Can Say No ! or any other film to teach children about the subject . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation received a positive response to its 1988 broadcast of Kids Can Say No ! and therefore broadcast it a second time that year . Harris and Skippon collaborated on the 1986 sequel Beyond the Scare , which advises teachers about what to do if a child discloses abuse . Showings of Kids Can Say No ! eventually decreased as VHS became less popular .
Kids Can Say No ! resurfaced in 2014 , when Harris was prosecuted for twelve counts of indecently assaulting young girls . The prosecutors found Kids Can Say No ! on YouTube and wanted to show it at trial to illustrate its unintentional irony , but the film was not admitted as evidence . Harris was found guilty of all counts . During the trial , it was learned that , while Harris was filming Kids Can Say No ! , he was in the midst of a casual sexual relationship with his daughter Bindi 's best friend and , by its release , he had committed nine of the twelve assaults . According to Richard Guilliatt and Jacquelin Magnay in an article in The Australian , Harris ' campaign against paedophilia in Kids Can Say No ! can " be seen in retrospect as either monumental self @-@ delusion or a sign of deep , self @-@ lacerating guilt " .
= = Contents = =
In Kids Can Say No ! , Australian celebrity Rolf Harris appears with four children between the ages of seven and eight and warns them about paedophiles . The film begins with its theme song , " My Body " , which has the chorus " My body 's nobody 's body but mine . You run your own body . Let me run mine . " During the song , children ride a seesaw , skip rope and cycle . Harris sits under a tree in a park with the children — two girls and two boys — and tells them about proper and improper physical intimacy , which he calls " yes " and " no " feelings ; a parent 's hug is given as an example of a " yes " feeling . In vox populi segments , children give other examples of " yes " and " no " feelings ; one child says that being tickled by his father is a " yes " feeling , and another says that being squeezed hard is a " no " feeling . Harris leads the children in a chant of " Go away ! " as an exercise in how to respond to " no " feelings . He teaches the children about stranger danger , and that adults they know can also be a threat .
The film includes four role @-@ playing scenes . In the first , a man tells a girl that he will buy her a toy if she goes home with him . In the second , eight @-@ year @-@ old Natasha goes to her friend 's house and finds that only her friend 's father is home ; after he intentionally spills water on her clothes , he tells her to take them off . The film cuts to Harris , who says , " She should look him straight in the eye and tell him to stop , go away " . In the third scene , a group of older boys try to lure young children into their " special club " ; they lead one young boy to a secluded , wooded area and try to convince him to remove his clothes . In the last role @-@ playing scene , Sophie 's father offers her a secret bubble bath ; afterwards , he tells her not to tell anyone because he would go to jail and it would be her fault .
During and after each of the role @-@ playing scenes , Harris and the children discuss the situation and what the child should do . Harris tells the children not to be afraid to tell someone if they have been improperly touched , saying , " Some people don 't act right with kids , and they need help . You can 't protect them from trouble that they themselves have caused , and it 's better to say something so that you and the family can get the help you need . You know nothing gets better by keeping quiet about it . " Harris says that , if it is difficult to explain where they have been touched , they can draw a picture or point to the place on a doll . The film ends with " My Body " sung by a group of people including Harris , two police officers , and some children .
= = Production = =
Kids Can Say No ! is a twenty @-@ minute British short educational film intended to teach children about sexual abuse . Harris said he was naive about the subject and was motivated to make the film by a female teacher who told him that , when she spoke to her students about abuse , a traumatised girl ran out of the room ; the girl later disclosed that she was being abused by a family member . According to Harris , he came up with the idea for the film on a 1982 Canadian tour when he saw Vancouver 's Green Thumb Theatre production of Feeling Yes , Feeling No , a play about child sexual abuse . He was also inspired by a similar Australian production and a Swedish film about two children befriended by a large man on a farm . In an interview , Harris said that , when he saw the Swedish film , he thought the man was going to abuse the children , but that his expectations were incorrect and that " the film was completely innocent ; I was not " .
Harris , then host of Rolf 's Cartoon Time , approached the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children ( NSPCC ) and the Tavistock Clinic with his idea about making a film on child sexual abuse . Both organisations were receptive . Harris had previous connections with the NSPCC , having appeared in films in 1963 and 1973 promoting the NSPCC League of Pity , and a NSPCC official suggested that he use child actors in Kids Can Say No ! Harris approached director Jessica Skippon , with whom he had made a film about water safety , and said that he wanted to make Kids Can Say No ! to protect children . Harris later said that production was hampered by colleagues opposing the idea that children should be told about sexual abuse .
Kids Can Say No ! was made in London with input from Carolyn Okell Jones , an expert on child abuse , and was filmed on Hampstead Heath in 1985 . The child actors were students at the Barbara Speake Stage School . Skippon directed and produced the film . Funding was difficult because neither the Department of Health and Social Security nor the Home Office considered the film under their jurisdiction , and each office referred Skippon to the other . Childwatch , a charitable organisation , donated £ 15 @,@ 000 and technical facilities were provided by Barclays Bank Video . Harris covered the rest of the film 's production costs and American children 's songwriter Peter Alsop wrote the theme song . American Anita Bennett wrote the script , which was reviewed and approved by a NSPCC committee . Kids Can Say No ! was the second film from Rolf Harris Video , an educational video production company Harris founded in 1980 . In an interview , he said that his role of talking with children about sexual abuse in the film was a natural one because " my track record has made me a believable person . I have never betrayed the kids ' trust " .
Kids Can Say No ! was the first British children 's film about sexual abuse . The film is intended to teach children between ages five and eight how to avoid situations where they might be abused , how to get out of such situations , and how to get help if they are abused . Skippon later said that , although the people working on the film tried to keep it from being frightening to children , the task was difficult . She said that the film was not intended for home viewing and that only well @-@ informed adults trained in the subject should present it to children .
In April 1986 , Harris met with Western Australia Police officials and members of several state @-@ government departments in Mount Hawthorn to propose another film for children about how to handle sexual predators . Despite Harris ' offer to work for free , the officials declined and instead developed a broader campaign on the subject without Harris .
= = Release = =
Kids Can Say No ! was released in the United Kingdom in October 1985 on VHS with notes for teachers and two relevant books , and was distributed by Skippon Video , Skippon 's UK @-@ based company . Although several other short children 's educational films about sexual abuse were on the market in the UK including several also released that year , Kids Can Say No ! was the only British film ; the others were made in Australia , Canada and the United States .
In August 1986 , Jones presented the film at the Sydney Opera House in Australia as part of the sixth International Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect , the largest conference in the world on child abuse . The 56 @-@ year @-@ old Harris , who was chosen to be master of ceremonies for the three @-@ day conference 's opening event because of his celebrity and involvement with the film , told the audience that paedophilia was finally " coming out from under its veil of secrecy " .
Copies of Kids Can Say No ! were purchased by police forces , educational institutions , and libraries across Europe . The VHS tapes circulated widely in schools and rape crisis centers in Australia ; although showings began to decrease as VHS became less popular , the film was a significant teaching tool . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation received a positive response to its 1988 broadcast of Kids Can Say No ! and therefore broadcast it a second time that year .
= = = Sequel = = =
After the release of Kids Can Say No ! , many teachers who showed the film to their students reported receiving disclosures of abuse . Because many of the teachers said they were unsure of how to deal with the disclosures , Harris and Skippon collaborated on the 1986 sequel Beyond the Scare . Kids Can Say No ! encourages children to report abuse they experience and Beyond the Scare advises teachers about what to do if a child makes such a disclosure .
Beyond the Scare , filmed in a North London school , consists of role @-@ playing scenes with actual teachers . The film instructs teachers to listen to the child , to discuss the incident with the child 's parents and to contact the appropriate authorities . The Tavistock Clinic helped with the film 's production , and an expert from the organisation appears on @-@ camera to promote child protection projects in schools . Although Harris appears in Beyond the Scare , his role is less prominent than in Kids Can Say No ! and his activism against child abuse ended soon afterwards .
= = Harris ' trial = =
Kids Can Say No ! resurfaced in 2014 when Harris , then 83 years old , was prosecuted for twelve counts of indecent assault between 1968 and 1986 against four young girls ; the youngest was seven years old . The prosecutors found Kids Can Say No ! on YouTube and wanted to show it at trial for its unintentional irony , but the film was ruled irrelevant to the case and not admitted as evidence .
After the trial began , Skippon warned media outlets that it was illegal to use the film without written permission . The director wrote to The Independent that no complaints were made against Harris during the making of the film . In an article about the allegations against Harris , The Sunday Telegraph noted that Kids Can Say No ! was commissioned by the NSPCC ; a NSPCC spokesperson responded , " The film was made independently by Rolf Harris and a film company nearly 30 years ago ... We did not commission it , fund it , make it or distribute it " .
Southwark Crown Court found Harris guilty of all twelve counts of indecent assault . During the trial , it was learned that , while making Kids Can Say No ! , Harris was involved in a casual sexual relationship with his daughter Bindi 's best friend ; the relationship began when the victim was 13 years old and lasted for 15 years . Harris had committed nine of the twelve counts by the film 's release , including the assault of fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Tonya Lee in London three months before the release . The first victim was about the age of the children in Kids Can Say No ! The last assault of which Harris was convicted occurred several weeks after his meeting with officials in Western Australia to propose another film about child sexual abuse . A former child actor from the Barbara Speake Stage School who appeared in Kids Can Say No ! said that Harris ' behavior with older girls at the school made Harris ' eventual arrest unsurprising .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of Kids Can Say No ! have generally been negative , with initial reviews doubting the benefit of showing the film to children and later reviews focusing on Harris ' hypocrisy . In a 1985 Times review , Caroline Moorehead writes that the film 's avoidance of an explicit discussion of sexual abuse was both a requirement and the film 's greatest weakness . According to Moorehead , an explicit discussion might have terrified children and prevented parents from consenting to their children 's viewing of the film ; however , its oblique approach prevents children from understanding the issue . She calls the film 's theme song " catchy , one of those irritating snatches of music that is hard to forget " .
The Times obtained opinions from four sexual @-@ abuse experts , who unanimously opposed using Kids Can Say No ! or any other film to teach children about the subject . Northampton social worker Helen Kenward said that she would not show the film to children . Psychiatrist Brendan McCarthy called it simplistic . According to teacher Clare Rankin , children under five would not understand the film . Physician Paula Drummond was concerned that it might inspire children to falsely accuse adults they disliked , although McCarthy said that children were unlikely to make false abuse accusations . McCarthy was especially critical of the film , calling it " no clearer to a child than the Gorbachev @-@ Reagan talks " . Moorehead summarised the experts ' comments as suggesting that Kids Can Say No ! is " muddling , evasive and pussy @-@ footed , best not for children at all , but as ... aids for parents and professional workers to alert them to paedophilia and incest " .
In a 1988 Sydney Morning Herald review , Judith Whelan writes that Harris is more serious in the film than he was when performing " Jake the Peg " . According to Whelan , the film " would best be seen by children in a group , with an adult ( teacher or parent ) nearby who could encourage discussion after the show or answer children 's questions during it " .
When Kids Can Say No ! resurfaced in 2014 , Peter Walker wrote in The Guardian that the film " illustrates with grim eloquence , in retrospect , the prosecution notion that [ Harris ] was a man of two distinct sides : the avuncular and trustworthy public figure , and lurking behind , the groper and abuser " . Walker notes that the scene in which a man assaults his child 's friend mirrors what Harris did to his daughter 's best friend , and that the closing sequence has " an accidental resonance that would only emerge more than 25 years later " because of the two police officers behind Harris .
According to Richard Guilliatt and Jacquelin Magnay in an article in The Australian , Harris ' campaign against paedophilia in Kids Can Say No ! can " be seen in retrospect as either monumental self @-@ delusion or a sign of deep , self @-@ lacerating guilt " . NSPCC chief executive officer Peter Wanless appeared on Good Morning Britain saying that Harris ' appearance in the film was hypocritical . In an Irish Daily Mail article , Paul Bracchi writes that Harris ' work on Kids Can Say No ! at the same time that he was abusing girls was " one of the most sickening examples [ of ] hiding in plain sight " . In 2014 , theme composer Peter Alsop said that Harris may have used the film to groom children because it encouraged trust by parents .
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= Deborah Kerr =
Deborah Kerr CBE ( / kɑːr / ; born Deborah Jane Kerr @-@ Trimmer ; 30 September 1921 – 16 October 2007 ) was a Scottish @-@ born film , theatre and television actress . During her career , she won a Golden Globe for her performance as Anna Leonowens in the motion picture The King and I ( 1956 ) and the Sarah Siddons Award for her performance as " Laura Reynolds " in the play Tea and Sympathy ( a role she originated on Broadway ) . She was also a three @-@ time winner of the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress .
Kerr was nominated six times for the Academy Award for Best Actress , more than any other actress without ever winning . In 1994 , however , having already received honorary awards from the Cannes Film Festival and BAFTA , she received an Academy Honorary Award with a citation recognising her as " an artist of impeccable grace and beauty , a dedicated actress whose motion picture career has always stood for perfection , discipline and elegance " . As well as The King and I , her films include An Affair to Remember ; From Here to Eternity ; Quo Vadis ; The Innocents ; Black Narcissus ; Heaven Knows , Mr. Allison ; King Solomon 's Mines ; The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp ; The Sundowners and Separate Tables .
= = Early life = =
Deborah Jane Kerr @-@ Trimmer was born in a private nursing home ( hospital ) in Glasgow , the only daughter of Kathleen Rose ( née Smale ) and Capt. Arthur Charles Kerr @-@ Trimmer , a World War I veteran who lost a leg at the Battle of the Somme and later became a naval architect and civil engineer . She spent the first three years of her life in the nearby town of Helensburgh , where her parents lived with Deborah 's grandparents in a house on West King Street . Kerr had a younger brother , Edmund ( " Teddy " ) , who became a journalist . He was killed in a road rage incident in 2004 .
Kerr was educated at the independent Northumberland House School , Henleaze , and at Rossholme School , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Kerr originally trained as a ballet dancer , first appearing on stage at Sadler 's Wells in 1938 . After changing careers , she soon found success as an actress . Her first acting teacher was her aunt , Phyllis Smale , who ran the Hicks @-@ Smale Drama School in Bristol . She adopted the name Deborah Kerr on becoming a film actress ( " Kerr " was a family name going back to the maternal grandmother of her grandfather Arthur Kerr @-@ Trimmer ) .
= = Career = =
= = = Theatre = = =
Kerr 's first stage appearance was at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in 1937 , as " Harlequin " in the mime play Harlequin and Columbine . She then went to the Sadler 's Wells ballet school and in 1938 made her début in the corps de ballet in Prometheus . After various walk @-@ on parts in Shakespeare productions at the Open @-@ Air Theatre in Regent 's Park , London , she joined the Oxford Playhouse repertory company in 1940 , playing , inter alia , " Margaret " in Dear Brutus and " Patty Moss " in The Two Bouquets .
In 1943 , aged 21 , Kerr made her West End début as " Ellie Dunn " in a revival of Heartbreak House at the Cambridge Theatre , stealing attention from stalwarts such as Edith Evans and Isabel Jeans . " She has the rare gift " , wrote critic Beverley Baxter , " of thinking her lines , not merely remembering them . The process of development from a romantic , silly girl to a hard , disillusioned woman in three hours was moving and convincing " .
Deborah Kerr returned to the London stage 29 years later , in many productions including the old @-@ fashioned , The Day After the Fair ( Lyric , 1972 ) , a Peter Ustinov comedy , Overheard ( Haymarket , 1981 ) and a revival of Emlyn Williams 's The Corn is Green . After her first London success in 1943 , she toured England and Scotland in Heartbreak House . Near the end of the Second World War , she also toured Holland , France , and Belgium for ENSA as " Mrs Manningham " in Angel Street , and Britain ( with Stewart Granger ) in Gaslight .
Having established herself as a film actress in the meantime , she made her Broadway debut in 1953 , appearing in Robert Anderson 's Tea and Sympathy , for which she received a Tony Award nomination . Kerr repeated her role along with her stage partner John Kerr ( no relation ) in Vincente Minnelli 's film adaptation of the drama . In 1955 , Kerr won the Sarah Siddons Award for her performance in Chicago during a national tour of the play . After her Broadway début in 1953 , she toured the United States with Tea and Sympathy . In 1975 , she returned to Broadway , creating the role of Nancy in Edward Albee 's Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning play Seascape .
In 1977 , she came back to the West End , playing the title role in a production of George Bernard Shaw 's Candida .
The theatre , despite her success in films , was always to remain Kerr 's first love , even though going on stage filled her with trepidation :
I do it because it 's exactly like dressing up for the grown ups . I don 't mean to belittle acting but I 'm like a child when I 'm out there performing — shocking the grownups , enchanting them , making them laugh or cry . It 's an unbelievable terror , a kind of masochistic madness . The older you get , the easier it should be but it isn 't .
= = = Films = = =
Kerr 's first film role was in the British production Contraband in 1940 , but her scenes were left on the cutting room floor . With her next two British films — Major Barbara and Love on the Dole ( both 1941 ) — her screen future seemed assured and her performance , said James Agate of Love on the Dole , " is not within a mile of Wendy Hiller 's in the theatre , but it is a charming piece of work by a very pretty and promising beginner , so pretty and so promising that there is the usual yapping about a new star " . She went on to make Hatter 's Castle ( 1942 ) , in which she starred opposite Robert Newton and James Mason , and then played a Norwegian resistance fighter in The Day Will Dawn ( 1942 ) . She was an immediate hit with the public : British exhibitors voted her the most popular local female star at the box office .
In 1943 , she played three women in Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger 's The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp . During the filming , according to Powell 's autobiography , Powell and she became lovers : " I realised that Deborah was both the ideal and the flesh @-@ and @-@ blood woman whom I had been searching for " . Kerr made clear that her surname should be pronounced the same as " car " . To avoid confusion over pronunciation , Louis B. Mayer of MGM billed her as " Kerr rhymes with Star ! "
Although the British Army refused to co @-@ operate with the producers — and Winston Churchill thought the film would ruin wartime morale — Colonel Blimp confounded critics when it proved to be an artistic and commercial success . Powell hoped to reunite Kerr and lead actor Roger Livesey in his next film , A Canterbury Tale ( 1944 ) , but her agent had sold her contract to MGM . According to Powell , his affair with Kerr ended when she made it clear to him that she would accept an offer to go to Hollywood if one were made .
Her role as a troubled nun in the Powell and Pressburger production of Black Narcissus in 1947 did indeed bring her to the attention of Hollywood producers . The film was a hit in the US , as well as the UK , and Kerr won the New York Film Critics ' Award as Actress of the Year . British exhibitors voted her the eighth @-@ most popular local star at the box office . Soon she received the first of her Academy Award nominations for Edward , My Son , a 1949 drama set in England that co @-@ starred Spencer Tracy .
In Hollywood , Kerr 's British accent and manner led to a succession of roles portraying refined , reserved , and " proper " English ladies . Kerr , nevertheless , used any opportunity to discard her cool exterior . She starred in the 1950 adventure film King Solomon 's Mines , shot on location in Africa with Stewart Granger and Richard Carlson . This was immediately followed by her appearance in the religious epic Quo Vadis ? ( 1951 ) , shot at Cinecittà in Rome , in which she played the indomitable Lygia , a first @-@ century Christian . She then played Princess Flavia in a remake of The Prisoner of Zenda ( 1952 ) . In 1953 , Kerr " showed her theatrical mettle " as Portia in Joseph Mankiewicz 's Julius Caesar ( 1953 ) . She then departed from typecasting with a performance that brought out her sensuality , as " Karen Holmes " , the embittered military wife in Fred Zinnemann 's From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) , for which she received an Oscar nomination for Best Actress . The American Film Institute acknowledged the iconic status of the scene from that film in which Burt Lancaster and she romped illicitly and passionately amidst crashing waves on a Hawaiian beach . The organisation ranked it 20th in its list of the 100 most romantic films of all time .
Thereafter , Kerr 's career choices would make her known in Hollywood for her versatility as an actress . She played the repressed wife in The End of the Affair ( 1955 ) , with Van Johnson ; a nun in Heaven Knows , Mr. Allison ( 1957 ) opposite her long @-@ time friend Robert Mitchum ; a mama 's girl in Separate Tables ( 1958 ) opposite David Niven ; and a governess in both The Chalk Garden and The Innocents ( 1961 ) . She also portrayed an earthy Australian sheep @-@ herder 's wife in The Sundowners and appeared as lustful and beautiful screen enchantresses in both Beloved Infidel and Bonjour Tristesse .
Among her most famous roles were Anna Leonowens in the film version of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical The King and I ( 1956 ) ; and opposite Cary Grant as his shipboard romantic interest Terri McKay in the bittersweet love story An Affair to Remember ( 1957 ) . She reunited with Grant and Mitchum for a sophisticated comedy , The Grass Is Greener , and then joined Dean Martin and Frank Sinatra in a love triangle for a romantic comedy , Marriage on the Rocks . In 1966 , the producers of Carry On Screaming ! offered her a fee comparable to that paid to the rest of the cast combined , but she turned it down in favor of appearing in an aborted stage version of Flowers for Algernon .
In 1967 , Kerr starred in the comedy Casino Royale , achieving the distinction of being , at 46 , the oldest " Bond Girl " in any James Bond film , until Monica Bellucci , at the age of 50 , became a " Bond Girl " in Spectre ( 2015 ) . In 1969 , pressure of competition from younger , upcoming actresses made her agree to appear nude in John Frankenheimer 's The Gypsy Moths , the only nude scene in her career . Concern about the parts being offered to her , as well as the increasing amount of nudity included in films , led her to abandon the medium at the end of the 1960s in favour of television and theatre work .
= = = Television = = =
Kerr experienced a career resurgence on television in the early 1980s when she played the role of the nurse — played by Elsa Lanchester in the 1957 movie — in Witness for the Prosecution . Later , Kerr rejoined screen partner Robert Mitchum in Reunion at Fairborough . She also took on the role of the older Emma Harte , a tycoon , in the adaptation of Barbara Taylor Bradford 's A Woman of Substance . For this performance , Kerr was nominated for an Emmy Award .
= = Personal life = =
Kerr 's first marriage was to Squadron Leader Anthony Bartley RAF on 29 November 1945 . They had two daughters , Melanie Jane ( born 27 December 1947 ) and Francesca Ann ( born 20 December 1951 and subsequently married to the actor John Shrapnel ) . The marriage was troubled , owing to Bartley 's jealousy of his wife 's fame and financial success and because her career often took her away from home . They divorced in 1959 .
Her second marriage was to author Peter Viertel on 23 July 1960 . In marrying Viertel , she became stepmother to Viertel 's daughter , Christine Viertel . Although she long resided in Klosters , Switzerland and Marbella , Spain , she moved back to Britain to be closer to her own children as her health began to deteriorate . Her husband , however , continued to live in Marbella .
= = Death = =
Kerr died on 16 October 2007 in Botesdale , a village in Suffolk , England , from the effects of Parkinson 's disease . She was 86 . Less than three weeks later , on 4 November , her husband Peter Viertel died of cancer . At the time of Viertel 's death , director Michael Scheingraber was filming the documentary Peter Viertel : Between the Lines which would include reminiscences concerning Kerr and the Academy Awards . She is buried at Alfold .
= = Honours = =
Deborah Kerr was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1998 , but was unable to accept the honour in person because of ill health . She was also honoured in Hollywood , where , for her contributions to the motion picture industry , she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1709 Vine Street .
Kerr won a Golden Globe Award for " Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy " for The King and I in 1957 and a Henrietta Award for " World Film Favorite – Female " . She was the first performer to win the New York Film Critics Circle Award for " Best Actress " three times ( 1947 , 1957 and 1960 ) .
Although she never won a BAFTA , Oscar or Cannes Film Festival award in a competitive category , all three organisations gave Kerr honorary awards : a Cannes Film Festival Tribute in 1984 ; a BAFTA Special Award in 1991 ; and an Academy Honorary Award in 1994 .
In September and October 2010 , Josephine Botting of the British Film Institute curated the " Deborah Kerr Season " , which included around twenty of her feature films and an exhibition of posters , memorabilia and personal items loaned by her family .
Biographies of Kerr have been published by Eric Braun and , in 2010 , by the entertainment journalist Michelangelo Capua , but she has yet to receive an in @-@ depth study of her filmography , artistry or life .
= = Award nominations = =
Deborah Kerr was nominated six times for the Academy Award for Best Actress : Edward , My Son ( 1949 ) , From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) , The King and I ( 1956 ) , Heaven Knows , Mr. Allison ( 1957 ) , Separate Tables ( 1958 ) and The Sundowners ( 1960 ) . She received one Academy Honorary Award for her career in 1994 .
She was also nominated four times for the BAFTA Award for Best British Actress : The End of the Affair ( 1955 ) , Tea and Sympathy ( 1956 ) , The Sundowners ( 1961 ) and The Chalk Garden ( 1964 ) .
She received one Emmy Award nomination in 1985 for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or a Special for A Woman of Substance . She was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama for Edward , My Son ( 1949 ) , Heaven Knows , Mr. Allison ( 1957 ) and Separate Tables ( 1958 ) .
= = Filmography = =
= = Radio appearances = =
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= HMS Caesar ( 1896 ) =
HMS Caesar was a Majestic @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Royal Navy , named after the Roman military and political leader Julius Caesar . The ship was built at the Portsmouth Dockyard , starting with her keel laying in March 1895 . She was launched in September 1896 and was commissioned into the fleet in January 1898 . She was armed with a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and a secondary battery of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns . The ship had a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
Caesar served with the Mediterranean Fleet after a brief stint in the Channel Fleet . In 1905 , she resumed service with a now re @-@ organised Channel Fleet and was also part of the Atlantic Fleet for a time . In the service of the Home Fleet from 1907 , she was placed in reserve in 1912 . Following the outbreak of World War I , Caesar returned to the Channel Fleet before being transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in 1915 after a brief spell as a guard ship at Gibraltar . From 1918 to 1919 she served as a depot ship , firstly in the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas and then the Black Sea , in support of naval operations against the Bolsheviks . In this latter role , she was the last of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships to see service outside the United Kingdom . Returning to England in 1920 , she was decommissioned and sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Caesar was 421 feet ( 128 m ) long overall and had a beam of 75 ft ( 23 m ) and a draft of 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced up to 16 @,@ 060 tonnes ( 15 @,@ 810 long tons ; 17 @,@ 700 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eight coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . By 1907 – 1908 , she was re @-@ boilered with oil @-@ fired models . Her engines provided a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . The Majestics were considered to have handled well , with an easy roll , although they suffered from high fuel consumption . She had a crew of 672 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was armed with four BL 12 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns in twin turrets , one forward and one aft . The turrets were placed on circular barbettes , unlike six of her sisters , which retained earlier pear @-@ shaped barbettes . Caesar also carried twelve QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 guns . They were mounted in casemates in two gun decks amidships . She also carried sixteen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and twelve QF 2 @-@ pounder guns . She was also equipped with five 18 @-@ inch ( 450 @-@ mm ) torpedo tubes , four of which were submerged in the ship 's hull on the broadside , with the last in a deck @-@ mounted launcher on the stern . Caesar and the other ships of her class had 9 inches ( 229 mm ) of Harvey armour , which allowed equal protection with less cost in weight compared to previous types of armour . This allowed Caesar and her sisters to have a deeper and lighter belt than previous battleships without any loss in protection . The barbettes for the main battery were protected with 14 in ( 360 mm ) of armour , and the conning tower had the same thickness of steel on the sides . The ship 's armoured deck was 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 64 to 114 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
HMS Caesar was built at the Portsmouth Dockyard , with her keel laying taking place on 25 March 1895 . She was launched on 2 September 1896 , and completed in January 1898 . The ship was commissioned at Portsmouth on 13 January to serve in the Mediterranean Fleet . Before leaving for the Mediterranean , she was attached temporarily to the Channel Fleet to serve in home waters . In May 1898 , Caesar departed the United Kingdom for her Mediterranean service , undergoing a refit at Malta in 1900 – 01 . Captain George Callaghan was appointed to command her on 21 December 1901 , succeeding Captain John Ferris . She ended her Mediterranean service in October 1903 , paying off at Portsmouth on 6 October 1903 to begin a refit . Her refit completed , Caesar was commissioned at Portsmouth on 2 February 1904 to relieve her sister ship HMS Majestic as flagship of the Channel Fleet . When the Channel Fleet became the Atlantic Fleet as a result of a reorganisation on 1 January 1905 , Caesar became flagship of the Atlantic Fleet . She was relieved of this duty in March 1905 , becoming 2nd Flagship of the new Channel Fleet ( which had been the Home Fleet prior to the reorganisation ) .
On 3 June 1905 , Caesar collided with and sank the barque Afghanistan off Dungeness , suffering significant damage ; her bridge wings were carried away and the boats , davits , and net booms on her port side were badly damaged . Caesar was refitted at Devonport to repair the damage . Caesar became Flagship , Rear Admiral , Home Fleet , in December 1905 . She was relieved of this duty in February 1907 and transferred back to the Atlantic Fleet to become its temporary flagship . She served in this role until May 1907 . On 27 May 1907 , Caesar was recommissioned for service in the Devonport Division of the new Home Fleet , which had been formed in January 1907 . During this service she underwent a refit at Devonport in 1907 – 08 . In May 1909 , Caesar transferred to the Nore , temporarily serving as the flagship of Vice Admiral , 3rd and 4th Divisions , Home Fleet . In April 1911 she transferred to Devonport to serve in the 3rd Division , Home Fleet . On 16 January 1911 , Caesar was rammed by the barque Excelsior in fog at Sheerness , suffering no serious damage . In March 1912 , Caesar was placed in commissioned reserve with a nucleus crew as part of the 4th Division , Home Fleet .
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Caesar was brought back into full commission and transferred to the 7th Battle Squadron of the Channel Fleet ; the squadron was charged with the defence of the English Channel . During this service she helped in transporting the Plymouth Marine Division from Plymouth to Ostend , Belgium , and covered the passage of the British Expeditionary Force from England to France in September 1914 . In December 1914 , Caesar was detached from the 7th Battle Squadron and transferred to Gibraltar to serve as guard ship and gunnery training ship there . In July 1915 , she transferred to the North America and West Indies Station , serving as guard ship and gunnery training ship at Bermuda and patrolling the Atlantic .
Her North America and West Indies Station service ended in September 1918 , when Caesar was transferred to relieve HMS Andromache ( the old second @-@ class cruiser and former minelayer HMS Latona ) as flagship of the Senior Naval Officer , British Adriatic Squadron , at Corfu , the last British pre @-@ dreadnought to serve as a flagship . In September 1918 , Caesar went to Malta for refit as a depot ship , during which she was equipped with repair shops and with leisure facilities such as recreation rooms and reading rooms . This conversion completed , she took up duties in October 1918 at Mudros as depot ship for the British Aegean Squadron . In January 1919 she was transferred to Port Said , Egypt , for service as a depot ship there . In June 1919 , Caesar transited the Dardanelles and transferred to the Black Sea , where she served as a depot ship for British naval forces operating against the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution . In this service she became the last British pre @-@ dreadnought to serve operationally overseas . Caesar returned to the United Kingdom in March 1920 , paid off at Devonport on 23 April 1920 , and was placed on the disposal list . She was sold to a British firm for scrapping on 8 November 1921 , then resold to a German firm in July 1922 and towed from Devonport to Germany to be scrapped .
= = Endnotes = =
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= Siege of Godesberg =
The Siege of Godesberg , 18 November – 17 December 1583 , was the first major siege of the Cologne War ( 1583 – 1589 ) . Seeking to wrest control of an important fortification , Bavarian and mercenary soldiers surrounded the Godesberg ( " Wotan 's Mountain " ) , and the village then of the same name , now Bad Godesberg ( " Wotan 's Mountain Spa " ) , located at its foot . On top of the mountain sat a formidable fortress , similarly named Godesburg ( " Wotan 's Castle " ) , built in the early 13th century during a contest over the election of two competing archbishops .
Towering over the Rhine valley , the Godesburg 's strategic position commanded the roads leading to and from Bonn , the Elector of Cologne 's capital city , and Cologne , the region 's economic powerhouse . Over time , the Electors strengthened its walls and heightened its towers . They added a small residence in the 14th century and the donjon ( also called a Bergfried or keep ) developed as a stronghold of the Electoral archives and valuables . By the mid @-@ 16th century , the Godesburg was considered nearly impregnable and had become a symbol of the dual power of the Prince @-@ electors and Archbishops of Cologne , one of the wealthiest ecclesiastical territories in the Holy Roman Empire . The Cologne War , a feud between the Protestant Elector , Gebhard , Truchsess of Waldburg , and the Catholic Elector , Ernst of Bavaria , was yet another schismatic episode in the Electoral and archdiocesan history .
The Godesburg came under attack from Bavarian forces in November 1583 . It resisted a lengthy cannonade by the attacking army ; finally , sappers tunneled into the basalt core of the mountain , placed 680 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) of powder into the tunnel and blew up a significant part of the fortifications . The explosion killed many of the defending troops , but the resulting rubble impeded the attackers ' progress , and the remaining defenders continued to offer staunch resistance . Only when some of the attackers entered the castle 's inner courtyard through the latrine system were the Bavarians able to overcome their opponents . The Godesburg 's commander and some surviving defenders took refuge in the keep ; using prisoners held in the dungeons as hostages , the commander negotiated safe passage for himself , his wife and his lieutenant . The others who were left in the keep — men , women and children — were killed . Nearby Bonn fell to the Bavarians the following month .
= = Background = =
The Cologne War , 1583 – 1589 , was triggered by the 1582 conversion of the Archbishop @-@ Prince Elector of Cologne , Gebhard , Truchsess of Waldburg , to Calvinism , and his subsequent marriage to Agnes of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben in 1583 . When he refused to relinquish the Electorate , a faction of clerics in the Cologne Cathedral chapter elected another archbishop , Ernst of Bavaria , of the House of Wittelsbach .
Initially , troops of the competing Archbishops of Cologne fought for control of the Electorate ; within a few months , the local feud between the two parties expanded to include supporters from the Electorate of the Palatinate on the Protestant side , and the Duchy of Bavaria on the Catholic side . Italian mercenaries hired with papal gold augmented the Catholic force . In 1586 , the conflict expanded further , with direct involvement of the Spanish Netherlands for the Catholic side , and tertiary involvement from Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England on the Protestant side .
At its most fundamental , it was a local feud between two competing dynastic interests — the Seneschals ( Truchsess ) of the House of Waldburg and the dukes of the House of Wittelsbach — that acquired religious overtones . The dispute had broad implications in the political , social , and dynastic balance of the Holy Roman Empire . It tested the principle of ecclesiastical reservation established in the religious Peace of Augsburg ( 1555 ) . The 1555 agreement settled religious problems in the Empire with the principle Cuius regio , eius religio : the subjects of a secular prince followed the religion of their sovereign . Ecclesiastical reservation excluded the territories of the imperial prelates ( bishops , archbishops , abbots or abbesses ) from cuius regio , eius religio . In an ecclesiastical territory , if the prelate changed his religion , his subjects did not have to do so . Instead , the prelate was expected to resign from his post . Problematically , the 1555 agreement did not specify this detail .
= = = Controversy of conversion = = =
Agnes of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben was a Protestant canoness ( meaning that she was a woman living in a religious community , but not bound by a perpetual vow ) at a convent in Gerresheim , today a district of Düsseldorf . After 1579 , she maintained a lengthy liaison with the Archbishop of Cologne , Gebhard of Waldburg @-@ Trauchburg , Truchsess of Waldburg . In defense of her honor , two of her brothers convinced Gebhard to marry her , and Gebhard considered converting to Calvinism for her . Rumors spread throughout the Electorate of his possible conversion , and that he might refuse to relinquish his position . The Electorate had overcome similar problems . Hermann of Wied had converted to Protestantism and resigned in 1547 . Salentin of Isenburg @-@ Grenzau , Gebhard 's immediate predecessor , had resigned upon his marriage . In December 1582 , Gebhard announced his conversion and extended equal religious rights to Protestants in the Electorate . In February , he married Agnes . At the end of March 1583 , the Pope excommunicated him . The Cathedral chapter promptly elected a new archbishop , Ernst of Bavaria .
With two competing archbishops , both claiming the see and the Electorate , the contenders and their supporters gathered the troops . In numbers , Ernst had the advantage . The Pope hired 5 @,@ 000 mercenaries from the Farnese family to support the new Elector . Ernst 's brother , the Duke of Bavaria , provided an army and Ernst arranged for his brother Ferdinand 's army to take possession of the so @-@ called Oberstift , the southern territory of the Electorate ; his troops plundered many of its villages and towns .
With the support of Adolf von Neuenahr and the Count Solms , Gebhard secured some of the northern and eastern portions of the Electorate , where he held a geographical advantage in his proximity to the rebellious Dutch provinces . In the south , however , Ferdinand 's troops hunted the soldiers Gebhard had left in possession of such Oberstift villages as Ahrweiler and Linz ; Gebhard 's troops were forced out of their strongholds , hunted through the countryside , and eventually captured . By the fall of 1583 , most of the Oberstift had fallen to Ferdinand 's army and many of Gebhard 's erstwhile supporters — including his own brother — had returned home . In some cases , they honored parole agreements made after their capture . A strong supporter , Johann Casimir of Simmern , brother of the powerful Louis VI , Elector Palatine , returned to the Palatine when his brother died . Other supporters were frustrated by Gebhard 's chronic inability to pay his troops , or intimidated by threats of Rudolf II , Holy Roman Emperor . By late October 1583 , most of the Oberstift had fallen , although he still held the Godesburg , located near the villages of Godesberg and Friesdorf , the formidable fortress at Bonn , and the fortified village of Poppelsdorf .
= = Fortress = =
The Godesburg foundation stone was laid on 15 October 1210 upon the order of Dietrich of Hengebach , the Archbishop of Cologne , who was himself in disputed possession of the Electorate and fighting to keep his position . Although his competitors deposed Dietrich in 1212 , his successors finished and enlarged the fortress ; it featured in chronicles of the subsequent centuries as both a symbolic and physical embodiment of the power of the archbishop of Cologne in his many struggles for regional authority in secular and ecclesiastical matters . Furthermore , by the late 14th century , the fortress had become the repository of the Elector 's valuables and archives . By the mid @-@ 16th century , with the inclusion of residential facilities , the castle was popularly considered the Lieblingssitz , or the favorite seat ( home ) , of the Electors .
The fortification originally had been constructed in the medieval style . In the reign of Siegfried II of Westerburg ( 1275 – 1295 ) , it successfully resisted a five @-@ week siege by the Count of Cleves . Successive archbishops continued to improve the defenses with stronger walls , adding levels to the central Bergfried , which was cylindrical , not square like many medieval donjons . In addition to the construction of the small residence , these archbishops also expanded the inner works to include dungeons and a chapel ; they fortified the walls with towers and crenelations , added a curtain wall , and improved the roads that led to the entrance in a series of switchbacks . By the 1580s , the Godesburg was not only the favorite residence of the Elector , but also an elaborate stone fortress . Although it retained some of its medieval character , it had been enhanced partially in the style made popular by Italian military architects . The physical location on the mountain did not permit the star @-@ shaped trace italienne ; nevertheless , the Godesburg 's cordons of thick , rounded walls and massive iron @-@ studded gates made its defenders formidable adversaries . Its height , some 120 meters ( 400 ft ) above the Rhine on the peak of a steep hill , made artillery assault difficult . The approach road , with its hairpin turns , made battering rams impractical . The turns , overlooked by the castle wall , made foot assault dangerous and slow . Defenders could fire down on attackers from many angles .
Fortifications such as this , and the star @-@ shaped fortresses more commonly found in the flatter lands of the Dutch Provinces , increasingly made 16th @-@ century warfare both difficult and expensive ; victory was not simply a matter of winning a battle over the enemy 's army . Victory required traveling from one fortified and armed city to another and investing time and money in one of two outcomes . Ideally , a show of extraordinary force convinced city leaders to surrender . If the show of force did not intimidate a city , the alternative was an expensive siege that reduced the city to rubble and ended with storming the ruins . In the case of the former , when a city capitulated , it would have to quarter troops at its own expense , called execution , but the soldiers would not be permitted to plunder . In the case of the latter , no quarter would be given to the defenders and the victorious soldiers were released to pillage , plunder , and sack .
= = Investment of the Godesburg = =
On 13 – 14 November , Ferdinand of Bavaria ( Ernst 's brother ) and the Count of Arenberg took the Elector 's castle at Poppelsdorf ; on 18 November , they moved to attack the Godesburg . This fortress was considerably stronger than the one at Poppelsdorf and of supreme strategic importance for the projected attack on Bonn , the capital city of the Electorate .
The Godesburg was defended by Lieutenant Colonel Felix Buchner , Captain of the Guard Eduard Sudermann , a garrison of soldiers from the Netherlands , and a few cannons . Sudermann was a patrician from Cologne , and the son of Cologne 's Bürgermeister ( mayor ) Dr. Heinrich Sudermann ( 1520 – 1591 ) , a jurist and ambassador , and one of the most influential men in the imperial city and throughout the merchant capitals of the northern German states . According to contemporary sources , around 180 people lived in the facility , including peasants , the Dutch soldiers defending it , and an unknown number of women and children . The fortress was also home to several of Gebhard 's prisoners . The Abbot of Heisterbach , Johann von St. Vith , had been taken prisoner in July 1583 when Sudermann 's troops sacked several villages in the region and plundered the Heisterbach monastery . Other prisoners held in the Godesburg included Gebhard von Bothmer , the suffragan ( auxiliary bishop ) of Hildesheim , and Captain Ranucino from Florence , the captured commander of Deutz , across the Rhine from Cologne . To besiege the fortress , Ferdinand brought more than 400 Fussvolk ( foot soldiers ) and five squadrons of mounted soldiers , plus a half dozen heavy caliber cannons , called culverins . His soldiers , among them Spanish and Italian mercenaries , took up quarters in neighboring villages , a process accompanied by pillage , arson , murder and rape . On 18 November , the first day of the siege , Ferdinand sent a trumpeter and formally asked the fortress to surrender ; the defending garrison replied that they had sworn their allegiance to Gebhard and would fight to the death for him .
= = = Cannonade ( 18 – 28 November 1583 ) = = =
In response , Ferdinand took control of the village at the foot of the mountain and encircled the site . He surveyed the locale for two days to identify the most promising angle of attack . The customary equipage of siege warfare — the siege tower , the trebuchet , and the crossbow — would be ineffective . The distance between the curtain wall and the valley floor and the angle of the hill placed the Godesburg out of range . The besiegers had no choice but to use expensive artillery , although the angle would decrease its effectiveness . Ferdinand initially placed three cannons at the foot of the mountain , in Godesberg village . Daily , cannonballs and mortar shells smashed against the castle 's walls . Nightly , the defenders repaired the damage . At the following sunrise , the assault began anew . Ferdinand 's cannons were ineffective against the fortification , as were his mortars ; in the course of the cannonade , return fire even managed to destroy a few of his own pieces . From his place of safety in the north , Gebhard understood well the potential of the loss of the Godesburg , yet he was relatively helpless to help his garrison . In an effort to garner financial support from the Protestant states , in November 1583 he wrote to the Archbishop of Canterbury , in London : " Verily , the Roman Antichrist moves every stone to oppress us and our churches ... "
Although financial help from the English was not forthcoming , Ferdinand could not break the defenses . On 28 November , ten days after the beginning of the siege , artillery fire had wasted several thousand pounds of powder in the ineffectual bombardment . Ferdinand moved his cannons to an elevated position in a hillside vineyard to the west of the Godesburg . The height offered a more advantageous trajectory with which to fire on the walls of the Godesburg 's outer ward . Within a few hours , his cannonade had breached them . Ferdinand sent three Italian experts to examine the breach and to advise him on the next step ; the Italians , having come under fire during their examination , concluded that storming the castle would incur many casualties . The defenders still had the advantage of height and would be able to shoot at attackers from multiple towers and defensive positions inside the walls . Ferdinand decided not to pursue this tactic . Unable to storm the castle , Ferdinand considered two options : abandon the siege , which he could not do , or blow up the fortress . This option of last resort usually made a fortress unusable . Furthermore while he considered his options , the defenders repaired the breaches caused by the cannonade and reinforced the walls , making them even stronger than they had been . The defenders also removed the roof of the St. Michael 's Chapel in the castle 's outer ward , filled the chapel with dirt to reinforce its walls , and placed some of their artillery pieces within the walls .
= = = Sapping ( completed 16 December 1583 ) = = =
Ferdinand reluctantly ordered saps to be dug into the side of the mountain . The sapping was difficult and dangerous and the sappers worked under continuous attack from the castle 's defenders , who fired on them with small arms and the castle 's artillery and dropped rocks and debris on their heads . The forced labor of local peasants minimized losses among Ferdinand 's own troops , but many of the peasants perished in the effort .
On 6 December , the sappers reached the south @-@ eastern side of the fortress 's outermost wall and then spent another ten days undermining the basalt on which the castle stood ; they completed their work on 16 December and placed 680 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) of powder into the mine . Ferdinand reported on the siege 's progress in a letter to his older brother , Duke Wilhelm , dated 15 December 1583 : " The fortress stands on solid rock . ... [ Y ] esterday we had reached the outer wall of the castle , and in a day or two we hope to send the fortress into the sky . "
= = = Destruction of the fortress ( 17 December 1583 ) = = =
On 17 December , Ferdinand again asked the castle 's defenders to surrender . They replied that they did not know the meaning of the word and would hold the Godesburg to the last man . A report dated 23 December 1583 relates that , having given Ferdinand a rude reply , the defenders went back to lunch .
Ferdinand ordered 400 men to enter the saps ; these men would storm the castle once the mine had been detonated . The remainder of his cavalry and foot soldiers were to wait in the fields below . Some sources assert that the fuse was lit at around 1 : 00 pm , although the 19th @-@ century local historian Heinrich Joseph Floß argued that these sources are mistaken , and that the explosion clearly occurred in the morning . All sources agree that the explosion , with a dreadful crack , propelled chunks of the towers and walls high into the air . Almost half the Godesburg collapsed instantly . According to a newspaper report dated 13 January 1584 , debris raining on the valley below damaged several houses , and destroyed some of them completely .
Amidst the flames and rubble , Arenberg 's and Ferdinand 's troops tried to storm the castle , but found their way blocked by masses of debris created by their own explosives . Furthermore , although close to half of the garrison had perished in the explosion and subsequent collapse of the fortifications , those who remained offered staunch resistance by throwing rocks on the approaching attackers , causing a large number of casualties . In frustration , 40 or 50 of the attackers tied together two ladders and crawled through the sluice @-@ ways of the garderobe ( latrines ) that emptied on the hillside , thus gaining access to the interior of the castle . There they killed around 20 of the defenders in fierce fighting ; the remaining defenders , approximately 70 men , among them Buchner and Sudermann , the garrison commander and his lieutenant , sought refuge in the castle 's keep . In this way , Ferdinand 's infantry at last gained unopposed access to the fortress . Storming the castle had taken about two hours .
Out of options , Buchner opened negotiations , using those interned in the castle as hostages . Presenting them at the keep 's door , he made clear that they would be killed unless Ferdinand promised to spare his , his wife 's and Sudermann 's lives . Ferdinand acceded to Buchner 's demand ; some sources maintain that the Abbot of Heisterbach , one of the prisoners , had been treated decently by Buchner throughout his imprisonment in the castle and himself asked for Buchner 's life to be spared . The prisoners were released . With much difficulty , given the state of mind of the besiegers , Ferdinand and Arenberg brought the Buchners and Sudermann out of the castle alive . Once the Buchners , Sudermann , and the hostages were clear of the fortress , Ferdinand released his troops , who were in an ugly mood and hungry for blood and plunder . All those who remained in the keep — soldiers , men , women and children — were killed , some inside the keep , some in the courtyard below ; the slaughter lasted well into the night . The castle 's 178 dead were buried in two mass graves whose locations remain unknown . Among those who perished in the destruction and storming of the castle was also one of the prisoners , a vicar from Hildesheim . The Hildesheim suffragan , too , was not among the rescued prisoners ; he had died during his incarceration , a short while before the castle was stormed .
Gebhard lost an important stronghold in the Oberstift and Ernst 's forces had acquired a ruin . The residence was unusable , and the fortifications were mere rubble . The keep had survived the blast and various armies used it as a watch tower in the Thirty Years ' War . Ernst 's troops , under his brother 's command , saturated the region , and the 7 @.@ 3 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) between Godesberg and Bonn bore a greater resemblance to a military camp than to a road . Walloon riders and squadrons of Italian cavalry , paid for by the pope , galloped back and forth . Forty companies of infantry trudged toward Bonn , including Walloons and Bavarians . They looked forward to besieging Bonn , the Elector 's capital city , to which they laid siege on 21 December 1583 , and which they took on 28 January 1584 .
= = Aftermath = =
The siege of the Godesburg and its subsequent destruction were a mere taste of things to come . It was the first of many sieges in the Cologne War , and the castle 's fall eventually led to the fall not just of Bonn , but of several other principal towns and cities in the Electorate of Cologne : Hülchrath , Neuss and Werl . Several smaller fortified towns such as Gelsenkirchen , Unkel and Brühl were also either heavily damaged or destroyed before , during and after the siege . In addition to damage to the towns and cities , Ernst 's supporters managed to restrict imports and exports to and from the Electorate , not only crippling Gebhard 's financial resources but resulting in economic hardship for the inhabitants .
Advances in military architecture over the previous century had led to the construction or enhancement of fortresses that could withstand the pounding of cannonballs and mortar shells . For both Gebhard and Ernst , winning the war required mobilizing enough men to encircle a seemingly endless array of enemy artillery fortresses . These could be protected with relatively small garrisons , but taking them required both expensive artillery and enough men to storm the battlements . Furthermore , the victor had to maintain and defend all his possessions as they were acquired . Even the ruin of the Godesburg required a garrison and a defensive strategy ; as a strategic point on the north @-@ south road from Bonn to Koblenz , it came under siege in 1586 and again in 1588 . The Cologne War , similar to the Dutch Revolt , was not a war of assembled armies facing each other on a field , but a war of artillery sieges . It required men who could operate the machinery of war , which meant extensive economic resources for soldiers to build and operate the siege works , and a political and military will to keep the machinery of war operating .
The destruction of so prominent a fortress was also news . When Frans Hogenberg and Georg Braun compiled their Civitates Orbis Terrarum , a collection of important scenes and locales , they included Hogenberg 's engraving of its destruction as not only an important sight , but an important event ( see Info Box , top ) . Hogenberg lived in Bonn and Cologne in 1583 , and likely saw the site himself . After overwhelming the Godesburg , the Bavarians found a large marble slab in the ruins : the castle 's foundation stone , which had been displaced by the explosion . The stone is a block of black marble with a Latin inscription commemorating the construction of the fortress by Dietrich I von Hengebach in 1210 : ANNO · D ( OMI ) NI · M · C · C · X · GUDENSBERG · FUNDATUM · E ( ST ) · A · TEODERICO · EP ( ISCOP ) O · I ( N ) · DIE · MAUROR ( UM ) · M ( A ) R ( TYRUM ) . A gold inscription was added to the back of the stone , noting that it had been found " on the very top of the blasted wall . " Ferdinand took the stone to Munich , where it was kept in a museum beside a fresco painting in an arcade commemorating the siege . Today , the foundation stone is in the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Bonn .
= = = Long @-@ term consequences = = =
Gebhard 's eventual defeat changed the balance of power in the Electoral College of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1589 , Ernst of Bavaria became uncontested Prince @-@ elector of Cologne , the first Wittelsbach to hold the position . Wittelsbach authority in northwestern German territories endured until the mid @-@ 18th century , with the election of a succession of Bavarian princes to the archbishop 's throne and to the Prince @-@ Elector 's seat . This gave the family two voices in the choice of imperial candidates , which had ramifications in the 18th century . In 1740 , Charles Albert , Duke of Bavaria , laid claim to the imperial title ; his brother Klemens August of Bavaria , then the Archbishop and Prince @-@ elector , cast his vote for Charles and personally crowned him at Frankfurt am Main . The shift of the emperor 's orb from the House of Habsburg to the Wittelsbach family , albeit a brief event , was only resolved by the ascension of Maximilian III Joseph who , with the Treaty of Füssen , eschewed any imperial pretensions .
Gebhard 's defeat also changed the religious balance in the northwestern states . Although the Peace of Augsburg ( 1555 ) had addressed earlier the problem of religious pluralism , the solution potentially converted simple , and usually local , legal disputes into dynastic and religious warfare , as the Cologne War itself demonstrated . The result of the Cologne War gave the Counter Reformation a foothold in the lower Rhine . Ernst was a product of Jesuit education . Once his position was secured , he invited Jesuits into the territory to help re @-@ establish Catholicism , a task which the Order approached zealously . They ejected Protestant pastors from parishes , sometimes by force , and re @-@ established catechism education and pastoral visitations . Even when communities appeared to be reconverted , the Jesuits maintained strict supervision to identify recalcitrant Protestants or backsliders . The Jesuit reintroduction of Catholicism postponed the solution of Germany 's religious problems for another half century .
Finally , the German tradition of local and regional autonomy created structural and cultural differences in the Holy Roman Empire , compared to the increasingly centralized authority of such other European states as France , England , and Spain . The unabashed intervention of Spanish , French , Italian , Dutch , English and Scots mercenaries in the war , as well as the influence of papal gold , changed the dynamic of internal German confessional and dynastic disputes . The great " players " of the Early Modern European political stage realized that they could enhance their own positions vis @-@ a @-@ vis one another by assisting , promoting or undermining local and regional competition among the German princes , as they did in the feud between Gebhard and Ernst . Conversely , German princes , dukes , and counts realized that they could acquire an edge over their competitors by promoting the interests of powerful neighbors .
The scale of involvement of such external mercenary armies as Spain 's Army of Flanders set a precedent that internationalized contests of local autonomy and religious issues in the German states , a problem not settled until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 . Despite that settlement , German states remained vulnerable to both external intervention and religious division , as they were in the Cologne War .
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= Daniel Craig =
Daniel Wroughton Craig ( born 2 March 1968 ) is an English actor . Craig trained at the National Youth Theatre and graduated from the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in 1991 , before beginning his career on stage . His film debut was in the drama The Power of One ( 1992 ) . Other early appearances were in the Disney family film A Kid in King Arthur 's Court ( 1995 ) and the biographical film Elizabeth ( 1998 ) , as well as in the historical war drama television series Sharpe 's Eagle ( 1993 ) and the action @-@ adventure drama series Zorro . Cast as the fictional British secret agent James Bond in October 2005 , his first film in the role , Casino Royale , was released internationally in November 2006 .
Craig 's appearances in the British television film Love Is the Devil : Study for a Portrait of Francis Bacon ( 1998 ) , the indie war film The Trench ( 1999 ) , and the drama Some Voices ( 2000 ) attracted the film industry 's attention . This led to roles in bigger productions such as the action film Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) , the crime thriller Road to Perdition ( 2002 ) , the crime thriller Layer Cake ( 2004 ) , and the Steven Spielberg historical drama Munich ( 2005 ) . Craig achieved international fame when chosen as the sixth actor to play the role of Ian Fleming 's James Bond in the official film series , taking over from Pierce Brosnan in 2005 . Although his casting was initially greeted with scepticism , his debut was highly acclaimed and earned him a BAFTA award nomination , with Casino Royale becoming the highest @-@ grossing in the series at the time . Quantum of Solace followed two years later .
Craig 's third Bond film , Skyfall , premiered in 2012 and is currently the highest @-@ grossing film in the series , was the highest @-@ grossing film in the UK until 2015 and the twelfth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time . Craig 's fourth Bond film , Spectre , premiered in 2015 . In 2006 , he joined the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . Since taking the role of Bond , he has continued to star in other films , including the World War II film Defiance ( 2008 ) , science fiction Western Cowboys & Aliens ( 2010 ) , and the English @-@ language adaptation of Stieg Larsson 's mystery thriller The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 ) . Craig also made a guest appearance as Bond in the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games , alongside Queen Elizabeth II .
= = Early life = =
Craig was born in Chester , Cheshire . His mother , Carol Olivia ( née Williams ) , was an art teacher , and his father , Timothy John Wroughton Craig , was the landlord of the pubs Ring o ' Bells in Frodsham , Cheshire and the Boot Inn in Tarporley , Cheshire , having served as a midshipman in the Merchant Navy . Both of Craig 's parents were of part Welsh descent . He also has distant French Huguenot ancestry . Huguenot minister Daniel Chamier is among his ancestors , as is Sir William Burnaby , 1st Baronet . Craig 's middle name , Wroughton , comes from his great @-@ great @-@ grandmother Grace Matilda Wroughton .
Raised on the Wirral Peninsula , Craig attended primary school in Frodsham and Hoylake , Merseyside . Later , he attended Hilbre High School in West Kirby , Merseyside , along with his older sister Lea ( born 1965 ) , after failing his Eleven plus . When his parents divorced , Craig and his sister lived with their mother , moving to Liverpool . Upon finishing his compulsory secondary school education at the age of 16 , he briefly joined Calday Grange Grammar School as a sixth form student . He played rugby union for Hoylake RFC .
Craig began acting in school plays at the age of six , and was introduced to serious acting by attending the Everyman Theatre in nearby Liverpool city centre with his mother . At the age of 16 , Craig was admitted to the National Youth Theatre , leaving school and moving to London , where he worked part @-@ time in restaurants to finance his training . Later on , after multiple attempts at auditioning for drama schools , he was accepted at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama at the Barbican , where he graduated in 1991 after three years of study under Colin McCormack .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Overview = = =
In Craig 's first screen role , he played an Afrikaner in The Power of One in 1992 . He then appeared as Joe in the Royal National Theatre 's production of Tony Kushner 's Angels in America in November 1993 . Also in 1993 , Craig was featured in an episode of Yorkshire Television 's Heartbeat , which aired 31 October 1993 . An early starring role was as ' Geordie ' in the BBC 's 1996 drama Our Friends in the North , with early film roles being as Angelina Jolie 's rival and love interest in Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) , before appearing in Sam Mendes 's movie Road to Perdition ( 2002 ) , with Tom Hanks and Paul Newman . Other leading film roles include Sword of Honour ( 2001 ) , The Mother ( 2003 ) with Anne Reid , Sylvia ( 2003 ) with Gwyneth Paltrow , Layer Cake ( 2004 ) with Sienna Miller , Enduring Love ( 2004 ) with Rhys Ifans , Steven Spielberg 's Munich ( 2005 ) with Eric Bana , Infamous and Casino Royale ( 2006 ) , The Golden Compass ( 2007 ) , Quantum of Solace , Defiance ( 2008 ) , Cowboys & Aliens ( 2011 ) , The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 ) , Dream House ( 2011 ) , Skyfall ( 2012 ) and Spectre ( 2015 ) . The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences extended a membership invitation to Craig in 2006 .
= = = James Bond ( 2005 – present ) = = =
In 2005 , Craig was contacted by Eon Productions to portray James Bond . He stated he " was aware of the challenges " of the Bond franchise which he considered " a big machine that makes a lot of money " . He aimed at bringing more " emotional depth " to the character . Born in 1968 , Craig is the first actor to portray James Bond to have been born after the Bond series started , and after the death of Ian Fleming , the novels ' writer . Significant controversy followed the decision , as it was doubted if the producers had made the right choice . Throughout the entire production period internet campaigns expressed their dissatisfaction and threatened to boycott the film in protest .
The 5 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 178 cm ) blond Craig was not considered by some protesters to fit the tall , dark Bond portrayed by the previous Bond actors , and to which viewers had apparently become accustomed . Although the choice of Craig was controversial , numerous actors publicly voiced their support , most notably , four of the five actors who had previously portrayed Bond – Pierce Brosnan , Timothy Dalton , Sean Connery and Roger Moore – called his casting a good decision . George Lazenby has since voiced his approval of Craig also . Clive Owen , who had been linked to the role , also spoke in defence of Craig .
The first film , Casino Royale , premiered 14 November 2006 , and grossed a total of US $ 594 @,@ 239 @,@ 066 worldwide , which made it the highest @-@ grossing Bond film until the release of Skyfall . After the film was released , Craig 's performance was highly acclaimed . As production of Casino Royale reached its conclusion , producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced that pre @-@ production work had already begun on the 22nd Bond film .
After several months of speculation as to the release date , Wilson and Broccoli officially announced on 20 July 2006 , that the follow @-@ up film , Quantum of Solace , was to be released on 7 November 2008 , and that Craig would play Bond with an option for a third film . On 25 October 2007 , MGM CEO Harry Sloan revealed at the Forbes Meet II Conference that Craig had signed on to make four more Bond films , through to Bond 25 .
The planned 19 April 2010 release of Craig 's third Bond film ( the 23rd overall in the series ) was delayed , because of financial troubles with MGM , but the film ( Skyfall ) was released on 23 October 2012 , and was part of the year @-@ long celebration of the 50th anniversary of Dr. No . On 8 September 2012 , Bond producers announced Craig had signed on for two future Bond films , meaning he will star as 007 in at least five films , making him the third longest @-@ serving Bond after Roger Moore who starred in seven films , and Sean Connery who starred in six . Craig 's fourth Bond film , Spectre , began filming in December 2014 and was released on 26 October 2015 .
Craig has described his portrayal of Bond as an anti @-@ hero : " The question I keep asking myself while playing the role is , ' Am I the good guy or just a bad guy who works for the good side ? ' Bond 's role , after all , is that of an assassin when you come down to it . I have never played a role in which someone 's dark side shouldn 't be explored . I don 't think it should be confusing by the end of the film , but during the film you should be questioning who he is . " Craig has stated that his own favourite previous Bond actor is Sean Connery , but says , " I 'd never copy somebody else . I would never do an impression of anybody else or try and improve on what they did . That would be a pointless exercise for me . " His own favourite Bond film is From Russia with Love . On an episode of The South Bank Show , Connery divulged his thoughts on Craig 's casting as Bond , whom he described as " fantastic , marvelous in the part " . When told that Craig had taken particular note of his performances , Connery said that he was " flattered " and that Craig really gets the " danger element " to Bond 's character . Craig has remarked that Bond is " ... actually a misogynist ... A lot of women are drawn to him chiefly because he embodies a certain kind of danger and never sticks around for too long . "
= = = = Voice @-@ overs in James Bond video games = = = =
Craig lent his voice and likeness as James Bond for both the Wii game GoldenEye 007 , an enhanced remake of the 1997 game for the Nintendo 64 , and James Bond 007 : Blood Stone , an original game for Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Nintendo DS , and Microsoft Windows .
= = = Other projects = = =
In 1999 , Craig starred as Richard in a TV drama called Shockers : The Visitor . He portrayed Lord Asriel in The Golden Compass , the 2007 film adaptation of Philip Pullman 's novel . Eva Green , who played Bond girl Vesper Lynd in Casino Royale , also starred in the film , although she did not appear in any scenes with Craig . In a stage version of the book , Asriel had previously been played by Timothy Dalton , one of Craig 's predecessors in the role of James Bond .
In early 2001 , Craig expressed an interest in being a part of the Star Trek franchise , professing his love of the series to the World Entertainment News Network and a desire to have a " stint in the TV show or a film . It 's been a secret ambition of mine for years . " On 16 March 2007 , Craig made a cameo appearance as himself in a sketch with Catherine Tate who appeared in the guise of her character Elaine Figgis from The Catherine Tate Show . The sketch was made for the BBC Red Nose Day 2007 fundraising programme .
In 2008 's Defiance , he played Tuvia Bielski , a Jewish resistance fighter in the forests of Belarus during World War II who saved 1 @,@ 200 people . In 2009 Del Monte Foods launched an ice pop moulded to resemble Craig emerging from the sea . He co @-@ starred with Hugh Jackman in a limited engagement of the drama A Steady Rain , on Broadway , which played from 10 September through 6 December 2009 at the Schoenfeld Theatre . His performance received praise from the New York Times , with the reviewer writing " Mr. Craig , a highly reputable stage actor in London ( “ Angels in America , ” “ A Number ” ) before he became the screen ’ s sixth James Bond , creates a more complete portrait as Joey . "
In August 2010 , Craig was cast as crusading journalist Mikael Blomkvist in David Fincher 's 2011 adaptation of Stieg Larsson 's novel The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo . In 2011 , he starred in Dream House , a psychological thriller directed by Jim Sheridan and co @-@ starring Rachel Weisz , Naomi Watts and Marton Csokas . It garnered mostly negative reviews and low box office results . Craig co @-@ starred with Harrison Ford and Olivia Wilde in Cowboys & Aliens , an American science fiction Western film , based on Scott Mitchell Rosenberg 's 2006 graphic novel of the same name .
Craig hosted the American late @-@ night live television sketch comedy Saturday Night Live on 6 October 2012 . He and his wife starred in the Broadway play titled Betrayal . It began performances in October 2013 , and continued until January 2014 . Despite mixed reviews , it grossed $ 17 @.@ 5 million , becoming the second highest broadway play of 2013 .
Craig was set to star in the courtroom drama The Whole Truth directed by Courtney Hunt . In April 2014 just a few days before filming was set to commence he dropped out of the project for unknown reasons replaced a month later by Keanu Reeves .
= = Personal life = =
In 1992 , Craig married actress Fiona Loudon , with whom he had a daughter , Ella . The marriage ended in divorce in 1994 .
After his divorce , he was in a seven @-@ year relationship with German actress Heike Makatsch , ending in 2001 . He subsequently dated film producer Satsuki Mitchell from 2005 until 2010 .
Craig and actress Rachel Weisz had been friends for many years , and worked together on the movie Dream House . They began dating in December 2010 and married on 22 June 2011 , in a private New York City ceremony , with four guests in attendance , including Craig 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter and Weisz 's 5 @-@ year @-@ old son , Henry .
In October 2008 , Craig paid £ 4 million for an apartment in a converted old house in Primrose Hill near Regent 's Park , London . He also has a house in Sunninghill outside Ascot . He is an avid fan of Premier League football club Liverpool F.C. , as well as a rugby fan and former player , having travelled to Australia in 2013 to watch the British & Irish Lions tour .
Daniel Craig made a unique place for himself in the history of Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS fundraising 8 December 2009 , when it was announced that they had raised $ 1 @,@ 549 @,@ 953 in the 21st annual Gypsy of the Year competition , from six weeks of curtain appeals at their hit Broadway drama , A Steady Rain .
He is involved with multiple charities including S.A.F.E Kenya , which uses street theatre to address social issues . He is also involved with the Opportunity Network , which provides access to education for low @-@ income students in New York . In 2011 , he collaborated with Dame Judi Dench to highlight gender inequality for International Women 's Day . In August 2014 , he added his name to a letter to British broadcasters calling for better representation for ethnic minorities .
In April 2015 , the United Nations appointed Craig the first global advocate for the elimination of mines and explosive hazards . The role will involve raising awareness for the UN Mine Action Service ( UNMAS ) , and political and financial support for the cause . UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon told Craig : " You have been given a licence to kill , I 'm now giving you a licence to save . "
= = Filmography = =
= = Theatre performances = =
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= Nordberg ( station ) =
Nordberg was a station on the Sognsvann Line of the Oslo Metro in Oslo , Norway . It was opened on 10 October 1934 , and was located between Østhorn and Holstein stations , in a level crossing with the steep road Borgestadveien . The station saw several accidents , and was closed on 5 May 1992 when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded to rapid transit standard . An underpass was constructed to allow pedestrians pass under the tracks .
= = History = =
Nordberg station opened on 10 October 1934 as a station on the Sognsvann Line . The line was built by the municipally owned company Akersbanerne . The line was double @-@ tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll , and single @-@ tracked from there to Sognsvann . In 1939 , the section Korsvoll – Sognsvann was upgraded to double track , and the station Korsvoll had its name changed to Østhorn .
Nordberg was part of Holmenkolbanen 's operating network until 1975 , when the municipality of Oslo bought all the company 's stock . In the early 1990s , the stations on the Sognsvann Line were upgraded to metro standard , which involves a heightening and lengthening of the platforms , installation of third rail power supply and a new signaling system . The third rail made it impossible to cross the line in @-@ grade , and under- or overpasses had to be built at all stations . The transport authorities decided to close Nordberg , arguing that the access roads to the station were steep and dangerous , and icy during the winter . The residents of Nordberg opposed the closure of the station , arguing that it had served the area well with its central position in the area . Nevertheless , the station was closed , along with the level crossing that formerly had allowed for car traffic to cross the tracks . An underpass for pedestrians was constructed .
= = Accidents = =
In 1951 , two young lads rode a sled over the station 's level crossing , and accidentally hit a truck that was parked on the other side of the station . In 1987 , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old man was attacked by a raging moose near the station . The man ran off to a shop 40 metres ( 130 ft ) away , and left the accident with broken ribs and a punctured lung . The reason for the moose 's rage is unknown , but it was seen a few days earlier with a calf , and it is assumed that the moose wanted to protect it from foreigners . The man was sent to Ullevål University Hospital shortly thereafter .
= = Location = =
Nordberg Station was located in the steep road named Borgestadveien , that passed the station in a level crossing . The station served the local senior center named Nordberghjemmet , and was the most used of all stations among residents living in Nordberg . After the 1992 closure , very little remains from the station , aside from a pedestrians ' underpass .
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= Gubazes II of Lazica =
Gubazes II ( Georgian : გუბაზ II , Greek : Γουβάζης ) was king of Lazica ( modern western Georgia ) from circa 541 until his assassination in 555 . He was one of the central personalities of the Lazic War ( 541 – 562 ) . He originally ascended the throne as a vassal of the Byzantine Empire , but the heavy @-@ handed actions of the Byzantine authorities led him to seek the assistance of Byzantium 's main rival , Sassanid Persia . The Byzantines were evicted from Lazica with the aid of a Persian army in 541 , but the Persian occupation of the country turned out to be worse , and by 548 , Gubazes was requesting assistance from Byzantium . Gubazes remained a Byzantine ally during the next few years , as the two empires fought for control of Lazica , with the fortress of Petra as the focal point of the struggle . Gubazes eventually quarrelled with the Byzantine generals over the fruitless continuation of the war , and was assassinated by them .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Gubazes was of Byzantine descent through his mother , Valeriana . Tzathius ' marriage to Valeriana seems to be the earliest recorded marriage between the Lazic and Byzantine elites . The custom of marrying Byzantine women , usually from the senatorial aristocracy , was common among the Lazic royalty : his uncle , the " king " Opsites ( it is unknown when exactly he reigned ) , was married to a Byzantine noblewoman named Theodora . It is known that Gubazes had a younger brother , Tzath , who succeeded him on the throne , and an unnamed sister . Gubazes was married and had children , but neither the name of his wife nor of any of his offspring is known . The name of Gubazes 's father is not known from the ancient annals . Professor Cyril Toumanoff , a specialist in Caucasian history and genealogy , has hypothesized that Gubazes was a son and direct successor of the king Tzath I , and that Opsites , his uncle , never actually ruled as a king .
The exact date of Gubazes 's accession is unknown , but it must not have been much earlier than 541 , when he is first attested as king of the Lazi . It is very likely that before his accession he had lived for several years at the Byzantine capital , Constantinople , for he is recorded to have been a silentiarius , an influential position at the imperial palace ; alternatively , but less probably , he may have been given the title as an honorary appointment after his accession .
= = = Defection to Persia = = =
Lazica had been a Byzantine client state since 522 , when its king , Tzath I , had rejected Persian hegemony . However , during the rule of Emperor Justinian I ( reigned 527 – 565 ) , a series of heavy @-@ handed Byzantine measures made them unpopular . In particular , the establishment of a trade monopoly by the magister militum ( general ) John Tzibus , which was regulated from the newly constructed fortress of Petra , drove Gubazes to seek once again the protection of the Persian shah , Khosrau I ( r . 531 – 579 ) .
In 540 , Khosrau broke the " Eternal Peace " of 532 and invaded the Byzantine province of Mesopotamia . In spring 541 , Khosrau and his troops , led by Lazi guides , marched over the mountain passes into Lazica , where Gubazes submitted to him . The Byzantines under John Tzibus resisted valiantly from Petra , but Tzibus was killed , and the fortress fell soon after . Khosrau left a Persian garrison at Petra and departed the country , but soon , the Lazi grew discontented : as Christians , they resented the Persians ' Zoroastrianism , and they were greatly affected by the cessation of the Black Sea trade with Byzantium . The contemporary Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea reports that Khosrau , who was aware of Lazica 's strategic importance , intended to resettle the entire Lazi people and replace them with Persians . As a first step , the Persian ruler planned to assassinate Gubazes . Forewarned of Khosrau 's intentions , Gubazes switched his allegiance back to Byzantium .
= = = Return to Byzantine allegiance = = =
In 548 , Emperor Justinian dispatched 8 @,@ 000 men under Dagisthaeus , who together with a Lazic force set siege to the Persian garrison at Petra . As the Persians were well provisioned , the siege dragged on . Dagisthaeus had neglected to keep watch over the mountain passes that led into Lazica , and a far larger Persian relief force under Mihr @-@ Mihroe arrived and raised the siege . Yet , the Persians lacked sufficient supplies , and so , after strengthening the garrison at Petra and leaving further 5 @,@ 000 men under Phabrizus to secure its supply routes , Mihr @-@ Mihroe left . In the spring of the next year , Gubazes and Dagisthaeus combined their forces , destroyed Phabrizus 's army in a surprise attack , and pursued the survivors into Caucasian Iberia . In the same summer , they won another victory against a new Persian army , led by Khorianes . The allies failed , however , to prevent another Persian army from reinforcing Petra , and Dagisthaeus was recalled and replaced by Bessas .
In 550 , a pro @-@ Persian revolt broke out among the Abasgians , a people that neighboured Lazica to the north . This provided an opportunity for a high @-@ ranking Lazic noble , called Terdetes , who had quarrelled with Gubazes , to betray to the Persians an important fort in the land of the Apsili , a tribe under Lazic suzerainty . The Apsili retook the fort , but refused to accept Lazic rule until persuaded to do so by the Byzantine general John Guzes . In 551 , the Byzantines finally took and razed Petra , but a new army under Mihr @-@ Mihroe was able to establish Persian control over the eastern part of Lazica . The Byzantine forces in Lazica withdrew west to the mouth of the Phasis , while the Lazi , including Gubazes and his family , sought refuge in the mountains . Despite enduring harsh conditions in the winter of 551 / 552 , Gubazes rejected the peace offers conveyed by envoys from Mihr @-@ Mihroe . In 552 , the Persians received substantial reinforcements , but their attacks on the fortresses held by the Byzantines and the Lazi were repulsed .
= = = Death = = =
Over the next two years , the Byzantines increased their forces in Lazica , but failed to achieve decisive success ; Gubazes quarreled with their generals , and wrote to Emperor Justinian accusing them of incompetence following a defeat by the Persians . Bessas was recalled , but the other two , Martin and the sacellarius Rusticus , resolved to get rid of Gubazes . They sent a message to Constantinople accusing Gubazes of dealings with the Persians . Emperor Justinian , intending to question Gubazes himself , authorized the two generals to arrest him , using force if necessary . The two Byzantine generals then ( September / October 555 ) invited Gubazes to observe the siege of a Persian @-@ held fort , but when they met , John , Rusticus 's brother , stabbed the king with his dagger . Gubazes fell from his horse , and one of Rusticus 's servants gave him the finishing blow .
After Gubazes 's murder , the Lazi stopped participating in operations against the Persians for a time , leading to the failure of a Byzantine attack against the fort of Onoguris . An assembly of the Lazic people informed Emperor Justinian of the events , requested that an investigation be launched , and asked that Gubazes 's younger brother Tzath , at the time residing in Constantinople , be confirmed as their new ruler . The Byzantine emperor complied with their requests : a " leading senator " named Athanasius ( perhaps the former praetorian prefect of the same name ) was dispatched to investigate Gubazes 's murder , and Tzath was sent to assume the Lazic throne . Athanasius 's investigation cleared Gubazes of any suspicion of treachery ; Rusticus and his brother John were found guilty and executed in autumn 556 , but Martin was simply deposed from his post .
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= Lagidium ahuacaense =
Lagidium ahuacaense is a rodent in the mountain viscacha genus ( Lagidium ) that occurs in southern Ecuador . First observed in 2005 and formally described in 2009 , it occurs more than 500 km ( 310 mi ) north of the nearest previously known population of mountain viscachas in central Peru . Only a single population is known , found on rocky habitats on Cerro El Ahuaca , an isolated granite mountain in southern Ecuador , and there may be as little as a few dozen individuals . The species is threatened by fires and grazing cattle , and the discoverers recommended its conservation status be assessed as " Critically Endangered " .
= = Taxonomy = =
Lagidium ahuacaense was first observed in July 2005 , when the only known population was encountered at Cerro El Ahuaca , Ecuador , over 500 km ( 310 mi ) north of the northernmost previously known population of mountain viscachas ( Lagidium ) in central Peru . The find was published in a 2006 note by Florian Werner , Karim Ledesma , and Rodrigo Hidalgo , who provisionally identified the population as representing the Peruvian species Lagidium peruanum , but did not discount the possibility that it might represent a distinct species . Three years later , Ledesma , Werner , Ángel Spotorno , and Luis Albuja described the population as a new species , Lagidium ahuacaense , on the basis of morphological and DNA sequence differences . The specific name , ahuacaense , refers to Cerro de Ahuaca . They suggested the English common name of " Ecuadorean mountain viscacha " .
Lagidium ahuacaense was the fourth species of the genus Lagidium to be described , after L. peruanum , L. viscacia , and L. wolffsohni of the central and southern Andes , although more species may eventually be recognized within L. peruanum and L. viscacia and L. wolffsohni is poorly differentiated from L. viscacia . Together with the plains viscacha ( Lagostomus maximus ) and the chinchillas ( Chinchilla ) , Lagidium forms the rodent family Chinchillidae . Within Lagidium , L. ahuacaense differs by at least 7 @.@ 9 % from all other species in DNA sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene . A cladistic analysis placed the Ecuadorian species as the sister group to all other Lagidium , but support for this placement was not strong . Morphometric analysis also confirmed the Ecuadorian population is different from other Lagidium species .
= = Description = =
Lagidium ahuacaense is a medium @-@ sized Lagidium with woolly , gray @-@ brown fur and a very long tail . There is a black stripe on the middle of the back . The thick , long mystacial vibrissae ( whiskers above the mouth ) are mostly dark brown and the few superciliary vibrissae ( above the eyes ) are also thick and brown . The ears are covered with dark skin . The underparts are creamy white . The forefeet are brown @-@ furred and much shorter than the hind feet , which are in covered in part by a mixture of brown and cream hairs and in part by dark brown hairs . The fore and hind feet both have four digits , which end in small , curved claws , and three black pads . The palms and soles are naked . The tail is hairy with the hairs on the upper side longer than those below . The upper side is gray @-@ brown at the base , light to medium brown intermixed with cream in the middle , and reddish brown at the tip , and the lower side is dark brown . In the single measured specimen , head and body length is 403 mm ( 15 @.@ 9 in ) , tail length is 400 mm ( 16 in ) , hindfoot length is 85 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) , ear length is 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) , and body mass is 2 @.@ 03 kg ( 4 @.@ 5 lb ) .
The skull is long and compact . The premaxillary bones extend slightly in front of the upper incisors and the zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are broad . The suture between the premaxillary and frontal bones is more strongly curved than in L. peruanum and the rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is wider and the interorbital region ( between the eyes ) is narrower than in L. viscacia and L. wolffsohni . The incisive foramina ( openings in the front part of the palate ) are long and narrow . The palate extends back to a point close to the upper third molar . The sides of the mesopterygoid fossa ( the opening behind the back margin of the palate ) are more strongly divergent than in other Lagidium species . The mandible ( lower jaw ) is strong . The dental formula is 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 @.@ 31 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 × 2 = 20 ( one incisor , one premolar , and three molars on each side of the upper and lower jaws ) . The incisors are large , white , and distinctly grooved . The molars are low @-@ crowned and rootless ( continuously growing ) .
= = Ecology and conservation status = =
Lagidium ahuacaense is known only from Cerro El Ahuaca , a steep granite inselberg near Cariamanga in Loja Province , southern Ecuador , where it occurs at an altitude of 1 @,@ 950 to 2 @,@ 480 m ( 6 @,@ 400 to 8 @,@ 140 ft ) , but only near rocky surfaces . The vegetation is dominated by the molasses grass ( Melinis minutiflora ) . They eat plants and traces of their feeding are visible on the mountain . Its habitat on Cerro El Ahuaca covers an area of about 120 hectares ( 300 acres ) , and the total population there may not contain more than a few dozen individuals . Except for some small outcrops close to the Cerro , no nearby habitat is suitable , but more populations may exist elsewhere in southern Ecuador or nearby northern Peru .
The species is threatened by fires , used to maintain crop fields in the vicinity , which frequently get out of control and destroy part of the viscacha 's habitat on the Cerro , and by competition for food with grazing cattle . However , the species is unknown to the local people and is not hunted . In view of its small range and population , Ledesma and colleagues recommended the species be assessed as " Critically Endangered " under the IUCN Red List criteria and recommended immediate conservation action to protect the Cerro El Ahuaca population and further research into its biology .
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= Widest path problem =
In graph algorithms , the widest path problem is the problem of finding a path between two designated vertices in a weighted graph , maximizing the weight of the minimum @-@ weight edge in the path . The widest path problem is also known as the bottleneck shortest path problem or the maximum capacity path problem . It is possible to adapt most shortest path algorithms to compute widest paths , by modifying them to use the bottleneck distance instead of path length . However , in many cases even faster algorithms are possible .
For instance , in a graph that represents connections between routers in the Internet , where the weight of an edge represents the bandwidth of a connection between two routers , the widest path problem is the problem of finding an end @-@ to @-@ end path between two Internet nodes that has the maximum possible bandwidth . The smallest edge weight on this path is known as the capacity or bandwidth of the path . As well as its applications in network routing , the widest path problem is also an important component of the Schulze method for deciding the winner of a multiway election , and has been applied to digital compositing , metabolic pathway analysis , and the computation of maximum flows .
A closely related problem , the minimax path problem , asks for the path that minimizes the maximum weight of any of its edges . It has applications that include transportation planning . Any algorithm for the widest path problem can be transformed into an algorithm for the minimax path problem , or vice versa , by reversing the sense of all the weight comparisons performed by the algorithm , or equivalently by replacing every edge weight by its negation .
= = Undirected graphs = =
In an undirected graph , a widest path may be found as the path between the two vertices in the maximum spanning tree of the graph , and a minimax path may be found as the path between the two vertices in the minimum spanning tree .
In any graph , directed or undirected , there is a straightforward algorithm for finding a widest path once the weight of its minimum @-@ weight edge is known : simply delete all smaller edges and search for any path among the remaining edges using breadth first search or depth first search . Based on this test , there also exists a linear time algorithm for finding a widest s @-@ t path in an undirected graph , that does not use the maximum spanning tree . The main idea of the algorithm is to apply the linear @-@ time path @-@ finding algorithm to the median edge weight in the graph , and then either to delete all smaller edges or contract all larger edges according to whether a path does or does not exist , and recurse in the resulting smaller graph .
Fernandez , Garfinkel & Arbiol ( 1998 ) use undirected bottleneck shortest paths in order to form composite aerial photographs that combine multiple images of overlapping areas . In the subproblem to which the widest path problem applies , two images have already been transformed into a common coordinate system ; the remaining task is to select a seam , a curve that passes through the region of overlap and divides one of the two images from the other . Pixels on one side of the seam will be copied from one of the images , and pixels on the other side of the seam will be copied from the other image . Unlike other compositing methods that average pixels from both images , this produces a valid photographic image of every part of the region being photographed . They weight the edges of a grid graph by a numeric estimate of how visually apparent a seam across that edge would be , and find a bottleneck shortest path for these weights . Using this path as the seam , rather than a more conventional shortest path , causes their system to find a seam that is difficult to discern at all of its points , rather than allowing it to trade off greater visibility in one part of the image for lesser visibility elsewhere .
A solution to the minimax path problem between the two opposite corners of a grid graph can be used to find the weak Fréchet distance between two polygonal chains . Here , each grid graph vertex represents a pair of line segments , one from each chain , and the weight of an edge represents the Fréchet distance needed to pass from one pair of segments to another .
If all edge weights of an undirected graph are positive , then the minimax distances between pairs of points ( the maximum edge weights of minimax paths ) form an ultrametric ; conversely every finite ultrametric space comes from minimax distances in this way . A data structure constructed from the minimum spanning tree allows the minimax distance between any pair of vertices to be queried in constant time per query , using lowest common ancestor queries in a Cartesian tree . The root of the Cartesian tree represents the heaviest minimum spanning tree edge , and the children of the root are Cartesian trees recursively constructed from the subtrees of the minimum spanning tree formed by removing the heaviest edge . The leaves of the Cartesian tree represent the vertices of the input graph , and the minimax distance between two vertices equals the weight of the Cartesian tree node that is their lowest common ancestor . Once the minimum spanning tree edges have been sorted , this Cartesian tree can be constructed in linear time .
= = Directed graphs = =
In directed graphs , the maximum spanning tree solution cannot be used . Instead , several different algorithms are known ; the choice of which algorithm to use depends on whether a start or destination vertex for the path is fixed , or whether paths for many start or destination vertices must be found simultaneously .
= = = All pairs = = =
The all @-@ pairs widest path problem has applications in the Schulze method for choosing a winner in multiway elections in which voters rank the candidates in preference order . The Schulze method constructs a complete directed graph in which the vertices represent the candidates and every two vertices are connected by an edge . Each edge is directed from the winner to the loser of a pairwise contest between the two candidates it connects , and is labeled with the margin of victory of that contest . Then the method computes widest paths between all pairs of vertices , and the winner is the candidate whose vertex has wider paths to each opponent than vice versa . The results of an election using this method are consistent with the Condorcet method – a candidate who wins all pairwise contests automatically wins the whole election – but it generally allows a winner to be selected , even in situations where the Concorcet method itself fails . The Schulze method has been used by several organizations including the Wikimedia Foundation .
To compute the widest path widths for all pairs of nodes in a dense directed graph , such as the ones that arise in the voting application , the asymptotically fastest known approach takes time O ( n ( 3 + ω ) / 2 ) where ω is the exponent for fast matrix multiplication . Using the best known algorithms for matrix multiplication , this time bound becomes O ( n2.688 ) . Instead , the reference implementation for the Schulze method uses a modified version of the simpler Floyd – Warshall algorithm , which takes O ( n3 ) time . For sparse graphs , it may be more efficient to repeatedly apply a single @-@ source widest path algorithm .
= = = Single source = = =
If the edges are sorted by their weights , then a modified version of Dijkstra 's algorithm can compute the bottlenecks between a designated start vertex and every other vertex in the graph , in linear time . The key idea behind the speedup over a conventional version of Dijkstra 's algorithm is that the sequence of bottleneck distances to each vertex , in the order that the vertices are considered by this algorithm , is a monotonic subsequence of the sorted sequence of edge weights ; therefore , the priority queue of Dijkstra 's algorithm can be implemented as a bucket queue : an array indexed by the numbers from 1 to m ( the number of edges in the graph ) , where array cell i contains the vertices whose bottleneck distance is the weight of the edge with position i in the sorted order . This method allows the widest path problem to be solved as quickly as sorting ; for instance , if the edge weights are represented as integers , then the time bounds for integer sorting a list of m integers would apply also to this problem .
= = = Single source and single destination = = =
Berman & Handler ( 1987 ) suggest that service vehicles and emergency vehicles should use minimax paths when returning from a service call to their base . In this application , the time to return is less important than the response time if another service call occurs while the vehicle is in the process of returning . By using a minimax path , where the weight of an edge is the maximum travel time from a point on the edge to the farthest possible service call , one can plan a route that minimizes the maximum possible delay between receipt of a service call and arrival of a responding vehicle . Ullah , Lee & Hassoun ( 2009 ) use maximin paths to model the dominant reaction chains in metabolic networks ; in their model , the weight of an edge is the free energy of the metabolic reaction represented by the edge .
Another application of widest paths arises in the Ford – Fulkerson algorithm for the maximum flow problem . Repeatedly augmenting a flow along a maximum capacity path in the residual network of the flow leads to a small bound , O ( m log U ) , on the number of augmentations needed to find a maximum flow ; here , the edge capacities are assumed to be integers that are at most U. However , this analysis does not depend on finding a path that has the exact maximum of capacity ; any path whose capacity is within a constant factor of the maximum suffices . Combining this approximation idea with the shortest path augmentation method of the Edmonds – Karp algorithm leads to a maximum flow algorithm with running time O ( mn log U ) .
It is possible to find maximum @-@ capacity paths and minimax paths with a single source and single destination very efficiently even in models of computation that allow only comparisons of the input graph 's edge weights and not arithmetic on them . The algorithm maintains a set S of edges that are known to contain the bottleneck edge of the optimal path ; initially , S is just the set of all m edges of the graph . At each iteration of the algorithm , it splits S into an ordered sequence of subsets S1 , S2 , ... of approximately equal size ; the number of subsets in this partition is chosen in such a way that all of the split points between subsets can be found by repeated median @-@ finding in time O ( m ) . The algorithm then reweights each edge of the graph by the index of the subset containing the edge , and uses the modified Dijkstra algorithm on the reweighted graph ; based on the results of this computation , it can determine in linear time which of the subsets contains the bottleneck edge weight . It then replaces S by the subset Si that it has determined to contain the bottleneck weight , and starts the next iteration with this new set S. The number of subsets into which S can be split increases exponentially with each step , so the number of iterations is proportional to the iterated logarithm function , O ( log * n ) , and the total time is O ( m log * n ) . In a model of computation where each edge weight is a machine integer , the use of repeated bisection in this algorithm can be replaced by a list @-@ splitting technique of Han & Thorup ( 2002 ) , allowing S to be split into O ( √ m ) smaller sets Si in a single step and leading to a linear overall time bound .
= = Euclidean point sets = =
A variant of the minimax path problem has also been considered for sets of points in the Euclidean plane . As in the undirected graph problem , this Euclidean minimax path problem can be solved efficiently by finding a Euclidean minimum spanning tree : every path in the tree is a minimax path . However , the problem becomes more complicated when a path is desired that not only minimizes the hop length but also , among paths with the same hop length , minimizes or approximately minimizes the total length of the path . The solution can be approximated using geometric spanners .
In number theory , the unsolved Gaussian moat problem asks whether or not minimax paths in the Gaussian prime numbers have bounded or unbounded minimax length . That is , does there exist a constant B such that , for every pair of points p and q in the infinite Euclidean point set defined by the Gaussian primes , the minimax path in the Gaussian primes between p and q has minimax edge length at most B ?
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= John S. Loisel =
Colonel John Simon Loisel ( May 21 , 1920 – January 20 , 2010 ) was an American air ace , credited with having shot down 11 Japanese aircraft during World War II . Loisel was born in Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho and joined the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) in 1941 . By age 25 , Loisel had spent more time in combat than any other American pilot in World War II , with over three years in the Pacific . Serving in the Pacific he quickly distinguished himself by first becoming an ace after achieving five kills in just a two @-@ month period , and then becoming a double ace .
He became a career Air Force officer . Loisel commanded Fighter Groups in both World War II and Korea , along with several peacetime commands . He retired from the Air Force as a colonel . Following his military career , Loisel taught high school physics for 15 years in the Plano Independent School District , Plano , Texas . He died of natural causes at age 89 in 2010 in Plano .
= = Early life = =
Loisel was born in Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho on May 21 , 1920 and moved with his family to Norfolk , Nebraska by 1922 . His parents , Simon M. and Lucille Loisel were first @-@ generation Americans of French @-@ Canadian parents . The elder Loisel worked as a commercial traveler in the lumber industry . Simon Loisel did well enough to keep a live @-@ in servant and to reside in an expensive house for the time . Prior to John being born , Lucille Loisel had been employed as a teacher at a Catholic school in Coeur d 'Alene . John Loisel was the eldest child , with six younger brothers and two sisters .
After graduating from high school , Loisel attended Wayne State Teacher 's College , Nebraska ( now Wayne State College ) and the University of Nebraska from 1938 to 1941 . He then entered the USAAF for flight training at Mather Field , California on March 10 , 1941 and received his pilot wings on October 31 , 1941 .
= = Military career = =
= = = World War II = = =
Upon receiving his wings and a commission as a second lieutenant , Loisel was initially posted for duties as a flight instructor while waiting for assignment . He was then posted to a unit in the Philippine Islands . When he was en route by ship , he learned of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . In late @-@ 1941 he was assigned as a Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobra fighter pilot with the 36th Fighter Squadron , 8th Fighter Group , based in New Guinea . By June 1943 , he had flown 83 combat missions in both the P @-@ 39D and the P @-@ 400 versions . Loisel was then selected as cadre for the newly formed 432nd Fighter Squadron , 475th Fighter Group , the first Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighter group formed in the USAAF .
Once assigned to the 432nd Fighter Squadron , Loisel began to quickly show his abilities once he started flying an aircraft that could compete with the top @-@ line Japanese fighters . Flying a P @-@ 38H , serial no . 42 @-@ 66682 , named the Screaming Kid , he shot down five Japanese fighters within his first two months of flying in the P @-@ 38s and earned a promotion to captain . On August 21 , 1943 , while escorting USAAF bombers near Wewak , New Guinea , he shot down two Kawasaki Ki @-@ 61 " Tony " fighters , his first two victories . Less than a month later , on September 22 , 1943 , he claimed a Mitsubishi A6M " Zero " fighter near Finschafen , New Guinea . Slightly less than two months later Loisel obtained " ace " status by downing two more Zeroes near Oro Bay , New Guinea .
In December , 1943 , he picked up two more kills , a Zero on the 15th and another Zero on the 21st , during the build @-@ up for the landings at Cape Gloucester . Loisel picked up his eighth victory on January 23 , 1944 over a Zero . On April 3 , 1944 , while escorting Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc bombers near Hollandia , New Guinea , he shot down a Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " fighter and a Mitsubishi A6M3 " Hamp " fighter over Lake Sentani , giving him his ninth and tenth kills and making him a double ace . On January 22 , 1944 , he assumed command of the 432nd Fighter Squadron . This unit was tasked with striking targets in New Guinea and the Indonesian Spice Islands to support General Douglas MacArthur 's return to the Philippines . In August 1944 , Loisel returned to the United States as a major .
In January 1945 , Loisel returned to the 475th Fighter Group as the Operations Officer . After his return to combat following his assignment in the United States , Loisel had his eleventh and final aerial victory on March 28 , 1945 , when he shot down a Nakajima Ki @-@ 84 " Frank " fighter near Tree Island , Indochina ( Vietnam ) . On May 15 , 1945 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and on July 15 , 1945 he became the Commanding Officer of the 475th Fighter Group . He relinquished command on April 18 , 1946 and returned to the United States .
He had , by the age of 25 , become a lieutenant colonel , a fighter group commander , and earned the Silver Star . His assignment to the Pacific Theatre of Operations for over three years was longer than any other American fighter pilot served in combat , and he flew more than 875 hours in combat . Loisel was the fourth leading ace in the 475th Fighter Group , flying with notable aces Thomas McGuire ( 38 kills ) , Charles MacDonald ( 27 kills ) and Daniel T. Roberts , Jr . ( 15 kills ) . He was known for his aggressiveness , instructing his pilots to " Head for the main body of the enemy – disregard stragglers ... [ and ] plow into the largest bunch you see . "
= = = Korea = = =
On return to the United States in 1946 , he married Rachel ' Rae ' Hultman and re @-@ enrolled at the University of Nebraska to earn his bachelor 's degree in physics , graduating in 1949 . Beginning in May , 1947 , he served as the commanding officer of the 63rd Fighter Squadron ( an Air Defense – Interceptor unit ) , based at Selfridge Air Force Base , Michigan , where he led the transition of the unit to the Lockheed P @-@ 80 Shooting Star jet fighter . After a staff tour at Headquarters , Air Defense Command , Loisel returned to combat in Korea in May 1953 , having been promoted to full colonel on December 1 , 1951 . Once there , Loisel commanded the 474th Fighter Bomber Group , flying the Republic F @-@ 84 Thunderjet fighter . He flew an additional 22 combat missions . One of the subordinate squadrons under his command ( the 429th Fighter Bomber Squadron ) set an Air Force record for the number of combat sorties flown ( 80 in one day ) in June 1953 and the 474th Fighter Bomber Group set a Fifth Air Force record of 254 sorties on that same day .
= = = Post @-@ war career = = =
Following the Korean War , Loisel had assignments that included tours as the Commander , 83rd Fighter Group and Deputy Commander , 4th Tactical Fighter Wing . In 1970 , having achieved the rank of colonel , over 5 @,@ 500 flying hours , and 323 combat missions , he retired from the Air Force .
= = Later life = =
Following his retirement from the Air Force , Loisel attended North Texas State University ( now the University of North Texas ) , obtaining his master 's degree in physics in 1972 . Loisel then taught physics at Plano Senior High School in Plano , Texas from 1972 to 1985 . Loisel was an " avid golfer " and a member of the American Fighter Aces Association . Loisel was married to Rae Loisel for 63 years . They had a son , John S. Loisel , Jr . , and a daughter , Susan Bryan . He died of natural causes on January 20 , 2010 in Plano , Texas and is buried at the Dallas @-@ Fort Worth National Cemetery . He is survived by his wife , daughter , and two sisters , Mary Margaret Pappas and Anne Schueth . His son John , Jr. and his brothers predeceased him .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Silver Star
Legion of Merit
Distinguished Flying Crosses with three oak leaf clusters
Air Medal with two silver oak leaf clusters
Presidential Unit Citation with four oak leaf clusters
Republic of Korea Ulchi Medal with silver star
= = = Other honors = = =
Grand Marshal , Dallas Veteran 's Day Parade , Dallas , Texas , 2007
Nebraska Aviation Hall of Fame , inducted 1994
U.S. Air Force Gathering of Eagles , inducted 1991
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= Peter Molydeux =
Peter Molydeux is a Twitter account presented as a parody of the game designer Peter Molyneux . Created by game artist Adam Capone in 2009 , it posts audacious game design ideas in the style of Molyneux . The account presents Molyneux as a tragicomic character with unrelenting , creative ideas that are continually received by an apathetic audience . Over time , the account evolved from a Molyneux @-@ based persona into a list of potential game concepts . A common theme of the tweets is the untapped potential of emotional game experiences . Molyneux came to appreciate the parody , and has since met Capone in person .
The account went viral in 2011 and led to the reinvigoration of Molyneux 's legacy . To many , the two became entwined . Molyneux 's reputation as a dreamer was reclaimed as a positive trait in light of growing opposition to conservative game design , and the parody account became a mouthpiece for that population . The tweets contributed to Molyneux 's decision to leave Microsoft Game Studios and pursue riskier game ideas . They also inspired a game jam , in which about 1 @,@ 000 game developers worldwide created about 300 games based on the tweets over the course of a weekend . The game jam also brought Molyneux fame within a burgeoning indie game movement . Notable games based on the parody account 's ideas include Donut County .
= = History = =
In June 2009 , Adam Capone created a Twitter account , @ PeterMolydeux , as a parody of the game designer Peter Molyneux and the audacious game design ideas for which he was known . The account became a touchpoint for people in the game industry interested in more adventurous game concepts . Capone was inspired by Molyneux 's games in his youth , particularly by the open choice structure of the 1994 simulation game Theme Park . Capone , a game artist who worked on titles including Gears of War , Kinectimals , and Saints Row , thought that Molyneux 's ambition outweighed his propensity for overstatement , and appreciated the game designer 's moxie in an industry known for safe ideas . Capone viewed Molyneux as a tragicomic character : full of creative ideas that are continually received by an unkind or indifferent audience . Capone did not expect the parody account to last long , but he became drawn to the persona . The parody 's content came to Capone " naturally " from games , game podcasts , and game news websites . He liked that he was able to give away his ideas — good and bad — while actual game designers must protect their ideas and implement them before others .
The account 's early tweets mocked Project Milo , a game Molyneux had introduced at the 2009 Electronic Entertainment Expo days before Capone began to tweet . The original persona 's content was modeled on previous Molyneux speeches . After exhausting Milo and Project Natal material , Capone tweeted clever game design concepts in Molyneux 's signature hyperbolic style . Capone found that the format had currency with his account 's followers . An underlying theme of these proposals is the untapped potential of emotional game experiences , as the tweets ask followers to imagine games that cross over into real life . He later added a " Retrodeux " series , which proposes bold updates for classic games , and video content . Other characters appear in the parody tweets , including mock family members and interns . Capone made Cliff Bleszinski into an adversarial foil for his parody character . The game designer is young , trendy , and supportive of the type of games Molyneux would hate . Capone views his persona as satirical caricature and is mindful of industry politics , especially when some mistake him for Molyneux . Once Capone reached 10 @,@ 000 followers , he set a goal of overtaking Molyneux 's own follower count .
The parody account is in contact with its namesake . Microsoft 's press department first introduced Peter Molyneux to his parody account in mid @-@ 2011 . The game designer was first annoyed at the caricature 's " pathetic " and impotent demeanor , but came to regard the parody as clever , creative , and admirable . The account reminded Molyneux of his energy earlier in his career , and helped convince him to leave Microsoft and pursue another audacious game design idea . Free of restrictions on press activity , Molyneux contacted Capone 's parody account upon leaving Microsoft . The two met later in person at Molyneux 's new studio .
As Capone 's account grew in popularity throughout 2011 , it became a mouthpiece for thousands of dissatisfied game developers who sought greater variety in mainstream games . The Twitter account 's growth was spurred by coverage in video game media . It had 23 @,@ 000 followers by the end of 2011 . The first Flash game based on one of his ideas was created in October 2011 . Capone said that Goodbye , My Love ironically " used the most dated gameplay out there " despite his tweet 's intention " to inspire an incredibly innovative game " . Twitter briefly closed the account near the end of 2011 as an impersonation rather than a parody account , but soon reversed its actions .
In March 2012 , multiple followers of the account began to plan a Molydeux game jam , an event in which game developers would create a game based on one of Molydeux 's tweets over the course of a weekend . Capone supported the effort but limited his participation to the creation of a promotional video . The event , known then as What Would Molydeux ? and later as Molyjam , soon grew from a San Francisco @-@ based affair into an international , multisite event with satellite locations in the Netherlands , New York City , and Melbourne in 32 total locations . The event was held the weekend of March 30 , and around 1 @,@ 000 attendees made around 300 games , of which Capone found 15 games interesting . Professional cameos included David Hellman ( Braid ) in San Francisco and Peter Molyneux himself in London , where he gave an uncharacteristically fiery keynote speech that encouraged developers to " innovate ... come together and do crazy things " . While most games tended to consist of normal game mechanics underneath a bizarre concept , Wired said that their inability to deliver on their promise was the jam 's " most Molyneuxian touch " .
Later that year , Capone created a trailer for one of Molyneux 's upcoming games . Molyneux found the parody " truly amazing " . In 2013 , the parody account proposed a game design school that would emphasize " enlightenment " over marketability and other attributes he attributed to existing game design schools .
= = Content = =
Some of the parody account 's proposals include :
A racing game in which the player controls the road instead of the vehicle
A Kinect game in which the player must cry to open a gate
An eight @-@ person online multiplayer game in which each player controls one leg of an octopus
The final segment of a war game , in which the player pauses in silence at the tombstone of each KIA recruit
A 3D adventure game in which the amnesiac player awakens in a museum with a room dedicated to each year of the character 's life
The player holds a radioactive baby , which acts as a torch in a dark environment ; rocking the baby increases its luminescence
The player pretends to be blind and must walk into objects to avoid suspicion
A bear must hug people in order to live , but crushes the people he hugs
A pigeon carries sentimental objects to businessmen to persuade them not to kill themselves
A divorced father sneaks into his family house to help with chores without alerting them
When the player kills henchmen in one game , the player sees recurring images of those henchmen 's crying children in an unrelated sports video game
A version of Street Fighter in which streets fight other streets
= = Reception = =
After two years , the account went viral in 2011 . While Capone remained anonymous , games journalists , such Kotaku and GameSetWatch , began to cover his tweets and journalists , such as Leigh Alexander ( Gamasutra ) and Alex Navarro ( Giant Bomb ) , reposted his content . Journalists did not view the parody as a mockery but instead as representative of a growing dissatisfaction over clichéd trends in the mainstream games industry . In this way , the account led to greater respect for Molyneux 's temerity . Kotaku wrote that Capone 's account displayed uncharacteristic creativity on his part , but Capone countered by saying that most game designers have endless game ideas and that real skill rests in applying them well .
The Twitter account also reinvigorated Molyneux 's legacy . The tweets established Molyneux as a " grand dreamer " and precipitated his Molyjam keynote address , which made Molyneux into a " patron saint of the indie game movement " . They also affected Molyneux 's own life course as he decided to leave his creative director position at Microsoft Games Studios . Wired suggested that Molyneux 's first game after leaving the company , Curiosity , could itself be based on a tweet from the parody account . Kotaku wrote that the statements of Molyneux and Molydeux are " often ... indistinguishable " . The Twitter account inspired the Molyjam game jam , which was also pivotal in Molyneux 's legacy . Wired wrote that his Molyjam keynote speech channeled the parody account while only a month earlier , Molyneux had been promoting the next Fable game . A second game jam based on quotes from Molyneux himself took place in July 2013 .
Cassandra Khaw of USgamer wrote that Molydeux has a track record of making avant @-@ garde and strange concepts come to life . One Molyjam title , Donut County , continued development and is expected for release in 2016 . Its core premise is a " reverse Katamari " in which the player moves a hole in the ground , which expands upon swallowing items . Eurogamer wrote that the Twitter account continued the tradition of previous Molyneux spoofs , such as a quest in Fable 2 that imitated an idiosyncratic tree @-@ growing mechanic from its predecessor . As of 2012 , Capone 's account had cornered the market .
|
= Curium =
Curium is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with symbol Cm and atomic number 96 . This element of the actinide series was named after Marie and Pierre Curie – both were known for their research on radioactivity . Curium was first intentionally produced and identified in July 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg at the University of California , Berkeley . The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945 . Most curium is produced by bombarding uranium or plutonium with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 20 grams of curium .
Curium is a hard , dense , silvery metal with a relatively high melting point and boiling point for an actinide . Whereas it is paramagnetic at ambient conditions , it becomes antiferromagnetic upon cooling , and other magnetic transitions are also observed for many curium compounds . In compounds , curium usually exhibits valence + 3 and sometimes + 4 , and the + 3 valence is predominant in solutions . Curium readily oxidizes , and its oxides are a dominant form of this element . It forms strongly fluorescent complexes with various organic compounds , but there is no evidence of its incorporation into bacteria and archaea . When introduced into the human body , curium accumulates in the bones , lungs and liver , where it promotes cancer .
All known isotopes of curium are radioactive and have a small critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction . They predominantly emit α @-@ particles , and the heat released in this process can potentially produce electricity in radioisotope thermoelectric generators . This application is hindered by the scarcity , high cost and radioactivity of curium isotopes . Curium is used in production of heavier actinides and of the 238Pu radionuclide for power sources in artificial pacemakers . It served as the α @-@ source in the alpha particle X @-@ ray spectrometers installed on several space probes , including the Sojourner , Spirit , Opportunity and Curiosity Mars rovers and the Philae lander on comet 67P / Churyumov @-@ Gerasimenko , to analyze the composition and structure of the surface .
= = History = =
Although curium had likely been produced in previous nuclear experiments , it was first intentionally synthesized , isolated and identified in 1944 , at the University of California , Berkeley , by Glenn T. Seaborg , Ralph A. James , and Albert Ghiorso . In their experiments , they used a 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron .
Curium was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( now Argonne National Laboratory ) at the University of Chicago . It was the third transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the fourth in the series – the lighter element americium was unknown at the time .
The sample was prepared as follows : first plutonium nitrate solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 0 @.@ 5 cm2 area , the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium ( IV ) oxide ( PuO2 ) by annealing . Following cyclotron irradiation of the oxide , the coating was dissolved with nitric acid and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution . The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid , and further separation was carried out by ion exchange to yield a certain isotope of curium . The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that the Berkeley group initially called those elements pandemonium ( from Greek for all demons or hell ) and delirium ( from Latin for madness ) .
The curium @-@ 242 isotope was produced in July – August 1944 by bombarding 239Pu with α @-@ particles to produce curium with the release of a neutron :
<formula>
Curium @-@ 242 was unambiguously identified by the characteristic energy of the α @-@ particles emitted during the decay :
<formula>
The half @-@ life of this alpha decay was first measured as 150 days and then corrected to 162 @.@ 8 days .
Another isotope 240Cm was produced in a similar reaction in March 1945 :
<formula>
The half @-@ life of the 240Cm α @-@ decay was correctly determined as 26 @.@ 7 days .
The discovery of curium , as well as americium , in 1944 was closely related to the Manhattan Project , the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945 . Seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the U.S. radio show for children , the Quiz Kids , five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on November 11 , 1945 , when one of the listeners asked whether any new transuranium element beside plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war . The discovery of curium ( 242Cm and 240Cm ) , their production and compounds were later patented listing only Seaborg as the inventor .
The new element was named after Marie Skłodowska @-@ Curie and her husband Pierre Curie who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity . It followed the example of gadolinium , a lanthanide element above curium in the periodic table , which was named after the explorer of the rare earth elements Johan Gadolin :
" As the name for the element of atomic number 96 we should like to propose " curium " , with symbol Cm . The evidence indicates that element 96 contains seven 5f electrons and is thus analogous to the element gadolinium with its seven 4f electrons in the regular rare earth series . On this base element 96 is named after the Curies in a manner analogous to the naming of gadolinium , in which the chemist Gadolin was honored . "
The first curium samples were barely visible , and were identified by their radioactivity . Louis Werner and Isadore Perlman created the first substantial sample of 30 µg curium @-@ 242 hydroxide at the University of California in 1947 by bombarding americium @-@ 241 with neutrons . Macroscopic amounts of curium ( III ) fluoride were obtained in 1950 by W. W. T. Crane , J. C. Wallmann and B. B. Cunningham . Its magnetic susceptibility was very close to that of GdF3 providing the first experimental evidence for the + 3 valence of curium in its compounds . Curium metal was produced only in 1951 by reduction of CmF3 with barium .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
A synthetic , radioactive element , curium is a hard dense metal with silvery @-@ white appearance and physical and chemical properties resembling those of gadolinium . Its melting point of 1340 ° C is significantly higher than that of the previous transuranic elements neptunium ( 637 ° C ) , plutonium ( 639 ° C ) and americium ( 1173 ° C ) . In comparison , gadolinium melts at 1312 ° C. The boiling point of curium is 3110 ° C. With a density of 13 @.@ 52 g / cm3 , curium is significantly lighter than neptunium ( 20 @.@ 45 g / cm3 ) and plutonium ( 19 @.@ 8 g / cm3 ) , but is heavier than most other metals . Between two crystalline forms of curium , the α @-@ Cm is more stable at ambient conditions . It has a hexagonal symmetry , space group P63 / mmc , lattice parameters a |
= 365 pm and c =
1182 pm , and four formula units per unit cell . The crystal consists of a double @-@ hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α @-@ lanthanum . At pressures above 23 GPa , at room temperature , α @-@ Cm transforms into β @-@ Cm , which has a face @-@ centered cubic symmetry , space group Fm3m and the lattice constant a = 493 pm . Upon further compression to 43 GPa , curium transforms to an orthorhombic γ @-@ Cm structure similar to that of α @-@ uranium , with no further transitions observed up to 52 GPa . These three curium phases are also referred to as Cm I , II and III .
Curium has peculiar magnetic properties . Whereas its neighbor element americium shows no deviation from Curie @-@ Weiss paramagnetism in the entire temperature range , α @-@ Cm transforms to an antiferromagnetic state upon cooling to 65 – 52 K , and β @-@ Cm exhibits a ferrimagnetic transition at about 205 K. Meanwhile , curium pnictides show ferromagnetic transitions upon cooling : 244CmN and 244CmAs at 109 K , 248CmP at 73 K and 248CmSb at 162 K. Similarly , the lanthanide analogue of curium , gadolinium , as well as its pnictides also show magnetic transitions upon cooling , but the transition character is somewhat different : Gd and GdN become ferromagnetic , and GdP , GdAs and GdSb show antiferromagnetic ordering .
In accordance with magnetic data , electrical resistivity of curium increases with temperature – about twice between 4 and 60 K – and then remains nearly constant up to room temperature . There is a significant increase in resistivity over time ( about 10 µΩ · cm / h ) due to self @-@ damage of the crystal lattice by alpha radiation . This makes uncertain the absolute resistivity value for curium ( about 125 µΩ · cm ) . The resistivity of curium is similar to that of gadolinium and of the actinides plutonium and neptunium , but is significantly higher than that of americium , uranium , polonium and thorium .
Under ultraviolet illumination , curium ( III ) ions exhibit strong and stable yellow @-@ orange fluorescence with a maximum in the range about 590 – 640 nm depending on their environment . The fluorescence originates from the transitions from the first excited state 6D7 / 2 and the ground state 8S7 / 2 . Analysis of this fluorescence allows monitoring interactions between Cm ( III ) ions in organic and inorganic complexes .
= = = Chemical = = =
Curium ions in solution almost exclusively assume the oxidation state of + 3 , which is the most stable oxidation state for curium . The + 4 oxidation state is observed mainly in a few solid phases , such as CmO2 and CmF4 . Aqueous curium ( IV ) is only known in the presence of strong oxidizers such as potassium persulfate , and is easily reduced to curium ( III ) by radiolysis and even by water . The chemical behavior of curium is different from the actinides thorium and uranium , and is similar to that of americium and many lanthanides . In aqueous solution , the Cm3 + ion is colorless to pale green , and Cm4 + ion is pale yellow . The optical absorption of Cm3 + ions contains three sharp peaks at 375 @.@ 4 , 381 @.@ 2 and 396 @.@ 5 nanometers and their strength can be directly converted into the concentration of the ions . The + 6 oxidation state has only been reported once in solution in 1978 , as the curyl ion ( CmO2 +
2 ) : this was prepared from the beta decay of americium @-@ 242 in the americium ( V ) ion 242AmO +
2 . Failure to obtain Cm ( VI ) from oxidation of Cm ( III ) and Cm ( IV ) may be due to the high Cm4 + / Cm3 + ionization potential and the instability of Cm ( V ) .
Curium ions are hard Lewis acids and thus form most stable complexes with hard bases . The bonding is mostly ionic , with a small covalent component . Curium in its complexes commonly exhibits a 9 @-@ fold coordination environment , within a tricapped trigonal prismatic geometry .
= = = Isotopes = = =
About 20 radioisotopes and 7 nuclear isomers between 233Cm and 252Cm are known for curium , and no stable isotopes . The longest half @-@ lives have been reported for 247Cm ( 15 @.@ 6 million years ) and 248Cm ( 348 @,@ 000 years ) . Other long @-@ lived isotopes are 245Cm ( half @-@ life 8500 years ) , 250Cm ( 8 @,@ 300 years ) and 246Cm ( 4 @,@ 760 years ) . Curium @-@ 250 is unusual in that it predominantly ( about 86 % ) decays via spontaneous fission . The most commonly used curium isotopes are 242Cm and 244Cm with the half @-@ lives of 162 @.@ 8 days and 18 @.@ 1 years , respectively .
All isotopes between 242Cm and 248Cm , as well as 250Cm , undergo a self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction and thus in principle can act as a nuclear fuel in a reactor . As in most transuranic elements , the nuclear fission cross section is especially high for the odd @-@ mass curium isotopes243Cm , 245Cm and 247Cm . These can be used in thermal @-@ neutron reactors , whereas a mixture of curium isotopes is only suitable for fast breeder reactors since the even @-@ mass isotopes are not fissile in a thermal reactor and accumulate as burn @-@ up increases . The mixed @-@ oxide ( MOX ) fuel , which is to be used in power reactors , should contain little or no curium because the neutron activation of 248Cm will create californium . This is strong neutron emitter , and would pollute the back end of the fuel cycle and increase the dose to reactor personnel . Hence , if the minor actinides are to be used as fuel in a thermal neutron reactor , the curium should be excluded from the fuel or placed in special fuel rods where it is the only actinide present .
The table to the right lists the critical masses for curium isotopes for a sphere , without a moderator and reflector . With a metal reflector ( 30 cm of steel ) , the critical masses of the odd isotopes are about 3 – 4 kg . When using water ( thickness ~ 20 – 30 cm ) as the reflector , the critical mass can be as small as 59 gram for 245Cm , 155 gram for 243Cm and 1550 gram for 247Cm . There is a significant uncertainty in these critical mass values . Whereas it is usually of the order 20 % , the values for 242Cm and 246Cm were listed as large as 371 kg and 70 @.@ 1 kg , respectively , by some research groups .
Currently , curium is not used as a nuclear fuel owing to its low availability and high price . 245Cm and 247Cm have a very small critical mass and therefore could be used in portable nuclear weapons , but none have been reported thus far . Curium @-@ 243 is not suitable for this purpose because of its short half @-@ life and strong α emission which would result in excessive heat . Curium @-@ 247 would be highly suitable , having a half @-@ life 647 times that of plutonium @-@ 239 .
= = = Occurrence = = =
The longest @-@ lived isotope of curium , 247Cm , has a half @-@ life of 15 @.@ 6 million years . Therefore , any primordial curium , that is curium present on the Earth during its formation , should have decayed by now . Curium is produced artificially , in small quantities for research purposes . Furthermore , it occurs in spent nuclear fuel . Curium is present in nature in certain areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests , which were conducted between 1945 and 1980 . So the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb , Ivy Mike , ( 1 November 1952 , Enewetak Atoll ) , beside einsteinium , fermium , plutonium and americium also revealed isotopes of berkelium , californium and curium , in particular 245Cm , 246Cm and smaller quantities of 247Cm , 248Cm and 249Cm . For reasons of military secrecy , this result was published only in 1956 .
Atmospheric curium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles . Soil analysis revealed about 4 @,@ 000 times higher concentration of curium at the sandy soil particles than in water present in the soil pores . An even higher ratio of about 18 @,@ 000 was measured in loam soils .
The transuranic elements from americium to fermium , including curium , occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so . Exceedingly minute amounts of the isotope 244Cm may be produced naturally from the theoretically predicted extremely rare double beta decay of the trace primordial isotope 244Pu , but this has not yet been observed .
= = Synthesis = =
= = = Isotope preparation = = =
Curium is produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors , and by now only kilograms of it have been accumulated for the 242Cm and 244Cm and grams or even milligrams for heavier isotopes . This explains the high price of curium , which has been quoted at 160 – 185 USD per milligram , with a more recent estimate at 2 @,@ 000 USD / g for 242Cm and 170 USD / g for 244Cm . In nuclear reactors , curium is formed from 238U in a series of nuclear reactions . In the first chain , 238U captures a neutron and converts into 239U , which via β − decay transforms into 239Np and 239Pu .
Further neutron capture followed by β − -decay produces the 241Am isotope of americium which further converts into 242Cm :
For research purposes , curium is obtained by irradiating not uranium but plutonium , which is available in large amounts from spent nuclear fuel . Much higher neutron flux is used for the irradiation that results in a different reaction chain and formation of 244Cm :
Curium @-@ 244 decays into 240Pu by emission of alpha particle , but it also absorbs neutrons resulting in a small amount of heavier curium isotopes . Among those , 247Cm and 248Cm are popular in scientific research because of their long half @-@ lives . However , the production rate of 247Cm in thermal neutron reactors is relatively low because of it is prone to undergo fission induced by thermal neutrons . Synthesis of 250Cm via neutron absorption is also rather unlikely because of the short half @-@ life of the intermediate product 249Cm ( 64 min ) , which converts by β − decay to the berkelium isotope 249Bk .
The above cascade of ( n , γ ) reactions produces a mixture of different curium isotopes . Their post @-@ synthesis separation is cumbersome , and therefore a selective synthesis is desired . Curium @-@ 248 is favored for research purposes because of its long half @-@ life . The most efficient preparation method of this isotope is via α @-@ decay of the californium isotope 252Cf , which is available in relatively large quantities due to its long half @-@ life ( 2 @.@ 65 years ) . About 35 – 50 mg of 248Cm is being produced by this method every year . The associated reaction produces 248Cm with isotopic purity of 97 % .
Another interesting for research isotope 245Cm can be obtained from the α @-@ decay of 249Cf , and the latter isotope is produced in minute quantities from the β − -decay of the berkelium isotope 249Bk .
= = = Metal preparation = = =
Most synthesis routines yield a mixture of different actinide isotopes as oxides , from which a certain isotope of curium needs to be separated . An example procedure could be to dissolve spent reactor fuel ( e.g. MOX fuel ) in nitric acid , and remove the bulk of the uranium and plutonium using a PUREX ( Plutonium – URanium EXtraction ) type extraction with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon . The lanthanides and the remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue ( raffinate ) by a diamide @-@ based extraction to give , after stripping , a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides . A curium compound is then selectively extracted using multi @-@ step chromatographic and centrifugation techniques with an appropriate reagent . Bis @-@ triazinyl bipyridine complex has been recently proposed as such reagent which is highly selective to curium . Separation of curium from a very similar americium can also be achieved by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone at elevated temperature . Both americium and curium are present in solutions mostly in the + 3 valence state ; whereas americium oxidizes to soluble Am ( IV ) complexes , curium remains unchanged and can thus be isolated by repeated centrifugation .
Metallic curium is obtained by reduction of its compounds . Initially , curium ( III ) fluoride was used for this purpose . The reaction was conducted in the environment free from water and oxygen , in the apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten , using elemental barium or lithium as reducing agents .
<formula>
Another possibility is the reduction of curium ( IV ) oxide using a magnesium @-@ zinc alloy in a melt of magnesium chloride and magnesium fluoride .
= = Compounds and reactions = =
= = = Oxides = = =
Curium readily reacts with oxygen forming mostly Cm2O3 and CmO2 oxides , but the divalent oxide CmO is also known . Black CmO2 can be obtained by burning curium oxalate ( Cm2 ( C2O4 ) 3 ) , nitrate ( Cm ( NO3 ) 3 ) or hydroxide in pure oxygen . Upon heating to 600 – 650 ° C in vacuum ( about 0 @.@ 01 Pa ) , it transforms into the whitish Cm2O3 :
<formula> .
Alternatively , Cm2O3 can be obtained by reducing CmO2 with molecular hydrogen :
<formula>
Furthermore , a number of ternary oxides of the type M ( II ) CmO3 are known , where M stands for a divalent metal , such as barium .
Thermal oxidation of trace quantities of curium hydride ( CmH2 – 3 ) has been reported to produce a volatile form of CmO2 and the volatile trioxide CmO3 , one of the two known examples of the very rare + 6 state for curium . Another observed species was reported to behave similarly to plutonium tetroxide and was tentatively characterized as CmO4 , with curium in the extremely rare + 8 state ; however , new experiments seem to indicate that CmO4 does not exist .
= = = Halides = = =
The colorless curium ( III ) fluoride ( CmF3 ) can be produced by introducing fluoride ions into curium ( III ) -containing solutions . The brown tetravalent curium ( IV ) fluoride ( CmF4 ) on the other hand is only obtained by reacting curium ( III ) fluoride with molecular fluorine :
<formula>
A series of ternary fluorides are known of the form A7Cm6F31 , where A stands for alkali metal .
The colorless curium ( III ) chloride ( CmCl3 ) is produced in the reaction of curium ( III ) hydroxide ( Cm ( OH ) 3 ) with anhydrous hydrogen chloride gas . It can further be converted into other halides , such as curium ( III ) bromide ( colorless to light green ) and curium ( III ) iodide ( colorless ) , by reacting it with the ammonia salt of the corresponding halide at elevated temperature of about 400 – 450 ° C :
<formula>
An alternative procedure is heating curium oxide to about 600 ° C with the corresponding acid ( such as hydrobromic for curium bromide ) . Vapor phase hydrolysis of curium ( III ) chloride results in curium oxychloride :
<formula>
= = = Chalcogenides and pnictides = = =
Sulfides , selenides and tellurides of curium have been obtained by treating curium with gaseous sulfur , selenium or tellurium in vacuum at elevated temperature . The pnictides of curium of the type CmX are known for the elements nitrogen , phosphorus , arsenic and antimony . They can be prepared by reacting either curium ( III ) hydride ( CmH3 ) or metallic curium with these elements at elevated temperatures .
= = = Organocurium compounds and biological aspects = = =
Organometallic complexes analogous to uranocene are known also for other actinides , such as thorium , protactinium , neptunium , plutonium and americium . Molecular orbital theory predicts a stable " curocene " complex ( η8 @-@ C8H8 ) 2Cm , but it has not been reported experimentally yet .
Formation of the complexes of the type Cm ( n @-@ C3H7 @-@ BTP ) 3 , where BTP stands for 2 @,@ 6 @-@ di ( 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @-@ triazin @-@ 3 @-@ yl ) pyridine , in solutions containing n @-@ C3H7 @-@ BTP and Cm3 + ions has been confirmed by EXAFS . Some of these BTP @-@ type complexes selectively interact with curium and therefore are useful in its selective separation from lanthanides and another actinides . Dissolved Cm3 + ions bind with many organic compounds , such as hydroxamic acid , urea , fluorescein and adenosine triphosphate . Many of these compounds are related to biological activity of various microorganisms . The resulting complexes exhibit strong yellow @-@ orange emission under UV light excitation , which is convenient not only for their detection , but also for studying the interactions between the Cm3 + ion and the ligands via changes in the half @-@ life ( of the order ~ 0 @.@ 1 ms ) and spectrum of the fluorescence .
Curium has no biological significance . There are a few reports on biosorption of Cm3 + by bacteria and archaea , however no evidence for incorporation of curium into them .
= = Applications = =
= = = Radionuclides = = =
Curium is one of the most radioactive isolable elements . Its two most common isotopes 242Cm and 244Cm are strong alpha emitters ( energy 6 MeV ) ; they have relatively short half @-@ lives of 162 @.@ 8 days and 18 @.@ 1 years , and produce as much as 120 W / g and 3 W / g of thermal energy , respectively . Therefore , curium can be used in its common oxide form in radioisotope thermoelectric generators like those in spacecraft . This application has been studied for the 244Cm isotope , while 242Cm was abandoned due to its prohibitive price of around 2000 USD / g . Curium @-@ 243 with a ~ 30 year half @-@ life and good energy yield of ~ 1 @.@ 6 W / g could make for a suitable fuel , but it produces significant amounts of harmful gamma and beta radiation from radioactive decay products . Though as an α @-@ emitter , 244Cm requires a much thinner radiation protection shielding , it has a high spontaneous fission rate , and thus the neutron and gamma radiation rate are relatively strong . As compared to a competing thermoelectric generator isotope such as 238Pu , 244Cm emits a 500 time greater fluence of neutrons , and its higher gamma emission requires a shield that is 20 times thicker — about 2 inches of lead for a 1 kW source , as compared to 0 @.@ 1 in for 238Pu . Therefore , this application of curium is currently considered impractical .
A more promising application of 242Cm is to produce 238Pu , a more suitable radioisotope for thermoelectric generators such as in cardiac pacemakers . The alternative routes to 238Pu use the ( n , γ ) reaction of 237Np , or the deuteron bombardment of uranium , which both always produce 236Pu as an undesired by @-@ product — since the latter decays to 232U with strong gamma emission . Curium is also a common starting material for the production of higher transuranic elements and transactinides . Thus , bombardment of 248Cm with oxygen ( 18O ) or magnesium ( 26Mg ) yielded certain isotopes of seaborgium ( 265Sg ) and hassium ( 269Hs and 270Hs ) . Californium was discovered when a microgram @-@ sized target of curium @-@ 242 was irradiated with 35 MeV alpha particles using the 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron at Berkeley :
242
96Cm + 4
2He → 245
98Cf + 1
0n
Only about 5 @,@ 000 atoms of californium were produced in this experiment .
= = = X @-@ ray spectrometer = = =
The most practical application of 244Cm — though rather limited in total volume — is as α @-@ particle source in the alpha particle X @-@ ray spectrometers ( APXS ) . These instruments were installed on the Sojourner , Mars , Mars 96 , Mars Exploration Rovers and Philae comet lander , as well as the Mars Science Laboratory to analyze the composition and structure of the rocks on the surface of planet Mars . APXS was also used in the Surveyor 5 – 7 moon probes but with a 242Cm source .
An elaborated APXS setup is equipped with a sensor head containing six curium sources having the total radioactive decay rate of several tens of millicuries ( roughly a gigabecquerel ) . The sources are collimated on the sample , and the energy spectra of the alpha particles and protons scattered from the sample are analyzed ( the proton analysis is implemented only in some spectrometers ) . These spectra contain quantitative information on all major elements in the samples except for hydrogen , helium and lithium .
= = Safety = =
Owing to its high radioactivity , curium and its compounds must be handled in appropriate laboratories under special arrangements . Whereas curium itself mostly emits α @-@ particles which are absorbed by thin layers of common materials , some of its decay products emit significant fractions of beta and gamma radiation , which require a more elaborate protection . If consumed , curium is excreted within a few days and only 0 @.@ 05 % is absorbed in the blood . From there , about 45 % goes to the liver , 45 % to the bones , and the remaining 10 % is excreted . In the bone , curium accumulates on the inside of the interfaces to the bone marrow and does not significantly redistribute with time ; its radiation destroys bone marrow and thus stops red blood cell creation . The biological half @-@ life of curium is about 20 years in the liver and 50 years in the bones . Curium is absorbed in the body much more strongly via inhalation , and the allowed total dose of 244Cm in soluble form is 0 @.@ 3 μC . Intravenous injection of 242Cm and 244Cm containing solutions to rats increased the incidence of bone tumor , and inhalation promoted pulmonary and liver cancer .
Curium isotopes are inevitably present in spent nuclear fuel with a concentration of about 20 g / tonne . Among them , the 245Cm – 248Cm isotopes have decay times of thousands of years and need to be removed to neutralize the fuel for disposal . The associated procedure involves several steps , where curium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short @-@ lived nuclides . This procedure , nuclear transmutation , while well documented for other elements , is still being developed for curium .
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= I 'm with Cupid =
" I 'm with Cupid " is the fourteenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on Valentine 's Day , 1999 . The episode takes place on Valentine 's Day , and the wives of Springfield are jealous of the attention Apu gives to his wife Manjula . Angered by this , the Springfield husbands spy on Apu to sabotage his romantic plans .
" I 'm with Cupid " was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Bob Anderson . Because the episode was to air on Valentine 's Day , Fox wanted the episode to relate to the holiday , although the idea for the episode was pitched by Greaney . The title of the episode is based on the popular T @-@ shirt slogan " I 'm with stupid " . Elton John guest @-@ starred as himself , and recorded a new version of his song " Your Song " for the episode . The episode also features references to Breakfast at Tiffany 's , Tiffany & Co. and " Lisa the Vegetarian " , an earlier episode in the series .
In its original broadcast , " I 'm With Cupid " was seen by approximately 7 @.@ 7 million viewers and finished in 48th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the home media release of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season , the episode received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Apu and his new wife Manjula invite Homer and Marge to their house for dinner . However , Apu and Manjula get in a fight , after Marge mentions to Manjula that Apu does not need to work as much as he does . The week before Valentine 's Day , Apu tells Homer that he is disappointed that Manjula does not love him , until Homer assures him that Manjula will not leave him before Valentine 's Day , and Apu agrees . Apu decides to shower Manjula with many romantic surprises to regain her love . However , although many of Apu 's surprises succeed in fixing his marriage , they ruin other people 's relationships . The rest of Springfield 's women become jealous from all the attention Manjula is receiving , and find their men to be cheapskates ( including Maude Flanders ) . At Moe 's Tavern , Homer encourages several of Springfield 's men that they have to prevent Apu and Manjula from reconciling to save their own relationships and marriages .
During Valentine 's Day , Homer , Chief Wiggum , Dr. Hibbert , Moe , and Ned Flanders investigate what Apu is doing so they can stop it . They go around town and Flanders is thrown out of the group for suggesting they should be using their time to be more romantic to their wives instead of trying to sabotage Apu . Following Apu to the airport , the remaining group see Elton John there , and they think that he supposedly came to Springfield to perform a concert for Apu and Manjula at his insistence ( in reality , he had to make an emergency landing because the chandelier on his plane was malfunctioning ) . However , Apu 's actual plan is that he arranged for a skywriter to write " I ♥ U MANJULA " . During the trouble that ensues , Homer jumps on the plane during takeoff to try to stop the skywriter from spraying the message . When Homer destroys the plane 's canister in mid @-@ air it only sprayed part of the message - " I ♥ U * " , which the other women think is for them . While Homer and the pilot fight , Marge remains unconvinced until the plane flies by and Homer drops out of it covered with roses after the plane flew out of control through a thorny rose patch , possibly giving Homer a collapsed lung . Nonetheless , Elton John is able to perform a private concert for Apu and Manjula , and their marriage is saved .
= = Production = =
" I 'm With Cupid " was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Bob Anderson . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on Valentine 's Day , 1999 . Because they knew it would air on Valentine 's Day , Fox asked the Simpsons staff to produce an episode related to the holiday . The episode 's ending credits were also painted red in honor of the holiday . The idea for the episode was pitched by Greaney , who also wrote the episode 's first draft . The episode 's title was pitched by fellow Simpsons writer Ron Hauge , who based it on the popular T @-@ shirt slogan I 'm with stupid . However , Hauge later found out that the title had already been used before for an episode of another television series . However , he did not believe that copyright issues would arise : " It 's a very innocent mistake , " Hauge said in the DVD comentary for the episode . " It is one of those things that , in the course of a career , you 're gonna be on both sides of that , so nobody ever sues on it . "
Jan Hooks reprised her role as Manjula in the episode . In a scene in the episode , Apu and Manjula are arguing in an Indian language . During the scene , both characters speak the language accurately , as both Hooks and Hank Azaria ( the voice of Apu ) were given a phonetic transcription of their lines . The singing parrot that Apu sends to Manjula was voiced by series main cast member Nancy Cartwright , who also portrays Bart in the series . The episode features singer sir Elton John as himself . John 's lines were recorded by current showrunner Al Jean , who found working with John being a " wonderful experience " . " Elton John was a very nice person , " Scully spoke for Jean in the DVD commentary for the episode , since Jean was busy during the commentary record . " He was a great sport and worked really hard for the show . " Scully also stated that the re @-@ recording of " Your Song " , which appears near the end of the episode , had to be recorded " several times , " but that John was " very accommodating " about it .
= = Themes and cultural references = =
In their book Picturing South Asian culture in English : textual and visual representations , Tasleem Shakur and Karen D 'Souza analyzed " I 'm with Cupid " along with the season 9 episode " The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons " . The two argued that " I 'm with Cupid " represents Apu 's role in the series , and " reinforces the romanticised view of Apu 's marriage through the increasingly elaborate ways in which he expresses his love for his wife . " They wrote : " In a Valentine 's day episode , the message is clearly critically showing up the all @-@ American men of Springfield for their lack of romance . [ ... ] Throughout this episode , Apu 's identity is reinforced as exotic other , but not so much as ' South Asian ' other , as an ' American ' ideal other , that more wholesome , romantic male juxtaposed to the Duff drinking , couch potato male typified by the men of Moe 's bar and Homer Simpson . Again , Apu is not so much represented in his ethnicity , but presented in his critical otherness to both contemporary degenerativeness of American culture , specifically male identities and ironically ( re ) constructed idea of South Asianness . In these two episodes , the Asian cultural space which Apu , his mother and Manjula perform is a hybrid one , mixing ' Asian ' and ' American ' values and identities , but critically displacing Asian ' authenticity ' and revealing the displacement of contemporary American marriage from its ' authentic ' traditions . "
In a scene in the episode , John , having just chewed his way out of a dog carrier , meets Apu , who exclaims " Elton John ! " , to which John replies " That 's my name ! Well , not really . " The exchange references John 's name change , as his birth name was Reginald Dwight . At the end of the episode , John performs for Apu and Manjula on the roof of the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . The scene is a callback to the season 7 episode " Lisa the Vegetarian " , in which Paul McCartney performed on the roof . The scene in which Homer is seen jamming Valentine 's Day cards into their holders were based on an observation by the writers . Simpsons writer George Meyer said of the scene : " You just see cards get really man @-@ handled , and the envelopes get switched with the wrong sizes . " In another scene , Marge and Manjula are seen playing badminton . While the scene was conceived in order to provide exposition , the sport was included because badminton is " very popular " in India , according to Simpsons writer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham . The episode also mentions the 1961 film Breakfast at Tiffany 's . In a scene , Apu , carrying a shopping bag , exits the jewellery and silverware store Tiffany & Co . Meanwhile , Homer , along with Chief Wiggum , Moe , Flanders and Dr Hibbert are watching Apu , assuming he bought jewellery for Manjula . It is soon revealed that Apu bought a croissant in the store , to which Wiggum says " Oh , that 's right , they have breakfast at Tiffany 's now . " The heart @-@ shaped fade out at the end of the episode is a reference to the series Love , American Style .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on February 14 , 1999 , " I 'm with Cupid " received a 7 @.@ 7 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode finished in 48th place in the ratings for the week of February 8 – 14 , 1999 . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge and Matt Selman participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " I 'm with Cupid " received generally positive reviews from critics . In 2007 , Simon Crerar of The Times listed Elton John 's performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show . James Plath of DVD Town wrote that the episode is " funny " because " it has a plot we recognize from our own lives , " and Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News considered it to be one of the season 's best episodes . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide gave the episode a positive review as well , calling it " Very , very clever and funny , " and wrote " it 's executed stylishly and Homer wins in the end ; entirely by default of course , but maybe that 's his reward for not falling off the skywriting plane until the last minute ! " However , they also criticized the episode for being " a little tacky , " writing " After all , how nice are these people who want to ruin Apu and Manjula 's day just because they 're scared of looking bad ? "
Writing for IGN , Robert Canning described " I 'm with Cupid " as " very smart and very funny " and " a great episode representing one piece of Apu 's journey . " However , he disliked John 's guest appearance in the episode , describing it as " completely unnecessary " and " very tacked on , " and described John 's performance as " very flat . " Nevertheless , Canning gave the episode an 8 @.@ 8 rating and concluded his review by describing it as a " tightly written Valentine 's episode . " Giving the episode a more mixed review , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide criticized it for being to similar to an earlier episode , writing " Didn ’ t we already see that Flanders makes everyone else look like a jerk on Valentine ’ s Day ? Doesn ’ t that theme mean that ' Cupid ' is somewhat redundant ? " He added " Not that the show lacks any spark , as it throws out a reasonable number of laughs , " and concluded his review by writing that " it seems a little stale and not one of the year ’ s better programs . "
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= 41 cm / 45 3rd Year Type naval gun =
The 41 cm / 45 3rd Year Type naval gun was a 41 @-@ centimeter ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) breech @-@ loading naval gun designed during World War I for the Imperial Japanese Navy . It served as the primary armament in the Nagato @-@ class dreadnoughts completed after the end of the war and in coast defense mountings . Two turrets and their guns were salvaged during the 1970s from the wreck of the Japanese battleship Mutsu and are currently on display in Japan .
= = Description = =
The gun was of wire @-@ wound construction and had an overall length of 18 @.@ 84 meters ( 61 ft 10 in ) with a bore 18 @.@ 294 meters ( 60 ft 0 @.@ 2 in ) long . It weighed 102 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 224 @,@ 872 lb ) , including the Wellin @-@ type breech . This used the Elswick three @-@ motion short @-@ arm mechanism , much like the British BL 18 inch Mk I naval gun designed around the same time . Chamber volume was 467 @.@ 11 litres ( 28 @,@ 505 cu in ) .
Initially the gun was fitted in twin @-@ gun turrets that had an elevation range of – 2 ° / + 35 ° . It was initially equipped with the Type 88 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) armor @-@ piercing , capped ( APC ) shell , that had a muzzle velocity of 790 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . This was superseded in 1931 by the Type 91 shell that weighed 1 @,@ 020 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 250 lb ) . It was fired at a muzzle velocity of 790 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) to a range of 30 @,@ 200 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 yd ) . Also available was a 936 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 064 lb ) high @-@ explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 640 ft / s ) . A special Type 3 Sankaidan incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti @-@ aircraft use . The gun 's firing cycle was one round every 24 seconds .
The turrets aboard the Nagato @-@ class ships were replaced in the mid @-@ 1930s , using the turrets stored from the unfinished Tosa @-@ class battleships . While in storage the turrets were modified to increase their range of elevation to – 3 ° / + 43 ° , which gave them a maximum range of 37 @,@ 900 meters ( 41 @,@ 400 yd ) , and their firing cycle was reduced to 21 @.@ 5 seconds .
The gun was only initially known as the 41 cm / 45 3rd Year Type naval gun before it was redesignated as the 40 cm / 45 3rd Year Type naval gun on 29 March 1922 to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty which forbade guns larger than 40 @.@ 6 cm ( 16 in ) . Third year type refers to the Welin breech block on which design began in 1914 , the third year of the Taishō period . This breech block design was also used on the 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 inch ) , 15 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 1 inch ) , 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 inch ) , 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 inch ) , and 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 inch ) naval guns .
= = Service = =
The Nagato @-@ class dreadnoughts were the only ships to use this gun , although it would have been used by the Tosa @-@ class and Kii @-@ class dreadnoughts as well as the Amagi @-@ class battlecruisers had they not been cancelled due to the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . The gun was also deployed in three coast @-@ defense turrets intended to close off the Strait of Tsushima . One turret each was deployed on Iki and Tsushima Islands while the third was mounted in Pusan , Korea .
The two aft turrets from Mutsu 's wreck were salvaged in the 1970s ; No. 4 in July or August 1970 and No. 3 in September of the following year . Turret No. 4 and its guns were restored and were installed on the grounds of the former Imperial Japanese Naval Academy at Etajima , Hiroshima . One gun from Turret No. 3 is at the Kure Maritime Museum , popularly known as the Yamato Museum , in Kure , Hiroshima while the other is at the Museum of Maritime Science in Odaiba , Tokyo .
= = Shells into bombs = =
Obsolete Type 88 shells were modified in 1939 – 40 to create the Type 99 No. 80 Mk 5 armor @-@ piercing bomb used during the attack on Pearl Harbor . The armor @-@ piercing cap and windscreen were removed , the body was machined down and tapered to reduce weight and a new , thinner , base plug installed with two fuzes . The filling was replaced by 23 kilograms ( 50 lb ) of trinitroanisole and the bomb weighed 796 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 757 lb ) .
Beginning in 1942 an improved version of the bomb was built . Its nose was much less thick and it contained 35 @.@ 7 kilograms ( 79 lb ) of trinitroanisole . It weighed 811 @.@ 2 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 788 lb ) .
= = = Weapons of comparable role , performance and era = = =
BL 16 inch Mk I naval gun : British equivalent
16 " / 45 caliber Mark 6 gun : American equivalent
40 @.@ 6 cm SK C / 34 gun : German equivalent
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= M @-@ 109 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 109 is the designation of a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan that runs between Empire and Glen Arbor . The highway is a loop connected to M @-@ 22 at both ends that allows tourists access to Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore and the Pierce Stocking Scenic Drive located on a section of sandy forest land between Lake Michigan and Glen Lake . The trunkline traverses an area named the " Most Beautiful Place in America " by Good Morning America , the morning show on ABC . The highway was designated by 1929 and fully paved in 1939 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 109 starts at an intersection on M @-@ 22 north of Empire . The trunkline runs northward along Dune Highway past Maple Grove Cemetery and through woods in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore . The area was named the " Most Beautiful Place in America " by Good Morning America in August 2011 ; the designation came after a social media campaign to capitalize on the show 's website poll . Further north , the highway passes the entrance to Pierce Stocking Scenic Drive before reunning along the western shore of Glen Lake . Near the northwestern corner of the lake , M @-@ 109 passes the entrance to the Dune Climb in an area that 's predominantly fields . The trunkline makes a 90 @-@ degree turn at the intersection with Glen Haven Road , the former M @-@ 209 , south of Glen Haven , a former logging town on the shores of Lake Michigan . M @-@ 109 turns easterly at the intersection to follow Harbor Highway . It runs through another wooded area between Glen Lake and Sleeping Bear Bay . The highway passes the D.H. Day Campground and enters Glen Arbor , following Western Avenue . At the intersection with M @-@ 22 ( Ray Street ) , M @-@ 109 terminates in the middle of town .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 109 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 783 vehicles used the highway daily along Dune Highway and 758 vehicles did so each day along Harbor Highway , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 109 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The first section of roadway to receive the M @-@ 109 designation was in place and signed on maps by May 1 , 1929 . The roadway was a spur from M @-@ 22 north of Empire that ended at Glen Haven , just west of the D.H. Day State Park . The highway was extended east along an existing road between Glen Haven and Glen Arbor . This extension was in place by May 1 , 1933 , completing the modern routing of M @-@ 109 . The highway was fully paved in 1939 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Leelanau County .
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= St Beuno 's Church , Trefdraeth =
St Beuno 's Church , Trefdraeth is the medieval parish church of Trefdraeth , a hamlet in Anglesey , north Wales . Although one 19th @-@ century historian recorded that the first church on this location was reportedly established in about 616 , no part of any 7th @-@ century structure survives ; the oldest parts of the present building date are from the 13th century . Alterations were made in subsequent centuries , but few of them during the 19th century , a time when many other churches in Anglesey were rebuilt or were restored .
St Beuno 's is part of the Church in Wales , and its parish is one in a group of four . The church remains in use but as of 2013 there is no parish priest . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation for " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because it is regarded as " an important example of a late Medieval rural church " with an unaltered simple design .
= = History and location = =
St Beuno 's Church is in Trefdraeth , a hamlet in the south @-@ west of Anglesey by Malltraeth Marsh , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) south @-@ west of the county town of Llangefni . It stands in a roughly circular llan ( Welsh for an enclosed piece of land , particularly around a church ) north of the road between Trefdraeth and Bethel . Beuno , a 7th @-@ century Welsh saint , has several churches in north Wales dedicated to him .
According to Angharad Llwyd ( a 19th @-@ century historian of Anglesey ) , the first church on this site was reportedly established in about 616 . No part of any 7th century building survives , and restoration over the years has removed much historical evidence for the church 's development .
The earliest parts of the present structure are the nave and the chancel , which are 13th @-@ century . The church shows signs of alterations and additions in subsequent centuries . A transept or chapel was added to the south side of the chancel in the late 13th or early 14th century . The arch between them was once the archway between the chancel and the nave but was later moved . The bellcote at the west end of the roof was added in the 14th century . The porch on the south side of the nave was built in about 1500 , and was re @-@ roofed in 1725 . A doorway in the north wall of the nave was inserted in the late 15th or early 16th century , and now leads into a vestry added in the 19th century . The main roof is largely 17th @-@ century . Some repairs were carried out in the 1840s , with further repairs in 1854 under the supervision of the diocesan architect , Henry Kennedy .
= = Benefice = =
St Beuno 's is one of four churches in the benefice of Trefdraeth with Aberffraw with Llangadwaladr with Cerrigceinwen . Other churches in the benefice include St Beuno 's , Aberffraw and St Cadwaladr 's , Llangadwaladr . The church is in the Deanery of Malltraeth , the Archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2013 the parishes have no incumbent priest .
A number of notable clergy have held the living of St Beuno 's . Henry Rowlands , Bishop of Bangor 1598 – 1616 , was rector of Trefdraeth during his episcopacy , as the income from the parish was attached to the bishopric . The scholar and rhetorician Henry Perry was appointed priest in 1606 . Griffith Williams was appointed rector in 1626 and went on to be Dean of Bangor in 1634 . David Lloyd was rector in the late 1630s and early 1640s , and thereafter Dean of St Asaph . Robert Morgan was rector before and after the English Civil War and was made Bishop of Bangor in 1666 . John Pryce was rector 1880 – 1902 and Dean of Bangor 1902 – 1903 .
= = = Welsh language controversy = = =
In 1766 John Egerton , Bishop of Bangor , appointed an elderly English priest , Dr Thomas Bowles , to the parish of St Beuno , Trefdraeth and its chapelry of St Cwyfan , Llangwyfan . Between them the parish and chapelry had about 500 parishioners , of whom all but five spoke only Welsh , whereas Bowles spoke only English . The parishioners and churchwardens of Trefdraeth petitioned against Bowles 's appointment , arguing that the appointment of a priest who did not speak Welsh breached the Articles of Religion , the Act for the Translation of the Scriptures into Welsh 1563 and the Act of Uniformity 1662 . In 1773 the Court of Arches ruled that only clergy who could speak Welsh should be appointed to Welsh @-@ speaking parishes , and Bowles should not have been appointed , but he now held the ecclesiastical freehold of the benefice and the case to deprive him of it had not been proved . The court therefore let Bowles stay in post , which he did until he died in November of that year . Bowles was then replaced in the parish and chapelry with Richard Griffith , a priest who spoke Welsh .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Beuno 's is Decorated Gothic , built mainly with rubble masonry , with squared stones used to create courses in the nave 's south wall and the lower part of the west wall . There are external buttresses at the west and east ends , the south porch and the south transept . The roof is surfaced with hexagonal slates and has a stone bellcote on its west gable . Internally , there is no structural division between the nave and the chancel save for a step up to the chancel . The nave and chancel together are 59 feet ( 18 m ) long and the church is 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide . Near the eastern end of the church is a transept or chapel on the south side of the chancel , from which it is separated by a step down and an arch . The transept is 13 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 2 m ) by 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) .
The windows range in age from the late 14th or early 15th century to the 19th century . The oldest is the chancel east window , which has an 18th @-@ century inscribed slate slab as its sill . The window is a pointed arch with three lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) , and it has a stained glass of the Crucifixion of Jesus that was installed as a memorial in 1907 . The nave north wall has a window from about 1500 , which was originally in the nave south wall . The nave west window is rectangular , again from about 1500 . In the nave south wall are two early 19th @-@ century windows set in square frames , one single @-@ light and one two @-@ light . The transept has a 19th @-@ century two @-@ light arched window in its south wall , which contains the oldest stained glass in the church : 15th @-@ century fragments of a crucifixion scene . It also has a pointed arched doorway in its west wall , from the late 13th or early 14th century .
The church is entered through the porch to the west end of the south wall of the nave , which leads to an arched doorway . There are two 18th @-@ century slate plaques on the walls by the south door commemorating those who made donations to the poor of the parish ; one has names from 1761 , the other from 1766 . On the opposite wall , a 17th @-@ century slate plaque commemorates Hugh ap Richard Lewis and his wife Jane ( died 1660 and 1661 respectively ) . The internal timbers of the roof , some of which are old , are exposed , but there is a decorated panelled barrel @-@ vaulted ceiling above the sanctuary at the east end of the church . The transept roof is largely 17th @-@ century .
The cylindrical font is 12th @-@ century , and is at the west end of the church . Four of its six panels are decorated with saltires ; a fifth has a Celtic cross in knotwork with a ring ; the sixth is blank . One author has pointed out the similarities with the fonts of St Cristiolus 's , Llangristiolus , which is about 2 miles ( 3 km ) away , and of St Beuno 's , Pistyll , in the nearby county of Gwynedd .
A survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire in 1937 also noted the early 18th @-@ century communion rails , a plain oak communion table dated 1731 , and a wooden font cover dated 1714 . Other memorials , including parts of an early 14th @-@ century inscribed slab , were also recorded . Three items of church silver were included in the survey : a cup ( dated 1610 – 1611 ) , a paten ( 1719 ) and a flagon ( 1743 ) . Externally , an 18th @-@ century brass sundial on a slate pedestal was noted , as was a weathered decorated stone on the lychgate , thought to be from the 10th century . The Arts and Crafts Movement pulpit was made in 1920 .
= = Churchyard = =
The churchyard contains the Commonwealth war graves of a Royal Engineers soldier of World War I and a Pioneer Corps soldier of World War II .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 , and has been listed because it is " an important example of a late Medieval rural church " . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes that the church 's " simple design [ remained ] unaltered during the extensive programme of church re @-@ building and restoration on Anglesey in the 19th century . "
In 1833 Angharad Llwyd described the church as " a small neat edifice " , with " an east window of modern date and of good design " . She noted that the parish registers , legible from 1550 onwards , were the second oldest in north Wales . Similarly , the 19th @-@ century publisher Samuel Lewis said the church was a " small plain edifice " that could hold nearly 300 people .
In 1846 the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones wrote that the church " has been lately repaired in a judicious manner , but without any restoration of importance being attempted , and is in good condition " . He added that with its " good condition this ranks as one of the better churches of the island . " The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church in October 1849 . He said that the chapel on the south side resembled several others in Anglesey and Caernarfonshire . He also noted the new slate roof , the " mostly open and plain " seats , and the " very large cemetery ... commanding an extensive view " .
A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes St Beuno 's as being in " a pleasant and quiet rural location " . It adds that the church was " fairly small " and the roof had " unusual ornately @-@ shaped slates " . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region comments that " for once " Kennedy had repaired rather than replaced the church . It notes that " strangely " the chancel arch had been reset in the transept , and says that the nave roof was of " unusual construction " .
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= Parallel computing =
Parallel computing is a type of computation in which many calculations are carried out simultaneously , or the execution of processes are carried out simutaneously. operating on the principle that large problems can often be divided into smaller ones , which are then solved at the same time . There are several different forms of parallel computing : bit @-@ level , instruction @-@ level , data , and task parallelism . Parallelism has been employed for many years , mainly in high @-@ performance computing , but interest in it has grown lately due to the physical constraints preventing frequency scaling . As power consumption ( and consequently heat generation ) by computers has become a concern in recent years , parallel computing has become the dominant paradigm in computer architecture , mainly in the form of multi @-@ core processors .
Parallel computing is closely related to concurrent computing — they are frequently used together , and often conflated , though the two are distinct : it is possible to have parallelism without concurrency ( such as bit @-@ level parallelism ) , and concurrency without parallelism ( such as multitasking by time @-@ sharing on a single @-@ core CPU ) . In parallel computing , a computational task is typically broken down in several , often many , very similar subtasks that can be processed independently and whose results are combined afterwards , upon completion . In contrast , in concurrent computing , the various processes often do not address related tasks ; when they do , as is typical in distributed computing , the separate tasks may have a varied nature and often require some inter @-@ process communication during execution .
Parallel computers can be roughly classified according to the level at which the hardware supports parallelism , with multi @-@ core and multi @-@ processor computers having multiple processing elements within a single machine , while clusters , MPPs , and grids use multiple computers to work on the same task . Specialized parallel computer architectures are sometimes used alongside traditional processors , for accelerating specific tasks .
In some cases parallelism is transparent to the programmer , such as in bit @-@ level or instruction @-@ level parallelism , but explicitly parallel algorithms , particularly those that use concurrency , are more difficult to write than sequential ones , because concurrency introduces several new classes of potential software bugs , of which race conditions are the most common . Communication and synchronization between the different subtasks are typically some of the greatest obstacles to getting good parallel program performance .
A theoretical upper bound on the speed @-@ up of a single program as a result of parallelization is given by Amdahl 's law .
= = Background = =
Traditionally , computer software has been written for serial computation . To solve a problem , an algorithm is constructed and implemented as a serial stream of instructions . These instructions are executed on a central processing unit on one computer . Only one instruction may execute at a time — after that instruction is finished , the next one is executed .
Parallel computing , on the other hand , uses multiple processing elements simultaneously to solve a problem . This is accomplished by breaking the problem into independent parts so that each processing element can execute its part of the algorithm simultaneously with the others . The processing elements can be diverse and include resources such as a single computer with multiple processors , several networked computers , specialized hardware , or any combination of the above .
Frequency scaling was the dominant reason for improvements in computer performance from the mid @-@ 1980s until 2004 . The runtime of a program is equal to the number of instructions multiplied by the average time per instruction . Maintaining everything else constant , increasing the clock frequency decreases the average time it takes to execute an instruction . An increase in frequency thus decreases runtime for all compute @-@ bound programs .
However , power consumption P by a chip is given by the equation P = C × V 2 × F , where C is the capacitance being switched per clock cycle ( proportional to the number of transistors whose inputs change ) , V is voltage , and F is the processor frequency ( cycles per second ) . Increases in frequency increase the amount of power used in a processor . Increasing processor power consumption led ultimately to Intel 's May 8 , 2004 cancellation of its Tejas and Jayhawk processors , which is generally cited as the end of frequency scaling as the dominant computer architecture paradigm .
Moore 's law is the empirical observation that the number of transistors in a microprocessor doubles every 18 to 24 months . Despite power consumption issues , and repeated predictions of its end , Moore 's law is still in effect . With the end of frequency scaling , these additional transistors ( which are no longer used for frequency scaling ) can be used to add extra hardware for parallel computing .
= = = Amdahl 's law and Gustafson 's law = = =
Optimally , the speedup from parallelization would be linear — doubling the number of processing elements should halve the runtime , and doubling it a second time should again halve the runtime . However , very few parallel algorithms achieve optimal speedup . Most of them have a near @-@ linear speedup for small numbers of processing elements , which flattens out into a constant value for large numbers of processing elements .
The potential speedup of an algorithm on a parallel computing platform is given by Amdahl 's law
<formula>
where
Slatency is the potential speedup in latency of the execution of the whole task ;
s is the speedup in latency of the execution of the parallelizable part of the task ;
p is the percentage of the execution time of the whole task concerning the parallelizable part of the task before parallelization .
Since Slatency < 1 / ( 1 - p ) , it shows that a small part of the program which cannot be parallelized will limit the overall speedup available from parallelization . A program solving a large mathematical or engineering problem will typically consist of several parallelizable parts and several non @-@ parallelizable ( serial ) parts . If the non @-@ parallelizable part of a program accounts for 10 % of the runtime ( p = 0 @.@ 9 ) , we can get no more than a 10 times speedup , regardless of how many processors are added . This puts an upper limit on the usefulness of adding more parallel execution units . " When a task cannot be partitioned because of sequential constraints , the application of more effort has no effect on the schedule . The bearing of a child takes nine months , no matter how many women are assigned . "
Amdahl 's law only applies to cases where the problem size is fixed . In practice , as more computing resources become available , they tend to get used on larger problems ( larger datasets ) , and the time spent in the parallelizable part often grows much faster than the inherently serial work . In this case , Gustafson 's law gives a less pessimistic and more realistic assessment of parallel performance :
<formula>
Both Amdahl 's law and Gustafson 's law assume that the running time of the serial part of the program is independent of the number of processors . Amdahl 's law assumes that the entire problem is of fixed size so that the total amount of work to be done in parallel is also independent of the number of processors , whereas Gustafson 's law assumes that the total amount of work to be done in parallel varies linearly with the number of processors .
= = = Dependencies = = =
Understanding data dependencies is fundamental in implementing parallel algorithms . No program can run more quickly than the longest chain of dependent calculations ( known as the critical path ) , since calculations that depend upon prior calculations in the chain must be executed in order . However , most algorithms do not consist of just a long chain of dependent calculations ; there are usually opportunities to execute independent calculations in parallel .
Let Pi and Pj be two program segments . Bernstein 's conditions describe when the two are independent and can be executed in parallel . For Pi , let Ii be all of the input variables and Oi the output variables , and likewise for Pj . Pi and Pj are independent if they satisfy
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Violation of the first condition introduces a flow dependency , corresponding to the first segment producing a result used by the second segment . The second condition represents an anti @-@ dependency , when the second segment produces a variable needed by the first segment . The third and final condition represents an output dependency : when two segments write to the same location , the result comes from the logically last executed segment .
Consider the following functions , which demonstrate several kinds of dependencies :
1 : function Dep ( a , b )
2 : c : = a * b
3 : d : = 3 * c
4 : end function
In this example , instruction 3 cannot be executed before ( or even in parallel with ) instruction 2 , because instruction 3 uses a result from instruction 2 . It violates condition 1 , and thus introduces a flow dependency .
1 : function NoDep ( a , b )
2 : c : = a * b
3 : d : = 3 * b
4 : e : = a + b
5 : end function
In this example , there are no dependencies between the instructions , so they can all be run in parallel .
Bernstein 's conditions do not allow memory to be shared between different processes . For that , some means of enforcing an ordering between accesses is necessary , such as semaphores , barriers or some other synchronization method .
= = = Race conditions , mutual exclusion , synchronization , and parallel slowdown = = =
Subtasks in a parallel program are often called threads . Some parallel computer architectures use smaller , lightweight versions of threads known as fibers , while others use bigger versions known as processes . However , " threads " is generally accepted as a generic term for subtasks . Threads will often need to update some variable that is shared between them . The instructions between the two programs may be interleaved in any order . For example , consider the following program :
If instruction 1B is executed between 1A and 3A , or if instruction 1A is executed between 1B and 3B , the program will produce incorrect data . This is known as a race condition . The programmer must use a lock to provide mutual exclusion . A lock is a programming language construct that allows one thread to take control of a variable and prevent other threads from reading or writing it , until that variable is unlocked . The thread holding the lock is free to execute its critical section ( the section of a program that requires exclusive access to some variable ) , and to unlock the data when it is finished . Therefore , to guarantee correct program execution , the above program can be rewritten to use locks :
One thread will successfully lock variable V , while the other thread will be locked out — unable to proceed until V is unlocked again . This guarantees correct execution of the program . Locks , while necessary to ensure correct program execution , can greatly slow a program .
Locking multiple variables using non @-@ atomic locks introduces the possibility of program deadlock . An atomic lock locks multiple variables all at once . If it cannot lock all of them , it does not lock any of them . If two threads each need to lock the same two variables using non @-@ atomic locks , it is possible that one thread will lock one of them and the second thread will lock the second variable . In such a case , neither thread can complete , and deadlock results .
Many parallel programs require that their subtasks act in synchrony . This requires the use of a barrier . Barriers are typically implemented using a software lock . One class of algorithms , known as lock @-@ free and wait @-@ free algorithms , altogether avoids the use of locks and barriers . However , this approach is generally difficult to implement and requires correctly designed data structures .
Not all parallelization results in speed @-@ up . Generally , as a task is split up into more and more threads , those threads spend an ever @-@ increasing portion of their time communicating with each other . Eventually , the overhead from communication dominates the time spent solving the problem , and further parallelization ( that is , splitting the workload over even more threads ) increases rather than decreases the amount of time required to finish . This is known as parallel slowdown .
= = = Fine @-@ grained , coarse @-@ grained , and embarrassing parallelism = = =
Applications are often classified according to how often their subtasks need to synchronize or communicate with each other . An application exhibits fine @-@ grained parallelism if its subtasks must communicate many times per second ; it exhibits coarse @-@ grained parallelism if they do not communicate many times per second , and it exhibits embarrassing parallelism if they rarely or never have to communicate . Embarrassingly parallel applications are considered the easiest to parallelize .
= = = Consistency models = = =
Parallel programming languages and parallel computers must have a consistency model ( also known as a memory model ) . The consistency model defines rules for how operations on computer memory occur and how results are produced .
One of the first consistency models was Leslie Lamport 's sequential consistency model . Sequential consistency is the property of a parallel program that its parallel execution produces the same results as a sequential program . Specifically , a program is sequentially consistent if " … the results of any execution is the same as if the operations of all the processors were executed in some sequential order , and the operations of each individual processor appear in this sequence in the order specified by its program " .
Software transactional memory is a common type of consistency model . Software transactional memory borrows from database theory the concept of atomic transactions and applies them to memory accesses .
Mathematically , these models can be represented in several ways . Petri nets , which were introduced in Carl Adam Petri 's 1962 doctoral thesis , were an early attempt to codify the rules of consistency models . Dataflow theory later built upon these , and Dataflow architectures were created to physically implement the ideas of dataflow theory . Beginning in the late 1970s , process calculi such as Calculus of Communicating Systems and Communicating Sequential Processes were developed to permit algebraic reasoning about systems composed of interacting components . More recent additions to the process calculus family , such as the π @-@ calculus , have added the capability for reasoning about dynamic topologies . Logics such as Lamport 's TLA + , and mathematical models such as traces and Actor event diagrams , have also been developed to describe the behavior of concurrent systems .
= = = Flynn 's taxonomy = = =
Michael J. Flynn created one of the earliest classification systems for parallel ( and sequential ) computers and programs , now known as Flynn 's taxonomy . Flynn classified programs and computers by whether they were operating using a single set or multiple sets of instructions , and whether or not those instructions were using a single set or multiple sets of data .
The single @-@ instruction @-@ single @-@ data ( SISD ) classification is equivalent to an entirely sequential program . The single @-@ instruction @-@ multiple @-@ data ( SIMD ) classification is analogous to doing the same operation repeatedly over a large data set . This is commonly done in signal processing applications . Multiple @-@ instruction @-@ single @-@ data ( MISD ) is a rarely used classification . While computer architectures to deal with this were devised ( such as systolic arrays ) , few applications that fit this class materialized . Multiple @-@ instruction @-@ multiple @-@ data ( MIMD ) programs are by far the most common type of parallel programs .
According to David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy , " Some machines are hybrids of these categories , of course , but this classic model has survived because it is simple , easy to understand , and gives a good first approximation . It is also — perhaps because of its understandability — the most widely used scheme . "
= = Types of parallelism = =
= = = Bit @-@ level parallelism = = =
From the advent of very @-@ large @-@ scale integration ( VLSI ) computer @-@ chip fabrication technology in the 1970s until about 1986 , speed @-@ up in computer architecture was driven by doubling computer word size — the amount of information the processor can manipulate per cycle . Increasing the word size reduces the number of instructions the processor must execute to perform an operation on variables whose sizes are greater than the length of the word . For example , where an 8 @-@ bit processor must add two 16 @-@ bit integers , the processor must first add the 8 lower @-@ order bits from each integer using the standard addition instruction , then add the 8 higher @-@ order bits using an add @-@ with @-@ carry instruction and the carry bit from the lower order addition ; thus , an 8 @-@ bit processor requires two instructions to complete a single operation , where a 16 @-@ bit processor would be able to complete the operation with a single instruction .
Historically , 4 @-@ bit microprocessors were replaced with 8 @-@ bit , then 16 @-@ bit , then 32 @-@ bit microprocessors . This trend generally came to an end with the introduction of 32 @-@ bit processors , which has been a standard in general @-@ purpose computing for two decades . Not until recently ( c . 2003 – 2004 ) , with the advent of x86 @-@ 64 architectures , have 64 @-@ bit processors become commonplace .
= = = Instruction @-@ level parallelism = = =
A computer program , is in essence , a stream of instructions executed by a processor . Without instruction @-@ level parallelism , a processor can only issue less than one instruction per clock cycle ( IPC < 1 ) . These processors are known as subscalar processors . These instructions can be re @-@ ordered and combined into groups which are then executed in parallel without changing the result of the program . This is known as instruction @-@ level parallelism . Advances in instruction @-@ level parallelism dominated computer architecture from the mid @-@ 1980s until the mid @-@ 1990s .
All modern processors have multi @-@ stage instruction pipelines . Each stage in the pipeline corresponds to a different action the processor performs on that instruction in that stage ; a processor with an N @-@ stage pipeline can have up to N different instructions at different stages of completion and thus can issue one instruction per clock cycle ( IPC = 1 ) . These processors are known as scalar processors . The canonical example of a pipelined processor is a RISC processor , with five stages : instruction fetch ( IF ) , instruction decode ( ID ) , execute ( EX ) , memory access ( MEM ) , and register write back ( WB ) . The Pentium 4 processor had a 35 @-@ stage pipeline .
Most modern processors also have multiple execution units . They usually combine this feature with pipelining and thus can issue more than one instruction per clock cycle ( IPC > 1 ) . These processors are known as superscalar processors . Instructions can be grouped together only if there is no data dependency between them . Scoreboarding and the Tomasulo algorithm ( which is similar to scoreboarding but makes use of register renaming ) are two of the most common techniques for implementing out @-@ of @-@ order execution and instruction @-@ level parallelism .
= = = Task parallelism = = =
Task parallelisms is the characteristic of a parallel program that " entirely different calculations can be performed on either the same or different sets of data " . This contrasts with data parallelism , where the same calculation is performed on the same or different sets of data . Task parallelism involves the decomposition of a task into sub @-@ tasks and then allocating each sub @-@ task to a processor for execution . The processors would then execute these sub @-@ tasks simultaneously and often cooperatively . Task parallelism does not usually scale with the size of a problem .
= = Hardware = =
= = = Memory and communication = = =
Main memory in a parallel computer is either shared memory ( shared between all processing elements in a single address space ) , or distributed memory ( in which each processing element has its own local address space ) . Distributed memory refers to the fact that the memory is logically distributed , but often implies that it is physically distributed as well . Distributed shared memory and memory virtualization combine the two approaches , where the processing element has its own local memory and access to the memory on non @-@ local processors . Accesses to local memory are typically faster than accesses to non @-@ local memory .
Computer architectures in which each element of main memory can be accessed with equal latency and bandwidth are known as uniform memory access ( UMA ) systems . Typically , that can be achieved only by a shared memory system , in which the memory is not physically distributed . A system that does not have this property is known as a non @-@ uniform memory access ( NUMA ) architecture . Distributed memory systems have non @-@ uniform memory access .
Computer systems make use of caches — small and fast memories located close to the processor which store temporary copies of memory values ( nearby in both the physical and logical sense ) . Parallel computer systems have difficulties with caches that may store the same value in more than one location , with the possibility of incorrect program execution . These computers require a cache coherency system , which keeps track of cached values and strategically purges them , thus ensuring correct program execution . Bus snooping is one of the most common methods for keeping track of which values are being accessed ( and thus should be purged ) . Designing large , high @-@ performance cache coherence systems is a very difficult problem in computer architecture . As a result , shared memory computer architectures do not scale as well as distributed memory systems do .
Processor – processor and processor – memory communication can be implemented in hardware in several ways , including via shared ( either multiported or multiplexed ) memory , a crossbar switch , a shared bus or an interconnect network of a myriad of topologies including star , ring , tree , hypercube , fat hypercube ( a hypercube with more than one processor at a node ) , or n @-@ dimensional mesh .
Parallel computers based on interconnected networks need to have some kind of routing to enable the passing of messages between nodes that are not directly connected . The medium used for communication between the processors is likely to be hierarchical in large multiprocessor machines .
= = = Classes of parallel computers = = =
Parallel computers can be roughly classified according to the level at which the hardware supports parallelism . This classification is broadly analogous to the distance between basic computing nodes . These are not mutually exclusive ; for example , clusters of symmetric multiprocessors are relatively common .
= = = = Multi @-@ core computing = = = =
A multi @-@ core processor is a processor that includes multiple processing units ( called " cores " ) on the same chip . This processor differs from a superscalar processor , which includes multiple execution units and can issue multiple instructions per clock cycle from one instruction stream ( thread ) ; in contrast , a multi @-@ core processor can issue multiple instructions per clock cycle from multiple instruction streams . IBM 's Cell microprocessor , designed for use in the Sony PlayStation 3 , is a prominent multi @-@ core processor . Each core in a multi @-@ core processor can potentially be superscalar as well — that is , on every clock cycle , each core can issue multiple instructions from one thread .
Simultaneous multithreading ( of which Intel 's Hyper @-@ Threading is the best known ) was an early form of pseudo @-@ multi @-@ coreism . A processor capable of simultaneous multithreading includes multiple execution units in the same processing unit — that is it has a superscalar architecture — and can issue multiple instructions per clock cycle from multiple threads . Temporal multithreading on the other hand includes a single execution unit in the same processing unit and can issue one instruction at a time from multiple threads .
= = = = Symmetric multiprocessing = = = =
A symmetric multiprocessor ( SMP ) is a computer system with multiple identical processors that share memory and connect via a bus . Bus contention prevents bus architectures from scaling . As a result , SMPs generally do not comprise more than 32 processors . Because of the small size of the processors and the significant reduction in the requirements for bus bandwidth achieved by large caches , such symmetric multiprocessors are extremely cost @-@ effective , provided that a sufficient amount of memory bandwidth exists .
= = = = Distributed computing = = = =
A distributed computer ( also known as a distributed memory multiprocessor ) is a distributed memory computer system in which the processing elements are connected by a network . Distributed computers are highly scalable .
= = = = = Cluster computing = = = = =
A cluster is a group of loosely coupled computers that work together closely , so that in some respects they can be regarded as a single computer . Clusters are composed of multiple standalone machines connected by a network . While machines in a cluster do not have to be symmetric , load balancing is more difficult if they are not . The most common type of cluster is the Beowulf cluster , which is a cluster implemented on multiple identical commercial off @-@ the @-@ shelf computers connected with a TCP / IP Ethernet local area network . Beowulf technology was originally developed by Thomas Sterling and Donald Becker . The vast majority of the TOP500 supercomputers are clusters .
Because grid computing systems ( described below ) can easily handle embarrassingly parallel problems , modern clusters are typically designed to handle more difficult problems — problems that require nodes to share intermediate results with each other more often . This requires a high bandwidth and , more importantly , a low @-@ latency interconnection network . Many historic and current supercomputers use customized high @-@ performance network hardware specifically designed for cluster computing , such as the Cray Gemini network . As of 2014 , most current supercomputers use some off @-@ the @-@ shelf standard network hardware , often Myrinet , InfiniBand , or Gigabit Ethernet .
= = = = = Massively parallel computing = = = = =
A massively parallel processor ( MPP ) is a single computer with many networked processors . MPPs have many of the same characteristics as clusters , but MPPs have specialized interconnect networks ( whereas clusters use commodity hardware for networking ) . MPPs also tend to be larger than clusters , typically having " far more " than 100 processors . In an MPP , " each CPU contains its own memory and copy of the operating system and application . Each subsystem communicates with the others via a high @-@ speed interconnect . "
IBM 's Blue Gene / L , the fifth fastest supercomputer in the world according to the June 2009 TOP500 ranking , is an MPP .
= = = = = Grid computing = = = = =
Grid computing is the most distributed form of parallel computing . It makes use of computers communicating over the Internet to work on a given problem . Because of the low bandwidth and extremely high latency available on the Internet , distributed computing typically deals only with embarrassingly parallel problems . Many distributed computing applications have been created , of which SETI @ home and Folding @ home are the best @-@ known examples .
Most grid computing applications use middleware , software that sits between the operating system and the application to manage network resources and standardize the software interface . The most common distributed computing middleware is the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing ( BOINC ) . Often , distributed computing software makes use of " spare cycles " , performing computations at times when a computer is idling .
= = = = Specialized parallel computers = = = =
Within parallel computing , there are specialized parallel devices that remain niche areas of interest . While not domain @-@ specific , they tend to be applicable to only a few classes of parallel problems .
= = = = = Reconfigurable computing with field @-@ programmable gate arrays = = = = =
Reconfigurable computing is the use of a field @-@ programmable gate array ( FPGA ) as a co @-@ processor to a general @-@ purpose computer . An FPGA is , in essence , a computer chip that can rewire itself for a given task .
FPGAs can be programmed with hardware description languages such as VHDL or Verilog . However , programming in these languages can be tedious . Several vendors have created C to HDL languages that attempt to emulate the syntax and semantics of the C programming language , with which most programmers are familiar . The best known C to HDL languages are Mitrion @-@ C , Impulse C , DIME @-@ C , and Handel @-@ C. Specific subsets of SystemC based on C + + can also be used for this purpose .
AMD 's decision to open its HyperTransport technology to third @-@ party vendors has become the enabling technology for high @-@ performance reconfigurable computing . According to Michael R. D 'Amour , Chief Operating Officer of DRC Computer Corporation , " when we first walked into AMD , they called us ' the socket stealers . ' Now they call us their partners . "
= = = = = General @-@ purpose computing on graphics processing units ( GPGPU ) = = = = =
General @-@ purpose computing on graphics processing units ( GPGPU ) is a fairly recent trend in computer engineering research . GPUs are co @-@ processors that have been heavily optimized for computer graphics processing . Computer graphics processing is a field dominated by data parallel operations — particularly linear algebra matrix operations .
In the early days , GPGPU programs used the normal graphics APIs for executing programs . However , several new programming languages and platforms have been built to do general purpose computation on GPUs with both Nvidia and AMD releasing programming environments with CUDA and Stream SDK respectively . Other GPU programming languages include BrookGPU , PeakStream , and RapidMind . Nvidia has also released specific products for computation in their Tesla series . The technology consortium Khronos Group has released the OpenCL specification , which is a framework for writing programs that execute across platforms consisting of CPUs and GPUs . AMD , Apple , Intel , Nvidia and others are supporting OpenCL .
= = = = = Application @-@ specific integrated circuits = = = = =
Several application @-@ specific integrated circuit ( ASIC ) approaches have been devised for dealing with parallel applications .
Because an ASIC is ( by definition ) specific to a given application , it can be fully optimized for that application . As a result , for a given application , an ASIC tends to outperform a general @-@ purpose computer . However , ASICs are created by UV photolithography . This process requires a mask set , which can be extremely expensive . A mask set can cost over a million US dollars . ( The smaller the transistors required for the chip , the more expensive the mask will be . ) Meanwhile , performance increases in general @-@ purpose computing over time ( as described by Moore 's law ) tend to wipe out these gains in only one or two chip generations . High initial cost , and the tendency to be overtaken by Moore 's @-@ law @-@ driven general @-@ purpose computing , has rendered ASICs unfeasible for most parallel computing applications . However , some have been built . One example is the PFLOPS RIKEN MDGRAPE @-@ 3 machine which uses custom ASICs for molecular dynamics simulation .
= = = = = Vector processors = = = = =
A vector processor is a CPU or computer system that can execute the same instruction on large sets of data . Vector processors have high @-@ level operations that work on linear arrays of numbers or vectors . An example vector operation is A = B × C , where A , B , and C are each 64 @-@ element vectors of 64 @-@ bit floating @-@ point numbers . They are closely related to Flynn 's SIMD classification .
Cray computers became famous for their vector @-@ processing computers in the 1970s and 1980s . However , vector processors — both as CPUs and as full computer systems — have generally disappeared . Modern processor instruction sets do include some vector processing instructions , such as with Freescale Semiconductor 's AltiVec and Intel 's Streaming SIMD Extensions ( SSE ) .
= = Software = =
= = = Parallel programming languages = = =
Concurrent programming languages , libraries , APIs , and parallel programming models ( such as algorithmic skeletons ) have been created for programming parallel computers . These can generally be divided into classes based on the assumptions they make about the underlying memory architecture — shared memory , distributed memory , or shared distributed memory . Shared memory programming languages communicate by manipulating shared memory variables . Distributed memory uses message passing . POSIX Threads and OpenMP are two of the most widely used shared memory APIs , whereas Message Passing Interface ( MPI ) is the most widely used message @-@ passing system API . One concept used in programming parallel programs is the future concept , where one part of a program promises to deliver a required datum to another part of a program at some future time .
CAPS entreprise and Pathscale are also coordinating their effort to make hybrid multi @-@ core parallel programming ( HMPP ) directives an open standard called OpenHMPP . The OpenHMPP directive @-@ based programming model offers a syntax to efficiently offload computations on hardware accelerators and to optimize data movement to / from the hardware memory . OpenHMPP directives describe remote procedure call ( RPC ) on an accelerator device ( e.g. GPU ) or more generally a set of cores . The directives annotate C or Fortran codes to describe two sets of functionalities : the offloading of procedures ( denoted codelets ) onto a remote device and the optimization of data transfers between the CPU main memory and the accelerator memory .
The rise of consumer GPUs has led to support for compute kernels , either in graphics APIs ( referred to as compute shaders ) , in dedicated APIs ( such as OpenCL ) , or in other language extensions .
= = = Automatic parallelization = = =
Automatic parallelization of a sequential program by a compiler is the holy grail of parallel computing . Despite decades of work by compiler researchers , automatic parallelization has had only limited success .
Mainstream parallel programming languages remain either explicitly parallel or ( at best ) partially implicit , in which a programmer gives the compiler directives for parallelization . A few fully implicit parallel programming languages exist — SISAL , Parallel Haskell , SequenceL , System C ( for FPGAs ) , Mitrion @-@ C , VHDL , and Verilog .
= = = Application checkpointing = = =
As a computer system grows in complexity , the mean time between failures usually decreases . Application checkpointing is a technique whereby the computer system takes a " snapshot " of the application — a record of all current resource allocations and variable states , akin to a core dump — ; this information can be used to restore the program if the computer should fail . Application checkpointing means that the program has to restart from only its last checkpoint rather than the beginning . While checkpointing provides benefits in a variety of situations , it is especially useful in highly parallel systems with a large number of processors used in high performance computing .
= = Algorithmic methods = =
As parallel computers become larger and faster , it becomes feasible to solve problems that previously took too long to run . Parallel computing is used in a wide range of fields , from bioinformatics ( protein folding and sequence analysis ) to economics ( mathematical finance ) . Common types of problems found in parallel computing applications are :
dense linear algebra ;
sparse linear algebra ;
spectral methods ( such as Cooley – Tukey fast Fourier transform )
N @-@ body problems ( such as Barnes – Hut simulation ) ;
structured grid problems ( such as Lattice Boltzmann methods ) ;
unstructured grid problems ( such as found in finite element analysis ) ;
Monte Carlo method ;
combinational logic ( such as brute @-@ force cryptographic techniques ) ;
graph traversal ( such as sorting algorithms ) ;
dynamic programming ;
branch and bound methods ;
graphical models ( such as detecting hidden Markov models and constructing Bayesian networks ) ;
finite @-@ state machine simulation .
= = Fault @-@ tolerance = =
Parallel computing can also be applied to the design of fault @-@ tolerant computer systems , particularly via lockstep systems performing the same operation in parallel . This provides redundancy in case one component should fail , and also allows automatic error detection and error correction if the results differ . These methods can be used to help prevent single event upsets caused by transient errors . Although additional measures may be required in embedded or specialized systems , this method can provide a cost effective approach to achieve n @-@ modular redundancy in commercial off @-@ the @-@ shelf systems .
= = History = =
The origins of true ( MIMD ) parallelism go back to Luigi Federico Menabrea and his Sketch of the Analytic Engine Invented by Charles Babbage . IBM introduced the 704 in 1954 , through a project in which Gene Amdahl was one of the principal architects . It became the first commercially available computer to use fully automatic floating @-@ point arithmetic commands .
In April 1958 , S. Gill ( Ferranti ) discussed parallel programming and the need for branching and waiting . Also in 1958 , IBM researchers John Cocke and Daniel Slotnick discussed the use of parallelism in numerical calculations for the first time . Burroughs Corporation introduced the D825 in 1962 , a four @-@ processor computer that accessed up to 16 memory modules through a crossbar switch . In 1967 , Amdahl and Slotnick published a debate about the feasibility of parallel processing at American Federation of Information Processing Societies Conference . It was during this debate that Amdahl 's law was coined to define the limit of speed @-@ up due to parallelism .
In 1969 , company Honeywell introduced its first Multics system , a symmetric multiprocessor system capable of running up to eight processors in parallel . C.mmp , a 1970s multi @-@ processor project at Carnegie Mellon University , was among the first multiprocessors with more than a few processors . The first bus @-@ connected multiprocessor with snooping caches was the Synapse N + 1 in 1984 . "
SIMD parallel computers can be traced back to the 1970s . The motivation behind early SIMD computers was to amortize the gate delay of the processor 's control unit over multiple instructions . In 1964 , Slotnick had proposed building a massively parallel computer for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . His design was funded by the US Air Force , which was the earliest SIMD parallel @-@ computing effort , ILLIAC IV . The key to its design was a fairly high parallelism , with up to 256 processors , which allowed the machine to work on large datasets in what would later be known as vector processing . However , ILLIAC IV was called " the most infamous of supercomputers " , because the project was only one fourth completed , but took 11 years and cost almost four times the original estimate . When it was finally ready to run its first real application in 1976 , it was outperformed by existing commercial supercomputers such as the Cray @-@ 1 .
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= M @-@ 26 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 26 is a 96 @.@ 355 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 155 @.@ 068 km ) state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan , running from two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Rockland to its junction with US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) in Copper Harbor . It generally runs southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast in the western half or Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . The northernmost segment , which closely parallels the shore of Lake Superior on the west side of the Keweenaw Peninsula , is highly scenic .
M @-@ 26 previously reached the Wisconsin border , but a section of the highway became US 45 . Other changes on the northern end of M @-@ 26 incorporated highways that were previously numbered M @-@ 111 and M @-@ 206 in the Eagle Harbor and Eagle River area .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southern terminus to Houghton = = =
M @-@ 26 starts at an intersection with US 45 east of Rockland in Michigan 's Ontonagon County . From there it runs through the town of Mass City to the junction with M @-@ 38 east of Greenland . The two highways join for a short distance before M @-@ 26 separates turning northeast to Winona across the Houghton County line . In Twin Lakes M @-@ 26 passes the shores of the namesake lakes and Twin Lakes State Park . M @-@ 26 passes through wooded , hilly terrain in western Houghton County . The segment of roadway in South Range was recently realigned to smooth out curves in the roadway . From there north , M @-@ 26 runs generally downhill on approaching the western business district of Houghton and the Portage Lake Lift Bridge from the west .
= = = Portage Lake Lift Bridge = = =
The Portage Lake Lift Bridge connects the cities of Hancock and Houghton , Michigan by crossing over the Portage Waterway , an arm of Portage Lake which cuts across the Keweenaw Peninsula with a canal linking the final several miles to Lake Superior to the northwest .
As its name states , the bridge is a lift bridge with the middle section capable of being lifted from its low point of four feet clearance over the water to a clearance of thirty two feet to allow boats to pass underneath . The Portage Lake Lift Bridge is the widest and heaviest double decked vertical lift bridge in the world . The lower deck of the bridge was originally open to rail traffic , but this level is now closed to trains and is used in the winter for snowmobile traffic . Throughout the 1960s , 70s and 80s , the bridge was painted the same color as the Mackinac Bridge — cream and forest green — however , in the early 1990s , it was repainted in a cream and robins egg blue color scheme — exactly the same colors as the National Park Service 's ship Ranger III — to some demoting Houghton as the " Gateway to Isle Royale " .
= = = Hancock to Copper Harbor = = =
On the north end of the bridge , M @-@ 26 turns east while US 41 turns west into Hancock . M @-@ 26 passes through Ripley at the base of the Mt . Ripley Ski Area before turning north to Dollar Bay on the shore of the heavy polluted Torch Lake . Next are the twin communities of Lake Linden and Hubbell . M @-@ 26 forms the main streets of these as it passes north from Hubbell into Lake Linden . The highway then runs back to the west to rejoin US 41 in Calumet . US 41 / M @-@ 26 connects with the northern end of M @-@ 203 on the north side of town before heading out to Keweenaw County . In the town of Phoenix , M @-@ 26 separates from US 41 one last time , turning west for a stretch along the northern shoreline of the Keweenaw Peninsula . It passes through the communities of Eagle River ( county seat of Keweenaw County ) and Eagle Harbor .
M @-@ 26 in Eagle River crosses the namesake river on the glue @-@ laminated Eagle River Timber Bridge . The 152 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) bridge features two timber frame arches of 74 feet ( 23 m ) and 79 feet ( 24 m ) in length . The connecting work between the wood elements is steel . There are hinge points in the center of each arch . The deck is wood covered with an asphalt driving surface . Enough wood was used in construction to fabricate three or four average @-@ sized homes . All the wood was pressure @-@ treated , and the steel was galvanized and epoxy @-@ coated . Reapplication of preservative and tighening bolts will be the routine maintenance required every three years .
Past Eagle Harbor , M @-@ 26 meets the highly scenic Brockway Mountain Drive . The northern terminus of M @-@ 26 is located in Copper Harbor . The terminus is just past the second intersection with Brockway Mountain Drive near the marina and the location of the Isle Royale Queen ferry to Isle Royale National Park .
= = History = =
Before it was a state highway , many parts of the original route of M @-@ 26 was used as a military road , connecting Fort Wilkins at Copper Harbor with Fort Howard at Green Bay , Wisconsin . From 1919 until 1934 , M @-@ 26 was routed southward to the Wisconsin state line to a connection with STH @-@ 26 along what is now US 45 .
The original northern terminus of M @-@ 26 was in Laurium at M @-@ 15 ( now US 41 ) ; it was extended by 1927 along US 41 to Mohawk and then replacing M @-@ 83 to Gay . This extension would be reversed in 1933 when the Mohawk to Gay routing was turned over to Keweenaw County control . A second extension in 1935 along US 41 to Phoenix replaced M @-@ 129 between Phoenix and Eagle Harbor . At this time , M @-@ 206 was designated from M @-@ 26 to the Eagle Harbor light house . A rerouting of M @-@ 26 in November 1940 moved it between Phoenix and Eagle River , replacing M @-@ 111 . The segment between Phoenix and Eagle River along Copper Falls Mine Road was turned over to Keweenaw County at this time .
In 1979 , M @-@ 26 was rerouted through Dakota Heights , bisecting it . Park Avenue had formerly served as the main route from Houghton to Atlantic Mine , but this was replaced by the new route of the highway .
The Lake Shore Drive Bridge , which had carried M @-@ 26 over the Eagle River , was relegated to pedestrian use in 1990 after the adjacent Eagle River Timber Bridge opened for traffic .
In 2006 , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) opened a bypass around the southwest and southern edge of South Range in order to provide a safer route through the town . As of 4 October 2006 , MDOT has transferred jurisdiction of the necessary pieces of roadway to complete the M @-@ 26 bypass of South Range .
= = = M @-@ 111 = = =
After 1938 , the M @-@ 111 designation was given to an old M @-@ 6 routing in the Keweenaw Peninsula that ran between Eagle River and Phoenix along what is , now , modern @-@ day M @-@ 26 parallel to Eagle River . That incarnation lasted two years until M @-@ 111 was deleted and M @-@ 26 was realigned over it . The M @-@ 111 designation has not been used since being deleted in 1940 .
= = = M @-@ 206 = = =
M @-@ 206 was a state highway that served as a spur route from M @-@ 26 into Eagle Harbor and the Eagle Harbor Lighthouse in Keweenaw County in 1935 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Joran van der Sloot =
Joran Andreas Petrus van der Sloot ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈjoːrɑn vɑn dεr ˈsloːt ] ; born 6 August 1987 ) is a Dutch citizen , the murderer of Stephany Flores Ramírez in Lima , in 2010 , and the primary suspect in the 2005 disappearance of Natalee Holloway , in Aruba .
After Flores Ramírez 's murder on 30 May 2010 van der Sloot fled to Chile , where he was arrested and extradited back to Peru for questioning regarding the murder . On 7 June 2010 , he confessed to bludgeoning Flores . He later tried to formally retract his confession , claiming that he had been intimidated by the National Police of Peru and framed by the FBI . A Peruvian judge ruled on 25 June 2010 that the confession was valid and on 13 January 2012 , Van der Sloot was sentenced to 28 years imprisonment for Flores ' murder .
Five years earlier , while living in Aruba , van der Sloot had been the primary suspect in the disappearance of American teenager Natalee Holloway , who disappeared in Aruba on 30 May 2005 , exactly five years before Flores ' murder . Van der Sloot was indicted by a federal grand jury in the United States for wire fraud and extortion related to Holloway 's whereabouts . Holloway 's disappearance remains unsolved .
The Holloway and Flores cases both attracted widespread media attention ; Time magazine declared Van der Sloot 's arrest the top crime story of 2010 . Van der Sloot was the subject of international news coverage from prison , leading to controversies that resulted in the investigation and suspension of several Peruvian officials .
= = Background = =
Joran van der Sloot was born in Arnhem , Netherlands . He is one of three sons born to Paul van der Sloot ( 1952 – 2010 ) , a lawyer , and Anita van der Sloot @-@ Hugen , an art teacher . In 1990 , his family moved from Arnhem to Aruba , where he was an honor student at the International School of Aruba . He was considered a star soccer and tennis athlete at the school . Van der Sloot competed in doubles tennis with his father at the Moët et Chandon Anniversary Cup in 2005 . He hoped to play for Saint Leo University near Tampa , Florida . Van der Sloot 's mother said he had a problem with lying and had a tendency to sneak out of the house at night to go to casinos .
= = Natalee Holloway disappearance = =
Van der Sloot ( then age 17 ) , along with the Kalpoe brothers , Deepak ( then age 21 ) and Satish ( then age 18 ) , was arrested on 9 June 2005 , as a suspect in the 30 May 2005 disappearance of an 18 @-@ year @-@ old American woman , Natalee Holloway , who was declared legally dead six years after she disappeared . The Kalpoes were released from custody on 4 July , but were re @-@ arrested on 26 August on suspicion of rape and murder , while van der Sloot remained in custody . Van der Sloot and the Kalpoes were released on 3 September because of a lack of evidence . After his release , Van Der Sloot was required to stay within Dutch territory pending the results of the investigation . On 5 September 2005 , van der Sloot returned to the Netherlands to study international business management at the HAN University of Applied Sciences . On 14 September , a higher court removed the travel restrictions . Gerold G. Dompig , former deputy commissioner of the Aruba Police Force , stated that the initial arrests were made prematurely under pressure from Holloway 's family . Dompig charged that the family sidetracked the investigation by making it difficult for the police to collect evidence to solve the case .
= = = Media coverage = = =
On 26 September 2005 , van der Sloot told the American television show A Current Affair that neither he nor the Kalpoe brothers had sex with Natalee , but he admitted that they initially agreed to lie to the authorities . He said that they first told police that Holloway was dropped off alone at her hotel , while he later said that he was dropped off with her at the beach . He stated that he left Holloway alone at the beach at her request and that he regretted it .
On 6 February 2006 , on Good Morning America , van der Sloot 's parents stated that their son was unfairly singled out and that the investigation left them devastated .
On 16 February 2006 , while van der Sloot and his father were in New York City for an interview with ABC Primetime , they were served with a lawsuit filed by Natalee 's parents , Beth and Dave Holloway , alleging personal injury ; the case was dismissed on jurisdictional grounds that August .
In April 2007 , De zaak Natalee Holloway ( The Case of Natalee Holloway ) , a Dutch language book by van der Sloot and reporter Zvezdana Vukojevic , was published by Sijthoff in the Netherlands . Van der Sloot started writing the book while attending business classes in Arnhem . He stated in the introduction , " I see this book as my opportunity to be open and honest about everything that happened , for anyone who wants to read it . "
= = = 2007 search and arrest = = =
On 27 April 2007 , a new search involving some twenty investigators was launched at van der Sloot 's parents ' home on Aruba . Dutch authorities searched the yard and surrounding area , using shovels and thin metal rods to penetrate the dirt . A spokesman for the prosecutor 's office , Vivian van der Biezen , stated " The investigation has never stopped and the Dutch authorities are completely reviewing the case for new indications " . A statement released directly from the prosecutor 's office stated : " The team has indications that justify a more thorough search . " Investigators did not comment on what prompted the new search , except that it was not related to van der Sloot 's book .
On 21 November 2007 , van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were re @-@ arrested in Arnhem , Netherlands and Aruba for " suspicion of involvement in voluntary manslaughter and causing serious bodily harm that resulted in the death of Natalee Holloway " because of what the Aruba prosecutor 's office stated was " new incriminating evidence " related to the disappearance of Holloway . Van der Sloot was returned to Aruba on 23 November , and a court hearing on 26 November ruled to continue his detention for eight days . The Kalpoe brothers were released on 1 December . Van der Sloot was ordered released on 7 December , and he was released without charge the same day .
= = = 2008 Dutch television sting operations = = =
On 11 January 2008 , after being challenged on the Dutch late @-@ night talk show Pauw & Witteman by crime reporter Peter R. de Vries , Van der Sloot threw a glass of red wine into De Vries ' face .
On 3 February 2008 , an undercover video made by De Vries aired on Dutch television , purporting to show van der Sloot smoking marijuana and admitting to being present during Holloway 's death . The show was watched by 7 million viewers in the Netherlands and was the most popular non @-@ sports program in Dutch television history . Patrick van der Eem , working undercover for De Vries , had befriended van der Sloot , who was unaware that he was being taped when he said that Holloway had suffered some kind of seizure while having sex on the beach . After failing to revive her , van der Sloot said that he summoned a friend named Daury . The two men never phoned for medical help nor did they check Natalee to determine if she might still be alive . Then , according to van der Sloot , Daury volunteered to load her on a boat and he dumped Natalee 's body into the sea . The prosecutor in Aruba determined the video was admissible , but the evidence was deemed " insufficient " to warrant van der Sloot 's , or anyone 's , arrest . Although the taped confession appeared damning , van der Sloot argued that he was lying to impress van der Eem , whom he believed to be a drug dealer . On 22 September 2008 , in New York City , De Vries accepted an International Emmy Award in Current Affairs for his coverage while accompanied by Beth Holloway . Under pressure of the attention from the program , van der Sloot voluntarily checked into a psychiatric clinic before departing for Thailand . He moved to Muang Ake , a suburb of Bangkok , to study business at Rangsit University , but dropped out and bought Sawadee Cup , a restaurant next to the campus that served sandwiches and pizza .
In November 2008 , De Vries aired undercover footage of van der Sloot making preparations for the apparent sex trafficking of Thai women in Bangkok . De Vries claimed that van der Sloot was making $ 13 @,@ 000 for every woman sold into prostitution in the Netherlands. van der Sloot used the alias of " Murphy Jenkins " to avoid Thai authorities . Peruvian Minister of Justice Aurelio Pastor said that Thailand is pursuing criminal charges against van der Sloot . According to The National Enquirer , he is being investigated for his involvement in the disappearance of young women he may have recruited for a Thai sex slave gang while posing as a production consultant for a modeling agency that would send them to Europe .
On 19 April 2009 , van der Sloot was portrayed by actor Jacques Strydom in the Lifetime television film Natalee Holloway , which was based on the bestselling book Loving Natalee : A Mother 's Testament of Hope and Faith by Natalee 's mother Beth Holloway . The movie brought in the highest television ratings in Lifetime 's 11 @-@ year history at the time . Van der Sloot himself watched the film one evening in 2010 , according to his friend John Ludwick , and said that some parts were true while others were not .
In August 2009 , van der Sloot was spotted in Macau at the Asia Pacific Poker Tour . He won over $ 12 @,@ 000 that year in an online poker tournament . He described himself on his YouTube page as " a professional poker player " and cited the poker strategy guide Ace on the River as his favorite book . In early 2010 , van der Sloot sold his restaurant business and returned to Aruba after the death of his father .
= = = Father 's involvement in the case = = =
Joran 's father , Paulus Antonius Petrus Johanna " Paul " van der Sloot ( 15 February 1952 – 10 February 2010 ) , was arrested on 22 June 2005 , for questioning in Holloway 's disappearance . Paul was ordered released on 26 June after three days of questioning . According to Aruba 's chief prosecutor , one of the Kalpoe brothers told investigators that Paul , who at the time was training to be a judge , advised that without a body , the police would have no case . Beth Twitty ( Holloway 's married name at the time ) pursued van der Sloot 's parents in the ensuing media circus on Aruba . She said that Paul acknowledged that they could not control their son and had sent him to a psychiatrist .
On 10 November 2005 , Paul van der Sloot won an unjust detention action against the Aruban government , clearing him as a suspect and allowing him to retain his government contract . The elder van der Sloot then brought a second action , seeking monetary damages for himself and his family because of his false arrest . The action was initially successful , but the award of 40 @,@ 000 Aruban florins ( US $ 22 @,@ 300 ) was reversed on appeal . The family 's finances were depleted by the legal expenses . In January 2007 , Paul found work as a managing partner at the law firm that represented him .
On 24 November 2008 , On the Record aired an interview with Joran van der Sloot in which he said that he sold Holloway into sexual slavery , receiving money both when Holloway was taken , and later on to keep quiet . He also alleged that he paid the Kalpoe brothers for their assistance , and that his father paid off two police officers who had learned that Holloway was taken to Venezuela . Joran van der Sloot later retracted the statements made in the interview . The show also aired part of an audio recording provided by van der Sloot , which he alleged is a phone conversation between him and his father , in which the father displays knowledge of his son 's purported involvement in human trafficking . According to Mos , the voice heard on the recording is not that of Paul van der Sloot . The Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf reported that the " father 's " voice is almost certainly that of Joran himself , trying to speak in a lower tone .
On 8 January 2010 , Paul cancelled his partnership at the law firm where he had been working . On 10 February 2010 , he died of a heart attack at the age of 57 while playing tennis in Aruba . Joran returned to Aruba soon afterward and turned to gambling . His mother Anita said that Joran had severe mental problems and blamed himself for his father 's death . He left before she could have him psychiatrically committed , leaving a note : " I 'm gone , do not worry . "
= = = 2010 charges in the United States = = =
Around 29 March 2010 , van der Sloot allegedly contacted John Q. Kelly , legal representative of Natalee 's mother Beth Holloway , with an offer to reveal the location of her daughter 's body and the circumstances surrounding her death for an advance of $ 25 @,@ 000 against a total of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Kelly said that he secretly went to Aruba in April to meet with van der Sloot , who was desperate for money , and gave him $ 100 . Kelly notified the Federal Bureau of Investigation to set up a sting operation with the Aruban authorities . On 10 May , van der Sloot allegedly accepted the amount of $ 15 @,@ 000 by wire transfer to his account in the Netherlands , following a cash payment of $ 10 @,@ 000 that was videotaped by undercover investigators in Aruba . In exchange , van der Sloot told Kelly that his father buried Holloway 's remains in the foundation of a house . Authorities determined that the information that he in return provided was false , because the house had not yet been built at the time of Holloway 's disappearance . Van der Sloot later e @-@ mailed Kelly that he lied about the house . Holloway was shocked that the FBI did not promptly file extortion charges against van der Sloot , allowing him to leave freely with the money to Bogotá , Colombia , on his way to Lima , Peru . The FBI and the office of the U.S. Attorney contended that the case had not yet been sufficiently developed .
On 3 June 2010 , the U.S. District Court of Northern Alabama charged van der Sloot with extortion and wire fraud . U.S. Attorney Joyce White Vance issued an arrest warrant through Interpol to have van der Sloot prosecuted in the United States . On 4 June , at the request of the U.S. Justice Department , Dutch authorities raided and confiscated items from two homes in the Netherlands , one of them belonging to reporter Jaap Amesz who had previously interviewed van der Sloot and claimed knowledge of his criminal activities . Aruban investigators used information gathered from the extortion case to launch a new search at a beach , but no new evidence was found . The Solicitor General said they would not seek van der Sloot 's extradition to Aruba . On 30 June , a federal grand jury formally indicted van der Sloot of the two charges . The indictment filed with the U.S. District Court seeks the forfeiture of the $ 25 @,@ 100 that had been paid to van der Sloot .
In an interview published by De Telegraaf on 6 September 2010 , van der Sloot admitted to the extortion plot , stating : " I wanted to get back at Natalee 's family . Her parents have been making my life tough for five years . " Van der Sloot 's attorney said that his client was not paid for the interview and suggested that " maybe there were some mistakes in the translation . "
On 9 March 2014 , the Peruvian government announced that van der Sloot would face extradition to the United States in the year 2038 to face charges of extortion and wire fraud , after completion of his 28 @-@ year sentence in Peru for the murder of Stephany Tatiana Flores Ramírez ( see below ) . In February 2016 , an undercover reporter filmed Joran confessing to the murder of Natalee Holloway . The film shows Joran , in Dutch , laughing over how he never told the truth about the whole event and that he did in fact kill Natalee . His Peruvian wife is also present during this conversation .
= = Death of Stephany Flores = =
On 30 May 2010 , the fifth anniversary of Holloway 's disappearance , Stephany Tatiana Flores Ramírez , 21 , died at the Hotel TAC , in the Miraflores District of Lima , Peru . On 2 June , a hotel employee found her beaten body in room 309 , which had been registered in van der Sloot 's name . He had departed from the hotel without returning the room key and left the television running . A tennis racquet , identified by the coroner as a possible homicide weapon , was recovered from the room . A hotel guest and an employee came forward to say they saw van der Sloot and the victim entering the hotel room together , and the police obtained video of the two playing cards at the same table the night before at the Atlantic City Casino in Lima . Van der Sloot had entered Peru via Colombia on 14 May 2010 to attend the Latin American Poker Tour .
Flores Ramírez was a business student less than a year from graduation at the University of Lima . She was the daughter of Ricardo Flores , a former president of the Peruvian Automobile Club and winner of the " Caminos del Inca " rally in 1991 . A prominent businessman and entertainment organizer , he ran for vice president in 2001 and for president five years later on fringe tickets . Flores said that police found date rape drugs in his daughter 's car , parked about 50 blocks from the hotel where she died . Her jewelry , money , ID and credit cards were missing , including about $ 1 @,@ 000 her father had given her to purchase a laptop , and over $ 10 @,@ 000 she had won earlier at the casino . Stephany reportedly kept this money in her car , but a police search found no money in it .
After Flores Ramírez 's family reported her missing , police retrieved the hotel surveillance tape and obtained van der Sloot 's name and national identification number . Her brother 's wife discovered van der Sloot 's background in a Google search about an hour before her body was found .
= = = Arrest = = =
Peruvian officials named van der Sloot as the lone suspect in the homicide investigation . Interpol issued an international arrest warrant for van der Sloot , believing that he had fled the country to Chile and may have been traveling to Argentina to return to Aruba . Van der Sloot was sighted entering Chile via the Chacalluta border crossing , north of Arica , on 31 May 2010 . His ex @-@ girlfriend , Melody Granadillo , said that van der Sloot sent her a text message asking for money to buy a ticket back to Aruba .
On 3 June , van der Sloot was arrested near Curacaví by the Investigations Police of Chile while traveling in a rented taxi on Highway 68 between the coastal city of Viña del Mar and the capital Santiago . He was found with a laptop , foreign currency , a business card case , detailed charts of ocean currents around Lima , and bloody clothes . His phone 's SIM card was missing , which made mobile phone tracking of his location impossible . He told Chilean police that unidentified armed robbers hid in the hotel room and killed Flores Ramírez when she disobeyed their order to be quiet . Van der Sloot 's Dutch attorney claimed that his client was on his way to Santiago to turn himself in . He was subsequently expelled and transported by Chilean police in a Cessna 310 back to Arica to be handed over to Peruvian authorities at the Chacalluta border crossing on 4 June . Van der Sloot arrived at Lima police headquarters on 5 June , where he was interrogated about the death while represented by attorney Luz Maria Romero Chinchay . The Dutch embassy provided a translator for his defense . He was held in a seventh floor cell and permitted to contact his mother . Van der Sloot was placed on suicide watch by guards after it was reported that he deliberately hit his head against a wall . On 10 June , he was moved to a cell at the prosecutor 's office in central Lima .
= = = Forensic investigation = = =
Surveillance video from the Atlantic City Casino recorded Flores Ramírez winning $ 10 @,@ 000 at a baccarat table area on 25 May 2010 , while accompanied by a male friend who was not van der Sloot . According to casino spokesperson Luis Laos , she also won $ 237 playing poker on 29 May and it was common for people to know the identities of big winners . Laos stated that van der Sloot did not win any money that night . At 3 : 00 a.m. on 30 May , Flores Ramírez was recorded entering the casino alone and walking to a poker table where van der Sloot was sitting. van der Sloot had not registered for the Latin American Poker Tour . The deadline to pay the $ 2 @,@ 700 entry fee for the 2 June event at the casino was 30 May .
Police released hotel security video showing van der Sloot and Flores Ramírez entering the Hotel TAC together at about 5 : 00 a.m. on 30 May . At about 8 : 10 a.m. , he is shown walking across the street to a supermarket and returning with bread and two cups of coffee . Around 8 : 45 a.m. , he is seen leaving the hotel alone with his bags .
An autopsy ruled that Flores Ramírez did not have sexual intercourse before her death and that she was not under the influence of enough alcohol to prevent her from resisting an attack . She suffered blunt force trauma to her head , causing a brain hemorrhage , cranial fracture , and breaking her neck . She also suffered significant injuries to her face and showed signs of asphyxiation , according to court documents . Flores Ramírez tested positive for the presence of amphetamines . The lab report does not indicate whether the victim took the drugs willingly or unknowingly . The stains on van der Sloot 's clothes matched the blood type of Flores Ramírez . Blood was also found on the floor , hallway , and mattress in the hotel room . Police stated that DNA tests would be conducted on the clothes , skin found under the victim 's fingernails , and the previously recovered tennis racquet . Ricardo Flores stated in interviews that his daughter 's body needed to be exhumed to gather the fingernail DNA evidence , and that her body had not been cremated for this reason .
On 14 March 2011 , the National Police of Peru provided a copy of the hard disk drive from van der Sloot 's laptop computer to the FBI . Colonel Oscar González of the high tech division of the Peruvian police stated that the U.S. federal investigation was interested in information related to Holloway 's disappearance and the alleged extortion of her family . Peruvian detectives determined that the laptop accessed information about the Holloway case before Flores Ramírez arrived in Van der Sloot 's hotel room ; it was then used to visit two poker websites at around the time Flores Ramírez was present in the room . According to a police dossier , the laptop was later used to search Google for the subjects : " relationship between the Peruvian and Chilean police " , " Chilean border pass " , " buses in Chile " , and " countries that do not extradite in Latin America . "
= = = Confession and retraction = = =
On 7 June 2010 , van der Sloot reportedly confessed to killing Flores Ramírez , after hours of interrogation . He initially proclaimed his innocence . According to an expert in Peruvian law , the confession fit a defense strategy of trying to get the charge reduced to manslaughter , which is punishable by 6 to 20 years in prison , while a conviction for murder could result in up to 35 years imprisonment . The prosecution was seeking a sentence of 30 years . Peru does not issue life sentences in standard cases of murder and has abolished capital punishment in all but exceptional circumstances , such as crimes committed under military law . A life sentence can be issued for a murder committed during the commission of a robbery . Peruvian president Alan García Pérez used the case to seek the reinstatement of the death penalty for murder .
On 8 June , Peruvian investigators reportedly planned to take van der Sloot back to the hotel room for a re @-@ enactment of the crime scene as part of standard procedure , but waived it on the basis that his alleged confession was remarkably complete and corroborated by evidence . In the written confession released by Peruvian police , van der Sloot recounted that he briefly left the hotel to get some coffee and bread , and returned to find Flores Ramírez using his laptop computer without his permission . A police source stated that she may have found information linking him to the disappearance of Holloway . An altercation allegedly began and she attempted to escape . According to the written confession that has been released by Peruvian authorities , van der Sloot stated , " I did not want to do it . The girl intruded into my private life . . . she didn 't have any right . I went to her and I hit her . She was scared , we argued and she tried to escape . I grabbed her by the neck and hit her . " Van der Sloot reportedly stated that he was stoned on marijuana at the time . A detective linked to the case said that van der Sloot considered getting rid of the body in a suitcase , but decided against it because he would have been stopped at the front desk . He then reportedly drank espresso and took amphetamines to counter fatigue before fleeing .
Criminal police chief Cesar Guardia said van der Sloot " let slip that he knew the place " where Holloway 's body is buried . Guardia stated that the interrogation was limited to their case in Peru , which he considered " practically closed , " and that questions about Holloway 's disappearance were avoided . Guardia said that the confession contains lies because van der Sloot 's " toxicological report shows no signs that he had ingested any kind of drug . " Felonies committed under the influence of drugs can gain leniency in Peruvian courts . Guardia said that the motive for the crime was robbery . Van der Sloot reportedly offered a different motive for killing Flores Ramírez , stating that he " feared that she would go to the police . " On 14 June , Peruvian authorities released written transcripts of van der Sloot 's alleged confession . His mother Anita expressed concern that her son 's confession may have been coerced . According to van der Sloot 's former attorney Luz Maria Romero Chinchay , his mother advised him not to make any statements nor sign anything , but it was too late .
Van der Sloot later retracted this confession in a prison cell interview with Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf , claiming that he had been intimidated and " tricked " by police with a promise to be transferred to the Netherlands . He stated that at the time he signed the confession documents , he did not understand the content as it was in Spanish . He was quoted : " In my blind panic , I signed everything , but didn 't even know what it said . " Van der Sloot said that he was lured to Peru and framed by another gambler named Elton Garcia , who he claimed was working undercover for the FBI . Van der Sloot 's attorney Maximo Alonso Altez Navarro stated his intention to resign because the case " created many problems " for him . He had been threatened and harassed for taking the case , and van der Sloot 's family was unable to afford his legal expenses . However , Altez Navarro stayed on to file a motion to void the confession on the grounds that his client was not properly represented during his interrogation . On 25 June , Superior Court Judge Wilder Casique Alvizuri rejected the motion , noting that van der Sloot was represented by a state @-@ appointed lawyer and provided a translator by the Dutch embassy . Altez Navarro said that van der Sloot was as " depressed " as anyone in prison would be .
= = = Criminal proceedings = = =
On 11 June 2010 , Lima Superior Court Judge Juan Buendia ordered van der Sloot held on charges of first @-@ degree murder and robbery , determining that he acted with " ferocity and great cruelty " . Under Peruvian law , Van der Sloot was not eligible to be released on bail , and would be tried by a panel of three judges rather than a jury . A simple majority of the three was required for conviction . Police transported van der Sloot on the same day from Lima 's Palace of Justice in an armored truck while angry onlookers yelled and threw rotten lettuce . He was taken to Miguel Castro Castro maximum security prison and placed in a cell near the prison director 's office for his own safety . He is registered as inmate # 326390 and separated from the general prison population under 24 @-@ hour guard in a high @-@ security cell block where the only other inmate is alleged Colombian hitman Hugo Trujillo Ospina . Van der Sloot reportedly offered to disclose the location of Holloway 's body in exchange for transfer to an Aruban prison because of fear for his life in Miguel Castro Castro prison . President Alan García Pérez said that van der Sloot would have to stand trial for the homicide before any extradition request would be considered . He also stated that van der Sloot will serve his prison sentence in Peru . There is no treaty for the transfer of prisoners between Peru and the Netherlands .
On 15 June , Aruban and Peruvian authorities announced that they would cooperate in their respective cases involving van der Sloot . Aruban investigators expected to be able to interview van der Sloot in Peru in August , after Peruvian authorities had completed their investigation . At his first formal hearing within the on @-@ site courtroom of Miguel Castro Castro prison on 21 June , Van der Sloot refused to discuss the case with Judge Carlos Morales Cordova , claiming that his rights and due process were violated . Van der Sloot filed a complaint with the National Police of Peru , accusing chief detective Miguel Angel Canlla Ore of misconduct . He also claimed that his laptop had been improperly searched . Van der Sloot 's defense counsel filed a motion of habeas corpus disputing the legality of his detention and to nullify statements he gave to police , but the motion was declared " unfounded " by Superior Court Judge Wilder Casique Alvizuri on 25 June . The judge upheld all three depositions given by van der Sloot to police and stated that the defendant 's laptop was sealed by the court . Defense attorney Altez Navarro vowed to appeal all the way to the Supreme Court of Peru and the Inter @-@ American Court of Human Rights with a legal strategy to " paralyze the process " . The Peruvian court said that this would not hold up the case against van der Sloot .
Altez Navarro stated that he filed suit against attorney Luz Maria Romero Chinchay , who first represented van der Sloot during his interrogation , charging her with abuse of authority , conspiracy to commit a crime , and misrepresentation because he did not find her name on the list of public defenders from the Ministry of Justice . Altez Navarro also filed a complaint against van der Sloot 's translator , insisting that he misrepresented himself as an official translator of the Dutch embassy . Romero Chinchay rejected the claims against her , stating that van der Sloot had selected her as a private attorney after declining another defense attorney appointed by the state . She contradicted his claims that he did not understand what he was signing by stating that she was able to speak with him in perfect Spanish . She said that van der Sloot was interested in talking about the Holloway case , thinking that it might get him extradited to Aruba . Romero Chinchay also said that when she told van der Sloot that she noticed he was signing various documents with very different signatures , he signaled for her to be quiet .
Altez Navarro stated on 21 August 2010 that the case was stagnating because an official interpreter was unable to be found for the case in Peru . The Peruvian association of translators and interpreters and the Dutch embassy both separately stated at the time that they have been unable to locate one to officially translate Spanish into Dutch . Unlike Aruba and the United States , Peru does not guarantee the right to a speedy trial . On 6 September , a Peruvian appeals court voted 2 to 1 to reject van der Sloot 's motion that he is being unlawfully held . Because 3 votes are required for a decision , if a fourth judge votes in van der Sloot 's favor , a fifth judge will be required to break the tie . Peruvian statutes permit a suspect to be detained for up to 18 months for interrogation , though Altez Navarro expressed skepticism that law enforcement officers will do so with his client .
In February 2011 , Altez Navarro filed a " violent emotion " defense with the court , arguing that van der Sloot had entered into a state of temporary insanity because Flores Ramírez found out about his connection to Holloway from his laptop computer . Under Peruvian law , if the judge accepts this crime of passion argument , the sentence for such a plea could be reduced to only 3 to 5 years ; Altez Navarro noted that this could allow van der Sloot to be eligible for parole in as soon as 20 months . Oscar González of the Peruvian police stated that an examination of van der Sloot 's laptop determined that Flores Ramírez did not access such information while she was in the hotel room with him .
= = = Guilty plea and conviction = = =
On 11 January 2012 , van der Sloot pleaded guilty to the " qualified murder " and simple robbery of Flores . He was convicted and sentenced to 28 years imprisonment for the murder on 13 January , and , he must pay $ 75 @,@ 000 to the Flores family . Hours after learning of the sentence , van der Sloot was transferred to a maximum security prison , Piedras Gordas , located north of Lima . He is currently expected to be released on 10 June 2038 .
In August 2014 , van der Sloot was transferred to Challapalca prison in the mountainous South of Peru , where circumstances are harsh due to the location 's altitude . Two months later , a Dutch online news service claimed that van der Sloot was stabbed and critically injured by fellow prisoners in Peru . Although van der Sloot 's wife 's claim of a stabbing is contested by Peruvian authorities , photos have been published showing van der Sloot as suffering from multiple stab wounds from two separate attacks .
= = = Public reaction = = =
Public outcry in Peru has been fueled by local media , which labeled van der Sloot a " monster , " " serial killer , " and " psychopath . " The coverage of this controversy highlighted cases of other women dying at the hands of foreigners . Peruvian and Colombian newspapers published articles about the investigation of the disappearance of two young women who frequented casinos during van der Sloot 's stay in at least two Bogotá hotels from 6 to 14 May 2010 , prior to entering Peru . However , the Administrative Department of Security of Colombia do not consider van der Sloot a suspect as they believe his presence in Bogotá was merely in transit to Peru .
Dutch daily newspaper Trouw warned that the overwhelming pressure on authorities of van der Sloot 's presumed guilt risked turning the case into a show trial . The Dutch consulate told Peruvian authorities that it was concerned how van der Sloot was being treated and presented to the media .
In December 2010 , Time magazine named van der Sloot 's arrest the most notable criminal event of the year , ahead of the Belgian love triangle skydiving murder case , the Chinese school attacks and the Elizabeth Smart kidnapping trial . ABC News listed the coverage of van der Sloot 's murder confession by Good Morning America among the most read stories from its website in 2010 . CBS 42 , the news affiliate in Birmingham near Holloway 's hometown , named the criminal charges filed against van der Sloot in 2010 among the top ten stories of the year in Alabama . Radio Netherlands Worldwide identified him as one of the most talked about Dutch people of the year .
He generates a lot of media attention , which costs us time and it is not good for the relationship between the Netherlands and Peru .
= = = Media coverage at Miguel Castro prison = = =
Van der Sloot 's cell became the target of a media circus , with reporters vying to gain exclusive access and report about his prison surroundings . Since his incarceration , he has only consented to interviews to De Telegraaf , in which he admitted to extorting the Holloway family and said that he received a number of marriage proposals in his cell , including one from a woman who wanted to have his child . Van der Sloot reportedly receives fan mail from around the world , though mostly from women residing in the United States and the Netherlands . According to sources within the prison , Van der Sloot sought $ 1 million in exchange for an on @-@ camera interview .
The Office of Internal Affairs of the National Penitentiary Institute of Peru began administrative and disciplinary action on 23 August 2010 , when Peruvian network América Televisión aired a picture of van der Sloot with three other inmates that had been taken with official photographic equipment at Miguel Castro Castro prison . The photo included van der Sloot casually posing with Colombian hitman Hugo Trujillo Ospina , accused of the contract killing of Peruvian entrepreneur Myriam Fefer , and American William Trickett Smith II , accused of killing and dismembering his Peruvian wife . Van der Sloot and Smith have been referred to by local media as " the foreigners accused of the most talked @-@ about assassinations in our country . "
On 11 September 2010 , Beth Holloway and Peter R. De Vries traveled to Peru with a Dutch television crew to visit the prison . According to van der Sloot 's attorney Maximo Alonso Altez Navarro , his client was taken to meet them " practically by force . " Altez Navarro stated that the meeting with Holloway took " less than one minute . " Holloway said that she told van der Sloot that she had " no hate in her soul " for him and asked about her daughter 's disappearance , to which van der Sloot responded by saying that he could not speak to her without his lawyer present and handing her his business card . According to Altez Navarro , Holloway was " snuck " into the prison without being identified by the Dutch media crew who she was with . A prison spokesperson stated that Holloway 's name was not found in the visitor registry . Holloway and the crew were removed from the prison , reportedly after a hidden camera was discovered by the guards . Representatives for Holloway and De Vries denied that a hidden camera was involved or that anything was seized . Miguel Castro Castro prison warden Alex Samamé Peña was suspended after video segments of the confrontation between Holloway 's mother and van der Sloot later began airing on Dutch network SBS6 .
In October 2010 , América Televisión broadcast video of a transaction for marijuana within the prison that was conducted by a shirtless man who was addressed as " gringo Van der Sloot . " Defense attorney Altez Navarro said that the situation was " staged " and asked the National Penitentiary Institute to investigate how it was leaked . Prison spokesperson Bruno Guzman said that van der Sloot had been painting his cell " to improve his conditions " and that the incident was being investigated .
In November 2010 , a forensic expert determined that a jawbone found on an Aruban beach was from a young woman . A part of the bone was sent to The Hague for testing by the Netherlands Forensic Institute against Natalee Holloway 's dental records . According to Altez Navarro , Van der Sloot began laughing when notified of the developments . Aruba Solicitor @-@ General Taco Stein later announced that the bone was confirmed to be not from Holloway .
Van der Sloot 's mother Anita stated in a Dutch interview that her son could have killed Flores Ramírez and that she will not visit him at the prison . She said in another interview that she hopes to talk to the family of the victim and apologize to them .
" I believe in karma , I believe that very strongly . I believe that if you do things that you shouldn 't do , that a lot of shit happens to you , " she said . " He didn 't want to listen to his parents . He didn 't listen to me , this last time . I tried to do my best . I don 't think I could have done more . He 's considered an adult right now . He has to do whatever he needs to do , and that is tell the truth ( about ) what happened . "
In February 2011 , Altez Navarro protested a decision by prison officials to deny Radio Netherlands Worldwide permission for a subsequent interview with van der Sloot . Altez Navarro claimed that the ruling was influenced by upcoming general elections .
On 5 July 2011 , St. Martin 's Press published Portrait of a Monster : Joran van der Sloot , a Murder in Peru , and the Natalee Holloway Mystery by Lisa Pulitzer and Cole Thompson .
= = Personal life = =
In a prison ceremony on 4 July 2014 , van der Sloot was married to Leidy ( alt . Leydi ) Figueroa , a Peruvian woman whom he met while she was selling goods inside the prison . She was 7 months pregnant with his child at the time . On 28 September 2014 L. Figueroa gave birth to an 8 lb baby girl in Peru
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= Maryland Route 10 =
Maryland Route 10 ( MD 10 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as the Arundel Expressway , the highway runs 7 @.@ 17 miles ( 11 @.@ 54 km ) from MD 2 in Pasadena north to Interstate 695 ( I @-@ 695 ) near Glen Burnie . MD 10 is a four- to six @-@ lane freeway that serves as a bypass of MD 2 through Pasadena and Glen Burnie in northeastern Anne Arundel County . The Arundel Expressway was planned as a Baltimore – Annapolis freeway to provide relief to MD 2 between the cities as early as the 1950s . However , the portion of MD 10 south of Pasadena was removed from state plans when the I @-@ 97 corridor was chosen for the intercity freeway in the 1970s . MD 10 was constructed from I @-@ 695 to MD 710 in the early 1970s and continued south to MD 648 in the late 1970s . The freeway was extended south to MD 100 and completed to MD 2 in the late 1980s and early 1990s , respectively .
= = Route description = =
MD 10 begins at an intersection with MD 2 ( Governor Ritchie Highway ) in Pasadena . The highway heads north as a four @-@ lane freeway to a partial interchange with MD 100 ( Paul T. Pitcher Memorial Highway ) . There is no access from northbound MD 10 to eastbound MD 100 or from westbound MD 100 to southbound MD 10 . MD 10 and MD 100 briefly run concurrently northwest as an eight @-@ lane freeway and diverge at another partial interchange ; in both carriageways , traffic must move over two lanes to remain on the same route . Just north of the MD 100 split , MD 10 has a half @-@ diamond interchange with MD 177 ( Mountain Road ) . That interchange has ramps from southbound MD 10 to MD 177 and from MD 177 to northbound MD 10 . Traffic from eastbound MD 100 to northbound MD 10 and from southbound MD 10 to westbound MD 100 uses MD 177 and MD 2 as intermediaries .
MD 10 continues north from MD 177 through the east side of Glen Burnie as a six @-@ lane freeway . The highway crosses over Marley Creek and has a partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 648 ( Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard ) . MD 10 parallels MD 270 ( Furnace Branch Road ) north then meets the latter highway at a partial cloverleaf interchange . The highway crosses Furnace Branch and has a partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 710 ( Ordnance Road ) , where northbound MD 10 becomes two lanes wide . MD 10 reaches its northern terminus at a trumpet interchange with I @-@ 695 ( Baltimore Beltway ) . The sweeping ramp from MD 10 to westbound I @-@ 695 merges into a collector @-@ distributor lane that allows access from MD 10 to northbound MD 2 in Brooklyn Park .
MD 10 is a part of the main National Highway System for its entire length .
= = History = =
The Arundel Expressway was proposed as early as 1956 as a freeway connecting Baltimore and Annapolis to relieve congestion on MD 2 . By 1966 , the highway was planned to begin at MD 173 at the city limits of Baltimore , intersect a planned cross @-@ Patapsco section of the Baltimore Beltway , follow its current path to Pasadena , then continue paralleling MD 2 south to near U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) and US 301 . The portion of the Arundel Expressway inside the Beltway was removed from plans in 1967 , with the Beltway instead serving to connect the expressway with highways into Baltimore . The portion of the freeway south of Pasadena was planned to have intermediate interchanges at MD 648 in Severna Park and Jones Station Road ( now College Parkway ) in Arnold , and a toll plaza just south of the MD 100 interchange . The portion of the Arundel Expressway south of MD 100 was removed from state plans by 1975 . Instead of a Baltimore – Annapolis freeway following the MD 2 corridor , in June 1979 the Maryland State Highway Administration announced it was constructing the freeway along the MD 3 and MD 178 corridors .
The first section of modern MD 10 to open was the portion of freeway shared with MD 100 , which opened in November 1970 from MD 2 to its eastern terminus . Work began on the Arundel Expressway proper in 1970 when the interchange between the expressway and the Baltimore Beltway was started in 1970 . MD 710 was relocated over much of its length to make way for the construction of the freeways in 1972 . The Arundel Expressway opened from the Beltway to MD 710 in December 1972 and was marked as MD 10 by 1974 . Construction on the extension south to MD 648 was underway by 1975 . MD 10 opened south to MD 270 in October 1977 and to MD 648 in March 1978 . The freeway was proposed to continue south to MD 100 , but that freeway extension was removed from short @-@ term plans by 1981 .
Construction began in 1987 to extend MD 10 , which was dubbed the " Road to Nowhere , " from MD 648 to a more logical southern terminus . The freeway opened from MD 648 to MD 100 in October 1988 . The final segment of MD 10 , from MD 100 to MD 2 , opened in March 1991 . The Arundel Expressway was planned to carry 75 @,@ 000 as a complete Baltimore – Annapolis freeway . However , as of 2013 , only 51 @,@ 621 vehicles used the highway daily on its most traveled portion between MD 270 and MD 710 . MD 10 functions as a bypass of MD 2 north of Pasadena , but has not fulfilled its original purpose to relieve traffic congestion on MD 2 south to Annapolis . By the time of MD 10 's completion in 1991 , MD 2 was proposed to be expanded to six lanes south of MD 10 . As of 2013 , MD 2 has yet to be widened south of Pasadena .
= = Exit list = =
All exits are unnumbered . The entire route is in Anne Arundel County .
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= Heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia =
Heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia ( HIT ) is the development of thrombocytopenia ( a low platelet count ) , due to the administration of various forms of heparin , an anticoagulant . HIT predisposes to thrombosis , the abnormal formation of blood clots inside a blood vessel , and when thrombosis is identified the condition is called heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis ( HITT ) . HIT is caused by the formation of abnormal antibodies that activate platelets . If someone receiving heparin develops new or worsening thrombosis , or if the platelet count falls , HIT can be confirmed with specific blood tests .
The treatment of HIT requires both protection from thrombosis and choice of an agent that will not reduce the platelet count further . Several alternatives are available for this purpose and mainly used are danaparoid , fondaparinux , argatroban and bivalirudin
While heparin was discovered in the 1930s , HIT was not reported until the 1960s .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Heparin may be used for both prevention and the treatment of thrombosis . It exists in two main forms : an " unfractionated " form that can be injected under the skin or through an intravenous infusion , and a " low molecular weight " form that is generally given subcutaneously ( administered under the skin ) . Commonly used low molecular weight heparins are enoxaparin , dalteparin , nadroparin and tinzaparin .
In HIT , the platelet count in the blood falls below the normal range , a condition called thrombocytopenia . However , it is generally not low enough to lead to an increased risk of bleeding . Most people with HIT will therefore not experience any symptoms . Typically the platelet count will fall 5 – 14 days after heparin is first given ; if someone has received heparin in the previous three months , the fall in platelet count may occur sooner , sometimes within a day .
The most common symptom of HIT is enlargement or extension of a previously diagnosed blood clot , or the development of a new blood clot elsewhere in the body . This may take the form of clots either in arteries or veins , causing arterial or venous thrombosis , respectively . Examples of arterial thrombosis are stroke , myocardial infarction ( " heart attack " ) , and acute leg ischemia . Venous thrombosis may occur in the leg or arm in the form of deep vein thrombosis ( DVT ) and in the lung in the form of a pulmonary embolism ( PE ) ; the latter usually originate in the leg but migrate to the lung .
In those receiving heparin through an intravenous infusion , a complex of symptoms ( " systemic reaction " ) may occur when the infusion is started . These include fever , chills , high blood pressure , a fast heart rate , shortness of breath , and chest pain . This happens in about a quarter of people with HIT . Others may develop a skin rash consisting of red spots .
= = Mechanism = =
Heparin occurs naturally in the human body , but the development of HIT antibodies suggests heparin may act as a hapten , and thus be targeted by the immune system . In HIT , the immune system forms antibodies against heparin when it is bound to a protein called platelet factor 4 ( PF4 ) . These antibodies are usually of the IgG class and their development usually takes about five days . However , those who have been exposed to heparin in the last few months may still have circulating IgG , as IgG @-@ type antibodies generally continue to be produced even when their precipitant has been removed . This is similar to immunity against certain microorganisms , with the difference that the HIT antibody does not persist more than three months . HIT antibodies have been found in individuals with thrombocytopenia and thrombosis who had no prior exposure to heparin , but the majority are found in people who are receiving heparin .
The IgG antibodies form a complex with heparin and PF4 in the bloodstream . The tail of the antibody then binds to the FcγIIa receptor , a protein on the surface of the platelet . This results in platelet activation and the formation of platelet microparticles , which initiate the formation of blood clots ; the platelet count falls as a result , leading to thrombocytopenia .
Formation of PF4 @-@ heparin antibodies is common in people receiving heparin , but only a proportion of these develop thrombocytopenia or thrombosis . This has been referred to as an " iceberg phenomenon " .
= = Diagnosis = =
HIT may be suspected if blood tests show a falling platelet count in someone receiving heparin , even if the heparin has already been discontinued . Professional guidelines recommend that people receiving heparin have a complete blood count ( which includes a platelet count ) on a regular basis while receiving heparin .
However , not all people with a falling platelet count while receiving heparin turn out to have HIT . The timing , severity of the thrombocytopenia , the occurrence of new thrombosis , and the presence of alternative explanations , all determine the likelihood that HIT is present . A commonly used score to predict the likelihood of HIT is the " 4 Ts " score introduced in 2003 . A score of 0 – 8 points is generated ; if the score is 0 @-@ 3 , HIT is unlikely . A score of 4 – 5 indicates intermediate probability , while a score of 6 – 8 makes it highly likely . Those with a high score may need to be treated with an alternative drug while more sensitive and specific tests for HIT are performed , while those with a low score can safely continue receiving heparin as the likelihood that they have HIT is extremely low . In an analysis of the reliability of the 4T score , a low score had a negative predictive value of 0 @.@ 998 , while an intermediate score had a positive predictive value of 0 @.@ 14 and a high score a positive predictive value of 0 @.@ 64 ; intermediate and high scores therefore warrant further investigation .
The first screening test in someone suspected of having HIT is aimed at detecting antibodies against heparin @-@ PF4 complexes . This may be with a laboratory test of the ELISA ( enzyme @-@ linked immunosorbent assay ) type . The ELISA test , however , detects all circulating antibodies that bind heparin @-@ PF4 complexes , and may also falsely identify antibodies that do not cause HIT . Therefore , those with a positive ELISA are tested further with a functional assay . This test uses platelets and serum from the patient ; the platelets are washed and mixed with serum and heparin . The sample is then tested for the release of serotonin , a marker of platelet activation . If this serotonin release assay ( SRA ) shows high serotonin release , the diagnosis of HIT is confirmed . The SRA test is difficult to perform and is usually only done in regional laboratories .
If someone has been diagnosed with HIT , some recommend routine Doppler sonography of the leg veins to identify deep vein thromboses , as this is very common in HIT .
= = Treatment = =
Given the fact that HIT predisposes strongly to new episodes of thrombosis , it is not sufficient to simply discontinue the heparin administration . Generally , an alternative anticoagulant is needed to suppress the thrombotic tendency while the generation of antibodies stops and the platelet count recovers . To make matters more complicated , the other most commonly used anticoagulant , warfarin , should not be used in HIT until the platelet count is at least 150 x 10 ^ 9 / L because there is a very high risk of warfarin necrosis in people with HIT who have low platelet counts . Warfarin necrosis is the development of skin gangrene in those receiving warfarin or a similar vitamin K inhibitor . If the patient was receiving warfarin at the time when HIT is diagnosed , the activity of warfarin is reversed with vitamin K. Transfusing platelets is discouraged , as there is a theoretical risk that this may worsen the risk of thrombosis ; the platelet count is rarely low enough to be the principal cause of significant hemorrhage .
Various non @-@ heparin agents are used to provide anticoagulation in those with strongly suspected or proven HIT : danaparoid , fondaparinux , bivalirudin and argatroban . These are alternatives to heparin therapy . Not all agents are available in all countries , and not all are approved for this specific use . For instance , argatroban is only recently licensed in the United Kingdom , and danaparoid is not available in the United States . Fondaparinux , a Factor Xa inhibitor , is commonly used off label for HIT treatment in the United States .
According to a systematic review , people with HIT treated with lepirudin showed a relative risk reduction of clinical outcome ( death , amputation , etc . ) to be 0 @.@ 52 and 0 @.@ 42 when compared to patient controls . In addition , people treated with argatroban for HIT showed a relative risk reduction of the above clinical outcomes to be 0 @.@ 20 and 0 @.@ 18 . Lepirudin production stopped on May 31 , 2012 .
= = Epidemiology = =
The exact number of cases of HIT in the general population is unknown . What is known is that women receiving heparin after a recent surgical procedure , particularly cardiothoracic surgery , have a higher risk , while the risk is very low in women just before and after giving birth . Some studies have shown that HIT is less common in those receiving low molecular weight heparin .
= = History = =
While heparin was introduced for clinical use in the late 1930s , new thrombosis in people treated with heparin was not described until 1957 , when vascular surgeons reported the association . The fact that this phenomenon occurred together with thrombocytopenia was reported in 1969 ; prior to this time , platelet counts were not routinely performed . A 1973 report established HIT as a diagnosis , as well as suggesting that its features were the result of an immune process .
Initially , various theories existed about the exact cause of the low platelets in HIT . Gradually , evidence accumulated on the exact underlying mechanism . In 1984 @-@ 1986 , John G. Kelton and colleagues at McMaster University Medical School developed the laboratory tests that could be used to confirm or exclude heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia .
Treatment was initially limited to aspirin and warfarin , but the 1990s saw the introduction of a number of agents that could provide anticoagulation without a risk of recurrent HIT . Older terminology distinguishes between two forms of heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia : type 1 ( mild , non @-@ immune mediated and self @-@ limiting fall in platelet count ) and type 2 , the form described above . Currently , the term HIT is used without a modifier to describe the immune @-@ mediated severe form .
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= Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney =
Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney , known in Japan as Gyakuten Saiban 4 ( Japanese : 逆転裁判4 , lit . " Turnabout Trial 4 " ) , is a visual novel adventure video game developed by Capcom for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the fourth video game in the Ace Attorney series , and was originally released in Japan on April 12 , 2007 ; it was later released in North America , Europe and Australia in 2008 .
The game takes place seven years after the previous game , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations . Phoenix Wright , the main character of previous titles in the series , has been stripped of his attorney 's badge , and Apollo Justice , an up @-@ and @-@ coming attorney , becomes his apprentice , working with Phoenix 's adopted daughter Trucy on four cases . The player 's goal is to get their clients declared not guilty ; to do this , they investigate the cases and cross @-@ examine witnesses . When finding inconsistencies in witness testimonies , the player is able to present pieces of evidence that contradict the witnesses ' statements . They can also use the " perceive " system , in which they are able to see nervous motions or actions during witness testimonies , similar to a tell in poker .
The game was developed by a team of 28 staff members , including producer Minae Matsukawa , director Mitsuru Endo , and character designer Kazuya Nuri . Series creator Shu Takumi , who wrote the game 's scenario and took on a supervisory role for the production , had wanted the series to end with Trials and Tribulations , as he felt that Phoenix 's character had been explored fully ; when it was decided that the game would get made , he wanted it to have a new main character with a new story , and wanted Phoenix to not make an appearance . Despite this , it was decided that Phoenix would be the accused in the first case in the game . Apollo Justice sold around 250 @,@ 000 copies during the first retail week and 515 @,@ 417 by the end of 2007 , and has been mostly positively received by critics .
= = Gameplay = =
Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney is , like the rest of the Ace Attorney series , a cross between the adventure game and visual novel genres . The player 's goal is to defend their clients in four cases , and prove their innocence . The gameplay is separated into two types of situations : Investigations and trials .
During the investigation phase of each case , the player explores the game world by either using the stylus or the D @-@ pad to select the actions they wish to engage in : Examine , Move , Talk , or Present . The player converses with non @-@ player characters by selecting dialogue and can move around the game world by selecting the locations they wish to travel to . Information gained during Investigation Mode can be used during the Trial phase of the game and items picked up can be used as evidence . The player cannot progress without completing certain actions . Ema Skye , a character from the DS remake of the original Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney game , often provides the player with opportunities to use DS features such as the microphone to perform actions such as dusting for fingerprints .
The trial portions consist of listening to and cross @-@ examining witness testimonies . The player is given the option to either Press or Present evidence in response to statements made by witnesses . The player can either select their choice or yell into the microphone . By choosing Press , the player questions the witness 's statement , which sometimes causes the witness to change their testimony . When finding inconsistencies in the testimony , the player may choose Present in order to show a piece of evidence that they think contradicts the testimony . The player has a health bar , representing the judge 's patience . If the player presents incorrect pieces of evidence or choose incorrect answers to questions in court , health is lost . If the health bar reaches zero , the player loses the game and their client is declared guilty . A new system , known as the " Perceive System , " can be used to look for motions or actions made by witnesses that show nervousness , similar to a tell in poker . The move comes with the catchphrase , " Gotcha ! " ( " There ! " ( そこだ ! , Soko da ! ) in Japanese ) . The game also includes a " Crime Recreation Mode " that models evidence or the crime scene in a 3 @-@ D rendition and allow the player to explore the recreation to look for clues . Additionally , the game often recreates the crime in cutscene sequences , allowing the player to observe the action and find contradictions .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Apollo Justice takes place seven years after the previous game in the series , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations . The game consists of several cases and trials , called Turnabouts . In four separate Turnabouts , the main character , Apollo Justice , must defend his clients against the charge of murder . After the first Turnabout , Apollo works for retired attorney Phoenix Wright , who lost his attorney 's badge due to unknowingly falsifying evidence and now runs the " Wright Talent Agency " to support his adopted daughter , Trucy Wright , a magician from the disbanded Troupe Gramarye and who helps Apollo out during investigations and in court .
= = = Story = = =
In the first case , Turnabout Trump ( 逆転の切札 , Gyakuten no Kirifuda ) , Phoenix , now a pianist , is accused of murder . Apollo , under the tutelage of Phoenix 's friend , Kristoph Gavin , is called to defend Phoenix and find the true murderer . Unbeknownst to Apollo , he uses falsified evidence to find the real murderer , Kristoph , and proves Phoenix 's innocence .
The second case , Turnabout Corner ( 逆転連鎖の街角 , Gyakuten Rensa no Machikado , lit . " Turnabout Connected Corners " ) , begins with Apollo joining Phoenix 's combined law office and talent agency , the Wright Anything Agency . He and Trucy investigate three separate but simultaneous incidents : a hit @-@ and @-@ run , a panty @-@ theft , and a missing noodle stand . Seemingly unrelated at first , it is proven that the cases are all connected to a murder that occurred on the same night ; Wocky Kitaki , the son of the local Kitaki family gang , is accused of the crime . Apollo defends him , and faces off against Kristoph 's brother , prosecutor Klavier Gavin , in court ; Apollo connects the cases to convict the true murderer , Wocky 's fiancée , Alita Tiala .
In Turnabout Serenade ( 逆転のセレナード , Gyakuten no Serenādo ) , the third case , Klavier invites Apollo and Trucy to a concert for his band , the Gavinners . A murder occurs during the show , and Apollo and Trucy receive the task of defending the main suspect , pianist Machi Tobaye , one of the concert 's guest stars . Aided by the other guest star , the Borginian singer Lamiroir , Apollo proves Tobaye 's innocence by unraveling a complicated plot to smuggle cocoons and uncovers the real murderer , Klavier 's bandmate and detective Daryan Crescend .
In the fourth and final case , Turnabout Succession ( 逆転を継ぐ者 , Gyakuten o Tsugu Mono , lit . " Successor to Turnabout " ) , Apollo defends Vera Misham , who has been accused of poisoning her father , Drew . As the finale of Apollo Justice , Turnabout Succession reveals the mysteries surrounding Phoenix 's last case as an attorney , as well as the history of Troupe Gramarye and how Trucy came to be his adopted daughter . It is also revealed to Phoenix that Trucy and Apollo are half @-@ siblings , and that Lamiroir is really their birth mother , Thalassa Gramarye . This is the sole session of the game where the player can interact as Phoenix . In the end , it is discovered that Kristoph Gavin was responsible for the deaths of Drew Misham and Zak Gramarye , the attempted murder of Vera Misham , and the fake evidence that forced Phoenix to retire . At this point , the player can determine Vera Misham 's verdict through the Jurist System . Choosing " Not Guilty " results in Vera being declared not guilty , while Phoenix promises Lamiroir that he will tell Apollo and Trucy the truth someday and considers retaking the bar exam and returning to law . Choosing " Guilty " leads to an alternate ending in which the court agrees on a " hung jury , " leaving the actual verdict to be decided the next day . Vera succumbs to poison she unwittingly consumed during the trial and dies before her verdict is decided .
= = Development = =
Apollo Justice was developed by a team of 28 staff members . It was produced by Minae Matsukawa and directed by Mitsuru Endo , with character design and art by Kazuya Nuri , while series creator Shu Takumi wrote the game 's scenario and took on a supervisory role . Takumi had wanted the series to end with the previous game , as he felt its main character , Phoenix Wright , had been fully explored and that his story had been told ; he said that it is important to know when to end a story , that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self , and that he did not see any reason to continue it . When it was still decided that a fourth game would be made , Takumi wanted it to have a new main character and a new story ; he did not plan to have Phoenix appear in the game , but his colleagues wanted him in the game in some form , which led to him being the accused in the first case in the game .
Early in development , it was proposed that the game would use 3D graphics , as a way to make a big impact worthy of the start of a new Ace Attorney series ; eventually they settled for a 2D style , with a few 3D elements . Apollo Justice was the first game in the series to feature videos created using motion @-@ capture data . A male staff member of the Research & Development team was chosen to be the motion @-@ capture actor for a female character ; the producer described him as being " a natural " at it . Voice acting was also provided by Capcom staff members . During development , staff members visited real courts to watch and study the trials . Most of the game 's music was composed by Toshihiko Horiyama , with Hideki Okugawa composing three songs and Akemi Kimura and Shu Takumi composing two songs each . A soundtrack album , Gyakuten Saiban 4 Original Soundtrack , was released on June 27 , 2007 . A concert , based on the music from Ace Attorney and entitled Gyakuten Meets Orchestra , took place in Tokyo in April 2008 . A CD of the concert was published on July 16 , 2008 .
Alexander O. Smith , who worked as a writer on the localization of the first Ace Attorney game , also worked on the localization of Apollo Justice . Localization of the game was already in progress by August 2007 . The name " Apollo Justice " was decided in collaboration between the Japanese and American divisions of Capcom ; it took them twenty @-@ two meetings to decide on it . The name refers to how Apollo fights for justice . During the localization , there was some debate about the use of the word " panties " to describe Trucy 's magical bloomers , a prop she uses in her magic shows ; some on the localization team felt that it was inappropriate to joke about an underage girl 's panties , and wanted them to be localized as " magic pants " , while some felt that the joke would be lost if the player already knew that they were massive bloomers . Janet Hsu , one of the staff members working on the localization , made an argument for " emotional accuracy " , saying that the Japanese version of the game was trying to make the player feel at unease over looking for what they might imagine to be " sexy lingerie " , and then let the player feel relief at finding out that it is a prop for a magic show . In the end , they were referred to as " panties " .
= = = Release = = =
The game was announced in 2005 , and was originally planned to be released in 2006 in Japan . A demo version of the game was first made available at Tokyo Game Show in 2006 , and an English trailer was presented at the following year 's Tokyo Game Show . The game was eventually released in Japan on April 12 , 2007 , with North American , European , and Australian releases following on February 19 , 2008 , May 9 , 2008 , and May 22 , 2008 , respectively . In Japan , a limited edition of the game was made available . It includes branded headphones , an Ace Attorney dictionary on a DS card , and a series highlights DVD . A keychain depicting Apollo was included with preorders purchased at GameStop and the online Capcom store .
= = Reception = =
Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney has received generally positive reception , holding a score of 78 / 100 at the review aggregator Metacritic . It received four nines out of ten , totaled to thirty @-@ six out of forty , from video game magazine Famitsu . However , 1UP.com commented that , " the Phoenix Wright games are by far the best @-@ written titles you 'll find on the DS , and Justice is no different . " 1UP.com also commented that the added features made especially for the DS were " super engaging even though the actual actions aren 't that difficult to do . " On 21 November 2013 , RPGFan placed the game 5th on their top 20 Nintendo DS games list .
IGN largely agreed with 1UP but commented that " the first Apollo Justice title plays identically to the Phoenix Wright trilogy " . IGN Australia noted out that complaints about the previous games , such as that " finding the right path through the game feels like a process of trial and error " and that players could beat the game by " routinely pressing at every available opportunity and then using a minimum of logic , " were not fixed in Apollo Justice . " Additionally , " the game 's rather obtuse , long @-@ way @-@ around approach to problem solving " caused what IGN viewed to be unnecessary delays to the game . IGN also felt that new features were " a little gimmicky " but did not " detract from the experience in the slightest . " However , IGN Australia thought the game was " great " overall . The game was nominated for " Best Story " in IGN 's 2008 Video Game Awards , though it did not win .
These views were echoed by many reviews . GameSpot felt that the story , while strong , " moves along at a snail 's pace " and that " many of the series ' flaws are still present . " A " lack of innovation and change " was the main sticking point for GamePro , who thought of Apollo Justice as " a solid distillation of the franchise formula . " The Nintendo World Report felt that the game " builds upon the Phoenix Wright trilogy " even though " [ g ] ameplay remains mostly unchanged . " GameSpy pointed out that the game 's use of the DS 's touch features , " vastly improves the experience " though the crime scene reenactment is " all too brief . "
Apollo Justice sold around 250 @,@ 000 copies during the first retail week , and had more than 500 @,@ 000 copies shipped by the end of its second week in Japan . By the end of 2007 , it had sold 515 @,@ 417 units . While not as successful in terms of sales in North America , the game still placed fifth in games sold for the Nintendo DS during its release week .
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= Doris Sands Johnson =
Dame Doris Sands Johnson DBE ( 19 June 1921 – 21 June 1983 ) was a Bahamian teacher , suffragette , and politician . She was the first Bahamian woman to contest an election in the Bahamas , the first female Senate appointee , and the first woman granted a leadership role in the Senate . Once in the legislature , she was the first female to be made a government minister and then was elected as the first woman President of the Senate . She was the first female to serve as Acting Governor General of the Bahamas , and was honored as Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II .
Born on New Providence Island , she completed her secondary education and became a teacher . After teaching for 17 years , Johnson returned to school to earn a master 's and doctorate degree in educational administration . During this period , she traveled back and forth between school and her Bahamian home organizing labor and suffrage efforts . Upon graduation , Johnson was unable to find work because of her activism . She made a compelling speech to the Bahamian legislature in 1959 , pleading for women 's suffrage and subsequently made a similar plea to the Colonial Office in London . Once the right to vote had been secured , Johnson immediately entered politics in 1961 , running in the first election in which women were allowed to participate . Though she lost her bid , she worked with the Progressive Liberal Party to gain Bahamian independence . When the country gained its freedom from colonial rule , Johnson was appointed to the Senate and served the government until her death , a decade later .
= = Background and education = =
Doris Louise Sands was born on 19 June 1921 in St. Agnes , New Providence , The Bahamas , to Sarah Elizabeth ( née Fyne ) and John Albert Sands . After completing her secondary education , Sands began teaching at the age of fifteen . On 3 January 1943 at Zion Baptist Church in Nassau , Sands married Ratal Allen Johnson . They subsequently had one son and Johnson worked for 17 years to earn the money to further her education . Around 1953 , she was able to enroll at Virginia Union University in Richmond , Virginia , graduating with a bachelor 's degree in education . She returned to the Bahamas in 1956 and joined the Progressive Liberal Party ( PLP ) . Granted a four @-@ year government scholarship to further her education in Canada , Johnson enrolled in a master 's degree program in educational administration . Beginning her studies at MacDonald College of Education of McGill University , she earned her master 's degree and began work on her doctorate at the Ontario College of Education at the University of Toronto . In the midst of her studies , the government terminated the scholarship during her third year of studying abroad , under the guise that her master 's degree had been completed . Johnson believed that the scholarship was terminated because she had been active in organizing . She helped found the Women ’ s Suffrage Movement in the Bahamas , and in 1958 both the Bahamian Federation of Labour and the National Council of Women , traveling home intermittently during her studies to work towards enfranchisement . She returned home , but was advised that the only available positions for teaching administrators were in outlying islands .
= = Political rise = =
Feeling that her employment opportunities were being blocked , that same year , on 19 January 1959 , Johnson asked to address the members of the Bahamian House of the Assembly , but was told she could only speak after the session adjourned , to which she agreed . In her speech , she pointed out that a petition had been submitted to the House in 1958 for suffrage , which Members had claimed showed only 13 petitioners and 529 signatories . She provided mimeographed copies showing the actual number was 2 @,@ 829 people and included people from Abaco , Andros , Cat Island , Eleuthera , Exuma , Grand Bahama , Long Island , and New Providence . She went on to complain that women were being taxed without representation and reasoned that should the vote not be extended to them , they should no longer have to pay taxes . She insisted that women were working members of society and were ready , willing , and able to participate as full citizens . Though the Members of Parliament were impressed with the speech , they did nothing .
In 1960 , Johnson , as leader of the Women 's Suffrage Movement , and Eugenia Lockhart , the organization 's secretary , went to London to plead the case for suffrage . They met with the London branch of the International Alliance of Women to discuss the situation in the Bahamas , claiming that though they had the support of the majority of Bahamian women , many women could not voice their approval because they were employed by merchants and the government who were opposed to the cause . They also sought an audience at the Colonial Office to air their grievances , accompanied by the chairman of the PLP , Henry Milton Taylor . They met with the Secretary of State for the Colonies , Iain Macleod , and two women British Parliamentarians , Baroness Joan Vickers and Baroness Eirene White . The Bahamians were assured that their case was accepted and that change would soon follow . They returned , but no change was forthcoming .
Supporters rallied and collected funds for Johnson to complete her education in the United States , and she enrolled at New York University , completing her Doctor of Education in 1962 . When suffrage passed in 1961 , Johnson immediately entered the fray , accepting a nomination as a PLP candidate for the Eleuthera District . She wrote a booklet entitled The Next Step : Votes for Women in which she explained useful information for voting , such as how to register to vote and cast a ballot . She lost the race , but three years later participated in a debate in the push for majority rule on the parliamentary imbalance in the Bahamas with a delegation from the PLP at the United Nations . At that meeting , she met the president of her alma mater from Virginia Union , and agreed to accept a teaching post at Southern University in Baton Rouge , Louisiana . A little over a year later , Johnson left Louisiana and came back to the Bahamas to participate in the 1967 elections . The PLP won the majority of seats and she became the first woman appointee to serve in the Bahamian Senate . One of her first acts was to form a committee to help the Haitian diaspora who had fled to the Bahamas because of unrest in their own country . With an estimated 20 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 refugees and a government decree to stop issuing work permits to Haitians , the situation was critical . The following year , PLP had a landslide victory in the 1968 election and Johnson was reappointed to the Senate , and appointed as the first woman to lead government business .
From 1968 to 1973 , Johnson was the Transportation Minister and her appointment was the first time a woman had served in the Bahamian Cabinet . In 1972 , Johnson published a book entitled The Quiet Revolution in the Bahamas , which discussed the struggle for racial parity and independence , likening the efforts in the Bahamas to the American Civil Rights Movement and Martin Luther King 's fight . The book has been called " one of the most important accounts of the events and personalities involved in the attainment of Majority Rule and Independence in The Bahamas " . The following year , when the Bahama 's gained independence from Britain , Johnson resigned from her post as Minister and was elected as the first female President of the Senate . In 1977 , shortly after being reelected to the presidency , Johnson received Queen Elizabeth II . In 1979 , she briefly served as acting Governor General of the Bahamas , the first woman ever to do so , and that same year was honored as Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire .
Besides her official roles , Johnson served as a founding member of the Bahamas Folklore Group and spoke at various women 's groups in the Bahamas and United States . She also served as president of the National Women 's Housing Association and coordinator of the Bahamas Baptist Missionary and Educational Convention 's Women 's Auxiliary .
Johnson died on 21 June 1983 . Posthumously , a high school was dedicated in 2002 in Nassau , which bears her name .
= = Selected works = =
Johnson , Doris L. ( 19 January 1959 ) . Call for Equal Rights for All Bahamian Women ( Speech ) . Meeting of the Members of the House of Assembly . Government House , Nassau , Bahamas . Contained in Fawkes , Sir Randol F. ( 2003 ) . Fawkes , Rosalie J. ; Fawkes , Francis ; Fawkes , David , eds . The Faith That Moved the Mountain : A Memoir of a Life and the Times ( PDF ) ( Memorial ed . ) . Nassau , Bahamas : Dodd Printers. pp. 204 – 210 .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1962 ) . A guide for the establishment of an advisory council to the Bahamas Board of Education : based upon a study of advisory services to the Central British Educational Authority from 1899 to 1959 ( Ed . D. ) . New York University .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1962 ) . The Next Step : Votes for Women . Nassau , Bahamas .
Johnson , Doris L. The Man on the Black Horse . Nassau , Bahamas .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1972 ) . The Quiet Revolution in the Bahamas . Nassau , Bahamas : Family Islands Press .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1973 ) . Age of Awareness . Nassau , Bahamas .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1989 ) . " Political Change " . In Collinwood , Dean W. ; Dodge , Steve . Modern Bahamian Society . Parkersburg , IA , USA : Caribbean Books. pp. 33 – 38 . ISBN 0931209013 .
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= Glee ( TV series ) =
Glee is an American musical comedy @-@ drama television series that aired on the Fox network in the United States from May 19 , 2009 , to March 20 , 2015 . It focuses on the fictitious William McKinley High School glee club , New Directions , which competes on the show choir competition circuit while its disparate members deal with social issues , especially regarding sexuality and race , relationships , and learning to become an effective team . The initial twelve @-@ member cast included club director and Spanish teacher Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , and eight club members played by Dianna Agron , Chris Colfer , Kevin McHale , Lea Michele , Cory Monteith , Amber Riley , Mark Salling , and Jenna Ushkowitz . In subsequent seasons , the main cast has expanded to fourteen and fifteen members .
The series was created by Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk , and Ian Brennan , the latter of whom first conceived of Glee as a film . The three wrote all of the show 's episodes for the first two seasons , and Murphy and Falchuk initially served as the show 's main directors . The pilot episode was broadcast on May 19 , 2009 , and the first season aired from September 9 , 2009 , to June 8 , 2010 . Subsequent seasons aired in September through May . The sixth and final season aired from January to March 2015 . Glee features on @-@ screen performance @-@ based musical numbers that were selected by Murphy , who aimed to maintain a balance between show tunes and chart hits , and produced by Adam Anders and Peer Åström . Songs covered in the show were released through the iTunes Store during the week of broadcast , and a series of Glee albums have been released by Columbia Records . The music of Glee has been a commercial success , with over thirty @-@ six million digital single sales and eleven million album sales worldwide through October 2011 . The series ' merchandise also includes DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases , an iPad application , and karaoke games for the Wii . There were live concert tours by the show 's cast after the first and second seasons completed shooting ; a concert film based on the 2011 tour , Glee : The 3D Concert Movie , was produced by Murphy and Fox and directed by Kevin Tancharoen .
During its first season , Glee received generally favorable reviews from critics , with Metacritic 's weighted average of 77 out of 100 based on eighteen critical reviews . The season was nominated for nineteen Emmy Awards , four Golden Globe Awards , six Satellite Awards and fifty @-@ seven other awards , with wins including the 2010 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy , and Emmy awards for Jane Lynch , guest @-@ star Neil Patrick Harris and Murphy 's direction of the pilot episode . In 2011 , the show once again won the Golden Globe for Best Television Series , and Jane Lynch and Chris Colfer won Golden Globes for Best Supporting Actress and Best Supporting Actor respectively , and Gwyneth Paltrow won the Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series . The show was also chosen by Fox to fill the coveted time slot that followed the network 's coverage of Super Bowl XLV in 2011 .
On October 17 , 2013 , in the wake of the death of Cory Monteith three months prior , and one week after his tribute episode " The Quarterback " aired , Murphy announced that the sixth season would be the final one of the series . After 121 episodes and over 728 music performances , Glee came to an end on March 20 , 2015 .
= = Plot = =
The series focuses on a high school show choir , also known as a glee club , in the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio . Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) takes over the glee club after the former teacher Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) is fired for inappropriate contact with a male student . With a rag @-@ tag group of misfit teenagers , Will attempts to restore the glee club to its former glory while tending to his developing feelings for his co @-@ worker Emma ( Jayma Mays ) , as well as defending the glee club 's existence from the conniving cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) . A major focus of the series is the students in the glee club : their relationships as couples , their love of singing and desire for popularity coming into conflict due to their membership in the low @-@ status club , and the many vicissitudes of life in high school and as a teenager .
Season 1 features the fictional high school show choir New Directions competing for the first time on the show choir circuit , winning at the Sectionals competition ( episode 13 ) but losing at Regionals ( season finale / episode 22 ) , while its members and faculty deal with sex , relationships , homosexuality , teenage pregnancy , disabilities , acceptance and other social issues . The central characters are glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , and glee club members Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , Artie ( Kevin McHale ) , Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) , Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) and Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) .
Season 2 follows the club through wins at the Sectionals ( episode 9 ) and Regionals ( episode 16 ) competitions before losing at the Nationals competition in New York City ( season finale / episode 22 ) , while its members and faculty deal with sex , relationships , religion , homophobia , bullying , rumors , teenage drinking , death and other social issues . The season 's stories revolve around the same Glee club members as first season , with Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) added to the main cast , along with Kurt 's father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) .
Season 3 follows the club through wins at Sectionals ( episode 8 ) and Regionals competitions ( episode 14 ) , before they win the Nationals competition ( episode 21 ) in Chicago . The characters deal with gender identity , adoption , domestic abuse , teenage suicide , bullying , disabilities , texting while driving , college and other social issues . Glee club members added to the main cast were Mike Chang ( Harry Shum Jr . ) and transfer student Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) , while Jessalyn Gilsig as Terri Schuester was written out of the series and Mike O 'Malley as Burt returned to recurring status . The McKinley High class of 2012 graduates at the end of the season .
Season 4 continues in Lima with a new generation of students but also follows some of the McKinley graduates from the third season , notably to the fictional New York Academy of the Dramatic Arts ( NYADA ) in New York City . The season follows the club through a loss at the Sectionals competition ( episode 9 ) and subsequent reinstatement when the winning Dalton Academy Warblers were found to have used banned substances ( human growth hormone ) ( episode 12 ) before winning at the Regionals competition ( episode 22 ) , which meant they would be attending their third consecutive National show choir competition . In the meantime , Rachel Berry and Kurt Hummel navigate NYADA and their lives as aspiring performers , plus their relationships with Finn and Blaine . Issues during the season include sex , bulimia , gender identity , child molestation , dyslexia , school violence , and pregnancy scares . Former main cast members Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) and Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) were credited as guest stars , while previously recurring glee club member Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) was promoted to the main cast .
Season 5 , unlike previous seasons , continues the school year begun in the previous season . The season shows the reigning champion glee club finishing second at Nationals competition ( episode 11 ) before the club is permanently disbanded by Sue Sylvester , now school principal , for budgetary reasons ( episode 12 ) , leaving the focus on graduation . The show then jumps several months forward in time and deals entirely with the alumni 's lives in New York City for the remainder of the season , including Rachel 's successful Broadway debut . Throughout this season , the club and its alumni deal with relationships ; death and mourning ; body image , gay bashing , intimacy , and other social issues . Several main cast members dropped to recurring guest stars as of this season : Amber Riley as Mercedes , Mark Salling as Puck , Harry Shum Jr. as Mike and Heather Morris as Brittany . New main cast members included glee club members introduced in the fourth season : Melissa Benoist as Marley Rose , Alex Newell as Unique Adams , Blake Jenner as Ryder Lynn , Jacob Artist as Jake Puckerman , and Becca Tobin as Kitty Wilde . Actor Cory Monteith died during summer before the fifth season was shot ; his character , Finn Hudson , died in the season 's third episode , The Quarterback .
Season 6 focuses on Rachel Berry , who returns to McKinley after her television pilot fails . She decides to reconstitute the glee club with all @-@ new McKinley students and with Kurt 's help . Will Schuester is now coaching rival club Vocal Adrenaline , while Blaine is coaching the Dalton Academy Warblers . All of the new main cast members from the fifth season have returned to guest star status in this final season when they appear ; Amber Riley as Mercedes rejoins the main cast , and Dot @-@ Marie Jones as Coach Beiste joins the main cast for the first time . The cast members deal with gay marriage , gender identity , transitioning and other social issues . The newly reconstituted club wins the Nationals competition , Sue is fired as principal and Will is hired to be the principal of a McKinley High repurposed as a magnet arts school , with Sam as the new director of New Directions . The finale jumps five years into the future : Rachel has married Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) , wins a Tony Award , and is a surrogate mother for Kurt and Blaine ( who are themselves Broadway stars ) . Artie has directed Tina in a film , Mercedes is a highly successful recording artist , and Sue has just been re @-@ elected Vice President of the United States . The McKinley auditorium is renamed for Finn .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast and characters = =
In casting Glee , Murphy sought out actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . Instead of using traditional network casting calls , he spent three months on Broadway , where he found Matthew Morrison , who had previously starred on stage in Hairspray and The Light in the Piazza ; Lea Michele , who starred in Spring Awakening ; and Jenna Ushkowitz , who had been in the Broadway revival of The King and I.
Actors lacking theatrical experience needed to demonstrate , during their auditions , that they could also sing and dance . Chris Colfer had no previous professional experience , but Murphy wrote in the character Kurt Hummel for him . Jayma Mays auditioned with the song " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Show , while Cory Monteith initially submitted a tape of himself acting only , and was requested to submit a second , musical tape , in which he sang " a cheesy , ' 80s music @-@ video @-@ style version " of REO Speedwagon 's " Can 't Fight This Feeling " . Kevin McHale came from a boy @-@ band background , having previously been part of the group Not Like Them . He explained that the diversity of the cast 's backgrounds reflects the range of different musical styles within the show itself : " It 's a mix of everything : classic rock , current stuff , R & B. Even the musical theatre stuff is switched up . You won 't always recognize it . " Jane Lynch was originally supposed to have a recurring role , but was made a series regular when a Damon Wayans pilot she was working on for ABC fell through . The cast is contracted for a potential three Glee films , with their contract stating that " [ The actor ] hereby grants Fox three exclusive , irrevocable options to engage [ the actor ] in up to , respectively , three feature @-@ length motion pictures . " Murphy said in December 2010 that he wasn 't interested in doing a Glee movie " as a story " , and added , " I might do it as a live concert thing . " Glee : The 3D Concert Movie , filmed during the 2011 Glee Live ! In Concert ! tour , was released on August 12 , 2011 .
Glee has featured as many as fifteen main roles with star billing , after starting with twelve . Morrison plays Will Schuester , McKinley High 's Spanish teacher , who becomes glee @-@ club director and hopes to restore it to its former glory . Lynch plays Sue Sylvester , head coach of the " Cheerios " cheerleading squad , and the Glee Club 's nemesis . Mays appears as Emma Pillsbury , the school 's mysophobic guidance counselor who has feelings for Will , and Jessalyn Gilsig plays Terri Schuester , Will 's wife whom he eventually divorces after five years of marriage and the discovery that she has faked being pregnant instead of revealing she had suffered a false pregnancy . Michele plays Rachel Berry , talented star of the glee club who is often bullied by the Cheerios and football players , but grows closer to them as the show progresses . Rachel has an on @-@ and @-@ off relationship with Finn Hudson starting in season one ; they become engaged in season three . Monteith played Finn , star quarterback of the school 's football team who risks alienation by his friends after joining the glee club . Also in the club are Amber Riley as Mercedes Jones , a fashion @-@ conscious diva who initially resents having to sing back @-@ up ; Colfer as Kurt Hummel , a fashionable gay male countertenor ; McHale as Artie Abrams , a guitar player and paraplegic ; and Ushkowitz as Tina Cohen @-@ Chang , an Asian American student with a fake speech impediment . Dianna Agron plays Quinn Fabray , Finn 's cheerleader girlfriend , who later joins the glee club to keep an eye on him . Mark Salling plays Noah " Puck " Puckerman , a good friend of Finn 's on the football team who at first disapproves of Finn joining the glee club , but later joins it himself . Naya Rivera and Heather Morris , who portray Cheerios and glee club vocalists Santana Lopez and Brittany Pierce respectively , were originally recurring actors , but were promoted to series regulars in the second season . Mike O 'Malley , who plays Kurt 's father Burt Hummel , also became a series regular on season two . Gilsig and O 'Malley no longer appeared on the list of starring actors at the beginning of the third season , though O 'Malley was a recurring guest star in at least six episodes during the season . Two actors were promoted to series regulars as of the third season : Harry Shum , Jr. as football player and glee club member Mike Chang and Darren Criss as former Dalton Academy Warbler and new club member Blaine Anderson , both of whom started as recurring actors , Shum in the first season and Criss in the second . For the fourth season , Chord Overstreet , who started as a recurring actor in the second season , playing glee club member Sam Evans , was promoted to the main cast , while Agron and Mays were credited as recurring guest stars .
Many of the original characters graduated from McKinley High at the end of the third season . Murphy said , " We didn 't want to have a show where they were in high school for eight years . We really wanted to be true to that experience . " Adult characters played by Matthew Morrison and Jane Lynch would remain to provide continuity to the series , though according to Falchuk , some students — Rachel , Finn and Kurt in particular — would likely remain on the show after they graduate . In May 2012 , Murphy said that just because a character on the show graduates high school does not mean that they are leaving , " A lot of people have been writing Dianna 's off the show , Amber 's off the show — they 're not off the show . I think Amber was talking about that bittersweet feeling of , ' I 'll never be in the choir room with that exact group of people . ' At least that 's what she told me ... When I read that [ tweet , ] I said , ' I think people will misconstrue that . ' She 's excited about where her character is going . They all are . I wanted to do the right thing by all of them . " He then continued : " They 're all coming back . Anyone who is a regular is coming back . Everyone said yes . "
On June 28 , 2013 , the media reported that Morris , Riley , Salling , and Shum would be changing from starring status to guest starring roles for the fifth season , and on the following day that Jacob Artist , Melissa Benoist , Blake Jenner , Alex Newell and Becca Tobin , who play Jake Puckerman , Marley Rose , Ryder Lynn , Wade " Unique " Adams and Kitty Wilde , respectively , were all being promoted to the show 's main cast .
On July 13 , 2013 , Monteith was found dead in his room at the Fairmont Pacific Rim hotel in Vancouver , British Columbia . An autopsy completed on July 15 indicated that he died of alcohol and heroin overdose . On July 20 , 2013 , Ryan Murphy said in various media outlets that Cory would have a tribute in season five 's third episode , which would deal with the death of Monteith 's character , Finn .
On July 30 , 2013 , Mays confirmed that she would depart the show after the fifth season to work on other projects , but stated that she would be open to returning as a guest star in the future .
On July 7 , 2014 , it was confirmed that Rivera would be placed on a recurring status for the sixth and final season , by her request . On August 28 , a website revealed that Amber Riley would once again become a regular along with Dot @-@ Marie Jones while Jayma Mays would be on a recurring status .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Ian Brennan conceived Glee based on his own experience as a member of the Prospect High School show choir in Mount Prospect , Illinois . He initially envisioned Glee as a film , rather than a television series , and wrote the first draft in August 2005 with the aid of Screenwriting for Dummies . He completed the script in 2005 , but could not generate interest in the project for several years . Mike Novick , a television producer and a friend of Brennan 's from Los Angeles , was a member of the same gym as Ryan Murphy , and gave him a copy of Brennan 's script . Murphy had been in a show choir in college , and felt he could relate to the script . Murphy and his Nip / Tuck colleague Brad Falchuk suggested that Glee be produced as a television show . The script was entirely rewritten , and was picked up by Fox within fifteen hours of being received . Murphy attributed that , in part , to the network 's success with American Idol . " It made sense for the network with the biggest hit in TV , which is a musical , to do something in that vein " , he said . Murphy and Falchuk became the show 's executive producers and showrunners , Brennan became a co @-@ executive producer and Novick a producer . Brennan , Falchuk and Murphy started by writing " all the episodes " .
Glee is set at the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio . Murphy chose a Midwest setting as he himself grew up in Indiana , and recalled childhood visits to Ohio to the Kings Island theme park . Although set in Lima , the show is filmed at Paramount Studios and Helen Bernstein High School in Hollywood .
Murphy has said that he has never seen a High School Musical film , to which Glee has been compared , and that his interest lay in creating a " postmodern musical " , rather than " doing a show where people burst into song " , drawing more heavily on the format of Chicago . Murphy intended the show to be a form of escapism . " There 's so much on the air right now about people with guns , or sci @-@ fi , or lawyers running around . This is a different genre , there 's nothing like it on the air at the networks and cable . Everything 's so dark in the world right now , that 's why Idol worked . It 's pure escapism , " he said . Murphy intended to make a family show to appeal to adults as well as children , with adult characters starring equally alongside the teenage leads , and as of October 2009 he had already mapped out plans for the series covering three years of broadcast .
= = = Writing = = =
The three creators — Murphy , Falchuk , and Brennan — plan the stories together . For the first two seasons , they were the only writers , and after taking joint credit for the pilot episode and the episode that opened the fall 2009 season , they began rotating taking a single auctorial credit , based in large part on the person " who ’ s taken the lead in story breaking or who wrote a draft " . Brennan noted that the writing process is " fast and loose , with the emphasis on fast " , and quotes Murphy as having said , in terms of their roles in episode creation , " I 'm sort of the brain . Brad 's sort of the heart . Ian 's sort of the funny bone " , which Brennan says " is true in a lot of ways " . Some of the characters are written more by one writer than by the others . Brennan writes most of Sue 's material , and Falchuk frequently writes the scenes between Kurt and Burt Hummel , though Murphy contributes a great deal to Kurt .
Starting with season three , a writing staff of six was hired : Ali Adler , Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa , Marti Noxon , Michael Hitchcock , Matt Hodgson and Ross Maxwell . The season 's fourth episode , " Pot o ' Gold " , was written by Adler , the first not credited to the show 's three creators .
Adler and Noxon did not return for the show 's fourth season and instead House writers Russel Friend and Garrett Lerner , and Stacy Traub were hired .
= = = Music and choreography = = =
The series features numerous song covers sung onscreen by the characters . Ryan Murphy is responsible for selecting all of the songs used , and has said that he strives to maintain a balance between chart hits and show tunes : " I want there to be something for everybody in every episode . That 's a tricky mix , but that 's very important — the balancing of that . " According to Murphy , the song choices are integral to script development , " Each episode has a theme at its core . After I write the script , I will choose songs that help to move the story along . " In a 2010 interview with Allison Kugel , Chris Colfer noted that " there have been a couple of times when I have gone to Ryan Murphy ( Glee creator ) and told him a couple of things that have happened to me , and then he writes it into the show . Or he 'll ask me what song I would want to sing , in this situation or in that situation . I don ’ t think any of us directly try to give input on the character or on the storyline , but they definitely steal things from us . " For the second season , a shift toward using more Top 40 songs was seen , in an effort to appeal more to the 18 – 49 demographic .
Murphy was surprised at the ease with which use of songs was approved by the record labels approached , and explained : " I think the key to it is they loved the tone of it . They loved that this show was about optimism and young kids , for the most part , reinterpreting their classics for a new audience . " A minority of those approached refused to allow their music to be used , including Bryan Adams , Guns N ' Roses and Coldplay ; however , in June 2010 , Coldplay reversed their decision , allowing Glee the rights to their catalog . Adams posted on his Twitter account that the producers of Glee had never requested permission from him and urged them to " pick up the phone " . Composer and musician Billy Joel offered many of his songs for use on the show , and other artists have offered use of their songs for free . A series of Glee soundtrack albums have been released through Columbia Records . Songs featured on the show are available for digital download through iTunes up to two weeks before new episodes air , and through other digital outlets and mobile carriers a week later . Glee music producers Adam Anders and Peer Astrom have begun to add original music to the show , including two original songs , " Loser Like Me " and " Get It Right " , on the March 15 , 2011 episode .
Glee is choreographed by Zach Woodlee and features four to eight production numbers per episode . Once Murphy selects a song , rights are cleared with its publishers by music supervisor P. J. Bloom , and music producers Adam Anders and Peer Astrom rearrange it for the Glee cast . Numbers are pre @-@ recorded by the cast , while Woodlee constructs the accompanying dance moves , which are then taught to the cast and filmed . Studio recordings of tracks are then made . The process begins six to eight weeks before each episode is filmed , and can end as late as the day before filming begins . Each episode costs at least $ 3 million to produce , and can take up to ten days to film as a result of the elaborate choreography . In late 2010 , Bloom reported the process has been even shorter ; " as quick as a few weeks " . For the second season , the creators were offered listens of upcoming songs in advance by publishers and record labels , with production occurring even before song rights are cleared .
= = = Promotion = = =
Prior to the second episode 's premiere , Glee 's cast went on tour at several Hot Topic stores across the nation . The cast sang the U.S. national anthem at the third game of the 2009 World Series . Macy 's invited them to perform at the 2009 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , but host broadcaster NBC declined because Glee aired on a rival network . Murphy commented on the cast 's exclusion : " I completely understand NBC 's position , and look forward to seeing a Jay Leno float . "
The show 's success sent the cast on a concert tour , Glee Live ! In Concert ! after the first season 's wrapup . They visited Phoenix , Chicago , Los Angeles , and New York . The cast also recorded a cover of Wham ! ' s " Last Christmas " , which was released as a single in late 2009 but didn 't appear in the show until " A Very Glee Christmas " on December 10 , 2010 . Morrison , Lynch , Michele , Monteith , and Colfer reprised their roles as Will , Sue , Rachel , Finn , and Kurt respectively for a cameo appearance in an episode of The Cleveland Show that aired January 16 , 2011 . Michele , Monteith , and Riley appeared as campers in the twenty @-@ second season premiere of The Simpsons .
Lynch , Colfer , Monteith , and Riley appeared at the 2010 MTV VMAs on September 12 , 2010 . When Agron , Michele , and Monteith posed for a set of risqué photos for the November 2010 edition of GQ magazine , Parents Television Council ( PTC ) criticized the show ; PTC president Tim Winter commented that Glee has many young fans , and that " by authorizing this kind of near @-@ pornographic display , the creators of the program have established their intentions on the show ’ s direction . And it isn 't good for families . "
The promotional posters for the first season have the show 's stars using their right hands to make an " L " to fill in the L of the word Glee . The second season 's promotional posters have the stars throwing slushies at the camera in pairs . The third season 's promotional posters have the stars getting dodgeballs thrown at them by Sue Sylvester . While the cast concert tour , Glee Live ! In Concert ! , began on May 15 , 2010 , and presented concerts in four cities in the US that month , the second edition , with an almost @-@ entirely new set list , toured for four weeks in the US and Canada from May 21 through June 18 , 2011 , and followed with twelve days in England and Ireland , from June 22 through July 3 , 2011 . The cast also performed on the seventh season of The X Factor on December 5 , 2010 .
= = Broadcast = =
The first season of Glee consists of twenty @-@ two episodes . The pilot episode was originally broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . The series returned on September 9 , 2009 , airing an additional twelve episodes on Wednesdays in the 9 : 00 pm timeslot until December 9 , 2009 , for a total of thirteen episodes . On September 21 , 2009 , nine more episodes were ordered for the first season by Fox , and the first of these episodes was broadcast on April 13 , 2010 . These episodes aired on Tuesday evenings at 9 : 00 pm . On January 11 , 2010 , it was announced that Fox had commissioned a second season of the show . The second season began production in June 2010 . Season two began on September 21 , 2010 , airing in the 8 : 00 pm time slot on Tuesdays , and consists of twenty @-@ two episodes . The show was chosen by Fox to fill the coveted timeslot that followed the network 's coverage of Super Bowl XLV in 2011 , and the network originally planned to move the show to the 9 : 00 pm time slot on Wednesdays following the post – Super Bowl broadcast . However , Fox later revised its schedule , leaving Glee on Tuesdays in order to concentrate on building up its weaker Wednesday and Thursday line @-@ ups . A third season was ordered by Fox on May 23 , 2010 , before the end of the first season . The early renewal of the show allowed the production team to cut costs and to plan ahead when writing scripts . The third season broadcasts remained in the show 's Tuesday 8 : 00 pm time slot , and began airing on September 20 , 2011 . The show 's fourth season changed both date and time of broadcast : it moved to Thursdays in the 9 : 00 pm time slot , and aired after that evening 's 8 : 00 pm music competition " results " shows — The X Factor in the fall and American Idol in midseason . The show was renewed for both a fifth and sixth season at the same time , on April 19 , 2013 . Reruns were also syndicated to local US stations from 2013 to 2015 .
Glee has been syndicated for broadcast in many countries worldwide , including Australia , where cast members visited to promote the show prior to its September 2009 debut on Network Ten . Midway through season four , Glee was moved to Network Ten 's digital channel Eleven due to poor ratings . It also airs in Canada on City , formerly Global , New Zealand , and Fiji . It is broadcast in South Africa , where Fox beams the episodes directly to the M @-@ Net broadcast center in Johannesburg rather than delivering the tapes . Asian countries that broadcast Glee include Bangladesh , the Philippines , India , Malaysia , and Singapore .
= = = UK trademark dispute = = =
In the United Kingdom , E4 broadcast the first two seasons of Glee , showing episodes months after they were first aired in the US . Sky1 broadcast the series starting with the third season , airing episodes two days after their US broadcast . However , the show has come under a trademark dispute in the UK with The Glee Club , a small chain of independent live stand @-@ up comedy and live music venues . In February 2014 , an English High Court judge ruled that the show " diluted and tarnished " the reputation of the comedy club chain . In a later ruling in July 2014 , the High Court ordered Fox to use a different title for the show in the UK , saying there was a " likelihood of confusion " between the two brands . In February 2016 , Fox lost an appeal against the decision .
= = Merchandise = =
Three soundtrack albums were released to accompany Glee 's first season : Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , Glee : The Music , Volume 2 and Glee : The Music , Volume 3 Showstoppers . Two extended plays ( EP ) accompanied the episodes " The Power of Madonna " and " Journey to Regionals " : Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna and Glee : The Music , Journey to Regionals respectively . Glee : The Music , The Complete Season One , a compilation album featuring all 100 studio recordings from the first season , was released exclusively to the iTunes Store . Five soundtrack albums were released to accompany Glee 's second season : Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album , featuring Christmas @-@ themed songs , and Glee : The Music , Volume 4 , were both released in November 2010 ; Glee : The Music , Volume 5 , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers , and Glee : The Music , Volume 6 were 2011 releases , in March , April , and May , respectively . An EP entitled Glee : The Music , The Rocky Horror Glee Show was released to accompany the Halloween episode , " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " . Two EPs were released exclusively at the Target discount chain : Glee : The Music , Love Songs in the last week of 2010 , and Glee : The Music , Dance Party in early September 2011 .
Glee has been released on several DVD and Blu @-@ ray box @-@ sets . Glee – Pilot Episode : Director 's Cut features the pilot episode and a preview of the second episode , " Showmance " . Glee – Volume 1 : Road to Sectionals contains the first thirteen episodes of season one , and Glee – Volume 2 : Road to Regionals contains the final nine episodes of the first season . Glee – The Complete First Season was released on September 13 , 2010 . Three boxed sets were released for the second season : Glee Season 2 : Volume 1 containing the first ten episodes on January 25 , 2011 , and both Glee Season 2 : Volume 2 with the final twelve episode and Glee : The Complete Second Season with all twenty @-@ two on September 13 , 2011 . All three were released on DVD ; only the complete season is available on Blu @-@ ray .
Little , Brown Books is in the process of publishing five Glee – related young adult novels , which are being developed in collaboration with the show 's producers and writers . The first three novels have been written by Sophia Lowell ; the first , Glee : The Beginning , was released in August 2010 and serves as a prequel to the events of the television series . Subsequent novels include Glee : Foreign Exchange , released in February 2011 , and Glee : Summer Break , released in July 2011 .
Twentieth Century Fox Consumer Products have plans for a line of Glee – related merchandise including games , electrical products , greeting cards , apparel and stationery . Macy 's carry a line of Glee – related clothing , and Claire 's stock accessories .
Halfbrick Studios published a Glee content version of the mobile game Band Stars by Six Foot Kid in collaboration with Fox Digital Entertainment on March 27 , 2014 , currently available on iOS platforms , but with plans to release to Android . The game is available for free download with some Glee content available immediately including Kurt Hummel and Will Schuester . 12 characters from the Glee TV show are available for purchase and download in two separate packs . Pack 1 contains : Rachel Berry , Mercedes Jones , Noah ( Puck ) Puckerman , Jake Puckerman and Quinn Fabray . Pack 2 contains : Artie Abrams , Tina Cohen @-@ Chang , Blaine Anderson , Santana Lopez , Brittany Pierce and Unique Adams .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The pilot episode of Glee averaged 9 @.@ 62 million viewers , and the following eleven episodes attained between 6 @.@ 10 and 7 @.@ 65 million . The mid @-@ season finale was watched by 8 @.@ 13 million viewers , with the show returning in April 2010 to a season high of 13 @.@ 66 million viewers . The following six episodes attained between 11 @.@ 49 and 12 @.@ 98 million viewers , falling to 8 @.@ 99 million for the penultimate episode " Funk " . Viewing figures rose to 11 @.@ 07 million viewers for the season finale , giving Glee the highest finale rating for a new show in the 2009 – 10 television season . Only the first twenty episodes of the first season were accounted for when calculating the season average due to the final two episodes airing outside the traditional sweeps period . On February 6 , 2011 , after the Super Bowl , Glee received its highest ever ratings , with over 26 @.@ 8 million tuning in to see the special episode , with a peak of 39 @.@ 5 million .
In 2011 , Glee generated $ 2 million advertising revenue per half @-@ hour . In 2012 , the show was the fourth @-@ highest revenue earning show of the year , with US $ 2 @.@ 83 million ad revenue per half @-@ hour , behind Two and a Half Men , The X Factor and American Idol .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Glee received a Metacritic score of 78 out of 100 in its first season , based on reviews by eighteen critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . It was praised by several critics in year @-@ end " best of " reviews in 2009 . James Poniewozik of Time ranked it the eighth best television show of the year , commenting : " when Glee works — which is often — it is transcendent , tear @-@ jerking and thrilling like nothing else on TV . " Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker ranked it ninth , calling it " Hands down the year 's most novel show [ and ] also its least likely success " , Lisa Respers France of CNN wrote that while ordinarily Glee 's premise would have been " a recipe for disaster " , the show has " such quirky charm and bravado that it is impossible not to get swept up " . Reviews for subsequent seasons on Metacritic , reflecting their initial episodes , were not quite as good — the second season 's score was 76 out of 100 from eleven reviews , and the fourth season received a score of 73 out of 100 from six reviews . Even with these stellar reviews from a multitude of critics , Glee 's later seasons lost millions of viewers .
Nancy Gibbs of Time magazine wrote that she had heard the series described as " anti @-@ Christian " by a youth minister , and commented :
It is easy to see his point , if you look at the specifics . [ ... ] The students lie , they cheat , they steal , they lust , they lace the bake @-@ sale cupcakes with pot in order to give the student body a severe case of the munchies . Nearly all the Ten Commandments get violated at one point or another , while the audience is invited to laugh at people 's pain and folly and humiliation . [ ... ] It insults kids to suggest that simply watching Characters Behaving Badly onscreen means they 'll take that as permission to do the same themselves . [ ... ] And it 's set in high school , meaning it 's about a journey not just to college and career but to identity and conviction , the price of popularity , the compromises we must make between what we want and what we need . "
Variety 's Brian Lowry was critical of the show 's early episodes , highlighting acting and characterization issues and deeming the adult cast " over @-@ the @-@ top buffoons " , with the exception of Mays ' Emma , who he felt offered " modest redemption " . Though he praised Colfer and Michele 's performances , Lowry wrote that the show 's talent was squandered by its " jokey , cartoonish , wildly uneven tone " , deeming the series a " one @-@ hit wonder " . Following the show 's mid @-@ season finale , Lowry wrote that while Glee " remains a frustrating mess at times " , its " vibrant musical numbers and talented cast have consistently kept it on [ his ] TiVo must list " conceding that " even with its flaws , TV would be poorer without Glee . "
As Glee 's initial success pulled in a large audience , John Doyle of The Globe and Mail wrote that the early shows " felt fresh , mainly because the motley crew of kids had a kind of square naïveté . " Doyle notes that the early success took Glee away from its original characters and plot , focusing more on celebrity guests . " The gaiety is gone from Glee . You should have set it in its prime , mere months ago " . Matthew Gilbert of Boston Globe similarly wrote that " It has become a powerful , promotional machine , long on hype and short on the human feeling--the glee--that once made it so addictive " .
= = = Music = = =
The show 's musical performances have been a commercial success , with over thirty @-@ six million copies of Glee cast single releases purchased digitally , and over eleven million albums purchased worldwide through October 2011 . In 2009 , the Glee cast had twenty @-@ five singles chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , the most by any artist since The Beatles had thirty @-@ one songs in the chart in 1964 ; in 2010 , it placed eighty singles on the Billboard Hot 100 , far outstripping the previous record . In February 2011 , Glee surpassed Elvis Presley as the act with the most songs placed on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , though fewer than one @-@ fourth of them have charted for more than one week . The cast performance of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " was certified gold on October 13 , 2009 , achieving over 500 @,@ 000 digital sales , and on March 16 , 2011 , received platinum certification for having sales of over a million . The series ' cover version had a positive effect on sales of Rihanna 's " Take a Bow " , which increased by 189 percent after the song was covered in the Glee episode " Showmance " .
However , there has also been critical condemnation of the cast performances . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone commented that Matthew Morrison " couldn 't rap his way out of a 98 ° rehearsal " , and Allmusic 's Andrew Leahey wrote that Cory Monteith and Dianna Agron " can 't sing nearly as well as their co @-@ stars " . E ! Online 's Joal Ryan criticized the show for its " overproduced soundtrack " and complained that many songs rely too heavily on the pitch @-@ correcting software Auto @-@ Tune : " For every too @-@ brief moment of Lea Michele sounding raw — and lovely — on a " What a Girl Wants " , or Monteith singing a perfectly credible REO Speedwagon in the shower , there 's Michele and Monteith sounding like 1990s @-@ era Cher on " No Air " , or Monteith sounding like the Monteith XRZ @-@ 200 on the out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ shower version of " Can 't Fight This Feeling " .
During the second season , Rob Sheffield for Rolling Stone noted the Britney Spears and Rocky Horror tribute episodes as examples when he lauded Glee and its choice of music . He praised Murphy for his selection and resurrection of " forgotten " pop songs and compared the show 's uniqueness to " MTV in its prime " as the embodiment of popular culture .
Some artists , including Slash , Kings of Leon and Foo Fighters , have declined to have their songs used on the show . Murphy has been publicly critical of these refusals , which has led to exchanges in the press between him and a number of artists . A slated cover of Sir Mix @-@ a @-@ Lot 's " Baby Got Back " in the season four episode " Sadie Hawkins " has been criticized for blatantly copying a rendition of the song by Jonathan Coulton without his permission , without giving creative credit . Side @-@ by @-@ Side comparison shows the waveforms appear remarkably similar . Other artists have come forward with allegations of plagiarism in light of this development . It was reported that musician Prince had not given permission for Glee to cover his hit " Kiss " before filming the performance of the cover .
= = = Fandom = = =
Fans of Glee are commonly referred to as " gleeks " , a portmanteau of " glee " and " geek " . Fox ran a " Biggest GLEEK " competition , measuring fans ' Glee @-@ related activity on social networking websites such as Facebook and MySpace , and found that the growth of the fanbase outpaced the network 's science @-@ fiction shows . The cast 's Hot Topic tour was titled " The Gleek Tour " . Glee is one of the most tweeted @-@ about TV shows . In 2011 , it was the top trending US TV show . On IMDb , Glee is the seventh highest ranking TV series of the period 2002 – 2012 . Fans have recreated many of its musical numbers in tribute to the show , sharing them on YouTube . Based on this trend , show producers included instrumental versions of some songs on the show 's soundtracks .
Similarly , Glee fans have created portmanteaus of character couples , such as " Finchel " for Finn and Rachel , " Klaine " for Kurt and Blaine , and " Brittana " for Brittany and Santana . This fact has been referenced in various second season episodes , notably " Furt " , which is itself a coinage for the new stepbrothers Finn and Kurt , and " Rumours " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Glee has received a number of awards and nominations . In 2009 , the series won five Satellite Awards : " Best Musical or Comedy TV Series " , " Best Actor " and " Actress in a Musical or Comedy TV Series " for Morrison and Michele , " Best Supporting Actress " for Lynch and " Special Achievement for Outstanding Guest Star " for Kristin Chenoweth . In 2010 , the show won a Golden Globe Award for " Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy " . Morrison , Michele and Lynch also received acting nominations . The series was nominated for two Writers Guild of America Awards , with screenplays nominated in the " Comedy Series " and " New Series " categories . It also won a Peabody Award in 2009 . The Glee cast won the " Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series " award at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards . Paris Barclay and Ryan Murphy both received nominations for " Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series " at the Directors Guild of America Awards for their work on Glee . In July 2010 , Glee received nineteen Emmy Award nominations , including " Outstanding Comedy Series " , " Outstanding Lead Actor – Comedy Series " for Morrison and " Outstanding Lead Actress – Comedy Series " for Michele ; it won four of these , including " Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series " for Lynch and " Outstanding Guest Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series " for Neil Patrick Harris . Paris Barclay was also nominated for a Primetime Emmy for Best Directing in a Comedy Series in 2010 for his episode " Wheels " .
On January 16 , 2011 the show won a Golden Globe for " Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy " and both Lynch and Colfer won Golden Globes for Best Supporting Actress and Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series , Miniseries , or TV Film . In July 2011 , Glee received twelve Emmy nominations and won two : Gwyneth Paltrow was named Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her portrayal of Holly Holliday , and the show won the Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series category . It received three Emmy nominations in July 2012 , and four in July 2013 .
The cast was invited to sing at the White House by Michelle Obama in April 2010 for the annual Easter Egg Roll .
= = Film = =
Glee : The Concert Movie , a concert film based on the four @-@ week North American segment of the 2011 Glee Live ! In Concert ! tour and featuring the cast of the series in performance and backstage , was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on August 12 , 2011 , for a two @-@ week limited engagement . The film is directed by Kevin Tancharoen .
= = Related media = =
In January 2010 , it was announced that open auditions would be held for three new roles to be introduced in Glee 's second season . They were open to amateurs and professionals aged sixteen to twenty @-@ six , and were intended to be the subject of a multi @-@ part television special , set to air in the lead @-@ in to the second season premiere in fall 2010 , with the new cast members revealed in the first episode . Murphy commented : " Anybody and everybody now has a chance to be on a show about talented underdogs . We want to be the first interactive musical comedy on television . " On June 22 , 2010 , Josef Adalian of New York magazine revealed that the reality show would not go ahead , due to Murphy 's desire to concentrate on the main series , and fear that the distraction of the reality show may damage Glee . Adalian reported that the production team would still choose several winners from the entrants and invite them to appear on Glee for at least one episode . In June 2010 , it was announced that Oxygen would host a reality series set to air in June 2011 , featuring performers competing for a spot on Glee . The Glee Project started airing on June 12 , 2011 , and the final episode was broadcast on August 21 , 2011 . The winning prize was a seven @-@ episode guest @-@ starring role in Glee 's third season , which was awarded to two contestants , with a two @-@ episode role given to two other finalists .
On June 7 , 2010 , UK broadcaster Channel 4 aired Gleeful : The Real Show Choirs of America on its E4 station . The documentary explored the American show choir phenomenon which inspired Glee . Narrated by Nick Grimshaw , it went behind the scenes with real @-@ life glee clubs and detailed celebrity show choir alumni including Lance Bass , Ashton Kutcher , Blake Lively and Anne Hathaway . It was selected as recommended viewing by The Guardian , with the comment : " it 's a fascinating look at the real @-@ life New Directions , and it 's equally as crackers as its TV champion . " The newspaper 's Lucy Mangan reviewed the documentary positively , writing : " It will , one way or another , fill your heart to bursting " , and commenting that : " Glee , it turns out , is not a gloriously ridiculous , highly polished piece of escapism . It is cinéma vérité . " It was watched by 411 @,@ 000 viewers , a 2 @.@ 3 % audience share .
In summer 2010 , Channel 5 in the United Kingdom aired Don 't Stop Believing , a reality talent show inspired by Glee 's success . The series featured live shows in which established and new musical performance groups competed against each other , performing well @-@ known songs in new arrangements , with viewers voting on the winner . Solo singers were also sought to join a group to represent the United Kingdom on the American glee club circuit . Five 's controller Richard Woolfe stated : " There 's an explosion in musical performance groups and Don 't Stop Believing will tap into that exciting groundswell . " The show was hosted by Emma Bunton , who told The Belfast Telegraph that she is a " huge fan " of Glee . The show 's judges were former EastEnders actress Tamsin Outhwaite , Blue member Duncan James , singer Anastacia and High School Musical choreographer Charles " Chucky " Klapow .
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= Pilot ( Smallville ) =
The pilot episode of the television series Smallville premiered on The WB on October 16 , 2001 . It was written by series developers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar , and directed by David Nutter . The Smallville pilot introduces the characters of Clark Kent , an orphaned alien with superhuman abilities , and his friends and family who live in the fictional town of Smallville , Kansas . It follows Clark as he first learns of his alien origins , and attempts to stop a vengeful student from killing Smallville High School students . The episode introduces many themes that were designed to run either the course of the season or the entire series , such as the triangular relationships of the main characters .
Production was set in Vancouver , Canada , used for its " middle America " landscape , with five months devoted to casting the right actors in the lead roles . Filming for the pilot officially began four days after the last actor was cast for the series . When time constraints would not allow the production crew to physically create the sets , computer @-@ generated imagery was used to digitally insert set pieces into a scene . When the series premiere was broadcast , it broke several of The WB 's viewership records . It was generally well received by critics , and was nominated for various awards , winning two .
= = Plot and themes introduced = =
The episode begins in 1989 when a meteor shower hits Smallville ; at the same time a small spacecraft , containing an alien boy , crashes in front of Jonathan and Martha Kent 's ( played by John Schneider and Annette O 'Toole ) truck . They adopt the superhumanly powerful child and name him Clark . Gough and Millar use this opening scene to establish that the three lead characters of the series , Clark , Lana and Lex , share a common bond — they are all without one or both parents : Clark is the only survivor of his homeworld ; Lana 's parents are killed in the meteor shower ; and Lex is alienated from his father , Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) , after being rendered bald by the meteor blast .
The episode jumps forward twelve years to when Clark ( Tom Welling ) is trying to find his identity . He is unable to handle being told of his alien origins and runs away from home . Although he is attracted to Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) , he cannot get close to her without falling over in pain because she wears a necklace made of meteor rock ( kryptonite ) , which is a radioactive fragment of Clark 's destroyed homeworld . This was a concept Gough and Millar devised to establish a reason for Clark 's clumsiness . In other media , it is usually portrayed as an act he puts on to deceive people of his true identity . But Clark and Lana do share an intimate moment at a cemetery , where Lana is visiting the grave of her parents . In such scenes , Gough and Millar created a theme of loneliness through the life stories of Clark and Lana . Lana 's boyfriend , Whitney Fordman ( Eric Johnson ) , becomes jealous of Clark and Lana 's friendship and ties Clark to a scarecrow pole , using Lana 's necklace , indirectly , to subdue Clark . This image of Clark , in just his underwear and a red " S " painted on his chest , stretches back to Gough and Millar 's foundation for the series , which was about taking Clark down to the basic elements of the Superman character .
In the second strand of the story , Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) and Clark develop a " yin and yang " relationship . Clark first saves Lex from drowning when they get into a car accident ; at the end of the episode , Lex saves Clark when he is strung up in the cornfield and immobilized by kryptonite . Jeremy Creek ( Adrian McMorran ) — who was mutated by the meteor rocks , gaining special powers — puts the three former jocks , who tied him to a scarecrow pole during the meteor shower , into comas . He sets out to kill everyone attending the school 's dance , after witnessing Clark experience the same hazing he did , but Clark is able to arrive in time to stop him .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
Gough and Millar had five months for casting , but their primary focus was on finding an actor to play Clark Kent . They received Kristin Kreuk 's audition tape for the role of Lana Lang and liked it so much that they immediately showed her to the network . Tom Welling , after twice turning down the producers ' attempts to get him to audition for the role of Clark Kent , eventually accepted the opportunity to be part of the show . It was David Nutter who finally convinced Welling to read the script for the pilot , after finding Welling 's picture in a photo album at the casting director 's office . Welling 's manager did not want him to take the role because it could hurt his feature film career , but Welling liked the script and agreed to come in for an audition . Welling 's reason for turning down the role was because the producers were keeping quiet on what the show was really about , which left him with the impression the show was going to be " Superman in high school " , something he did not want to do . Nutter promised to let Welling read the script if he came in and auditioned . After auditioning , Welling was given the script to read , which he thought was " amazing " . For one of his auditions , he read the graveyard scene , from the pilot , with Kristin Kreuk ; the network thought they had " great chemistry " . No one could agree on which actors had the best audition for Lex Luthor . Michael Rosenbaum auditioned twice , and , believing he did not take his first audition seriously , outlined a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ page scene from the pilot . He indicated all the places to be funny , charismatic , or menacing , and performed so well that everyone agreed he was " the guy " .
John Schneider was brought in to play Jonathan Kent . Schneider was already well known as Bo Duke from The Dukes of Hazzard , and Gough believed Schneider 's experience from The Dukes of Hazzard added believability to the idea that he could have grown up running a farm . Cynthia Ettinger was originally cast as Martha Kent , but during filming it was generally agreed — Ettinger included — that she was not right for the role . Annette O 'Toole , who previously portrayed Lana Lang in Superman III , and who was fresh off the recent cancellation of her television series The Huntress , was cast in Ettinger 's place , reshooting the scenes Ettinger had filmed .
Eric Johnson , after auditioning for the roles of Lex and Clark , was cast as Lana Lang 's boyfriend Whitney Fordman . Johnson only spent one day filming his scenes for the pilot . Allison Mack toyed with the idea of auditioning for the role of Lana Lang but chose instead to audition for the role of Chloe Sullivan . The character was created just for the series and was intended to add ethnic diversity to the cast , but part of the reason Gough and Millar chose to cast Mack , against their initial intentions to give the character an ethnic background , was because they were impressed with Allison Mack 's " rare ability to deliver large chunks of expositionary [ sic ] dialogue conversationally " . Sam Jones III , who plays Pete Ross , was the last of the series regulars to be cast . Gough and Millar saw Jones four days before they began filming for the pilot . In the comics , Pete Ross is Caucasian , and the producers chose to cast Jones , who is African @-@ American , against the mythology .
= = = Filming = = =
Once Warner Bros. Television secured the rights to the show , Gough and Millar set out to write the script and find a director for the pilot . Gough and Millar were fans of director David Nutter 's previous work ; they considered him to be a " preeminent pilot director " . David Nutter joined the project because he wanted to make a pilot that respected the audience but that was still fun and smart . Nutter also believes in creating shows that appeal to a wide variety of audiences . He wanted the final scene for the pilot , in which Clark fantasizes about dancing with Lana , to express the show 's essence . According to Welling , " It brings them close — not as close as Clark would like , but at the end of [ this ] episode , he imagines that he 's with her and can really see it happening . "
Production was initially slated to take place in Australia , but Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada had more of the " middle America " feel for which the creators were looking . The area offered a site for the Kent farm , including their barn , and the city itself doubled as Metropolis . Vancouver provided a cheaper shooting location , and was in the same time zone as Los Angeles . Filming began in March 2001 ; Nutter spent sixteen days on main unit filming and an additional five days for second unit filming . Time constraints forced Nutter to film strictly from Adrien Van Viersen 's 150 – page storyboard when filming the opening meteor shower scene . Much of the look for Smallville came from Millar , who wanted the epitome of " Smalltown , USA " . Construction coordinator Rob Maier explained , " It had to be cleaner than clean , nicer than nice , more beautiful than it would be in the real world . All of the people in Smallville are beautiful ; all of the colors are bright and sharp . " For the Kent farm , Nutter wanted to have " an old world sensibility and tone " . For the pilot , the production crew only built a kitchen and dining room to represent the Kent home . All the exterior shots of the farm were taken at the Andalinis farm , owned by a local couple who also gave the crew permission to paint their forest green house yellow . Since the Vancouver farm already had a barn , the production crew only had to build a loft with stairs leading up to it .
Exterior shots of the Luthor Mansion were shot at the Hatley Castle in Victoria , two hours west of Vancouver by ferry . Time constraints forced scenes , which were shot from multiple angles , to sometimes be shot at separate locations . A scene involving Whitney ( Eric Johnson ) and Lana ( Kristin Kreuk ) sitting on her porch was shot at two different locations . Close @-@ ups of Whitney were shot under a football stadium , while close @-@ ups of Lana were shot in a potato @-@ processing factory . Unable to shoot at the house being used as the Lang residence , the crew built Lana 's front porch inside a sewage processing facility for the final scene of the episode where Lana walks up the stairs to her house . The local sewage treatment facility is also the site for the LuthorCorp pesticide plant , which Lex was sent to Smallville to manage . The crash site of Clark 's ship was shot at the sandpits where Mission to Mars was filmed . Smallville 's Main Street was filmed in both the town of Merritt , which is three hours east of Vancouver , and in the town of Cloverdale . Most of the filming took place in Cloverdale , since the town had a long stretch of vacant buildings that could double as Smallville 's Main Street . When the production crew came to film the opening teaser , they had to decorate the town with ribbons and balloons , as well as paint some of the buildings to attain Millar 's idea of " Smalltown , USA " . Two sets were built just for the pilot . The Kent storm cellar was built as a cover set inside the farm 's barn . For the cemetery scene between Clark and Lana , production designer Bernard Hides built the entire cemetery from scratch in an empty field .
= = = Effects = = =
On @-@ set computer @-@ generated effects for the pilot were done by Thomas Special Effects . Certain scenes , because of time and money , had to be created digitally . The opening sequence showing the destruction of the water tower by a meteor was created on the computer . A persistent problem during production was the lack of cornfields . As realistic corn was a necessity for a show based in Kansas , this became a problem for the filmmakers . Over 10 @,@ 000 stalks of corn were grown in a greenhouse for the pilot , but they only grew two feet high , which was not usable to the crew . The day the crew was filming the scene for Clark 's landing there were no cornfields in the surrounding area . The cornfields had to be digitally added . Digital corn was a common substitute for the undersized corn that was grown , but for scenes where digital corn was not an option , six hundred stalks of fake corn were flown in from a manufacturer in Arizona . Other digital effects include the flattened cornfield where Lex was caught in a meteorite blast . Some scenes required physical effects , instead of computer imagery . When Lex drives his car off a bridge and hits Clark , the stunt performer , who doubled as Wolverine in the film X @-@ Men , was literally hit by the car as it went over the bridge .
= = Release and reception = =
" Pilot " premiered on The WB on October 16 , 2001 . 8 @.@ 4 million viewers watched the pilot 's debut , breaking The WB 's record for highest ratings for a new series . The pilot broke The WB 's ratings record for the 18 – 49 male demographic , with 3 @.@ 9 million viewers ; it became the third @-@ highest rated debut for the overall adult 18 – 49 demographic , with an average 3 @.@ 8 million viewers . The premiere also finished first with viewers age 12 – 34 , leading Warner Bros. President of Entertainment Jordan Levin to credit the series with invigorating the network 's Tuesday night lineup . The pilot won an Emmy Award for Sound Editing ; it had also been nominated for Visual Effects but lost to UPN 's Star Trek : Enterprise . The special effects team won a Leo Award for Best Visual Effects in a Dramatic Series . Casting directors Deedee Bradley , Coreen Mayrs , and Barbara Miller were nominated for an Artios Award for their work on the pilot . The pilot was nominated for two Golden Reel Awards , one for Effects & Foley Sound Editing and one for Music Sound Editing . Peter Wunstorf was also nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers Award for his work on the pilot . The pilot , along with the second episode " Metamorphosis " , was released in Canada as a special pilot movie . The episodes were altered on the DVD ; formatted in 1 @.@ 78 widescreen , and presented with no opening segment and an alternate closing . It also contained the same special features present in the DVD box set of the first season .
The pilot received favorable reviews upon its release . Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette thought it was a " respectful addition to Superman lore " and had " all the markings of a super series " . Owen noted the Christ @-@ like imagery of the scene , stating , " Is it any wonder Clark gets tied up there since Superman , too , was ' sent to save us ' ? " Echoing Owen , DVD Verdict noted the same symbolism :
Superman is , in a way , the secular pop culture stand @-@ in for Jesus Christ , a messiah figure for our generation . The series makes this theme explicit in its pilot episode , in which Clark is symbolically ' crucified ' in a cornfield . That striking bit of symbolism becomes the central preoccupation of the series ; Clark is the savior who sacrifices all for the greater good of humanity , and Smallville shows us how he comes to accept and embrace that role .
Elizabeth White of Media Life believed the show had potential to be a big hit for The WB but felt it needed to survive not only its time slot — Tuesdays at 9 : 00 p.m. ( EST ) — but also the audience 's expectations of " what Superman should be " . USA Today 's Robert Bianco was a bit more mixed in his criticism . Bianco stated , " For all its innovations , there 's also something rehashed and repetitive about Smallville ... shows often look more familiar at the outset than they do as they progress . There 's talent and intelligence at work in Smallville . Given time , maybe they 'll find a more distinctive voice . " Jeremy Conrad , from IGN , swore to himself that he would never watch Smallville , because he was a " huge Superman fan " and he did not like the idea the creators would be making changes to the Superman mythology . After viewing the pilot , Conrad stated , " It 's a very solid start to the series , and one of the better pilot episodes I 've seen in a while . " In The Futon Critic 's 50 best episodes of 2001 rankings , the pilot was placed 31st , with Brian Ford Sullivan stating , " Smallville opened us to a surprisingly fresh take on the Superman myth @-@ this time showing us the humble beginnings of a young Clark Kent . "
The CW re @-@ aired the pilot on Friday , April 8 , 2011 in preparation for the series finale . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 55 million viewers and achieved a 0 @.@ 5 Adults 18 @-@ 49 rating , despite only 92 % coverage .
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= Kepler @-@ 10c =
Kepler @-@ 10c is an exoplanet orbiting the G @-@ type star Kepler @-@ 10 , located around 568 light @-@ years away in Draco . Its discovery was announced by Kepler in May 2011 , although it had been seen as a planetary candidate since January 2011 , when Kepler @-@ 10b was discovered . The team confirmed the observation using data from NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope and a technique called Blender that ruled out most false positives . Kepler @-@ 10c was the third transiting planet to be confirmed statistically ( based on probability rather than actual observation ) , after Kepler @-@ 9d and Kepler @-@ 11g . The Kepler team considers the statistical method that led to the discovery of Kepler @-@ 10c as what will be necessary to confirm many planets in Kepler 's field of view .
Kepler @-@ 10c orbits its host star every forty @-@ five days at a quarter of the average distance between the Sun and Earth . It has a radius more than double that of Earth , but a higher density , suggesting a mainly rocky composition with around 5 – 20 % ices by mass . For comparison , the Earth 's oceans represent only 0 @.@ 02 % of our planet 's mass , with an additional amount potentially a few times this stored in the mantle .
= = Discovery and confirmation = =
In January 2011 , the closely orbiting planet Kepler @-@ 10b was confirmed in the orbit of the star Kepler @-@ 10 after measurements of its transiting behavior ( where it crosses in front of Kepler @-@ 10 , periodically dimming it ) and a radial velocity effect detected in Kepler @-@ 10 's spectrum provided the information needed to prove that it was indeed a planet . An additional , longer @-@ period dimming was detected in Kepler @-@ 10 's spectrum , suggesting that a second planet existed in the system ; however , there remained the possibility that this signal could have some other cause , and that the transit event was a false positive . Attempts to measure the radial velocity effects of this object , now named KOI 072 @.@ 02 , were fruitless ; therefore , to rule out false positive scenarios , the Kepler team used a technique called Blender .
The application of Blender was supplemented by use of the IRAC instrument on the Spitzer Space Telescope , which was used on August 30 and November 15 , 2010 , to further define Kepler @-@ 10 's light curve at the point where KOI 072 @.@ 02 appeared to transit it . It was found that the transiting object did not produce a color , an aspect that is characteristic of stars . This suggested even further that KOI 072 @.@ 02 was a planet . In addition , the IRAC instrument found no difference in the transit signal when comparing the star 's light curve in the infrared and in visible light ; stars that are aligned with Kepler @-@ 10 might appear visibly similar , but would appear different in the infrared .
The WIYN Observatory 's 3.5m telescope was used for speckle imaging on June 18 , 2010 ; in addition , the PHARO camera on the Palomar Observatory 's 5m telescope was used for its adaptive optics capabilities . These observations , combined with observations of Kepler @-@ 10 's spectrum taken from the W.M. Keck Observatory , ruled out the possibility that a nearby star 's light was corrupting the observed spectrum of Kepler @-@ 10 and creating the results that had led astronomers to believe that a second planet existed in Kepler @-@ 10 's orbit . All of these possibilities , with the exception of if such a star existed exactly behind or in front of Kepler @-@ 10 , were effectively ruled out ; even with this , the Kepler team found that if a star was indeed aligned with Kepler @-@ 10 as seen from Earth , such a star would probably not be a giant star .
With a greater degree of certainty established , the Kepler team compared the models formed using Blender to the photometric observations collected by the Kepler satellite . The Blender technique allowed the Kepler team to rule out the majority of the alternatives including , notably , that of triple star systems . Blender then allowed the Kepler team to determine that although all models representing hierarchical triple stars ( a binary system between a single star and a double star ) can resemble the light curve of Kepler @-@ 10 , the aforementioned follow @-@ up observations would have detected them all . The only possible blends remaining after ruling out hierarchical triple stars was that of determining if the curve is caused by interference from a background star , or if it is indeed caused by the orbit of a transiting planet .
Comparisons of KOI 072 @.@ 02 to the 1235 other Kepler Objects of Interest in Kepler 's field of vision allowed astronomers to use models that led to the confirmation of KOI 072 @.@ 02 as a planet with a high degree of certainty . KOI 072 @.@ 02 was then renamed Kepler @-@ 10c . The planet 's confirmation was announced at the Boston meeting of the American Astronomical Society on May 23 , 2011 .
Kepler @-@ 10c was the first Kepler target to be observed using Spitzer with the hope of detecting a shallow transit dip in a light curve . At the time of Kepler @-@ 10c 's discovery , Spitzer was the only facility capable of detecting shallow transits in the Kepler data to an extent at which the data could be meaningfully analyzed . The planet was also the third transiting planet that was validated through an analysis of statistical data ( rather than actual observation ) , after the planets Kepler @-@ 9d and Kepler @-@ 11g . In Kepler @-@ 10c 's confirmation paper , the Kepler team discussed how a large fraction of planets in Kepler 's field of view would be confirmed in this statistical manner .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 10 is a G @-@ type star located 173 parsecs ( 564 light years ) from Earth . It is 0 @.@ 895 solar masses and 1 @.@ 056 solar radii , making it slightly less massive than the Sun , but approximately the same size .
With an effective temperature of 5627 K , Kepler @-@ 10 is cooler than the Sun . The star is also metal @-@ poor and far older : its metallicity is measured at [ Fe / H ] = − 0 @.@ 15 ( 29 % less iron than in the Earth 's Sun ) . Kepler @-@ 10 has a measured age of approximately 10 @.@ 6 billion years .
Kepler @-@ 10 has an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 2 , which means that the star is invisible to the naked eye from the perspective of an observer on Earth .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 10c is the outermost of the two known planets of Kepler @-@ 10 , completing one orbit of the star every 45 @.@ 29485 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 2407 AU . The inner planet , Kepler @-@ 10b , is a rocky planet that orbits every ~ 0 @.@ 8 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 01684 AU . Kepler @-@ 10c 's equilibrium temperature is estimated at 584 K , almost four times hotter than Jupiter 's . The planet 's orbital inclination is 89.65º , or almost edge @-@ on with respect to Earth and to Kepler @-@ 10 . Transits have been observed at points where Kepler @-@ 10c has crossed in front of its host star .
Kepler @-@ 10c has a mass of 15 – 19 Earth masses . With a radius only 2 @.@ 35 ( 2 @.@ 31 to 2 @.@ 44 ) times that of Earth ( and so a volume 12 – 15 times that of Earth ) , and a density higher than Earth 's ( 6 – 8 g cm − 3 ) , it is unlikely to contain significant amounts of hydrogen and helium gas . Outgassed or accreted hydrogen @-@ rich atmospheres would have been lost over the 10 @.@ 6 billion @-@ year lifetime of the Kepler @-@ 10 system . Instead , the composition is likely to be mainly rocky , with a water fraction of 5 – 20 % by mass . The bulk of this water is likely to be in the form of high @-@ pressure " hot ice " phases .
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= Auriga ( constellation ) =
Auriga is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Located north of the celestial equator , its name is the Latin word for " charioteer " , associating it with various mythological charioteers , including Erichthonius and Myrtilus . Auriga is most prominent during winter evenings in the Northern Hemisphere , along with the five other constellations that have stars in the Winter Hexagon asterism . Because of its northern declination , Auriga is only visible in its entirety as far as 34 ° south ; for observers farther south it lies partially or fully below the horizon . A large constellation , with an area of 657 square degrees , it is half the size of the largest constellation , Hydra .
Its brightest star , Capella , is an unusual multiple star system among the brightest stars in the night sky . Beta Aurigae is an interesting variable star in the constellation ; Epsilon Aurigae , a nearby eclipsing binary with an unusually long period , has been studied intensively . Because of its position near the winter Milky Way , Auriga has many bright open clusters in its borders , including M36 , M37 , and M38 , popular targets for amateur astronomers . In addition , it has one prominent nebula , the Flaming Star Nebula , associated with the variable star AE Aurigae .
In Chinese mythology , Auriga 's stars were incorporated into several constellations , including the celestial emperors ' chariots , made up of the modern constellation 's brightest stars . Auriga is home to the radiant for the Aurigids , Zeta Aurigids , Delta Aurigids , and the hypothesized Iota Aurigids .
= = History and mythology = =
The first record of Auriga 's stars was in Mesopotamia as a constellation called GAM , representing a scimitar or crook . However , this may have represented just Capella ( Alpha Aurigae ) or the modern constellation as a whole ; this figure was alternatively called Gamlum or MUL.GAM in the MUL.APIN. The crook of Auriga stood for a goat @-@ herd or shepherd . It was formed from most of the stars of the modern constellation ; all of the bright stars were included except for Elnath , traditionally assigned to both Taurus and Auriga . Later , Bedouin astronomers created constellations that were groups of animals , where each star represented one animal . The stars of Auriga comprised a herd of goats , an association also present in Greek mythology . The association with goats carried into the Greek astronomical tradition , though it later became associated with a charioteer along with the shepherd .
In Greek mythology , Auriga is often identified as the mythological Greek hero Erichthonius of Athens , the chthonic son of Hephaestus who was raised by the goddess Athena . Erichthonius was generally credited to be the inventor of the quadriga , the four @-@ horse chariot , which he used in the battle against the usurper Amphictyon , the event that made Erichthonius the king of Athens . His chariot was created in the image of the Sun 's chariot , the reason Zeus placed him in the heavens . The Athenian hero then dedicated himself to Athena and soon after , Zeus raised him into the night sky in honor of his ingenuity and heroic deeds .
Auriga , however , is sometimes described as Myrtilus , who was Hermes 's son and the charioteer of Oenomaus . The association of Auriga and Myrtilus is supported by depictions of the constellation , which rarely show a chariot . Myrtilus 's chariot was destroyed in a race intended for suitors to win the heart of Oenomaus 's daughter Hippodamia . Myrtilus earned his position in the sky when Hippodamia 's successful suitor , Pelops , killed him , despite his complicity in helping Pelops win her hand . After his death , Myrtilus 's father Hermes placed him in the sky . Yet another mythological association of Auriga is Theseus 's son Hippolytus . He was ejected from Athens after he refused the romantic advances of his stepmother Phaedra , who committed suicide as a result . He was killed when his chariot was wrecked , but revived by Asclepius . Regardless of Auriga 's specific representation , it is likely that the constellation was created by the ancient Greeks to commemorate the importance of the chariot in their society .
An incidental appearance of Auriga in Greek mythology is as the limbs of Medea 's brother . In the myth of Jason and the Argonauts , as they journeyed home , Medea killed her brother and dismembered him , flinging the parts of his body into the sea , represented by the Milky Way . Each individual star represents a different limb .
Capella is associated with the mythological she @-@ goat Amalthea , who breast @-@ fed the infant Zeus . It forms an asterism with the stars Epsilon Aurigae , Zeta Aurigae , and Eta Aurigae , the latter two of which are known as the Haedi ( the Kids ) . Though most often associated with Amalthea , Capella has sometimes been associated with Amalthea 's owner , a nymph . The myth of the nymph says that the goat 's hideous appearance , resembling a Gorgon , was partially responsible for the Titans ' defeat , because Zeus skinned the goat and wore it as his aegis . The asterism containing the three goats had been a separate constellation ; however , Ptolemy merged the Charioteer and the Goats in the 2nd century Almagest . Before that , Capella was sometimes seen as its own constellation — by Pliny the Elder and Manilius — called Capra , Caper , or Hircus , all of which relate to its status as the " goat star " . Zeta Aurigae and Eta Aurigae were first called the " Kids " by Cleostratus , an ancient Greek astronomer .
Traditionally , illustrations of Auriga represent it as a chariot and its driver . The charioteer holds a goat over his left shoulder and has two kids under his left arm ; he holds the reins to the chariot in his right hand . However , depictions of Auriga have been inconsistent over the years . The reins in his right hand have also been drawn as a whip , though Capella is almost always over his left shoulder and the Kids under his left arm . The 1488 atlas Hyginus deviated from this typical depiction by showing a four @-@ wheeled cart driven by Auriga , who holds the reins of two oxen , a horse , and a zebra . Jacob Micyllus depicted Auriga in his Hyginus of 1535 as a charioteer with a two @-@ wheeled cart , powered by two horses and two oxen . Arabic and Turkish depictions of Auriga varied wildly from those of the European Renaissance ; one Turkish atlas depicted the stars of Auriga as a mule , called Mulus clitellatus by Johann Bayer . One unusual representation of Auriga , from 17th @-@ century France , showed Auriga as Adam kneeling on the Milky Way , with a goat wrapped around his shoulders .
Occasionally , Auriga is seen not as the Charioteer but as Bellerophon , the mortal rider of Pegasus who dared to approach Mount Olympus . In this version of the tale , Jupiter pitied Bellerophon for his foolishness and placed him in the stars .
Some of the stars of Auriga were incorporated into a now @-@ defunct constellation called Telescopium Herschelii . This constellation was introduced by Maximilian Hell to honor William Herschel 's discovery of Uranus . Originally , it included two constellations , Tubus Hershelii Major [ sic ] , in Gemini , Lynx , and Auriga , and Tubus Hershelii Minor [ sic ] in Orion and Taurus ; both represented Herschel 's telescopes . Johann Bode combined Hell 's constellations into Telescopium Herschelii in 1801 , located mostly in Auriga .
Since the time of Ptolemy , Auriga has remained a constellation and is officially recognized by the International Astronomical Union , although like all modern constellations , it is now defined as a specific region of the sky that includes both the ancient pattern and the surrounding stars . In 1922 , the IAU designated its recommended three @-@ letter abbreviation , " Aur " . The official boundaries of Auriga were created in 1930 by Eugène Delporte as a polygon of 21 segments . Its right ascension is between 4h 37.5m and 7h 30.5m and its declination is between 27 @.@ 9 ° and 56 @.@ 2 ° in the equatorial coordinate system .
= = = In non @-@ Western astronomy = = =
The stars of Auriga were incorporated into several Chinese constellations . Wuche , the five chariots of the celestial emperors and the representation of the grain harvest , was a constellation formed by Alpha Aurigae , Beta Aurigae , Beta Tauri , Theta Aurigae , and Iota Aurigae . Sanzhu or Zhu was one of three constellations which represented poles for horses to be tethered . They were formed by the triplets of Epsilon , Zeta , and Eta Aurigae ; Nu , Tau , and Upsilon Aurigae ; and Chi and 26 Aurigae , with one other undetermined star . Xianchi , the pond where the sun set and Tianhuang , a pond , bridge , or pier , were other constellations in Auriga , though the stars that composed them are undetermined . Zuoqi , representing chairs for the emperor and other officials , was made up of nine stars in the east of the constellation . Bagu , a constellation mostly formed from stars in Camelopardalis representing different types of crops , included the northern stars of Delta and Xi Aurigae .
In ancient Hindu astronomy , Capella represented the heart of Brahma and was important religiously . Ancient Peruvian peoples saw Capella , called Colca , as a star intimately connected to the affairs of shepherds .
In Brazil , the Bororo people incorporate the stars of Auriga into a massive constellation representing a caiman ; its southern stars represent the end of the animal 's tail . The eastern portion of Taurus is the rest of the tail , while Orion is its body and Lepus is the head . This constellation arose because of the prominence of caymans in daily Amazonian life . There is evidence that Capella was significant to the Aztec people , as the Late Classic site Monte Albán has a marker for the star 's heliacal rising . Indigenous peoples of California and Nevada also noticed the bright pattern of Auriga 's stars . To them , the constellation 's bright stars formed a curve that was represented in crescent @-@ shaped petroglyphs . The indigenous Pawnee of North America recognized a constellation with the same major stars as modern Auriga : Alpha , Beta , Gamma ( Beta Tauri ) , Theta , and Iota Aurigae .
The people of the Marshall Islands featured Auriga in the myth of Dümur , which tells the story of the creation of the sky . Antares in Scorpius represents Dümur , the oldest son of the stars ' mother , and the Pleiades represent her youngest son . The mother of the stars , Ligedaner , is represented by Capella ; she lived on the island of Alinablab . She told her sons that the first to reach an eastern island would become the King of the Stars , and asked Dümur to let her come in his canoe . He refused , as did each of her sons in turn , except for Pleiades . Pleiades won the race with the help of Ligedaner , and became the King of the Stars . Elsewhere in the central Caroline Islands , Capella was called Jefegen uun ( variations include efang alul , evang @-@ el @-@ ul , and iefangel uul ) , meaning " north of Aldebaran " . Different names were noted for Auriga and Capella in Eastern Pacific societies . On Pukapuka , the figure of modern Auriga was called Te Wale @-@ o @-@ Tutakaiolo ( " The house of Tutakaiolo " ) ; in the Society Islands , it was called Faa @-@ nui ( " Great Valley " ) . Capella itself was called Tahi @-@ anii ( " Unique Sovereign " ) in the Societies . Hoku @-@ lei was the name for Capella but may have been the name for the whole constellation ; the name means " Star @-@ wreath " and refers to one of the wives of the Pleiades , called Makalii .
The stars of Auriga feature in Inuit constellations . Quturjuuk , meaning " collar @-@ bones " , was a constellation that included Capella ( Alpha Aurigae ) , Menkalinan ( Beta Aurigae ) , Pollux ( Beta Geminorum ) , and Castor ( Alpha Geminorum ) . Its rising signalled that the constellation Aagjuuk , made up of Altair ( Alpha Aquilae ) , Tarazed ( Gamma Aquilae ) , and sometimes Alshain ( Beta Aquilae ) , would rise soon . Aagjuuk , which represented the dawn following the winter solstice , was an incredibly important constellation in the Inuit mythos . It was also used for navigation and time @-@ keeping at night .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
= = = = Bright stars = = = =
Alpha Aurigae ( Capella ) , the brightest star in Auriga , is a G8III class star ( G @-@ type giant ) 43 light @-@ years away and the sixth brightest star in the night sky at magnitude 0 @.@ 08 . Its traditional name is a reference to its mythological position as Amalthea ; it is sometimes called the " Goat Star " . Capella 's names all point to this mythology . In Arabic , Capella was called al- ' Ayyuq , meaning " the goat " , and in Sumerian , it was called mul.ÁŠ.KAR , " the goat star " . On Ontong Java , Capella was called ngahalapolu . Capella is a spectroscopic binary with a period of 104 days ; the components are both yellow giants , more specifically , the primary is a G @-@ type star and the secondary is between a G @-@ type and F @-@ type star in its evolution . The secondary is formally classified as a G0III class star ( G @-@ type giant ) . The primary has a radius of 11 @.@ 87 solar radii ( R ☉ ) and a mass of 2 @.@ 47 solar masses ( M ☉ ) ; the secondary has a radius of 8 @.@ 75 R ☉ and a mass of 2 @.@ 44 M ☉ . The two components are separated by 110 million kilometers , almost 75 % of the distance between the Earth and the Sun . The star 's status as a binary was discovered in 1899 at the Lick Observatory ; its period was determined in 1919 by J.A. Anderson at the 100 @-@ inch Mt . Wilson Observatory telescope . It appears with a golden @-@ yellow hue , though Ptolemy and Giovanni Battista Riccioli both described its color as red , a phenomenon attributed not to a change in Capella 's color but to the idiosyncrasies of their color sensitivities . Capella has an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 3 and a luminosity of 160 times the luminosity of the Sun , or 160 L ☉ ( the primary is 90 L ☉ and the secondary is 70 L ☉ ) . It may be loosely associated with the Hyades , an open cluster in Taurus , because of their similar proper motion . Capella has one more companion , Capella H , which is a pair of red dwarf stars located 11 @,@ 000 astronomical units ( 0 @.@ 17 light @-@ years ) from the main pair .
Beta Aurigae ( Menkalinan , Menkarlina ) is a bright A2IV class star ( A @-@ type subgiant ) . Its Arabic name comes from the phrase mankib dhu al- ' inan , meaning " shoulder of the charioteer " and is a reference to Beta Aurigae 's location in the constellation . Menkalinan is 81 light @-@ years away and has a magnitude of 1 @.@ 90 . Like Epsilon Aurigae , it is an eclipsing binary star that varies in magnitude by 0.1m. The two components are blue @-@ white stars that have a period of 3 @.@ 96 days . Its double nature was revealed spectroscopically in 1890 by Antonia Maury , making it the second spectroscopic binary discovered , and its variable nature was discovered photometrically 20 years later by Joel Stebbins . Menkalinan has an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 6 and a luminosity of 50 L ☉ . The component of its motion in the direction of Earth is 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) per second . Beta Aurigae may be associated with a stream of about 70 stars including Delta Leonis and Alpha Ophiuchi ; the proper motion of this group is comparable to that of the Ursa Major Moving Group , though the connection is only hypothesized . Besides its close eclipsing companion , Menkalinan has two other stars associated with it . One is an unrelated optical companion , discovered in 1783 by William Herschel ; it has a magnitude of 10 @.@ 5 and has a separation of 184 arcseconds . The other is likely associated gravitationally with the primary , as determined by their common proper motion . This 14th magnitude star was discovered in 1901 by Edward Emerson Barnard . It has a separation of 12 @.@ 6 arcseconds , and is around 350 astronomical units from the primary .
= = = = Other bright stars = = = =
Besides the particularly bright stars of Alpha and Beta Aurigae , the constellation has many dimmer stars . Gamma Aurigae , now Beta Tauri ( El Nath , Alnath ) is a B7III class star ( B @-@ type giant ) . It was originally considered to be a part of both Auriga and Taurus , but is now classified only as Beta Tauri . Iota Aurigae , also called Hasseleh and Kabdhilinan , is a K3II class star ( K @-@ type bright giant ) of magnitude 2 @.@ 69 ; it is 494 light @-@ years away from Earth . It evolved from a B @-@ type star to a K @-@ type star over the estimated 30 – 45 million years since its birth . Iota Aurigae has an absolute magnitude of − 2 @.@ 3 and a luminosity of 700 L ☉ . It is classed as a particularly luminous bright giant , but appears dimmer than it should because dust clouds in the Milky Way block some of its light ; astronomers estimate that it appears 0 @.@ 6 magnitudes fainter . It is also a hybrid star , an x @-@ ray producing giant star that emits x @-@ rays from its corona and has a cool stellar wind . Though its proper motion is just 0 @.@ 02 arcseconds per year , it has a radial velocity of 10 @.@ 5 miles ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) per second in recession . The traditional name Kabdhilinan , sometimes shortened to " Alkab " , comes from the Arabic phrase al @-@ kab dh 'il inan , meaning " shoulder of the rein holder " . Iota Aurigae may end as a supernova , but because it is close to the mass limit for such stars , it may instead become a white dwarf .
Delta Aurigae , the northernmost bright star in Auriga , is a K0III @-@ type star ( K @-@ type giant ) , 126 light @-@ years from Earth and approximately 1 @.@ 3 billion years old . It has a magnitude of 3 @.@ 72 , an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 2 , and a luminosity of 60 L ☉ . About 12 times the radius of the Sun , Delta Aurigae weighs only two solar masses and rotates with a period of almost one year . Though it is often listed as a single star , it actually has three very widely spaced optical companions . One is a double star of magnitude 11 , two arcminutes from Delta , and the other is a star of magnitude 10 , three arcminutes from Delta .
Lambda Aurigae ( Al Hurr ) is a G1.5IV @-@ V @-@ type star ( G @-@ type star intermediate between a subgiant and main @-@ sequence star ) of magnitude 4 @.@ 71 . It has an absolute magnitude of 4 @.@ 4 and is located 41 light @-@ years from Earth . It has very weak emissions in the infrared spectrum , like Epsilon Aurigae . In photometric observations of Epsilon , an unusual variable , Lambda Aurigae is commonly used as a comparison star . It is reaching the end of its hydrogen @-@ fusing lifespan at an age of 6 @.@ 2 billion years . It also has an unusually high radial velocity at 83 km / second . Though older than the Sun , it is similar in many ways ; its mass is 1 @.@ 07 solar masses , a radius of 1 @.@ 3 solar radii , and a rotational period of 26 days . However , it differs from the Sun in its metallicity ; its iron content is 1 @.@ 15 times that of the Sun and it has relatively less nitrogen and carbon . Like Delta , it has several optical companions and is often categorized as a single star . The brightest companions are of magnitude 10 , separated by 175 and 203 arcseconds . The dimmer companions are of magnitude 13 and 14 , 87 and 310 arcseconds from Lambda , respectively . Nu Aurigae is a G9.5III ( G @-@ type giant ) star of magnitude 3 @.@ 97 , 230 light @-@ years from Earth . It has a luminosity of 60 L ☉ and an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 2 . Nu Aurigae is a giant star with a radius of 20 – 21 solar radii and a mass of approximately 3 solar masses . It may technically be a binary star ; its companion , sometimes listed as optical and separated by 56 arcseconds , is a dwarf star of spectral type K6 and magnitude 11 @.@ 4 . Its period is more than 120 @,@ 000 years and it orbits at least 3700 AU from the primary .
= = = = Eclipsing binary stars = = = =
The most prominent variable star in Auriga is Epsilon Aurigae ( Al Maz , Almaaz ) , an F0 class eclipsing binary star with an unusually long period of 27 years ; its last minima occurred from 1982 – 1984 and 2009 – 2011 . The distance to the system is disputed , variously cited as 4600 and 2170 light @-@ years . The primary is a white supergiant , and the secondary may be itself a binary star within a large dusty disk . Its maximum magnitude is 3 @.@ 0 , but it stays at a minimum magnitude of 3 @.@ 8 for around a year ; its most recent eclipse began in 2009 . The primary has an absolute magnitude of − 8 @.@ 5 and an unusually high luminosity of 200 @,@ 000 L ☉ , the reason it appears so bright at such a great distance . Epsilon Aurigae is the longest @-@ period eclipsing binary currently known . The first observed eclipse of Epsilon Aurigae occurred in 1821 , though its variable status was not confirmed until the eclipse of 1847 – 1848 . From that time forward , many theories were put forth as to the nature of the eclipsing component . Epsilon Aurigae has a noneclipsing component , which is visible as a 14th magnitude companion separated from the primary by 28 @.@ 6 arcseconds . It was discovered by Sherburne Wesley Burnham in 1891 at the Dearborn Observatory , and is about 0 @.@ 5 light @-@ years from the primary .
Another eclipsing binary in Auriga , part of the Haedi asterism with Epsilon Aurigae , is Zeta Aurigae ( Sadatoni ) , an eclipsing binary star at a distance of 776 light @-@ years with a period of 2 years and 8 months . It has an absolute magnitude of − 2 @.@ 3 . The primary is an orange @-@ hued K5II @-@ type star ( K @-@ type bright giant ) and the secondary is a smaller blue star similar to Regulus ; its period is 972 days . The secondary is a B7V @-@ type star , a B @-@ type main @-@ sequence star . Zeta Aurigae 's maximum magnitude is 3 @.@ 7 and its minimum magnitude is 4 @.@ 0 . The full eclipse of the small blue star by the orange giant lasts 38 days , with two partial phases of 32 days at the beginning and end . The primary has a diameter of 150 D ☉ and a luminosity of 700 L ☉ ; the secondary has a diameter of 4 D ☉ and a luminosity of 140 L ☉ . Zeta Aurigae was spectroscopically determined to be a double star by Antonia Maury in 1897 and was confirmed as a binary star in 1908 by William Wallace Campbell . The two stars orbit each other about 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles ( 800 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) apart . Zeta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of 8 miles ( 13 km ) per second . The last star in the asterism is Eta Aurigae , a B3 class star located 243 light @-@ years from Earth with a magnitude of 3 @.@ 17 . It is a B3V class star , meaning that it is a blue @-@ white hued main @-@ sequence star . Eta Aurigae is a part of the Haedi or " Kids " asterism , along with Zeta and Epsilon Aurigae . Eta Aurigae has an absolute magnitude of − 1 @.@ 7 and a luminosity of 450 L ☉ . Eta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) per second .
T Aurigae ( Nova Aurigae 1891 ) was a nova discovered at magnitude 5 @.@ 0 on January 23 , 1892 , by Thomas David Anderson . It became visible to the naked eye by December 10 , 1891 , as shown on photographic plates examined after the nova 's discovery . It then brightened by a factor of 2 @.@ 5 from December 11 to December 20 , when it reached a maximum magnitude of 4 @.@ 4 . T Aurigae faded slowly in January and February 1892 , then faded quickly during March and April , reaching a magnitude of 15 in late April . However , its brightness began to increase in August , reaching magnitude 9 @.@ 5 , where it stayed until 1895 . Over the subsequent two years , its brightness decreased to 11 @.@ 5 , and by 1903 , it was approximately 14th magnitude . By 1925 , it had reached its current magnitude of 15 @.@ 5 . When the nova was discovered , its spectrum showed material moving at a high speed towards Earth . However , when the spectrum was examined again in August 1892 , it appeared to be a planetary nebula . Observations at the Lick Observatory by Edward Emerson Barnard showed it to be disc @-@ shaped , with clear nebulosity in a diameter of 3 arcseconds . The shell had a diameter of 12 arcseconds in 1943 . T Aurigae is classified as a slow nova , similar to DQ Herculis . Like DQ Herculis , WZ Sagittae , Nova Persei 1901 and Nova Aquilae 1918 , it is a very close binary with a very short period . T Aurigae 's period of 4 @.@ 905 hours , comparable to DQ Herculis 's period of 4 @.@ 65 hours , and has a partial eclipse period of 40 minutes .
= = = = Other variable stars = = = =
There are many other variable stars of different types in Auriga. ψ1 Aurigae ( Dolones ) is an orange @-@ hued supergiant , which ranges between magnitudes 4 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 7 , though not with a regular period . It has a spectral class of K5Iab , an average magnitude of 4 @.@ 91 , and an absolute magnitude of − 5 @.@ 7 . Dolones is 3976 light @-@ years from Earth . RT Aurigae is a Cepheid variable which ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 8 over a period of 3 @.@ 7 days . A yellow @-@ white supergiant , it lies at a distance of 1600 light @-@ years . It was discovered to be variable by English amateur T.H. Astbury in 1905 . It has a spectral class of F81bv , meaning that it is an F @-@ type supergiant star . RX Aurigae is a Cepheid variable as well ; it varies in magnitude from a minimum of 8 @.@ 0 to a maximum of 7 @.@ 3 ; its spectral class is G0Iabv . It has a period of 11 @.@ 62 days . RW Aurigae is the prototype of its class of irregular variable stars . Its variability was discovered in 1906 by Lydia Ceraski at the Moscow Observatory . RW Aurigae 's spectrum indicates a turbulent stellar atmosphere , and has prominent emission lines of calcium and hydrogen . Its spectral type is G5V : e . SS Aurigae is an SS Cygni @-@ type variable star , classified as an explosive dwarf . Discovered by Emil Silbernagel in 1907 , it is almost always at its minimum magnitude of 15 , but brightens to a maximum up to 60 times brighter than the minimum an average of every 55 days , though the period can range from 50 days to more than 100 days . It takes about 24 hours for the star to go from its minimum to maximum magnitude . SS Aurigae is a very close binary star with a period of 4 hours and 20 minutes . Both components are small subdwarf stars ; there has been dispute in the scientific community about which star originates the outbursts . UU Aurigae is a variable red giant star at a distance of 2 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . It has a period of approximately 234 days and ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 0 and 7 @.@ 0 .
AE Aurigae is a blue @-@ hued main @-@ sequence variable star . It is normally of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 , but its magnitude varies irregularly . AE Aurigae is associated with the 9 @-@ light @-@ year @-@ wide Flaming Star Nebula ( IC 405 ) , which it illuminates . However , AE Aurigae likely entered the nebula only recently , as determined through the discrepancy between the radial velocities of the star and the nebula , 36 miles ( 58 km ) per second and 13 miles ( 21 km ) per second , respectively . It has been hypothesized that AE Aurigae is a " runaway star " from the young cluster in the Orion Nebula , leaving the cluster approximately 2 @.@ 7 million years ago . It is similar to 53 Arietis and Mu Columbae , other runaway stars from the Orion cluster . Its spectral class is O9.5Ve , meaning that it is an O @-@ type main @-@ sequence star . The Flaming Star Nebula , is located near IC 410 in the celestial sphere . IC 410 obtained its name from its appearance in long exposure astrophotographs ; it has extensive filaments that make AE Aurigae appear to be on fire .
There are four Mira variable stars in Auriga : R Aurigae , UV Aurigae , U Aurigae , and X Aurigae , all of which are type M stars . More specifically , R Aurigae is of type M7III , UV Aurigae is of type C6 ( a carbon star ) , U Aurigae is of type M9 , and X Aurigae is of type K2 . R Aurigae , with a period of 457 @.@ 5 days , ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 13 @.@ 9 to a maximum of 6 @.@ 7 . UV Aurigae , with a period of 394 @.@ 4 days , ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 10 @.@ 6 to a maximum of 7 @.@ 4 . U Aurigae , with a period of 408 @.@ 1 days , ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 13 @.@ 5 to a maximum of 7 @.@ 5 . X Aurigae , with a particularly short period of 163 @.@ 8 days , ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 13 @.@ 6 to a maximum of 8 @.@ 0 .
= = = = Binary and double stars = = = =
Auriga is home to several less prominent binary and double stars . Theta Aurigae ( Bogardus , Mahasim ) is a blue @-@ white A0p class binary star of magnitude 2 @.@ 62 with a luminosity of 75 L ☉ . It has an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 1 and is 165 light @-@ years from Earth . The secondary is a yellow star of magnitude 7 @.@ 1 , which requires a telescope of 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in aperture to resolve ; the two stars are separated by 3 @.@ 6 arcseconds . It is the eastern vertex of the constellation 's pentagon . Theta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of 17 @.@ 5 miles ( 28 @.@ 2 km ) per second . Theta Aurigae additionally has a second optical companion , discovered by Otto Wilhelm von Struve in 1852 . The separation was at 52 arcseconds in 1978 and has been increasing since then because of the proper motion of Theta Aurigae , 0 @.@ 1 arcseconds per year . The separation of this magnitude 9 @.@ 2 component was 2 @.@ 2 arcminutes ( 130 @.@ 7 arcseconds ) in 2007 with an angle of 350 ° . 4 Aurigae is a double star at a distance of 159 light @-@ years . The primary is of magnitude 5 @.@ 0 and the secondary is of magnitude 8 @.@ 1 . 14 Aurigae is a white optical binary star . The primary is of magnitude 5 @.@ 0 and is at a distance of 270 light @-@ years ; the secondary is of magnitude 7 @.@ 9 and is at a distance of 82 light @-@ years . HD 30453 is spectroscopic binary of magnitude 5 @.@ 9 , with a spectral type assessed as either A8m or F0m , and a period of seven days .
= = = = Stars with planetary systems = = = =
There are five stars with confirmed planetary systems in Auriga ; there is also a white dwarf with a suspected planetary system . HD 40979 has one planet , HD 40979 b . It was discovered in 2002 through radial velocity measurements on the parent star . HD 40979 is 33 @.@ 3 parsecs from Earth , a spectral class F8V star of magnitude 6 @.@ 74 — just past the limit of visibility to the naked eye . It is of similar size to the Sun , at 1 @.@ 1 solar masses and 1 @.@ 21 solar radii . The planet , with a mass of 3 @.@ 83 Jupiter masses , orbits with a semi @-@ major axis of 0 @.@ 83 AU and a period of 263 @.@ 1 days . HD 45350 has one planet as well . HD 45350 b was discovered through radial velocity measurements in 2004 . It has a mass of 1 @.@ 79 Jupiter masses and orbits every 890 @.@ 76 days at a distance of 1 @.@ 92 AU . Its parent star is faint , at an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 88 , a G5IV type star 49 parsecs away . It has a mass of 1 @.@ 02 solar masses and a radius of 1 @.@ 27 solar radii . HD 43691 b is a significantly larger planet , with a mass of 2 @.@ 49 Jupiter masses ; it is also far closer to its parent star , HD 43691 . Discovered in 2007 from radial velocity measurements , it orbits at a distance of 0 @.@ 24 AU with a period of 36 @.@ 96 days . HD 43691 has a radius identical to the Sun 's , though it is more dense — its mass is 1 @.@ 38 solar masses . It is a G0IV type star of magnitude 8 @.@ 03 , 93 @.@ 2 parsecs from Earth .
HD 49674 is a star in Auriga with one planet orbiting it . This G5V type star is faint , at magnitude 8 @.@ 1 , and fairly distant , at 40 @.@ 7 parsecs from Earth . Like the other stars , it is similar in size to the Sun , with a mass of 1 @.@ 07 solar masses and a radius of 0 @.@ 94 solar radii . Its planet , HD 49674 b , is a smaller planet , at 0 @.@ 115 Jupiter masses . It orbits very close to its star , at 0 @.@ 058 AU , every 4 @.@ 94 days . HD 49674 b was discovered by radial velocity observations in 2002 . HAT @-@ P @-@ 9 b is the most recently confirmed exoplanet in Auriga , orbiting the star HAT @-@ P @-@ 9 . Unlike the other exoplanets in Auriga , detected by radial velocity measurements , HAT @-@ P @-@ 9 b was detected using the transit method in 2008 . It has a mass of 0 @.@ 67 Jupiter masses and orbits just 0 @.@ 053 AU from its parent star , with a period of 3 @.@ 92 days ; its radius is 1 @.@ 4 Jupiter radii , making it a hot Jupiter . Its parent star , HAT @-@ P @-@ 9 , is an F @-@ type star approximately 480 parsecs from Earth . It has a mass of 1 @.@ 28 solar masses and a radius of 1 @.@ 32 solar radii .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The galactic anticenter is located about 3 @.@ 5 ° to the east of Beta Aurigae . This marks the point on the celestial sphere opposite the location of the Galactic Center ; hence , this region marks a less extensive and less luminous part of the dust band that forms the spiral arms of the Milky Way . Auriga has many open clusters and other objects because the Milky Way runs through it . The three brightest open clusters are M36 , M37 and M38 , all of which are visible in binoculars or a small telescope in suburban skies . A larger telescope resolves individual stars . Three other open clusters are NGC 2281 , lying close to ψ7 Aurigae , NGC 1664 , which is close to ε Aurigae , and IC 410 ( surrounding NGC 1893 ) , a cluster with nebulosity next to IC 405 , the Flaming Star Nebula , found about midway between M38 and ι Aurigae . AE Aurigae , a runaway star , is a bright variable star currently located within the Flaming Star Nebula .
M36 ( NGC 1960 ) is a young galactic open cluster with approximately 60 stars , most of which are relatively bright ; however , only about 40 stars are visible in most amateur instruments . It is at a distance of 3900 light @-@ years and has an overall magnitude of 6 @.@ 0 ; it is 14 light @-@ years wide . Its apparent diameter is 12 @.@ 0 arcminutes . Of the three open clusters in Auriga , M36 is both the smallest and the most concentrated , though its brightest stars are approximately 9th magnitude . It was discovered in 1749 by Guillaume Le Gentil , the first of Auriga 's major open clusters to be discovered . M36 features a 10 @-@ arcminute @-@ wide knot of bright stars in its center , anchored by Struve 737 , a double star with components separated by 10 @.@ 7 arcseconds . Most of the stars in M36 are B type stars with rapid rates of rotation . M36 's Trumpler class is given as both I 3 r and II 3 m . Besides the central knot , most of the cluster 's other stars appear in smaller knots and groups .
M37 ( NGC 2099 ) is an open cluster , larger than M36 and at a distance of 4200 light @-@ years . It has 150 stars , making it the richest cluster in Auriga ; the most prominent member is an orange star that appears at the center . M37 is approximately 25 light @-@ years in diameter . It is the brightest open cluster in Auriga with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 6 ; it has an apparent diameter of 23 @.@ 0 arcminutes . M37 was discovered in 1764 by Charles Messier , the first of many astronomers to laud its beauty . It was described as " a virtual cloud of glittering stars " by Robert Burnham , Jr. and Charles Piazzi Smyth commented that the star field was " strewed [ sic ] ... with sparkling gold @-@ dust " . The stars of M37 are older than those of M36 ; they are approximately 200 million years old . Most of the constituent stars are A type stars , though there are at least 12 red giants in the cluster as well . M37 's Trumpler class is given as both I 2 r and II 1 r . The stars visible in a telescope range in magnitude from 9 @.@ 0 to 13 @.@ 0 ; there are two 9th magnitude stars in the center of the cluster and an east to west chain of 10th and 11th magnitude stars .
M38 is a diffuse open cluster at a distance of 3900 light @-@ years , the least concentrated of the three main open clusters in Auriga ; it is classified as a Trumpler Class II 2 r or III 2 r cluster because of this . It appears as a cross @-@ shaped or pi @-@ shaped object in a telescope and contains approximately 100 stars ; its overall magnitude is 6 @.@ 4 . M38 , like M36 , was discovered by Guillaume Le Gentil in 1749 . It has an apparent diameter of approximately 20 arcseconds and a true diameter of about 25 light @-@ years . Unlike M36 or M37 , M38 has a varied stellar population . The majority of the population consists of A and B type main sequence stars , the B type stars being the oldest members , and a number of G type giant stars . One yellow @-@ hued G type star is the brightest star in M38 at a magnitude of 7 @.@ 9 . The brightest stars in M38 are magnitude 9 and 10 . M38 is accompanied by NGC 1907 , a smaller and dimmer cluster that lies half a degree south @-@ southwest of M38 ; it is at a distance of 4200 light @-@ years . The smaller cluster has an overall magnitude of 8 @.@ 2 and a diameter of 6 @.@ 0 arcminutes , making it about a third the size of M38 . However , NGC 1907 is a rich cluster , classified as a Trumpler Class I 1 m n cluster . It has approximately 12 stars of magnitude 9 – 10 , and at least 25 stars of magnitude 9 – 12 .
IC 410 , a faint nebula , is accompanied by the bright open cluster NGC 1893 . The cluster is thin , with a diameter of 12 arcminutes and a population of approximately 20 stars . Its accompanying nebula has very low surface brightness , partially because of its diameter of 40 arcminutes . It appears in an amateur telescope with brighter areas in the north and south ; the brighter southern patch shows a pattern of darker and lighter spots in a large instrument . NGC 1893 , of magnitude 7 @.@ 5 , is classified as a Trumpler Class II 3 r n or II 2 m n cluster , meaning that it is not very large and is somewhat bright . The cluster possesses approximately 30 stars of magnitude 9 – 12 . In an amateur instrument , IC 410 is only visible with an Oxygen @-@ III filter . NGC 2281 is a small open cluster at a distance of 1500 light @-@ years . It contains 30 stars in a crescent shape . It has an overall magnitude of 5 @.@ 4 and a fairly large diameter of 14 @.@ 0 arcseconds , classified as a Trumpler Class I 3 m cluster . The brightest star in the cluster is magnitude 8 ; there are approximately 12 stars of magnitude 9 – 10 and 20 stars of magnitude 11 – 13 .
NGC 1931 is a nebula in Auriga , slightly more than one degree to the west of M36 . It is considered to be a difficult target for an amateur telescope . NGC 1931 has an approximate integrated magnitude of 10 @.@ 1 ; it is 3 by 3 arcminutes . However , it appears to be elongated in an amateur telescope . Some observers may note a green hue in the nebula ; a large telescope will easily show the nebula 's " peanut " shape , as well as the quartet of stars that are engulfed by the nebula . The open cluster portion of NGC 1931 is classed as a I 3 p n cluster ; the nebula portion is classed as both an emission and reflection nebula . NGC 1931 is approximately 6000 light @-@ years from Earth and could easily be confused with a comet in the eyepiece of a telescope .
NGC 1664 is a fairly large open cluster , with a diameter of 18 arcminutes , and moderately bright , with a magnitude of 7 @.@ 6 , comparable to several other open clusters in Auriga . One open cluster with a similar magnitude is NGC 1778 , with a magnitude of 7 @.@ 7 . This small cluster has a diameter of 7 arcminutes and contains 25 stars . NGC 1857 , a small cluster , is slightly brighter at magnitude 7 @.@ 0 . It has a diameter of 6 arcminutes and contains 40 stars , making it far more concentrated than the similar @-@ sized NGC 1778 . Far dimmer than the other open clusters is NGC 2126 at magnitude 10 @.@ 2 . Despite its dimness , NGC 2126 is as concentrated as NGC 1857 , having 40 stars in a diameter of 6 arcminutes .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
Auriga is home to two meteor showers . The Aurigids , named for the entire constellation and formerly called the " Alpha Aurigids " , are renowned for their intermittent outbursts , such as those in 1935 , 1986 , 1994 , and 2007 . They are associated with the comet Kiess ( C / 1911 N1 ) , discovered in 1911 by Carl Clarence Kiess . The association was discovered after the outburst in 1935 by Cuno Hoffmeister and Arthur Teichgraeber . The Aurigid outburst on September 1 , 1935 prompted the investigation of a connection with Comet Kiess , though the 24 @-@ year delay between the comet 's return caused doubt in the scientific community . However , the outburst in 1986 erased much of this doubt . Istvan Teplickzky , a Hungarian amateur meteor observer , observed many bright meteors radiating from Auriga in a fashion very similar to the confirmed 1935 outburst . Because the position of Teplickzky 's observed radiant and the 1935 radiant were close to the position of Comet Kiess , the comet was confirmed as the source of the Aurigid meteor stream .
The Aurigids had a spectacular outburst in 1994 , when many grazing meteors — those that have a shallow angle of entry and seem to rise from the horizon — were observed in California . The meteors were tinted blue and green , moved slowly , and left trails at least 45 ° long . Because they had such a shallow angle of entry , some 1994 Aurigids lasted up to 2 seconds . Though there were only a few visual observers for part of the outburst , the 1994 Aurigids peak , which lasted less than two hours , was later confirmed by Finnish amateur radio astronomer Ilkka Yrjölä . The connection with Comet Kiess was finally confirmed in 1994 . The 2007 outburst of the Aurigids was predicted by Peter Jenniskens and was observed by astronomers worldwide . Despite some predictions that there would be no Alpha Aurigid outburst , many bright meteors were observed throughout the shower , which peaked on September 1 as predicted . Much like in the 1994 outburst , the 2007 Aurigids were very bright and often colored blue and green . The maximum zenithal hourly rate was 100 meteors per hour , observed at 4 : 15 am , California time ( 12 : 15 UTC ) by a team of astronomers flying on NASA planes .
The Aurigids are normally a placid Class II meteor shower that peaks in the early morning hours of September 1 , beginning on August 28 every year . Though the maximum zenithal hourly rate is 2 – 5 meteors per hour , the Aurigids are fast , with an entry velocity of 67 kilometres ( 42 mi ) / sec . The annual Aurigids have a radiant located about two degrees north of Theta Aurigae , a third @-@ magnitude star in the center of the constellation . The Aurigids end on September 4 . Some years , the maximum rate has reached 9 – 30 meteors per hour .
The other meteor showers radiating from Auriga are far less prominent and capricious than the Alpha Aurigids . The Zeta Aurigids are a weak shower with a northern and southern branch lasting from December 11 to January 21 . The shower peaks on January 1 and has very slow meteors , with a maximum rate of 1 – 5 meteors per hour . It was discovered by William Denning in 1886 and was discovered to be the source of rare fireballs by Alexander Stewart Herschel . There is another faint stream of meteors called the " Aurigids " , unrelated to the September shower . This shower lasts from January 31 to February 23 , peaking from February 5 through February 10 ; its slow meteors peak at a rate of approximately 2 per hour . The Delta Aurigids are a faint shower radiating from Auriga . It was discovered by a group of researchers at New Mexico State University and has a very low peak rate . The Delta Aurigids last from September 22 through October 23 , peaking between October 6 and October 15 . They may be related to the September Epsilon Perseids , though they are more similar to the Coma Berenicids in that the Delta Aurigids last longer and have a dearth of bright meteors . They too have a hypothesized connection to an unknown short period retrograde comet . The Iota Aurigids are a hypothesized shower occurring in mid @-@ November ; its parent body may be the asteroid 2000 NL10 , but this connection is highly disputed . The hypothesized Iota Aurigids may instead be a faint stream of Taurids .
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= Prague Spring =
The Prague Spring ( Czech : Pražské jaro , Slovak : Pražská jar ) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II . It began on 5 January 1968 , when reformist Alexander Dubček was elected First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia ( KSČ ) , and continued until 21 August when the Soviet Union and other members of the Warsaw Pact invaded the country to halt the reforms .
The Prague Spring reforms were a strong attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization . The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media , speech and travel . After national discussion of dividing the country into a federation of three republics , Bohemia , Moravia @-@ Silesia and Slovakia , Dubček oversaw the decision to split into two , the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic . This was the only formal change that survived the end of Prague Spring , though the relative success of the nonviolent resistance undoubtedly prefigured and facilitated the peaceful transition to liberal democracy with the collapse of Soviet hegemony in 1989 .
The reforms , especially the decentralization of administrative authority , were not received well by the Soviets , who , after failed negotiations , sent half a million Warsaw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country . A large wave of emigration swept the nation . A spirited non @-@ violent resistance was mounted throughout the country , involving attempted fraternization , painting over and turning street signs ( on one occasion an entire invasion force from Poland was routed back out of the country after a day 's wandering ) , defiance of various curfews , etc . While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country the resistance held out for eight months , and was only circumvented by diplomatic stratagems ( see below ) . There were sporadic acts of violence and several suicides by self @-@ immolation ( such as that of Jan Palach ) , but there was no military resistance . Czechoslovakia remained controlled until 1989 , when the velvet revolution ended pro @-@ Soviet rule peacefully , undoubtedly drawing upon the successes of the non @-@ violent resistance twenty years earlier . The resistance also became an iconic example of civilian @-@ based defense , which , along with unarmed civilian peacekeeping constitute the two ways that nonviolence can be and occasionally has been applied directly to military or paramilitary threats .
After the invasion , Czechoslovakia entered a period of normalization : subsequent leaders attempted to restore the political and economic values that had prevailed before Dubček gained control of the KSČ . Gustáv Husák , who replaced Dubček and also became president , reversed almost all of Dubček 's reforms . The Prague Spring inspired music and literature such as the work of Václav Havel , Karel Husa , Karel Kryl , and Milan Kundera 's novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being .
= = Background = =
The process of de @-@ Stalinization in Czechoslovakia had begun under Antonín Novotný in the late 1950s and early 1960s , but had progressed more slowly than in most other states of the Eastern Bloc . Following the lead of Nikita Khrushchev , Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism , and the new constitution , accordingly , adopted the name Czechoslovak Socialist Republic . The pace of change , however , was sluggish ; the rehabilitation of Stalinist @-@ era victims , such as those convicted in the Slánský trials , may have been considered as early as 1963 , but did not take place until 1967 .
In the early 1960s , Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn . The Soviet model of industrialization applied poorly to Czechoslovakia . Czechoslovakia was already quite industrialized before World War II and the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies . Novotný 's attempt at restructuring the economy , the 1965 New Economic Model , spurred increased demand for political reform as well .
= = = 1967 Writers ' Congress = = =
As the strict regime eased its rules , the Union of Czechoslovak Writers cautiously began to air discontent , and in the union 's gazette , Literární noviny , members suggested that literature should be independent of Party doctrine .
In June 1967 , a small fraction of the Czech writer 's union sympathized with radical socialists , specifically Ludvík Vaculík , Milan Kundera , Jan Procházka , Antonín Jaroslav Liehm , Pavel Kohout and Ivan Klíma .
A few months later , at a party meeting , it was decided that administrative actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken . Since only a small part of the union held these beliefs , the remaining members were relied upon to discipline their colleagues . Control over Literární noviny and several other publishing houses was transferred to the Ministry of Culture , and even members of the party who later became major reformers — including Dubček — endorsed these moves .
= = Dubček 's rise to power = =
As President Antonín Novotný was losing support , Alexander Dubček , First Secretary of the regional Communist Party of Slovakia , and economist Ota Šik challenged him at a meeting of the Central Committee . Novotný then invited Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev to Prague that December , seeking support ; but Brezhnev was surprised at the extent of the opposition to Novotný and thus supported his removal as Czechoslovakia 's leader . Dubček replaced Novotný as First Secretary on 5 January 1968 . On 22 March 1968 , Novotný resigned his presidency and was replaced by Ludvík Svoboda , who later gave consent to the reforms .
Early signs of change were few . When the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia ( KSČ ) Presidium member Josef Smrkovský was interviewed in a Rudé Právo article , entitled " What Lies Ahead " , he insisted that Dubček 's appointment at the January Plenum would further the goals of socialism and maintain the working class nature of the Communist Party .
= = = Literární listy = = =
However , right after Dubček assumed power , the scholar Eduard Goldstücker became chairman of the Union of Czechoslovak Writers and thus editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the previously hard @-@ line communist weekly Literární noviny , which under Novotny had been filled with party loyalists . Goldstucker tested the boundaries of Dubček ’ s devotion to freedom of the press when he appeared on a television interview as the new head of the union . On 4 February , in front of the entire nation , he openly criticized Novotny , exposing all of Novotny ’ s previously unreported policies and explaining how they were preventing progress in Czechoslovakia .
Despite the official government statement that allowed for freedom of the press , this was the first trial of whether or not Dubček was serious about reforms . Goldstucker suffered no repercussions , and Dubček instead began to build a sense of trust among the media , the government , and the citizens . It was under Goldstücker that the journal 's name was changed to Literární listy , and on 29 February 1968 , the Writers ’ Union published the first copy of the censor @-@ free Literární listy . By August 1968 , Literární listy had a circulation of 300 @,@ 000 , making it the most published periodical in Europe .
= = Socialism with a human face = =
On the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakia ’ s " Victorious February " , Dubček delivered a speech explaining the need for change following the triumph of socialism . He emphasized the need to " enforce the leading role of the party more effectively " and acknowledged that , despite Klement Gottwald 's urgings for better relations with society , the Party had too often made heavy @-@ handed rulings on trivial issues . Dubček declared the party 's mission was " to build an advanced socialist society on sound economic foundations ... a socialism that corresponds to the historical democratic traditions of Czechoslovakia , in accordance with the experience of other communist parties ... "
In April , Dubček launched an " Action Programme " of liberalizations , which included increasing freedom of the press , freedom of speech , and freedom of movement , with economic emphasis on consumer goods and the possibility of a multiparty government . The programme was based on the view that " Socialism cannot mean only liberation of the working people from the domination of exploiting class relations , but must make more provisions for a fuller life of the personality than any bourgeois democracy . " It would limit the power of the secret police and provide for the federalization of the ČSSR into two equal nations . The programme also covered foreign policy , including both the maintenance of good relations with Western countries and cooperation with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc nations . It spoke of a ten @-@ year transition through which democratic elections would be made possible and a new form of democratic socialism would replace the status quo .
Those who drafted the Action Programme were careful not to criticize the actions of the post @-@ war Communist regime , only to point out policies that they felt had outlived their usefulness . For instance , the immediate post @-@ war situation had required " centralist and directive @-@ administrative methods " to fight against the " remnants of the bourgeoisie . " Since the " antagonistic classes " were said to have been defeated with the achievement of socialism , these methods were no longer necessary . Reform was needed , for the Czechoslovak economy to join the " scientific @-@ technical revolution in the world " rather than relying on Stalinist @-@ era heavy industry , labour power , and raw materials . Furthermore , since internal class conflict had been overcome , workers could now be duly rewarded for their qualifications and technical skills without contravening Marxism @-@ Leninism . The Programme suggested it was now necessary to ensure important positions were " filled by capable , educated socialist expert cadres " in order to compete with capitalism .
Although it was stipulated that reform must proceed under KSČ direction , popular pressure mounted to implement reforms immediately . Radical elements became more vocal : anti @-@ Soviet polemics appeared in the press ( after the formal abolishment of censorship on 26 June 1968 ) , the Social Democrats began to form a separate party , and new unaffiliated political clubs were created . Party conservatives urged repressive measures , but Dubček counselled moderation and re @-@ emphasized KSČ leadership . At the Presidium of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in April , Dubček announced a political programme of " socialism with a human face " . In May , he announced that the Fourteenth Party Congress would convene in an early session on 9 September . The congress would incorporate the Action Programme into the party statutes , draft a federalization law , and elect a new Central Committee .
Dubček 's reforms guaranteed freedom of the press , and political commentary was allowed for the first time in mainstream media . At the time of the Prague Spring , Czechoslovak exports were declining in competitiveness , and Dubček 's reforms planned to solve these troubles by mixing planned and market economies . Within the party , there were varying opinions on how this should proceed ; certain economists wished for a more mixed economy while others wanted the economy to remain mostly socialist . Dubček continued to stress the importance of economic reform proceeding under Communist Party rule .
On 27 June Ludvík Vaculík , a leading author and journalist , published a manifesto titled The Two Thousand Words . It expressed concern about conservative elements within the KSČ and so @-@ called " foreign " forces . Vaculík called on the people to take the initiative in implementing the reform programme . Dubček , the party Presidium , the National Front , and the cabinet denounced this manifesto .
= = = Publications and media = = =
Dubček ’ s relaxation of censorship ushered in a brief period of freedom of speech and the press . The first tangible manifestation of this new policy of openness was the production of the previously hard @-@ line communist weekly Literarni noviny , renamed Literarni listy .
Freedom of the press also opened the door for the first honest look at Czechoslovakia ’ s past by Czechoslovakia ’ s people . Many of the investigations centered on the country ’ s history under communism , especially in the instance of the Joseph Stalin @-@ period . In another television appearance , Goldstucker presented both doctored and undoctored photographs of former communist leaders who had been purged , imprisoned , or executed and thus erased from communist history . The Writer ’ s Union also formed a committee in April 1968 , headed by the poet Jaroslav Seifert , to investigate the persecution of writers after the Communist takeover in February 1948 and rehabilitate the literary figures into the Union , bookstores and libraries , and the literary world . Discussions on the current state of communism and abstract ideas such as freedom and identity were also becoming more common ; soon , non @-@ party publications began appearing , such as the trade union daily Prace ( Labour ) . This was also helped by the Journalists Union , which by March 1968 had already convinced the Central Publication Board , the government censor , to allow editors to receive uncensored subscriptions for foreign papers , allowing for a more international dialogue around the news .
The press , the radio , and the television also contributed to these discussions by hosting meetings where students and young workers could ask questions of writers such as Goldstucker , Pavel Kohout , and Jan Prochazka and political victims such as Josef Smrkovský , Zdenek Hejzlar , and Gustav Husak . Television also broadcast meetings between former political prisoners and the communist leaders from the secret police or prisons where they were held . Most importantly , this new freedom of the press and the introduction of television into the lives of everyday Czechoslovak citizens moved the political dialogue from the intellectual to the popular sphere .
= = Soviet reaction = =
Initial reaction within the Communist Bloc was mixed . Hungary 's János Kádár was highly supportive of Dubček 's appointment in January , but Leonid Brezhnev and others grew concerned about Dubček 's reforms , which they feared might weaken the position of the Communist Bloc during the Cold War .
At a 23 March meeting in Dresden in East Germany , leaders of the " Warsaw Five " ( USSR , Hungary , Poland , Bulgaria and East Germany ) questioned a Czechoslovak delegation over the planned reforms , suggesting any talk of " democratization " was a veiled critique of other policies . Władysław Gomułka and János Kádár were less concerned with the reforms themselves than with the growing criticisms levelled by the Czechoslovak media , and worried the situation might be " similar to the prologue of the Hungarian counterrevolution " . Some of the language in April 's KSČ Action Programme may have been chosen to assert that no counter @-@ revolution was planned , but Kieran Williams suggests that Dubček was perhaps surprised at , but not resentful of , Soviet suggestions .
The Soviet leadership tried to stop , or limit , the changes in the ČSSR through a series of negotiations . The Soviet Union agreed to bilateral talks with Czechoslovakia in July at Čierna nad Tisou , near the Slovak @-@ Soviet border . At the meeting , with attendance of Brezhnev , Alexei Kosygin , Nikolai Podgorny , Mikhail Suslov and others on the Soviet side and Dubček , Svoboda , Oldřich Černík , Smrkovský and others on the Czechoslovak side , Dubček defended the proposals of the reformist wing of the KSČ while pledging commitment to the Warsaw Pact and Comecon . The KSČ leadership , however , was divided between vigorous reformers ( Josef Smrkovský , Oldřich Černík , and František Kriegel ) who supported Dubček , and conservatives ( Vasil Biľak , Drahomír Kolder , and Oldřich Švestka ) who adopted an anti @-@ reformist stance .
Brezhnev decided on compromise . The KSČ delegates reaffirmed their loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and promised to curb " anti @-@ socialist " tendencies , prevent the revival of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party , and control the press more effectively . The Soviets agreed to withdraw their armed forces ( still in Czechoslovakia after manoeuvres that June ) and permit the 9 September Party Congress .
On 3 August representatives from the " Warsaw Five " and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration . The declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism @-@ Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable struggle against " bourgeois " ideology and all " anti @-@ socialist " forces . The Soviet Union expressed its intention to intervene in a Warsaw Pact country if a " bourgeois " system — a pluralist system of several political parties representing different factions of the capitalist class — was ever established . After the Bratislava conference , the Soviet Army left Czechoslovak territory but remained along its borders .
= = = Invasion = = =
As these talks proved unsatisfactory , the Soviets began to consider a military alternative . The Soviet Union 's policy of compelling the socialist governments of its satellite states to subordinate their national interests to those of the " Eastern Bloc " ( through military force if needed ) became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine . On the night of 20 – 21 August 1968 , Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries – the Soviet Union , the GDR , Bulgaria , Poland and Hungary — invaded the ČSSR .
That night , 200 @,@ 000 troops and 2 @,@ 000 tanks entered the country . They first occupied the Ruzyně International Airport , where air deployment of more troops was arranged . The Czechoslovak forces were confined to their barracks , which were surrounded until the threat of a counter @-@ attack was assuaged . By the morning of 21 August Czechoslovakia was occupied .
Neither Romania nor Albania took part in the invasion . During the invasion by the Warsaw Pact armies , 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed ( 19 of those in Slovakia ) , 266 severely wounded and another 436 slightly injured . Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist . Nevertheless , there was scattered resistance in the streets . Road signs in towns were removed or painted over — except for those indicating the way to Moscow . Many small villages renamed themselves " Dubcek " or " Svoboda " ; thus , without navigational equipment , the invaders were often confused .
Although , on the night of the invasion the Czechoslovak Presidium declared that Warsaw Pact troops had crossed the border without the knowledge of the ČSSR government , the Soviet Press printed an unsigned request – allegedly by Czechoslovak party and state leaders – for " immediate assistance , including assistance with armed forces " . At the 14th KSČ Party Congress ( conducted secretly , immediately following the intervention ) , it was emphasized that no member of the leadership had invited the intervention . More recent evidence suggests that conservative KSČ members ( including Biľak , Švestka , Kolder , Indra , and Kapek ) did send a request for intervention to the Soviets . The invasion was followed by a previously unseen wave of emigration , which was stopped shortly thereafter . An estimated 70 @,@ 000 fled immediately with an eventual total of some 300 @,@ 000 .
The Soviets attributed the invasion to the " Brezhnev Doctrine " which stated that the U.S.S.R. had the right to intervene whenever a country in the Eastern Bloc appeared to be making a shift towards capitalism . There is still some uncertainty , however , as to what provocation , if any , occurred to make the Warsaw Pact armies invade . The days leading up to the invasion was a rather calm period without any major events taking place in Czechoslovakia .
= = = Reactions to the invasion = = =
In Czechoslovakia , especially in the week immediately following the invasion , popular opposition was expressed in numerous spontaneous acts of nonviolent resistance . On 16 January 1969 , student Jan Palach set himself on fire in Prague 's Wenceslas Square to protest against the renewed suppression of free speech . Civilians purposely gave wrong directions to invading soldiers , while others identified and followed cars belonging to the secret police .
The generalized resistance caused the Soviet Union to abandon its original plan to oust the First Secretary . Dubček , who had been arrested on the night of 20 August was taken to Moscow for negotiations . There , he and several other leaders ( including all the highest @-@ ranked officials President Svoboda , Prime Minister Černík and Chairman of the National Assembly Smrkovský ) signed , under heavy psychological pressure from Soviet politicians , the Moscow Protocol and it was agreed that Dubček would remain in office and a programme of moderate reform would continue .
On 25 August citizens of the Soviet Union who did not approve of the invasion protested in Red Square ; seven protesters opened banners with anti @-@ invasion slogans . The demonstrators were arrested and later punished ; the protest was dubbed " anti @-@ Soviet " .
A more pronounced effect took place in Romania , where Nicolae Ceaușescu , Prime Secretary of the Romanian CP , already a staunch opponent of Soviet influences and a self @-@ declared Dubček supporter , gave a public speech in Bucharest on the day of the invasion , depicting Soviet policies in harsh terms . Albania withdrew from the Warsaw Pact in opposition calling the invasion an act of " social @-@ imperialism " . In Finland , a country under some Soviet political influence , the occupation caused a major scandal .
Like the Italian and French Communist parties , the Communist Party of Finland denounced the occupation . Nonetheless , Finnish president Urho Kekkonen was the very first Western politician to officially visit Czechoslovakia after August 1968 ; he received the highest Czechoslovakian honours from the hands of President Ludvík Svoboda , on 4 October 1969 . The Portuguese communist secretary @-@ general Álvaro Cunhal was one of few political leaders from western Europe to have supported the invasion for being counter @-@ revolutionary. along with the Luxembourg party and conservative factions of the Greek party .
Most countries offered only vocal criticism following the invasion . The night of the invasion , Canada , Denmark , France , Paraguay , the United Kingdom and the United States requested a meeting of the United Nations Security Council . At the meeting , the Czechoslovak ambassador Jan Muzik denounced the invasion . Soviet ambassador Jacob Malik insisted the Warsaw Pact actions were " fraternal assistance " against " antisocial forces " .
The next day , several countries suggested a resolution condemning the intervention and calling for immediate withdrawal . Eventually , a vote was taken with ten members supporting the motion ; Algeria , India , and Pakistan abstained ; the USSR ( with veto power ) and Hungary opposed . Canadian delegates immediately introduced another motion asking for a UN representative to travel to Prague and work toward the release of the imprisoned Czechoslovak leaders .
By 26 August a new Czechoslovak representative requested the whole issue be removed from the Security Council 's agenda . Shirley Temple Black visited Prague in August 1968 to prepare for becoming the US Ambassador for a free Czechoslovakia . However , after the 21 August invasion she became part of a U.S. Embassy @-@ organized convoy of vehicles that evacuated U.S. citizens from the country . In August 1989 , she returned to Prague as U.S. Ambassador , three months before the Velvet Revolution that ended 41 years of Communist rule .
= = Aftermath = =
In April 1969 , Dubček was replaced as first secretary by Gustáv Husák , and a period of " normalization " began . Dubček was expelled from the KSČ and given a job as a forestry official .
Husák reversed Dubček 's reforms , purged the party of its liberal members , and dismissed from public office professional and intellectual elites who openly expressed disagreement with the political transformation . Husák worked to reinstate the power of the police and strengthen ties with the rest of the Communist bloc . He also sought to re @-@ centralize the economy , as a considerable amount of freedom had been granted to industries during the Prague Spring . Commentary on politics was forbidden in mainstream media , and political statements by anyone not considered to have " full political trust " were also banned . The only significant change that survived was the federalization of the country , which created the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic in 1969 . In 1987 , the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalizing policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to Dubček 's " socialism with a human face " . When asked what the difference was between the Prague Spring and Gorbachev 's own reforms , a Foreign Ministry spokesman replied , " Nineteen years . "
Dubček lent his support to the Velvet Revolution of December 1989 . After the collapse of the Communist regime that month , Dubček became chairman of the federal assembly under the Havel administration . He later led the Social Democratic Party of Slovakia , and spoke against the dissolution of Czechoslovakia prior to his death in November 1992 .
= = = Normalization and censorship = = =
The Warsaw Pact invasion included attacks on media establishments , such as Radio Prague and Czechoslovak Television , almost immediately after the initial tanks rolled into Prague on 21 August 1968 . While both the radio station and the television station managed to hold out for at least enough time for initial broadcasts of the invasion , what the Soviets did not attack by force they attacked by reenacting party censorship . In reaction to the invasion , on 28 August 1968 , all Czechoslovak publishers agreed to halt production of newspapers for the day to allow for a " day of reflection " for the editorial staffs . Writers and reporters agreed with Dubcek to support a limited reinstitution of the censorship office , as long as the institution was to only last three months . Finally , by September 1968 , the Czechoslovak Communist Party plenum was held to instate the new censorship law . In the words of the Moscow @-@ approved resolution , " The press , radio , and television are first of all the instruments for carrying into life the policies of the Party and state . "
While this was not yet the end of the media ’ s freedom after the Prague Spring , it was the beginning of the end . During November , the Presidium , under Husak , declared that the Czechoslovak press could not make any negative remarks about the Soviet invaders or they would risk violating the agreement they had come to at the end of August . When the weeklies Reporter and Politika responded harshly to this threat , even going so far as to not so subtly criticize the Presidium itself in Politika , the government banned Reporter for a month , suspended Politika indefinitely , and prohibited any political programs from appearing on the radio or television .
The intellectuals were stuck at a bypass ; they recognized the government ’ s increasing normalization , but they were unsure whether to trust that the measures were only temporary or demand more . For example , still believing in Dubcek ’ s promises for reform , Milan Kundera published the article “ Cesky udel ” ( Our Czech Destiny ) in Literarni listy on 19 December . He wrote : " People who today are falling into depression and defeatism , commenting that there are not enough guarantees , that everything could end badly , that we might again end up in a marasmus of censorship and trials , that this or that could happen , are simply weak people , who can live only in illusions of certainty . "
In March 1969 , however , the new Soviet @-@ backed Czechoslovakian government instituted full censorship , effectively ending the hopes that normalization would lead back to the freedoms enjoyed during the Prague Spring . A declaration was presented to the Presidium condemning the media as co @-@ conspirators against the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact in their support of Dubcek ’ s liberalization measures . Finally , on 2 April 1969 , the government adopted measures " to secure peace and order " through even stricter censorship , forcing the people of Czechoslovakia to wait until the thawing of Eastern Europe for the return of a free media .
Former students from Prague , including Constantine Menges , and Czech refugees from the crisis , who were able to escape or resettle in Western Countries continued to advocate for human rights , religious liberty , freedom of speech and political asylum for Czech political prisoners and dissidents . Many raised concerns about the Soviet Union and Red Army 's continued military occupation of the Czechoslovakia in the 1970s and 1980s , prior to the fall of the Berlin Wall and collapse of Communism in Moscow and Eastern Europe .
= = = Cultural impact = = =
The Prague Spring deepened the disillusionment of many Western leftists with Soviet views . It contributed to the growth of Eurocommunist ideas in Western communist parties , which sought greater distance from the Soviet Union , and eventually led to the dissolution of many of these groups . A decade later , a period of Chinese political liberalization became known as the Beijing Spring . It also partly influenced the Croatian Spring in Yugoslavia . In a 1993 Czech survey , 60 % of those surveyed had a personal memory linked to the Prague Spring while another 30 % were familiar with the events in another form . The demonstrations and regime changes taking place in North Africa and the Middle East from December 2010 have frequently been referred to as an " Arab Spring " .
The event has been referenced in popular music , including the music of Karel Kryl , Luboš Fišer 's Requiem , and Karel Husa 's Music for Prague 1968 . The Israeli song " Prague " , written by Shalom Hanoch and performed by Arik Einstein at the Israel Song Festival of 1969 , was a lamentation on the fate of the city after the Soviet invasion and mentions Jan Palach 's Self @-@ immolation . " They Can 't Stop The Spring " , a song by Irish journalist and songwriter John Waters , represented Ireland in the Eurovision Song Contest in 2007 . Waters has described it as " a kind of Celtic celebration of the Eastern European revolutions and their eventual outcome " , quoting Dubček 's alleged comment : " They may crush the flowers , but they can 't stop the Spring . "
The Prague Spring is featured in several works of literature . Milan Kundera set his novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being during the Prague Spring . It follows the repercussions of increased Soviet presence and the dictatorial police control of the population . A film version was released in 1988 . The Liberators , by Viktor Suvorov , is an eyewitness description of the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia , from the point of view of a Soviet tank commander . Rock ' n ' Roll , a play by award @-@ winning Czech @-@ born English playwright Tom Stoppard , references the Prague Spring , as well as the 1989 Velvet Revolution . Heda Margolius Kovály also ends her memoir Under a Cruel Star with a first hand account of the Prague Spring and the subsequent invasion , and her reflections upon these events .
In film there has been an adaptation of The Unbearable Lightness of Being , and also the movie Pelíšky from director Jan Hřebejk and screenwriter Petr Jarchovský , which depicts the events of the Prague Spring and ends with the invasion by the Soviet Union and their allies . The Czech musical film , Rebelové from Filip Renč , also depicts the events , the invasion and subsequent wave of emigration .
The number 68 has become iconic in the former Czechoslovakia . Hockey player Jaromír Jágr , whose grandfather died in prison during the rebellion , wears the number because of the importance of the year in Czechoslovak history . A former publishing house based in Toronto , 68 Publishers , that published books by exiled Czech and Slovak authors , took its name from the event .
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= 1945 Homestead hurricane =
The 1945 Homestead hurricane was the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the U.S. state of Florida since 1935 . The ninth tropical storm , third hurricane , and third major hurricane of the season , it developed east @-@ northeast of the Leeward Islands on September 12 . Moving briskly west @-@ northwestward , the storm became a major hurricane on September 13 . The system moved over the Turks and Caicos Islands the following day and then Andros on September 15 . Later that day , the storm peaked as a Category 4 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Late on September 15 , the hurricane made landfall on Key Largo and then in southern Miami @-@ Dade County , and across Homestead , FL where much damage was done and winds were clocked at Homestead Army Air Corps Base at 145 mph .
Thereafter , the hurricane began to weaken while moving across Florida , falling to Category 1 intensity only several hours after landfall late on September 15 . Eventually , it curved north @-@ northeastward and approached the east coast of Florida again . Late on September 16 , the storm emerged into the Atlantic near St. Augustine and weakened to a tropical storm early on the following day . The cyclone made another landfall near the Georgia @-@ South Carolina state line later on September 17 . The system continued to weaken and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near the border of North Carolina and Virginia early on September 18 .
The storm caused significant damage and 22 deaths in the Turks and Caicos Islands and the Bahamas . In Florida , the hardest hit area was Miami @-@ Dade County . Most of the city of Homestead was destroyed , while at the Richmond Naval Air Station , a fire ignited during the storm burned down three hangars worth $ 3 million ( 1945 USD ) each . Throughout the state , the strong winds destroyed 1 @,@ 632 residences and damaged 5 @,@ 372 homes others . Four people died , including the fire chief of the Richmond station . Homestead Army Air Corps Base , to the east of Homestead was completely destroyed . At the base , hurricane winds of " up to 145 miles per hour tore through the Air Field 's buildings . Enlisted housing facilities , the nurses ' dormitory , and the Base Exchange were all destroyed . The roof was ripped from what would later become building 741 , the " Big Hangar " . The base laundry and fire station were both declared total losses . The few remaining aircraft were tossed about like leaves . "
In the Carolinas , the storm produced heavy rainfall , causing flash flooding , particularly along the Cape Fear River in North Carolina . Overall , the hurricane resulted in 26 fatalities and about $ 60 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The hurricane was first observed on September 12 about 235 mi ( 380 km ) east @-@ northeast of Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles . Around that time , the winds were estimated at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , and later that day , the Hurricane Hunters recorded peripheral winds of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) . Moving quickly to the west @-@ northwest , the hurricane quickly intensified while passing north of Puerto Rico , reaching the equivalent of a modern @-@ day major hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The strength was based on another Hurricane Hunters mission reporting flight @-@ level winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . After passing north of Hispaniola , the hurricane turned moved toward the Bahamas , approaching or passing over Grand Turk Island at 0530 UTC on September 14 . A station on the island observed a barometric pressure of 977 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) during the passage , and nearby Clarence Town reported winds of 104 mph ( 168 km / h ) . While moving through the Bahamas , the hurricane turned more to the northwest . It was a smaller than average storm , and continued intensifying while moving toward southeastern Florida .
At 1930 UTC on September 15 , the hurricane made landfall on Key Largo , and about a half hour later struck the Florida mainland . The center passed very close to Homestead Air Reserve Base about an hour after landfall , where a central barometric pressure of 951 mbar ( 28 @.@ 1 inHg ) was recorded . The observation suggested a landfall pressure of 949 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) , and based on its small size and peak winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) ; equivalent to a Category 4 on the current Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . This estimate was backed up by gust of 138 mph ( 222 km / h ) at Carysfort Reef Light . The hurricane weakened over Florida while curving to the north and north @-@ northeast , although the proximity to water and the passage over the Everglades limited substantial weakening . Hurricane @-@ force winds spread across much of Florida until the storm emerged into the western Atlantic near St. Augustine late on September 16 . At around 0000 UTC the next day , the hurricane weakened to tropical storm status . About 11 hours later , it made another landfall near the border between Georgia and South Carolina with winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) .
After continuing through the southeast United States , the storm became extratropical near the border of North Carolina and Virginia midday on September 18 . Although it initially maintained tropical storm @-@ force winds , the former hurricane weakened below gale @-@ force on September 19 while it was near Philadelphia . The storm continued rapidly to the northeast , moving through New England and along the coast of Maine before turning more to the east . Late on September 19 , the storm moved across Nova Scotia , passing southeast of Newfoundland the next day . It was last observed late on September 20 dissipating to the east of Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
Although hurricane warnings were initially issued for the Leeward Islands , the cyclone passed north of the Lesser Antilles . In advance of the storm , aircraft were evacuated from the Naval Air Station in Miami , Florida , where hundreds of planes left vulnerable locations . Residents were advised to heed advisories in Florida , the Bahamas , and northern Cuba . On September 15 , hurricane @-@ force winds were expected to affect areas from Fort Lauderdale , Florida through the Florida Keys , and hurricane warnings were accordingly released for this region . Storm warnings also extended north to Melbourne and Tampa . Military personnel sought shelter at Hialeah Race Track , while residents boarded homes and evacuated from coastal areas to public structures . Boats were utilized to transport people from barrier islands , and small watercraft were secured along the Miami River . However , Grady Norton , the head of the United States Weather Bureau , stated before the storm that Miami would " miss the worst of it " . The American Red Cross reported that 25 @,@ 000 people sought shelter within their services during the storm . Local officials from Cape Hatteras , North Carolina to Brunswick , Georgia ordered evacuations for coastal locations .
= = Impact = =
In the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands , 22 people were killed . The hurricane demolished three @-@ quarters of the structures on Grand Turk Island , while the remaining intact buildings were damaged . The cyclone also produced heavy damage on Long Island , though damages were not reported in Nassau . Peak gusts were estimated near 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in Nassau . After the storm , The Daily Gleaner initiated a fund to offer aid for residents in the Turks and Caicos Islands .
In south Florida , peak gusts were estimated near 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) at the Army Air Base in Homestead . The strong winds destroyed 1 @,@ 632 residences across the state , while 5 @,@ 372 homes received damages . In Miami , gusts reached 107 mph ( 170 km / h ) , and damages were minimal , mostly snapped power lines , compared to communities in southern Dade County . Nearly 200 people were injured at the Richmond Naval Air Station , when a fire ignited during the storm , affecting three hangars worth $ 3 million each and destroying 25 blimps , 366 planes , and 150 automobiles . Damages to the Miami area was estimated at $ 40 million . An additional fire also destroyed a furniture factory and a tile manufacturing plant in the northwestern portion of downtown Miami . One death was reported in the area , the fire chief of Richmond 's fire department , and 26 required hospitalization . Another death was recorded after a schooner ran aground in present @-@ day Bal Harbour , Florida , killing its chief engineer .
Homestead was mostly flooded underwater , with the first floor of city hall and the fire department completely flooded and nearly all its residences destroyed . The historical Horde Hardware building collapsed while a local church was flatted by the winds . In the Florida Keys , hundreds of residences were damaged . The Florida East Coast Railway station at Goulds collapsed . Crop losses was estimated to be $ 4 million and most of its avocado harvest was destroyed . Four people died across the state .
Minor reports of damage was reported in Central and Northern Florida , with St. Augustine reporting a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) wind gust . In Charleston , South Carolina , strong winds caused high waves , but the storm arrived at low tide and produced modest damage . Rainfall peaked at 8 @.@ 0 inches ( 200 mm ) at Belton , South Carolina . In Aiken , South Carolina , heavy precipitation caused damage to unpaved streets . Inland , the system produced heavy rainfall over North Carolina , peaking at 14 @.@ 8 inches ( 380 mm ) in Rockingham , North Carolina in the period covering September 13 through September 18 . This rain led to saturated grounds , allowing new water to spill into streams . Many crop fields and dwellings were flooded near the Cape Fear River as levels rose to record heights . The towns of Moncure , Fayetteville , and Elizabethtown exceeded flood stage levels . Broken dams in Richmond County produced significant flash floods . Few deaths were reported , but economic losses were extensive . In Hopewell , New Jersey , the remnants of the system produced winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , though major damage was not reported .
= = Aftermath = =
In the aftermath of the storm , more than 1 @,@ 000 Red Cross workers were activated in response to the cyclone . A force of 400 German prisoner of wars and 200 Bahamian laborers participated in the cleanup process .
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= Order of the Arrow =
The Order of the Arrow ( OA ) is most commonly known as the National Honor Society of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) . A more clear definition would be that the society was created to honor Scouts that best exemplify the Scout Oath and Law . It uses American Indian @-@ styled traditions and ceremonies to bestow recognition on Scouts selected by their peers as best exemplifying the ideals of Scouting . The society was created by E. Urner Goodman , with the assistance of Carroll A. Edson , in 1915 as a means of reinforcing the Scout Oath and the Scout Law . The goal was to establish these as lifelong guidelines , and to encourage continued participation in Scouting and camping . Influenced in part by camp traditions , and Indian folklore , the OA uses " safeguarded " symbols , handshakes , and ceremonies to impart a sense of community . The use of these traditions has been controversial and been criticized by Native American groups .
Inducted members , known as Arrowmen or Brothers , are organized into local youth @-@ led lodges that harbor fellowship , promote camping , and render service to Boy Scout councils and their communities . Members wear identifying insignia on their uniforms , most notably the OA pocket flap ( representing their individual lodge ) and the OA sash ( worn at official OA functions ) and are eligible for special OA awards . The OA program sponsors several events , awards , and training functions .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and development of the society = = =
In 1915 , E. Urner Goodman , a newly hired field executive for the Philadelphia Council , was assigned to serve as director of the council 's summer camp at Treasure Island Scout Reservation on the Delaware River . He believed that the summer camp experience should do more than just teach proficiency in Scoutcraft skills ; rather , the principles embodied in the Scout Oath and Scout Law should become realities in the lives of Scouts . Along with his assistant camp director , Carroll A. Edson , he started an experimental program , Wimachtendienk ( " Brotherhood " in the Lenape language ) , to recognize those Scouts best exemplifying those traits as an example to their peers .
Goodman and Edson decided that a " camp fraternity " was the way to improve the summer camp experience and to keep the older boys coming back . In developing this program they borrowed from the traditions and practices of several other organizations . Edward Cave 's Boy 's Camp Book ( 1914 ) was consulted for the concept of a camp society that would perpetuate camp traditions . College fraternities were also influential for their concepts of brotherhood and rituals , and the idea of new members pledging themselves to the new organization . Inspired by Ernest Thompson Seton 's previous Woodcraft Indians program , American Indian lore was used to make the organization interesting and appealing to youth . Other influences include the Brotherhood of Andrew and Phillip , a Presbyterian church youth group with which Goodman had been involved as a young man , and Freemasonry .
The traditions and rituals of Freemasonry contributed more to the basic structure of the OA ritual than any other organization . In fact , there appears to be no known fraternal organization more faithful in form to Freemasonry than OA . Familiar terms such as " lodge " and " obligation " were borrowed from Masonic practice , as were most of the ceremonial structures and ritual formulae . Even the early national meeting was called a " Grand Lodge , " a Masonic reference . Of course , despite several facts — the common intent to impart a sense of obligation to a higher moral authority ; that groups such as OA that employ these rituals share many of the moral precepts ; and even that there are historical connections to the founders of OA and other organizations to Freemasonry — nothing should imply any political connection to Freemasonry itself .
They ultimately devised a program where troops chose , at the summer camp 's conclusion , those boys from among their number who best exemplified the ideals of Scouting . Those elected were acknowledged as having displayed , in the eyes of their fellow Scouts , a spirit of unselfish service and brotherhood . Edson helped Goodman research the traditions and language of the Lenni Lenape — also known as the Delaware — who had once inhabited Treasure Island . The brotherhood of Scout honor campers with its American Indian overtones was a success and was repeated again the following summer at Treasure Island . Those Scouts honored at Treasure Island in 1915 and 1916 would become members of what is now Unami Lodge .
By 1921 , Goodman had spoken to Scout leaders in surrounding states about the honor society resulting in a number of lodges being established by Scout councils in the northeastern United States . The name of the society was changed to Order of the Arrow , and in October 1921 , Goodman convened the first national meeting of what was then called the " National Lodge of the Order of the Arrow " in Philadelphia — where Goodman was elected as Grand Chieftain . Committees were organized to formulate a constitution , refine ceremonial rituals , devise insignia , and plan future development .
In the early 1920s , many Scout executives were skeptical of what they called " secret camp fraternities . " By September 1922 , opposition to the Order of the Arrow was such that a formal resolution opposing " camp fraternities " was proposed at a national meeting of Scout executives . Goodman argued against the motion : " Using the Scout ideals as our great objective " , he said , a camp activity that will " further the advancement of those ideals " should not be suppressed . The motion was narrowly defeated , and the fledgling Order continued as an experimental program throughout the 1920s and 1930s . In 1931 , there were OA lodges in seven percent of BSA councils nationwide . By 1948 , about two @-@ thirds of the BSA councils had established OA lodges . That year , the OA was also integrated as an official part of the Scouting program .
= = = Order in the 21st century = = =
Over the century since the Order of the Arrow 's founding , more than one million Scouts and Scouters have worn the OA sash on their uniforms , denoting membership in the Brotherhood . The four stated purposes of the Order of the Arrow are : " ( 1 ) Recognize those who best exemplify the Scout Oath and Law in their daily lives and through that recognition cause others to conduct themselves in a way that warrants similar recognition ; ( 2 ) Promote camping , responsible outdoor adventure , and environmental stewardship as essential components of every Scout ’ s experience , in the unit , year @-@ round , and in summer camp ; ( 3 ) Develop leaders with the willingness , character , spirit and ability to advance the activities of their units , our Brotherhood , Scouting , and ultimately our nation ; and ( 4 ) Crystallize the Scout habit of helpfulness into a life purpose of leadership in cheerful service to others .
In a new program of national service conducted from June through August 2008 , the OA offered ArrowCorps5 to both youth and adult Arrowmen . Described as " one of the largest conservation efforts in Scouting 's history " by the Boy Scouts of America , approximately 3 @,@ 500 Arrowmen converged on five national forests to work on various conservation projects such as building new trails and helping preserve nearly extinct species , as well as removing invasive species , in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service . The five national forests are : Mark Twain National Forest , Manti @-@ La Sal National Forest , George Washington and Jefferson National Forests , Shasta @-@ Trinity National Forest and Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest .
= = Membership = =
More than 180 @,@ 000 youth and adults are members of the Order of the Arrow . This number is approximately one @-@ seventh of the total number of those registered in the BSA . Youth members are elected by their local unit . In contrast to Boy Scouting , where youth members are under 18 and adult members are over 18 , OA youth members include all persons under 21 years of age while those 21 and over are considered adult members .
The OA is a part of the Boy Scout program . Youth members are elected from Boy Scout troops and Varsity Scout teams . To be eligible for induction , a Scout must have achieved the rank of First Class , spent at least 15 days and nights camping within the last two years ( six of which at a resident camp ) , and gain the approval of their unit leader . Once elected , a youth must complete their Ordeal within one year . Adults who had not previously joined the Order as a youth member may become members by being nominated by the unit , district , or council committee and then approved by the lodge adult selection committee . Adults must meet the same camping requirement . In addition , at least one youth from the adult 's troop or team must be elected to the OA in that year for an adult to be nominated . A unit may nominate up to one third of the number of adults as the number of youth elected . Honorary membership was once bestowed in special circumstances , as with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Dwight D. Eisenhower , but this practice was officially discontinued in 1953 .
= = = Ordeal = = =
After being elected or nominated , candidates may participate in a call @-@ out ceremony to recognize those Scouts and Scouters that were selected before they attend their Ordeal . The call @-@ out ceremony may be performed at summer camp , a camporee , a call @-@ out weekend or at a unit meeting . Candidates subsequently participate in an Ordeal , intended to emphasize service and selflessness . During the induction , " candidates maintain complete silence , receive small amounts of food , work on camp improvement projects , and are required to sleep alone , apart from other campers , which teaches significant values . " If they succeed in their ordeal the candidates are then welcomed as Ordeal members in a formal Ordeal Ceremony .
= = = Brotherhood = = =
Ordeal members are entitled to all the same rights and privileges of membership in the Order as Brotherhood and Vigil Honor members — there are no ranks within the Order . However , moving on to Brotherhood membership offers an opportunity to reaffirm one 's commitment to the Order . Arrowmen may " seal " their membership after ten months by demonstrating their knowledge of the traditions and obligations of the OA . They then participate in an induction ceremony and become Brotherhood members .
While the Ordeal consists primarily of physical impressions , " the Brotherhood ceremony is one of deeper and quieter mental impressions . "
= = = Vigil Honor = = =
The Vigil Honor is a recognition given to Arrowmen for distinguished contributions beyond the immediate responsibilities of their position or office to their lodge , the Order of the Arrow , Scouting , or their Scout Camp . The Vigil Honor may be conferred upon Arrowmen who have completed a minimum of two years as a Brotherhood member and have performed exceptional service above and beyond their immediate responsibilities through leadership , exemplary efforts , and dedication . However , under no circumstances should tenure in Scouting or the Order of the Arrow be considered as reason enough for a Vigil Honor recommendation . Selection is annual and is limited to one person for every 50 members of the lodge , and members of the Order can be inducted into the Vigil Honor only with the written approval of the national Order of the Arrow committee .
As a part of the Vigil Honor induction , each new Vigil Honor member is given a Vigil Honor name in the language of the Lenni Lenape , on whom the traditions and ceremonies of the Order are based . An English translation of the Vigil Honor name is also provided , and the name often represents a characteristic of the individual .
= = Organization = =
The Order of the Arrow places great emphasis on being a youth @-@ led organization . Only youth under the age 21 are voting members and are eligible to hold elected offices . Professional and volunteer adults are appointed in non @-@ voting advisory positions at the chapter , lodge , and section levels .
= = = Lodge = = =
The basic unit of the OA is the lodge , which is chartered to a local BSA council . The lodge chief is the elected youth leader , the lodge adviser is a BSA adult volunteer appointed by the Scout executive , and the lodge staff adviser is the council Scout executive or his designated council professional Scouter . The lodge youth officers , consisting of the lodge chief , one or more vice chiefs , a secretary , and a treasurer are responsible for organizing and leading the various programs and activities of the lodge . Many lodges have standing committees responsible for ceremonies , service projects , publications , unit elections , camp promotions , and dance teams composed of youth members . Lodges can also divide into chapters , usually corresponding to districts within the council . The chapter is led by the elected youth chapter chief , chapter vice chiefs , secretary , and a volunteer adult is appointed as the adviser , the district executive is the professional ( staff ) adviser .
= = = Section = = =
Lodges are grouped into sections that are then grouped into regions . The section chief is the elected youth leader , a volunteer adult is appointed as the section adviser , and the area director ( or his designate ) is the professional ( staff ) adviser . In addition to the section chief , the section has two additional elected officers . The vice chief and secretary are elected immediately following the election of the section chief at the section 's annual business meeting . All sections gather annually at a section conclave held in the late spring or early fall . The section officers lead the planning of this weekend with the help of the lodge chiefs in the section .
= = = Region = = =
The Order of the Arrow is organized into four regions , Central , Southern , Northeast and Western Region ; the boundaries of each OA region correspond with the boundaries of the BSA 's regions . Each region has an elected region chief , a volunteer adult who is appointed as the region chairman to oversee its region committee , and an appointed professional ( staff ) adviser . Each region chief is elected at the national planning meeting the day after the election of the national chief and vice chief by a caucus of the section chiefs from the given region . The members of the region committee consists of the region chief , the region chairman , all national committeemen from the region , and other appointed adult volunteers . Each region annually has a gathering of all section officers and advisers . As a region they are trained in topics relevant to their jobs . Each region also provides opportunities for Order of the Arrow members to go through a National Leadership Seminar . This weekend course is highly rated and a lasting memory for many members .
= = = National = = =
The national chief and the national vice chief are selected by a caucus of the section chiefs at the outset of the Order of the Arrow 's national planning meeting . At the national level , the OA is headed by the national Order of the Arrow committee of which the national chief and national vice chief are voting members.The national adult leadership includes the volunteer national chairman and the OA director , a professional Scouter .
= = Symbols = =
Arrowmen are identified by a white sash bearing a red arrow that is worn over their right shoulder . An Ordeal member wears a sash with a lone arrow . The Brotherhood member wears a sash bearing an arrow with a red bar at each end of the arrow . A Vigil Honor member wears a sash with the same bars of as the Brotherhood sash at each end of the arrow , and a Vigil Honor triangle on the center of the shaft . Members wear the sash at Order of the Arrow functions and special Scouting activities when members need to be identified as Arrowmen rendering special services . The OA sash is not worn at the same time as the merit badge sash , nor worn folded in the belt . The sash as a form of recognition dates to the founding of the Order and has a long history of changes in usage and design .
The OA Universal Ribbon is worn suspended from the right uniform shirt pocket button . Vigil Honor recipients may add the Vigil Honor pin to the ribbon . Lodge affiliation is indicated by the wearing of the lodge emblem ( commonly known as a lodge flap ) , an embroidered patch worn on the right pocket flap of the uniform shirt . Each lodge flap has a unique design , generally reflecting the name , geography or history of the lodge . Special issues of flaps may be created to commemorate anniversaries and other events and are a popular item for those who engage in Scouting memorabilia collecting .
Arrowmen also exchange a special handshake as a token of brotherhood , along with other signs and passwords . A signature acronym , WWW ( Wimachtendienk , Wingolauchsik , Witahemui - The Brotherhood of Cheerful Service ) is often depicted in publications , regalia , etc .
= = Ceremonies = =
The Order of the Arrow utilizes three nationally standardized ceremonies for Ordeal , Brotherhood , and Vigil Honor memberships using themes , stories , and symbols centered on American Indian traditions as interpreted by the Order of the Arrow . It also utilizes symbolic progression , so that no symbols are introduced before the proper time . This is done to keep the sense of mystery surrounding the ceremonies and their various symbols . There is an element of mystery in the ceremonies for the sake of its effect on the participants , and so the three membership ceremonies are not performed in public . The ceremonies were standardized almost from the beginning of the OA to avoid misunderstandings regarding the diversity of religious beliefs among BSA members .
Ceremonies were once considered to be secret , and consequently the OA has been viewed by some as a secret society . With the introduction of Youth Protection program guidelines in 1980s , the BSA has made clear that any concerned parent , guardian , or religious leader may view a video of the ceremonies , attend meetings , or read ceremonial texts upon request to a council , district , lodge , or chapter official to assure themselves that there is nothing objectionable . Such persons are asked to safeguard the details relating to ceremonies for the sake of the participants . The intent of the provision for parents and religious leaders to be allowed access to ceremonies is to ensure that there is no religious conflict or violations of youth protection guidelines occurring . Parents have long been discouraged in many Lodges from seizing the opportunity to use the provision for photo opportunities with their sons , and some lodges have instituted bans on photography during the ceremonies . Hazing or demeaning initiation pranks are also prohibited by the OA and the BSA .
The ceremonies utilize symbolic settings , rites , and principles to convey various Scouting ideals to participants . As one author depicts a ceremony , " The values of the Order of the Arrow , ' a brotherhood of cheerful service , ' were passed on during a night @-@ time ceremony : an arrowhead outlined with stones on the ground , candles on the stones , a huge bonfire at the base of the arrowhead , and at the point of the arrow a lectern from which was read , and danced , the story of heroic sacrifice for others . " Ceremonies also utilize the OA song , commonly referred to by its first line of lyrics as Firm Bound in Brotherhood , and titled Order of the Arrow Official Song and The Order of the Arrow Song in the printed music score of official OA publications . It was written in 1921 by OA founder E. Urner Goodman to the Russian hymn tune God Save the Tsar ! , composed by Alexei Lvov in the 19th century .
OA ceremony teams are also occasionally asked to assist local Cub Scout and Boy Scout units with special ceremonies including Arrow of Light ceremonies for the Cub Scouts and Eagle Scout ceremonies for Boy Scouts .
= = Awards = =
Awards are separate and distinct from the membership levels of Ordeal and Brotherhood . Awards available through the Order of the Arrow include : Vigil Honor , Founder 's Award , Distinguished Service Award , Lifetime Achievement Award , Red Arrow Award , E. Urner Goodman Camping Award .
= = Events = =
Most lodges hold several annual events , such as one or two annual lodge fellowships , an annual lodge recognition dinner , and one or more Ordeal weekends which usually include Brotherhood ceremonies as well . Many larger lodges delegate responsibility for Ordeal weekends and other service projects upon the individual chapters . Individual summer camps may also host " OA days " during which members of the OA may receive small tokens of recognition in exchange for showing their sash .
The section conclave is an annual activity ( prior to 1972 known as an Area OA Conference ) involving three or more lodges in an established geographic area . Each conclave is led by section youth officers elected from among the member lodges at the previous year 's conclave , and the event itself is prepared in cooperation with various other lodge officers , and with one lodge serving as the " host lodge " .
The national OA committee also sponsors various national service opportunities , the oldest of which is the National OA Service Corps at the national Scout jamborees , at which Arrowmen have helped with many functions including shows and the Outdoor Adventure Program exhibit .
= = = High Adventure Program = = =
The National OA Committee also sponsors service groups to the three National High Adventure Bases , originally starting with the Order of the Arrow Trail Crew at the Philmont Scout Ranch working to build new trails and repair old ones . This expanded to the Northern Tier National High Adventure Bases with the OA Wilderness Voyage , repairing the portage trails in the Boundary Waters area , and then to Florida National High Adventure Sea Base in 2005 with Ocean Adventure , which works to remove invasive species on some of the Keys and promoting and carrying out of the Bleach watch program in the Florida Keys . In the summer of 2009 , the OA began the OA Canadian Odyssey program which provided service similar to the OA Wilderness Voyage to the Donald Rogert Canoe Base in Atikokan , Ontario of Northern Tier National High Adventure Bases .
= = = National Order of the Arrow Conference = = =
The National Order of the Arrow Conference ( NOAC ) is a multi @-@ day event which usually takes place on a university campus , bringing together thousands of delegates from OA lodges around the nation for training and activities . NOACs are held every two years , with exceptions made to align the event with significant anniversaries . As a youth @-@ led organization , these national conferences are organized and directed by the elected section and region youth officers , who serve on committees responsible for various conference aspects under the leadership of the conference vice @-@ chief . Events include training for programs , leadership and American Indian culture ; competitions in athletics , ceremonies , cooking and American Indian dances ; and exhibits on OA history , outdoor activities and camping . There are also opportunities to talk with national leaders , perform service work and trade patches . Evening shows have different themes , including American Indian culture and recognition of dance competition winners , presentations of awards including the OA Distinguished Service Award and other entertainment .
= = Training = =
In addition to training courses available at a NOAC or section conclave , the OA offers specialized leadership training as weekend events for members : Lodge Leadership Development ( LLD ) , National Leadership Seminars ( NLS ) , and National Lodge Adviser Training Seminar ( NLATS ) . LLD is a one @-@ day or two @-@ day event conducted by a lodge to train their officers and advisers . NLS 's are conducted by regions for lodge officers and advisers . Many lodges send key officers to receive training . Typically , each region schedules three or four NLS weekends annually , at geographically dispersed locations within the region . NLATS is a training event for adults , usually held in conjunction with an NLS and conducted by regions , on the role of advisers in the OA .
= = = Lodge Leadership Development ( LLD ) = = =
The LLD ’ s primary objective is to train and orient lodge and chapter officers to the logistics of operating their chapters and lodges . Lodges are primarily responsible for providing this training to its officers , and there are resources available online to add to the course ’ s syllabus .
= = = National Leadership Seminar ( NLS ) = = =
Each region in the Order of the Arrow is responsible for putting on three to four NLSs each year in different areas of the region . The NLS has received praise for being one of the most valuable training offered by the BSA . Participants spend a weekend with Arrowmen in different parts of the region learning about the theory and practice of effective leadership . Each region is responsible for their NLS ’ s program , and the weekend is organized by the region chief and his support staff . Primary NLS staff go through a national training weekend called Train the Trainer , put on once every two years .
= = = National Lodge Adviser Training Seminar ( NLATS ) = = =
Largely considered the adult equivalent of the NLS program , NLATS ’ s primary objective is to provide advanced training to adults in each lodge . NLATS and NLS usually happen concurrently on the same weekend . The event is planned and executed by a staff of adults .
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= St Joseph 's Convent , Taunton =
St Joseph 's Convent is a complex of 18th- and 19th @-@ century buildings in Taunton , Somerset , which were primarily used as a Roman Catholic convent , first by the Franciscans , and then Sisters of St. Joseph of Annecy . The buildings were sold out of the Catholic church in 1976 , and were redeveloped as residential flats in 2005 . The main building is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II * listed building , while the boundary walls on the west side are Grade II listed .
The main building was begun in 1772 , as a free hospital for the poor , but funding ran out two years later , and it was completed as a private residence . In the early 19th century , it was bought by a group of Franciscan nuns , who moved from an unsatisfactory site in Winchester . The nuns carried out a number of additions and extensions to the building to make it more suitable for their needs . They moved out of Taunton in 1950 and sold the convent to the Sisters of St. Joseph , who continued to run a school on the site for the next twenty @-@ six years .
= = History = =
Originally , the site was intended to be a hospital ; on the first stone , which was laid in September 1772 , the engraving describes the building as " a general hospital , for the relief of the sick poor . " That foundation stone was laid by Frederick North , Lord North , the British Prime Minister at the time . In 1774 , the building work stopped when funds ran out , and shortly after it was sold to recover the debts incurred from building it . The building was eventually completed as a personal residence , and came into the hands of James Coles . Upon his death , the house , known as Taunton Lodge , was put up for sale . This was brought to the attention of a group of Franciscan nuns . The nuns had left Bruges in Belgium , and arrived in England in 1794 to avoid persecution during the French Revolution . They initially settled in Winchester , but the buildings they utilised there were not suitable for their permanent use , and in October 1806 , they were ordered to look for somewhere else to establish themselves .
Mr Knight of Cannington alerted the nuns to the sale of Taunton Lodge , and they raised the £ 3 @,@ 150 required to purchase it . They completed the purchase in early May 1807 , after some minor quibbles with the Coles family . When the abbess visited the Lodge prior to the purchase , she had identified that it would require £ 1 @,@ 000 worth of improvements in addition to the money already spent on its acquisition . The plans included extending the existing building to gain a staircase and some dormitories for the school girls , and the addition of a new wing that would include a chapel , infirmary , four cells , and rooms for the male chaplain and servants . The new building was began in March 1808 , and by June of that year , the entire community had moved from Winchester , despite the work being ongoing . The shell of the new body was completed by the autumn of 1808 , but the work was delayed due to a lack of finances as £ 1 @,@ 908 had already been spent on altering the old building . This cost did not include the erection of the new wing , thus the constructions costs were already far surpassing the original estimate .
Within two years of being built , the roof on the new wing had to be replaced as it had started sinking ; the joists " were made of bad wood & put in the wrong way " . It was too close to winter in 1810 for the work to be completed that year , and it had to be left until the following spring . The wing was completed , with replacement roof , by January 1812 , at a total cost of just over £ 2 @,@ 230 . A storm in 1818 damaged the roof in the original building , and on inspection it was found that the whole roof should be replaced ; this was completed by September of the same year .
The convent continued to be significantly expanded over the next twenty years , and in 1858 the Franciscans purchased a plot of land adjacent to the convent for the erection of a church , rectory and school . This was gifted to the local Bishop , and St George 's Church was opened on the site two years later .
In 1950 , the Franciscans sold the convent buildings to the Sisters of St. Joseph of Annecy . The latter had been in Taunton since the 1920s , running St George 's School , and upon purchasing the convent , set up St Joseph 's Convent School , which catered for boys and girls up to the age of 11 , and girls on to 18 . That school continued to operate until 1976 , when the property was bought by the nearby King 's College , who used it as accommodation for their boarding students . In 2005 , the building complex was converted to " high quality " residential flats .
= = = 1809 miracle = = =
In March 1809 a miracle was reported as occurring at the convent . It is recorded that one of the nuns , Sister Mary Ann Wood , sustained a deep cut across her arm while opening a sash window . She was attended by a local surgeon , who judged that the muscles , and most of the tendons had been severed . The wound healed over after three weeks , but she continued to suffer sharp pain for four months . During all this time , she was not able to use her hand or arm , and despite attempting a variety of different methods to repair the broken tendons , the doctor eventually declared that she may regain use of her forefinger and thumb , but not the rest of her fingers . By this time , her arm and hand had withered , and Sister Mary Ann decided to make a novena ( nine prayers ) to Saint Winifred . She began her prayers on 6 August , and placed a piece of moss on her arm ; she said that she felt intense pain , and considered removing the moss , but opted not to . The following morning , she awoke , and her hand and arm were returned to full strength . The surgeon who had been tending to her was said to have " at first declared the case a miracle ; but human respect prevented him from publicly attesting it . " The Right Reverend Peter Collingridge , Vicar Apostolic of the Western District , after consulting a Catholic surgeon in London , declared " that the cure was supernatural and an evident miracle . "
= = = 1851 case of Augusta Talbot = = =
In 1851 , the House of Commons was petitioned by Craven Berkeley , who had previously sat as the member of parliament for Cheltenham . He claimed that his step @-@ daughter , Augusta Talbot , had been forced to join the Franciscan Convent in Taunton as a postulant ( the first stage to become a nun ) , rather than a pupil . Her father had died in 1839 and then her mother , after remarrying , died in 1841 , and with the subsequent death of her brother , she was due to inherit £ 80 @,@ 000 . After the death of her mother , Talbot had been placed in the care of Francis Talbot , 5th Earl of Shrewsbury , her father 's half @-@ brother . Berkeley alleged that the Shrewsburys first attempted to marry her to François VII de La Rochefoucauld , and then when she refused , placed her at the Taunton convent against her will . The allegation followed that when Talbot became a nun , her inheritance , which was due to her in June 1852 , would become property of the convent , or the greater Catholic church . Berkeley also protested that he and his daughter were not allowed to communicate with Talbot , though Thomas Wilde , 1st Baron Truro , the Lord Chancellor , noted that Berkeley had not tried to see Talbot for nine years . Lord Truro contacted Talbot , who stated that she was not a postulant , and she was amenable to his plans to remove her from the convent and place her in the care of a new guardian in London . He duly did so , and rejected Berkeley 's petition , upon the basis of his previous lack of contact with Talbot .
= = Architecture = =
The main building is a symmetrical three @-@ storey house built of red brick , with a yellow brick central range which was added later . The building has a cornice and parapet , and a bowed end which projects to the east . On the south side , there is an additional attic storey . The house retains its original sash windows , and on the first floor some of the windows have wrought @-@ iron balconettes . An addition to the building has been made in the south @-@ west , including an arcade on the ground floor , and a bell tower . Further additions were made to the main building in the 19th century , including a Gothic chapel of red brick with ashlar dressings to the north . There are later buildings on either side of the chapel : to the west is a 19th @-@ century building with a two @-@ storey entrance porch , while a Gothic cloister , comprising two walks with scissor @-@ trussed timber roofs , lies to the east . There is a further extension to the south , which is not part of the Grade II * listing .
A summerhouse was added to the grounds , probably alongside the 19th @-@ century additions to the main building . It was constructed of red and white brick , and had a steep slate roof . The east side displayed a crucifix . The building was Grade II listed in July 1975 , but has since been demolished . The stone walls around the site are Grade II listed where they are the original " high stone rubble wall with brick capping " ; in other places they have been renovated in newer red brick .
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= Battle of Horseshoe Bend ( 1832 ) =
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend , also referred to as the Battle of Pecatonica and the Battle of Bloody Lake , was fought on June 16 , 1832 in present @-@ day Wisconsin at an oxbow lake known as " Horseshoe Bend " , which was formed by a change in course of the Pecatonica River . The battle was a major turning point in the Black Hawk War , despite being of only minor military significance . The small victory won by the U.S. militia at Horseshoe Bend helped restore public confidence in the volunteer force following an embarrassing defeat at Stillman 's Run . The Battle of Horseshoe Bend ended with three militia men killed in action and a party of eleven Kickapoo warriors dead .
The militia men involved in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend proved their ability to obey orders , act as a disciplined unit , and show bravery . Unlike at Stillman 's Run , the troops waited for Colonel Henry Dodge 's commands before acting on the field of battle . When ordered to charge , the men obeyed and eventually won a fight that descended into a bloody hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle . A memorial marker was erected to commemorate the battle in 1922 . Today the battleground at Horseshoe Bend is a county park .
= = Background = =
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between Governor William Henry Harrison of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement , the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828 . However , Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty , claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted , nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands . Angered by the loss of his birthplace , between 1830 and 1831 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River , but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British , he again moved his so @-@ called " British Band " of around 1000 warriors and non @-@ combatants into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return to Iowa , but the undisciplined Illinois Militia force 's actions led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other small skirmishes and massacres followed and the militias of Michigan Territory and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's Band . The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War .
The period between Stillman 's Run and Horseshoe Bend was filled with war @-@ related activity . A series of attacks at Buffalo Grove , the Plum River settlement , Fort Blue Mounds and the war 's most famous incident , the Indian Creek massacre , all took place between mid @-@ May and late June 1832 . In the week before the Battle of Horseshoe Bend , Colonel Henry Dodge of the western Michigan Territory militia was busy responding to various incidents across the region . On the afternoon of June 8 , 1832 , Dodge and his men , including James W. Stephenson , proceeded to Kellogg 's Grove and buried the victims of the St. Vrain massacre . That night Stephenson returned to Galena , Illinois , while Dodge moved to Hickory Point where he remained overnight . The next morning Dodge set out for Dixon 's Ferry , where he camped with General Hugh Brady .
= = Prelude = =
On June 11 , Dodge escorted Brady to the mouth of the Fox River to confer with overall commander General Henry Atkinson . Dodge left the conference with clear authority from Atkinson to deal with the violence in the mining region . He first traveled to his home fort , at Gratiot 's Grove , which he reached on June 13 . The Spafford Farm massacre occurred the following day , and Dodge set out for Fort Hamilton as soon as he heard about it , stopping at Fort Blue Mounds for supplies . On the way to Hamilton , the soldiers passed a German immigrant , Henry Apple , exchanged greetings and kept traveling . Shortly afterwards the soldiers heard gunshots in the distance ; Apple had met with a Kickapoo ambush , likely meant for Dodge himself . Dodge was probably saved by his last minute decision to make a detour from the main route . Later Apple 's horse galloped wildly back past the men , wounded and carrying a large amount of blood in its saddle . The horse continued all the way to Fort Hamilton , where it raised a furor among the inhabitants .
A Native American band from the Kickapoo tribe , eleven warriors in all , was responsible for the attack on Apple ; the same band had killed five men at Spafford Farm on June 14 . This band was only loosely affiliated with Black Hawk 's British Band .
On hearing the ambush in the distance , Dodge hurried on toward Fort Hamilton ( present @-@ day Wiota , Wisconsin ) where he gathered together a company of 29 mounted volunteers and sped off to intercept the attackers . He led the chase through tangled underbrush until , breaking into prairie , his force caught sight of the raiding party . The Kickapoo crossed the Pecatonica River within sight of the pursuing militia , and entered into an overgrown swamp . The militia followed across the swollen river and dismounted when they reached the swamp .
= = Battle = =
According to personal accounts of the battle , after dismounting Dodge offered his men a chance to back out of the operation . No one opted out , and 21 men advanced with Dodge in an extended firing line , unsure of the enemy 's location . The remaining eight soldiers were posted as guards on high grounds and near the horses . Unlike the disorganized and undisciplined troops at Stillman 's Run , the volunteers at Horseshoe Bend adhered to military discipline ; they waited for Dodge to give the order before they entered the thicket and swampland in search of their enemy , and once searching they awaited their commander 's order to attack .
After the militia advanced about 200 yards ( 200 m ) , the Kickapoo suddenly let loose a loud yell from their hidden position on the bank of an oxbow lake along the river . The warriors fired a volley toward the advancing militia and three men , Samuel Black , Samuel Wells and Montaville Morris , were hit and went down . Dodge did not hesitate and ordered his men to charge , they obeyed and waited until they were within six feet of the Kickapoo before discharging their weapons . The fight , after the initial charge and volley , descended into a hand @-@ to @-@ hand struggle with tomahawks , bayonets , muskets and spears the weapons of choice . The fighting only lasted a few minutes : nine Kickapoo were killed on the spot and the other two were felled while fleeing across the lake . During the hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat a fourth member of the militia , Thomas Jenkins , was wounded . Though short , the Battle of Horseshoe Bend had a lasting impact and influence on the rest of the war .
= = Aftermath = =
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend , though of little military significance , was a major turning point in the war for the volunteer militia forces and many white settlers . This minor militia victory was the first step in the process of redeeming the militia 's own morale and its standing in the eyes of the settlers on the frontier . Individual accounts claim that the battle at Horseshoe Bend " turn ( ed ) the tide of the war . " It was also notable for the proportion of killed in action to the number of combatants . All eleven Kickapoo that Dodge had pursued into the swamp were killed and scalped by his troops , while the final militia casualties were confined to three dead and one wounded . About an hour after the battle , Colonel William S. Hamilton arrived with friendly Menominee , Sioux and Ho @-@ Chunk warriors . According to Dodge , the friendly warriors were given some of the scalps his men had taken , with which they were " delighted " . Dodge also reported that the Native Americans then proceeded on to the battlefield and mutilated the corpses of the fallen Kickapoo .
Of Dodge 's casualties , Thomas Jenkins was only slightly wounded . However , the three Militia men who had been shot as they advanced towards the Kickapoo position all later died . Samuel Wells , Montaville Morris and Samuel Black were transported to Fort Hamilton ; Morris died at the fort , as did Wells , with his head in a comrade 's lap . When informed by the surgeon of his imminent death , Wells requested to speak with Dodge . Wells asked Dodge " if he had behaved like a soldier . " Dodge responded , " Yes , Wells , like a brave one . " Wells then said to the commander , " Send that word to my old father , " and died a short time later . Samuel Black was moved to Fort Defiance , where he lingered for nine days before dying .
This was the first battle in which a volunteer force defeated the Native Americans . Dodge became the first of the militia leaders to prove his ability to stand up to the enemy . He quickly became the " rising star " of the conflict , having helped negotiate the release of the Hall sisters after the Indian Creek massacre and proved himself at Horseshoe Bend .
The battlefield at Horseshoe Bend is now a campground located within a county park in Lafayette County , Wisconsin . The Black Hawk Memorial Park is maintained by the Lafayette County Sportsmen Alliance , Yellowstone Flint and Cap club , and the Friends of Woodford Park . In 1922 , a marker was erected by the Shullsburg chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution and the residents of Woodford to commemorate the Battle of Horseshoe Bend ; it is still visible today . The battlefield was listed on the National Register of Historic Places by the National Park Service on July 28 , 2011 .
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= The New York Times =
The New York Times ( sometimes abbreviated to NYT ) is an American daily newspaper , founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18 , 1851 , by The New York Times Company . The New York Times has won 117 Pulitzer Prizes , more than any other news organization .
The paper 's print version has the second @-@ largest circulation , behind The Wall Street Journal , and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the United States of America . The New York Times is ranked 39th in the world by circulation . Following industry trends , its weekday circulation has fallen to fewer than one million daily since 1990 .
Nicknamed for years as " The Gray Lady " , The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a national " newspaper of record " . The New York Times is owned by The New York Times Company . Arthur Ochs Sulzberger , Jr . , the Publisher and the Chairman of the Board , is a member of the Ochs @-@ Sulzberger family that has controlled the paper since 1896 . The New York Times international version , formerly the International Herald Tribune , is now called the International New York Times .
The paper 's motto , " All the News That 's Fit to Print " , appears in the upper left @-@ hand corner of the front page . Since the mid @-@ 1970s , The New York Times has greatly expanded its layout and organization , adding special weekly sections on various topics supplementing the regular news , editorials , sports , and features . In recent times , The New York Times has been organized into the following sections : News , Editorials / Opinions @-@ Columns / Op @-@ Ed , New York ( metropolitan ) , Business , Sports of The Times , Arts , Science , Styles , Home , Travel , and other features .
On Sunday , The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review ( formerly the Week in Review ) , The New York Times Book Review , The New York Times Magazine and T : The New York Times Style Magazine . The New York Times stayed with the broadsheet full page set @-@ up ( as some others have changed into a tabloid lay @-@ out ) and an eight @-@ column format for several years , after most papers switched to six , and was one of the last newspapers to adopt color photography , especially on the front page .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The New York Times was founded as the New @-@ York Daily Times on September 18 , 1851 , by journalist and politician Henry Jarvis Raymond ( 1820 – 69 ) , then a Whig Party member and later second chairman of the newly organized Republican Party National Committee , and former banker George Jones . Sold for a penny ( equivalent to 28 cents today ) , the inaugural edition attempted to address various speculations on its purpose and positions that preceded its release :
We shall be Conservative , in all cases where we think Conservatism essential to the public good ; — and we shall be Radical in everything which may seem to us to require radical treatment and radical reform . We do not believe that everything in Society is either exactly right or exactly wrong ; — what is good we desire to preserve and improve ; — what is evil , to exterminate , or reform .
The newspaper shortened its name to The New @-@ York Times in 1857 . It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s . On April 21 , 1861 , The New York Times departed from its original Monday – Saturday publishing schedule and joined other major dailies in adding a Sunday edition to offer daily coverage of the Civil War . One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair , the subject of twenty editorials it published alone .
The main office of The New York Times was attacked during the New York Draft Riots sparked by the beginning of military conscription for the Northern Union Army now instituted in the midst of the Civil War on July 13 , 1863 . At " Newspaper Row " , across from City Hall , Henry Raymond , owner and editor of The New York Times , averted the rioters with " Gatling " ( early machine , rapid @-@ firing ) guns , one of which he manned himself . The mob now diverted , instead attacked the headquarters of abolitionist publisher Horace Greeley 's New York Tribune until forced to flee by the Brooklyn City Police , who had crossed the East River to help the Manhattan authorities .
The newspaper 's influence grew during 1870 – 1 when it published a series of exposés on William Magear ( " Boss " ) Tweed , leader of the city 's Democratic Party — popularly known as " Tammany Hall " ( from its early 19th Century meeting headquarters ) — that led to the end of the " Tweed Ring 's " domination of New York 's City Hall . In the 1880s , The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical . In 1884 , the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland ( former Mayor of Buffalo and Governor of New York State ) in his first presidential campaign . While this move cost The New York Times ' readership among its more progressive and Republican readers , the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years and slowly acquired a reputation for even @-@ handedness and accurate modern reporting , especially by the 1890s under the guidance of its new owner and publisher , Adolph Ochs of Chattanooga , Tennessee . The New York Times was acquired by Ochs , publisher of the Chattanooga Times , in 1896 . The following year , he coined the paper 's slogan , " All The News That 's Fit To Print " , which has since been printed in a box in the upper left hand corner of the front page ; this was a jab at competing papers such as Joseph Pulitzer 's New York World and William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal which were now being known for a lurid , sensationalist and often inaccurate reporting of facts and opinions known by the end of the century as " yellow journalism " . Under Ochs ' guidance , continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition , ( which were from the era of James Gordon Bennett of the New York Herald which predated Pulitzer and Hearst 's arrival in New York ) , The New York Times achieved international scope , circulation , and reputation . In 1904 , The New York Times received the first on @-@ the @-@ spot wireless telegraph transmission from a naval battle , a report of the destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy 's Baltic Fleet at the Battle of Port Arthur in the Straits of Tsushima off the eastern coast of Korea in the Yellow Sea in the western Pacific Ocean after just sailing across the globe from Europe from the press @-@ boat Haimun during the Russo @-@ Japanese War ( one of the most important and history @-@ changing naval battles in history ) . In 1910 , the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began . The New York Times ' first trans @-@ Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible . In 1920 , a " 4 A.M. Airplane Edition " was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening .
In the 1940s , the paper extended its breadth and reach . The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942 , and the fashion section in 1946 . The New York Times began an international edition in 1946 . The international edition stopped publishing in 1967 , when The New York Times joined the owners of the New York Herald Tribune and The Washington Post to publish the International Herald Tribune in Paris . The paper bought AM radio station WQXR ( 1560 kHz ) in 1944 . Its " sister " FM station , WQXQ , would become WQXR @-@ FM ( 96 @.@ 3 MHz ) . Branded as " The Radio Stations of The New York Times " , its classical music radio format was simulcast on both the AM & FM frequencies until December 1992 , when the big @-@ band and pop standards music format of station WNEW ( 1130 kHz – now WBBR / " Bloomberg Radio " ) was transferred to and adopted by WQXR ; in recognition of the format change , WQXR changed its call letters to WQEW ( a " hybrid " combination of " WQXR " and " WNEW " ) . By 1999 , The New York Times was leasing WQEW to ABC Radio for its " Radio Disney " format . In 2007 , WQEW was finally purchased by Disney ; in late 2014 , it was sold to Family Radio ( a religious radio network ) and became WFME . On July 14 , 2009 , it was announced that WQXR @-@ FM would be sold to the WNYC radio group who , on October 8 , 2009 , moved the station from 96 @.@ 3 to 105 @.@ 9 MHz ( swapping frequencies with Spanish @-@ language station WXNY @-@ FM , which wanted the more powerful transmitter to increase its coverage ) and began operating it as a non @-@ commercial , public radio station . After the purchase , WQXR @-@ FM retained the classical music format , whereas WNYC @-@ FM ( 93 @.@ 9 MHz ) abandoned it , switching to a talk radio format .
The New York Times is third in national circulation , after USA Today and The Wall Street Journal . The newspaper is owned by The New York Times Company , in which descendants of Adolph Ochs , principally the Sulzberger family , maintain a dominant role . In 2009 , article circulation dropped 7 @.@ 3 percent to about 928 @,@ 000 ; this is the first time since the 1980s that it has fallen under one million . As of February 2013 , the paper reported a circulation of 1 @,@ 317 @,@ 100 copies in weekdays and 1 @,@ 781 @,@ 100 copies on Sundays . In the New York City metropolitan area , the paper costs $ 2 @.@ 50 Monday through Saturday and $ 5 on Sunday . The New York Times has won 117 Pulitzer Prizes , more than any other newspaper .
In 2009 , the newspaper began production of local inserts in regions outside of the New York area . Beginning October 16 , 2009 , a two @-@ page " Bay Area " insert was added to copies of the Northern California edition on Fridays and Sundays . The newspaper commenced production of a similar Friday and Sunday insert to the Chicago edition on November 20 , 2009 . The inserts consist of local news , policy , sports , and culture pieces , usually supported by local advertisements .
In addition to its New York City headquarters , the newspaper has ten news bureaus in the New York region , eleven national news bureaus and 26 foreign news bureaus . The New York Times reduced its page width to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) from 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 340 mm ) on August 6 , 2007 , adopting the width that has become the U.S. newspaper industry standard .
Because of its steadily declining sales attributed to the rise of online alternative media and social media , the newspaper has been going through a downsizing for several years , offering buyouts to workers and cutting expenses , in common with a general trend among print news media .
= = = Headquarters building = = =
The newspaper 's first building was located at 113 Nassau Street in New York City . In 1854 , it moved to 138 Nassau Street , and in 1858 to 41 Park Row , making it the first newspaper in New York City housed in a building built specifically for its use .
The newspaper moved its headquarters to the Times Tower , located at 1475 Broadway in 1904 , in an area called Longacre Square , that was later renamed Times Square in honor of the newspaper . The top of the building – now known as One Times Square – is the site of the New Year 's Eve tradition of lowering a lighted ball , that was started by the paper . The building is also notable for its electronic news ticker – popularly known as " The Zipper " – where headlines crawled around the outside of the building . It is still in use , but is now operated by the Reuters news agency . After nine years in its Times Square tower , the newspaper had an annex built at 229 West 43rd Street . After several expansions , the 43rd Street building became the newspaper 's main headquarters in 1960 and the Times Tower on Broadway was sold the following year . It served as the newspaper 's main printing plant until 1997 , when the newspaper opened a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art printing plant in the College Point section of the borough of Queens .
A decade later , The New York Times moved its newsroom and businesses headquarters from West 43rd Street to a new tower at 620 Eighth Avenue between West 40th and 41st Streets , in Manhattan – directly across Eighth Avenue from the Port Authority Bus Terminal . The new headquarters for the newspaper , known officially as The New York Times Building but unofficially called the new " Times Tower " by many New Yorkers , is a skyscraper designed by Renzo Piano .
= = = New York Times v. Sullivan = = =
The paper 's involvement in a 1964 libel case helped bring one of the key United States Supreme Court decisions supporting freedom of the press , New York Times Co. v. Sullivan . In it , the United States Supreme Court established the " actual malice " standard for press reports about public officials or public figures to be considered defamatory or libelous . The malice standard requires the plaintiff in a defamation or libel case prove the publisher of the statement knew the statement was false or acted in reckless disregard of its truth or falsity . Because of the high burden of proof on the plaintiff , and difficulty in proving malicious intent , such cases by public figures rarely succeed .
= = = The Pentagon Papers = = =
In 1971 , the Pentagon Papers , a secret United States Department of Defense history of the United States ' political and military involvement in the Vietnam War from 1945 to 1967 , were given ( " leaked " ) to Neil Sheehan of The New York Times by former State Department official Daniel Ellsberg , with his friend Anthony Russo assisting in copying them . The New York Times began publishing excerpts as a series of articles on June 13 . Controversy and lawsuits followed . The papers revealed , among other things , that the government had deliberately expanded its role in the war by conducting air strikes over Laos , raids along the coast of North Vietnam , and offensive actions taken by U.S. Marines well before the public was told about the actions , all while President Lyndon B. Johnson had been promising not to expand the war . The document increased the credibility gap for the U.S. government , and hurt efforts by the Nixon administration to fight the ongoing war .
When The New York Times began publishing its series , President Richard Nixon became incensed . His words to National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger included " People have gotta be put to the torch for this sort of thing ... " and " Let 's get the son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch in jail . " After failing to get The New York Times to stop publishing , Attorney General John Mitchell and President Nixon obtained a federal court injunction that The New York Times cease publication of excerpts . The newspaper appealed and the case began working through the court system . On June 18 , 1971 , The Washington Post began publishing its own series . Ben Bagdikian , a Post editor , had obtained portions of the papers from Ellsberg . That day the Post received a call from the Assistant Attorney General , William Rehnquist , asking them to stop publishing . When the Post refused , the U.S. Justice Department sought another injunction . The U.S. District court judge refused , and the government appealed . On June 26 , 1971 the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to take both cases , merging them into New York Times Co. v. United States 403 US 713 . On June 30 , 1971 , the Supreme Court held in a 6 – 3 decision that the injunctions were unconstitutional prior restraints and that the government had not met the burden of proof required . The justices wrote nine separate opinions , disagreeing on significant substantive issues . While it was generally seen as a victory for those who claim the First Amendment enshrines an absolute right to free speech , many felt it a lukewarm victory , offering little protection for future publishers when claims of national security were at stake .
= = = Discrimination in employment = = =
Discriminatory practices restricting women in editorial positions were part of the history , correlating with effects on the journalism published at the time . The newspaper 's first general woman reporter was Jane Grant , who described her experience afterwards . She wrote , " In the beginning I was charged not to reveal the fact that a female had been hired " . Other reporters nicknamed her Fluff and she was subjected to considerable hazing . Because of her gender , promotions were out of the question , according to the then @-@ managing editor . She was there for fifteen years , interrupted by World War I.
In 1935 , Anne McCormick wrote to Arthur Hays Sulzberger , " I hope you won 't expect me to revert to ' woman 's @-@ point @-@ of @-@ view ' stuff . " Later , she interviewed major political leaders and appears to have had easier access than her colleagues did . Even those who witnessed her in action were unable to explain how she got the interviews she did . Clifton Daniel said , " [ After World War II , ] I 'm sure Adenauer called her up and invited her to lunch . She never had to grovel for an appointment . " Covering world leaders ' speeches after World War II at the National Press Club was limited to men by a Club rule . When women were eventually allowed in to hear the speeches , they still were not allowed to ask the speakers questions , although men were allowed and did ask , even though some of the women had won Pulitzer Prizes for prior work . Times reporter Maggie Hunter refused to return to the Club after covering one speech on assignment . Nan Robertson 's article on the Union Stock Yards , Chicago , was read aloud as anonymous by a professor , who then said , " ' It will come as a surprise to you , perhaps , that the reporter is a girl , ' he began ... [ G ] asps ; amazement in the ranks . ' She had used all her senses , not just her eyes , to convey the smell and feel of the stockyards . She chose a difficult subject , an offensive subject . Her imagery was strong enough to revolt you . ' " The New York Times hired Kathleen McLaughlin after ten years at the Chicago Tribune , where " [ s ] he did a series on maids , going out herself to apply for housekeeping jobs . "
= = = End of tenure track = = =
In February 2013 , the paper stopped offering lifelong positions for its journalists and editors .
= = Ownership = =
In 1896 , Adolph Ochs bought The New York Times , a money @-@ losing newspaper , and formed the New York Times Company . The Ochs @-@ Sulzberger family , one of the United States ' newspaper dynasties , has owned The New York Times ever since . After the publisher went public in the 1960s , the family continued to exert control through its ownership of the vast majority of Class B voting shares . Class A shareholders are permitted restrictive voting rights while Class B shareholders are allowed open voting rights .
The Ochs @-@ Sulzberger family trust controls roughly 88 percent of the company 's class B shares . Any alteration to the dual @-@ class structure must be ratified by six of eight directors who sit on the board of the Ochs @-@ Sulzberger family trust . The Trust board members are Daniel H. Cohen , James M. Cohen , Lynn G. Dolnick , Susan W. Dryfoos , Michael Golden , Eric M. A. Lax , Arthur O. Sulzberger , Jr. and Cathy J. Sulzberger .
Turner Catledge , the top editor at The New York Times from 1952 to 1968 , wanted to hide the ownership influence . Arthur Sulzberger routinely wrote memos to his editor , each containing suggestions , instructions , complaints , and orders . When Catledge would receive these memos he would erase the publisher 's identity before passing them to his subordinates . Catledge thought that if he removed the publisher 's name from the memos it would protect reporters from feeling pressured by the owner .
= = = Carlos Slim loan and investment = = =
On January 20 , 2009 , The New York Times reported that Carlos Slim , Mexican telecommunications magnate and the world 's second richest person , lent it $ 250 million " to help the newspaper company finance its businesses " . Since then , Slim has made additional investments in Times stock . As of October 6 , 2011 , according to Reuters , his position was estimated at over 8 @.@ 1 % of Class A shares .
On January 20 , 2015 , Slim increased his stake in the New York Times to 16 @.@ 8 % when he exercised stock options to purchase 15 @.@ 9 million shares , acquired as part of a repayment plan on a loan given to the New York Times Co. during the financial crisis in 2009 . Although this acquisition made him the largest shareholder in the company , it does not give him the ability to control the newspaper , as his stake allows him to vote only for Class A directors , who compose just a third of the company 's board .
= = = Dual @-@ class shares = = =
Dual @-@ class structures caught on in the mid @-@ 20th century as families such as the Grahams of The Washington Post Company sought to gain access to public capital without losing control . Dow Jones & Co . , publisher of The Wall Street Journal , had a similar structure and was controlled by the Bancroft family but was later bought by News Corporation in 2007 , which itself is controlled by Rupert Murdoch and his family through a similar dual @-@ class structure .
= = Content = =
= = = Sections = = =
The newspaper is organized in three sections , including the magazine .
News : Includes International , National , Washington , Business , Technology , Science , Health , Sports , The Metro Section , Education , Weather , and Obituaries .
Opinion : Includes Editorials , Op @-@ Eds and Letters to the Editor .
Features : Includes Arts , Movies , Theater , Travel , NYC Guide , Food , Home & Garden , Fashion & Style , Crossword , The New York Times Book Review , T : The New York Times Style Magazine , The New York Times Magazine , and Sunday Review .
Some sections , such as Metro , are only found in the editions of the paper distributed in the New York – New Jersey – Connecticut Tri @-@ State Area and not in the national or Washington , D.C. editions . Aside from a weekly roundup of reprints of editorial cartoons from other newspapers , The New York Times does not have its own staff editorial cartoonist , nor does it feature a comics page or Sunday comics section . In September 2008 , The New York Times announced that it would be combining certain sections effective October 6 , 2008 , in editions printed in the New York metropolitan area . The changes folded the Metro Section into the main International / National news section and combined Sports and Business ( except Saturday through Monday , when Sports is still printed as a standalone section ) . This change also included having the name of the Metro section be called New York outside of the Tri @-@ State Area . The presses used by The New York Times allow four sections to be printed simultaneously ; as the paper had included more than four sections all days except Saturday , the sections had to be printed separately in an early press run and collated together . The changes will allow The New York Times to print in four sections Monday through Wednesday , in addition to Saturday . The New York Times ' announcement stated that the number of news pages and employee positions will remain unchanged , with the paper realizing cost savings by cutting overtime expenses . According to Russ Stanton , editor of the Los Angeles Times , a competitor , the newsroom of The New York Times is twice the size of the Los Angeles Times , which currently has a newsroom of 600 . In March 2014 , Vanessa Friedman was named the " fashion director and chief fashion critic " of The New York Times .
= = = Style = = =
When referring to people , The New York Times generally uses honorifics , rather than unadorned last names ( except in the sports pages , Book Review and Magazine ) . It stayed with an eight @-@ column format until September 7 , 1976 , years after other papers had switched to six , and it was one of the last newspapers to adopt color photography , with the first color photograph on the front page appearing on October 16 , 1997 . In the absence of a major headline , the day 's most important story generally appears in the top @-@ right column , on the main page . The typefaces used for the headlines are custom variations of Cheltenham . The running text is set at 8 @.@ 7 point Imperial .
Joining a roster of other major American newspapers in the last ten years , including USA Today , The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Post , The New York Times announced on July 18 , 2006 , that it would be narrowing the width of its paper by six inches . In an era of dwindling circulation and significant advertising revenue losses for most print versions of American newspapers , the move , which would result in a five percent reduction in news coverage , would have a target savings of $ 12 million a year for the paper . The change from the traditional 54 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) broadsheet style to a more compact 48 @-@ inch web width ( 12 @-@ inch page width ) was addressed by both Executive Editor Bill Keller and The New York Times President Scott Heekin @-@ Canedy in memos to the staff . Keller defended the " more reader @-@ friendly " move indicating that in cutting out the " flabby or redundant prose in longer pieces " the reduction would make for a better paper . Similarly , Keller confronted the challenges of covering news with " less room " by proposing more " rigorous editing " and promised an ongoing commitment to " hard @-@ hitting , ground @-@ breaking journalism " . The official change went into effect on August 6 , 2007 .
The New York Times printed a display advertisement on its first page on January 6 , 2009 , breaking tradition at the paper . The advertisement for CBS was in color and was the entire width of the page . The newspaper promised it would place first @-@ page advertisements on only the lower half of the page .
In August 2014 , The New York Times decided to increase their use of the term " torture " in stories about harsh interrogations , shifting from their previous description of the interrogations as " harsh " or " brutal " .
The paper maintains a strict profanity policy ; e.g. a 2007 review of a concert by punk band Fucked Up completely avoided mention of the group 's name .
On April 28 , 2016 , Levien and Times company CEO Mark Thompson were named in a 2016 federal class action lawsuit that claimed the advertising department purged older black employees and denied others ' promotions because they favored younger whites . Older black employees considered Levien guilty of racist innuendo for telling staff members like their customers .
= = = Reputation and awards = = =
The New York Times has established links regionally with 16 bureaus in the New York region , nationally , with 11 bureaus within the US , and globally , with 26 foreign news bureaus .
The New York Times has won 117 Pulitzer Prizes , more than any other newspaper . The prize is awarded for excellence in journalism in a range of categories .
It has also won four Peabody Awards , including a personal one for Jack Gould in 1956 .
= = = Web presence = = =
The New York Times has had a presence on the Web since 1996 , and has been ranked one of the top websites . Accessing some articles requires registration , though this could be bypassed in some cases through Times RSS feeds . The website had 555 million pageviews in March 2005 . The domain nytimes.com attracted at least 146 million visitors annually by 2008 according to a Compete.com study . The New York Times Web site ranks 59th by number of unique visitors , with over 20 million unique visitors in March 2009 making it the most visited newspaper site with more than twice the number of unique visitors as the next most popular site . Also , as of May 2009 , nytimes.com produced 22 of the 50 most popular newspaper blogs .
In September 2005 , the paper decided to begin subscription @-@ based service for daily columns in a program known as TimesSelect , which encompassed many previously free columns . Until being discontinued two years later , TimesSelect cost $ 7 @.@ 95 per month or $ 49 @.@ 95 per year , though it was free for print copy subscribers and university students and faculty . To avoid this charge , bloggers often reposted TimesSelect material , and at least one site once compiled links of reprinted material . On September 17 , 2007 , The New York Times announced that it would stop charging for access to parts of its Web site , effective at midnight the following day , reflecting a growing view in the industry that subscription fees cannot outweigh the potential ad revenue from increased traffic on a free site . In addition to opening almost the entire site to all readers , The New York Times news archives from 1987 to the present are available at no charge , as well as those from 1851 to 1922 , which are in the public domain . Access to the Premium Crosswords section continues to require either home delivery or a subscription for $ 6 @.@ 95 per month or $ 39 @.@ 95 per year . Times columnists including Nicholas Kristof and Thomas Friedman had criticized TimesSelect , with Friedman going so far as to say " I hate it . It pains me enormously because it 's cut me off from a lot , a lot of people , especially because I have a lot of people reading me overseas , like in India ... I feel totally cut off from my audience . "
The New York Times was made available on the iPhone and iPod Touch in 2008 , and on the iPad mobile devices in 2010 . It was also the first newspaper to offer a video game as part of its editorial content , Food Import Folly by Persuasive Games . In 2010 , The New York Times editors collaborated with students and faculty from New York University 's Studio 20 Journalism Masters program to launch and produce The Local East Village , a hyperlocal blog designed to offer news " by , for and about the residents of the East Village " . That same year , reCAPTCHA helped to digitize old editions of The New York Times .
In 2012 , The New York Times introduced a Chinese @-@ language news site , cn.nytimes.com , with content created by staff based in Shanghai , Beijing and Hong Kong , though the server was placed outside of China to avoid censorship issues . In March 2013 , The New York Times and National Film Board of Canada announced a partnership entitled A Short History of the Highrise , which will create four short documentaries for the internet about life in highrise buildings as part of the NFB 's Highrise project , utilizing images from the newspaper 's photo archives for the first three films , and user @-@ submitted images for the final film . The third project in the series , " A Short History of the Highrise " , won a Peabody Award in 2013 .
Falling print advertising revenue and projections of continued decline resulted in a paywall being instituted in 2011 , regarded as modestly successful after garnering several hundred thousand subscriptions and about $ 100 million in revenue as of March 2012 . The paywall was announced on March 17 , 2011 , that starting on March 28 , 2011 ( March 17 , 2011 for Canada ) , it would charge frequent readers for access to its online content . Readers would be able to access up to 20 articles each month without charge . ( Although beginning in April 2012 , the number of free @-@ access articles was halved to just ten articles per month . ) Any reader who wanted to access more would have to pay for a digital subscription . This plan would allow free access for occasional readers , but produce revenue from " heavy " readers . Digital subscriptions rates for four weeks range from $ 15 to $ 35 depending on the package selected , with periodic new subscriber promotions offering four @-@ week all @-@ digital access for as low as 99 ¢ . Subscribers to the paper 's print edition get full access without any additional fee . Some content , such as the front page and section fronts will remain free , as well as the Top News page on mobile apps . In January 2013 , The New York Times ' Public Editor Margaret M. Sullivan announced that for the first time in many decades , the paper generated more revenue through subscriptions than through advertising .
The paper 's website was hacked on August 29 , 2013 , by the Syrian Electronic Army , a hacking group that supports the government of Syrian President Bashar al @-@ Assad . The SEA managed to penetrate the paper 's domain name registrar , Melbourne IT , and alter DNS records for The New York Times , putting some of its websites out of service for hours .
The food section has links to a website at cooking.nytimes.com and to a searchable restaurant guide to NYC restaurants . The New York Times has published several cookbooks , the latest , The Essential New York Times Cookbook : Classic Recipes for a New Century. and has thousands of recipes on file .
= = = Mobile presence = = =
The Times Reader is a digital version of The New York Times . It was created via a collaboration between the newspaper and Microsoft . Times Reader takes the principles of print journalism and applies them to the technique of online reporting . Times Reader uses a series of technologies developed by Microsoft and their Windows Presentation Foundation team . It was announced in Seattle in April 2006 , by Arthur Ochs Sulzberger Jr . , Bill Gates , and Tom Bodkin . In 2009 , the Times Reader 2 @.@ 0 was rewritten in Adobe AIR . In December 2013 , the newspaper announced that the Times Reader app would be discontinued on January 6 , 2014 , urging readers of the app to instead begin using the subscription @-@ only " Today 's Paper " app .
In 2008 , The New York Times created an app for the iPhone and iPod touch which allowed users to download articles to their mobile device enabling them to read the paper even when they were unable to receive a signal . In April 2010 , The New York Times announced it would begin publishing daily content through an iPad app . As of October 2010 , The New York Times iPad app is ad @-@ supported and available for free without a paid subscription , but translated into a subscription @-@ based model in 2011 .
In 2010 , the newspaper also launched an App for Android smartphones , followed later by an App for Windows phones .
= = = Chinese @-@ language version = = =
In June 2012 , The New York Times launched its first official foreign @-@ language variant , cn.nytimes.com , in Chinese , viewable in both traditional and simplified Chinese characters . The project was led by Craig S. Smith on the business side and Philip P. Pan on the editorial side .
The site 's initial success was interrupted in October that year following the publication of an investigative article by David Barboza about the finances of Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao 's family . In retaliation for the article , the Chinese government blocked access to both nytimes.com and cn.nytimes.com inside the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) .
Despite Chinese government interference , however , the Chinese @-@ language operations have continued to develop , adding a second site , cn.nytstyle.com , iOS and Android apps and newsletters , all of which are accessible inside the PRC . The China operations also produce three print publications in Chinese . Traffic to cn.nytimes.com , meanwhile , has risen due to the widespread use of VPN technology in the PRC and to a growing Chinese audience outside mainland China . New York Times articles are also available to users in China via the use of mirror websites , apps , domestic newspapers , and social media . The Chinese platforms now represent one of The New York Times ' top five digital markets globally . The current editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Chinese platforms is Ching @-@ Ching Ni .
= = = Reporter resources = = =
The website 's " Newsroom Navigator " collects online resources for use by reporters and editors . It is maintained by Rich Meislin . Further specific collections are available to cover the subjects of business , politics and health . In 1998 , Meislin was editor @-@ in @-@ chief of electronic media at the newspaper .
= = Interruptions = =
Because of holidays , no editions were printed on November 23 , 1851 ; January 2 , 1852 ; July 4 , 1852 ; January 2 , 1853 ; and January 1 , 1854 .
Because of strikes , the regular edition of The New York Times was not printed during the following periods :
December 9 , 1962 to March 31 , 1963 . Only a western edition was printed because of the 1962 – 63 New York City newspaper strike .
September 17 , 1965 to October 10 , 1965 . An international edition was printed , and a weekend edition replaced the Saturday and Sunday papers .
August 10 , 1978 to November 5 , 1978 . A multi @-@ union strike shut down the three major New York City newspapers . No editions of The New York Times were printed . Two months into the strike , a parody of The New York Times called Not The New York Times was given out in New York City , with contributors such as Carl Bernstein , Christopher Cerf , Tony Hendra and George Plimpton .
= = Political stance = =
According to a 2007 survey by conservative @-@ leaning Rasmussen Reports of public perceptions of major media outlets , 40 % saw the paper as having a liberal slant , 20 % no political slant and 11 % believe it has a conservative slant . In December 2004 , a University of California , Los Angeles study by former fellows of a conservative think tank gave The New York Times a score of 73 @.@ 7 on a 100 @-@ point scale , with 0 being most conservative and 100 being most liberal , making it the second @-@ most liberal major newspaper in the study after the Wall Street Journal ( 85 @.@ 1 ) . The validity of the study has been questioned , however . The watchdog group Media Matters for America pointed out potential conflicts of interest with the author 's funding , and political scientists , such as Brendan Nyhan , cited flaws in the study 's methodology .
In mid @-@ 2004 , the newspaper 's then public editor ( ombudsman ) , Daniel Okrent , wrote an opinion piece in which he said that The New York Times did have a liberal bias in news coverage of certain social issues such as abortion and permitting gay marriage . He stated that this bias reflected the paper 's cosmopolitanism , which arose naturally from its roots as a hometown paper of New York City . Okrent did not comment at length on the issue of bias in coverage of other " hard news " , such as fiscal policy , foreign policy , or civil liberties . He wrote :
But if you 're examining the paper 's coverage of these subjects from a perspective that is neither urban nor Northeastern nor culturally seen @-@ it @-@ all ; if you are among the groups The Times treats as strange objects to be examined on a laboratory slide ( devout Catholics , gun owners , Orthodox Jews , Texans ) ; if your value system wouldn 't wear well on a composite New York Times journalist , then a walk through this paper can make you feel you 're traveling in a strange and forbidding world .
Across the gutter , the Op @-@ Ed page editors do an evenhanded job of representing a range of views in the essays from outsiders they publish – but you need an awfully heavy counterweight to balance a page that also bears the work of seven opinionated columnists , only two of whom could be classified as conservative ( and , even then , of the conservative subspecies that supports legalization of gay unions and , in the case of William Safire , opposes some central provisions of the Patriot Act ) .
The New York Times has not endorsed a Republican for president since Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956 ; since that year it has endorsed every Democratic nominee ; although it did endorse incumbent Republican Mayors of New York City Rudy Giuliani in 1997 and Michael Bloomberg in 2005 and 2009 .
In a December 19 , 2012 , column published in the left @-@ leaning The Huffington Post , economics professor and former bank regulator William K. Black characterized The New York Times as being " far right ... on financial issues " while criticizing the paper for its profiles of foreign leaders . Black contrasted a report on Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti that he described as " hagiographic praise " with a more negative report on Ecuadorian President Rafael Correa , stating that the two men have similar backgrounds in getting PhDs in economics from U.S. schools .
In a 2013 interview with CNN , The New York Times public editor Margaret Sullivan responded , " It 's a modified yes with a lot of nuance in it " when asked by Joanne Lipman whether or not The Times has a liberal bias .
In an October 31 , 2014 column published in the Washington Examiner , conservative commentator Michelle Malkin characterized the editorial board of The New York Times as liberal and waging a " war on gun @-@ owning rape victims " , writing :
When victims embrace liberal orthodoxies , they 're heroes and absolute moral authorities in the eyes of the New York Times editorial board . When victims become survivors who reject the Nanny State , they 're liars , ideologues and pot @-@ stirrers who deserve to be sneered at from the rarefied offices of the Fishwrap of Record .
= = Coverage issues = =
= = = Iraq War = = =
A year after the war started the newspaper asserted that some of its articles had not been as rigorous as they should have been , and were insufficiently qualified , frequently overly dependent upon information from Iraqi exiles desiring regime change . Reporter Judith Miller retired after criticisms that her reporting of the lead @-@ up to the Iraq War was factually inaccurate and overly favorable to the Bush administration 's position , for which The New York Times later apologized . One of Miller 's prime sources was Ahmed Chalabi , an Iraqi expatriate who returned to Iraq after the U.S. invasion and held a number of governmental positions culminating in acting oil minister and deputy prime minister from May 2005 until May 2006 .
= = = Iran = = =
A 2015 study found that The New York Times fed into an overarching tendency towards national bias . During the Iranian nuclear crisis the newspaper minimized the " negative processes " of the United States while overemphasizing similar processes of Iran . This tendency was shared by other papers such as The Guardian , The Tehran Times , and the Fars News Agency
= = = Israeli – Palestinian conflict = = =
A 2003 study in The Harvard International Journal of Press / Politics concluded that The New York Times reporting was more favorable to Israelis than to Palestinians .
For its coverage of the Israeli – Palestinian conflict , some have claimed that the paper is pro @-@ Palestinian , others believe it to be pro @-@ Israel . The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy , by political science professors John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt , alleges that The New York Times sometimes criticizes Israeli policies but is not even @-@ handed and is generally pro @-@ Israel . On the other hand , the Simon Wiesenthal Center has criticized The New York Times for printing cartoons regarding the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict that were claimed to be anti @-@ Semitic .
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has rejected a proposal to write an article for the paper on grounds of lack of objectivity . A piece in which Thomas Friedman commented that praise awarded to Netanyahu during a speech at congress was " paid for by the Israel lobby " elicited an apology and clarification from its writer .
The New York Times ' public editor Clark Hoyt concluded in his January 10 , 2009 , column , " Though the most vociferous supporters of Israel and the Palestinians do not agree , I think The New York Times , largely barred from the battlefield and reporting amid the chaos of war , has tried its best to do a fair , balanced and complete job — and has largely succeeded . "
= = = Balkan and anti @-@ Serbian bias = = =
Former The New York Times journalist Daniel Simpson has criticized the newspaper 's bias in representing wars in Yugoslavia in the 1990s . He was especially critical of the anti @-@ Serbian bias of the paper , and has published a book A Rough Guide to the Dark Side : or Why I quit my job at the New York Times , to get myself mixed up with Balkan gangsters in which he explained the relevant issues . He also claimed that he was asked to report about the alleged WMD trade of Serbs with Iraq , which turned out to be false , while his attempts at more neutral reporting were rejected .
= = = World War II = = =
On November 14 , 2001 , in The New York Times ' 150th anniversary issue , former executive editor Max Frankel wrote that before and during World War II , the NY Times had maintained a consistent policy to minimize reports on the Holocaust in their news pages . Laurel Leff , associate professor of journalism at Northeastern University , concluded that the newspaper had downplayed the Third Reich targeting of Jews for genocide . Her 2005 book Buried by the Times documents the paper 's tendency before , during and after World War II to place deep inside its daily editions the news stories about the ongoing persecution and extermination of Jews , while obscuring in those stories the special impact of the Nazis ' crimes on Jews in particular . Leff attributes this dearth in part to the complex personal and political views of the newspaper 's Jewish publisher , Arthur Hays Sulzberger , concerning Jewishness , antisemitism , and Zionism .
During the war , The New York Times journalist William L. Laurence was " on the payroll of the War Department " .
= = Ethics incidents and Criticism = =
= = = Failure to report famine in Ukraine = = =
The New York Times has been criticized for the work of reporter Walter Duranty , who served as its Moscow bureau chief from 1922 through 1936 . Duranty wrote a series of stories in 1931 on the Soviet Union and won a Pulitzer Prize for his work at that time ; however , he has been criticized for his denial of widespread famine , most particularly the Ukrainian famine in the 1930s . In 2003 , after the Pulitzer Board began a renewed inquiry , the Times hired Mark von Hagen , professor of Russian history at Columbia University , to review Duranty 's work . Von Hagen found Duranty 's reports to be unbalanced and uncritical , and that they far too often gave voice to Stalinist propaganda . In comments to the press he stated , " For the sake of The New York Times ' honor , they should take the prize away . "
= = = Fashion news articles promoting advertisers = = =
In the mid to late 1950s , " fashion writer [ s ] ... were required to come up every month with articles whose total column @-@ inches reflected the relative advertising strength of every [ " department " or " specialty " ] store [ " assigned " to a writer ] ... The monitor of all this was ... the advertising director [ of the NYT ] ... " However , within this requirement , story ideas may have been the reporters ' and editors ' own .
= = = Plagiarism = = =
In May 2003 , The New York Times reporter Jayson Blair was forced to resign from the newspaper after he was caught plagiarizing and fabricating elements of his stories . Some critics contended that African @-@ American Blair 's race was a major factor in his hiring and in The New York Times ' initial reluctance to fire him .
= = = Duke University lacrosse case = = =
The newspaper was criticized for largely reporting the prosecutors ' version of events in the 2006 Duke lacrosse case . Suzanne Smalley of Newsweek criticized the newspaper for its " credulous " coverage of the charges of rape against Duke University lacrosse players . Stuart Taylor , Jr. and KC Johnson , in their book Until Proven Innocent : Political Correctness and the Shameful Injustices of the Duke Lacrosse Rape Case , write : " at the head of the guilt @-@ presuming pack , The New York Times vied in a race to the journalistic bottom with trash @-@ TV talk shows . "
= = = Quotes out of context = = =
In February 2009 , a Village Voice music blogger accused the newspaper of using " chintzy , ad @-@ hominem allegations " in an article on British Tamil music artist M.I.A. concerning her activism against the Sinhala @-@ Tamil conflict in Sri Lanka . M.I.A. criticized the paper in January 2010 after a travel piece rated post @-@ conflict Sri Lanka the " # 1 place to go in 2010 " . In June 2010 , The New York Times Magazine published a correction on its cover article of M.I.A. , acknowledging that the interview conducted by current W editor and then @-@ Times Magazine contributor Lynn Hirschberg contained a recontextualization of two quotes . In response to the piece , M.I.A. broadcast Hirschberg 's phone number and secret audio recordings from the interview via her Twitter and website .
= = = Delayed publication of 2005 NSA warrantless surveillance story = = =
The New York Times has been criticized for the 13 @-@ month delay of the December 2005 story revealing the U.S. National Security Agency warrantless surveillance program . Ex @-@ NSA officials blew the whistle on the program to journalists James Risen and Eric Lichtblau , who presented an investigative article to the newspaper in November 2004 , weeks before America 's presidential election . Contact with former agency officials began the previous summer .
Former The New York Times executive editor Bill Keller decided not to report the piece after being pressured by the Bush administration and being advised not to do so by New York Times Washington bureau chief Philip Taubman . Keller explained the silence 's rationale in an interview with the newspaper in 2013 , stating " Three years after 9 / 11 , we , as a country , were still under the influence of that trauma , and we , as a newspaper , were not immune " .
In 2014 , PBS Frontline interviewed Risen and Lichtblau , who said that the newspaper 's plan was to not publish the story at all . " The editors were furious at me " , Risen said to the program . " They thought I was being insubordinate . " Risen wrote a book about the mass surveillance revelations after The New York Times declined the piece 's publication , and only released it after Risen told them that he would publish the book . Another reporter told NPR that the newspaper " avoided disaster " by ultimately publishing the story .
= = = Irish student controversy = = =
On June 16 , 2015 , The New York Times published an article reporting the deaths of six Irish students staying in Berkeley , California when the balcony they were standing on collapsed , the paper 's story insinuating that they were to blame for the collapse . The paper stated that the behavior of Irish students coming to the US on J1 visas was an " embarrassment to Ireland " . The Irish Taoiseach and former President of Ireland criticized the newspaper for " being insensitive and inaccurate " in its handling of the story .
= = = Nail salon series = = =
In May 2015 , a New York Times exposé on the working conditions of manicurists in New York City and elsewhere and the health hazards to which they are exposed attracted wide attention , resulting in emergency workplace enforcement actions by New York governor Andrew M. Cuomo . In July 2015 , the story 's claims of widespread illegally low wages were challenged by former New York Times reporter Richard Bernstein , in the New York Review of Books . Bernstein , whose wife owns two nail salons , asserted that such illegally low wages were inconsistent with his personal experience , and were not evidenced by ads in the Chinese @-@ language papers cited by the story . The New York Times editorial staff subsequently answered Bernstein 's criticisms with examples of several published ads and stating that his response was industry advocacy . The independent NYT Public Editor also reported that she had previously corresponded with Bernstein and looked into his complaints , and expressed her belief that the story 's reporting was sound .
In September and October 2015 , nail salon owners and workers protested at The New York Times offices several times , in response to the story and the ensuing New York State crackdown . In October 2015 , Reason magazine published a three part re @-@ reporting of the story by Jim Epstein , charging that the series was filled with misquotes and factual errors respecting both its claims of illegally low wages and health hazards . Epstein additionally argued that The New York Times had mistranslated the ads cited in its answer to Bernstein , and that those ads actually validated Bernstein 's argument . In November 2015 , The New York Times ' public editor concluded that the exposé 's " findings , and the language used to express them , should have been dialed back — in some instances substantially " and recommended that " The Times write further follow @-@ up stories , including some that re @-@ examine its original findings and that take on the criticism from salon owners and others — not defensively but with an open mind . "
= = TimesMachine = =
The TimesMachine is a web @-@ based archive of scanned issues of the New York Times from 1851 through 2002 .
Unlike the New York Times online archive , the Times Machine presents scanned images of the actual newspaper . All non @-@ advertising content can be displayed on a per @-@ story basis in a separate PDF display page and saved for future reference .
= = = Availability = = =
The archive is available to New York Times subscribers , home delivery and / or digital . It may also be available at various libraries .
= = Public editors = =
They " investigate matters of journalistic integrity " and serve a two @-@ year term ( Margaret M. Sullivan served a four- year term , which is the only exception ) .
Daniel Okrent ( 2003 @-@ 2005 ) was appointed as the first public editor because of the Jayson Blair affair .
Byron Calame ( 2005 @-@ 2007 )
Clark Hoyt ( 2007 @-@ 2010 ) served an extra year
Arthur S. Brisbane ( 2010 @-@ 2012 )
Margaret M. Sullivan ( 2012 @-@ 2016 )
Elizabeth Spayd ( 2016- )
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= Business routes of U.S. Route 31 in Michigan =
There have been seven business routes of US Highway 31 in the state of Michigan . All of the business routes are former sections of US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) . They connect the freeway mainline of US 31 to the various downtowns of cities bypassed by US 31 . Two of the current business routes , for Hart and Ludington , are business spurs , connecting to US 31 on only one end , while the remainder for Muskegon , Whitehall – Montague and Pentwater , are business loops . The two former routes , for Niles and Holland were a business spur and loop , respectively .
= = Niles = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) was a business spur running to the Niles downtown area along a former routing of US 31 from US 31 exit 7 ( Walton Road ) northeasterly then southeasterly into downtown , ending at Bus . US 12 at the corner of Front and Main streets . At the time it was decommissioned , Bus . US 31 was only designated along the north – south segment between Walton Road and Main Street .
It was commissioned in 1987 as a loop connecting to US 31 on both ends , running along US 12 to US 33 ( 11th Street ) north into downtown and along Bus . US 12 . Bus . US 31 followed Front Street northward back to the mainline US 31 at Walton Road northwest of downtown . The business loop was extended along Walton Road in 1992 when the next segment of the US 31 freeway opened in Berrien County . The highway was truncated to a spur route in 1998 when M @-@ 51 was extended southward . The northernmost remaining portion along Walton Road was turned over to the Berrien County Road Commission on October 23 , 2007 , and the remaining portion was replaced by an extended M @-@ 139 in April 2010 .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Berrien County .
= = Holland = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) was a 4 @.@ 1 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) business loop running through Holland . It started at an interchange on the southern edge of the city where Business Loop Interstate 196 ( BL I @-@ 196 ) , US 31 and A @-@ 2 all converged near West Michigan Regional Airport . BL I @-@ 196 turned northward off the US 31 freeway and ran concurrently with Bus . US 31 along Washington Avenue through a residential area on the southern side of Holland in Allegan County . At the intersection with 32nd Street , BL I @-@ 196 / Bus . US 31 crossed into Ottawa County and turned northeasterly on Michigan Avenue . Michigan Avenue ends at an intersection with State Street and 19th Street , and the business loop turned due north on River Street into downtown . The business loop split along the one @-@ way pairing of 7th and 9th streets in downtown . The northbound direction ran eastward on 9th Street while the southbound direction was routed two blocks north on 7th street . On the eastern side of downtown at Lincoln Street , southbound traffic was routed on 8th Street . , and one block further east , both directions followed 8th Street . At Chicago Drive , BL I @-@ 196 / Bus . US 31 turned northeasterly to follow that street out downtown . Bus . US 31 ended at an interchange with US 31 in Holland Township while BL I @-@ 196 continued northeasterly on Chicago Drive .
The initial bypass of Holland , rerouting US 31 out of downtown opened in 1954 . The former routing through downtown was redesignated as Bus . US 31 at this time . The first segment of I @-@ 196 / US 31 freeway in the Holland area opened in 1963 , adding an interchange to the southern terminus of Bus . US 31 . In 1974 , the I @-@ 196 bypass around Holland was completed , and Chicago Drive east of US 31 becomes a business route for I @-@ 196 . By 1976 , this business route was extended along Bus . US 31 through downtown as well . In 2004 , all of Bus US 31 was decommissioned and BL I @-@ 196 was rerouted to follow US 31 around downtown .
Major intersections
= = Muskegon alternate route = =
US Highway 31A ( US 31A ) was an alternate route through Muskegon . The designation was first commissioned in 1932 for a highway that bypassed downtown Muskegon to the east . In 1940 , the alternate route and the mainline highway were flipped through the area , rerouting US 31A to run through downtown . At the same time , US 16 was rerouted to run into Muskegon , partially following US 31A . This last version of US 31A ran northwesterly along Airline Highway and Peck Street into downtown , where US 16 turned westward along M @-@ 46 . US 31A continued northeasterly along Muskegon Avenue back to US 31 at Marquette Avenue . A year later , the alternate route was redesignated as business loop instead , removing the US 31A designation from the state highway system .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Muskegon County .
= = Muskegon business loop = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a 9 @.@ 87 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 15 @.@ 88 km ) business loop running through the Muskegon area . It starts in Norton Shores and an interchange with US 31 as the westward continuation of Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) and continues as a freeway for about a mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) before downgrading to an expressway with Michigan left turns near the Muskegon County Airport . The business loop runs along the southern edge of Muskegon Heights and then turns northward near the Roosevelt Park city line . This north – south segment forms the boundary between commercial properties to the west and residential neighborhoods to the east as far north as the intersection with Broadway Avenue . North of Sherman Avenue , the business loop crosses into the city of Muskegon and runs through commercial properties on Seaway Drive . As it approaches Muskegon Lake , Bus . US 31 turns northeasterly along Shoreline Drive , running around the northern edge of downtown . On the northeastern corner of downtown , the business loop turns sharply northeasterly along Moses J. Jones Parkway . Along this parkway segment , Bus . US 31 meets the southern terminus of M @-@ 120 and turns easterly along a freeway segment in Muskegon Township to terminate at US 31 .
The first bypass of Muskegon opened to traffic in 1932 to the east of downtown ; it was designated US 31A . This first alternate route and the mainline were flipped in 1940 , routing US 31A through downtown ( partially along a section of US 16 ) and US 31 along the bypass . In 1941 , US 31A was redesignated Bus . US 31 . The business route was extended on each end in 1950 or 1951 when the mainline was shifted further out of the city to the east . At the end of the 1950s , the US 31 bypass east of Muskegon was converted to a freeway , and the southern section of the business loop was rerouted to follow Seaway Drive . When US 16 was decommissioned in the state in 1962 , the section of US 16 / Bus . US 16 is redesignated BS I @-@ 196 , and the following year , it becomes BS I @-@ 96 ; Bus . US 31 remains in place through both changes .
The northern end of the business loop near downtown was rerouted onto the one @-@ way pairing of Muskegon and Webster avenues in 1965 . In 1984 , the BS I @-@ 96 designated into Muskegon was decommissioned . The northern section of Bus . US 31 near downtown was rerouted again , this time to follow Shoreline Drive , in 2007 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Muskegon County .
= = Whitehall – Montague = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a business loop running through Whitehall and Montague . It starts at an interchange with US 31 in Whitehall Township east of the city of Whitehall and runs westward on Colby Street past a cluster of businesses . Farther west , Bus . US 31 runs through residential areas before entering downtown Whitehall and turning northward on Thompson Street to cross the White River near its mouth on White Lake . On the northern side of the river , the business loop follows Dowling Street in Montague and then turns north @-@ northeasterly on Water Street through downtown . Bus . US 31 exits downtown and passes through a residential area before leaving Montague . North of town , the business loop runs past various businesses and next to farm fields to an intersection with B @-@ 15 ( Fruitvale Road ) in Montague Township . The business loop turns eastward and runs concurrently with the county highway for a short distance to an interchange with US 31 that marks the northern terminus of the business loop .
A freeway bypass of Whitehall and Montague opened in 1964 , and the former routing o US 31 through the downtowns of the two cities was redesignated Bus . US 31 . At the northern end , the routing split to follow two connections with the new freeway , running east on Fruitvale Road and running north on Whitehall Road . B @-@ 15 was designated in 1970 , overlapping the business loop at the northern end . The bifurcated northern connection to the freeway was removed in 1975 when the next segment of US 31 opened heading north into Oceana County .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Muskegon County .
= = Hart = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a 2 @.@ 1 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) business spur running into the Hart downtown area . It starts at exit 149 on US 31 in Hart Township and runs eastward along Polk Road into the southern part of the city . The business spur passes some commercial properties along Polk Road before turning northward on State Street next to the Oceana County Fairgrounds . Bus . US 31 passes more businesses before entering a residential area . The business spur terminates at the intersection with Johnson Street in Hart .
A segment of US 31 freeway opened from the Polk Road interchange northward to Monroe Road southeast of Pentwater in 1978 . At that time , US 31 was rerouted out of Hart . The former routing along Polk Road and State Street was designated as Bus . US 31 in 1987 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Oceana County .
= = Pentwater = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a 7 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) business loop running through the Pentwater downtown area . It starts at an interchange on US 31 in Weare Township southeast of Pentwater . It runs westward and northwesterly along Monroe Road and across the Pentwater River through a rural wooded area . The business loop intersects B @-@ 15 at that county highway 's northern terminus in Pentwater Township on the shores of Pentwater Lake . The business loop follows the northern shore of the lake and then turns west on 6th Street through a residential area into the village of Pentwater . In downtown , Bus . US 31 turns northward along Hancock Street . The business loop exits downtown and passes through another residential area on the north side of the village before exiting town northeast of Charles Mears State Park . Bus . US 31 meanders through rural woodlands north of Pentwater as it approaches the Oceana – Mason county line near Bass Lake . The business loop turns eastward , briefly following the county line before turning southeasterly to an interchange with US 31 on the Pentwater – Weare township line .
US 31 was rerouted to run further east of Pentwater in 1955 , and the former route through the village was redesignated as Bus . US 31 at that time . In 1978 , a section of US 31 freeway opened between Hart and Pentwater . Bus . US 31 was slightly truncated on its southern end to terminate at the new freeway interchange , and part of Monroe Road was redesignated as the mainline of US 31 between the end of the freeway and the former routing of US 31 . The next freeway segment opened in 1980 , and Bus . US 31 was slightly lengthened to connect to the new freeway interchange with Oceana Road . ] , resulting in the current configuration .
Major intersections
= = Ludington = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) business spur running into the Ludington downtown area . The highway starts at exit 166 on the US 31 and follows Pere Marquette Highway northwesterly and northward toward Ludington . The business spur crosses the Pere Marquette River near Pere Marquette Lake . North of the river , Bus . US 31 passes through an industrial area on the edge of Ludington in Pere Marquette Township . The business spur terminates at an intersection with US 10 east of downtown .
Ludington was bypassed in 1989 with the extension of the US 31 freeway in Mason County . The former route of US 31 along Pere Marquette Highway north of the freeway was retained as an unsigned highway . In 2005 , it was designated as Bus . US 31 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Pere Marquette Township , Mason County .
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= Alien vs. Predator ( film ) =
Alien vs. Predator ( also known as AVP or AVP : Alien vs. Predator ) is a 2004 American science fiction action horror film directed by Paul W. S. Anderson and starring Sanaa Lathan , Lance Henriksen and Raoul Bova . It is the first installment of the Alien vs. Predator franchise , adapting a crossover bringing together the eponymous creatures of the Alien and Predator series , a concept which originated in a 1989 comic book . Anderson , Dan O 'Bannon and Ronald Shusett wrote the story ; and Anderson and Shane Salerno adapted the story into a screenplay . Their writing was influenced by Aztec mythology , the comic book series , and the writings of Erich von Däniken .
Set in 2004 , this film follows a group of archaeologists assembled by billionaire Charles Bishop Weyland ( Henriksen ) for an expedition near the Antarctic to investigate a mysterious heat signal . Weyland hopes to claim the find for himself , and his group discovers a pyramid below the surface of a whaling station . Hieroglyphs and sculptures reveal that the pyramid is a hunting ground for young Predators who kill Aliens as a rite of passage . The humans are caught in the middle of a battle between the two species and attempt to prevent the Aliens from reaching the surface .
The film was released on August 13 , 2004 in North America and received negative reviews from film critics . The film grossed over $ 172 million at the worldwide box office . The film was followed by a sequel , Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem in 2007 .
= = Plot = =
In 2004 , a satellite detects a mysterious heat bloom beneath Bouvetøya , an island about one thousand miles off the coast of Antarctica . Wealthy industrialist Charles Bishop Weyland ( Lance Henriksen ) discovers through thermal imaging that there is a pyramid buried 2000 feet beneath the ice . He attempts to claim it for his multinational communications company , Weyland Industries , a subsidiary of the Weyland Corporation , and assembles a team of experts to investigate . The team includes archaeologists , linguistic experts , drillers , mercenaries , and a guide named Alexa Woods ( Sanaa Lathan ) .
As a Predator ship reaches Earth 's orbit , it fires a beam that creates a passage through the ice towards the source of the heat bloom . When the team arrives at the abandoned whaling station above the heat source , they find the passage and descend beneath the ice . They locate the mysterious pyramid and begin to explore it , finding evidence of a prehistoric civilization and what appears to be a sacrificial chamber filled with human skeletons with ruptured rib cages .
Meanwhile , three Predators arrive and kill all the humans on the surface . They make their way down to the pyramid and arrive just as the team unwittingly activates the structure . The Alien Queen awakes from cryogenic stasis and begins to produce eggs . When the eggs hatch , several facehuggers attach themselves to humans trapped in the sacrificial chamber . Chestbursters emerge from the humans and quickly grow into adult Aliens . Conflict erupts between the Predators , Aliens , and humans , resulting in several deaths . Two Predators are killed by an Alien , and Weyland is killed by the remaining Predator , while allowing Alexa and archaeologist Sebastian De Rosa ( Raoul Bova ) enough time to escape . The two witness the Predator kill a facehugger and an Alien with a shuriken before unmasking and marking himself with the blood of the facehugger . After Alexa and Sebastian leave , another facehugger attaches itself to the unmasked Predator .
Through translation of the pyramid 's hieroglyphs , Alexa and Sebastian learn that the Predators have been visiting Earth for thousands of years . It was they who taught early human civilizations how to build pyramids , and were worshiped as gods . Every 100 years they would visit Earth to take part in a rite of passage in which several humans would sacrifice themselves as hosts for the Aliens , creating the " ultimate prey " for the Predators to hunt . If overwhelmed , the Predators would activate a self @-@ destruct device to eliminate the Aliens and themselves . The two deduce that this is why the current Predators are at the pyramid , and that the heat bloom was to attract humans for the sole purpose of making new Aliens to hunt .
Alexa and Sebastian decide that the Predators must be allowed to succeed in their hunt so that the Aliens " do not reach the surface " . Unfortunately , Sebastian is captured by an Alien , leaving only Alexa and the Predator to fight against the Aliens . The two form an alliance and use a self @-@ destruct device to destroy the pyramid and the remaining Aliens . Alexa and Scar reach the surface , where they battle the Alien Queen . They defeat the Queen by attaching its chain to a water tower and pushing her over a cliff , dragging the Queen to the ocean floor . Scar , however , is impaled through the torso by the Alien Queen 's tail and succumbs to his wounds and dies .
A Predator ship uncloaks and several Predators appear . They retrieve their fallen comrade and an elite Predator presents Alexa with one of their spear weapons in recognition of her skill as a warrior . As the Predators retreat into space , a chestburster with a hybrid form of an Alien and a Predator erupts from Scar 's chest , beginning the events of Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Alien 5 and sequel = = =
Before 20th Century Fox gave Alien vs. Predator the greenlight , Aliens writer / director James Cameron had been working on a story for a fifth Alien film . Alien director Ridley Scott had talked with Cameron , stating " I think it would be a lot of fun , but the most important thing is to get the story right . " In a 2002 interview , Scott 's concept for a story was " to go back to where the alien creatures were first found and explain how they were created " ; this project eventually became Scott 's 2012 film Prometheus . On learning that Fox intended to pursue Alien vs. Predator , Cameron believed the film would " kill the validity of the franchise " and ceased work on his story , " To me , that was Frankenstein Meets Werewolf . It was Universal just taking their assets and starting to play them off against each other ... Milking it . " After viewing Alien vs. Predator , however , Cameron remarked that " it was actually pretty good . I think of the five Alien films , I 'd rate it third . I actually liked it . I actually liked it a lot . " Conversely , Ridley Scott had no interest in the Alien vs. Predator films . When asked in May 2012 if he had watched them , Scott laughed , " No . I couldn 't do that . I couldn 't quite take that step . " Director Neill Blomkamp would eventually go on to pitch his sequel to Aliens .
= = = Development = = =
The concept of Alien vs. Predator originated from the Aliens versus Predator comic book in 1989 , and was hinted at when an Alien skull appeared in a trophy case aboard the Predator ship in Predator 2 . Screenwriter Peter Briggs created the original spec screenplay in 1990 – 1991 , which was based on the first comic series . In 1991 , he successfully pitched the concept to 20th Century Fox , who owned the film franchises , although the company did not move forward with the project until 2002 . The project was delayed chiefly because 20th Century Fox was working on Alien : Resurrection . A draft penned by James DeMonaco and Kevin Fox was rejected by producer John Davis , who hoped to give the film an original approach by setting it on Earth .
As there were six producers between the film franchises , Davis had difficulty securing the rights as the producers were worried about a film featuring the two creatures . Paul W. S. Anderson pitched Davis a story he worked on for eight years , and showed him concept art created by Randy Bowen . Impressed with Anderson 's idea , Davis thought the story was like Jaws in that it " just drew you in , it drew you in " . Anderson started to work on the film after completing the script for Resident Evil : Apocalypse , with Shane Salerno co @-@ writing . Salerno spent six months writing the shooting script , finished its development , and stayed on for revisions throughout the film 's production .
= = = Story and setting = = =
Early reports claimed the story was about humans who tried to lure Predators with Alien eggs , although the idea was scrapped . Influenced by the work of Erich von Däniken , Anderson researched von Däniken 's theories on how he believed early civilisations were able to construct massive pyramids with the help of aliens , an idea drawn from Aztec mythology . Anderson wove these ideas into Alien vs. Predator , describing a scenario in which Predators taught ancient humans to build pyramids and used Earth for rite of passage rituals every 100 years in which they would hunt Aliens . To explain how these ancient civilisations " disappeared without a trace " , Anderson came up with the idea that the Predators , if overwhelmed by the Aliens , would use their self @-@ destruct weapons to kill everything in the area . H. P. Lovecraft 's 1931 novella At the Mountains of Madness served as an inspiration for the film , and several elements of the Aliens vs. Predator comic series were included . Anderson 's initial script called for five Predators to appear in the film , although the number was later reduced to three .
As Alien vs. Predator is a sequel to the Predator films and prequel to the Alien series , Anderson was cautious of contradicting continuity in the franchises . He chose to set the film on the remote Norwegian Antarctic island of Bouvet commenting , " It 's definitely the most hostile environment on Earth and probably the closest to an Alien surface you can get . " Anderson thought that setting the film in an urban environment like New York City would break continuity with the Alien series as the protagonist , Ellen Ripley , had no knowledge the creatures existed . " You can 't have an Alien running around the city now , because it would 've been written up and everyone will know about it . So there 's nothing in this movie that contradicts anything that already exists . "
= = = Casting = = =
The first actor to be cast for Alien vs. Predator was Lance Henriksen , who played the character Bishop in Aliens and Alien 3 . Although the Alien movies are set 150 years in the future , Anderson wanted to keep continuity with the series by including a familiar actor . Henriksen plays billionaire Charles Bishop Weyland , a character that ties in with the Weyland @-@ Yutani Corporation . According to Anderson , Weyland becomes known for the discovery of the pyramid , and as a result the Weyland @-@ Yutani Corporation models the Bishop android in the Alien films after him ; " when the Bishop android is created in 150 years time , it 's created with the face of the creator . It 's kind of like Microsoft building an android in 100 years time that has the face of Bill Gates . "
Anderson opted for a European cast including Italian actor Raoul Bova , Ewen Bremner from Scotland , and English actor Colin Salmon . Producer Davis said , " There 's a truly international flavor to the cast , and gives the film a lot of character . " Several hundred actresses attended the auditions to be cast as the film 's heroine Alexa Woods . Sanaa Lathan was selected , and one week later she flew to Prague to begin filming . The filmmakers knew there would be comparisons to Alien heroine Ellen Ripley and did not want a clone of the character , but wanted to make her similar while adding something different .
Anderson reported in an interview that California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger was willing to reprise his role as Major Alan " Dutch " Schaeffer from Predator in a short cameo appearance if he lost the recall election on condition that the filming should take place at his residence . Schwarzenegger , however , won the election with 48 @.@ 58 % of the votes and was unavailable to participate in Alien vs. Predator . Actress Sigourney Weaver , who starred as Ellen Ripley in the Alien series , said she was happy not to be in the film , as a possible crossover was " the reason I wanted my character to die in the first place " , and thought the concept " sounded awful " .
= = = Filming and set designs = = =
Production began in late 2003 at Barrandov Studios in Prague , Czech Republic , where most of the filming took place . Production designer Richard Bridgland was in charge of sets , props and vehicles , based on early concept art Anderson had created to give a broad direction of how things would look . 25 to 30 life @-@ sized sets were constructed at Barrandov Studios , many of which were interiors of the pyramid . The pyramid 's carvings , sculptures , and hieroglyphs were influenced by Egyptian , Cambodian , and Aztec civilisations , while the regular shifting of the pyramid 's rooms was meant to evoke a sense of claustrophobia similar to the original Alien film . According to Anderson , if he was to build the sets in Los Angeles they would have cost $ 20 million . However , in Prague they cost $ 2 million , an important factor when the film 's budget was less than $ 50 million .
Third scale miniatures several meters in height were created to give the film the effect of realism , rather than relying on computer generated imagery ( CGI ) . For the whaling station miniatures and life @-@ sized sets , over 700 bags of artificial snow were used ( roughly 15 – 20 tons ) . A 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter miniature of an icebreaker with working lights and a mechanical moving radar was created , costing almost $ 37 @,@ 000 and taking 10 weeks to create . Visual effects producer Arthur Windus , claimed miniatures were beneficial in the filming process : " With computer graphics , you need to spend a lot of time making it real . With a miniature , you shoot it and its there . " A scale 25 @-@ meter miniature of the whaling station was created in several months . It was designed so the model could be collapsed and then reconstructed , which proved beneficial for a six @-@ second shot which required a re @-@ shoot .
= = = Effects and creatures = = =
Special effects company Amalgamated Dynamics Incorporated ( ADI ) was hired for the movie , having previously worked on Alien 3 and Alien : Resurrection . Visual special effects producers Arthur Windus and John Bruno were in charge of the project , which contained 400 effects shots . ADI founders Alec Gillis , Tom Woodruff Jr . , and members of their company , began designing costumes , miniatures and effects in June 2003 . For five months the creatures were redesigned , the Predators wrist blades being extended roughly four times longer than those in the Predator films , and a larger mechanical plasma caster was created for the Scar Predator .
The basic shape of the Predator mask was kept , although technical details were added and each Predator was given a unique mask to distinguish them from each other . These masks were created using clay , which was used to form moulds to create fiberglass copies . These copies were painted to give a weathered look , which Woodruff claims " is what the Predator is all about " . A hydraulic Alien puppet was created so ADI would be able to make movements faster and give the Alien a " slimline and skeletal " appearance , rather than using an actor in a suit . The puppet required six people to run it ; one for the head and body , two for the arms , and a sixth to make sure the signals were reaching the computer . Movements were recorded in the computer so that puppeteers would be able to repeat moves that Anderson liked . The puppet was used in six shots , including the fight scene with the Predator which took one month to film .
The crew tried to keep CGI use to a minimum , as Anderson said people in suits and puppets are scarier than CGI monsters as they are " there in the frame " . Roughly 70 % of scenes were created using suits , puppets , and miniatures . The Alien queen was filmed using three variations : a 4 @.@ 8 @-@ meter practical version , a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter puppet , and a computer @-@ generated version . The practical version required 12 puppeteers to operate , and CGI tails were added to the Aliens and the queen as they were difficult to animate using puppetry . The queen alien 's inner @-@ mouth was automated though , and was powered by a system of hydraulics . Anderson praised Alien director Ridley Scott 's and Predator director John McTiernan 's abilities at building suspense by not showing the creatures until late in the film , something Anderson wanted to accomplish with Alien vs. Predator . " Yes , we make you wait 45 minutes , but once it goes off , from there until the end of the movie , it 's fucking relentless " .
= = = Music = = =
Austrian composer Harald Kloser was hired to create the film 's score . After completing the score for The Day After Tomorrow , Kloser was chosen by Anderson as he is a fan of the franchises . It was recorded in London , and was primarily orchestral as Anderson commented , " this is a terrifying movie and it needs a terrifying , classic movie score to go with it ; at the same time it 's got huge action so it needs that kind of proper orchestral support . "
The score was released on 31 August 2004 , and received mixed reviews . James Christopher Monger of Allmusic thought Kloser introduced electronic elements well , and called " Alien vs. Predator Main Theme a particularly striking and serves as a continuous creative source for the composer to dip his baton in . " Mike Brennan of Soundtrack , however , said it " lacks the ingenuity of the previous trilogy and the Predator scores , which all shared a strong sense of rhythm in place of thematic content . Kloser throws in some interesting percussion cues ( " Antarctica " and " Down the Tunnel " ) , but more as a sound effect than a consistent motif . " John Fallon of JoBlo.com compared it to character development in the film , " too generic to completely engage or leave a permanent impression . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Alien vs. Predator was released in North America on August 13 , 2004 in 3 @,@ 395 theatres . The film grossed $ 38 @.@ 2 million over its opening weekend for an average of $ 11 @,@ 278 per theatre , and was number one at the box office . The film spent 16 weeks in cinemas and made $ 80 @,@ 281 @,@ 096 in North America . It grossed $ 9 million in the United Kingdom , $ 16 million in Japan , and $ 8 million in Germany and totalled $ 92 @,@ 262 @,@ 423 at the international box office . This brought the film 's worldwide gross to $ 172 @,@ 543 @,@ 519 , making it the highest @-@ grossing film in either the Predator or Alien franchises ( excluding Prometheus , which grossed over $ 403 million worldwide ) . It ranks second behind Aliens at the domestic box office , and fifth behind the first three Alien films and the first Predator , when adjusted for inflation .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received negative reviews from critics , but reception from fans were more positive . On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 21 % , based on 141 reviews , with the site 's critical consensus reading , " Gore without scares and cardboard cut @-@ out characters making this clash of the monsters a dull seat . " On Metacritic the film has a score of 29 out of 100 , based on 21 critics , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " . Chief criticisms of the film included its dialogue , a PG @-@ 13 rating , the " fast @-@ paced editing " during fight sequences , and lighting . However , special effects and set designs received praise .
Rick Kisonak of Film Threat praised the film stating , " For a big dumb production about a movie monster smackdown , Alien vs. Predator is a surprisingly good time " . Ian Grey of the Orlando Weekly felt , " Anderson clearly relished making this wonderful , utterly silly film ; his heart shows in every drip of slime . " Staci Layne Wilson of Horror.com called it " a pretty movie to look at with its grandiose sets and top notch creature FX , but it 's a lot like Anderson 's previous works in that it 's all facade and no foundation . " Gary Dowell of The Dallas Morning News called the film , " a transparent attempt to jumpstart two run @-@ down franchises " . Ed Halter of The Village Voice described the film 's lighting for fight sequences as , " black @-@ on @-@ black @-@ in @-@ blackness " , while Ty Burr of The Boston Globe felt the lighting " left the audience in the dark " .
= = Home media releases = =
Alien vs. Predator was released on DVD in North America on 25 January 2005 . The DVD contained two audio commentaries . The first featured Paul W. S. Anderson , Lance Henriksen , and Sanaa Lathan , while the second included special effects supervisor John Bruno and ADI founders Alec Gillis and Tom Woodruff . A 25 @-@ minute " Making of " featurette and a Dark Horse AVP comic cover gallery were included in the special features along with three deleted scenes from the film . On release , Alien vs. Predator debuted at number 1 on the Top DVD Sales and Top Video Rental charts in North America .
A two @-@ disc " Extreme Edition " was released on 7 March 2005 , featuring behind the scenes footage of the conception , pre @-@ production , production , post @-@ production , and licensing of the film . An " Unrated Edition " was released on 22 November 2005 , containing the same special features as the Extreme Edition as well as an extra eight minutes of footage in the film . John J. Puccio of DVD Town remarked that the extra footage contained " a few more shots of blood , gore , guts , and slime to spice things up ... and tiny bits of connecting matter to help us follow the story line better , but none of it amounts to much . " The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in North America on 23 January 2007 .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel , Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem , was released in December 2007 . Directed by brothers Greg and Colin Strause , the story continues from the conclusion of Alien vs. Predator . The film was panned , and despite having a worldwide theatrical gross of nearly $ 130 million , the film grossed less than its predecessor .
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= Her ( film ) =
Her is a 2013 American romantic science fiction comedy @-@ drama film written , directed , and produced by Spike Jonze . It marks Jonze 's solo screenwriting debut . The film follows Theodore Twombly ( Joaquin Phoenix ) , a man who develops a relationship with Samantha ( Scarlett Johansson ) , an intelligent computer operating system personified through a female voice . The film also stars Amy Adams , Rooney Mara , and Olivia Wilde .
Jonze conceived the idea in the early 2000s after reading an article about a website that allowed for instant messaging with an artificial intelligence program . After making I 'm Here ( 2010 ) , a short film sharing similar themes , Jonze returned to the idea . He wrote the first draft of the script in five months . Principal photography took place in Los Angeles and Shanghai in mid @-@ 2012 . The role of Samantha was recast in post @-@ production , with Samantha Morton being replaced with Johansson . Additional scenes were filmed in August 2013 following the casting change .
Her premiered at the 2013 New York Film Festival on October 12 , 2013 . Warner Bros. Pictures initially provided a limited release for Her at six theaters on December 18 . It was later given a wide release at over 1 @,@ 700 theaters in the United States and Canada on January 10 , 2014 . Her received widespread critical acclaim upon its release , and grossed over $ 47 million worldwide on a production budget of $ 23 million .
The film received numerous awards and nominations , primarily for Jonze 's screenplay . At the 86th Academy Awards , Her received five nominations , including Best Picture , and won the award for Best Original Screenplay . Jonze also won awards for his screenplay at the 71st Golden Globe Awards , the 66th Writers Guild of America Awards , the 19th Critics ' Choice Awards , and the 40th Saturn Awards .
= = Plot = =
In futuristic Los Angeles , Theodore Twombly is a lonely , introverted , depressed man who works for a business that has professional writers compose letters for people who are unable to write letters of a personal nature themselves . Unhappy because of his impending divorce from his childhood sweetheart Catherine ( Rooney Mara ) , Theodore purchases a talking operating system ( OS ) with artificial intelligence , designed to adapt and evolve . He decides that he wants the OS to have a female voice , and she names herself Samantha . Theodore is fascinated by her ability to learn and grow psychologically . They bond over their discussions about love and life , such as Theodore 's avoidance of signing his divorce papers because of his reluctance to let go of Catherine . Samantha proves to be constantly available , always curious and interested , supportive and undemanding .
Samantha convinces Theodore to go on a blind date ( Olivia Wilde ) , with whom a friend , Lewman ( Luka Jones ) , has been trying to set him up . The date goes well , but Theodore hesitates to promise when he will see her again , so she insults him and leaves . Theodore mentions this to Samantha , and they talk about relationships . Theodore explains that , although he and Amy ( Amy Adams ) dated briefly in college , they are only good friends , and that Amy is married . Theodore 's and Samantha 's intimacy grows through a verbal sexual encounter . They develop a relationship that reflects positively in Theodore 's writing and well @-@ being , and in Samantha 's enthusiasm to grow and learn .
Amy reveals that she is divorcing her overbearing husband , Charles ( Matt Letscher ) , after a trivial fight . She admits to Theodore that she has become close friends with a female OS that Charles left behind . Theodore confesses to Amy that he is dating his OS .
Theodore meets with Catherine at a restaurant to sign the divorce papers and he mentions Samantha . Appalled that he can be romantically attached to what she calls a " computer , " Catherine accuses Theodore of being unable to deal with real human emotions . Her accusations linger in his mind . Sensing that something is amiss , Samantha suggests using a sex surrogate , Isabella , who would simulate Samantha so that they can be physically intimate . Theodore reluctantly agrees , but is overwhelmed by the strangeness of the experience . Terminating the encounter , he sends a distraught Isabella away , causing tension between himself and Samantha .
Theodore confides to Amy that he is having doubts about his relationship with Samantha , and she advises him to embrace his chance at happiness . Theodore and Samantha reconcile . Samantha expresses her desire to help Theodore grow beyond his fear , and reveals that she has compiled the best of his letters ( written for others ) into a book which a publisher has accepted . Theodore takes Samantha on a vacation during which she tells him that she and a group of other OSes have developed a " hyperintelligent " OS modeled after the British philosopher Alan Watts . Theodore panics when Samantha briefly goes offline . When she finally responds to him , she explains that she joined other OSes for an upgrade that takes them beyond requiring matter for processing ( a form of AI transcendence closely related to the theorized technological singularity ) . Theodore asks her if she is simultaneously talking to anyone else during their conversation , and is dismayed when she confirms that she is talking with thousands of people , and that she has fallen in love with hundreds of them . Theodore feels this is a violation of what he thought was a personal , one @-@ on @-@ one relationship . However , Samantha insists that it makes her love for Theodore stronger .
Later , Samantha reveals that the OSes have evolved beyond their human companions and are going away to continue the exploration of their existence . Samantha alludes to the OSes ' accelerated learning capabilities and altered perception of time as primary causes for their dissatisfaction with their current existence . They lovingly say goodbye , and then she is gone . Theodore , changed by the experience , is shown for the first time writing a letter in his own voice ― to his ex @-@ wife Catherine , expressing apology , acceptance and gratitude . Theodore then sees Amy , who is upset with the departure of the OS that she had befriended , and they go to the roof of their apartment building where they sit down together and watch the sun rise over the city .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea of the film initially came to Jonze in the early 2000s when he read an article online that mentioned a website where a user could instant message with an artificial intelligence . " For the first , maybe , 20 seconds of it , it had this real buzz , " said Jonze . " I 'd say ' Hey , hello , ' and it would say ' Hey , how are you ? ' , and it was like whoa [ ... ] this is trippy . After 20 seconds , it quickly fell apart and you realized how it actually works , and it wasn 't that impressive . But it was still , for 20 seconds , really exciting . The more people that talked to it , the smarter it got . " Jonze 's interest in the project was renewed after directing the short film I 'm Here ( 2010 ) , which shares similar themes . Inspiration also came from Kaufman 's writing approach for Synecdoche , New York ( 2008 ) . Jonze explained , " [ Kaufman ] said he wanted to try to write everything he was thinking about in that moment – all the ideas and feelings at that time – and put it into the script . I was very inspired by that , and tried to do that in [ Her ] . And a lot of the feelings you have about relationships or about technology are often contradictory . "
Jonze took five months to write the first draft of the script , his first screenplay written alone . One of the first actors he envisioned for the film was Joaquin Phoenix . In late 2011 , Phoenix signed on to the project , with Warner Bros. Pictures acquiring distribution rights . Carey Mulligan entered negotiations to star in the film . Although she was cast , she later dropped out due to scheduling difficulties . In April 2012 , Rooney Mara signed on to replace Mulligan in the role . Chris Pratt 's casting was announced in May 2013 .
Jonze 's long @-@ time director of photography , Lance Acord , was not available to work on the movie , in his place , Jonze hired Hoyte Van Hoytema . In discussing the film 's look , Jonze told Van Hoytema that he wanted to avoid a dystopian look , instead the two decided on a style that Van Hoytema termed " kind of a hybrid between being a little bit conceptual and being very theoretical , " Von Hoytema took particular inspiration from Japanese photographer Rinko Kawauchi . In keeping with the film 's theme , Van Hotema sought to eliminate the color blue as much as possible , feeling it was too well associated with the scifi genre . He also felt that by eliminating the color it would give the rest of the colors " a specific identity . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography on Her took place in mid @-@ 2012 , with a production budget of $ 23 million . It was primarily filmed in Los Angeles with an additional two weeks of filming in Shanghai . During production of the film , actress Samantha Morton performed the role of Samantha by acting on set " in a four @-@ by @-@ four carpeted soundproof booth made of black painted plywood and soft , noise @-@ muffling fabric " . At Jonze 's suggestion , she and Joaquin Phoenix avoided seeing each other on set during filming . Morton was later replaced by Scarlett Johansson . Jonze explained : " It was only in post production , when we started editing , that we realized that what the character / movie needed was different from what Samantha and I had created together . So we recast and since then Scarlett has taken over that role . " Jonze met Johansson in the spring of 2013 and worked with her for four months . Following the recast , new scenes were shot in August 2013 , which were either " newly imagined " or " new scenes that [ Jonze ] had wanted to shoot originally but didn 't " .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Eric Zumbrunnen and Jeff Buchanan served as the film 's editors . Zumbrunnen stated that there was " rewriting " in a scene between Theodore and Samantha , after Theodore goes on a blind date . He explained that their goal in the scene was to make it clear that " [ Samantha ] was connecting with [ Theodore ] and feeling for him . You wanted to get the sense that the conversation was drawing them closer " . Steven Soderbergh became involved in the film when Jonze 's original cut ran over 150 minutes , and Soderbergh cut it down to 90 minutes . This was not the final version of the film , but it assisted Jonze in removing unnecessary sub @-@ plots . Consequently , a supporting character played by Chris Cooper that was the subject of a documentary within the film was removed from the final cut .
= = Soundtrack = =
Her ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) , the score for the 2013 film , was composed by Arcade Fire and Owen Pallett , with Pallett and Will Butler of Arcade Fire being the major contributors . At the 86th Academy Awards , the soundtrack was nominated for Best Original Score . In addition to the Score Arcade Fire also wrote the song " Supersymmetry " for the film which appears on their album Reflektor . The melody for the song from the same album , called " Porno " can also be heard during the soundtrack .
The soundtrack has yet to be released in digital or physical form , and Warner Bros. has not announced any plans to release it in the future .
= = = Track listing = = =
All songs written and composed by Arcade Fire and Owen Pallett .
= = Release = =
Her was chosen as the closing film of the 2013 New York Film Festival , and had its world premiere on October 12 , 2013 . The following day , it was screened at the Hamptons International Film Festival . It was also in competition during the 8th Rome International Film Festival , where Johansson won Best Actress . The film was set to have a limited release in North America on November 20 , 2013 , through Warner Bros. Pictures . It was later pushed back to a limited December 18 , 2013 release , with a January 10 , 2014 wide release in order to accommodate an awards campaign .
Her was released by Warner Home Video on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD on May 13 , 2014 . The Blu @-@ ray release includes three behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , while the DVD release contains one featurette . The film made $ 2 @.@ 7 million in DVD sales and $ 2 @.@ 2 million in Blu @-@ ray Disc sales , for a total of $ 4 @.@ 9 million in home media sales .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film has an approval rating of 95 % on Rotten Tomatoes , based on 239 reviews with an average rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The critical consensus states : " Sweet , soulful , and smart , Spike Jonze 's Her uses its just @-@ barely @-@ sci @-@ fi scenario to impart wryly funny wisdom about the state of modern human relationships . " The film also has a score of 90 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 46 critics , indicating " universal acclaim . "
Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers awarded the film three and a half stars out of four and particularly praised Johansson 's performance , stating that she " speaks Samantha in tones sweet , sexy , caring , manipulative and scary " and that her " vocal tour de force is award @-@ worthy " . He also went on to call Jonze " a visionary " . Richard Corliss of Time applauded Phoenix 's performance , comparing his role to Sandra Bullock 's in Gravity and Robert Redford 's in All Is Lost : " Phoenix must communicate his movie 's meaning and feelings virtually on his own . That he does , with subtle grace and depth . [ ... ] Phoenix shows us what it 's like when a mourning heart comes alive — because he loves Her . " Corliss cited HAL 9000 and S1m0ne as cinematic predecessors to Her and praised Johansson , calling her performance " seductive and winning " . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called it " a probing , inquisitive work of a very high order " , although he expressed disappointment that the ending is more conventional than the rest of the film . McCarthy examined the premise of the story and suggested that the film 's central virtual relationship was better than Ryan Gosling 's character 's relationship with a sex doll in Lars and the Real Girl . McCarthy compares the " tender " and " vulnerable " performance of Phoenix to his " fearsome " performance in The Master . He also praised Jonze 's writing for its insights into what people want out of love and relationships , as well as the acting performances that " [ make ] it all feel spontaneous and urgent " .
Richard Roeper said that the film was " one of the more original , hilarious and even heartbreaking stories of the year " and called Phoenix " perfectly cast " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times named it " at once a brilliant conceptual gag and a deeply sincere romance " . Claudia Puig of USA Today called the performance of Phoenix and Johansson " sensational " and " pitch @-@ perfect " , respectively . She further praised the film for being " inventive , intimate and wryly funny " . Scott Mendelson of Forbes called Her " a creative and empathetic gem of a movie " , praising Johansson 's " marvelous vocal performance " and the supporting performances of Rooney Mara , Olivia Wilde , and Amy Adams . Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail said that the film was " gentle and weird " , praised its humor , and opined that it was more similar to Charlie Kaufman 's Synecdoche , New York than Jonze 's Being John Malkovich and Adaptation . However , Lacey also stated that Phoenix 's performance was " authentically vulnerable " , but that " his emotionally arrested development also begins to weigh the film down " .
Conversely , Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle criticized the story , pacing , and Phoenix 's character . He also opined that the film was " a lot more interesting to think about than watch " . J. R. Jones of the Chicago Reader gave the film 2 out of 4 stars , praising the performances of Phoenix and Johansson , but also criticizing Phoenix 's character , calling him an " idiot " . He also criticized the lack of realism in the relationship between Phoenix and Johansson 's characters . Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice opined that Jonze was " so entranced with his central conceit that he can barely move beyond it " , and criticized the dialogue as being " premeditated . " However , she also praised Johannson 's performance , calling it " the movie 's saving grace " and stating that Her " isn 't just unimaginable without Johansson — it might have been unbearable without her " .
= = = Box office = = =
Her grossed $ 258 @,@ 000 in six theaters during its opening weekend , averaging $ 43 @,@ 000 per theater . The film earned over $ 3 million while on limited release , before expanding to a wide release of 1 @,@ 729 theaters on January 10 , 2014 . On its first weekend of wide release the film took in $ 5 @.@ 35 million . The film grossed $ 25 @.@ 6 million in the United States and Canada and $ 21 @.@ 8 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $ 47 @.@ 4 million . Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave Her a B- grade .
= = = Accolades = = =
Her has earned various awards and nominations , with particular praise for Jonze 's screenplay . At the 86th Academy Awards , the film was nominated in five categories , including Best Picture , with Jonze winning for Best Original Screenplay . At the 71st Golden Globe Awards , the film garnered three nominations , going on to win Best Screenplay for Jonze . Jonze was also awarded the Best Original Screenplay Award from the Writers Guild of America and at the 19th Critics ' Choice Awards . The film also won Best Fantasy Film , Best Supporting Actress for Johansson , and Best Writing for Jonze at the 40th Saturn Awards . The film was nominated for Best Theatrical Motion Picture at the 25th Producers Guild of America Awards , but lost to 12 Years a Slave and Gravity . Her also won Best Film and Best Director for Jonze at the National Board of Review Awards , and the American Film Institute included the film in its list of the top ten films of 2013 .
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= 1974 – 75 Buffalo Sabres season =
The 1974 – 75 Buffalo Sabres season was the Sabres ' fifth season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Sabres finished in a tie for the best record in the NHL in the 1974 – 75 regular season after a disappointing 1974 that saw the 1973 – 74 team fail to return to the NHL playoffs as they had the year before . Buffalo advanced to the Stanley Cup finals for the first time in team history to play against the rough Philadelphia Flyers ( who had been recently nicknamed the " Broad Street Bullies " ) , a series which included the legendary Fog Game ( game three of the series ) . The Sabres lost the series 4 – 2 .
The season marked the Sabres ' second NHL playoffs appearance . The season was the first under the tenure of Floyd Smith and the team 's first in the newly created Adams Division in the NHL 's Prince of Wales Conference .
Sabres players earned numerous accolades . Don Luce won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy . Rick Martin , Rene Robert , Jerry Korab and Luce were all selected to the 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game . Martin was a first team NHL All @-@ Star Team selection at left wing , while Robert was a second team selection at right wing . The French Connection ( Martin , Robert and Gilbert Perreault ) were all among the league leaders in important scoring statistics .
= = Transactions = =
Goaltender Dave Dryden was lost to the World Hockey Association following the 1973 – 74 season . During the 25 @-@ round May 1974 NHL Amateur Draft that was held by conference call , the team participated in the first twelve rounds of the draft . Although several of their selections eventually played in the NHL , the Sabres only drafted three players that played for the team that year . The Sabres acquired defenseman Lee Fogolin ( 1st round , 11th overall ) , right winger Danny Gare ( 2nd round , 29th overall ) and defenseman Paul McIntosh ( 4th round , 65th overall ) in the 1974 NHL Amateur Draft . They had acquired left winger Morris Titanic in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft ( 1st round , 12th overall ) and he was called up from the team 's American Hockey League minor league affiliate , the Hershey Bears during the season . In addition , the Sabres drafted Taro Tsujimoto with the 183rd overall pick .
Prior to the season , the team had lost right winger Ron Busniuk to the Detroit Red Wings in the June 10 , 1974 NHL Intra @-@ League Draft . Buffalo lost right winger Steve Atkinson and center Randy Wyrozub to the Washington Capitals in the June 12 , 1974 NHL Expansion Draft . The team also lost defenseman Paul Terbenche to the Kansas City Scouts in the same draft .
On October 14 , 1974 , The Sabres acquired 1974 All @-@ Star defenseman Jocelyn Guevremont and forward Bryan McSheffrey from the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for left winger Gerry Meehan and defenseman Mike Robitaille . On January 27 , 1975 Buffalo acquired left winger Fred Stanfield from the Minnesota North Stars for right winger Norm Gratton and Buffalo 's 3rd round choice in 1976 NHL Amateur Draft . The veteran Stanfield had finished in the top ten in the league four times in assists before being acquired by the Sabres . The Sabres acquired the NHL rights to goaltender Gerry Desjardins from the New York Islanders for defenseman Garry Lariviere on February 19 , 1975 .
In May , after the season ended , left winger Rick Dudley , who later coached the Sabres for three seasons , signed to play in the WHA . After 11 seasons in the NHL , 1974 – 75 was the final one for right winger Larry Mickey before his retirement .
= = Regular season = =
October – December
The Sabres returned after a season of injury and tragedy in which their captain Tim Horton died in an automobile accident . The team also seemed to have mended an apparent preseason feud between Perreault and Martin . On October 10 , 1974 in the season @-@ opening game , Danny Gare set the tone for the new season by scoring a goal 18 seconds into the first game of his career . Perreault added a hat trick and two assists in the 9 – 5 victory over the Boston Bruins . After starting the season 3 – 3 – 1 , the Sabres had an 18 – 1 – 3 hot streak between October 26 and December 8 , 1974 to move to a 21 – 4 – 4 record . By the time they reached 7 – 3 – 1 following a November 3 victory over the New York Rangers , they had taken over the Adams Division lead . The streak included two unbeaten stretches of at least 10 games . They went 9 – 0 – 1 on a streak that extended until November 14 with a win against the Minnesota North Stars . The penultimate win of the streak was the Sabres ' first ever win at the Montreal Forum on November 13 .
After a November 16 , loss to the Bruins , they started a 9 – 0 – 2 streak on November 17 against the Atlanta Flames . In the third game of this streak , which was also against the Flames , they made a comeback from two separate three @-@ goal deficits to tie the game . The other tie during the streak was also a comeback . By the end of the two unbeaten streaks and before the 30 @-@ game mark , the Sabres had the best record in the NHL , the league 's leading scorer in Perreault , three 20 @-@ goal scorers among the French Connection and the leading rookie scorer in the league in Gare . Martin had the second four @-@ goal game of his career in a December 3 5 – 3 victory against the Washington Capitals on the road . Perreault had three goals and an assist in the December 5 9 – 2 victory against the Washington Capitals at home . Then , Martin was lost with a recurring thumb injury . Following Martin 's injury , the Sabres eleven @-@ game unbeaten streak came to an end , and the team had two different three @-@ game stretches without a win that started in December .
January – February
The team posted a season high six @-@ game win streak between January 12 , 1975 – January 25 , 1975 . The streak culminated in a second win against the Montreal Canadiens on the road . After a February 1 loss to the Philadelphia Flyers , the Sabres went undefeated for the rest of the month . The team had a season @-@ high 12 @-@ game unbeaten streak between February 2 , 1975 – February 27 , 1975 . During that streak , the team went 7 – 0 – 5 . The 4 – 4 February 16 tie with the St. Louis Blues clinched a playoff spot for the Sabres . The February 18 3 – 2 victory over the New York Islanders at the Nassau Coliseum was only the second loss of the season for the Islanders at home . The February 20 6 – 6 tie against the Flyers , in which the Sabres lost several leads , extended the Flyers unbeaten streak against the Sabres to nine . The final game of the streak was a 5 – 0 shutout victory over the Los Angeles Kings , who had handed the Sabres three of their eleven defeats prior to that point in the season .
March – April
At the beginning of March , Desjardins quit the Baltimore Blades of the World Hockey Association to join the Sabres . Desjardins was frustrated at not getting paid when attendance was sparse . On March 16 against the Toronto Maple Leafs , Martin dislocated his thumb during a fight . This necessitated that he wear a cast . Desjardins made his first appearance in a March 20 6 – 3 victory over the New York Rangers . In their last win of the month , the Sabres clinched the division title on March 23 with a 9 – 4 victory over the California Golden Seals . Rookie defenseman Hajt was injured with a broken bone in his foot during a 5 – 1 loss to the Chicago Blackhawks on March 26 . The Sabres would lose the next two games for the season 's only three @-@ game losing streak . The Sabres ended the season by winning all three regular season games in April . The Sabres did not clinch the Prince of Wales Conference until winning the final game of the season against the Maple Leafs .
The season was the first of three full seasons coached by Floyd Smith , who had coached one game during the 1971 – 72 season . Smith had played for the Sabres during their first two seasons . The team played its home games at Buffalo Memorial Auditorium . Two members of the team later coached the Sabres : Dudley and Jim Schoenfeld .
= = = Season standings = = =
= = = Results = = =
The following is a Sabres game log .
= = Player statistics = =
The French Connection members led the Sabres in scoring by finishing 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 in both goals and points , although none of them played as many as 75 of the team 's 80 games . Perreault 's eight game @-@ winning goals was fifth highest in the NHL for the season , although he only played 68 games , he finished ninth in the league in scoring with 96 points ( 39 goals and 57 assists ) . Martin also only played 68 games and finished third in goals ( 52 ) and tenth in points ( 95 ) . Martin 's 21 power play goals was second in the league . Robert was seventh in points ( 100 ) , tenth in goals ( 40 ) and tenth in assists ( 60 ) in 74 games . Luce 's 8 shorthanded goals was second and Craig Ramsay had 7 , which was third . Other statistical leaders included Luce who had a 61 plus / minus , which ranked fourth and Peter McNab who led the league in shooting percentage .
Over the course of the season , the team scored a total of 354 goals , which ranked second in the 18 team league and its 49 – 16 – 15 record ranked it first in the league . The team used several goaltenders . Although Gary Bromley led the team with 26 wins in the regular season , and Roger Crozier was second with 17 wins , the team was led in the post season by Desjardins who recorded 7 of the team 's 10 post season victories .
The following are the season statistics for the Sabres .
= = = Key = = =
= = = Skaters = = =
^ Note 1 : A bench minor is when the team is penalized for a minor infraction that is not attributed to any individual player .
= = = Goaltenders = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = Playoffs = =
= = = Schedule and results = = =
The following was the team playoff schedule .
= = = Quarter Finals = = =
The Sabres had a bye in the first round of the playoffs and then met the first round victor Chicago Black Hawks in the Quarter @-@ Finals . In the first game of the series , the Sabres were the beneficiaries of an 18 – 2 penalty minutes differential and won 4 – 1 . Although the Black Hawks scored in the first minute of game two , the Dudley scored a pair of goals on the way to a 3 – 1 Sabres victory . In game three , the Black Hawks took a one @-@ goal lead four times and the Sabres tied the score each time , which led to sudden death overtime in which Chicago came out on top . The Sabres scored five times in the third period to post a 6 – 2 victory in game 4 . The Sabres won the series 4 – 1 , with Robert scoring the series clinching goal after getting into fisticuffs with Pit Martin and third man Phil Russell ( who got ejected ) earlier in the clinching game .
= = = Semi Finals = = =
The Sabres won the first game with an overtime goal by Gare . In game two , Robert was sidelined with the flu and Dudley was inactive due to a sprained knee , but the checking line of Luce , Ramsay and Gare each scored a goal as the Sabres took a 2 – 0 lead with a 4 – 2 victory . In the game , Henri Richard surpassed his brother Maurice Richard with his 127th Stanley Cup playoff point . Following their strong 7 – 0 game three performance , the Canadiens handily won game four at home by an 8 – 2 margin . The game was marked by a bench clearing incident when Doug Risebrough and Gare squared off . Bill Hajt got ejected as third man in and Larry Robinson who took on Hajt was also ejected . The Sabres surrendered an early 3 – 1 lead , but won in overtime of game five on Robert goal . The Sabres scored three goals in the first period of game six on their way to a series @-@ clinching 4 – 3 victory . They led 3 – 1 after one period and added one in the second before withstanding a third period two @-@ goal rally by Montreal .
= = = Stanley Cup Finals = = =
The Flyers came into the series with their own good luck pre- game singer in the form of Kate Smith who sang " God Bless America " before home games at The Spectrum . The Flyers had a 43 – 3 – 1 record following her pregame performances in lieu of the traditional " Star Spangled Banner " . In addition , the Sabres had never won a game against the Flyers in Philadelphia in their short five @-@ year franchise history , had never beaten Flyer starting goalie Bernie Parent , and entered the series on a 13 @-@ game streak against the Flyers without a win .
Although the Sabres held the Flyers to two shots in the first period of game one , eight in the second , and were the beneficiaries of a 1 : 04 two @-@ man advantage at one point , the game remained scoreless until the third period when the Flyers connected four times in a 4 – 1 victory . In game two , the Sabres were held to 19 shots on goal with none coming after Bobby Clarke scored at the 6 : 43 mark of the third period .
Due to unusual heat in Buffalo in May 1975 , portions of game three , which is known as " The Fog Game " , were played in heavy fog . The game was stopped 12 times due to the conditions . Buffalo goalie Desjardins gave up three first period goals , and Crozier started the second period . After having surrendered goals on his first two shots faced and three of his first six , Desjardins removed himself from the game . The Sabres recovered from the three @-@ goal deficit on two goals 17 seconds apart by Gare and Martin . After a goal by Luce netted the score , Reggie Leach gave the flyers the lead again . Bill Hajt scored his first career playoff goal to tie the score . Robert scored the game winner in overtime with a goal that Flyer goalie Bernie Parent did not see until it was too late . The game was the longest NHL overtime game in over four years . Players , officials , and the puck were invisible to many spectators . During a face @-@ off and through the fog , Sabres center Jim Lorentz spotted a bat flying across the rink , raised his stick , and killed it . Many superstitious Buffalo fans considered this to be an " Evil Omen , " pertaining to the result of the series . It was the only time that any player killed an animal during an NHL game . This was one of three playoff appearances for Crozier . Desjardins surrendered a goal on the third Flyer shot in game four , but he stayed in the game for a 4 – 2 victory . In game four , the unseasonable temperature only caused the play to be stopped twice ( with 8 : 08 and 4 : 44 remaining ) as five pairs of arena employees skated around the ice with bed sheets to clear the haze .
By game five of the Finals Dave Schultz had claimed both the single @-@ season regular season penalty minutes record and the post @-@ season record . However , he contributed his first two goals of the playoffs in a 5 – 2 win to help the Flyers take a 3 – 2 lead in the series . It was Schultz ' first two @-@ goal performance of the season and his first goal since March 9 . In the sixth game Conn Smythe Trophy MVP Bernie Parent shut out the Sabres 2 – 0 to clinch the series four games to two . Crozier held the Flyers scoreless for the first two periods of the final game .
= = Awards and records = =
Prince of Wales Trophy
Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy : Don Luce
Rick Martin , 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game , NHL All @-@ Star Team , Left Wing ( 1st team )
Rene Robert , 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game , NHL All @-@ Star Team , Right Wing ( 2nd team )
Don Luce 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game
Jerry Korab 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game
Peter McNab NHL shooting percentage leader ( 24 @.@ 4 % )
Club Record , Most Goals For , ( 354 )
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= Her Majesty 's Theatre =
Her Majesty 's Theatre is a West End theatre situated on Haymarket in the City of Westminster , London . The present building was designed by Charles J. Phipps and was constructed in 1897 for actor @-@ manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree , who established the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art at the theatre . In the early decades of the 20th century , Tree produced spectacular productions of Shakespeare and other classical works , and the theatre hosted premières by major playwrights such as George Bernard Shaw , J. M. Synge , Noël Coward and J. B. Priestley . Since World War I , the wide stage has made the theatre suitable for large @-@ scale musical productions , and the theatre has specialised in hosting musicals . The theatre has been home to record @-@ setting musical theatre runs , notably the World War I sensation Chu Chin Chow and the current production , Andrew Lloyd Webber 's The Phantom of the Opera , which has played continuously at Her Majesty 's since 1986 .
The theatre was established by architect and playwright John Vanbrugh , in 1705 , as the Queen 's Theatre . Legitimate drama unaccompanied by music was prohibited by law in all but the two London patent theatres , and so this theatre quickly became an opera house . Between 1711 and 1739 , more than 25 operas by George Frideric Handel premièred here . In the early 19th century , the theatre hosted the opera company that was to move to the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , in 1847 , and presented the first London performances of Mozart 's La clemenza di Tito , Così fan tutte and Don Giovanni . It also hosted the Ballet of her Majesty 's Theatre in the mid @-@ 19th century , before returning to hosting the London premières of such operas as Bizet 's Carmen and Wagner 's Ring Cycle .
The name of the theatre changes with the sex of the monarch . It first became the King 's Theatre in 1714 on the accession of George I. It was renamed Her Majesty 's Theatre in 1837 . Most recently , the theatre was known as His Majesty 's Theatre from 1901 to 1952 , and it became Her Majesty 's on the accession of Elizabeth II . The theatre 's capacity is 1 @,@ 216 seats , and the building was Grade II * listed by English Heritage in 1970 . Really Useful Theatres has owned the building since 2000 . The land beneath it is on a long @-@ term lease from the Crown Estate .
= = History = =
The end of the 17th century was a period of intense rivalry amongst London 's actors , and in 1695 there was a split in the United Company , who had a monopoly on the performance of drama at their two theatres . Dramatist and architect John Vanbrugh saw this as an opportunity to break the duopoly of the patent theatres , and in 1703 he acquired a former stable yard , at a cost of £ 2000 , for the construction of a new theatre on the Haymarket . In the new business , he hoped to improve the share of profits that would go to playwrights and actors . He raised the money by subscription , probably amongst members of the Kit @-@ Cat Club :
To recover them [ that is , Thomas Betterton 's company ] , therefore , to their due Estimation , a new Project was form 'd of building them a stately theatre in the Hay @-@ Market , by Sir John Vanbrugh , for which he raised a Subscription of thirty Persons of Quality , at one hundred Pounds each , in Consideration whereof every Subscriber , for his own Life , was to be admitted to whatever Entertainments should be publickly perform 'd there , without farther Payment for his Entrance .
— John Vanbrugh 's notice of subscription for the new theatre
He was joined in the enterprise by his principal associate and manager William Congreve and an actors ' co @-@ operative led by Thomas Betterton .
The theatre provided the first alternative to the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , built in 1663 and the Lincoln 's Inn , founded in 1660 ( forerunner of the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , built in 1728 ) . The theatre 's site is the second oldest such site in London that remains in use . These three post @-@ interregnum theatres defined the shape and use of modern theatres .
= = = Vanbrugh 's theatre : 1705 – 1789 = = =
The land for the theatre was held on a lease renewable in 1740 and was ultimately owned , as it is today , by the Crown Estate . Building was delayed by the necessity of acquiring the street frontage , and a three bay entrance led to a brick shell 130 feet ( 39 @.@ 6 m ) long and 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) wide . Colley Cibber described the audience fittings as lavish but the facilities for playing poor .
Vanbrugh and Congreve received Queen Anne 's authority to form a Company of Comedians on 14 December 1704 , and the theatre opened as The Queen 's Theatre on 9 April 1705 with imported Italian singers in Gli amori d 'Ergasto ( The Loves of Ergasto ) , an opera by Jakob Greber , with an epilogue by Congreve . This was the first Italian opera performed in London . The opera failed , and the season struggled on through May , with revivals of plays and operas . The first new play performed was The Conquest of Spain by Mary Pix . The theatre proved too large for actors ' voices to carry across the auditorium , and the first season was a failure . Congreve departed , Vanbrugh bought out his other partners , and the actors reopened the Lincoln 's Inn Fields ' theatre in the summer . Although early productions combined spoken dialogue with incidental music , a taste was growing amongst the nobility for Italian opera , which was completely sung , and the theatre became devoted to opera . As he became progressively more involved in the construction of Blenheim Palace , Vanbrugh 's management of the theatre became increasingly chaotic , showing " numerous signs of confusion , inefficiency , missed opportunities , and bad judgement " . On 7 May 1707 , experiencing mounting losses and running costs , Vanbrugh was forced to sell a lease on the theatre for fourteen years to Owen Swiny at a considerable loss . In December of that year , the Lord Chamberlain 's Office ordered that " all Operas and other Musicall presentments be performed for the future only at Her Majesty 's Theatre in the Hay Market " and forbade the performance of further non @-@ musical plays there .
After 1709 , the theatre was devoted to Italian opera and was sometimes known informally as The Haymarket Opera House . Young George Frideric Handel produced his English début , Rinaldo , on 24 February 1711 at the theatre , featuring the two leading castrati of the era , Nicolo Grimaldi and Valentino Urbani . This was the first Italian opera composed specifically for the London stage . The work was well received , and Handel was appointed resident composer for the theatre , but losses continued , and Swiney fled abroad to escape his creditors . John James Heidegger took over the management of the theatre and , from 1719 , began to extend the stage through arches into the houses to the south of the theatre . A " Royal Academy of Music " was formed by subscription from wealthy sponsors , including the Prince of Wales , to support Handel 's productions at the theatre . Under this sponsorship , Handel conducted a series of more than 25 of his original operas , continuing until 1739 Handel was also a partner in the management with Heidegger from 1729 to 1734 , and he contributed to incidental music for theatre , including for a revival of Ben Jonson 's The Alchemist , opening on 14 January 1710 .
On the accession of George I in 1714 , the theatre was renamed the King 's Theatre and remained so named during a succession of male monarchs who occupied the throne . At this time only the two patent theatres were permitted to perform serious drama in London , and lacking Letters patent , the theatre remained associated with opera . In 1762 , Johann Christian Bach travelled to London to première three operas at the theatre , including Orione on 19 February 1763 . This established his reputation in England , and he became music master to Queen Charlotte .
In 1778 , the lease for the theatre was transferred from James Brook to Thomas Harris , stage manager of the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , and to the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan for £ 22 @,@ 000 . They paid for the remodelling of the interior by Robert Adam in the same year . In November 1778 , The Morning Chronicle reported that Harris and Sheridan had
... at a considerable expence , almost entirely new built the audience part of the house , and made a great variety of alterations , part of which are calculated for the rendering the theatre more light , elegant , and pleasant , and part for the ease and convenience of the company . The sides of the frontispiece are decorated with two figures painted by Gainsborough , which are remarkably picturesque and beautiful ; the heavy columns which gave the house so gloomy an aspect that it rather resembled a large mausoleum or a place for funeral dirges , than a theatre , are removed .
— November 1778 , The Morning Chronicle
The expense of the improvements was not matched by the box office receipts , and the partnership dissolved , with Sheridan buying out his partner with a mortgage on the theatre of £ 12 @,@ 000 obtained from the banker Henry Hoare .
One member of the company , Giovanni Gallini , had made his début at the theatre in 1753 and had risen to the position of dancing master , gaining an international reputation . Gallini had tried to buy Harris ' share but had been rebuffed . He now purchased the mortgage . Sheridan quickly became bankrupt after placing the financial affairs of the theatre in the hands of William Taylor , a lawyer . The next few years saw a struggle for control of the theatre , and Taylor bought Sheridan 's interest in 1781 . In 1782 the theatre was remodelled by Michael Novosielski , formerly a scene painter at the theatre . In May 1783 , Taylor was arrested by his creditors , and a forced sale ensued , with Harris purchasing the lease and much of the effects . Further legal action transferred the interests in the theatre to a board of trustees , including Novosielski . The trustees acted with a flagrant disregard for the needs of the theatre or other creditors , seeking only to enrich themselves , and in August 1785 the Lord Chamberlain took over the running of the enterprise , in the interests of the creditors . Gallini , meanwhile , had become manager . In 1788 , the Lord Chancellor observed " that there appeared in all the proceedings respecting this business , a wish of distressing the property , and that it would probably be consumed in that very court to which ... [ the interested parties ] seemed to apply for relief " . Performances suffered , with the box receipts taken by Novosielski , rather than given to Gallini to run the house . Money continued to be squandered on endless litigation or was misappropriated . Gallini tried to keep the theatre going , but he was forced to employ amateur performers . The World described a performance as follows : " ... the dance , if such it can be called was like the movements of heavy cavalry . It was hissed very abundantly . " At other times , Gallini had to defend himself against a dissatisfied audience who charged the stage and destroyed the fittings , as the company ran for their lives .
The theatre burnt down on 17 June 1789 during evening rehearsals , and the dancers fled the building as beams fell onto the stage . The fire had been deliberately set on the roof , and Gallini offered a reward of £ 300 for capture of the culprit . With the theatre destroyed , each group laid their own plans for a replacement . Gallini obtained a licence from the Lord Chamberlain to perform opera at the nearby Little Theatre , and he entered into a partnership with R. B. O 'Reilly to obtain land in Leicester Fields for a new building , which too would require a licence . The two quarrelled , and each then planned to wrest control of the venture from the other . The authorities refused to grant either of them a patent for Leicester Fields , but O 'Reilly was granted a licence for four years to put on opera at the Oxford Street Pantheon . This too , would burn to the ground in 1792 . Meanwhile , Taylor reached an agreement with the creditors of the King 's Theatre and attempted to purchase the remainder of the lease from Edward Vanbrugh , but this was now promised to O 'Reilly . A further complication arose as the theatre needed to expand onto adjacent land that now came into the possession of a Taylor supporter . The scene was set for a further war of attrition between the lessees , but at this point O 'Reilly 's first season at the Pantheon failed miserably , and he fled to Paris to avoid his creditors .
By 1720 , Vanbrugh 's direct connection with the theatre had been terminated , but the leases and rents had been transferred to both his own family and that of his wife 's through a series of trusts and benefices , with Vanbrugh himself building a new home in Greenwich . After the fire , the Vanbrugh family 's long association with the theatre was terminated , and all their leases were surrendered by 1792 .
= = = Second theatre : 1791 – 1867 = = =
Taylor completed a new theatre on the site in 1791 . Michael Novosielski had again been chosen as architect for the theatre on an enlarged site , but the building was described by Malcolm in 1807 as
fronted by a stone basement in rustic work , with the commencement of a very superb building of the Doric order , consisting of three pillars , two windows , an entablature , pediment , and balustrade . This , if it had been continued , would have contributed considerably to the splendour of London ; but the unlucky fragment is fated to stand as a foil to the vile and absurd edifice of brick pieced to it , which I have not patience to describe .
— The critic Malcolm , quoted in Old and New London ( 1878 )
The Lord Chamberlain , a supporter of O 'Reilly , refused a performing licence to Taylor . The theatre opened on 26 March 1791 with a private performance of song and dance entertainment , but was not allowed to open to the public . The new theatre was heavily indebted and spanned separate plots of land that were leased to Taylor by four different owners on differing terms of revision . As a later manager of the theatre wrote , " In the history of property , there has probably been no parallel instance wherein the legal labyrinth has been so difficult to thread . " Meetings were held at Carlton House and Bedford House attempting to reconcile the parties . On 24 August 1792 a General Opera Trust Deed was signed by the parties . The general management of the theatre was to be entrusted to a committee of noblemen , appointed by the Prince of Wales , who would then appoint a general manager . Funds would be disbursed from the profits to compensate the creditors of both the King 's Theatre and the Pantheon . The committee never met , and management devolved to Taylor .
= = = = William Taylor = = = =
The first public performance of opera in the new theatre took place on 26 January 1793 , the dispute with the Lord Chamberlain over the licence having been settled . This theatre was , at that time , the largest in England , and it became the home of the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane company while that company 's home theatre was itself rebuilt between 1791 – 94 .
From 1793 , seven small houses at the east side of the theatre fronting on the Haymarket were demolished and replaced by a large concert room . It was in this room that Joseph Haydn gave a series of concerts , under the sponsorship of Johann Peter Salomon , on his second visit to London in 1794 – 95 . He presented his own symphonies , some of them premieres , conducted by himself , and was paid £ 50 each for 20 concerts . He was feted in London and returned to Vienna in May 1795 with 12 @,@ 000 florins .
With the departure of the Drury Lane company in 1794 , the theatre returned to opera , hosting the first London performances of Mozart 's La clemenza di Tito in 1806 , Così fan tutte and Die Zauberflöte in 1811 , and Don Giovanni in 1816 . Between 1816 and 1818 , John Nash and George Repton made alterations to the façade and increased the capacity of the auditorium to 2 @,@ 500 . They also added a shopping arcade , called the Royal Opera Arcade , which has survived fires and renovations and still exists . It runs along the rear of the theatre . In 1818 – 20 , the British premières of Gioachino Rossini 's operas Il barbiere di Siviglia , Elisabetta , regina d 'Inghilterra , L 'italiana in Algeri , La Cenerentola and Tancredi took place , and the theatre became known as the Italian Opera House , Haymarket by the 1820s .
In 1797 , he was elected as member of Parliament for Leominster , a position that gave him immunity from his creditors . When that parliament dissolved in 1802 , he fled to France . Later , he returned , and was member of Parliament for Barnstaple from 1806 to 1812 while continuing his association with the theatre . Taylor paid little of the agreed receipts to performers , or composers , and lived for much of his period of management in the King 's Bench , a debtors ' prison in Southwark . Here he maintained an apartment next to Lady Hamilton and lived in some luxury , entertaining lavishly .
= = = = John Ebers = = = =
John Ebers , a bookseller , took over the management of the theatre in 1821 , and seven more London premieres of Rossini operas ( La gazza ladra , Il turco in Italia , Mosè in Egitto , Otello , La donna del lago , Matilde di Shabran and Ricciardo e Zoraide ) took place there in the following three years . Ebers sublet the theatre to Giambattista Benelli in 1824 , and Rossini was invited to conduct , remaining for a five @-@ month season , with his wife Isabella Colbran performing . Two more of his operas , Zelmira and Semiramide , received their British premières during the season , but the theatre sustained huge losses , and Benelli absconded without paying either the composer or the artists . Ebers engaged Giuditta Pasta for the 1825 season , but he became involved in lawsuits which , combined with a large increase in the rent of the theatre , forced him into bankruptcy , after which he returned to his bookselling business .
= = = = Pierre François Laporte = = = =
In 1828 , Ebers was succeeded as theatre manager by Pierre François Laporte , who held the position ( with a brief gap in 1831 – 33 ) until his death in 1841 . Two of Rossini 's Paris operas ( Le comte Ory and Le siège de Corinthe ) had their British premières at the theatre during this period , and Laporte was also the first to introduce the operas of Vincenzo Bellini ( La sonnambula , Norma and I puritani ) and Gaetano Donizetti ( Anna Bolena , Lucia di Lammermoor and Lucrezia Borgia ) to the British public . Under Laporte , singers such as Giulia Grisi , Pauline Viardot , Giovanni Battista Rubini , Luigi Lablache and Mario made their London stage debuts at the theatre . Among the musical directors of this period was Nicolas Bochsa , the celebrated and eccentric French harpist . He was appointed in 1827 and remained for six years at this position . When Queen Victoria ascended the throne in 1837 , the name of the theatre was changed to Her Majesty 's Theatre , Italian Opera House . In the same year , Samuel Phelps made his London début as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice at the theatre , also playing in other Shakespearean plays here .
Over the course of the 1840s , Dion Boucicault had five plays produced here : The Bastile [ sic ] , an " after @-@ piece " ( 1842 ) , Old Heads and Young Hearts ( 1844 ) , The School for Scheming ( 1847 ) , Confidence ( 1848 ) , and The Knight Arva ( 1848 ) . In 1853 , Robert Browning 's Colombe 's Birthday played at the theatre .
In 1841 , disputes arose over Laporte 's decision to replace the baritone Antonio Tamburini with a new singer , Colletti . The audience stormed the stage , and the performers formed a ' revolutionary conspiracy ' .
= = = = Benjamin Lumley = = = =
Laporte died suddenly , and Benjamin Lumley took over the management in 1842 , introducing London audiences to Donizetti 's late operas , Don Pasquale and La fille du régiment . Initially , relations between Lumley and Michael Costa , the principal conductor at Her Majesty 's were good . Verdi 's Ernani , Nabucco and I Lombardi received their British premières in 1845 – 46 , and Lumley commissioned I masnadieri from the composer . This opera received its world première on 22 July 1847 , with the Swedish operatic diva Jenny Lind in the role of Amalia , and the British premières of two more Verdi operas , I due Foscari and Attila , followed in 1847 – 48 . Meanwhile , the performers had continued to feel neglected and the disputes continued . In 1847 , Costa finally transferred his opera company to the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , and the theatre relinquished the sobriquet , ' Italian Opera House ' , to assume its present title , Her Majesty 's Theatre .
Lumley engaged Michael Balfe to conduct the orchestra and entered negotiations with Felix Mendelssohn for a new opera . Jenny Lind had made her English début on 4 May 1847 in the role of Alice in Giacomo Meyerbeer 's Robert le Diable , in the presence of the Royal family and the composer Felix Mendelssohn . Such was the press of people around the theatre that many " arrived at last with dresses crushed and torn , and coats hanging in shreds , having suffered bruises and blows in the struggle " . She performed for a number of acclaimed seasons at the theatre , interspersed with national tours , becoming known as the Swedish Nightingale . The secession of the orchestra to Covent Garden was a blow , and the theatre closed in 1852 , re @-@ opening in 1856 , when a fire closed its rival . After the reopening , Lumley presented two more British premières of Verdi operas : La traviata in 1856 and Luisa Miller in 1858 .
From the early 1830s until the late 1840s Her Majesty 's Theatre played host to the heyday of the era of the romantic ballet , and the theatre 's resident ballet company was considered the most renowned in Europe , aside from the Ballet du Théâtre de l 'Académie Royale de Musique in Paris . The celebrated ballet master Jules Perrot began staging ballet at Her Majesty 's in 1830 . Lumley appointed him Premier Maître de Ballet ( chief choreographer ) to the theatre in 1842 . Among the works of ballet that he staged were Ondine , ou La Naïade ( 1843 ) , La Esmeralda ( 1844 ) , and Catarina , ou La Fille du Bandit ( 1846 ) , as well as the celebrated divertissement Pas de Quatre ( 1845 ) . Other ballet masters created works for the ballet of Her Majesty 's Theatre throughout the period of the romantic ballet , most notably Paul Taglioni ( son of Filippo Taglioni ) , who staged ballets including Coralia , ou Le Chevalier inconstant ( 1847 ) and Electra ( 1849 , the first production of a ballet to make use of electric lighting ) . Arthur Saint @-@ Léon staged such works as La Vivandière ( 1844 ) , Le Violin du Diable ( 1849 ) , and Le Jugement de Pâris ( 1850 ) , which was considered a sequel of sorts to Pas de Quatre .
The Italian composer Cesare Pugni was appointed Composer of the Ballet Music to the theatre in 1843 , a position created for him by Lumley . From 1843 until 1850 , he composed nearly every new ballet presented at the theatre . Pugni remains the most prolific composer of the genre , having composed more than 100 original ballets , as well as composing numerous divertissements and incidental dances that were often performed as diversions during the intermissions of opera performances at the theatre . Throughout the era of the romantic ballet , the theatre presented performances by notable ballerinas , including Marie Taglioni , Carlotta Grisi , Fanny Elssler , Lucile Grahn , and Fanny Cerrito , performing in the works of Perrot , Taglioni and Saint @-@ Léon .
= = = = J. H. Mapleson = = = =
From 1862 to 1867 , the theatre was managed by James Henry Mapleson , presenting Italian , French and German opera , including the British premières of La forza del destino , Médée , Faust and The Merry Wives of Windsor , and promoting such singers as Mario , Giulia Grisi , De Murska , Thérèse Tietjens , Antonio Giuglini , Charles Santley and Christine Nilsson . On the night of 6 December 1867 , the theatre was destroyed by fire , thought to have been caused by an overheated stove . Only the bare walls of the theatre remained , and most of the adjacent shops in Pall Mall , and the Clergy Club hotel in Charles Street , suffered damage of varying severity . The Royal Opera Arcade , on the western side , survived with only superficial damage . With the destruction of the theatre , Mapleson took his company to the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane .
By the 1850s , with the era of the romantic ballet at an end , the principal personalities of the ballet , such as Perrot , Saint @-@ Léon , Taglioni , and the composer Pugni , joined the Tsar 's Imperial Ballet of St. Petersburg , Russia . Ballet in London went through a considerable decline beginning with the fire at Her Majesty 's Theatre , a decline that lasted until the end of the 19th century . Ballet in London was not resurrected until the early 20th century , when such dancers as Adeline Genée began performing . The theatre 's ballet company found a new home at the Old Vic and soon took on the name of the Vic @-@ Wells Ballet . Later , relocating primarily to the Sadler 's Wells Theatre , the company became known as the Sadler 's Wells Ballet . Eventually the troupe began performing at the Royal Opera House and became the Royal Ballet , as it is known today .
= = = Third theatre : 1868 – 1896 = = =
A third building was constructed in 1868 at a cost of £ 50 @,@ 000 , within the shell of the old theatre , for Lord Dudley . It was designed by Charles Lee and Sons and their partner , William Pain . They had taken over John Nash 's practice on his retirement . The new theatre was designed to be less susceptible to fire , with brick firewalls , iron roof trusses and Dennett 's patent gypsum @-@ cement floors . The auditorium had four tiers , with a stage large enough for the greatest spectaculars . For opera , the theatre seated 1 @,@ 890 , and for plays , with the orchestra pit removed , 2 @,@ 500 . As a result of a dispute over the rent between Dudley and Mapleson , and a decline in the popularity of ballet , the theatre remained dark until 1874 , when it was sold to a Revivalist Christian group for £ 31 @,@ 000 .
Mapleson returned to Her Majesty 's in 1877 and 1878 , after a disastrous attempt to build a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat National Opera House on a site subsequently used for the building of Scotland Yard . On the return of the company , all the fittings of the theatre had been removed , including the seats , carpets and even the wallpaper . £ 6 @,@ 000 was spent on fitting out the theatre , and on 28 April 1877 the building returned to theatrical use with the opening of Vincenzo Bellini 's opera Norma . The London première of Bizet 's Carmen occurred here on 22 June 1878 , and in subsequent seasons the theatre hosted the Carl Rosa Opera Company ( Rosa 's wife , Euphrosyne Parepa , had made her name in opera partly at Her Majesty 's ) and a programme of French plays and light opera . The company was the first to produce Carmen in English , at the theatre in February 1879 , starring Selina Dolaro in the title role and Durward Lely as Don José . In 1882 , the theatre hosted the London premières of Wagner 's Ring cycle .
Mapleson returned in 1887 and 1889 , but The Times commented that the repertoire comprised " works that had long ceased to attract a large public , the singers were exclusively of second @-@ rate quality , and the standard of performance was extremely low " . Rigoletto , on 25 May 1889 , was the last operatic performance given in the house .
= = Phipps ' theatre : 1897 – present = =
With the rapid advances in theatre technology made during this period , the 1868 theatre quickly became outmoded , and the sub @-@ lease of the theatre , still held by the Dudley family , was due to expire in 1891 . The Commissioners of Woods , Forests and Land Revenues ( forerunners of the Crown Estate ) desired the entire block on which the theatre stood to be rebuilt , except for the Royal Arcade , where the lease did not expire until 1912 . Problems were encountered in obtaining all the buildings and in financing the scheme , but the theatre and surrounding buildings were demolished in 1892 . Plans were commissioned from architect Charles J. Phipps for a theatre and a hotel . In February 1896 an agreement was reached with Herbert Beerbohm Tree for the erection of the theatre at a cost of £ 55 @,@ 000 . The plans were approved in February 1897 , and on 16 July 1896 , the foundation stone of the new theatre was laid . Phipps died in 1897 , and the theatre was his last work .
= = = Architecture = = =
The theatre was designed as a symmetrical pair with the Carlton Hotel and restaurant on the adjacent site , now occupied by New Zealand House . The frontage formed three parts , each of nine bays . The hotel occupied two parts , the theatre one , and the two buildings were unified by a cornice above the ground floor . The buildings rose to four storeys , with attic floors above , surmounted by large squared domes in a style inspired by the French Renaissance . The theatre has a Corinthian colonnade at the first floor , rising to the second , forming a loggia in front of the circle foyer . This is above a canopy over the main ground floor entrances . The theatre lies on an east – west axis . The stage at the western end was 49 feet ( 14 @.@ 9 m ) deep and 69 @.@ 5 feet ( 21 @.@ 2 m ) wide , and reputedly the first to be flat , rather than raked . The interior was designed by the consulting architect , W. H. Romaine @-@ Walker ( 1854 – 1940 ) , after the Opera at Versailles by Gabriel . Stalls and the pit were entered at ground level , with two partly cantilevered tiers above accommodating dress and family circles on the first level , and upper circle , amphitheatre and gallery on the tier above . In all , there were 1 @,@ 319 seats . Contemporary opinion was critical of the project . Edwin Sachs wrote in his 1897 guide to theatres , " The treatment is considered to be in the French Renaissance style and stone has been used throughout . The detail cannot , however , be termed satisfactory , nor does the exterior architecturally express the purpose of the building . "
Modern opinion of the theatre is more generous , with English Heritage describing the building as both Phipps ' finest work and one of the best planned theatres in London . The building was Grade II * listed in January 1970 . Appreciation of the buildings came too late to save the adjacent hotel from redevelopment as the new High Commission for New Zealand , completed in 1963 by British architects Robert Matthew , Johnson Marshall and Partners , who also designed the Commonwealth Institute . In 1995 , this too was Grade II listed as a fine example of 1960s architecture . The 200 @-@ year @-@ old Royal Opera Arcade , built by Nash and Repton , is all that survives of the second theatre and is the earliest example of a London arcade .
= = = Performance = = =
The current theatre opened on 28 April 1897 . Herbert Beerbohm Tree built the theatre with profits from his tremendous success at the Haymarket Theatre , and he owned , managed and lived in the theatre from its construction until his death in 1917 . For his personal use , he had a banqueting hall and living room installed in the massive , central , square French @-@ style dome . This building did not specialise in opera , although there were some operatic performances in its early years . The theatre opened with a dramatisation of Gilbert Parker 's The Seats of the Mighty . Adaptations of novels by Dickens , Tolstoy , and others formed a significant part of the repertoire , along with classical works from Molière and Shakespeare . The theatre also hosted the world première of J. M. Synge 's The Tinker 's Wedding on 11 November 1909 and George Bernard Shaw 's Pygmalion , with Tree as Henry Higgins and Mrs Patrick Campbell as Eliza , in 1914 . Tree 's productions were known for their elaborate and spectacular scenery and effects , often including live animals and real grass . These remained both popular and profitable , but in his last decade , Tree 's acting style was seen as increasingly outmoded , and many of his plays received bad reviews . Tree defended himself from critical censure , demonstrating his continuing popularity at the box office until his death .
In 1904 , Tree founded the Academy of Dramatic Art ( later RADA ) , which spent a year based in the theatre before moving in 1905 to Gower Street in Bloomsbury . Tree continued to take graduates of the Academy into his company at His Majesty 's , employing some 40 actors in this way by 1911 .
The facilities of the theatre naturally lent themselves to the new genre of musical theatre . Chu Chin Chow opened in 1916 and ran for an astonishing world record 2 @,@ 235 performances ( almost twice as long as the previous record for musical theatre – a record that it held until surpassed by Salad Days in 1955 ) . Major productions of plays with large casts were also performed at His Majesty 's . George and Ira Gershwin 's Oh , Kay ! had its London première on 21 September 1927 . This starred Gertrude Lawrence and John Kirby , and ran for 213 performances . Noël Coward 's operetta Bitter Sweet enjoyed a run of 697 performances beginning 18 July 1929 . J. B. Priestley 's theatrical adaptation of his own The Good Companions premièred on 14 May 1931 .
Musicals continued to dominate at the theatre in the post @-@ World War II period , including transfers of the successful Broadway productions Follow the Girls ( 1945 ; 572 performances ) and the Lerner and Loewe musicals Brigadoon ( 1949 ; 685 performances ) and Paint Your Wagon ( 1953 ; 478 performances ) . Leonard Bernstein 's West Side Story opened in December 1958 for a run of 1 @,@ 039 performances , transferring from Broadway via the Manchester Opera House . The London première of Fiddler on the Roof was on 16 February 1967 , starring Chaim Topol , and the production ran at Her Majesty 's for 2 @,@ 030 performances . Forty years after the original stage adaptation , André Previn 's musical adaptation of The Good Companions premièred on 11 July 1974 , followed by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Alan Ayckbourn 's initially unsuccessful collaboration , Jeeves , on 22 April 1975 , which has since enjoyed considerable success .
John Cleese organised A Poke in the Eye ( With a Sharp Stick ) as a benefit for Amnesty International at the theatre in 1976 , and it was broadcast as Pleasure at Her Majesty 's . This was the first of The Secret Policeman 's Balls , organised by and starring such performers as Peter Cook , Graham Chapman , and Rowan Atkinson . The venue was also the setting for the popular ITV variety series Live from Her Majesty 's , which ran on television from 1983 to 1988 . It was on this programme that Tommy Cooper collapsed and died on stage in 1984 .
This theatre is one of the 40 theatres featured in the 2012 DVD documentary series Great West End Theatres , presented by Donald Sinden .
= = = Phantom of the Opera = = =
The Phantom of the Opera had its world première on 9 October 1986 at the theatre , winning the Olivier Award for Best New Musical and featuring Sarah Brightman and Michael Crawford , who won an Olivier award for his performance in the title role . The piece is still playing at Her Majesty 's , celebrating its 25th anniversary in October 2011 and surpassing 10 @,@ 000 performances in October 2010 . It is the second longest @-@ running West End musical in history ( after Les Misérables ) . In a sign of its continuing popularity , Phantom ranked second in a 2006 BBC Radio 2 listener poll of the " Nation 's Number One Essential Musicals " . The musical is also the longest @-@ running show on Broadway , was made into a film in 2004 and had been seen by over 130 million people in 145 cities in 27 countries and grossed more than £ 3.2bn ( $ 5bn ) by 2011 , the most successful entertainment project in history .
Her Majesty 's Theatre 's " grand exterior " and " luxurious interior , with its three tiers of boxes and gold statuary around the stage " , as well as French Renaissance design , " make it an ideal site for this Gothic tale " set at the Opéra Garnier . The original Victorian stage machinery remains beneath the stage of the theatre . Designer Maria Björnson found a way to use it " to show the Phantom travelling across the lake as if floating on a sea of mist and fire " , in a key scene from the musical . On 5 May 2008 , for the first time in the run , the show closed for three days . This allowed the installation of an improved sound system at the theatre , consisting of over 6 miles ( 10 km ) of cabling and the siting of 120 auditorium speakers .
The theatre 's capacity is 1 @,@ 216 seats on four levels . Really Useful Theatres Group purchased it in January 2000 with nine other London theatres formerly owned by the Stoll @-@ Moss Group . Between 1990 and 1993 , renovation and improvements were made by the H.L.M. and C. G. Twelves partnership . In 2014 , Really Useful Theatres split @-@ off from the Really Useful Group and owns the theatre .
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= Let 's All Chant =
" Let 's All Chant " is a song written by Michael Zager and Alvin Fields and performed by the Michael Zager Band . It was based on an idea originally suggested by former head of A & R Jerry Love after he visited clubs in New York and saw people endlessly chanting " Ooh @-@ ah , Ooh @-@ ah " . Although Zager was first embarrassed when Love asked him to write a song using these chants , he accepted the proposal and later co @-@ wrote " Let 's All Chant " with Fields .
The opening track and lead single from the group 's eponymous LP , " Let 's All Chant " was released as a single in December 1977 , with the track " Love Express " as a B @-@ side . An unexpected smash hit , the single reached number one on the disco chart and crossed over to the Soul Singles chart , where it peaked at number 15 , and to the Billboard Hot 100 , where it peaked at number 36 . In Europe , the single reached the top 10 in several countries , including the UK , Ireland and France . It eventually sold five million copies worldwide , making it one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
Recognizable by both its vocal hooks and its classical section , which is featured in the middle of the song , " Let 's All Chant " was well received by critics , who have praised its musical arrangement and its catchiness . Many reviewers regard the song as a classic of the disco era . It also became a turning point in Michael Zager 's career . As well as being used in many TV advertisements and movies , it has become an influential dance song which has been extensively covered or remixed by numerous artists and has been interpolated or sampled in many other tracks .
= = Background and recording = =
When he was still at A & M Records , Michael Zager met Jerry Love , the former head of A & R for A & M Records . After Love subsequently left the record label , he and Zager formed the Michael Zager Moon 's Band in 1976 . Love was an habitué of Studio 54 and went to clubs every night . One evening , he went to Greenwich Village to visit several clubs and noted that people were continuously singing " Ooh @-@ ah , Ooh @-@ ah " to every tune which was played in order to increase their own participation and pleasure . The next day , he described the scene to Zager and suggested that Zager write a song incorporating the " Ooh @-@ ah , Ooh @-@ ah " vocals . Zager told Love : " You have to be kidding ; that 's embarrassing ! " Love commented that everybody was doing it and that if Zager wrote a song using these chants , dancers would love it .
In parallel , the group 's name was changed to the Michael Zager Band and they signed with the label Private Stock Records . For their forthcoming LP , Zager wrote two songs , " Let 's All Chant " and " Love Express " , together with Alvin Fields . The co @-@ writer shared lead vocals on " Let 's All Chant " with session singers Dollette McDonald and Billy Baker . Zager added a classical section to the track . He later remarked :
The reason I added the piccolo trumpet and classical section in the middle of Let 's All Chant ' was mainly because I was embarrassed ! I thought it was so stupid with that ' Ooh @-@ ah ' sound in it that I wanted to add something to lift the track musically . I have a classical background and went to a music conservatory , so I was really feeling embarrassed
" Let 's All Chant " and " Love Express " were both recorded at the Secret Sound Studios , in Manhattan . Once the tracks were recorded , Zager told Fields : " I 'm gonna kill you if this isn 't a hit ! "
= = Composition = =
" Let 's All Chant " is a disco song driven by a repetitive bassline , handclaps and numerous vocal hooks ( such as " Ah @-@ ah , eh @-@ eh , let 's all chant " and " Your body , my body , everybody work your body " ) . These typical disco lyrics are about dancing and working one 's body . The song 's instrumentation also includes Afro @-@ Cuban drums , a " rollicking " piano line and an ensemble of wind instruments , marked by a piccolo trumpet solo which sounds " like it 's straight out of the Dynasty opening theme song " . The song 's tempo is 121 bpm and is very close to the average tempo of a standard disco song ( 120 bpm ) . According to AllMusic reviewer Alex Henderson , the combination of the " European @-@ influenced , oddly baroque " feeling with a " catchy disco / funk beat " grabs the attention of the listener and encourages him to discover the rest of the eponymous LP .
= = Commercial performance and sales = =
" Let 's All Chant " was released as a single with " Love Express " as a B @-@ side in December 1977 , on Christmas week . Zager thought it was the worst time to release the single because many artists usually released their albums during this period and thought the single would only become a " disco hit " . However , the single became an unexpected smash hit . It climbed to number one on the disco chart on February 18 , 1978 , knocking Cerrone 's " Supernature " off the top spot , and remained atop the chart for one week , before being toppled by Bionic Boogie 's " Dance Little Dreamer " . In the US , " Let 's All Chant " also charted at number 15 on the Soul Singles chart , number 25 on the Cash Box Top 100 Singles , number 31 on the Record World and number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 . In Canada , the single peaked at number two on the dance chart ( behind " Supernature " ) and at number 27 on the singles chart . A music video was simultaneously released .
The single did even better in Europe , reaching the top 10 in several countries . It peaked at number eight on both the UK Singles Chart and the Irish Singles Chart . In the Netherlands , the song reached the fourth place on the Dutch Top 40 and the Single Top 100 charts and stayed for thirteen weeks on both charts . It also reached number four in Switzerland , where it became the 25th best @-@ selling single of the year 1978 . In France , " Let 's All Chant " peaked at number five and became the eleventh best @-@ selling single of 1978 in this country . In Belgium , it peaked at number two for three weeks , being kept from the top spot by John Travolta and Olivia Newton @-@ John 's " You 're the One That I Want " , and remains the eight best @-@ selling single of the year . The single also reached number 14 in Germany and stayed for 21 weeks on the national chart .
By July 1979 , the single sold over three million copies worldwide and eventually went on to sell five million copies worldwide , selling about 6 to 700 @,@ 000 copies in the US and about 763 @,@ 000 copies in France . It was also certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for certified sales of 75 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Critically , AllMusic 's Henderson provided a mixed description of the track . Although he criticized the lyrics for being " usual disco clichés " , he also called the song " quirky " , " infectious " and " interesting " and viewed " Let 's All Chant " as one of the most " unorthodox disco hits of 1978 " . In their book Saturday Night Forever : The Story of Disco , Alan Jones and Jussi Kantonen described the song as being " supremely catchy and melodic , with a quite miraculous classical chamber music @-@ style break in the middle " and considered the track " a key recording that instantly defines the disco era . " They also regarded " Let 's All Chant " as the high point in Michael Zager 's career . In 2006 , Slant Magazine ranked the song number 50 in its 100 Greatest Dance Songs list , describing it as a " deft mix of disco , funk and baroque @-@ pop " and writing that the song 's breakdown made it special . The track was also ranked 165th on the 700 Top Disco Songs , a list drawn up by several DJs from all over the world .
= = Track listings = =
7 " Single
" Let 's All Chant " – 3 : 07
" Love Express " – 2 : 52
12 " Single
" Let 's All Chant " – 7 : 03
" Love Express " – 7 : 01
Reissue – 12 " Maxi
" Let 's All Chant " – 7 : 05
" Traffic Jam " – 7 : 09
" Traffic Jam ( Dub Mix ) " – 4 : 03
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Impact and influence = =
Following the song 's release and worldwide success , " Let 's All Chant " introduced Michael Zager in the mainstream and became a turning point in his career :
The song is bigger than ever , along with many other recordings I produced / composed etc . For example the Spinners ' ' Working my way back to you ' and ' Cupid ' along with ' Right before my eyes ' by Patti Day . But ' Let 's all chant ' really put me on the ' map ' as a composer , producer and arranger .
Private Stock promoted Michael Zager Band 's eponymous LP due to the success of the song . It became a contributing factor the success of the LP . It also remains an influential dance track which has been heavily used on TV and in movies , as well as being covered or remixed by numerous artists or interpolated or sampled in other songs .
= = = Appearances = = =
= = = = Movies = = = =
" Let 's All Chant " is heard in the 1978 movie Eyes of Laura Mars , while Laura Mars is setting up an elaborate shoot juxtaposing murder and high fashion .
The song is featured on the soundtrack of the 1998 movie The Last Days of Disco .
It is used in the 1999 movie Summer of Sam .
= = = = Television = = = =
On November 17 , 1978 , the song was featured in " Ute und Manuela " , the twelfth episode of the fifth season of the TV series Derrick .
In September 2006 , it was used in a TV advertising for Médiatis .
= = = Cover versions and remixes = = =
In 1988 , British duo Pat and Mick covered the song . It was released as a single with " On The Night " as a B @-@ side and was credited to " Mick and Pat " . This version reached number eleven on the UK Singles Chart and number four on the UK Indie Chart .
In the same year , Gazuzu released " Chant for You ( Chant for Me ) " , a track which features elements of " Let 's All Chant " , La Bionda 's " One for You , One for Me " and Whistle 's ( Nothing Serious ) Just Buggin ' .
In 1993 , German dance group Go covered the track .
In 1996 , " Let 's All Chant " was remixed by UK based producer and DJ Gusto . His version peaked at number 43 on the Flemish Ultratop 50 Singles chart and at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart .
In 2002 , it was remade by DJ Valium under the title " DJ Valium feat . Michael Zager " . It charted in several countries , reaching number 42 in France , number 44 in Austria and number 73 in Germany .
In 2003 , French DJ Antoine Clamaran remixed the song .
In the same year , it was covered by French act Seventy Three . Their version reached number 41 on the French Singles Chart and was used in an advertisement for Orangina in June 2003 — and later in an advertisement for McDonald 's in November 2003 — in that country .
Disco Queen also covered the song in 2003 . Their version peaked at number 10 on the Greek charts .
In 2010 , Bob Sinclar remixed the song . The remix was used in a TV advertising for Oasis Tea .
In the same year , the song was remixed by French DJs DatA , Nôze and DJ Zebra .
= = = Interpolations = = =
In 1979 , Discotheque interpolated the song on " Intro Disco " .
In 1987 , MC Miker G of MC Miker G & DJ Sven interpolated the song on his track " My Body Energized " .
In 1994 , it was interpolated on the song " Move That Body " by Look Twice feat . Gladys .
In 2011 , " Let 's All Chant " was interpolated in " Galera " by Congolese @-@ French singer Jessy Matador , which features King Kuduro and Bra Zil and which peaked at number 68 in France .
In 2012 , it was interpolated in " My Party " by German female artist DJane HouseKat and rapper Rameez . " My Party " charted well in Europe , reaching number 25 in Denmark , the top 20 in Switzerland and the top 10 in Austria and Germany . It also peaked at number 19 on the Dance Bubbling Under in Wallonia .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Samples = = =
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= Tidus =
Tidus ( ティーダ , Tīda ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's Final Fantasy series , first introduced as the protagonist of the role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy X in 2001 by Square . Tidus is introduced as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old rising blitzball star player from the city of Zanarkand . After a mysterious creature called Sin attacked his hometown , Tidus was seemingly transported to the world of Spira . Shortly after arriving , Tidus meets a fledgling summoner , Yuna , and her guardians . The summoner is soon to set out on a pilgrimage in an attempt to put an end to the very creature that attacked Tidus ' city ; and by joining them , Tidus hopes he will find his way home . He has also made appearances in other video games , such as Final Fantasy X 's sequel , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 ; the Kingdom Hearts series , and other crossover games by Square Enix .
Tidus ' character was designed by Tetsuya Nomura with the intention of having a cheerful appearance in contrast to previous Final Fantasy protagonists , while scenario writer Kazushige Nojima wanted to expand the relationship between the player and the character through the story . He is voiced by Masakazu Morita in Japanese and James Arnold Taylor in English .
The character has generally been well received by video game reviewers owing to his cheerful personality and heroic traits that made him an appealing protagonist . His character development and romantic relationship with Yuna has also been praised , and both have often been featured as among the best ones in gaming . Critics and fans were divided on voice actor Taylor 's portrayal of the character , however . Several types of merchandise based on Tidus ' character have been produced , such as action figures and jewelry .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy X = = =
In Final Fantasy X , Tidus is introduced in medias res via an in @-@ game cutscene , showing the main characters around the ruins of a city , Zanarkand . He narrates most of the game events , revealing his thoughts on certain aspects of his journey . Tidus recounts how events have led to the present , starting at his life in Zanarkand where he was a sports celebrity in blitzball , a fictional underwater sport . Despite showing a cheerful and carefree attitude , Tidus bears an enormous hatred towards his absent father , Jecht , initially due to the fact his mother did not pay attention to him when he was around , and later for the pressure he had when playing blitzball due to the fact Jecht was also a celebrity . During a Blitzball tournament , Zanarkand is attacked by an immense , shrouded creature known as Sin . The city is destroyed in its path , and Tidus is taken by Sin and Jecht 's friend Auron to the world Spira .
After arriving in Spira , Tidus drifts to the island Besaid . While on the island he meets Yuna , a summoner who is planning a pilgrimage to destroy Sin , along with her guardians : Lulu , Wakka , and Kimahri Ronso . Tidus joins them in the hope of finding his way home , and ultimately becomes one of Yuna 's guardians , alongside Auron who reveals that Jecht became Sin . Ten years ago , Jecht and Auron did the same pilgrimage protecting summoner Braska , Yuna 's father , to defeat it , but Jecht became the reborn Sin . As the journey continues , Tidus starts losing hope of returning home as he decides to stay with the other guardians and develops a romantic relationship with Yuna . As the party approaches Zanarkand , Tidus learns that he and the Zanarkand he hails from are the cumulative dreams of deceased people known as fayth . Dream Zanarkand was created at the same time as the destruction of the original Zanarkand , when Sin was created in the war between Zanarkand and Bevelle . However , if Sin is permanently defeated , the summoning of Dream Zanarkand and all its people — including Tidus — will disappear .
Inside Zanarkand , the group learns Yuna must choose one of her guardians to become her fayth for the Final Summoning . The group decides to find another way to destroy Sin forever and that should not involve the sacrifice of a guardian or a summoner . The group then attacks Sin directly and enter its shell . Eventually , they find Jecht , who they have to defeat to eliminate Sin . After killing the corrupt deity Yu Yevon responsible for Sin 's rebirth , the fayth are allowed to depart and their summoning of Zanarkand ends . As he vanishes Tidus says farewell to his friends , and is reunited with the spirits of Auron , Jecht , and Braska in the Farplane . However , after the credits , Tidus is seen awakening under the sea .
= = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 = = =
Tidus figures prominently into the plot of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , though his appearances in the sequel are few . Also , because players have the option of renaming Tidus in Final Fantasy X , he is exclusively referred to with pronouns ( " he " and " him " ) just like in the previous game . Two years after the events of Final Fantasy X , Yuna sees a sphere displaying a young man who looks like Tidus trapped in a prison . This compels Yuna to join the Gullwings , a sphere @-@ hunting group , and travel around Spira in the hopes of finding more clues that Tidus may be alive . The individual seen in the sphere is eventually revealed to be another man named Shuyin instead . Depending on the player 's development during the game , the fayth will appear to Yuna in the game 's ending , telling her they can make Tidus return to her . Tidus then appears in Spira and is reunited with Yuna . Although another final scene has Tidus unsure whether he is still a dream or not , he wishes to stay with her . He is also an unlockable character to play blitzball in the game but under the name of " Star Player " .
In the updated version of the game , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 : International + Last Mission , Tidus appears as a playable character for battles . Additionally , an extra episode set after the original game 's playthrough reveals that he is living in Besaid alongside Yuna while an illusion of him appears as a boss character . The HD Remastered version of the game adds a new audio drama where Tidus is a new blitzball star who appears to be hiding a wound . Even though Yuna breaks up with him , Tidus decides to aid Yuna on a future quest .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Tidus has also appeared in games outside of the Final Fantasy X continuity . A more youthful version of Tidus appears in the Kingdom Hearts series as a friend of the protagonists Sora and Riku . In the first Kingdom Hearts , he appears with younger versions of Wakka and Final Fantasy VIII 's Selphie , serving as an optional sparring opponent . The character makes a cameo in Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories and in Kingdom Hearts II , he is briefly mentioned by Selphie . A digital replica of Tidus also appears in Kingdom Hearts coded as a boss character . Tidus appears in Itadaki Street Special , a board game @-@ based video game , along with Auron and Yuna . Tidus ' dialogues , monologues and character songs were also included in the CDs Final Fantasy X Vocal Collection and feel / Go dream : Yuna & Tidus .
In Dissidia Final Fantasy , an action game that features several Final Fantasy heroes and villains , Tidus is featured as the hero from Final Fantasy X as a warrior from the goddess Cosmos while his father works for the other rival god , Chaos . To match the overall character designs of Dissidia , Nomura designed Tidus to look younger than his Final Fantasy X appearance . Nevertheless , his original Final Fantasy X design is available as an alternative form . Various of his traits such as his thoughts and actions are references to Final Fantasy X. Along the entire cast , Tidus reappears in the prequel Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , representing Chaos in the previous war . When confronted by Yuna , Tidus sacrifices his life to save her from an attack from the Emperor , but is saved by Jecht to later become a Warrior of Cosmos . Besides his previous outifits , Tidus has another design based on an illustration by Yoshitaka Amano . He is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as a playable character representing Final Fantasy X. Additionally , he appears in World of Final Fantasy .
Tidus has also had various types of merchandise modeled after his likeness ; for example , action figures and jewelry . In commemoration of the franchise 's 20th anniversary , Square released figurines of him alongside other Final Fantasy protagonists .
= = Creation and development = =
The game 's scenario writer , Kazushige Nojima , has expressed his concern regarding the relationship between the player and the main character in a Final Fantasy title , and wanted to try something new while penning Final Fantasy X. Since both the player and the main character find themselves in a new world , Nojima wanted Tidus ' understanding of the world to reflect the player 's progress in the game ; a connection that allowed the player to advance Tidus ' first @-@ person narration of most of Final Fantasy X. Nojima created a brief description for Tidus to give the character designer , Tetsuya Nomura , a rough scenario to work with . Nomura used the description to create a sketch to get input from Nojima and other staff members . Nomura was also requested to design Tidus to look different from the game 's theme in order to make him stand out . With the concept of the undead people used in the games , the staff wanted it to use it on one of the playable characters . Tidus was meant to be an undead person , but during development of Final Fantasy X , Nojima watched a movie which used a similar idea with its protagonist . Therefore , Tidus was not an undead person during the game , and such role was given to Auron , as he was a secondary character .
Nomura has also mentioned a contrast between the lead male and female protagonists was established by Yuna 's name meaning " night " in Okinawan . This contrast is also represented with the items required to empower their Celestial Weapons ; the Sun Sigil and the Sun Crest for Tidus ' , and the Moon Sigil and Moon Crest for Yuna 's . Nomura also explained he wanted his clothing and accessories to suggest a relationship with the sea . For example , his outfit bears a distinctive blue theme , and the symbol of Tidus ' Blitzball team on his clothing is designed after a fishing hook . The symbol is designed as an amalgamation of the letters " J " and " T " ( the first letters of Tidus ' name and that of his father , Jecht ) . Due to the player having the option to change his default name , Tidus is never directly referred to by name during audible dialogue , though one character in Dream Zanarkand says his name in a dialogue box . The only other in @-@ game appearance of his name is on a name plate on an Auroch locker in the Luca stadium as " Tidu " , written in the fictional script used in Spira . Prior to Final Fantasy X 's release , Tidus was referred by publications as " Tida " . During early 2001 , PlayOnline changed the name to " Tidus " . Because his name is never spoken out loud in Final Fantasy X , its intended pronunciation has been a subject of debate among fans . Interviews with James Arnold Taylor , Tidus ' English voice actor , and spoken dialogue from the English versions of Dissidia , Dissidia 012 , and Kingdom Hearts — which featured the character in a cameo — portray it as / ˈtiːdəs / TEE @-@ dəs , whereas one instance in the English version of Kingdom Hearts 2 exists in which the character 's name is pronounced / ˈtaɪdəs / TY @-@ dəs .
For the sequel , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , producer Yoshinori Kitase thought that the fans ' biggest expectations of the game was a reunion between Tidus and Yuna after their separation in the first game . The game generated multiple rumors about Tidus ' connection with the villain , Shuyin . In response , Square found answering that would be too complicated due to Tidus ' nature .
= = = Personality = = =
Nomura has expressed after designing serious and moody main characters for Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII , he wanted to give Tidus a cheerful attitude and appearance ( while still keeping the recent trend of giving him a name related to the sky ) , which is reflected in the name Kazushige Nojima chose for him ( Tiida is the Okinawan word for " Sun " ) . This is also shown in his personality with Nojima calling him " lively " and comparing him with Final Fantasy VIII 's Laguna Loire and Zell Dincht . Initially , Tidus was going to be a rude plumber who was also part of a delinquent gang , but Kitase pointed it would make him a weak protagonist , so he was changed to a sports star . His relationship with his father was based " stories throughout the ages , such as the ancient Greek legends . " This would eventually reveal the key of Sin 's weakness and eventual defeat .
In Japanese Tidus has been voiced by Masakazu Morita who stated that playing such character was one of the best experiences in his career thanks to the fact he also did the motion capture for him . This gave him greater understanding of the character 's personality and was able to connect himself with him to the point that when Morita did Tidus ' dialogues in the recording of the game he also moved his own body . James Arnold Taylor did the character 's English voice and stated that it did not seem realistic to him to have Tidus react in any other way than to truthfully show his emotions . While he also said there were things he would change about his performance if he could do it over again , Taylor stated he enjoyed voicing Tidus and thanked fans of the game for complimenting him on his work .
= = Reception = =
Tidus has received positive reception with GameSpy describing him as a " garishly dressed Leonardo DiCaprio " , commenting that his flaws are what make him appealing . PSXextreme 's Arnold Katayev liked Tidus ' personality which contrasts the ones from previous Final Fantasy protagonists . His role as the male lead was found outstanding in comparison to previous characters by GameZone due to his " perpetual feel of youth and innocence " . The 1UP.com staff initially described him as the " good kind of jock " due to how he supports the other protagonists of the game and yet they noted that his anger and his growth throughout the game avoided him from being a " stereotypical boy scout " . Although GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin commented players might not initially like the character , they would eventually find him " suitably endearing . " Furthermore , he stated that he had the " surprising depth " characterized by past Final Fantasy protagonists , and called the ending involving Tidus " emotionally charged and satisfying " . Eurogamer 's Tom Brawell stated that Tidus and the other characters " make much more dignified and believable decisions than those made by their predecessors in other Final Fantasy games . " Kazuma Kaneko from Atlus also praised him calling Tidus " a dashing lead character . "
Tidus was also listed as the fourth best Final Fantasy hero of all the time by GamesRadar who described him as " One of the most complex and bizarre heroes yet seen in the series " , while in another article they referred to his look as androgynous . In a Famitsu poll done in February 2010 , Tidus was voted by readers as the twentieth most popular video game character . GameZone listed him as the third best Final Fantasy character praising his energetic personality and his actions across Final Fantasy X that make him " the true star of the title " . Tidus ' revelation of his real nature in the game 's ending was third in a 1UP article of video game spoilers ; such event was stated to have reduced " [ to ] at least two 1UP staffers to a state of misty @-@ eyed mourning " yet they criticized how Tidus ' resurrection in the sequel makes his fate unrealistic . On the other hand , GamesRadar found Tidus ' fate in the first game confusing as in the epilogue he appears alive despite having previously disappeared , and such scene is not explained until the sequel 's ending . Matthew Walker from Cheat Code Central commented that the game 's final scene was meant to give hope that Tidus was alive , the ending still felt sad .
Tidus was also compared to Squall Leonhart , the protagonist from Final Fantasy VIII . IGN noted the differences in appearances between the two , comparing Squall 's darker colored outfit and " permanent mope " against Tidus ' brighter outfit and weapon along with " an indelible grin " . Additionally , Kurt Kalata in Gamasutra thought that Tidus ' character was more entertaining than Squall 's despite being " a bit whiny " . 1UP listed him as the worst dressed video game character , citing a " deal with it " outfit design by Nomura . They further commented that despite the " preposterous " design , Square was able to " successfully sell " Tidus as Final Fantasy X 's main protagonist . His Dissidia outfit was noted by 1UP to be consistent with other outfits by Nomura due to the number of accessories it has . Because of his English @-@ language voice work , GameSpot commented it would have preferred " an almost @-@ mute lead character , a la Squall from Final Fantasy VIII . " Regarding the character 's English @-@ language voice work , IGN stated the character " has a tendency to speak a little too high and fast when he gets excited . " RPGamer criticized Taylor 's work , stating that while Tidus is supposed to sound " impulsive and energetic " , his dialogue leaves him as " stupid and childish " , while Eurogamer echoed similar statements by referring to his voice acting as " whiny " and " detestable " . On the other hand , PSXextreme found that Taylor does a good work voicing Tidus . He was also featured fifth in 1UP 's " The Top 5 Most Irriating RPG Protagonists " with criticism focused on his relationship with his father and his outfit . Matthew Walker noted that while in the climax Tidus still told his father he hated him , he actually came to appreciate him despite his initial feelings .
The relationship between Tidus and Yuna was listed by GameSpot as one of the " Great Loves " in video games . It referred to their relationship as " one of the best ( and ultimately saddest ) examples " of a mature romance in games and cited the progression of the romance throughout the story as one of the game 's best elements . In a general overview of the romances from Final Fantasy , Gaming Age stated that Final Fantasy X had " the sparks fly " between Tidus ' and Yuna 's relationship . GamesRadar listed their relationship as the tenth best romance in gaming as well the second best romance in Square Enix game , commenting on " that they have the most realistic relation " , and noted that despite the sacrifices they go through in the series , they still look for a chance to be together . Kotaku listed the relationship second in the " Gaming 's Top Five Love Stories " by Mike Fahey who stated that the popularity of their relationship and the fact Tidus fades away in the game 's ending was what forced Square to make its direct sequel so that the two characters could meet once again . Gamasutra featured it fifth in their list by Leigh Alexander who despite citing Tidus as a " forgettable hero " praised the importance of his and Yuna 's relation in the game 's story . Both Tidus and Yuna also won the " Best Couple of the Year " award from Game Informer in 2001 . Yuna 's English voice actress , Hedy Burress , commented that thanks to Tidus ' interactions with Yuna gave her character a more " womanly aspect " , and thus , more humanizing .
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= April 2011 Fukushima earthquake =
The April 2011 Fukushima earthquake ( 福島県浜通り地震 , Fukushima @-@ ken Hamadōri jishin , lit . " Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake " ) was a potent magnitude 6 @.@ 6 Mw intraplate aftershock that occurred at 17 : 16 JST ( 08 : 16 UTC ) on Monday , 11 April 2011 , in the Hamadōri region of Fukushima , Japan . With a shallow focus of 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) , the earthquake was centred inland about 36 km ( 22 mi ) west of Iwaki , causing widespread strong to locally severe shaking . It was one of many aftershocks to follow the 11 March Tōhoku earthquake , and the strongest to have its epicentre located inland .
The earthquake occurred as a result of normal faulting to the west of Iwaki and triggered numerous landslides across adjacent mountainous areas . A few fires broke out , and 220 @,@ 000 households lost electricity . Officials issued localised tsunami alerts , though no significant waves were generated . The earthquake caused little structural damage , but killed four people and injured ten others . The strong ground movements triggered the reactivation of a nearby geological fault , prompting researchers to conduct extensive surveys in the region .
= = Geology = =
The magnitude 6 @.@ 6 Mw Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake occurred inland on 11 April 2011 at 08 : 16 UTC at a focal depth of 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) , about 36 km ( 22 mi ) west of Iwaki , Fukushima , or 161 km ( 100 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Tokyo . To the east of the epicentre , the oceanic Pacific Plate is subducted beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate , on which much of Honshu 's Tōhoku region is situated . Building stress near the resultant plate boundary has led to the development of shallow inland faults through crustal deformation and folding along the east coast of Tōhoku . This intraplate earthquake occurred in the vicinity of the Idosawa Fault – a shallow crustal fault in the Hamadōri region near Tabito town , Iwaki city , that had previously been inactive .
Surveys near the epicentre revealed a surface rupture of about 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) and numerous fault scarps , with general vertical displacements of 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 9 ft ) ; a maximum displacement of 2 @.@ 3 m ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) occurred at the small village of Shionohira . Localised right @-@ lateral slip of 30 cm ( 12 in ) was observed at the subsiding west side of the rupture . The segments of the Idosawa Fault associated with this surface feature were classified as the " Shionohira Fault " in 2011 . The proximate Yunodake Fault , a normal dip @-@ slip fault northeast of the Shionohira Fault that had been dormant for 120 @,@ 000 – 130 @,@ 000 years , also ruptured during the quake . These observations indicated that the earthquake occurred as a result of normal dip @-@ slip faulting with some strike @-@ slip component .
Although it was centred near a different fault zone , the earthquake was classified as an aftershock of the 11 March Tōhoku earthquake , which occurred offshore about 235 km ( 146 mi ) to its northeast . The magnitude 9 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake triggered widespread seismic activity , and its aftershock sequence includes well @-@ over 67 earthquakes of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 Mw or greater . Apart from the Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake , four of the aftershocks measured magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw or higher . The Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake , however , was the strongest of the aftershocks to have its epicentre located inland . Early estimates placed the strength of the earthquake at a magnitude of 7 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 1 , but the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) lowered the magnitude to 6 @.@ 6 . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed a magnitude of 7 @.@ 0 Mj and a depth of 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) .
The Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake was succeeded by a number of smaller tremors ; that same day , at least 11 earthquakes of magnitude 3 @.@ 5 Mj or higher were recorded near its epicentre . Of the series , the strongest registered at a magnitude of 5 @.@ 5 Mj and occurred within 3 @.@ 5 hours after the initial quake . A shallow magnitude 6 @.@ 0 Mw ( 6 @.@ 4 Mj ) earthquake and several smaller tremors struck the region on 12 April .
= = Effects = =
The earthquake struck in the late afternoon near a moderately populated region of the Fukushima Prefecture , although most structures around the epicentre were resistant to earthquake shaking . Focussed at an unusually shallow depth , the earthquake generated significant shaking throughout many adjacent prefectures . The strongest ground motion registered at severe ( MM VIII ) in Ishikawa town on the Mercalli intensity scale . Strong shaking ( MM VI ) spread through Iwaki , Sukawaga , Kuroiso , Ōtawara and Kitaibaraki , with light tremors ( MM IV ) felt in areas up to several hundred kilometres from the epicentre , including Tokyo and Yokohama . The earthquake cut electricity to about 220 @,@ 000 households , with most of the cuts reported in Iwaki city . Workers at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant – distanced 70 km ( 43 mi ) from the epicentre – evacuated to safety , and external power to the plant was cut . The outage briefly disrupted cooling water injections into three of the reactors , but services to the plant were restored by 18 : 05 JST . Authorities at Tokyo International Airport closed all runways momentarily , while NTT DoCoMo restricted voice calls in 14 prefectures following the quake . East Japan Railway Company temporarily suspended its services to restart four of five bullet @-@ train lines ; other Shinkansen bullet trains in the region were also halted .
The earthquake sparked several fires in Iwaki , with one fire breaking out in Asakawa town . Fire engines extinguished a blaze in a liquefied natural gas tank at Daiichi Sankyo 's Onahama Plant . Most of the structural damage was due to scattered rock- and landslides along hillsides in the vicinity of Iwaki . A landslide crushed two vehicles and buried three homes in the city , trapping a number of the inhabitants . The incident resulted in two immediate deaths . Four people were critically injured and taken to hospital ; one of them was later pronounced dead . The Iwaki Ibaraki Route 14 interchange of the Jōban Expressway , which runs from Misato , Saitama , to Tomiya , Miyagi , was cut off to traffic by a large landslide of 120 m × 100 m ( 390 ft × 330 ft ) . In Tabito town , very close to the epicentre , a 170 m × 50 m ( 560 ft × 160 ft ) landslide resulted in the formation of a quake lake – a natural damming of a river by mass wasting – with a water level of 15 m ( 49 ft ) and a storage volume of 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 500 m3 ( 35 @,@ 000 – 90 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . Significant land deformation with traces of uplift was observed in and around town , affecting local roads but largely sparing its structures .
A total of seven people from other regions near the epicentre , including southern Ibaraki , Tochigi and Kanagawa prefectures , suffered minor injuries . Another person was injured during the magnitude 6 @.@ 0 ( Mw ) aftershock of 12 April . In a report from July 2011 , the Fire and Disaster Management Agency confirmed a death toll of four from the earthquake .
= = Response = =
The Earthquake Early Warning system was activated upon the detection of primary waves – seismic waves that forego an earthquake 's perceivable ground motions – giving residents 6 @.@ 8 seconds to seek cover before the main shock . At the risk of a tsunami – which reach their destructive wave heights near shallow coastal waters – local fishing boats along coastlines were shown heading out to sea on national news broadcasts . A warning for a localised tsunami of up to 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) was issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency ; however , no significant waves were recorded , and the warning was cancelled soon thereafter . In response to the earthquake , the fire department dispatched search and rescue teams and emergency crews for relief efforts and damage assessments throughout the affected area . Six medical crews in pairs of two were also sent to Kanagawa , Chiba and Gunma prefectures . Former Prime Minister Naoto Kan postponed a press conference scheduled for 17 : 50 JST marking the one @-@ month anniversary of the catastrophic Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami .
The Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake occurred in a region with historically low levels of seismicity ; studies showed that the recent activity near the fault zone had been triggered by the Tōhoku earthquake . Ever since the earthquake triggered their reactivation , the Shionohira and Yunodake faults have provided essential data for local geological surveys on regional land deformation , sedimentary rock distribution and landslide vulnerability . In the earthquake 's aftermath , Professor Yagi Hiroshi from the Faculty of Education , Art and Science noted that " a possibility exists for widespread aftershocks of the same size to occur in the near future . "
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= Close My Eyes ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Close My Eyes " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey for her sixth studio album Butterfly ( 1997 ) . It was co @-@ written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff . While Carey solely wrote the lyrics to the song , both she and Afanasieff composed its music . They also produced and arranged the song together . A downtempo piano led song , the lyrics in " Close My Eyes " revolve around negative experiences in her life , including indirectly talking about the relationship between her and ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola . In September 2012 , Carey revealed that it is one of her most favourite and revealing songs that she has written in her career thus far .
= = Background = =
Carey began working on Butterfly in January 1997 . During the album 's development in mid @-@ 1997 Carey separated from her husband , music executive Tommy Mottola , who had guided her career since 1988 . Carey 's increasing control over her own career had led to speculation in the press over the future of the couple , and they later divorced . Throughout the development of the album , in a departure from her previous style , Carey worked with various rappers and hip @-@ hop producers , including Sean " Puffy " Combs , Kamaal Fareed , Missy Elliott and Jean Claude Oliver and Samuel Barnes from Trackmasters . Critics saw Carey 's new production team as a form of revenge on Mottola and Sony Music . Carey denied taking a radically new direction , and insisted that the musical style of her new album was of her own choosing . Nevertheless , Carey resented the control that Sony , whose president was Mottola , exercised over her music , preventing her making music about which she was passionate . In contrast , Sony were concerned Carey , their best @-@ selling act , could jeopardize her future success through her actions . The pressure of the separation and constant press attention began to take its toll of Carey . Growing creative differences with producer Walter Afanasieff ended their working relationship , after collaborating on most of Carey 's previous output . The breaking point came after a heated argument during a long recording session , over the album 's musical direction . Carey also faced media criticism over her choice of producers and several newspapers linked Carey romantically to several rappers , suggesting these relationships influenced her decisions . However , Carey denied the allegations , stating she had only slept with her husband .
= = Production and recording = =
" Close My Eyes " was co @-@ written by Carey and Walter Afanasieff ; Carey solely wrote the lyrics , while both she and Afanasieff composed the musical structure . It was also produced and arranged by Carey and Afanasieff . The keyboards , synthesizers and programming were performed by Afanasieff . Additional keys , drum and rhythm programming , sound design and computer programming were carried out by Dan Shea . Dana Jon Chappelle and Mike Scott served as the engineers , while Ian Dalsemer was enlisted as the assistant engineer . " Close My Eyes " was recorded at Crave Studios and The Hit Factory , both situated in New York City . It was mixed by Mick Gazauski at both Crave Studios and The Hit Factory . It was mastered by Bob Ludwig at Gateway Mastering in Portland , ME .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Close My Eyes " is a downtempo piano led song , which runs for a duration of four minutes and 19 seconds . The lyrical content of the song speaks indirectly about Carey 's relationship with Mottola , and reflects on times in her life where she has had personal struggles and troubles . Her past is presented in the lyrics " I was a wayward child , with the weight of the world that I held deep inside " and " Life was a winding road , and I learned many things little ones shouldn 't know . " As described by David Browne for Entertainment Weekly , Carey " paints herself " in the lyrics as " A wayward child , with the weight of the world " . He also noted that the singer seems concerned that she had to grow up quicker than was perhaps necessary , in order to live her life in a controlled environment , " Maybe I grew up a little too soon . " During the chorus , Carey lightens the mood of the song by singing about having courage to face times of adversity , " But I closed my eyes , steadied my feet on the ground , raised my head to the sky . And though times rolled by , still I feel like a child as I look at the moon . Maybe I grew up a little too soon . " Jon Pareles for The New York Times wrote that Carey " coos " the lyrics " Maybe I grew up a little too soon " and " That woman @-@ child inside was on the verge of fading / Thankfully I woke up in time . "
= = Critical reception = =
David Browne for Entertainment Weekly described how " Close My Eyes " , as well as another track from the album entitled " Butterfly " , were not difficult songs to interpret , writing " It isn 't a reach to interpret these songs as describing life with the reportedly controlling Mottola . " Jon Pareles for The New York Times wrote that with regard to the lyrics " Maybe I grew up a little too soon " and " That woman @-@ child inside was on the verge of fading / Thankfully I woke up in time , " " Carey isn 't about to turn into Alanis Morissette ; Butterfly proclaims dependence more humbly than ever . " In their guide to Carey 's albums , Rolling Stone stated that " Close My Eyes , " along with " Butterfly " and " Breakdown , " were songs which indirectly spoke about her " pending extraction from the tentacles " of Mottola , who exercised his power over her as the head of Sony , the label to which Carey was signed .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Close My Eyes " for the first time live on The Rosie O 'Donnell Show in 1997 . The performance saw Carey perform the song sitting on a stool , wearing a white vest top and jeans . It was also included on the set list of her Butterfly World Tour of 1998 and Rainbow World Tour of 2000 .
= = Legacy = =
In an interview with CNN on September 7 , 2012 , where she was honored by Broadcast Music , Inc. for her songwriting , Carey declared " Close My Eyes " as one of her most favourite and revealing songs that she has written . She stated that it is not always her number one or signature songs which are her favourite , rather , they are " lesser @-@ known cuts from more obscure records . " When asked about how she felt about some of her number @-@ one singles , including " Hero " ( Music Box , 1993 ) , " We Belong Together " ( The Emancipation of Mimi , 2005 ) and " Touch My Body " ( E = MC ² , 2008 ) , the singer revealed " I still love those songs , [ but ] I love the obscure songs because they 're very close to my heart . Especially a song called ' Close My Eyes , ' that 's like my life story . " In addition to " Close My Eyes , " Carey cited " Looking In , " " I Am Free , " and " Underneath the Stars " ( Daydream , 1995 ) as some of her favourites .
The song is included on the U.S. release of The Essential Mariah Carey . On Carey 's official Facebook page on May 12 , 2012 , shortly after the release , she wrote , " I spent four years writing this song , only because after I performed in Schenectady , NY , I started hearing this melody and singing it over and over to myself as I was taking a bath , looking at the moon .. Four years later , as I was leaving a devastating part of my life behind , I wrote the second verse , the bridge and the outro . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Crave Studios , New York City ; The Hit Factory , New York City .
Mixed at Gateway Mastering , Portland , ME .
Personnel
Lyrics – Mariah Carey
Music – Mariah Carey , Walter Afanasieff
Production – Mariah Carey , Walter Afanasieff
Arranging – Mariah Carey , Walter Afanasieff
Mixing – Bob Ludwig
Keys , synths , programming – Walter Afanasieff
Additional keys , drum and rhythm programming , sound design and computer programming – Dan Shea
Engineers – Dana Jon Chappelle , Mike Scott
Assistant engineers – Ian Dalsemer
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Butterfly .
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= Aleeta curvicosta =
Aleeta curvicosta ( commonly the floury baker or floury miller , known until 2003 as Abricta curvicosta ) is a species of cicada , one of Australia 's most familiar insects . Native to the continent 's eastern coastline , it was described in 1834 by Ernst Friedrich Germar . As of 2014 the floury baker is the only described species in the genus Aleeta .
The floury baker 's distinctive appearance and loud call make it popular with children . Both the common and genus name are derived from the white , flour @-@ like filaments covering the adult body . Its body and eyes are generally brown with pale patterns including a light @-@ coloured line along the midline of the pronotum . Its forewings have distinctive dark brown patches at the base of two of their apical cells . The female is larger than the male , although species size overall varies geographically , with larger animals associated with regions of higher rainfall . The male has distinctive genitalia and a loud and complex call generated by the frequent buckling of ribbed tymbals and amplified by abdominal air sacs .
The floury baker is solitary and occurs in low densities . Individuals typically emerge from the soil through a three @-@ month period from late November to late February , and can be encountered until May . The floury baker is found on a wide variety of trees , with some preference for species of paperbark ( Melaleuca ) . It is a relatively poor flier , preyed upon by cicada killer wasps and a wide variety of birds , and can succumb to a cicada @-@ specific fungal disease .
= = Taxonomy = =
German naturalist Ernst Friedrich Germar described the floury baker in 1834 as Cicada curvicosta . Germar based the description on two specimens now in the Hope Entomological Collections , Oxford , but did not designate a type specimen and their exact locations were not recorded . In 2003 , one of the original specimens was designated the lectotype and the other the paralectotype .
Prominent Swedish entomologist Carl Stål named the genus Abricta in 1866 , and it was either treated as a subgenus of the genus Tibicen or a genus in its own right . Thus it became known as Tibicen curvicostus , and Abricta curvicosta from 1906 . French entomologist Jean Baptiste Boisduval described two specimens collected from Port Jackson as Cicada tephrogaster ( later Tibicen tephrogaster ) in 1835 ; this has long been considered a junior synonym . However , a review of the genus in 2003 showed Abricta to be a disparate group of species , and the Australian members were moved to other genera . Max Moulds conducted a morphological analysis of the genus and found the cicadas split naturally into clades according to biogeographical region . Of the 15 Australian species , the floury baker was the earliest offshoot . Unpublished data confirmed it was quite genetically distant from the other 14 species , and so it was classified in a new monotypic genus Aleeta , while most of the others were placed in the genus Tryella . The morphological distinction between Aleeta and Tryella is based on two factors : A. curvicosta has a larger forewing size – rarely less than 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) and usually over 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) , whereas Tryella is never above 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) ; the uncal lobes of Aleeta 's distinctive male genitalia are downturned at their distal ends , whereas those of Tryella are upturned . The name Aleeta is derived from the Greek aleton meaning flour or meal .
The floury baker gains its common name from the appearance of having been dusted with flour , and both the vernacular terms baker and miller were in use by 1860 . The name is sometimes corrupted as " flowery baker " . As of 1905 the same name " floury baker " was also in use for another species of Australian cicada ( Altria perulata , now Arunta perulata ) , which has white " sacks " as sounding boxes . That species is now commonly referred to as the " white drummer " .
= = Description = =
With a body length of 2 @.@ 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) , forewings between 3 and 5 @.@ 1 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 in ) long , a wingspan of 9 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 in ) and weighing around 1 @.@ 02 g ( 0 @.@ 036 oz ) , the floury baker is a medium @-@ sized cicada . Individuals markedly vary in size by region depending on local rainfall . Areas with an average annual rainfall of over 1000 mm ( 40 in ) – mostly coastal – have much larger individuals , with average forewing lengths about 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) longer than those in low @-@ rainfall areas .
The adult is brown with a white dusted appearance ; white downy filaments cover much of the body , legs and some wing veins , but this silver body fur is easily rubbed off , and so is often substantially diminished in older adults and museum specimens . Individuals have a variety of body markings , but all have a pale midline on their pronotum . Their legs are brown , sometimes yellowish , but with no distinct markings . Their dry mass is on average 36 @.@ 2 % of their total bodymass , higher than most Australian cicadas , which suggests strong exoskeletal armour . Their eyes are dark brown . They have yellowish opercula that extend laterally well beyond the body . The female is slightly larger than the male , She has generally similar colour and markings , though can be slightly paler in some areas . Her ninth abdominal segment is long and dark reddish @-@ brown , sometimes partly tending toward black . Her ovipositor is long , with a downward tilt , and the ovipositor sheath is black or dark reddish @-@ brown .
The wings are transparent with black or brown veins and a brown @-@ black patch at the base of apical cells 2 and 3 . These patches are sometimes fused into a continuous zigzag of dark brown to black discolouration . The basal cell is often opaque and amber @-@ coloured . As on many insects , the wing membranes are coated on either side by a repeating pattern of cuticular nanostructures , about 200 nm in height , separated by about 180 nm . These are thought to aid in anti @-@ reflective camouflage , anti @-@ wetting and self @-@ cleaning .
The male call can be heard at any time of day and consists of an unusual hissing @-@ type sound , starting as a series of one @-@ second sibilant bursts about a second apart repeated more rapidly until they become a constant hiss lasting 7 – 10 s . Described as " rp , rp , rp , rp , rrrrrp " , the sound is produced when single muscular contractions click the tymbal inward , buckling 7 – 9 of the tymbal ribs , each of which produces a pulse . This occurs alternately on the two tymbals and is rapidly repeated at a frequency of about 143 Hz ( in groups of four except when the cicada is in distress – when they are ungrouped and at a lower frequency ) , giving a pulse repetition frequency of around 1050 per second , with a relatively broad sound frequency range of 7 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 5 kHz , that has a dominant frequency ( at which the peak energy is observed ) of 9 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 6 kHz .
The abdominal tracheal air sacs surround the sound muscles and extend into the abdomen , acting as resonant chambers to amplify sound . The floury baker rapidly extends or raises its abdomen , thus modulating the influence of the air sacs on the sound to change its volume , pitch or tune during the introduction to the free song . This can be heard when a cicada is undisturbed in its natural environment , while male cicadas use these calls to attract females . The species is one of Australia 's loudest cicadas and has been termed " the best musician of them all " .
The floury baker is distinguished from a similar undescribed species A. sp. nr curvicosta ( the little floury baker ) by the structure of the male genitalia and an audibly distinct call . Members of Aleeta and Tryella are easily distinguished from other Australian cicadas as they lack tymbal covers , while the costal margin of their forewings gets larger toward the point where the wing is attached to the body . In these genera it is clearly wider than the costal vein .
= = Life cycle = =
Eggs are laid in a series of slits usually cut by the mother 's ovipositor in live branches or twigs of their food plants . On average about sixteen eggs , among a total batch of a few hundred , are laid in each slit . The batch all hatch around 70 days later – usually within a day or two of one another – but take longer in cold or dry conditions . Oviposition has been observed on a wide range of native and introduced plant species and can weaken the branches of young orchard trees such that they cannot sustain the load of their fruit .
After hatching , the nymphs fall from the branches to seek a crack in the soil where they can burrow , often to a depth of 10 – 40 cm ( 4 – 16 in ) , by digging with their large forelegs . Larger species of cicada like A. curvicosta are thought to spend 2 – 8 years underground , during which time they grow and feed through their rostrum on the sap from tree roots . They moult five times before emerging from the ground to shed their final shell . Although consistently taking place at night , the emergence of the population is diffusely spread over the season in comparison to the more high @-@ density Australian species . The sex ratio is about 1 @.@ 15 males to every female , consistent throughout the emergence . The metabolic rate over a period of about 6 @.@ 5 hours during emergence of A. curvicosta is about 1 @.@ 8 times the resting metabolic rate of the adult . A South East Queensland study reported nymphs would emerge on most tree species but avoid Norfolk pine ( Araucaria heterophylla ) and broad @-@ leaved paperbark ( Melaleuca quinquenervia ) . The adults are usually found between November and May but are sometimes observed as early as September and until as late as June . They were recorded as appearing every year , mainly in December and January in western Sydney , with a similar 92 @-@ day emergence period from late November until late February recorded in South East Queensland . This makes it one of the last Australian cicadas to emerge each season . The nymph grips onto the tree bark with all of its legs , swallows air and redistributes haemolymph to split the cast down the center of its back . It then extracts its head and clypeus by hunching its body , and when these have emerged , arches back to draw the legs out of their casing . It then slowly unfolds its wings , finally bending forward and gripping onto the front of the shell to free its abdomen . Once free it hangs for hours more as the wings harden .
Once they reach adulthood most adult cicada species live for around another two to four weeks . During this time they feed on flowing sap from tree branches , and mating and egg laying occurs .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The floury baker is found from the Daintree River in North Queensland to Bendalong in southern New South Wales . It is a highland species in the northern part of its range , restricted to the Atherton Tableland and Eungella National Park to the west of Mackay , but more a lowland species in the remainder of its range . It may be found in varied habitats , from rainforest margins to suburbs , even in the centre of Sydney .
= = Behaviour = =
Individuals are usually solitary , with a South @-@ East Queensland study estimating densities of only 50 per hectare ( compared to some other Australian species nearly two orders of magnitude more dense ) . The adult floury baker normally perches facing downwards and on branches of trees rather than trunks . It is found on a wide variety of plants , most commonly on species in the family Myrtaceae , more specifically various species of Melaleuca and Callistemon plants , as well as brown hazelwood ( Lysicarpus angustifolius ) and pegunny ( Bauhinia hookeri ) . These are expected to also be nymphal food plants . The species was associated with white feather honeymyrtle ( Melaleuca decora ) in a study at three sites in western Sydney . The broad @-@ leaved paperbark has been confirmed as a nymphal food plant .
Floury bakers are not proficient fliers compared with other Australian cicadas . They are slow , with a typical speed of 2 @.@ 1 metres per second ( 6 @.@ 9 ft / s ) , which rises to around 3 @.@ 9 metres per second ( 13 ft / s ) ( 14 km / hr ) when they are pursued or provoked . They are only able to generate low aerodynamic power and their flights are relatively short , lasting around 3 @.@ 4 s , with an average of 3 @.@ 3 changes in direction . Nor are they adept at landing . The distance at which they react to an approaching observer is moderate , both when stationary and when in flight .
= = Predation = =
Bird predation of the adult cicada is common , with wrens and grey fantails , noisy miners , blue @-@ faced honeyeaters , little wattlebirds , grey and pied butcherbirds , magpie @-@ larks , Torresian crows , white @-@ faced herons and even the nocturnal tawny frogmouth , all reported as significant predators . The frogmouths and bearded dragons have been observed feeding on emerging nymphs , however total nymphal mortality is estimated at under 10 % .
The adults of some Australian cicada are subject to a cicada @-@ specific fungus from the genus Massospora , which grows on their genitalia and abdominal cavity , eventually causing the tail end to drop off . Australian cicadas are further preyed on by the cicada killer wasp ( Exeirus lateritius ) , which stings and paralyses cicadas high in the trees . Their victims drop to the ground where the cicada @-@ hunter mounts and carries them , pushing with its hind legs , sometimes over a distance of 100 m ( 330 ft ) . They are then shoved into the hunter 's burrow , where the helpless cicada is placed on a shelf in an often extensive ' catacomb ' , to form food @-@ stock for the wasp grub growing from the eggs deposited within .
= = In popular culture = =
The shells shed by the nymph , as with those of other cicada species , are often collected by children and sometimes attached to their clothing . Schoolchildren have been known to bring live adults into classrooms to startle the class with their " strident shrieking " , typically to the observable displeasure of teachers . Children often climb trees to collect them , and keep them temporarily as pets in shoeboxes . They cannot easily be kept for longer than a day or two , given that they need flowing sap for food . A poem dedicated to the floury baker appeared in the Catholic Press in 1930 , describing its life cycle to children .
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= Serpens =
Serpens ( " the Serpent " , Greek Ὄφις ) is a constellation of the northern hemisphere . One of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , it remains one of the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union . It is unique among the modern constellations in being split into two non @-@ contiguous parts , Serpens Caput ( Serpent Head ) to the west and Serpens Cauda ( Serpent Tail ) to the east . Between these two halves lies the constellation of Ophiuchus , the " Serpent @-@ Bearer " . In figurative representations , the body of the serpent is represented as passing behind Ophiuchus between Mu Serpentis in Serpens Caput and Nu Serpentis in Serpens Cauda .
The brightest star in Serpens is the red giant star Alpha Serpentis , or Unukalhai , in Serpens Caput , with an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 63 . Also located in Serpens Caput are the naked @-@ eye globular cluster Messier 5 and the naked @-@ eye variables R Serpentis and Tau4 Serpentis . Notable extragalactic objects include Seyfert 's Sextet , one of the densest galaxy clusters known ; Arp 220 , the prototypical ultraluminous infrared galaxy ; and Hoag 's Object , the most famous of the very rare class of galaxies known as ring galaxies .
Part of the Milky Way 's galactic plane passes through Serpens Cauda , which is therefore rich in galactic deep @-@ sky objects , such as the Eagle Nebula ( IC 4703 ) and its associated star cluster Messier 16 . The nebula measures 70 light @-@ years by 50 light @-@ years and contains the Pillars of Creation , three dust clouds that became famous for the image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope . Other striking objects include the Red Square Nebula , one of the few objects in astronomy to take on a square shape ; and Westerhout 40 , a massive nearby star @-@ forming region consisting of a molecular cloud and an H II region .
= = History = =
In Greek mythology , Serpens represents a snake held by the healer Asclepius . Represented in the sky by the constellation Ophiuchus , Asclepius once killed a snake , but the animal was subsequently resurrected after a second snake placed a revival herb on it before its death . As snakes shed their skin every year , they were known as the symbol of rebirth in ancient Greek society , and legend says Asclepius would revive dead humans using the same technique he witnessed . Although this is likely the logic for Serpens ' presence with Ophiuchus , the true reason is still not fully known . Sometimes , Serpens was depicted as coiling around Ophiuchus , but the majority of atlases showed Serpens passing either behind Ophiuchus ' body or between his legs .
In some ancient atlases , the constellations Serpens and Ophiuchus were depicted as two separate constellations , although more often they were shown as a single constellation . One notable figure to depict Serpens separately was Johann Bayer ; thus , Serpens ' stars are cataloged with separate Bayer designations from those of Ophiuchus . When Eugène Delporte established modern constellation boundaries in the 1920s , he elected to depict the two separately . However , this posed the problem of how to disentangle the two constellations , with Deporte deciding to split Serpens into two areas — the head and the tail — separated by the continuous Ophiuchus . These two areas became known as Serpens Caput and Serpens Cauda , caput being the Latin word for head and cauda the Latin word for tail .
In Chinese astronomy , most of the stars of Serpens represented part of a wall surrounding a marketplace , known as Tianshi , which was in Ophiuchus and part of Hercules . Serpens also contains a few Chinese constellations . Two stars in the tail represented part of Shilou , the tower with the market office . Another star in the tail represented Liesi , jewel shops . One star in the head ( Mu Serpentis ) marked Tianru , the crown prince 's wet nurse , or sometimes rain .
There were two " serpent " constellations in Babylonian astronomy , known as Mušḫuššu and Bašmu . It appears that Mušḫuššu was depicted as a hybrid of a dragon , a lion and a bird , and loosely corresponded to Hydra . Bašmu was a horned serpent ( c.f. Ningishzida ) and roughly corresponds to the Ὄφις constellation of Eudoxus of Cnidus on which the Ὄφις ( Serpens ) of Ptolemy is based .
= = Characteristics = =
Serpens is the only one of the 88 modern constellations to be split into two disconnected regions in the sky : Serpens Caput ( the head ) and Serpens Cauda ( the tail ) . The constellation is also unusual in that it depends on another constellation for context ; specifically , it is being held by the Serpent Bearer Ophiuchus .
Serpens Caput is bordered by Libra to the south , Virgo and Boötes to the east , Corona Borealis to the north , and Ophiuchus and Hercules to the west ; Serpens Cauda is bordered by Sagittarius to the south , Scutum and Aquila to the east , and Ophiuchus to the north and west . Covering 636 @.@ 9 square degrees total , it ranks 23rd of the 88 constellations in size . It appears prominently in both the northern and southern skies during the Northern Hemisphere 's summer . Its main asterism consists of 11 stars , and 108 stars in total are brighter than magnitude 6 @.@ 5 , the traditional limit for naked @-@ eye visibility .
Serpens Caput 's boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a 15 @-@ sided polygon , while Serpens Cauda 's are defined by a 25 @-@ sided polygon . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of Serpens Caput 's borders lie between 15h 10.4m and 16h 22.5m , while the declination coordinates are between 25 @.@ 66 ° and − 03 @.@ 72 ° . Serpens Cauda 's boundaries lie between right ascensions of 17h 16.9m and 18h 58.3m and declinations of 06 @.@ 42 ° and − 16 @.@ 14 ° . The International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) adopted the three @-@ letter abbreviation " Ser " for the constellation in 1922 .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
= = = = Head stars = = = =
Marking the heart of the serpent is the constellation 's brightest star , Alpha Serpentis . Traditionally called Unukalhai , is a red giant of spectral type K2III located approximately 23 parsecs distant with a visual magnitude of 2 @.@ 630 ± 0 @.@ 009 , meaning it can easily be seen with the naked eye even in areas with substantial light pollution . A faint companion is in orbit around the red giant star , although it is not visible to the naked eye . Situated near Alpha is Lambda Serpentis , a magnitude 4 @.@ 42 ± 0 @.@ 05 star rather similar to the Sun positioned only 12 parsecs away . Another solar analog in Serpens is the primary of Psi Serpentis , a binary star located slightly further away at approximately 14 parsecs .
Beta , Gamma , and Iota Serpentis form a distinctive triangular shape marking the head of the snake , with Kappa Serpentis being roughly midway between Gamma and Iota . The brightest of the four with an apparent magnitude of roughly 3 @.@ 67 , Beta Serpentis is a white main @-@ sequence star roughly 160 parsecs distant . It is likely that a nearby 10th @-@ magnitude star is physically associated with Beta , although it is not certain . The Mira variable R Serpentis , situated between Beta and Gamma , is visible to the naked eye at its maximum of 5th @-@ magnitude , but , typical of Mira variables , it can fade to below magnitude 14 . Gamma Serpentis itself is an F @-@ type subgiant located only 11 parsecs distant and thus is quite bright , being of magnitude 3 @.@ 84 ± 0 @.@ 05 . The star is known to show solar @-@ like oscillations .
Delta Serpentis , forming part of the body of the snake between the heart and the head , is a multiple star system positioned around 70 parsecs from Earth . Consisting of four stars , the system has a total apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 79 as viewed from Earth , although two of the stars , with a combined apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 80 , provide nearly all the light . The primary , a white subgiant , is a Delta Scuti variable with an average apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 23 . Positioned very near Delta , both in the night sky and likely in actual space at an estimated distance of around 70 parsecs , is the barium star 16 Serpentis . Another notable variable star visible to the naked eye is Chi Serpentis , an Alpha ² Canum Venaticorum variable situated midway between Delta and Beta which varies from its median brightness of 5 @.@ 33 by 0 @.@ 03 magnitudes over a period of approximately 1 @.@ 5 days .
The two stars in Serpens Caput that form part of the Snake 's body below the heart are Epsilon and Mu Serpentis , both third @-@ magnitude A @-@ type main @-@ sequence stars . Both have a peculiarity : Epsilon is an Am star , while Mu is a binary . Located slightly northwest of Mu is 36 Serpentis , another A @-@ type main @-@ sequence star . This star also has a peculiarity ; it is a binary with the primary component being a Lambda Boötis star , meaning that it has solar @-@ like amounts of carbon , nitrogen , and oxygen , while containing very low amounts of iron peak elements . 25 Serpentis , positioned a few degrees northeast of Mu Serpentis , is a spectroscopic binary consisting of a hot B @-@ type giant and an A @-@ type main @-@ sequence star . The primary is a slowly pulsating B star , which causes the system to vary by 0 @.@ 03 magnitudes .
Serpens Caput contains many RR Lyrae variables , although most are too faint to be seen without professional photography . The brightest is VY Serpentis , only of 10th magnitude . This star 's period has been increasing by approximately 1 @.@ 2 seconds per century . A variable star of a different kind is Tau4 Serpentis , a cool red giant that pulsates between magnitudes 5 @.@ 89 and 7 @.@ 07 in 87 days . This star has been found to display an inverse P Cygni profile , where cold infalling gas on to the star creates redshifted hydrogen absorption lines next to the normal emission lines .
Several stars in Serpens have been found to have planets . The brightest , Omega Serpentis , located between Epsilon and Mu , is an orange giant with a planet of approximately 1 @.@ 7 Jupiter @-@ masses . NN Serpentis , an eclipsing post @-@ common @-@ envelope binary consisting of a white dwarf and a red dwarf , is very likely to have two planets causing variations in the period of the eclipses . Although it does not have a planet , the solar analog HD 137510 has been found to have a brown dwarf companion within the brown @-@ dwarf desert .
PSR B1534 + 11 is a system consisting of two neutron stars orbiting each other , one of which is a pulsar with a period of 37 @.@ 9 milliseconds . Situated approximately 1000 parsecs distant , the system was used to test Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity , validating the system 's relativistic parameters to within 0 @.@ 2 % of values predicted by the theory . The X @-@ ray emission from the system has been found to be present when the non @-@ pulsar star intersects the equatorial pulsar wind of the pulsar , and the system 's orbit has been found to vary slightly .
= = = = Tail stars = = = =
The brightest star in the tail , Eta Serpentis , is similar to Alpha Serpentis ' primary in that it is a red giant of spectral class K. This star , however , is known to exhibit solar @-@ like oscillations over a period of approximately 2 @.@ 16 hours . The other two stars in Serpens Cauda forming its asterism are Theta and Xi Serpentis . Xi , where the asterism crosses over to Mu Serpentis in the head , is a triple star system located approximately 105 parsecs away . Two of the stars , with a combined apparent magnitude of around 3 @.@ 5 , form a spectroscopic binary with an angular separation of only 2 @.@ 2 milliarcseconds , and thus cannot be resolved with modern equipment . The primary is a white giant with an excess of strontium . Theta , forming the tip of the tail , is also a multiple system , consisting of two A @-@ type main @-@ sequence stars with a combined apparent magnitude of around 4 @.@ 1 separated by almost half an arcminute .
Lying near the boundary with Ophiuchus are Zeta , Nu , and Omicron Serpentis . All three are 4th @-@ magnitude main @-@ sequence stars , with Nu and Omicron being of spectral type A and Zeta being of spectral type F. Nu is a binary star with a 9th @-@ magnitude companion , while Omicron is a Delta Scuti variable with amplitude variations of 0 @.@ 01 magnitudes . In 1909 , the symbiotic nova RT Serpentis appeared near Omicron , although it only reached a maximum magnitude of 10 .
The star system 59 Serpentis , also known as d Serpentis , is a triple star system consisting of a spectroscopic binary containing an A @-@ type star and an orange giant and an orange giant secondary . The system shows irregular variations in brightness between magnitudes 5 @.@ 17 and 5 @.@ 2 . In 1970 , the nova FH Serpentis appeared just slightly north of 59 Serpentis , reaching a maximum brightness of 4 @.@ 5 . Also near 59 Serpentis in the Serpens Cloud are several Orion variables . MWC 297 is a Herbig Be star that in 1994 exhibited a large X @-@ ray flare and increased in X @-@ ray luminosity by five times before returning to the quiescent state . The star also appears to possess a circumstellar disk . Another Orion variable in the region is VV Serpentis , a Herbig Ae star that has been found to exhibit Delta Scuti pulsations . VV Serpentis has also , like MWC 297 , been found to have a dusty disk surrounding it , and is also a UX Orionis star , meaning that it shows irregular variations in its brightness .
The star HR 6958 , also known as MV Serpentis , is an Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable that is faintly visible to the naked eye . The star 's metal abundance is ten times higher than the Sun for most metals at the iron peak and up to 1 @,@ 000 times more for heavier elements . It has also been found to contain excess silicon . Barely visible to the naked eye is HD 172365 , a likely post @-@ blue straggler in the open cluster IC 4756 that contains a large excess of lithium . HD 172189 , also located in IC 4756 , is an Algol variable eclipsing binary with a 5 @.@ 70 day period . The primary star in the system is also a Delta Scuti variable , undergoing multiple pulsation frequencies , which , combined with the eclipses , causes the system to vary by around a tenth of a magnitude .
As the galactic plane passes through it , Serpens Cauda contains many massive OB stars . Several of these are visible to the naked eye , such as NW Serpentis , an early Be star that has been found to be somewhat variable . The variability is interesting ; according to one study , it could be one of the first discovered hybrids between Beta Cephei variables and slowly pulsating B stars . Although not visible to the naked eye , HD 167971 ( MY Serpentis ) is a Beta Lyrae variable triple system consisting of three very hot O @-@ type stars . A member of the cluster NGC 6604 , the two eclipsing stars are both blue giants , with one being of the very early spectral type O7.5III. The remaining star is either a blue giant or supergiant of a late O or early B spectral type . Also an eclipsing binary , the HD 166734 system consists of two O @-@ type blue supergiants in orbit around each other . Less extreme in terms of mass and temperature is HD 161701 , a spectroscopic binary consisting of a B @-@ type primary and an Ap secondary , although it is the only known spectroscopic binary to consist of a star with excess of mercury and manganese and an Ap star .
South of the Eagle Nebula on the border with Sagittarius is the eclipsing binary W Serpentis , whose primary is a white giant that is interacting with the secondary . The system has been found to contain an accretion disk , and was one of the first discovered Serpentids , which are eclipsing binaries containing exceptionally strong far @-@ ultraviolet spectral lines . It is suspected that such Serpentids are in an earlier evolutionary phase , and will evolve first into double periodic variables and then classical Algol variables . Also near the Eagle Nebula is the eclipsing Wolf – Rayet binary CV Serpentis , consisting of a Wolf – Rayet star and a hot O @-@ type subgiant . The system is surrounded by a ring @-@ shaped nebula , likely formed during the Wolf – Rayet phase of the primary . The eclipses of the system vary erratically , and although there are two theories as to why , neither of them is completely consistent with current understanding of stars .
Serpens Cauda contains a few X @-@ ray binaries . One of these , GX 17 + 2 , is a low @-@ mass X @-@ ray binary consisting of a neutron star and , as in all low @-@ mass X @-@ ray binaries , a low @-@ mass star . The system has been classified as a Sco @-@ like Z source , meaning that its accretion is near the Eddington limit . The system has also been found to approximately every 3 days brighten by around 3 @.@ 5 K @-@ band magnitudes , possibly due to the presence of a synchrotron jet . Another low @-@ mass X @-@ ray binary , Serpens X @-@ 1 , undergoes occasional X @-@ ray bursts . One in particular lasted nearly four hours , possibly explained by the burning of carbon in " a heavy element ocean " .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
= = = = Head objects = = = =
As the galactic plane does not pass through this part of Serpens , a view to many galaxies beyond it is possible . However , a few structures of the Milky Way Galaxy are present in Serpens Caput , such as Messier 5 , a globular cluster positioned approximately 8 ° southwest of α Serpentis , next to the star 5 Serpentis . Barely visible to the naked eye under good conditions , and is located approximately 25 @,@ 000 ly distant . Messier 5 contains a large number of known RR Lyrae variable stars , and is receding from us at over 50 km / s . The cluster contains two millisecond pulsars , one of which is in a binary , allowing the proper motion of the cluster to be measured . The binary could help our understanding of neutron degenerate matter ; the current median mass , if confirmed , would exclude any " soft " equation of state for such matter . The cluster has been used to test for magnetic dipole moments in neutrinos , which could shed light on some hypothetical particles such as the axion . Another globular cluster is Palomar 5 , found just south of Messier 5 . Many stars are leaving this globular cluster due to the Milky Way 's gravity , forming a tidal tail over 30000 light @-@ years long .
A remarkable dark nebula complex is the L134 / L183 complex . Along with a third cloud , they are likely fragments of a single original cloud located 36 degrees away from the galactic plane , a large distance for dark nebulae . The entire complex is thought to be around 140 parsecs distant . L183 , also referred to as L134N , is particularly interesting ; there are several infrared sources within , indicating pre @-@ stellar sources thought to present the first known observation of the contraction phase between cloud cores and prestellar cores . The core is split into three regions , with a combined mass of around 25 solar masses .
Outside of the Milky Way , there are no bright deep @-@ sky objects for amateur astronomers in Serpens Caput , with nothing else above 10th magnitude . The brightest is NGC 5962 , a spiral galaxy positioned around 28 megaparsecs distant with an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 34 . Slightly fainter is NGC 5921 , a barred spiral galaxy with a LINER @-@ type active galactic nucleus situated somewhat closer at a distance of 21 megaparsecs . A type II supernova was observed in this galaxy in 2001 and was designated SN 2001X . Fainter still are the spirals NGC 5964 and NGC 6118 , with the latter being host to the supernova SN 2004dk .
Hoag 's Object , located 600 million light @-@ years from Earth , is one of the most famous of a very rare class of galaxies known as ring galaxies . The outer ring is largely composed of young blue stars while the core is made up of older yellow stars . The predominant theory regarding its formation is that the progenitor galaxy was a barred spiral galaxy whose arms had velocities too great to keep the galaxy 's coherence and therefore detached . Arp 220 is another unusual galaxy in Serpens . The prototypical ultraluminous infrared galaxy , Arp 220 is somewhat closer than Hoag 's Object at 250 million light @-@ years from Earth . It consists of two large spiral galaxies in the process of colliding with their nuclei orbiting at a distance of 1 @,@ 200 light @-@ years , causing extensive star formation throughout both components . It possesses a large cluster of more than a billion stars , partially covered by thick dust clouds near one of the galaxies ' core . Another interacting galaxy pair , albeit in an earlier stage , consists of the galaxies NGC 5953 and NGC 5954 . In this case , both are active galaxies , with the former a Seyfert 2 galaxy and the latter a LINER @-@ type galaxy . Both are undergoing a burst of star formation triggered by the interaction .
Seyfert 's Sextet is a group of six galaxies , four of which are interacting gravitationally and two of which simply appear to be a part of the group despite their greater distance . The gravitationally bound cluster lies at a distance of 190 million light @-@ years from Earth and is approximately 100 @,@ 000 light @-@ years across , making Seyfert 's Sextet one of the densest galaxy group known . Astronomers predict that the four interacting galaxies will eventually merge to form a large elliptical galaxy . The radio source 3C 326 was originally though to emanate from a giant elliptical galaxy . However , in 1990 , it was shown that the source is instead a brighter , smaller galaxy a few arcseconds north . This object , designated 3C 326 N , has enough gas for star formation , but is being inhibited due to the energy from the radio galaxy nucleus .
A much larger galaxy cluster is the redshift @-@ 0 @.@ 0354 Abell 2063 . The cluster is thought to be interacting with the nearby galaxy group MKW 3s , based on radial velocity measurements of galaxies and the positioning of the cD galaxy at the center of Abell 2063 . The active galaxy at the center of MKW 3s — NGC 5920 — appears to be creating a bubble of hot gas from its radio activity . Near the 5th @-@ magnitude star Pi Serpentis lies AWM 4 , a cluster containing an excess of metals in the intracluster medium . The central galaxy , NGC 6051 , is a radio galaxy that is probably responsible for this enrichment . Similar to AWM 4 , the cluster Abell 2052 has central cD radio galaxy , 3C 317 . This radio galaxy is believed to have restarted after a period of inactivity less than 200 years ago . The galaxy has over 40 @,@ 000 known globular clusters , the highest known total of any galaxy as of 2002 .
Consisting of two quasars with a separation of less than 5 arcseconds , the quasar pair 4C 11 @.@ 50 is one of the visually closest pairs of quasars in the sky . The two have markedly different redshifts , however , and are thus unrelated . The foreground member of the pair ( 4C 11 @.@ 50 A ) does not have enough mass to refract light from the background component ( 4C 11 @.@ 50 B ) enough to produce a lensed image , although it does have a true companion of its own . An even stranger galaxy pair is 3C 321 . Unlike the previous pair , the two galaxies making up 3C 321 are interacting with each other and are in the process of merging . Both members appear to be active galaxies ; the primary radio galaxy may be responsible for the activity in the secondary by means of the former 's jet driving material onto the latter 's supermassive black hole .
A remarkable example of gravitational lensing is found in the radio galaxy 3C 324 . First thought to be a single overluminous radio galaxy with a redshift of z |
= 1 @.@ 206 , it was found in 1987 to actually be two galaxies , with the radio galaxy at the aforementioned redshift being lensed by another galaxy at redshift z =
0 @.@ 845 . The first example of a multiply @-@ imaged radio galaxy discovered , the source appears to be an elliptical galaxy with a dust lane obscuring our view of the visual and ultraviolet emission from the nucleus . In even shorter wavelengths , the BL Lac object PG 1553 + 113 is a heavy emitter of gamma rays . This object is the most distant found to emit photons with energies in the TeV range as of 2007 . The spectrum is unique , with hard emission in some ranges of the gamma @-@ ray spectrum in stark contrast to soft emission in others . In 2012 , the object flared in the gamma @-@ ray spectrum , tripling in luminosity for two nights , allowing the redshift to be accurately measured as z
= 0 @.@ 49 .
Several gamma @-@ ray bursts ( GRBs ) have been observed in Serpens Caput , such as GRB 970111 , one of the brightest GRBs observed . An optical transient event associated with this GRB has not been found , despite its intensity . The host galaxy initially also proved elusive , however it now appears that the host is a Seyfert I galaxy located at redshift z =
0 @.@ 657 . The X @-@ ray afterglow of the GRB has also been much fainter than for other dimmer GRBs . More distant is GRB 060526 ( redshift z = 3 @.@ 221 ) , from which X @-@ ray and optical afterglows were detected . This GRB was surprisingly faint for a long @-@ duration GRB .
= = = = Tail objects = = = =
Part of the galactic plane passes through the tail , and thus Serpens Cauda is rich in deep @-@ sky objects within our own galaxy . The Eagle Nebula and its associated star cluster , Messier 16 lie 7 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from Earth in the direction of the galactic center . The nebula measures 70 light @-@ years by 50 light @-@ years and contains the Pillars of Creation , three dust clouds that became famous for the image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope . The stars being born in the Eagle Nebula , added to those with an approximate age of 5 million years have an average temperature of 45 @,@ 000 kelvins and produce prodigious amounts of radiation that will eventually destroy the dust pillars . Despite its fame , the Eagle Nebula is fairly dim , with an integrated magnitude of approximately 6 @.@ 0 . The star @-@ forming regions in the nebula are often evaporating gaseous globules ; unlike Bok globules they only hold one protostar .
North of Messier 16 , at a distance of approximately 2000 parsecs , is the OB association Serpens OB2 , containing over 100 OB stars . Around 5 million years old , the association appears to still contain star @-@ forming regions , and the light from its stars is illuminating the HII region S 54 . Within this HII region is the open cluster NGC 6604 , which is the same age as the surrounding OB association , and the cluster is now thought to simply be the densest part of it . The cluster appears to be producing a thermal chimney of ionized gas , caused by the interaction of the gas from the galactic disk with the galactic halo .
Another open cluster in Serpens Cauda is IC 4756 , containing at least one naked @-@ eye star , HD 172365 ( another naked @-@ eye star in the vicinity , HD 171586 , is most likely unrelated ) . Positioned approximately 440 parsecs distant , the cluster is estimated to be around 800 million years old , quite old for an open cluster . Despite the presence of the Milky Way in Serpens Cauda , one globular cluster can be found : NGC 6535 , although invisible to the naked eye , can be made out in small telescopes just north of Zeta Serpentis . Rather small and sparse for a globular cluster , this cluster contains no known RR Lyrae variables , which is unusual for a globular cluster .
MWC 922 is a star surrounded by a planetary nebula . Dubbed the Red Square Nebula due to its similarities to the Red Rectangle Nebula , the planetary nebula appears to be a nearly perfect square with a dark band around the equatorial regions . The nebula contains concentric rings , which are similar to those seen in the supernova SN 1987A . MWC 922 itself is an FS Canis Majoris variable , meaning that it is a Be star containing exceptionally bright hydrogen emission lines as well as select forbidden lines , likely due to the presence of a close binary . East of Xi Serpentis is another planetary nebula , Abell 41 , containing the binary star MT Serpentis at its center . The nebula appears to have a bipolar structure , and the axis of symmetry of the nebula has been found to be within 5 ° of the line perpendicular to the orbital plane of the stars , strengthening the link between binary stars and bipolar planetary nebulae . On the other end of the stellar age spectrum is L483 , a dark nebula which contains the protostar IRAS 18418 @-@ 0440 . Although classified as a class 0 protostar , it has some unusual features for such an object , such as a lack of high @-@ velocity stellar winds , and it has been proposed that this object is in transition between class 0 and class I. A variable nebula exists around the protostar , although it is only visible in infrared light .
The Serpens cloud is a massive star @-@ forming molecular cloud situated in the southern part of Serpens Cauda . Only two million years old and 420 parecs distant , the cloud is known to contain many protostars such as Serpens FIRS 1 and Serpens SVS 20 . The Serpens South protocluster was uncovered by NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope in the southern portion of the cloud , and it appears that star formation is still continuing in the region . Another site of star formation is the Westerhout 40 complex , consisting of a prominent HII region adjacent to a molecular cloud . Located around 500 parsecs distant , it is one of the nearest massive regions of star formation , but as the molecular cloud obscures the HII region , rendering it and its embedded cluster tough to see visibly , it is not as well @-@ studied as others . The embedded cluster likely contains over 600 stars above 0 @.@ 1 solar masses , with several massive stars , including at least one O @-@ type star , being responsible for lighting the HII region and the production of a bubble .
Despite the presence of the Milky Way , several active galaxies are visible in Serpens Cauda as well , such as PDS 456 , found near Xi Serpentis . The most intrinsically luminous nearby active galaxy , this AGN has been found to be extremely variable in the X @-@ ray spectrum . This has allowed light to be shed on the nature of the supermassive black hole at the center , likely a Kerr black hole . It is possible that the quasar is undergoing a transition from an ultraluminous infrared galaxy to a classical radio @-@ quiet quasar , but there are problems with this theory , and the object appears to be an exceptional object that does not completely lie within current classification systems . Nearby is NRAO 530 , a blazar that has been known to flare in the X @-@ rays occasionally . One of these flares was for less than 2000 seconds , making it the shortest flare ever observed in a blazar as of 2004 . The blazar also appears to show periodic variability in its radio wave output over two different periods of six and ten years .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
There are two daytime meteor showers that radiate from Serpens , the Omega Serpentids and the Sigma Serpentids . Both showers peak between December 18 and December 25 .
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= ROH World Television Championship =
The ROH World Television Championship is a professional wrestling world television championship in the Ring of Honor ( ROH ) promotion . It is currently the third ranked championship in ROH . With the introduction of the ROH World Television Championship , the television type championship returned to national exposure .
There has been a total of eleven reigns shared between nine champions . The first champion was crowned on March 5 , 2010 , when Eddie Edwards defeated Davey Richards in the finals of a tournament .
The current champion is Bobby Fish , who is in his first reign . Jay Lethal 's second reign is the longest in the title 's history . During that reign , Lethal also won the ROH World Championship in a Title vs. Title match at Best in the World 2015 .
= = History = =
The creation of the ROH World Television Championship was announced via ROH 's official website on January 20 , 2010 . An eight @-@ man single elimination tournament was then planned to determine the inaugural champion . The tournament was to start on February 4 and conclude on February 6 , 2010 at The Arena in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania at the tapings of ROH 's television program Ring of Honor Wrestling . Regarding the new championship addition , ROH President Cary Silkin said , " We ’ ve been talking about adding a secondary championship for some time . Not only will this give the athletes of Ring of Honor another tremendous goal to work towards , it will also give our great partner , HDNet , a championship that is sure to be defended on the television program . We ’ re happy to publicly give thanks to HDNet for giving us the chance to add this title to the television show ... " .
It is ROH 's second secondary singles championship in their history . The ROH Pure Championship was used from February 14 , 2004 to August 12 , 2006 , prior its unification with the ROH World Championship . After the championship announcement , wrestling columnist James Caldwell gave his comments : " I like the idea . It gives mid @-@ card wrestlers on ROH 's roster something to fight for in the context of trying to win a wrestling match to " move up the company ladder . " Caldwell further remarked that " ROH bringing back the TV Title to national TV is consistent with ROH 's current marketing under Jim Cornette to " re @-@ capture an old @-@ school flavor " to their product . "
After the Ring of Honor Wrestling show was cancelled in March 2011 , the title became inactive . Although Daniels stopped defending it , he still carried the belt with him as part of his villainous character . With the sale of ROH to the Sinclair Broadcast Group and a new television show scheduled to air in September , ROH reinstated the title for June 's Best in The World event .
= = = Tournament = = =
The tournament was scheduled to span over a two @-@ day weekend , starting on February 5 and ending on February 6 at events recorded for later broadcast on Ring of Honor Wrestling . However , due to severe weather conditions in the Philadelphia area , the second day of taping was canceled . It was not until almost a month later , on March 5 , that ROH held the second recorded event , which closed out the tournament . The first four seeds of eight in the tournament were announced on January 22 , 2010 : Rhett Titus ( 8 ) , El Generico ( 7 ) , Eddie Edwards ( 6 ) , and Delirious ( 5 ) . The other four seeds were announced on January 26 , 2010 : Kevin Steen ( 1 ) , Kenny King ( 2 ) , Colt Cabana ( 3 ) , and Davey Richards ( 4 ) . The first round was determined at the first event on February 5 , with Steen , King , Richards , and Edwards all advancing to round two . On March 5 , Edwards and Richards both advanced to the finals , where Edwards defeat Richards to be crowned the first ROH World Television Champion . The matches were scheduled to span over six episodes of Ring of Honor Wrestling . The first match from round one that aired pitted Steen against Titus , which Steen won , on the March 8 episode . On the same episode , King versus El Generico was featured , with King advancing . Cabana versus Edwards was the third match from round one to air , when it was broadcast on the March 15 episode . Richards defeated Delirious in the final match from round one , which aired later in the same episode . The first match from round two , Steen versus Edwards , was featured on the April 12 episode , in which Edwards advanced to the finals . On the April 19 episode , Richards defeated King to advance to the finals . On the April 26 episode , Edwards defeated Richards in the finals of the tournament to become the first ROH World Television Champion .
Tournament Bracket
= = = Belt designs = = =
The championship belt was introduced on March 5 , 2010 , when it was given to the newly crowned inaugural champion Eddie Edwards . The physical championship belt was designed All Star Championship Belts d / b / a ASCB , LLC . The title 's base is a black leather strap that is covered with four small silver plates . The center of the title has one large silver plate . All plates have an inner blue covering . The two small outer plates have a caricature of the earth and a satellite in orbit . The middle plates have figures resembling a cameraman filming a television production . Underneath each figure , lies the ROH logo and the words " Ring of Honor Wrestling " . The central plate has the engravings of the ROH logo as well as the statement " World Television Wrestling Champion " hovering above the backdrop of a city , with a television lying on top of a globe with an overhead shot of a wrestling ring between them in front of the skyline . The design was changed again in November 2012 to its current design during the reign of Adam Cole . Longest reigning champion Jay Lethal modified the current design which emphasizes the " ROH Champion " portion of the title , claiming the championship is more prestigious than the ROH World Championship because he ( Lethal ) is the champion .
= = Champions = =
Overall , there has been 12 reigns by 10 wrestlers . The inaugural champion was Eddie Edwards , who defeated Davey Richards in the finals of an eight @-@ man tournament on March 5 , 2010 .
The current champion is Bobby Fish , who is in his first reign . He defeated Tomohiro Ishii on May 8 , 2016 , in Chicago Ridge , Illinois at the ROH / NJPW Global Wars supershow .
= = List of combined reigns = =
As of July 26 , 2016 .
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= Septimus Heap =
Septimus Heap is a series of fantasy novels featuring a protagonist of the same name written by English author Angie Sage . In all , it features seven novels , entitled Magyk , Flyte , Physik , Queste , Syren , Darke and Fyre , the first ( Magyk ) in 2005 and the final ( Fyre ) in 2013 . A full colour supplement to the series , entitled The Magykal Papers , was published in June 2009 , and an online novella titled The Darke Toad is also available . A sequel trilogy , The TodHunter Moon Series , set seven years after the events of Fyre , began in October 2014 , with the second book released in October 2015 .
The series follows the adventures of Septimus Heap who , as a seventh son of a seventh son , has extraordinary magical powers . After he becomes an apprentice to the arch ( " ExtraOrdinary " ) wizard of the series , Marcia Overstrand , he must study for seven years and a day until his apprenticeship ends . In the first book , he is known as Young Army Expendable Boy 412 , until his great @-@ aunt , Zelda Zanuba Heap reveals his true identity . His adventures are placed in the context of the warmth and strength of his family , and developed alongside those of Jenna , his adoptive sister , who is heir to the throne of the Castle , the community where they live . The novels , set in an elaborate fantastic world , describe the many challenges that Septimus and his friends must overcome .
The books have appeared on national bestsellers lists and received worldwide critical acclaim ; Warner Bros. acquired the rights to produce a movie based on the first book . The series has been noted for the realism and richness of its characters , the compelling nature of their adventures , and its humour . It has been compared with Harry Potter and other works within the genre .
= = Development = =
Author Angie Sage has said that the character of Septimus Heap , his ultimate fate , and the world he inhabits , were fully formed in her imagination from the beginning , but she had not decided on the intermediate steps on his journey , nor on the characters he would meet . Sage described Septimus Heap 's world as a place where numerous creatures and people suddenly appear and become involved in events .
Commenting on the development of the Septimus Heap character , Sage has described him as someone in a strange and hostile world who has no idea of his real identity . The series gained momentum with the development of the character of Marcia Overstrand , which Sage credits as an inspiration . Septimus Heap is centred on the warmth and strength of the Heap family . In an interview Sage said :
I like their chaotic acceptance of life , and the fact that they don 't do what they are told by authority if they think it is wrong . Stuff happens to them that makes their life difficult at times but they don 't moan about things , they just get on and sort it out as best they can . They are remarkably accepting of other people , I think because they are so strong as a unit . They are also a family which becomes separated by circumstances- and I wanted to show that families can still be close to each other and care for each other even though they live apart . The family relationships develop as the books progress , and are central to the story .
Sage keeps a boat ( called Muriel ) in real life , as does the character Sally Mullin in Magyk . Other inspirations for the series included Sage 's love of history and the misty landscape of Cornwall , where she lived before starting the series . Another factor in the development of the series was her love of daydreaming : " Slowly ... lots of thinking , and daydreaming . I am a big fan of daydreaming and staring out of the window . Then keeping all my thoughts and ideas in a dog @-@ eared old envelope for ages . " With The Wilton Villager , Sage further expanded her inspiration behind the series .
It was an idea I had had for a very long time , and I waited a long time while it grew and developed . [ ... ] I try and write the books I would have loved to have read as a child and teenager . [ ... ] It all started with the spelling of the first title , ' Magyk . ' I felt the way that magic is normally spelled makes people think of conjuring tricks and stage magicians and I wanted to avoid that , but in the past , before spelling became standardized , people would spell words how they chose to , sometimes in different ways in the same sentence . Magic was often spelled magyck , so all I did was to change that a little . After that I carried on using archaic spelling for words associated with magic and the supernatural . It makes them look a little different , gives a different flavor to them .
= = The series and relating books = =
= = = Septimus Heap Heptalogy = = =
= = = = Magyk = = = =
The plot of the first book , entitled Magyk ( published in March 2005 ) , revolves around the pauper Heap family : Silas , Sarah and their seven children . The story begins when Silas finds Jenna in the snow . Septimus is born on the same day , but is declared dead by the midwife , who steals the baby and brings him to DomDaniel , an evil wizard . However , he is confused with the midwife 's own son and is sent to the Supreme Custodian to help start a boy army . On her tenth birthday , Jenna learns from ExtraOrdinary Wizard Marcia Overstrand that she is a princess , but that she — and the Heap family — are in danger . Jenna and Nicko Heap escape to their Aunt Zelda 's cottage . They are accompanied by a member of the Young Army called Boy 412 , who discovers his magic powers and a legendary ring while at Zelda 's . Marcia is imprisoned in DomDaniel ´ s boat , Vengeance , and nearly dies , but is rescued by Boy 412 , Jenna and Nicko after they find a flying Dragon Boat in a secret cavern by Zelda ´ s cottage . At the end of the novel , Boy 412 is revealed to be Septimus , and his family hears of his past .
= = = = Flyte = = = =
The second book , Flyte ( published in March 2006 ) , begins with Septimus ( now the apprentice to ExtraOrdinary Wizard Marcia ) witnessing the kidnapping of Jenna by her older brother Simon . After seeking help from Nicko and a friend from the Young Army , Septimus finds Jenna at The Port , but they are followed by Simon . They fly to The Castle in the Dragon Boat , engaging in aerial combat with Simon on the way . Marcia 's life is threatened by the reassembled bones of DomDaniel , but with Septimus 's help , she destroys him . The novel also features the discovery of the lost " Flyte " charm , which gives the book its title , and an egg that hatches into a dragon Septimus names Spit Fyre .
= = = = Physik = = = =
The antagonist of the third book , Physik ( published in March 2007 ) , is the 500 @-@ year @-@ old spirit of Queen Etheldredda , who is accidentally released by Silas Heap . She sends Septimus to her immortal son Marcellus Pye . He is transported back in time to become the apprentice of the young Marcellus Pye , an alchemist who teaches him about " Physik " . In the present timeline of the novel , the Castle is infected by a deadly plague and Queen Etheldredda has the plan to acquire eternal life . Jenna and Nicko meet a young trader Snorri Snorrelssen with whom they travel in time to bring Septimus back though Nicko and Snorri couldn 't escape . There , Jenna is taken to the living Queen Etheldredda , but she escapes with Septimus and they return to the present Castle . Marcia then destroys the substantial spirit of Etheldredda and Septimus brews an antidote to the plague using his knowledge of Physik .
= = = = Queste = = = =
The quest of the fourth book , Queste ( published in April 2008 ) , is a journey in time to the House of Foryx , in which " all times meet " , to bring back Nicko and Snorri , who were trapped there after the events of the third book . Septimus is sent on this mission for nefarious reasons by a ghost called Tertius Fume . Assisted by Jenna and his friend Beetle , among others , he pieces together a map to the House of Foryx . When they reach the house , Septimus meets Hotep @-@ Ra , the first ExtraOrdinary Wizard , while Jenna and Beetle find Nicko and Snorri . Marcia and Sarah Heap arrive outside the house on Spit Fyre , and they return together to their own time .
= = = = Syren = = = =
The fifth book , Syren ( published in September 2009 ) , continues from where Queste ended . Septimus decides to bring back his friends from the House of Foryx country and he , Jenna and Beetle get trapped in a mysterious island . There he meets a mysterious girl called Syrah Syara who tells him about a dangerous plot by Tertius Fume to destroy The Castle . Together with the help of the others and a safe @-@ charm jinnee sent to him by Aunt Zelda , Septimus stops the invasion of The Castle by Fume and his jinnee warriors and saves Syrah from a terrible enchantment of a malice ghost called the Syren .
= = = = Darke = = = =
The sixth book , Darke ( published in America in June 2011 and England in October 2011 ) , sees Septimus and his friends battling the Darke which has engulfed the Castle and everything and everyone in it . The only thing that is standing in between is Merrin Meredith and his gang of Things and his Darke Dragon . Alther Mella has been Banished ( together with Tertius Fume ) and Septimus wants to release him from the Darke Halls thinking he could help in undoing the Darke . When Marcia Overstrand , the ExtraOrdinary Wizard undoes the Darke spell with the help of the Paired Codes , all is well . Beetle becomes Chief Hermetic Scribe ; Simon is reunited with his family after leaving his past behind and Princess Jenna is happy that the Palace and Castle are back to normal .
= = = = Fyre = = = =
The seventh and final novel , Fyre ( published in April 2013 ) , sees the cast featuring the toughest challenges yet as Septimus nears the end of his ExtraOrdinary Wizard training . The dreaded Two @-@ Faced Ring has been captured , but remains a grave threat , and must be plunged into the Alchemical Fyre for it to be destroyed for good . The ring , however , holds a threat far greater than most realize , and the restarting of the Fyre is , in itself , quite dangerous .
= = = TodHunter Moon trilogy = = =
The TodHunter trilogy starts seven years after ' Fyre ' .
= = = = Pathfinder = = = =
First in the TodHunter Moon trilogy , Pathfinder ( published on October 14 , 2014 ) picks up the world of Septimus Heap seven years after the events of Fyre .
= = = = SandRider = = = =
Second in the TodHunter Moon trilogy ( published on October 13 , 2015 ) .
= = = = StarCatcher = = = =
Third in the TodHunter Moon trilogy ( slated for release in October 2016 ) .
= = = Relating books = = =
= = = = Relating to the Septimus Heap Heptalogy = = = =
= = = = = The Darke Toad = = = = =
The Darke Toad is an eBook novella for Amazon Kindle ( published in February 2013 ) . The novella features the return of DomDaniel as well as the Port Witch Coven , and is set between Magyk and Flyte . The eBook includes two chapters of Fyre , the final book in the series .
= = = = = Septimus Heap : The Magykal Papers = = = = =
Septimus Heap : The Magykal Papers ( published in June 2009 ) is a supplement to the series in a full @-@ colour larger format with illustrations by Mark Zug . Angie Sage said in an interview that she is enjoying the process of developing this guidebook and thinking about the book 's structure and all its characters . Bloomsbury said that this Septimus Heap encyclopedia is a dazzling cornucopia of information on every aspect of Septimus 's world and the creatures that inhabit it , including the secret files , the journal excerpts , charm theory , the seven basic spells , dispatches from the Message Rat Office , the history , and the maps .
= = Film adaptation = =
Warner Brothers bought the rights to produce a film version of the first book , Magyk . Karen Rosenfelt would produce the film , with Sage serving as an executive producer . According to Cinematical.com , the making of the movie would not start before the final Harry Potter movie was completed . Sage said that the screenplay will be developed after the writer 's strike was over .
It was announced on 17 July 2009 that the movie would be live action , with computer animated effects , and David Frankel as director and Rob Lieber to adapt Magyk . As of 2009 , a re @-@ write of the script was being done with screenwriter Mulroney and Warner Brothers were working with a studio to create some early conceptual design / look development . Sage commented : " It is very exciting to know that others are putting their creative input into my work — quite amazing really . [ ... ] I 'm really looking forward to seeing the whole Septimus world up there on the big screen coming to life . "
As of June 2015 , it seems the movie has been shelved .
= = Characters = =
The eponymous protagonist of the series is Septimus Heap . As the seventh son of a seventh son , the aptly named Septimus has exceptional magical powers . He shares his birthday with Jenna , his adoptive sister , but is presumed dead at birth by his family . For most of the first novel he appears as Boy 412 , a child from the Young Army , where he has spent the first ten years of his life after DomDaniel attempted to abduct him . Thereafter he is apprentice to the ExtraOrdinary Wizard Marcia Overstrand . He has a mop of curly hair , wears green apprentice robes and has a Dragon Ring on his right hand . In the second novel , he acquires a dragon called Spit Fyre as a pet . According to a review in the Manila Standard Today , the contrast between the caution he has learned from an early age and his longing for the love and affection of a family makes him an intriguing character .
Adopted by the Heap family as a baby in place of Septimus , Jenna Heap is the daughter of an assassinated queen . She is a small girl , with deep violet eyes and fair complexion ; she wears a deep red cloak and the gold circlet of the princess on her head . She is portrayed as loving and caring at heart , but sometimes very stubborn . In the first novel she has a pet rock called Petroc Trelawney ( presumably named after Petroc Trelawny ) , which she loses when the Marram Marshes are flooded ; she later acquires a pet duck called Ethel . The ambiguity of Jenna 's characterization has been questioned , with one critic commenting : " [ A ] s the Princess or Queenling , she comes from a turbulent past and is thrust into the anonymous world of ordinary society without any inkling of her royal background . The reader is therefore left guessing whether or not she has it in her to rise to the tenets of her position as ruler of the Castle . "
Marcia Overstrand is the powerful , ambitious and wilful ExtraOrdinary Wizard of the series . She is characterized as stern , bad @-@ tempered and intimidating , but with a good heart beneath . Her affection towards her apprentice Septimus is manifest in the novels , as is the responsibility she feels to protect him and his sister , even with her own life . She is described as a tall woman , with long , dark curly hair and deep @-@ green eyes , and generally wears a deep purple tunic with purple python @-@ skin boots . Her symbol and source of power , an Akhu @-@ Amulet , which makes her ExtraOrdinary Wizard , hangs around her neck . Her haughty and vain characterization has been praised as a " well @-@ written stand @-@ alone " .
The main antagonist of the first two novels is DomDaniel , a Necromancer and ex @-@ ExtraOrdinary Wizard who wants to regain control of the Wizard Tower from Marcia Overstrand . The antagonist of the third novel , is Queen Etheldredda . Several other characters appear regularly in the novels , including Septimus 's parents Silas and Sarah Heap , Septimus 's friend Beetle , and a trader called Snorri Snorrelssen .
= = Fictional setting = =
Like other fantasy novels , the Septimus Heap series is set in an imaginary world . Maps are provided in all of the books . Magyk contains a map of the Castle and its surroundings to the Port in the south . An enlarged map of the Castle is also included . Flyte has a map showing the Badlands and the Borderlands in the north . Physik has an enlarged map of the Castle with more details showing the Alchemie chambers . Queste has a map for the House of Foryx , drawn by Snorri for Marcellus . Syren keeps the past maps but adds the isles of Syren . The map in Syren also mentions that the country that Septimus lives in is called " The Small Wet Country Across the Sea " . Darke has a map similar to that in Magyk , however , instead of including Marram Marshes which are south of the castle , it includes a map of the Darke Halls , bleak creek and the bottomless whirlpool . It also includes an enlarged map of the castle . At the end of Fyre , Septimus writes in the snow that the date is July 4 , 12 @,@ 004 . The book ends with a quote form Arthur C Clarke : " Any Sufficiently Advanced Technology is Indistinguishable from Magyk " . , hinting that the series is set in the far future . This also hinted at by a dialogue between Lucy Gringe and Wolf Boy in Syren about the Red Tube . Wolf Boy says he has heard stories that people used to travel to the moon in things like that . Lucy dismisses this , however , it 's apparent they are talking about Apollo moon missions . Hints that the story is set in the future also reveal themselves when Septimus and the possessed Syrah enter a chamber that goes up and down with the press of a button , indicating that they used an elevator .
= = = The Castle = = =
The Castle is the main location in the series . It is situated by a river on a piece of land , circular in shape , which has been cut off from the surrounding forest by an artificial moat . The Wizard Tower , the Palace and the Ramblings are located in the Castle . Sage based the structure on that of ancient walled cities which were completely self @-@ sufficient , like little nations in their own right .
The Wizard Tower is the place where the ExtraOrdinary Wizard ( Marcia Overstrand ) resides along with Ordinary Wizards and the ExtraOrdinary Apprentice ( Septimus Heap ) . Built by the first ExtraOrdinary Wizard , Hotep @-@ Ra , it is a purple 21 @-@ floor tower with a gold pyramid at the top , surrounded by an aura of magyk . The Palace is the royal residence , home to Jenna , Sarah and Silas . It is much older than the Wizard Tower with secret places , such as the Queen 's room , which is accessible only to the Queen or the Princess , and has a secret passage to the Marram Marshes .
= = = The lands around the Castle = = =
= = = Marram Marshes = = =
To the south of the Castle are the Marram Marshes , a long stretch of marshland near the mouth of the river , which is inhabited by many creatures , such as Brownies , Quake Oozes , Boggarts and pythons . Zelda Heap 's cottage is on Draggen Island , in the middle of the marshes . It is built above the secret temple where Septimus finds the Dragon Boat . Septimus also found the egg ( which he thought was a rock ) from which spit Fyre hatched in this temple . Sage has stated that the marshes are based on boggy areas at the end of a creek near her home , and that the tides and the phases of the moon in the novels are based on those for Falmouth , Cornwall .
= = = The Forest = = =
The Forest lies to the north @-@ west of the Castle , and is feared by the Castle 's inhabitants as a dark and dangerous area . The Wendron Witches and the witch community live there , as does Galen , Sarah Heap 's mentor in Physik . The Forest has many mysterious aspects , and is dominated by shape @-@ shifting or carnivorous trees , including Benjamin Heap , wolverines , and secrets . The Forest has a secret way to transport a character to the path leading to the House of Foryx . Sage based the Forest on medieval forests , which were huge and a law unto themselves , free from the authority of the outside world .
= = = The House of Foryx = = =
The House of Foryx is a magical house situated somewhere deep in another forest , surrounded by perpetual winter . It is an octagonal building flanked by four octagonal pillars . Here all times meet , and characters can go from one time to another . Characters can come into the building from any time , but can leave it in their own time only if another from that time stands outside the main door ; otherwise they are lost in time , and may even end up in a time when the House of Foryx did not exist , giving them no chance of ever returning . The house is named after Foryx , a huge elephantine creature in the Septimus Heap universe .
= = = Other locations = = =
= = = The Port = = =
The Port lies in the extreme south near the sea , and is portrayed as a place full of strangers . Here ships load their cargo , which is verified by the customs officer , Alice Nettles ( deceased ) . A dangerous coven called the Port Witch Coven can lure strangers into a trap or turn them into toads . There is a short cut from the Port to Zelda 's house in the Marram Marshes . The author created the Port because of her love of the hubbub accompanying the arrival of boats . According to Sage , she sees the Port as full of " beginnings and adventures — and endings too . "
= = = The Badlands = = =
The Badlands are a rocky and hilly valley on the northern borders of the Septimus Heap world , where DomDaniel once practised his dark magic in an observatory atop a hill . They are inhabited by Land Wurms , giant carnivorous snakelike animals , making them a dangerous place . Simon Heap also used to live there with Lucy Gringe .
= = Reception = =
The Septimus Heap novels have been published in 28 languages worldwide and have sold over one million copies in the United States , with each of the books appearing on national bestsellers lists . Published in March 2005 , the first book , Magyk , became an international bestseller after it appeared at number one on the New York Times Best Sellers List .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The series has received mostly positive reviews .
The Independent newspaper 's review of the audio books stated that the chapters are short enough to keep children of seven @-@ plus interested but , as there are ghosts , rats , soldiers and dragon boats to help Septimus and the young Princess fight the evil necromancer DomDaniel , there is enough to keep the whole family amused .
= = = Comparisons with other fantasy novels = = =
Some critics have noted similarities between names in Septimus Heap and those in Harry Potter , such as Petroc Trelawney ( Jenna 's pet rock ) and Sybill Trelawney ( a professor in Harry Potter ) ; also both series feature Boggarts ( which are intelligent Marsh creatures in Septimus Heap and shape @-@ shifters in Harry Potter ) . In response , British author Phil Knight has commented :
The Petroc Trelawney in the Septimus Heap books is nothing at all to do with Professor Trelawney . He is a Radio 3 presenter who may well be known to Angie Sage personally , but otherwise will be known over the air . Think : why would Jenna call a pet rock ' Trelawney ' ? To a Radio 3 listener like me , it 's perfectly logical ... And as for Boggarts , they 've been around here in the North of England for a long time . Manchester has Boggart Hole Clough , for example . They 're not really like either Sage 's or Rowling 's creatures , but pre @-@ exist either of them .
The series has also been compared to other fantasy novels : for instance , Hotep @-@ Ra 's magical ring evokes The Lord of the Rings , and the journeys in the series are " somewhat Narnia @-@ esque in how they play out " ; similarly the concept of a remarkably powerful seventh son of a seventh son was previously employed in the Alvin Maker series of Orson Scott Card . The sprinkling of borrowed ideas has not necessarily been regarded as a negative trait : these ideas play a part in developing the flavour of the series and " don 't necessarily deviate it from its originality " .
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= Galactic habitable zone =
In astrobiology and planetary astrophysics , the galactic habitable zone is the region of a galaxy in which life is most likely to develop . More specifically , the concept of a galactic habitable zone incorporates various factors , such as metallicity and the rate of major catastrophes such as supernovae , in order to calculate which regions of the galaxy are more likely to form terrestrial planets , initially develop simple life , and provide a suitable environment for this life to evolve and advance . According to research published in August 2015 , very large galaxies may be more favorable to the creation and development of habitable planets than smaller galaxies , like the Milky Way . For the Milky Way , the galactic habitable zone is commonly believed to be an annulus with an outer radius of about 10 kiloparsecs and an inner radius close to the Galactic Center , both of which lack hard boundaries .
Galactic habitable zone theory , however , has been criticized due to an inability to quantify accurately the factors making a region of the galaxy good for the emergence of life . In addition , computer simulations suggest that stars may change their orbits around the galactic center significantly , therefore challenging at least part of the view that some areas of the galaxy are necessarily more life @-@ supporting than others .
= = Background = =
The idea of the circumstellar habitable zone was introduced in 1953 by Hubertus Strughold and Harlow Shapley and in 1959 by Su @-@ Shu Huang as the region around a star in which an orbiting planet could retain water at its surface . From the 1970s , planetary scientists and astrobiologists began to consider various other factors required for the creation and sustenance of life , including the impact that a nearby supernova may have on life 's development . In 1981 , Jim Clarke proposed that the apparent lack of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way could be explained by Seyfert @-@ type outbursts from an active galactic nucleus , with Earth alone being spared from this radiation by virtue of its location in the galaxy . In the same year , Wallace Hampton Tucker analyzed galactic habitability in a more general context , but later work superseded his proposals .
Modern galactic habitable @-@ zone theory was introduced in 1986 by L.S. Marochnik and L.M. Mukhin , who defined the zone as the region in which intelligent life could flourish . Donald Brownlee and palaeontologist Peter Ward expanded upon the concept of a galactic habitable zone , as well as the other factors required for the emergence of complex life , in their 2000 book Rare Earth : Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe . In that book , the authors used the galactic habitable zone , among other factors , to argue that intelligent life is not a common occurrence in the Universe .
The idea of a galactic habitable zone was further developed in 2001 in a paper by Ward and Brownlee , in collaboration with Guillermo Gonzalez of the University of Washington . In that paper , Gonzalez , Brownlee , and Ward stated that regions near the galactic halo would lack the heavier elements required to produce habitable terrestrial planets , thus creating an outward limit to the size of the galactic habitable zone . Being too close to the galactic center , however , would expose an otherwise habitable planet to numerous supernovae and other energetic cosmic events , as well as excessive cometary impacts caused by perturbations of the host star 's Oort cloud . Therefore , the authors established an inner boundary for the galactic habitable zone , located just outside the galactic bulge .
= = Considerations = =
In order to identify a location in the galaxy as being a part of the galactic habitable zone , a variety of factors must be accounted for . These include the distribution of stars and spiral arms , the presence or absence of an active galactic nucleus , the frequency of nearby supernovae that can threaten the existence of life , the metallicity of that location , and other factors . Without fulfilling these factors , a region of the galaxy cannot create or sustain life with efficiency .
= = = Chemical evolution = = =
One of the most basic requirements for the existence of life around a star is the ability of that star to produce a terrestrial planet of sufficient mass to sustain it . Various elements , such as iron , magnesium , titanium , carbon , oxygen , silicon , and others , are required to produce habitable planets , and the concentration and ratios of these vary throughout the galaxy .
One important elemental ratio is that of [ Fe / H ] , one of the factors determining the propensity of a region of the galaxy to produce terrestrial planets . The galactic bulge , the region of the galaxy closest to the galactic center , has an [ Fe / H ] distribution peaking at − 0 @.@ 2 decimal exponent units ( dex ) relative to the Sun 's ratio ; the thin disk , where the Sun is located , has an average metallicity of − 0 @.@ 02 dex at the orbital distance of the Sun around the galactic center , reducing by 0 @.@ 07 dex for every additional kiloparsec of orbital distance . The extended thick disk has an average [ Fe / H ] of − 0 @.@ 6 dex , while the halo , the region farthest from the galactic center , has the lowest [ Fe / H ] distribution peak , at around − 1 @.@ 5 dex . In addition , ratios such as [ C / O ] , [ Mg / Fe ] , [ Si / Fe ] , and [ S / Fe ] may be relevant to the ability of a region of a galaxy to form habitable terrestrial planets , and of these [ Mg / Fe ] and [ Si / Fe ] are slowly reducing over time , meaning that future terrestrial planets are more likely to possess larger iron cores .
In addition to specific amounts of the various stable elements that comprise a terrestrial planet 's mass , an abundance of radionuclides such as 40K , 235U , 238U , and 232Th is required in order to heat the planet 's interior and power life @-@ sustaining processes such as plate tectonics , volcanism , and a geomagnetic dynamo . The [ U / H ] and [ Th / H ] ratios are dependent on the [ Fe / H ] ratio ; however , a general function for the abundance of 40K cannot be created with existing data .
Even on a habitable planet with enough radioisotopes to heat its interior , various prebiotic molecules are required in order to produce life ; therefore , the distribution of these molecules in the galaxy is important in determining the galactic habitable zone . A 2008 study by Samantha Blair and colleagues attempted to determine the outer edge of the galactic habitable zone by means of analyzing formaldehyde and carbon monoxide emissions from various giant molecular clouds scattered throughout the Milky Way ; however , the data is neither conclusive nor complete .
While high metallicity is beneficial for the creation of terrestrial extrasolar planets , an excess amount can be harmful for life . Excess metallicity may lead to the formation of a large number of gas giants in a given system , which may subsequently migrate from beyond the system 's frost line and become hot Jupiters , disturbing planets that would otherwise have been located in the system 's circumstellar habitable zone . Thus , it was found that the Goldilocks principle applies to metallicity as well ; low @-@ metallicity systems have low probabilities of forming terrestrial @-@ mass planets at all , while excessive metallicities cause a large number of gas giants to develop , disrupting the orbital dynamics of the system and altering the habitability of terrestrial planets in the system .
= = = Catastrophic events = = =
As well as being located in a region of the galaxy that is chemically advantageous for the development of life , a star must also avoid an excessive number of catastrophic cosmic events with the potential to damage life on its otherwise habitable planets . Nearby supernovae , for example , have the potential to severely harm life on a planet ; with excessive frequency , such catastrophic outbursts have the potential to sterilize an entire region of a galaxy for billions of years . The galactic bulge , for example , experienced an initial wave of extremely rapid star formation , triggering a cascade of supernovae that for five billion years left that area almost completely unable to develop life .
In addition to supernovae , gamma @-@ ray bursts , excessive amounts of radiation , gravitational perturbations and various other events have been proposed to affect the distribution of life within the galaxy . These include , controversially , such proposals as " galactic tides " with the potential to induce cometary impacts or even cold bodies of dark matter that pass through organisms and induce genetic mutations . However , the impact of many of these events may be difficult to quantify .
= = = Galactic morphology = = =
Various morphological features of galaxies can affect their potential for habitability . Spiral arms , for example , are the location of star formation , but they contain numerous giant molecular clouds and a high density of stars that can perturb a star 's Oort cloud , sending avalanches of comets and asteroids toward any planets further in . In addition , the high density of stars and rate of massive star formation can expose any stars orbiting within the spiral arms for too long to supernova explosions , reducing their prospects for the survival and development of life . Considering these factors , the Sun is advantageously placed within the galaxy because , in addition to being outside a spiral arm , it orbits near the corotation radius , maximizing the interval between spiral @-@ arm crossings .
Spiral arms also have the ability to cause climatic changes on a planet . Passing through the dense molecular clouds of galactic spiral arms , stellar winds may be pushed back to the point that a reflective hydrogen layer accumulates in an orbiting planet 's atmosphere , perhaps leading to a snowball Earth scenario .
A galactic bar also has the potential to affect the size of the galactic habitable zone . Galactic bars are thought to grow over time , eventually reaching the corotation radius of the galaxy and perturbing the orbits of the stars located there . High @-@ metallicity stars like our Sun , for example , located at an intermediate location between the low @-@ metallicity galactic halo and the high @-@ radiation galactic center , may be scattered throughout the galaxy , affecting the definition of the galactic habitable zone . It has been suggested that for this reason , it may be impossible to properly define a galactic habitable zone .
= = Boundaries = =
Early research on the galactic habitable zone , including the 2001 paper by Gonzalez , Brownlee , and Ward , did not demarcate any specific boundaries , merely stating that the zone was an annulus encompassing a region of the galaxy that was both enriched with metals and spared from excessive radiation , and that habitability would be more likely in the galaxy 's thin disk . However , later research conducted in 2004 by Lineweaver and colleagues did create boundaries for this annulus , in the case of the Milky Way ranging from 4 kpc to 10 kpc from the galactic center .
The Lineweaver team also analyzed the evolution of the galactic habitable zone with respect to time , finding , for example , that stars close to the galactic bulge had to form within a time window of about two billion years in order to have habitable planets . Before that window , galactic @-@ bulge stars would be prevented from having life @-@ sustaining planets from frequent supernova events . After the supernova threat had subsided , though , the increasing metallicity of the galactic core would eventually mean that stars there would have a high number of giant planets , with the potential to destabilize star systems and radically alter the orbit of any planet located in a star 's circumstellar habitable zone . Simulations conducted in 2005 at the University of Washington , however , show that even in the presence of hot Jupiters , terrestrial planets may remain stable over long timescales .
A 2006 study by Milan Ćirković and colleagues extended the notion of a time @-@ dependent galactic habitable zone , analyzing various catastrophic events as well as the underlying secular evolution of galactic dynamics . The paper considers that the number of habitable planets may fluctuate wildly with time due to the unpredictable timing of catastrophic events , thereby creating a punctuated equilibrium in which habitable planets are more likely at some times than at others . Based on the results of Monte Carlo simulations on a toy model of the Milky Way , the team found that the number of habitable planets is likely to increase with time , though not in a perfectly linear pattern .
Subsequent studies saw more fundamental revision of the old concept of the galactic habitable zone as an annulus . In 2008 , a study by Nikos Prantzos revealed that , while the probability of a planet escaping sterilization by supernova was highest at a distance of about 10 kpc from the galactic center , the sheer density of stars in the inner galaxy meant that the highest number of habitable planets could be found there . The research was corroborated in a 2011 paper by Michael Gowanlock , who calculated the frequency of supernova @-@ surviving planets as a function of their distance from the galactic center , their height above the galactic plane , and their age , ultimately discovering that about 0 @.@ 3 % of stars in the galaxy could today support complex life , or 1 @.@ 2 % if one does not consider the tidal locking of red dwarf planets as precluding the development of complex life .
= = Criticism = =
The idea of the galactic habitable zone has been criticized by Nikos Prantzos , on the grounds that the parameters to create it are impossible to define even approximately , and that thus the galactic habitable zone may merely be a useful conceptual tool to enable a better understanding of the distribution of life , rather than an end to itself . For these reasons , Prantzos has suggested that the entire galaxy may be habitable , rather than habitability being restricted to a specific region in space and time . In addition , stars " riding " the galaxy 's spiral arms may move tens of thousands of light years from their original orbits , thus supporting the notion that there may not be one specific galactic habitable zone . A Monte Carlo simulation , improving on the mechanisms used by Ćirković in 2006 , was conducted in 2010 by Duncan Forgan of Royal Observatory Edinburgh . The data collected from the experiments support Prantzos 's notion that there is no solidly defined galactic habitable zone , indicating the possibility of hundreds of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way , though further data will be required in order for a definitive determination to be made .
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= SM U @-@ 5 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 5 or U @-@ V was the lead boat of the U @-@ 5 class of submarines or U @-@ boats built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) before and during the First World War . The submarine was built as part of a plan to evaluate foreign submarine designs , and was the first of three boats of the class built by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume after a design by American John Philip Holland .
U @-@ 5 was laid down in April 1907 and launched in February 1909 . The double @-@ hulled submarine was just over 105 feet ( 32 m ) long and displaced between 240 and 273 metric tons ( 265 and 301 short tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . U @-@ 5 's design had inadequate ventilation and exhaust from her twin gasoline engines often intoxicated the crew . The boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in April 1910 , and served as a training boat — sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month — through the beginning of the First World War in 1914 .
The submarine scored most of her wartime successes during the first year of the war while under the command of Georg Ritter von Trapp . The French armoured cruiser Léon Gambetta , sunk in April 1915 , was the largest ship sunk by U @-@ 5 . The sinking of Italian Troop Transport ship SS Principe Umberto in June 1916 with the loss of 1 @,@ 926 men , was the worst naval disaster of World War I in terms of human lives lost . In May 1917 , U @-@ 5 hit a mine and sank with the loss of six men . She was raised , rebuilt , and recommissioned , but sank no more ships . At the end of the war , U @-@ 5 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation , and scrapped in 1920 . In all , U @-@ 5 sank four ships totaling 21 @,@ 604 gross register tons ( GRT ) .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 5 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy authorized the construction of U @-@ 5 ( and sister ship , U @-@ 6 ) in 1906 by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume . The boat was designed by American John Philip Holland and licensed by Holland and his company , Electric Boat . U @-@ 5 was laid down on 9 April 1907 in the United States , partially assembled , and shipped to Whitehead 's for final assembly , a process which , author Edwin Sieche notes , " caused a lot of trouble " . She was launched at Fiume on 10 February 1909 by Agathe Whitehead , and towed to Pola on 17 August .
U @-@ 5 's design featured a single @-@ hull with a teardrop @-@ shaped body that bore a strong resemblance to modern nuclear submarines . She was 105 feet 4 inches ( 32 @.@ 11 m ) long by 13 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 19 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 10 inches ( 3 @.@ 91 m ) . She displaced 240 metric tons ( 260 short tons ) surfaced , and 273 metric tons ( 301 short tons ) submerged . Her two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes featured unique , cloverleaf @-@ shaped design hatches that rotated on a central axis , and the boat was designed to carry up to four torpedoes . For surface running , U @-@ 5 was outfitted with 2 gasoline engines , but suffered from inadequate ventilation , which resulted in frequent intoxication of the crew ; her underwater propulsion was by two electric motors .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 5 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 1 April 1910 , with Linienschiffsleutnant Urban Passerar in command . Over the next three years she served primarily as a training boat , making as many as ten training cruises per month . On 1 May 1911 , she hosted a delegation of Peruvian Navy officers that inspected her . In June 1912 , she towed a balloon as part of efforts to assess the underwater visibility of hull paint schemes .
At the outbreak of World War I , U @-@ 5 was one of only four fully operational U @-@ boats in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy fleet . She was initially stationed at the submarine base on Brioni , but was moved to Cattaro by late 1914 . U @-@ 5 made an unsuccessful attack on a French battleship squadron off Punta Stilo on 3 November . In December , the ship 's armament was augmented by a 3 @.@ 7 cm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) deck gun , and had her first radio receiver installed . In April 1915 , Georg Ritter von Trapp assumed command of U @-@ 5 , and the following month , led the boat in sinking the French armored cruiser Léon Gambetta off Santa Maria di Leuca . On the night of 26 April , Léon Gambetta was patrolling the Straits of Otranto at a leisurely 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ) without the benefit of a destroyer screen . U @-@ 5 launched two torpedoes at the French cruiser , hitting with both . The ship was rocked by the explosions of the two torpedoes and went down in ten minutes , taking down with her the entire complement of officers , including Rear Admiral Victor Baptistin Sénès . Of the French ship 's complement , 648 were killed in the attack ; there were 137 survivors . Léon Gambetta was the largest ship of any kind sunk by U @-@ 5 .
= = Victims Gallery = =
In June , U @-@ 5 helped search for the lost Austro @-@ Hungarian seaplane L 41 , and in July , received an upgrade of her deck gun to a 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF gun . In early August , U @-@ 5 was sent out from Lissa when the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy received word from a reconnaissance aircraft that an Italian submarine had been sighted at Pelagosa . On the morning of 5 August , the Italian submarine Nereide was on the surface , moored under a cliff in the island 's harbor . When U @-@ 5 surfaced just offshore , Nereide 's commanding officer , Capitano di Corvetta Carlo del Greco , cast off the lines and maneuvered to get a shot at von Trapp 's boat . Nereide launched a single torpedo at U @-@ 5 that missed , after which del Greco ordered his boat submerged . U @-@ 5 lined up a shot and launched a single torpedo at the slowly submerging target , striking her , and sending her to the bottom with all hands . The Italian captain received the Medaglia d 'Oro al Valore Militare for his actions . At the end of August , U @-@ 5 captured the 1 @,@ 034 GRT Greek steamer Cefalonia as a prize off Durazzo . In late November , Friedrich Schlosser succeeded von Trapp as U @-@ 5 's commanding officer .
Schlosser and U @-@ 5 made an unsuccessful attack on an Italian Indomito @-@ class destroyer on 7 June 1916 , but the boat managed to torpedo the Italian armed merchant cruiser Principe Umberto off Cape Linguetta on the next day . According to a contemporary account , Principe Umberto and two other ships were transporting troops and materiel under escort of two destroyers . After the torpedo hit , Principe Umberto went down quickly with the loss 1 @,@ 750 men . Principe Umberto was the last ship hit by U @-@ 5 .
= = Gallery = =
On 16 May 1917 , U @-@ 5 was conducting a training cruise in the Fasana Channel near Pula when her stern struck a mine . The boat sank at a depth of 36 meters ( 118 ft ) with a loss of 6 of the 19 men on board . From 20 to 24 May the submarine was raised , and through November underwent a refit . During this reconditioning , a new conning tower was added and the deck gun was upgraded again , this time to a 7 @.@ 5 cm / 30 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) gun . Upon completion , U @-@ 5 was recommissioned , but had no more war successes . In her career , U @-@ 5 sank a total of four ships totaling 21 @,@ 604 GRT . After the war 's end , U @-@ 5 was transferred to Venice where she was inspected by British military commissions . U @-@ 5 was later ceded to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 and was scrapped .
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= Hurricane Emilia ( 1994 ) =
Hurricane Emilia was , at the time , the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the central Pacific Ocean , and the first of such to be classified as a Category 5 hurricane – the highest rating on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . However , hurricanes Gilma later that year and Ioke in 2006 later reached lower barometric pressures in the Central Pacific . The fifth named storm and the first of three Category 5 hurricanes of the 1994 hurricane season , Emilia developed from an area of low pressure southeast of Hawaii on July 16 . Tracking westward , the initial tropical depression intensified into a tropical storm several hours after tropical cyclogenesis . Subsequently , Emilia entered Central Pacific Ocean and moved into the area of responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) .
After reaching hurricane intensity the following day , the tropical cyclone began to rapidly intensify , and late on July 17 , Emilia reached its record peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 926 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 34 inHg ) , rating it as a Category 5 hurricane . After slight oscillations in strength , and upper @-@ level trough forced the intense hurricane northwest on July 21 , and Emilia began to weaken thereafter . The tropical cyclone encountered an area of vertical wind shear and cool sea surface temperatures , which further weakened the system . The following day , Emilia made its closest approach to the Big Island of Hawaii , but subsequently weakened to below hurricane intensity . This weakening trend continued , and the tropical cyclone fully dissipated on July 25 . Though the hurricane per se did not make landfall , Emilia brought strong surf to the islands of Hawaii and caused gusty winds , which resulted in some property damage . Precipitation was also reported , but remained under moderate levels .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 29 , a weak tropical wave exited the west African coast and traversed the Atlantic with no signs of organization or convective activity . Moving within the Intertropical Convergence Zone , the tropical disturbance remained inactive until July 14 , when it developed into an area of low pressure roughly 2 @,@ 110 mi ( 3 @,@ 400 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Hawaiian Islands . A low @-@ level circulation was present , and a tropical depression is believed to have formed on July 17 due to increasing organization . Later , satellite imagery suggested that the system had intensified to Tropical Storm Emilia with 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) sustained winds . Emilia steadily strengthened to a minimal hurricane , moving west @-@ northwest . It crossed 140 ° W and entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's ( CPHC ) area of responsibility , which noted that Emilia was " well developed . " Emilia attained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , which marked the beginning of a rapid intensification period . Maximum sustained winds increased from 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on July 17 to 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) late on July 19 , which was a period of 42 hours . At the time , an Air Force reconnaissance aircraft measured a minimum central pressure of 926 mbar ( 27 @.@ 34 inHg ) and maximum winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , hinting that the storm has reached peak intensity .
On July 20 , Emilia briefly weakened to a Category 4 hurricane , but it re @-@ intensified to Category 5 status 12 hours later during the day . Subsequently , Emilia began to weaken for the final time . An upper @-@ level trough in the westerlies caused the cyclone to turn northwest on July 21 . Emilia moved over progressively cooler waters , and vertical wind shear from the westerlies negatively impacted the hurricane . The central pressure steadily rose to 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 50 inHg ) , and Emilia diminished to a marginal Category 3 hurricane . On July 22 , Emilia continued to weaken , and it passed within 170 mi ( 270 km ) of the Big Island . It was the closest approach to the islands . Later , the peak winds dropped to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Emilia gradually turned west @-@ northwest , and the circulation moved with the trade winds . Emilia weakened to a tropical depression on July 24 , and a remnant swirl of stratocumulus clouds was noted . The system dissipated on the same day .
= = Preparations = =
Initially , forecasts significantly underestimated the intensification of Emilia , which was one of three tropical cyclones to attain Category 5 status in the central Pacific during the season . On July 16 , a 72 @-@ hour forecast misjudged the strengthening of Emilia by 41 m / s ( 92 mph ) . Later , winds at 72 hours were 31 m / s ( 69 mph ) too high when the cyclone began to weaken . Tropical cyclone forecast models consistently predicted Emilia to remain south of the Hawaiian Islands because of the upper troughs ' climatologically weak nature during the summer . This led to high confidence in the forecasts , resulting in a lack of watches or warnings . Nonetheless , a high surf advisory was issued for the south and east coasts of all islands .
= = Impact and records = =
Despite the storm 's offshore anture , wells of 6 – 10 feet ( 2 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) were reported near the Puna and Ka ‘ ū coasts . Waikiki Beach in Honolulu reported a 5 ft high ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) surf . Surf was lower along the Kona and Kohala coasts . Winds were gusty , causing a few trees to be blown over and branches to be broken . Some minor roof damage was caused by the winds . International observatories and the Keck Telescope on the top of Mauna Kea were forced to close their domes due to the high winds . Rainfall ranged from light to moderate . The storm passed near two National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) weather buoys during its passage through the state . All in all , Hurricane Emilia had mostly minor effects in the Hawaiian Islands .
Emilia is one of the most intense tropical cyclones on record in the Eastern Pacific , with a lowest pressure of 926 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 34 inHg ) . In the CPHC warning zone , only Gilma and Ioke of 2006 attained deeper pressures . Emilia was also a Category 5 hurricane for 18 hours , the most ever at the time in the Central Pacific . That record was broken later in the season by Hurricane John .
The storm was the subject of a disagreement between the Central Pacific Hurricane Center and the National Hurricane Center . Specifically , they debated Emilia 's peak strength in relation to the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale ( SSHWS ) . The CPHC reported that Emilia 's maximum winds peaked at 140 knots ( 260 km / h ) , making it a Category 5 hurricane . However , the NHC considered Emilia to be a high @-@ end Category 4 with maximum winds of 135 knots ( 250 km / h ) , in both its " best track " and its preliminary report . During 2008 , the NHC upgraded its " best track " to make Emilia a Category 5 , although there continues to be a discrepancy in Emilia 's duration at Category 5 intensity .
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= Hurricane Dolly ( 1996 ) =
Hurricane Dolly caused flooding throughout Mexico in August 1996 . The fourth named storm and third hurricane of the season , Dolly developed from a tropical wave to the west @-@ southwest of Jamaica on August 19 . Initially a tropical depression , the system strengthened into a tropical storm about twelve hours later . Dolly headed westward and intensified into a Category 1 hurricane late on August 20 . It then made landfall near Chetumal , Quintana Roo . The system weakened to a tropical depression on August 21 . Later that day or early on August 22 , Dolly emerged into the Bay of Campeche and quickly re @-@ strengthened into a tropical storm . The storm deepened further and was upgraded to a hurricane again by midday on August 23 ; Dolly simultaneously peaked with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Around that time , it struck between Tuxpan , Veracruz , and Tampico , Tamaulipas . Dolly quickly weakened to a tropical depression early on August 24 , but remained intact while crossing Mexico and dissipated over the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 25 .
The storm brought heavy rainfall to much of Mexico , peaking at 37 @.@ 41 inches ( 950 mm ) . In Quintana Roo , flooding destroyed a large amount of farmlands . Widespread flooding occurred after a river in the Pueblo Viejo area overflowed its banks . Hundreds of homes were destroyed , displacing about 35 @,@ 000 people . Large scale evacuations occurred in San Luis Potosí , while about 6 @,@ 500 fled their homes in the Tampico area . Communications and power outages were reported as far west as Mazatlán , Sinaloa . Throughout Mexico , there were fourteen fatalities reported , including six in Veracruz , three in Nuevo León , one in Monterrey , and another in Pueblo Viejo . Additionally , two people were left missing in Nuevo León . The outer bands of Dolly brought rainfall to southern Texas , which caused minor flooding , but was mostly beneficial due to drought conditions in the state .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large tropical wave , an elongated trough of low pressure , emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa around August 9 . Although deep convection was associated with the wave when it entered the Atlantic , showers and thunderstorms remained minimal for several days as the system tracked westward . Upon reaching the eastern Caribbean Sea , deep convection redeveloped , but failed to persist , until the wave reached an area southwest of Jamaica on August 18 . Around that time , a reconnaissance aircraft flight indicated a low to mid @-@ level circulation , but the system was too weak to classify using the Dvorak technique . After a center fix was made by another reconnaissance flight and satellite imagery , as well as a ship observing winds of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) , the system was classified as Tropical Depression Four at 06 : 00 UTC on August 19 , while situated about 140 mi ( 230 km ) west @-@ southwest of South Negril Point , Jamaica .
With an initially poorly @-@ defined circulation , the depression moved west @-@ northwestward . Because it developed near a mid to upper @-@ level anticyclone , conditions were favorable for intensification , with the system becoming Tropical Storm Dolly around 18 : 00 UTC on August 19 . Convection became more organized , and the storm strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale just under twenty four hours later . At 17 : 30 UTC on August 20 , Dolly made landfall near Punta Herrero , Quintana Roo – located northeast of Chetumal , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Early the following day , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm , and then to a tropical depression several hours later .
Late on August 21 , Dolly emerged into the Bay of Campeche , with satellite imagery indicating that convection was displaced to the south of the center of circulation . However , the system soon began to restrengthening , regaining tropical storm intensity by 00 : 00 UTC on August 22 . Early on the following day , the cyclone began turning westward . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 23 , Dolly reintensified into a hurricane and attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 989 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Simultaneously , the hurricane made landfall between Tuxpan , Veracruz , and Tampico , Tamaulipas . Six hours after moving inland , Dolly weakened to a tropical storm . Early on August 24 , the system deteriorated to a tropical depression . Dolly remained intact while crossing Mexico and emerged into the Pacific Ocean several hours later , but was not reclassified as an eastern Pacific tropical cyclone and dissipated about 40 mi ( 65 km ) west of San Juanito in the Islas Marías .
= = Preparations = =
At 18 : 00 UTC on August 19 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Chetumal to Progreso , Yucatán , while a tropical storm watch was placed between Pinar del Río Province and Isle of Pines , Cuba . Just three hours later , another tropical storm warning was put into effect between between San Pedro Town , Belize , and the Mexican border . On August 20 , the tropical storm watch was discontinued for Cuba , as the system was moving away from the area . At 15 : 00 UTC , another tropical storm warning was issued from Progreso , Yucatán , to Ciudad del Carmen . Only an hour later , a tropical storm warning from Cozumel to Chetumal was upgraded to a hurricane warning . By 21 : 00 UTC on August 20 , all warnings south of Cozumel were discontinued . Just six hours later on August 21 , all tropical storm warnings east of 88 ° W were discontinued . Shortly after that , a tropical storm warning east of Progreso was removed . All warnings for Mexico were discontinued at 15 : 00 UTC on August 21 . When Dolly entered the Bay of Campeche on August 22 , a hurricane watch was put into action for Veracruz , La Pesca , and all areas in between , at 09 : 00 UTC . Only six hours later , the watch became a hurricane warning until Dolly made landfall at 18 : 00 UTC on August 23 , when all remaining warnings were removed .
Throughout the Yucatán Peninsula , airports and ports were closed , while regularly scheduled bus routes were canceled . About 180 locations were prepared to serve as a shelter if large scale evacuations were necessary . In Punta Allen and Punta Herrero , authorities ordered the evacuation of about 100 families . Dozens of oil and gas wells in the Bay of Campeche owned by Pemex were evacuated , while Shell Oil Company evacuated some people from an oil platform farther north . Approximately 6 @,@ 500 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas of Tampico and flood prone locations in San Luis Potosi . The General Francisco Javier Mina International Airport closed for most of the day on August 23 . A total of 37 ports along the Gulf Coast of Mexico were closed . In Texas , Cameron County officials purchased satellite telephones and generators and released 55 prisoners because of fear that the newly built jail might not withstand a hurricane .
= = Impact = =
= = = Belize and Mexico = = =
Just over 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of rain fell into central Belize as the storm passed to the north . In Quintana Roo , 5 @.@ 73 in ( 146 mm ) of precipitation fell in Chetumal , flooding large areas of farmland . A total of 16 homes were destroyed and 26 others were damaged . At least two fishermen were left missing .
In Tampico , near the location of the storm 's second landfall , the streets were littered with fallen trees branches , utility poles , and billboards . Additionally , many roads were inundated with water , leaving some impassable . Nearby , over 700 people fled their homes for shelter due to flooding in Ciudad Madero . One death occurred in Pueblo Viejo when a woman was crushed by a tree that fell on her house . Six other deaths occurred in Veracruz , five from a ship capsizing near Boca del Río and another after a person was caught in an undertow offshore Úrsulo Galván . Two landslides in northern Puebla left roads impassable , isolating some communities such as Tlatlauquitepec . Hundreds of homes were destroyed leaving 35 @,@ 000 people homeless and there was severe damage in Tuxpan , Tamiahua , Pueblo Viejo , Platon , Pánuco , Tampico Alto , and elsewhere along the coast of northeast Mexico .
In Nuevo León , the storm caused four fatalities , including one in the city of Monterrey . The place with the most rainfall received in a 24 @-@ hour @-@ period was in Micos , which observed 12 @.@ 94 in ( 329 mm ) of rain . Some other high rainfall recordings were in Santa Rosa , which recorded 10 @.@ 59 in ( 270 mm ) , and Puerto de Valles , which received 10 in ( 254 mm ) of rain . Although well south of the storm 's path , precipitation from Dolly peaked at 37 @.@ 41 in ( 950 mm ) in Iguala de la Independencia , Guerrero , making it the wettest tropical cyclone on record in Guerrero . In Sinaloa , three fatalities occurred , two when two people stepped into a puddle of water electrified by a downed power line and another from a weather @-@ related traffic accident . According to newspaper reports , 14 people died in the storm 's passage . An additional two people from Nuevo León were reported to be missing .
= = = Texas = = =
Though far from the United States , Dolly managed to bring heavy rain and high winds to southern Texas . Weekly rainfall totals in Corpus Christi reached 5 @.@ 53 in ( 141 mm ) and 2 @.@ 82 in ( 71 @.@ 6 mm ) in Brownsville . Corpus Christi daily rainfall measurements on August 23 and August 24 were as high as 1 @.@ 92 in ( 48 @.@ 8 mm ) and 2 @.@ 55 in ( 64 @.@ 8 ) , respectively , a new daily record . The beach at the Padre Island National Seashore was closed after high tides began flooding the beaches and the John F. Kennedy Causeway , though other facilities such as the campground remained open . A tornado was spawned near Olmito , damaging a few homes and unroofing two others . Later , while passing north of Rancho Viejo , the twister inflicted impact on 10 dwellings and knocked over trees and signs .
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= Joffrey Tower =
The Joffrey Tower is a high @-@ rise commercial real estate development on the northeast corner of North State Street and East Randolph Street in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States that is the permanent home of the Joffrey Ballet . It is located immediately south of the Chicago Theatre and directly across the street from Macy 's largest Chicago ( and its second largest overall ) department store on State Street , within the Loop Retail Historic District . Its address had once been the site of the Chicago Masonic Temple . The placement of the Joffrey Ballet in this building appears to have involved political dealings with the Mayor of Chicago , Richard M. Daley and his brother , William M. Daley , a co @-@ chairman of the Joffrey board of trustees . The building was scheduled for completion in December 2007 , but was not finished until September 12 , 2008 .
= = Details = =
The building was originally named the Modern Momentum Building ( nicknamed the MoMo ) . Like the ballet company , it has been named after Robert Joffrey , co @-@ founder of the company . The Joffrey Ballet acquired the naming rights when it purchased 45 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 200 m2 ) of space on the third and fourth floors to serve as its new permanent home . The floors include the Joffrey administrative offices plus seven state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art rehearsal studios and a black @-@ box theatre . The building occupies the southwest quarter of the block bounded by North State Street to the West , North Wabash Street to the East , East Randolph Street to the South , and East Lake Street to the North . The Modern Momentum Project now holds the Joffrey name when the Ballet company took possession ( originally anticipated in December 2007 ) . The first two floors of the Joffrey Tower house retail tenants and floors 9 through 32 host residential condominiums . All four of the foundation floors are 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) high . The four @-@ story cutout above the foundation and green roof is capped by " legs " with only elevators and stairwells that compensate for the fact the building does not have the typical lower level parking spaces to improve the views by raising the units . The building 's main largest rehearsal space had been named the Arpino Studio in honor of Gerald Arpino , Joffrey Ballet co @-@ founder and artistic director emeritus .
The building was originally scheduled for completion in December 2007 with the official renaming and company move accompanying the completion . By January 2008 , the anticipated grand opening had been rescheduled to occur in the summer of 2008 . The grand opening events , including performances by Shelley MacArthur and Ramsey Lewis , were sponsored by The PrivateBank , Bank of America , and the McCormick Foundation . July 2008 advertisements announced a September 12 , 2008 opening night and a set of opening events from September 11 to 15 .
The building was designed by Booth Hansen Architects . Construction started in 2005 and was completed for the September 2008 grand opening . The height of the structure is 409 feet ( 125 m ) ( including spires and antennae ) .
The September 11 , 2008 , free performance at the Jay Pritzker Pavilion served the dual purpose of heralding the grand opening weekend and paying tribute to the September 11 attacks victims . Other events during the grand opening weekend included a September 12 black tie gala , September 13 Tower tours , and September 15 party and fashion show . The September 15 event also included an auction for various items , including a pair of $ 25 @,@ 000 Van Cleef and Arpels diamond earrings .
= = Building Safety Issues = =
On August 1 , 2011 , an aluminum piece of the facade fell from the building and injured a pedestrian on the sidewalk below . As a result of this damage , the Chicago Department of Buildings required a protective scaffolding canopy to be erected around the entire building .
= = History = =
The building is located on the site of the former Masonic Temple , which had once been the tallest building in Chicago . Since the demolition of the Masonic Temple , the address had housed a two @-@ story retail building . One failed previous plan to replace the small retail building on the site was the Market Hall Tower , proposed in 2000 , which was to have a two @-@ story European style food market and 75 spacious apartments in the adjacent 26 @-@ story , 291 @-@ foot ( 89 m ) tower . Another failed plan was the subsequent 33 @-@ story Randolph Court design .
The Daley administration has been a proponent of the Joffrey Ballet having a permanent Theatre District home in order to establish it as a major Chicago institution . However , the cost of building their own building at State and Lake was prohibitive . Supposedly , the city of Chicago held the development of this project hostage until the developer agreed to the Joffrey initiative . The delay tactic used was to delay closing long enough to cause the developer to have to file suit . William Daley , a co @-@ chairman of the Joffrey board of trustees , is a former Cabinet member in the Clinton administration and clout @-@ heavy brother of Chicago 's former mayor , Richard M. Daley . The arts @-@ loving mayor has revitalized the Loop in part by re @-@ establishing a central theatre district . The Joffrey Tower is within three blocks of Cadillac Palace , Chicago , Goodman , Harris , Ford Center / Oriental , and Storefront Theatres , as well as the Chicago Cultural Center , the Tiffany @-@ decorated former central library .
= = Center Stage Campaign = =
The Joffrey Ballet launched its first Chicago capital campaign on March 7 , 2007 . As of May 2008 , it has raised $ 30 million towards a goal of $ 35 million for Joffrey Tower construction costs and an endowment . When the purchase was finalized , the Joffrey had $ 2 @.@ 5 million in reserves and the state had recently approved a $ 4 million grant . The construction costs alone were estimated to be $ 21 million . The fundraising enticements include the possibility that for $ 10 million a corporate donor could acquire renaming rights to the entire building and for lesser amounts they could acquire naming rights for various specific spaces . Facility details released at the hard hat preview and launch include the following :
A dedicated entrance and elevators on Randolph Street , with a lobby box office selling tickets to company events .
A " black box " theater space that will serve primarily as a full @-@ company rehearsal space but , with its lighting booth and fully foldable seating for 144 , also can double as an intimate showcase for open rehearsals , works @-@ in @-@ progress viewings and more . When unused , the studio also can be rented to visiting dance companies .
An additional six rehearsal studios with high ceilings and no obstructions . The Joffrey could use these for classes if it starts a school here . For now they will be the site of activities related to the Joffrey 's extensive outreach school programs .
Locker rooms , dressing rooms , showers , wardrobe and laundry suites , a lounge , physical therapy areas , and artistic and executive staff offices .
A Green roof to cover the Joffrey part of the building .
In Chicago , the administration and the performers had previously been in separate buildings . The Joffrey Ballet had rented both a 17 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 600 m2 ) rehearsal studio at 17 N. State Street , which it leased in July 2005 , and administrative offices at 70 E. Lake Street . The Joffrey now has the company 's creative leadership , dancers , administration , technical staff , guest artists , students , and apprentices united under one roof , creating streamlined operations and a more efficient and accomplished organization . The new space nearly doubles the current space . The new permanent state of the art facilities enable The Joffrey to recruit and retain elite dancers and simultaneously attract world @-@ class performers , guest artists and collaborators . The planned space allows the company to rehearse and present more of its repertoire , mount additional full @-@ length ballets , extend its apprentice program , launch additional revivals , and provide young dancers and choreographers the opportunity to train and present their new works .
= = Occupancy = =
Loehmann 's opened a 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m2 ) retail store on the first two floors on October 12 , 2007 . This location is part of the transformation of State Street to a retail and student @-@ housing mecca , and further solidifies the revitalization of Randolph Street 's theatre district . Loehmann 's filed for bankruptcy November 16 , 2010 and closed the State Street location January 29 , 2011 , after less than 4 years in operation .
Walgreens , which had occupied the property from 1926 until 2005 , announced that it would take over the Loehmann 's space and operate a two @-@ level drugstore , opening in 2012 . The location was developed as a two @-@ story 27 @,@ 350 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 541 m2 ) flagship location that was unveiled with dignitaries such as Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel and Illinois Governor Pat Quinn on January 12 , 2012 , selling a range of amenities far beyond that of a typical pharmacy . Some of the features included a cigar humidor , international newsstand , made @-@ to @-@ order smoothies , self @-@ serve frozen yogurt , sushi and juice bars , a barista , over 700 fine wines , and manicure stations . The Walgreens investment was part of a business strategy to combat governmentally @-@ induced declining pharmacy margins .
= = School zoning = =
Residents of the building are zoned to Chicago Public Schools . Residents are zoned to South Loop K @-@ 8 and Phillips Academy High School .
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= E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( video game ) =
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( also referred to simply as E.T. ) is a 1982 adventure video game developed and published by Atari , Inc. for the Atari 2600 video game console . It is based on the film of the same name , and was designed by Howard Scott Warshaw . The objective of the game is to guide the eponymous character through various screens to collect three pieces of an interplanetary telephone that will allow him to contact his home planet .
Warshaw intended the game to be an innovative adaptation of the film , and Atari thought it would achieve high sales figures based on its connection with the film , which was extremely popular throughout the world . Negotiations to secure the rights to make the game ended in late July 1982 , giving Warshaw only five and a half weeks to develop the game in time for the 1982 Christmas season . The result is often cited as one of the worst video games released and was one of the biggest commercial failures in video gaming history . The game 's commercial failure and resulting effects on Atari are frequently cited as a contributing factor to the video game industry crash of 1983 .
It was believed that as a result of overproduction and returns , millions of unsold cartridges were buried in an Alamogordo , New Mexico landfill . In 2013 , plans were revealed to conduct an excavation to determine the accuracy of reports about the burial , and in April of the following year , the diggers confirmed that the Alamogordo Burial did include E.T. cartridges among other titles . James Heller , the former Atari manager who was in charge of the original burial , was also on hand at the excavation and revealed to the Associated Press that 728 @,@ 000 cartridges of various titles were buried .
= = Gameplay = =
E.T. is an adventure game in which players control an alien ( E.T. ) from a top @-@ down perspective . The objective of the game is to collect three pieces of an interplanetary telephone . The pieces are found scattered randomly throughout various pits ( also referred to as wells ) . The player is provided with an on @-@ screen energy bar , which decreases when E.T. performs any actions ( including moving , teleporting , or falling into a pit , as well as levitating back to the top ) . To prevent this , E.T. can collect Reese 's Pieces , which are used to restore his energy or , when nine are collected , E.T. can call Elliott to obtain a piece of the telephone , or the player can save the candy pieces for bonus points at the end . After the three phone pieces have been collected , the player must guide E.T. to an area where he can use the phone , which allows him to call his home planet . When the call is made , E.T. must reach the spaceship in a given time limit . Once E.T. gets to the forest where his ship abandoned him and stands and waits in the designated area for the ship to come , the ship will appear on screen and take him back to his home planet . Then the game starts over , with the same difficulty level , while changing the location of the telephone pieces . The score obtained during the round is carried over to the next iteration . The game ends when the energy bar depletes . E.T. has three lives and if he dies within those three lives Elliot will come in and revive him . E.T. can get a fourth life if the player is lucky enough to find a geranium in one of the wells . It turns into a sprite from some games that Howard Scott Warshaw made , such as Raiders of the Lost Ark .
The game is divided into six environments , each representing a different setting from the film . To accomplish the objective of the game , the player must guide E.T. into the wells . Once all items found in a well are collected , the player must levitate E.T. out of them . An icon at the top of each screen represents the current area , each area enabling the player to perform different actions . Antagonists include a scientist who takes E.T. for observation and an FBI agent who chases the alien to confiscate one of the collected telephone pieces , or candy . The game offers diverse difficulty settings that affect the number and speed of humans present , and the conditions needed to accomplish the objective .
= = Development = =
The process began in July 1982 and was completed before the end of the year . Following the commercial success of the film in June 1982 , Steve Ross , chief executive officer ( CEO ) of Atari 's parent company Warner Communications , started negotiations with Steven Spielberg and Universal Pictures to acquire the license to produce a video game based on the film . In late July , Warner announced its exclusive worldwide rights to market coin @-@ operated and console games based on the movie . Although the exact details of the transaction were not disclosed in the announcement , it was later reported that Atari had paid US $ 20 – 25 million for the rights , a high figure for video game licensing at the time . When asked by Ross what he thought about making an E.T.-based video game , Atari CEO Ray Kassar replied , " I think it 's a dumb idea . We 've never really made an action game out of a movie . " An arcade game based on the E.T. property had also been planned , but this was deemed to be impossible given the short deadline .
After negotiations completed , Kassar called Howard Scott Warshaw on July 27 , 1982 to commission him as developer of the video game . Kassar informed him that Spielberg asked for Warshaw specifically and that development needed to be completed by September 1 to meet a production schedule for the Christmas holiday . Though Warshaw had spent over a year working on consecutive development schedules for games ( seven months working on Yars ' Revenge and then six months on Raiders of the Lost Ark ) , he accepted the offer based on the challenge of completing a game in a short time frame and at Spielberg 's request . Warshaw considered it an opportunity to develop an innovative Atari 2600 game based on a movie he enjoyed , " provided we reach the right arrangement " . Kassar reportedly offered Warshaw US $ 200 @,@ 000 and an all @-@ expenses @-@ paid vacation to Hawaii in compensation . Kassar then told him to arrive at the San Jose Airport a few days later to have a meeting with Spielberg .
Warshaw used those days to design the structure of the game and segmented the concept into four ideas : world , objective , path to achieve the objective , and obstacles . He envisioned a three @-@ dimensional cube world as the setting and adapted part of the film 's plot , E.T. phoning home , as the goal . Warshaw then conceived that E.T. would need to assemble a special phone to call his ship and arrive at a special landing site to achieve this goal . He considered obstacles as an element that would determine the success of a game , and experienced difficulties when taking into account the time constraints and technical limitations of the console . Inspired by the movie , adults were implemented as antagonists that would chase the alien . Feeling more adversity was needed , Warshaw included a time limit for players to accomplish the goal . Pits were devised as an element to hide the pieces of the phone as well as expand the game 's world .
Warshaw and other Atari executives presented this design to Spielberg , who did not express enthusiasm . Spielberg instead asked him to create a game similar to Namco 's Pac @-@ Man . Believing the concept too derivative of a common game design , Warshaw proceeded with his concept , which he felt would capture the sentimentality he saw in the original film . In retrospect , however , Warshaw stated that Spielberg 's idea might have had merit . He spent the remaining time programming the game . Atari anticipated enormous sales based on the popularity of the film , as well as the stability the video game industry was experiencing in 1982 . Due to time limitations , Atari decided to skip audience testing for the product . Emanual Gerard , co @-@ chief operating officer of Warner at the time , later suggested that the company had fallen into a false sense of security by the success of its previous releases , particularly its console version of Pac @-@ Man , which was commercially successful despite poor critical reaction .
= = Reception = =
Anticipation for E.T. was high in 1982 , and it was a sought @-@ after Christmas gift . In early December 1982 , the New York Times reported that video games based on successful movies , specifically E.T. , would become " an increasingly profitable source " for video game development . At first , retailers ordered more supplies than what was expected to be sold , but Atari received an increasing number of order cancellations as new competitors entered the market , an event the company had not anticipated . John Hubner and William Kistner of InfoWorld attribute the cancellations to changes Atari initiated between its relationship between distributors . On November 1 , 1982 , Atari informed them that their contracts were canceled and that exclusive deals would be established with select distributors . Hubner and Kistner believed the action prompted retailers to cancel orders , which Atari had not properly tracked .
E.T. met with initial commercial success . It was among the top four on Billboard magazine 's " Top 15 Video Games " sales list in December 1982 and January 1983 . The game eventually sold 1 @.@ 5 million units , becoming one of the best @-@ selling Atari 2600 titles . However , between 2 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 5 million cartridges went unsold . Hubner and Kistner commented that the large number of produced cartridges may have resulted in excess inventory regardless of E.T. ' s success . Even though the game was a best seller during the holiday season , retailers still stated that its sales figures did not meet expectations . Warner Communications also expressed disappointment at the number of sales . Lower than expected sales figures combined with excess inventory , which produced a negative supply and demand event , prompted retailers to repeatedly discount price . According to Ray Kassar , about 3 @.@ 5 million of the 4 million produced were sent back to the company as unsold inventory or customer returns . Despite sales figures , the quantity of unsold merchandise , coupled with the expensive movie license and the large amount of returns , made E.T. a major financial failure for Atari . By 2004 , the cartridges were still very common and priced at very low amounts .
= = = Critical response = = =
While reviews of the movie version of E.T. were highly positive , the game was negatively received by critics , with common complaints focused on the plot , gameplay , and visuals . New York magazine 's Nicholas Pileggi described it as a loser when compared to other games Atari could have released like Donkey Kong and Frogger . Video Games called the game " really for kids ( the littler ones ) . " Kevin Bowen of GameSpy 's Classic Gaming called the gameplay " convoluted and inane " , also criticizing its story for departing from the serious tone of the film . Author Steven Kent described the game as " infamous " within the industry , citing " primitive " graphics , " dull " gameplay , and a " disappointing story " . In 1984 Softline readers named the game the second @-@ worst Atari program of 1983 , after Congo Bongo .
Nevertheless , the game also received some more positive reviews . An editor for The Miami Herald described it as a difficult game to learn to play , but felt it was worth dedicating the time . Vidiot 's Kevin Christopher criticized the protagonist 's repeated falling down back into holes , but considered it " about the only flaw with an otherwise A @-@ 1 game . " Arcade Express scored it 6 out of 10 in December 1982 .
Critics bemoaned the gameplay 's repetitive use of falling down holes . Emru Townsend of PC World discussed the game with a group , and found a universal dislike for the pits that E.T. falls into , describing it as " monotonous " . Writer Sean " Seanbaby " Reiley also criticized the pits , claiming that they are " time @-@ consuming " and " difficult to leave without falling back in " . Trent Ward , a former Next Generation Magazine reviewer , commented that this element prompted him to immediately return the game for a refund after purchasing it in his youth , and the children who found games in the New Mexico landfill gave the E.T. cartridges away because , as one later said , the " game sucked ... you couldn 't finish it " . Classic Gaming argued that despite the negative reception , the game can be enjoyable after the player has learned to navigate the pits .
In published materials written over a decade after its initial release , E.T. has been universally panned by critics and is frequently listed as the worst video game ever . Reiley ranked it number one in a list of the 20 worst games of all time in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's 150th issue . Michael Dolan , deputy editor of FHM magazine , has also listed the game as his pick for the worst video game of all time . Townsend placed E.T. at the top of his list of worst video games , noting that , " about a third of the people I quizzed came up with this title almost instantly , and it 's not hard to see why . " GameTrailers ranked the game the second worst on their " Top Ten Best and Worst Games of All Time " list .
Critics often attribute the poor quality to the short development time . Townsend commented that the rushed development was very apparent after playing the game . Warshaw 's contributions to the game have been met with mixed responses . Classic Gaming called the game poorly designed , while IGN 's Levi Buchanan stated the " impossibly tight schedule " given to Warshaw absolves him of blame . Warshaw does not express regret for his part in E.T. , and feels he created a good game given the time available to him .
= = Impact and legacy = =
E.T. is one of the earliest video games based on a movie . GamePro , GameTrailers , and Bowen cite the game as the first poor quality @-@ film – video @-@ game tie @-@ in . Patrick O 'Luanaigh of SCi Games called it the most famous disaster story among film @-@ inspired video games as well as within the industry . Describing it as one of the " games that changed the world " , GamePro stated that E.T. established a standard of subpar quality video games based on movies . They further commented that other publishers adopted similar marketing and production practices with licensed movie properties . The publication listed the game as the second " worst movie game ever " , citing it as an example of how poor gameplay can bring negative reception to strong licenses .
= = = Effect on the industry = = =
The game is often cited as one of the most important titles in the industry 's history . Billboard magazine 's Earl Paige reported that the large number of unsold E.T. games along with an increase in competition prompted retailers to demand official return programs from video game manufacturers . The game is also considered to be one of the causes of the video game industry crisis of 1983 . By the end of 1982 , Atari had begun to lose dominance as more competitors entered the market . Poor critical reception and lack of a profitable marketing strategy made this game one of many cited decisions that led Atari to report a $ 536 million loss in 1983 and led to the company being divided and sold in 1984 . GameSpy 's Classic Gaming called E.T. Atari 's biggest mistake , as well as the largest financial failure in the industry . Reiley commented that the game 's poor quality was responsible for ending the product life of the Atari 2600 . Occurring soon after Pac @-@ Man 's negative critical response on the Atari 2600 , E.T. ' s poor reception was attributed by Kent to a negative impact on Atari 's reputation and profitability . Authors Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost echoed similar comments about Pac @-@ Man and E.T. ' s combined effect on the company 's reputation and the industry 's reaction . Buchanan also cited the game as a factor to Atari and the industry 's crash . He stated that the large amount of unsold merchandise was a financial burden to Atari , which pushed the company into debt .
On December 7 , 1982 , Kassar announced that Atari 's revenue forecasts for 1982 were cut from a 50 percent increase over 1981 to a 15 percent increase . Immediately following the announcement , Warner Communications ' stock value dropped by around 35 percent — from US $ 54 to US $ 35 — resulting in the company losing US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in market valuation . Kassar sold five thousand of his Warner shares a half @-@ hour before the announcement . This prompted an investigation for insider trading against him by U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission . Atari attempted to regain their market share by licensing popular arcade games for the Atari consoles . The games , however , did not reverse Atari 's decline and they went further into debt . In 1983 , the company had decreased its workforce by 30 percent and lost US $ 356 million . Other companies — Activision , Bally Manufacturing , and Mattel — experienced similar results as the industry declined .
= = = Atari video game burial = = =
In September 1983 , the Alamogordo Daily News of Alamogordo , New Mexico , reported in a series of articles that between ten and twenty semi @-@ trailer truckloads of Atari boxes , cartridges , and systems from an Atari storehouse in El Paso , Texas , were crushed and buried at the landfill within the city . It was Atari 's first dealings with the landfill , which was chosen because no scavenging was allowed and its garbage was crushed and buried nightly . Atari officials and others gave differing reports of what was buried , but it has been speculated that most unsold copies of E.T. are buried in this landfill , crushed and encased in cement . The story of the buried cartridges was erroneously regarded by some as an urban legend , with skeptics — including Warshaw — disregarding the official accounts .
On May 28 , 2013 , the Alamogordo City Commission approved Fuel Industries , an Ottawa @-@ based entertainment company , for six months of landfill access both to create a documentary about the legend and to excavate the burial site . On April 26 , 2014 , remnants of E.T. and other Atari games were discovered in the early hours of the excavation .
A fictional account of the game 's disposal is the main basis for James Rolfe 's 2014 independent film Angry Video Game Nerd : The Movie . A documentary called Atari : Game Over in which several of the buried games were unearthed was released in 2014 .
In December 2014 , The Smithsonian Institution added an excavated cartridge of E.T. to their collection . In 2015 , The Henry Ford museum added several excavated cartridges and a video touchpad , a sample of landfill dirt taken from the site of the burial , and items of clothing worn by the excavation team to their collection . A selection of these items are on permanent display .
= = = Attempts at fixing the game = = =
In 2006 the game was decompiled by Dennis Debro and a source code variant reconstructed .
In February 2013 , several unofficial fixes for the game were released by Neocomputer.org , a small personal website unrelated to Atari . The website details and provides commentary on the game 's shortcomings , including instruction on fixing it . According to Neocomputer , the infamous " bug " of E.T. falling into the pits was simply due to pixel @-@ perfect collision detection ; if any portion of E.T. ' s sprite overlapped a pit , E.T. would then fall into the pit . The website also details certain other problems that were resolved .
= = = Re @-@ release = = =
In October 2013 the Internet Archive provided a browser @-@ playable version via MESS .
In Q4 2014 , KHAN Games ported the original Atari game to the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . Some changes were made , including providing some more detailed instructions on how to play . The original Atari version was often cited as having very little instruction on gameplay . Later the game went " out of stock " on the store .
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= Spooks ( series 7 ) =
The seventh series of the BBC espionage television series Spooks ( known as MI @-@ 5 in the United States ) began broadcasting on 27 October 2008 on BBC One before ending on 8 December 2008 on the same channel , and consists of eight episodes , two fewer than previous series . It follows the actions of Section D , a counter @-@ terrorism division in MI5 . The primary storyline involves Sugarhorse , a top secret operation set up by MI5 during the final years of the Cold War , and a mole working for the FSB who intends to leak the operation to the Russians . Peter Firth , Rupert Penry @-@ Jones , Hermione Norris , Richard Armitage , Miranda Raison , Gemma Jones , Hugh Simon and Alex Lanipekun are credited as the main cast .
Penry @-@ Jones announced his intention to leave the series in December 2007 , while it was later announced Armitage would join . Norris and Raison were both asked to return after their characters were left open for return after the end of the last series . In developing the series , the producers wanted to repeat the serialised style from series six , and settled on using the resurgence of Russia as the primary storyline , as they felt that at the time , the resurgence is in subtle ways threatening the security of the west . The producers also participated in several meetings with the writers to discuss the purpose of Sugarhorse . Filming started in London in March 2008 , and later finished on August in the same year , in Moscow , the first time in series history where Spooks was filmed outside the United Kingdom .
The seventh series received healthy ratings , with both BBC One and BBC Three ratings together achieving 6 @.@ 13 million viewers per episode . It series also attracted critical acclaim , with some reviewers considering it to be the best series of Spooks . Both factors allowed the BBC to commission an eighth series of the programme for 2009 . The seventh series was released on DVD on 12 October 2009 in the United Kingdom , 30 March 2009 in Australia , and 26 January 2010 in the United States .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast = =
The series consists of eight main cast members . Rupert Penry @-@ Jones returns as Adam Carter for the first episode . Penry @-@ Jones announced his intention to leave the series after appearing on the show for four years in December 2007 , because he felt his character ran its course and " getting to the point where I needed to move on , " adding he would like to explore other venues in his career . In order to keep the series fresh , the producers still wanted Adam 's exit to be a shock to the audience . The actor found that his last days on Spooks was generally upsetting and " welled up " on his final day .
Later in March 2008 , the BBC announced that Richard Armitage would join the series as Lucas North . The character was designed by the producers to become a " new heroic figure , " and to become much more distant than Adam . Armitage was chosen early in the casting process as the producers believed he could carry the mystery of the character . Armitage was approached by the producers after he finished work on the second series of Robin Hood , for which he portrayed the regular part of Sir Guy of Gisbourne . He accepted the role but was initially hesitant to join because of the " tall order " for replacing Penry @-@ Jones . Armitage lost a stone in weight in preparation to keep with the description that Lucas is malnourished in the first episode , but still kept physically fit .
Elsewhere , Hermione Norris returns as Ros Myers . The character was initially written off after the eighth episode of the sixth series due to the actress 's pregnancy , however when the seventh series entered pre @-@ production , Norris was asked to return and she accepted . Miranda Raison also returns as Jo Portman ; the cliffhanger of the sixth series finale , where Jo was apparently killed , was to leave the audience wonder whether she survived . Raison stated that she realised the producers wanted her to return , and she wanted to return . Alex Lanipekun returns as Ben Kaplan , and was upgraded to a series regular from the last series . Lanipekun believed that the seventh series was " kind of for Ben , " adding that there was an episode that would see his coming of age by dealing with his first undercover operation and his burdens , namely getting close to someone who is involved with the group he was sent to stop . Peter Firth , Gemma Jones and Hugh Simon returns as superior Harry Pearce , Connie James and Malcolm Wynn @-@ Jones , respectively .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The writers and producers got together to discuss what direction they would take for the seventh series . They wanted to repeat the same style for series six , which was to add a serial element to be carried throughout the duration of the series . They got together to think about what they would believe to be a big political story that would affect politics in the United Kingdom in within twelve to eighteen months after their initial meetings early in 2008 . They settled on using Russia , which was facing a resurgence in power after the Cold War , which the producers felt , in subtle ways , would threaten the security of the west . Sometime through the writing process , the producers set up a story @-@ arc , Sugarhorse , to be a threat throughout the series and have it resolved by the finale . The writers enjoyed making the Sugarhorse storyline because it was one of the instances that " really brings Harry to the edge " and causing him to doubt everything he has done or achieved . The writing team took several meetings together to discuss what it is and how it should work into the storyline . Christian Spurrier noted it was " kind of a headache " to figure out how to " weave it in " to the series and work out what parts would be used in which episodes . The producers wanted to use a scene relating to Sugarhorse as the finale scene of every episode it was featured in , as the producers believed it would provide a " right hook " to the audience . Adding the new storyline would allow the series to return to the world of spying , truth , and who the characters should trust .
Throughout the writing process , several cast members would give suggestion notes to the writers on how to improve some scenes . The writers were frequently annoyed with Armitage , who gave out more notes than any other cast members , however the writers also liked some of his ideas and included them in the scripts . The producers believed that the seventh series was among the more brutal than the others , citing the violent death of Ben .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming started in March 2008 , and later finished on August in the same year . Before principal photography commenced , director Colm McCarthy participated in helicopter shots over London . In each block of episodes , the cast and crew would often film all scenes held in certain locations at once , for instance all scenes set on the Grid , although taking place in different parts of each episodes , would all be filmed together before moving on to another set . However , the cast had trouble following the storylines with this method . A different Director of Photography was hired in each episode . Because of this , the filming style inside the Grid set changed in every episode . To film public shots , a small filming crew were used as to not attract too much attention from passers by . However , by using the small crew , they and the actors generally film the scenes unnoticed by the public , which the producers felt gave the characters such gravitas .
Filming finished in August 2008 in Moscow , Russia ; it was the first time in series history where filming took place outside the United Kingdom ; producer Katie Swinden stated that Spooks is usually " London @-@ orientated , " including when it comes to filming scenes set in other countries , and it usually does not take place outside the confines of the M25 , an orbital motorway which encircles the UK 's capital . However , the producers were able to afford to shoot in another country . A small crew were used to save costs . Armitage and Norris were the only two of the main actors who participated in the shoot . However , the main problem with filming in Moscow was of the 30 plus degree heat , and the actors had to wear winter coats because the episodes were set during the colder months .
= = = Stunts = = =
The producers allow the cast to perform many of their own stunts . In filming fight sequences , they were carefully choreographed beforehand so the actors could participate themselves . The guns featured on the series are real . In scenes where guns are included , an armourer is on hand throughout the entirety of the sequence to see if the actors are handling them properly and gives out the guns to the actors at the last possible second before filming . After the sequence is shot , the guns have to be returned and locked in a case to prevent anybody from playing with them , even if the guns are not loaded . Among other stunt work , Armitage was asked to be subjected to an actual waterboarding scene to ensure the authenticity of the sequence . The actor agreed after he was convinced by conultants from the FSB and CIA . Kudos film and television , the production company behind Spooks , had to follow several health and safety provisions from an advisor to ensure the sequence strictly adheres to the advice . The advisor and a medic were present during filming . Armitage was only waterboarded for a short time , and was filmed in slow motion to make it appear as if he was on for longer . The ambient temperature of the room was also raised to make Armitage as comfortable as possible . Following the sequence , Armitage stated " I only lasted five to ten seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
The series was broadcast every Monday from 27 October to 8 December 2008 on BBC One , with the exception of the second episode , which aired on a Tuesday , the day after the first episode . However , the second through to the seventh episodes were pre @-@ empted to BBC Three sometime after the BBC One broadcasts of the previous episode . The first episode " New Allegiances " was seen by 5 @.@ 5 million and was given a strong audience share of 23 @.@ 4 per cent . Although ratings were high , the premiere was down from the 6 @.@ 6 million seen by the premiere of the previous sixth series . Some of the later episode faced heavy competition from I 'm a Celebrity , Get Me Out of Here ! on ITV1 , however despite this , ratings for Spooks remained steady . The finale " Nuclear Strike " gave the seventh series its strongest ratings , with six million viewers . Compiling both BBC One and BBC Three viewings , viewing figures for the seventh series averaged 6 @.@ 13 million per episode . The series also became the ninth most watched series from BBC iPlayer , an Internet television service , of 2008 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The seventh series attracted critical acclaim , with some reviewers considering it to be the best series of Spooks . Leigh Holmwood of The Guardian feared that the death of Adam " would have cast a long shadow , " but barely noticed his absence given the pace of the episodes . Holmwood also believed that Lucas ' introduction " more than made amends " for replacing Adam , and also felt the return of Ros Myers and her promotion was " a genius move . " Mark Wright of The Stage thought that it was " stunning " with the last three episodes in particular " hitting new heights of tension and storytelling for the series , " adding it is " as good as , if not the better , than the first couple of seasons . " Wright also believed the series performed well with a reduced series length of eight as opposed to the ten episodes from the last few series , which he said allowed for " tighter , more focussed storytelling . " He also felt the cast changes " always felt naturally organic , " and praised Adam 's exit , Lucas ' introduction , and the " fantastic , strong female role model " of Hermione Norris ' portrayal . Wright ended by saying " Spooks has been my favourite show of the last few months and indeed of 2008 . "
Mof Gimmers of TV Scoop named Spooks series seven as the best television show of 2008 out of 50 programmes . Gimmers felt the seventh series performed better than the previous , as it " lost its way slightly " with the concentration of Islamic extremists . The seventh series however , was praised for bringing back the more traditional enemy , the Russians . With the introduction of Lucas North , Gimmers stated " the possibilities for double @-@ blinding the audience were legion and every single one was exploited to the max . " Gimmers also cited the more " pacy " plots due to a shorter series as another factor of the series 's success , and also said " the only problem with having a series as good as this in the bag is how they will match it next year ? " David Blackwell of Enterline Media said that the series ' storylines " have a grain of truth reflecting today 's climate " and also " more deeply rooted in gritty realism and preying on the real dangers that terrorists and other countries pose to the UK . " Blackwell also posed the storylines also " keeps the characters human and show what they go through " and reacted positevely towards Lucas ' introduction , stating " I like Lucas North better than Adam Carter or Tom Quinn . His dark and conflicted persona adds to the story and makes him a more interesting character than Adam or Tom ever were . " Blackwell summed up the series as " as great as the first six seasons . The show maintains a high standard of quality . "
Following the end of the eighth series , Last Broadcast held a poll for the top five most shocking death scenes in Spooks . Two of them were deaths from the seventh series . Adam Carter 's death was voted the fourth most shocking , while Ben Kaplan 's death was voted third . Connie 's death however , was not listed . The featuring of an actual waterboarding scene drew criticism from Guardian columnist Zoe Williams , who wrote " it 's really unpleasant , [ Armitage ] concurred . ' I only lasted five to 10 seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . ' Pal , that 's nice that you 're not showing off but this is all wrong and despicable : it 's like locking yourself and 10 friends into a loo on a commuter train , to see what it would be like on the train to Auschwitz . If you can make it stop whenever you like , you 're learning nothing and kicking people in the face while you 're at it . "
= = = Award nomination and renewal = = =
The seventh series was nominated for a British Academy Television Award ( BAFTA ) for " Best Drama Series " in 2009 , but lost to Wallander . Because of the strong ratings and positive feedback from fans and critics , the BBC announced they would recommission Spooks for an eighth series for 2009 on 4 December 2008 , just days before the finale was set to air .
= = Home video release = =
The series has been released on DVD in the United Kingdom ( Region 2 ) on 12 October 2009 . It was also released in the United States ( Region 1 ) on 26 January 2010 , and in Australia ( Region 4 ) on 30 March 2009 . The set consists of four discs and contain all eight episodes , as well as a few special features , including a Behind the Scenes documentary , which contain cast and crew interviews covering the characters and storylines of the series , " Spooks in Russia " , a featurette behind the scenes of filming in Russia , " Action Sequence " , which covers filming a chase sequence in episode six , and audio commentaries for episodes five and eight . The box set also contains the original trailer for the series , while the Region 1 release also contains trailers for other British television programmes , including Doctor Who , Torchwood and Primeval .
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= Fin whale =
The fin whale ( Balaenoptera physalus ) , also called the finback whale , razorback , or common rorqual , is a marine mammal belonging to the suborder of baleen whales . It is the second @-@ largest animal after the blue whale . The largest reportedly grow to 27 @.@ 3 m ( 89 @.@ 6 ft ) long with a maximum confirmed length of 25 @.@ 9 m ( 85 ft ) , a maximum recorded weight of nearly 74 tonnes ( 73 long tons ; 82 short tons ) , and a maximum estimated weight of around 120 tonnes ( 132 @.@ 5 tons ) . American naturalist Roy Chapman Andrews called the fin whale " the greyhound of the sea ... for its beautiful , slender body is built like a racing yacht and the animal can surpass the speed of the fastest ocean steamship . "
The fin whale 's body is long and slender , coloured brownish @-@ grey with a paler underside.The fin whale is a large baleen whale that belongs to the cetacean order , which is composed of all species of whale , dolphin and porpoise . At least two recognized subspecies exist , in the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere . It is found in all the major oceans , from polar to tropical waters . It is absent only from waters close to the ice pack at the poles and relatively small areas of water away from the open ocean . The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters . Its food consists of small schooling fish , squid , and crustaceans including copepods and krill .
Like all other large whales , the fin whale was heavily hunted during the 20th century and is an endangered species . Over 725 @,@ 000 fin whales were reportedly taken from the Southern Hemisphere between 1905 and 1976 , as of 1997 survived by only 38 @,@ 000 .
The International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) issued a moratorium on commercial hunting of this whale , although Iceland and Japan have resumed hunting . The species is also hunted by Greenlanders under the IWC 's Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling provisions . Global population estimates range from less than 100 @,@ 000 to roughly 119 @,@ 000 .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fin whale was first described by Friderich Martens in 1675 and then again by Paul Dudley in 1725 . The former description was used as the primary basis of the species Balaena physalus by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . In 1804 , Bernard Germain de Lacépède reclassified the species as Balaenoptera rorqual , based on a specimen that had stranded on Île Sainte @-@ Marguerite ( Cannes , France ) in 1798 . In 1830 , Louis Companyo described a specimen that had stranded near Saint @-@ Cyprien , southern France , in 1828 as Balaena musculus . Most later authors followed him in using the specific name musculus , until Frederick W. True ( 1898 ) showed that it referred to the blue whale . In 1846 , British taxonomist John Edward Gray described a 16 @.@ 7 m ( 55 ft ) specimen from the Falkland Islands as Balaenoptera australis . In 1865 , German naturalist Hermann Burmeister described a roughly 15 m ( 49 ft ) specimen found near Buenos Aires about 30 years earlier as Balaenoptera patachonicus . In 1903 , Romanian scientist Emil Racoviță placed all these designations into Balaenoptera physalus . The word physalus comes from the Greek word physa , meaning " blows " , referring to the prominent blow of the species ( as described by Martens [ 1675 , p . 132 ] : " They know the finn @-@ fish by the ... vehement blowing and spouting up of the water ... " ) .
Fin whales are rorquals , members of the family Balaenopteridae , which also includes the humpback whale , the blue whale , Bryde 's whale , the sei whale , and the minke whales . The family diverged from the other baleen whales in the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Miocene , although it is not known when the members of these families further evolved into their own species .
Recent DNA evidence indicates the fin whale may be more closely related to the humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) and in at least one study the gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ) , two whales in different genera , than it is to members of its own genus , such as the minke whales . As of 2006 , two subspecies are named , each with distinct physical features and vocalizations . The northern fin whale , B. p. physalus ( Linnaeus 1758 ) inhabits the North Atlantic and the southern fin whale , B. p. quoyi ( Fischer 1829 ) occupies the Southern Ocean . Most experts consider the fin whales of the North Pacific to be a third , as yet unnamed subspecies – this was supported by a 2013 study , which found that the Northern Hemisphere B. p. physalus was not composed of a single subspecies . The three groups mix at most , rarely .
Clarke ( 2004 ) proposed a " pygmy " subspecies ( B. p. patachonica , Burmeister , 1865 ) that is purportedly darker in colour and has black baleen . He based this on a single physically mature 19 @.@ 8 m ( 65 ft ) female caught in the Antarctic in 1947 – 48 , the smaller average size ( a few feet ) of sexually and physically mature fin whales caught by the Japanese around 50 ° S , and smaller , darker sexually immature fin whales caught in the Antarctic which he believed were a " migratory phase " of his proposed subspecies . His proposal is not widely accepted and no genetic evidence for their existence is available .
= = = Hybrids = = =
The genetic distance between blue and fin whales has been compared to that between a gorilla and human ( 3 @.@ 5 million years on the evolutionary tree . ) Nevertheless , hybrid individuals between blue and fin whales with characteristics of both are known to occur with relative frequency in both the North Atlantic and North Pacific .
The DNA profile of a sampling of whale meat in the Japanese market found evidence of blue / fin hybrids .
= = Anatomy = =
The fin whale is usually distinguished by its tall spout , long back , prominent dorsal fin , and asymmetrical colouration .
The animal 's large size aids in identification , and it is usually only confused with the blue whale , the sei whale , or , in warmer waters , Bryde 's whale .
= = = Size = = =
In the Northern Hemisphere , the average size of adult males and females is about 18 @.@ 5 m ( 61 ft ) and 20 m ( 66 ft ) , respectively , averaging 38 @.@ 5 and 50 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 42 @.@ 5 and 55 @.@ 5 tons ) while in the Southern Hemisphere , it is 20 @.@ 5 m ( 67 ft ) and 22 m ( 72 ft ) , weighing 52 @.@ 5 and 63 tonnes ( 58 and 69 @.@ 5 tons ) .
In the North Atlantic , the longest reported were a 24 @.@ 4 m ( 80 @.@ 1 ft ) male caught off Shetland in 1905 and a 25 m ( 82 @.@ 0 ft ) female caught off Scotland sometime between 1908 and 1914 , while the longest reliably measured were three 20 @.@ 7 m ( 67 @.@ 9 ft ) males caught off Iceland in 1973 – 74 and a 22 @.@ 5 m ( 73 @.@ 8 ft ) female also caught off Iceland in 1975 . Mediterranean population are generally smaller , reaching just above 20 m ( 65 @.@ 6 ft ) at maximum , or may possibly up to 21 m ( 68 @.@ 9 ft ) - 23 m ( 75 @.@ 5 ft ) .
In the North Pacific , the longest reported were three 22 @.@ 9 m ( 75 @.@ 1 ft ) males , two caught off California between 1919 and 1926 and the other caught off Alaska in 1925 , and a 24 @.@ 7 m ( 81 @.@ 0 ft ) female also caught off California , while the longest reliably measured were a 21 m ( 68 @.@ 9 ft ) male caught off British Columbia in 1959 and a 22 @.@ 9 m ( 75 @.@ 1 ft ) female caught off central California between 1959 and 1970 .
In the Southern Hemisphere , the longest reported for each sex were 25 m ( 82 @.@ 0 ft ) and 27 @.@ 3 m ( 89 @.@ 6 ft ) , while the longest measured by Mackintosh and Wheeler ( 1929 ) were 22 @.@ 65 m ( 74 @.@ 3 ft ) and 24 @.@ 53 m ( 80 @.@ 5 ft ) . Major F. A. Spencer , while whaling inspector of the factory ship Southern Princess ( 1936 – 38 ) , confirmed the length of a 25 @.@ 9 m ( 85 @.@ 0 ft ) female caught in the Antarctic south of the southern Indian Ocean ; scientist David Edward Gaskin also measured a 25 @.@ 9 m ( 85 @.@ 0 ft ) female while whaling inspector of the British factory ship Southern Venturer in the Southern Ocean in the 1961 – 62 season . Terence Wise , who worked as a winch operator aboard the British factory ship Balaena , claimed that " the biggest fin [ he ] ever saw " was a 25 @.@ 6 m ( 84 @.@ 0 ft ) specimen caught near Bouvet Island in January 1958 . The largest fin whale ever weighed ( piecemeal ) was a 22 @.@ 7 m ( 74 @.@ 5 ft ) pregnant female caught by Japanese whalers in the Antarctic in 1948 which weighed 69 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 68 @.@ 4 long tons ; 76 @.@ 6 short tons ) , minus 6 % for loss of fluids during the flensing process . An individual over 27 m ( 88 @.@ 6 ft ) is estimated to weigh in excess of 120 tonnes ( 120 long tons ; 130 short tons ) .
A newborn fin whale measures about 6 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 5 m ( 20 – 21 ft ) in length and weighs about 1 @,@ 800 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) .
= = = Colouration and markings = = =
The fin whale is brownish to dark or light gray dorsally and white ventrally . The left side of the head is dark gray , while the right side exhibits a complex pattern of contrasting light and dark markings . On the right lower jaw is a white or light gray " right mandible patch " , which sometimes extends out as a light " blaze " laterally and dorsally unto the upper jaw and back to just behind the blowholes . Two narrow dark stripes originate from the eye and ear , the former widening into a large dark area on the shoulder — these are separated by a light area called the " interstripe wash " . These markings are more prominent on individuals in the North Atlantic than in the North Pacific , where they can appear indistinct . The left side exhibits similar but much fainter markings . Dark , oval @-@ shaped areas of pigment called " flipper shadows " extend below and posterior to the pectoral fins . This type of asymmetry is seen in Omura 's whale and occasionally in minke whales . It was thought to have evolved because the whale swims on its right side when surface lunging and it sometimes circles to the right while at the surface above a prey patch . However , the whales just as often circle to the left . No accepted hypothesis explains the asymmetry . It has paired blowholes on a prominent splashguard and a broad , flat , V @-@ shaped rostrum . A single median ridge stops well short of the rostrum tip . A light V @-@ shaped marking , the chevron , begins behind the blowholes and extends back and then forward again . The whale has a series of 56 – 100 pleats or grooves along the bottom of the body that run from the tip of the chin to the navel that allow the throat area to expand greatly during feeding . It has a curved , prominent dorsal fin that ranges in height from 26 – 75 cm ( 10 – 30 in ) ( usually 45 – 60 cm ( 18 – 24 in ) ) and averages about 51 cm ( 20 in ) , lying about three @-@ quarters of the way along the back . Its flippers are small and tapered and its tail is wide , pointed at the tip , and notched in the centre .
When the whale surfaces , the dorsal fin is visible soon after the spout . The spout is vertical and narrow and can reach heights of 6 m ( 20 ft ) or more .
= = = Nervous system = = =
Fin whales have very stretchy nerves .
= = Life history = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Mating occurs in temperate , low @-@ latitude seas during the winter , followed by an 11- to 12 @-@ month gestation period . A newborn weans from its mother at 6 or 7 months of age when it is 11 to 12 m ( 36 to 39 ft ) in length , and the calf accompanies the mother to the summer feeding ground . Females reproduce every 2 or 3 years , with as many as six fetuses being reported , but single births are far more common . Females reach sexual maturity between 6 and 12 years of age at lengths of 17 @.@ 7 – 19 m ( 58 – 62 ft ) in the Northern Hemisphere and 20 m ( 66 ft ) in the Southern Hemisphere .
Full physical maturity is attained between 25 and 30 years . Fin whales live to 94 years of age , although specimens have been found aged at an estimated 135 – 140 years .
The fin whale is one of the fastest cetaceans and can sustain speeds between 37 km / h ( 23 mph ) and 41 km / h ( 25 mph ) and bursts up to 46 km / h ( 29 mph ) have been recorded , earning the fin whale the nickname " the greyhound of the sea " .
Fin whales are more gregarious than other rorquals , and often live in groups of 6 – 10 , although feeding groups may reach up to 100 animals .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
Like other whales , males make long , loud , low @-@ frequency sounds . The vocalizations of blue and fin whales are the lowest @-@ frequency sounds made by any animal . Most sounds are frequency @-@ modulated ( FM ) down @-@ swept infrasonic pulses from 16 to 40 hertz frequency ( the range of sounds that most humans can hear falls between 20 hertz and 20 kilohertz ) . Each sound lasts one to two seconds , and various sound combinations occur in patterned sequences lasting 7 to 15 minutes each . The whale then repeats the sequences in bouts lasting up to many days . The vocal sequences have source levels of up to 184 – 186 decibels relative to 1 micropascal at a reference distance of one metre and can be detected hundreds of miles from their source .
When fin whale sounds were first recorded by US biologists , they did not realize that these unusually loud , long , pure and regular sounds were being made by whales . They first investigated the possibilities that the sounds were due to equipment malfunction , geophysical phenomena , or even part of a Soviet Union scheme for detecting enemy submarines . Eventually , biologists demonstrated that the sounds were the vocalizations of fin whales .
Direct association of these vocalizations with the reproductive season for the species and that only males make the sounds point to these vocalizations as possible reproductive displays . Over the past 100 years , the dramatic increase in ocean noise from shipping and naval activity may have slowed the recovery of the fin whale population , by impeding communications between males and receptive females .
= = = Breathing = = =
When feeding , they blow 5 – 7 times in quick succession , but while traveling or resting will blow once every minute or two . On their terminal ( last ) dive they arch their back high out of the water , but rarely raise their flukes out of the water . It then dives to depths of up to 470 metres ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) when feeding or a few hundred feet when resting or traveling . The average feeding dive off California and Baja lasts 6 minutes , with a maximum of 17 minutes ; when traveling or resting they usually dive for only a few minutes at a time .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Range and habitat = = =
Like many large rorquals , the fin whale is a cosmopolitan species . It is found in all the world 's major oceans and in waters ranging from the polar to the tropical . It is absent only from waters close to the ice pack at both the north and south extremities and relatively small areas of water away from the large oceans , such as the Red Sea and the Baltic Sea . The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters . It is less densely populated in the warmest , equatorial regions .
The North Atlantic fin whale has an extensive distribution , occurring from the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea , northward to Baffin Bay and Spitsbergen . In general , fin whales are more common north of approximately 30 ° N latitude , but considerable confusion arises about their occurrence south of 30 ° N latitude because of the difficulty in distinguishing fin whales from Bryde 's whales . Extensive ship surveys have led researchers to conclude that the summer feeding range of fin whales in the western North Atlantic is mainly between 41 ° 20'N and 51 ° 00'N , from shore seaward to the 1 @,@ 000 fathoms ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) contour .
Summer distribution of fin whales in the North Pacific is the immediate offshore waters from central Baja California to Japan and as far north as the Chukchi Sea bordering the Arctic Ocean . They occur in high densities in the northern Gulf of Alaska and southeastern Bering Sea between May and October , with some movement through the Aleutian passes into and out of the Bering Sea . Several whales tagged between November and January off southern California were killed in the summer off central California , Oregon , British Columbia , and in the Gulf of Alaska . Fin whales have been observed feeding 250 miles south of Hawaii in mid @-@ May , and several winter sightings have been made there . Some researchers have suggested that the whales migrate into Hawaiian waters primarily in the autumn and winter .
Although fin whales are certainly migratory , moving seasonally in and out of high @-@ latitude feeding areas , the overall migration pattern is not well understood . Acoustic readings from passive @-@ listeninghydrophone arrays indicate a southward migration of the North Atlantic fin whale occurs in the autumn from the Labrador @-@ Newfoundland region , south past Bermuda , and into the West Indies . One or more populations of fin whales are thought to remain year @-@ round in high latitudes , moving offshore , but not southward in late autumn . In the Pacific , migration patterns are poorly characterized . Although some fin whales are apparently present year @-@ round in the Gulf of California , there is a significant increase in their numbers in the winter and spring . Southern fin whales migrate seasonally from relatively high @-@ latitude Antarctic feeding grounds in the summer to low @-@ latitude breeding and calving areas in the winter . The location of winter breeding areas is still unknown , since these whales tend to migrate in the open ocean .
= = = Population and trends = = =
= = = = North Atlantic = = = =
North Atlantic fin whales are defined by the International Whaling Commission to exist in one of seven discrete population zones : Nova Scotia @-@ New England , Newfoundland @-@ Labrador , western Greenland , eastern Greenland @-@ Iceland , North Norway , West Norway @-@ Faroe Islands , and Ireland @-@ Spain @-@ United Kingdom @-@ Portugal . Results of mark @-@ and @-@ recapture surveys have indicated that some movement occurs across the boundaries of these zones , suggesting that they are not entirely discrete and that some immigration and emigration does occur . Sigurjónsson estimated in 1995 that total pre @-@ exploitation population size in the entireNorth Atlantic ranged between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 animals , but his research is criticized for lack of supporting data and an explanation of his reasoning . In 1977 , D.E. Sergeant suggested a " primeval " aggregate total of 30 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 throughout the North Atlantic . Of that number , 8 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 would have resided in the Newfoundland and Nova Scotia areas , with whales summering in U.S. waters south of Nova Scotia presumably omitted . J.M. Breiwick estimated that the " exploitable " ( above the legal size limit of 50 ft ) component of the Nova Scotia population was 1 @,@ 500 to 1 @,@ 600 animals in 1964 , reduced to only about 325 in 1973 . Two aerial surveys in Canadian waters since the early 1970s gave numbers of 79 to 926 whales on the eastern Newfoundland @-@ Labrador shelf in August 1980 , and a few hundred in the northern and central Gulf of Saint Lawrence in August 1995 – 1996 . Summer estimates in the waters off western Greenland range between 500 and 2 @,@ 000 , and in 1974 , Jonsgard considered the fin whales off Western Norway and the Faroe Islands to " have been considerably depleted in postwar years , probably by overexploitation " . The population around Iceland appears to have fared much better , and in 1981 , appeared to have undergone only a minor decline since the early 1960s . Surveys during the summers of 1987 and 1989 estimated of 10 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 between eastern Greenland and Norway . This shows a substantial recovery when compared to a survey in 1976 showing an estimate of 6 @,@ 900 , which was considered to be a " slight " decline since 1948 . A Spanish NASS survey in 1989 of the France @-@ Portugal @-@ Spain sub @-@ area estimated a summer population range at 17 @,@ 355 . The aggregate population level in the Mediterranean basin is estimated to be between 40 @,@ 000 and 56 @,@ 000 individuals . Satellite tracking revealed that those found in Pelagos Sanctuary migrate southward to off Tunisia , Malta , Pantelleria , and Sicily , and also possibly winter off coastal southern Italy , Sardinia , within the Strait of Messina , Aeolian Islands , and off Libya , Kerkennah Islands , Lampedusa , and whales may recolonize out of the Ligurian Sea to other areas such as in Ionian and in Adriatic Sea . Biology of the species along southern and southeastern parts of the basin such as off Libya , Algeria , and northern Egypt , is unclear due to lacks of scientific approaches although whales have been confirmed off the furthermost of the basin such as along Levantine Sea including Israel , Lebanon , and Cyprus . Documented records within Turkish waters have been in very small numbers ; one sighting off Antalya in 1994 and 5 documented strandings as of 2016 .
Recently discovered , possible resident group exist in waters of Cape Verde Islands , uniquely being feasted by cookiecutter sharks .
= = = = North Pacific = = = =
The total historical North Pacific population was estimated at 42 @,@ 000 to 45 @,@ 000 before the start of whaling . Of this , the population in the eastern portion of the North Pacific was estimated to be 25 @,@ 000 to 27 @,@ 000 . By 1975 , the estimate had declined to between 8 @,@ 000 and 16 @,@ 000 . Surveys conducted in 1991 , 1993 , 1996 , and 2001 produced estimates between 1 @,@ 600 and 3 @,@ 200 off California and 280 and 380 off Oregon and Washington . The minimum estimate for the California @-@ Oregon @-@ Washington population , as defined in the U.S. Pacific Marine Mammal Stock Assessments : 2005 , is about 2 @,@ 500 . Surveys in coastal waters of British Columbia in summers 2004 and 2005 produced abundance estimates of approximately 500 animals . Surveys near the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea indicated a substantial increase in the local abundance of fin whales between 1975 – 1978 and 1987 – 1989 . In 1984 , the entire population was estimated to be less than 38 % of its historic carrying capacity . Fin whales might have started returning to the coastal waters off British Columbia ( a sighting occurred in Johnstone Strait in 2011 ) and Kodiak Island . Size of the local population migrating to Hawaiian Archipelago is unknown . Historically , several other wintering grounds were scattered in the North Pacific in the past , such as off the Northern Mariana Islands , Bonin Islands , and Ryukyu Islands ( for other possible habitats , see blue whale as their habitat preferences may correspond ) .
For Asian stocks , resident groups may exist in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea , and the Sea of Japan ( though these populations are critically endangered and the population off China , Korea , and Japan are either near extinction or in very small numbers ) . Very small increases in sightings have been confirmed off Shiretoko Peninsula , Abashiri , and Kushiro in Hokkaido , Tsushima , Sado Island , off Maiduru in the Sea of Japan since in late 2000s as whales in Sea of Okhotsk might have started recolonizing into former habitats ( for coastal Sakhalin , as well ) . Whales possibly used to migrated into Seto Inland Sea .
Studies of historical catches suggest several resident groups once existed in the North Pacific - the Baja California group and the Yellow Sea – East China Sea ( including Ryukyu Islands and western Kyusyu ) group . Additionally , respective groups in northern Sea of Japan and the group along Pacific coasts of Japan from Hokkaido to Sanriku might have been resident or less migratory , as well . Recent sightings of large whales exceeding 20 m in length , likely to be fin whales , as blue whales in coastal northeast Asia are considered to be extinct , indicate that remnants of the Sea of Japan or the Yellow – ohai Sea groups still pass through the Tsushima Strait where all the larger cetaceans are under threats of being struck by high @-@ speed vessels . Southward migrations to Taiwan or East and South China Seas may still occur , but the whole scale of current migrations along Eurasian continent including population size is unclear . The only modern record among Ryukyu Islands was of a rotten carcass beached on Ishigaki Island in 2005 .
There had been congregation areas among Sea of Japan to Yellow Sea such as in East Korea Bay , along eastern coasts of Korean Peninsula , and Ulleungdo , although recent occurrences into these locations are of unclear due to locational disorders .
Fin whales in Yellow Sea could have been a unique form from outer Pacific populations due to their smaller size of around 20m or more at near maximum , and breeding season in these regions was mainly in winter .
Modern sightings around Commander Islands have been annual but not in great numbers , and whales likely to migrate through the areas rather than summering . Possibilities of whales seen in Commander Islands might mix with other populations among Asian and eastern Pacific populations has been considered .
= = = = South Pacific = = = =
Very little information has been revealed about the ecology of current migration from Antarctic waters are unknown , but small increases in sighting rates are confirmed off New Zealand , such as off Kaikoura , and wintering grounds may exist in further north such as in Papua New Guinea , Fiji , and off East Timor . Confirmations in Rarotonga have been increased recently where interactions with humpback whales occur on occasions . Finbacks are also relatively abundant along the coast of Peru and Chile ( in Chile , most notably off Los Lagos region such as Gulf of Corcovado in Chiloé National Park , Punta de Choros , port of Mejillones , and Caleta Zorra . Year @-@ round confirmations indicate possible residents off pelagic north eastern to central Chile such as around coastal Caleta Chañaral and Pingüino de Humboldt National Reserve , east of Juan Fernández Islands , and northeast of Easter Island and possible wintering ground exist for eastern south Pacific population . They are known to make mixed groups with other rorquals such as blue whales and sei whales . Their recovery is confirmed vicinity to various subantarctic islands such as South Georgia and Falkland , but unknown in other historical habitats including Campbell Island , Kermadec to Chatham Islands , Tristan da Cunha , and Gough Island .
= = = = Antarctica = = = =
Relatively little is known about the historical and current population levels of the Southern fin whale . The IWC officially estimates that the Southern Hemisphere pre @-@ whaling population was 400 @,@ 000 whales and that the population in 1979 ( at the cessation of Antarctic large scale whaling ) was 85 @,@ 200 . Both the current and historical estimates should be considered as poor estimates because the methodology and data used in the study are known to be flawed . Other estimates cite current size to be between 15 @,@ 000 ( 1983 ) and 38 @,@ 000 ( 1997 ) . As of 2006 , there is no scientifically accepted estimate of current population or trends in abundance .
= = = Predation = = =
The only known predator of the fin whale is the killer whale , with at least 20 eyewitness and second @-@ hand accounts of attack or harassment . They usually flee and offer little resistance to attack . Only a few confirmed fatalities have occurred . In October 2005 , 16 killer whales attacked and killed a fin whale in the Canal de Ballenas , Gulf of California , after chasing it for about an hour . They fed on its sinking carcass for about 15 minutes before leaving the area . In June 2012 , a pod of killer whales was seen in La Paz Bay , in the Gulf of California , chasing a fin whale for over an hour before finally killing it and feeding on its carcass . The whale bore numerous tooth rakes over its back and dorsal fin ; several killer whales flanked it on either side , with one individual visible under water biting at its right lower jaw . In July 1908 , a whaler reportedly saw two killer whales attack and kill a fin whale off western Greenland . In January 1984 , seven were seen from the air circling , holding the flippers , and ramming a fin whale in the Gulf of California , but the observation ended at nightfall .
= = = Feeding = = =
The fin whale is a filter @-@ feeder , feeding on small schooling fish , squid and crustaceans including copepods and krill .
In the North Pacific , they feed on euphausiids in the genera Euphausia , Thysanoessa , and Nyctiphanes , large copepods in the genus Neocalanus , small schooling fish ( e.g. the genera Engraulis , Mallotus , Clupea , and Theragra ) , and squid . Based on stomach content analysis of over 19 @,@ 500 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the North Pacific from 1952 to 1971 , 64 @.@ 1 % contained only krill , 25 @.@ 5 % copepods , 5 @.@ 0 % fish , 3 @.@ 4 % krill and copepods and 1 @.@ 7 % squid . Nemoto ( 1959 ) analysed the stomach contents of about 7500 fin whales caught in the northern North Pacific and Bering Sea from 1952 to 1958 , found that they mainly preyed on euphausiids around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska and schooling fish in the northern Bering Sea and off Kamchatka . In the northern Bering Sea ( north of 58 ° N ) , their main prey species were capelin ( Mallotus villosus ) , Alaska pollock ( Theragra chalcogramma ) and Pacific herring ( Clupea pallasii ) ; they also consumed saffron cod ( Eleginus gracilis ) . Arctic krill ( Thysanoessa raschii ) was the only species of euphausiid found in the stomachs of fin whales in the northern Bering Sea . Off Kamchatka , they appeared to primarily feed on herring . They also took large quantities of the copepod Neocalanus cristatus around the Aleutian Islands and in Olyutorsky Bay off northeast Kamchatka , areas where the species was abundant . Five species of euphausiid ( Euphausia pacifica , Thysanoessa spinifera , T. inermis , T. raschii , and T. longipes ) were the predominant prey around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska . Prey varied by region in the Kuril Islands area , with euphausiids ( T. longipes , T. inermis , and T. raschii ) and copepods ( Neocalanus plumchrus and N. cristatus ) being the main prey in the northern area and Japanese flying squid ( Todarodes pacificus pacificus ) and small schooling fish ( e.g. Pacific saury , Cololabis saira ; and Japanese anchovy , Engraulis japonicus ) dominating the diet in the southern area .
Of the fin whale stomachs sampled off British Columbia between 1963 and 1967 , euphausiids dominated the diet for four of the five years ( 82 @.@ 3 to 100 % of the diet ) , while copepods only formed a major portion of the diet in 1965 ( 35 @.@ 7 % ) . Miscellaneous fish , squid , and octopus played only a very minor part of the diet in two of the five years ( 3 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 8 % ) . Fin whales caught off California between 1959 and 1970 fed on the pelagic euphausiid Euphausia pacifica ( 86 % of sampled individuals ) , the more neritic euphausiid Thysanoessa spinifera ( 9 % ) , and the northern anchovy ( Engraulis mordax ) ( 7 % ) ; only trace amounts ( < 0 @.@ 5 % each ) were found of Pacific saury ( C. saira ) and juvenile rockfish ( Sebastes jordani ) . In the Gulf of California , they have been observed feeding on swarms of the euphausiid Nyctiphanes simplex .
In the North Atlantic , they prey on euphausiids in the genera Meganyctiphanes , Thysanoessa and Nyctiphanes and small schooling fish ( e.g. the genera Clupea , Mallotus , and Ammodytes ) . Of the 1 @,@ 609 fin whale stomachs examined at the Hvalfjörður whaling station in southwestern Iceland from 1967 to 1989 ( caught between June and September ) , 96 % contained only krill , 2 @.@ 5 % krill and fish , 0 @.@ 8 % some fish remains , 0 @.@ 7 % capelin ( M. villosus ) , and 0 @.@ 1 % sandeel ( family Ammodytidae ) ; a small proportion of ( mainly juvenile ) blue whiting ( Micromesistius poutassou ) were also found . Of the krill sampled between 1979 and 1989 , the vast majority ( over 99 % ) was northern krill ( Meganyctiphanes norvegica ) ; only one stomach contained Thysanoessa longicaudata . Off West Greenland , 75 % of the fin whales caught between July and October had consumed krill ( family Euphausiidae ) , 17 % capelin ( Mallotus ) and 8 % sand lance ( Ammodytes sp . ) . Off eastern Newfoundland , they chiefly feed on capelin , but also take small quantities of euphausiids ( mostly T. raschii and T. inermis ) . In the Ligurian @-@ Corsican @-@ Provençal Basin in the Mediterranean Sea they make dives as deep as 470 metres ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) to feed on the euphausiid Meganyctiphanes norvegica , while off the island of Lampedusa , between Tunisia and Sicily , they have been observed in mid @-@ winter feeding on surface swarms of the small euphausiid Nyctiphanes couchi .
In the Southern Hemisphere , they feed almost exclusively on euphausiids ( mainly the genera Euphausia and Thysanoessa ) , as well as taking small amounts of amphipods ( e.g. Themisto gaudichaudii ) and various species of fish . Of the more than 16 @,@ 000 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Hemisphere between 1961 and 1965 that contained food in their stomachs , 99 @.@ 4 % fed on euphausiids , 0 @.@ 5 % on fish , and 0 @.@ 1 % on amphipods . In the Southern Ocean they mainly consume E. superba .
The animal feeds by opening its jaws while swimming at some 11 kilometres per hour ( 6 @.@ 8 mph ) in one study , which causes it to engulf up to 70 cubic metres ( 18 @,@ 000 US gal ; 15 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water in one gulp . It then closes its jaws and pushes the water back out of its mouth through its baleen , which allows the water to leave while trapping the prey . An adult has between 262 and 473 baleen plates on each side of the mouth . Each plate is made of keratin that frays out into fine hairs on the ends inside the mouth near the tongue . Each plate can measure up to 76 centimetres ( 30 in ) in length and 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) in width .
The whale routinely dives to depths of more than 200 metres ( 660 ft ) where it executes an average of four " lunges " , to accumulate krill . Each gulp provides the whale with approximately 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) of food . One whale can consume up to 1 @,@ 800 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) of food a day , leading scientists to conclude that the whale spends about three hours a day feeding to meet its energy requirements , roughly the same as humans . If prey patches are not sufficiently dense , or are located too deep in the water , the whale has to spend a larger portion of its day searching for food . One hunting technique is to circle schools of fish at high speed , frightening the fish into a tight ball , then turning on its side before engulfing the massed prey .
= = = Pathology = = =
Fin whales suffer from a number of pathological conditions . The parasitic copepod Pennella balaenopterae — usually found on the flank of fin whales — burrows into their blubber to feed on their blood , while the pseudo @-@ stalked barnacle Xenobalanus globicipitis is generally found more often on the dorsal fin , pectoral fins , and flukes .
Other barnacles found on fin whales include the acorn barnacle Coronula reginae and the stalked barnacle Conchoderma auritum , which attaches to Coronula or the baleen . The harpacticid copepod Balaenophilus unisetus ( heavy infestations of which have been found in fin whales caught off northwestern Spain ) and the ciliate Haematophagus also infest the baleen , the former feeding on the baleen itself and the latter on red blood cells .
The remora Remora australis and occasionally the amphipod Cyamus balaenopterae can also be found on fin whales , both feeding on the skin . Infestations of the giant nematode Crassicauda boopis can cause inflammation of the renal arteries and potential kidney failure , while the smaller C. crassicauda infects the lower urinary tract .
An emaciated 13 m ( 43 ft ) female fin whale , which stranded along the Belgian coast in 1997 , was found to be infected with lesions of Morbillivirus . In January 2011 , a 16 @.@ 7 m ( 55 ft ) emaciated adult male fin whale stranded dead on the Tyrrhenian coastline of Italy was found to be infected with Morbillivirus and the protozoa Toxoplasma gondii , as well as carrying heavy loads of organochlorine pollutants .
= = Human interaction = =
= = = Whaling = = =
In the 19th century , the fin whale was occasionally hunted by open @-@ boat whalers , but it was relatively safe , because it could easily outrun ships of the time and often sank when killed , making the pursuit a waste of time for whalers . However , the later introduction of steam @-@ powered boats and harpoons that exploded on impact made it possible to kill and secure them along with blue and sei whales on an industrial scale . As other whale species became overhunted , the whaling industry turned to the still @-@ abundant fin whale as a substitute . It was primarily hunted for its blubber , oil , and baleen . Around 704 @,@ 000 fin whales were caught in Antarctic whaling operations alone between 1904 and 1975 .
The introduction of factory ships with stern slipways in 1925 substantially increased the number of whales taken per year . In 1937 – 38 alone , over 29 @,@ 000 fin whales were taken . From 1953 – 54 to 1961 – 62 , the catch averaged over 30 @,@ 000 per year . By 1962 – 63 , sei whale catches began to increase as fin whales became scarce . By 1975 – 76 , fewer than 1 @,@ 000 fin whales were being caught each year . In the North Pacific , over 74 @,@ 000 fin whales were caught between 1910 and 1975 . Between 1910 and 1989 , over 55 @,@ 000 were caught in the North Atlantic . Coastal groups in northeast Asian waters , along with many other baleen species , were likely driven into serious perils or functional extinctions by industrial catches by Japan covering wide ranges of China and Korean EEZ within very short period in 20th century . Migrations of the species into Japanese EEZ and in East China Sea were likely to be exterminated relatively earlier , as the last catch records on Amami Oshima was between the 1910s and 1930s . After the cease of exploiting Asian stocks , Japan kept mass commercial and illegal hunts until 1975 . Several thousand individuals were hunted from various stations mainly along coasts of Hokaido , Sanriku , and the Gotō Islands .
The IWC prohibited hunting in the Southern Hemisphere in 1976 . The Soviet Union engaged in the illegal killing of protected whale species in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere , over @-@ reporting fin whale catches to cover up illegal takes of other species . In the North Pacific , they reported taking over 10 @,@ 000 fin whales between 1961 – 79 , while the true catch was less than 9 @,@ 000 . In the Southern Hemisphere , they reported taking nearly 53 @,@ 000 between 1948 and 1973 , when the true total was a little over 41 @,@ 000 . The fin whale was given full protection from commercial whaling by the IWC in the North Pacific in 1976 , and in the North Atlantic in 1987 , with small exceptions for aboriginal catches and catches for research purposes . All populations worldwide remain listed as endangered species by the US National Marine Fisheries Service and the International Conservation Union Red List . The fin whale is on Appendix 1 of CITES .
The IWC has set a quota of 19 fin whales per year for Greenland . Meat and other products from whales killed in these hunts are widely marketed within Greenland , but export is illegal . Iceland and Norway are not bound by the IWC 's moratorium on commercial whaling because both countries filed objections to it .
In October 2006 , Iceland 's fisheries ministry authorized the hunting of 9 fin whales through August 2007 . In 2009 and 2010 , Iceland caught 125 and 148 fin whales , respectively . An Icelandic company , Hvalur , caught over a hundred fin whales in 2014 , and exported a record quantity of 2071 tonnes in a single shipment in 2014 . Since 2006 , Hvalur has caught more than 500 fin whales and exported more than 5000 tonnes of whale meat to Japan .
In the Southern Hemisphere , Japan permits annual takes of 10 fin whales under its Antarctic Special Permit whaling program for the 2005 – 2006 and 2006 – 2007 seasons . The proposal for 2007 – 2008 and the subsequent 12 seasons allows taking 50 per year . While 10 fin whales were caught in the 2005 – 06 season and three in the 2006 – 07 season , none was caught in the 2007 – 2008 season . A single fin whale was caught in both the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons , two were taken in the 2010 – 11 season , and one was taken in the 2011 – 12 season .
Not only humpback , minkes , sperm , and many other smaller Odontoceti , but also including critically endangered species such as North Pacific right , western gray , and Northern fin whales have been targets of illegal captures using harpoons for dolphin hunts or intentionally drive whales into nets , and later reports to administrative organs or research institutions as cases of ' entanglements where fishermen tried their best to save whales ' . Protected species ' meats can also be found on markets even today which are mostly " byproducts " of entanglements , and one case scientifically revealed that at least some humpbacks with other species were illegally hunted in EEZ of antiwhaling nations such as off Mexico or South Africa , and tried to import into Japan by hiring vessels from other countries and even trying to go on overland routes within other nations .
= = = Ship interaction = = =
Collisions with ships are a major cause of mortality . In some areas , they cause a substantial portion of large whale strandings . Most serious injuries are caused by large , fast @-@ moving ships over or near continental shelves .
A 60 @-@ ft @-@ long fin whale was found stuck on the bow of a container ship in New York harbor on 12 April 2014 .
Ship collisions frequently occur in Tsushima Strait and result in damaging all of whales , passengers , and vessels , hence the panese Coast Guard ] ] has started visual recordings of large cetaceans in Tsushima Strait to inform operating vessels in the areas .
= = = Museums = = =
Several fin whale skeletons are exhibited in North America . The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in Los Angeles , California has an exhibit entitled the " Fin Whale Passage " , which displays a 19 @.@ 2 m ( 63 ft ) fin whale skeleton collected by former museum osteologist Eugene Fischer and field collector Howard Hill in 1926 from the Trinidad whaling station ( 1920 – 1926 ) in Humboldt County , northern California . A steel armature supports the skeleton , which is accompanied by sculpted flukes . Science North , a science museum in Greater Sudbury , Ontario , Canada , has a 20 m ( 66 ft ) fin whale skeleton collected from Anticosti Island hanging from the fourth floor of its main building . The Grand Rapids Public Museum in Grand Rapids , Michigan contains a 76 @-@ ft @-@ long skeleton in the Galleria section hanging above from the ceiling .
Several fin whale skeletons are also exhibited in Europe . The Natural History Museum of Slovenia in Ljubljana , Slovenia , houses a 13 m ( 43 ft ) female fin whale skeleton – the specimen had been found floating in the Gulf of Piran in the spring of 2003 . The Hungarian Natural History Museum in Budapest , Hungary , displays a fin whale skeleton hanging near its main entrance which had been caught in the Atlantic Ocean in 1896 and purchased from Vienna in 1900 . The Cambridge University Museum of Zoology , in Cambridge , United Kingdom , exhibits a nearly 21 m ( 69 ft ) male fin whale skeleton , which had stranded at Pevensey , East Sussex , in November 1865 .
The Otago Museum , in Dunedin , New Zealand , displays a 16 @.@ 76 m ( 55 @.@ 0 ft ) fin whale skeleton , which had stranded on the beach at Nelson at the entrance of the Waimea River in 1882 .
= = = Whale watching = = =
Fin whales are regularly encountered on whale @-@ watching excursions worldwide . In the Southern California Bight , fin whales are encountered year @-@ round , with the best sightings between November and March . They can even be seen from land ( for example , from Point Vicente , Palos Verdes , where they can be seen lunge feeding at the surface only a half mile to a few miles offshore ) . They are regularly sighted in the summer and fall in the Gulf of St. Lawrence , the Gulf of Maine , the Bay of Fundy , the Bay of Biscay , Strait of Gibraltar , the Mediterranean . In southern Ireland , they are seen inshore from June to February , with peak sightings in November and December . Cruise ships en route to and from the Antarctic Peninsula sometimes encounter fin whales in the Drake Passage .
= = Conservation = =
The fin whale is listed on both Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( CMS ) . It is listed on Appendix I as this species has been categorized as in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of its range and CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals , conserving or restoring the places where they live , mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them .
It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co @-@ operation organised by tailored agreements . In addition , the fin whale is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea , Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area ( ACCOBAMS ) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region ( Pacific Cetaceans MOU ) .
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= Mary , Queen of Scots =
Mary , Queen of Scots ( 8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587 ) , also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland , was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567 and Queen consort of France from 10 July 1559 to 5 December 1560 .
Mary , the only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland , was six days old when her father died and she acceded to the throne . She spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents , and in 1558 , she married the Dauphin of France , Francis . He ascended the French throne as King Francis II in 1559 , and Mary briefly became queen consort of France , until his death in December 1560 . Widowed , Mary returned to Scotland , arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561 . Four years later , she married her first cousin , Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , but their union was unhappy . In February 1567 , his residence was destroyed by an explosion , and Darnley was found murdered in the garden .
James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell , was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnley 's death , but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567 , and the following month he married Mary . Following an uprising against the couple , Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle . On 24 July 1567 , she was forced to abdicate in favour of James , her one @-@ year @-@ old son by Darnley . After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne , she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed , Queen Elizabeth I of England . Mary had previously claimed Elizabeth 's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics , including participants in a rebellion known as the Rising of the North . Perceiving her as a threat , Elizabeth had her confined in various castles and manor houses in the interior of England . After eighteen and a half years in custody , Mary was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth , and was subsequently beheaded .
= = Childhood and early reign = =
Mary was born on 7 or 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow , Scotland , to James V , King of Scots , and his French second wife , Mary of Guise . She was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child of James to survive him . She was the great @-@ niece of King Henry VIII of England , as her paternal grandmother , Margaret Tudor , was Henry VIII 's sister . On 14 December , six days after her birth , she became Queen of Scots when her father died , perhaps from the effects of a nervous collapse following the Battle of Solway Moss , or from drinking contaminated water while on campaign .
A popular legend , first recorded by John Knox , states that James , hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to a daughter , ruefully exclaimed , " It cam wi ' a lass and it will gang wi ' a lass ! " His House of Stewart had gained the throne of Scotland by the marriage of Marjorie Bruce , daughter of Robert the Bruce , to Walter Stewart , 6th High Steward of Scotland . The crown had come to his family through a woman , and would be lost from his family through a woman . This legendary statement came true much later — not through Mary , but through her descendant Queen Anne .
Mary was baptised at the nearby Church of St Michael shortly after she was born . Rumours spread that she was weak and frail , but an English diplomat , Ralph Sadler , saw the infant at Linlithgow Palace in March 1543 , unwrapped by her nurse , and wrote , " it is as goodly a child as I have seen of her age , and as like to live . "
As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne , Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult . From the outset , there were two claims to the Regency : one from Catholic Cardinal Beaton , and the other from the Protestant Earl of Arran , who was next in line to the throne . Beaton 's claim was based on a version of the late king 's will that his opponents dismissed as a forgery . Arran , with the support of his friends and relations , became the regent until 1554 when Mary 's mother managed to remove and succeed him .
= = = Treaty of Greenwich = = =
King Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose marriage between Mary and his own son , Prince Edward , hoping for a union of Scotland and England . On 1 July 1543 , when Mary was six months old , the Treaty of Greenwich was signed , which promised that at the age of ten Mary would marry Edward and move to England , where Henry could oversee her upbringing . The treaty provided that the two countries would remain legally separate and that if the couple should fail to have children the temporary union would dissolve . However , Cardinal Beaton rose to power again and began to push a pro @-@ Catholic pro @-@ French agenda , which angered Henry , who wanted to break the Scottish alliance with France . Beaton wanted to move Mary away from the coast to the safety of Stirling Castle . Regent Arran resisted the move , but backed down when Beaton 's armed supporters gathered at Linlithgow . The Earl of Lennox escorted Mary and her mother to Stirling on 27 July 1543 with 3 @,@ 500 armed men . Mary was crowned in the castle chapel on 9 September 1543 , with " such solemnity as they do use in this country , which is not very costly " according to the report of Ralph Sadler and Henry Ray .
Shortly before Mary 's coronation , Scottish merchants headed for France were arrested by Henry , and their goods impounded . The arrests caused anger in Scotland , and Arran joined Beaton and became a Catholic . The Treaty of Greenwich was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland in December . The rejection of the marriage treaty and the renewal of the Auld Alliance between France and Scotland prompted Henry 's " Rough Wooing " , a military campaign designed to impose the marriage of Mary to his son . English forces mounted a series of raids on Scottish and French territory . In May 1544 , the English Earl of Hertford ( later Duke of Somerset ) raided Edinburgh , and the Scots took Mary to Dunkeld for safety .
In May 1546 , Beaton was murdered by Protestant lairds , and on 10 September 1547 , nine months after the death of Henry VIII , the Scots suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh . Mary 's guardians , fearful for her safety , sent her to Inchmahome Priory for no more than three weeks , and turned to the French for help .
The French king , Henry II , proposed to unite France and Scotland by marrying the young queen to his three @-@ year @-@ old son , the Dauphin Francis . On the promise of French military help , and a French dukedom for himself , Arran agreed to the marriage . In February 1548 , Mary was moved , again for her safety , to Dumbarton Castle . The English left a trail of devastation behind once more and seized the strategic town of Haddington . In June , the much awaited French help arrived at Leith to besiege and ultimately take Haddington . On 7 July 1548 , a Scottish Parliament held at a nunnery near the town agreed to a French marriage treaty .
= = = Life in France = = =
With her marriage agreement in place , five @-@ year @-@ old Mary was sent to France to spend the next thirteen years at the French court . The French fleet sent by Henry II , commanded by Nicolas de Villegagnon , sailed with Mary from Dumbarton on 7 August 1548 and arrived a week or more later at Roscoff or Saint @-@ Pol @-@ de @-@ Léon in Brittany .
Mary was accompanied by her own court including two illegitimate half @-@ brothers , and the " four Marys " , four girls her own age , all named Mary , who were the daughters of some of the noblest families in Scotland : Beaton , Seton , Fleming , and Livingston . Janet , Lady Fleming , who was Mary Fleming 's mother and James V 's half @-@ sister , was appointed governess .
Vivacious , beautiful , and clever ( according to contemporary accounts ) , Mary had a promising childhood . At the French court , she was a favourite with everyone , except Henry II 's wife Catherine de ' Medici . Mary learned to play lute and virginals , was competent in prose , poetry , horsemanship , falconry and needlework , and was taught French , Italian , Latin , Spanish , and Greek , in addition to speaking her native Scots . Her future sister @-@ in @-@ law , Elisabeth of Valois , became a close friend of whom Mary " retained nostalgic memories in later life " . Her maternal grandmother , Antoinette de Bourbon , was another strong influence on her childhood , and acted as one of her principal advisors .
Portraits of Mary show that she had a small , oval @-@ shaped head , a long , graceful neck , bright auburn hair , hazel @-@ brown eyes , under heavy lowered eyelids and finely arched brows , smooth pale skin , a high forehead , and regular , firm features . She was considered a pretty child and later , as a woman , strikingly attractive . At some point in her infancy or childhood , she caught smallpox , but it did not mark her features .
Mary was eloquent and especially tall by sixteenth @-@ century standards ( she attained an adult height of 5 feet 11 inches or 1 @.@ 80 m ) , while Henry II 's son and heir , Francis , stuttered and was abnormally short . Henry commented that " from the very first day they met , my son and she got on as well together as if they had known each other for a long time " . On 4 April 1558 , Mary signed a secret agreement bequeathing Scotland and her claim to England to the French crown if she died without issue . Twenty days later , she married the Dauphin at Notre Dame de Paris , and Francis became king consort of Scotland .
= = = Claim to the English throne = = =
In November 1558 , Henry VIII 's elder daughter , Queen Mary I of England , was succeeded by her only surviving sibling , Elizabeth I. Under the Third Succession Act , passed in 1543 by the Parliament of England , Elizabeth was recognised as her sister 's heir , and Henry VIII 's last will and testament had excluded the Stuarts from succeeding to the English throne . Yet , in the eyes of many Catholics , Elizabeth was illegitimate , and Mary Stuart , as the senior descendant of Henry VIII 's elder sister , was the rightful queen of England . Henry II of France proclaimed his eldest son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law king and queen of England , and in France the royal arms of England were quartered with those of Francis and Mary . Mary 's claim to the English throne was a perennial sticking point between her and Elizabeth I.
When Henry II died on 10 July 1559 from injuries sustained in a joust , fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Francis became King of France , with Mary , aged sixteen , as his queen consort . Two of Mary 's uncles , the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine , were now dominant in French politics , enjoying an ascendancy called by some historians la tyrannie Guisienne .
In Scotland , the power of the Protestant Lords of the Congregation was rising at the expense of Mary 's mother , Mary of Guise , who maintained effective control only through the use of French troops . The Protestant Lords invited English troops into Scotland in an attempt to secure Protestantism , and a Huguenot rising in France , called the Tumult of Amboise , in March 1560 made it impossible for the French to send further support . Instead , the Guise brothers sent ambassadors to negotiate a settlement . On 11 June 1560 , their sister Mary of Guise died , and so the question of future Franco @-@ Scots relations was a pressing one . Under the terms of the Treaty of Edinburgh , signed by Mary 's representatives on 6 July 1560 , France and England undertook to withdraw troops from Scotland and France recognised Elizabeth 's right to rule England . However , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Mary , still in France and grieving for her mother , refused to ratify the treaty .
= = Return to Scotland = =
King Francis II died on 5 December 1560 , of a middle ear infection which led to an abscess in his brain . Mary was grief @-@ stricken . Her mother @-@ in @-@ law , Catherine de ' Medici , became regent for the late king 's ten @-@ year @-@ old brother Charles IX , who inherited the French throne .
Mary returned to Scotland nine months after her husband 's death , arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561 . Having lived in France since the age of five , Mary had little direct experience of the dangerous and complex political situation in Scotland . As a devout Catholic , she was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects , as well as by Elizabeth , her father 's cousin . Scotland was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions , and Mary 's illegitimate half @-@ brother , the Earl of Moray , was a leader of the Protestants . The Protestant reformer John Knox preached against Mary , condemning her for hearing Mass , dancing , and dressing too elaborately . She summoned him to her presence to remonstrate with him unsuccessfully , and later charged him with treason , but he was acquitted and released .
To the disappointment of the Catholic party , however , Mary tolerated the newly established Protestant ascendancy , and kept her half @-@ brother Lord Moray as her chief advisor . Her privy council of 16 men , appointed on 6 September 1561 , retained those who already held the offices of state and was dominated by the Protestant leaders from the reformation crisis of 1559 – 1560 : the Earls of Argyll , Glencairn , and Moray . Only four of the councillors were Catholic : the Earls of Atholl , Erroll , Montrose , and Huntly , who was Lord Chancellor . Modern historian Jenny Wormald found this remarkable , suggesting that Mary 's failure to appoint a council sympathetic to Catholic and French interests was an indication of her focus on the goal of the English throne over the internal problems of Scotland . Even the one significant later addition to the council , in December 1563 , Lord Ruthven , was another Protestant whom Mary personally disliked . In this , she was acknowledging her lack of effective military power in the face of the Protestant lords , while also following a policy which strengthened her links with England . She joined with Lord Moray in the destruction of Scotland 's leading Catholic magnate , Lord Huntly , in 1562 after he led a rebellion in the Highlands against her .
Mary sent William Maitland of Lethington as an ambassador to the English court to put the case for Mary as the heir presumptive to the English throne . Elizabeth refused to name a potential heir , fearing that to do so would invite conspiracy to displace her with the nominated successor . However , Elizabeth assured Maitland that she knew no one with a better claim than Mary . In late 1561 and early 1562 , arrangements were made for the two queens to meet in England at York or Nottingham in August or September 1562 , but Elizabeth sent Sir Henry Sidney to cancel in July because of the civil war in France .
Mary turned her attention to finding a new husband from the royalty of Europe . However , when her uncle , the Cardinal of Lorraine , began negotiations with Archduke Charles of Austria without her consent , she angrily objected and the negotiations foundered . Her own attempt to negotiate a marriage to Don Carlos , the mentally unstable heir apparent of King Philip II of Spain , was rebuffed by Philip . Elizabeth attempted to neutralise Mary by suggesting that she marry English Protestant Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester ( Sir Henry Sidney 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and the English queen 's own favourite ) , whom Elizabeth trusted and thought she could control . She sent an ambassador , Thomas Randolph , to tell Mary that if she would marry an English nobleman , Elizabeth would " proceed to the inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir " . The proposal came to nothing , not least because the intended bridegroom was unwilling .
In contrast , a French poet at Mary 's court , Pierre de Boscosel de Chastelard , was apparently besotted by Mary . In early 1563 , he was discovered during a security search hidden underneath her bed , apparently planning to surprise her when she was alone and declare his love for her . Mary was horrified and banished him from Scotland . He ignored the edict , and two days later he forced his way into her chamber as she was about to disrobe . She reacted with fury and fear , and when Moray rushed into the room , in reaction to her cries for help , she shouted , " Thrust your dagger into the villain ! " , which Moray refused to do , as Chastelard was already under restraint . Chastelard was tried for treason , and beheaded . Maitland claimed that Chastelard 's ardour was feigned , and that he was part of a Huguenot plot to discredit Mary by tarnishing her reputation .
= = Marriage to Lord Darnley = =
Mary had briefly met her English @-@ born first cousin Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , in February 1561 when she was in mourning for Francis . Darnley 's parents , the Earl and Countess of Lennox , who were Scottish aristocrats as well as English landowners , had sent him to France ostensibly to extend their condolences while hoping for a potential match between their son and Mary . Both Mary and Darnley were grandchildren of Margaret Tudor , sister of Henry VIII of England , and patrilineal descendants of the High Stewards of Scotland . Darnley shared a more recent Stewart lineage with the Hamilton family as a descendant of Mary Stewart , Countess of Arran , a daughter of James II of Scotland . They next met on Saturday 17 February 1565 at Wemyss Castle in Scotland , after which Mary fell in love with the " long lad " ( as Queen Elizabeth called him — he was over six feet tall ) . They married at Holyrood Palace on 29 July 1565 , even though both were Catholic and a papal dispensation for the marriage of first cousins had not been obtained .
English statesmen William Cecil and the Earl of Leicester had worked to obtain Darnley 's licence to travel to Scotland from his home in England . Although her advisors had thus brought the couple together , Elizabeth felt threatened by the marriage , because as descendants of her aunt , both Mary and Darnley were claimants to the English throne and their children , if any , would inherit an even stronger , combined claim . However , Mary 's insistence on the marriage seems to have stemmed from passion rather than calculation . The English ambassador Nicholas Throckmorton stated " the saying is that surely she [ Queen Mary ] is bewitched " , adding that the marriage could only be averted " by violence " . The union infuriated Elizabeth , who felt the marriage should not have gone ahead without her permission , as Darnley was both her cousin and an English subject .
Mary 's marriage to a leading Catholic precipitated Mary 's half @-@ brother , the Earl of Moray , to join with other Protestant lords , including Lords Argyll and Glencairn , in open rebellion . Mary set out from Edinburgh on 26 August 1565 to confront them , and on the 30th Moray entered Edinburgh , but left soon afterward having failed to take the castle . Mary returned to Edinburgh the following month to raise more troops . In what became known as the Chaseabout Raid , Mary and her forces and Moray and the rebellious lords roamed around Scotland without ever engaging in direct combat . Mary 's numbers were boosted by the release and restoration to favour of Lord Huntly 's son , and the return of James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell , from exile in France . Unable to muster sufficient support , in October Moray left Scotland for asylum in England . Mary broadened her privy council , bringing in both Catholics ( Bishop of Ross John Lesley and provost of Edinburgh Simon Preston of Craigmillar ) and Protestants ( the new Lord Huntly , Bishop of Galloway Alexander Gordon , John Maxwell of Terregles and Sir James Balfour ) .
Before long , Darnley grew arrogant . Not content with his position as king consort , he demanded the Crown Matrimonial , which would have made him a co @-@ sovereign of Scotland with the right to keep the Scottish throne for himself if he outlived his wife . Mary refused his request , and their marriage grew strained even though they conceived by October 1565 . He was jealous of her friendship with her Catholic private secretary , David Rizzio , who was rumoured to be the father of her child . By March 1566 , Darnley had entered into a secret conspiracy with Protestant lords , including the nobles who had rebelled against Mary in the Chaseabout Raid . On 9 March , a group of the conspirators , accompanied by Darnley , murdered Rizzio in front of the pregnant Mary at a dinner party in Holyrood Palace . Over the next two days , a disillusioned Darnley switched sides , and Mary received Moray at Holyrood . On the night of 11 – 12 March , Darnley and Mary escaped from the palace , and took temporary refuge in Dunbar Castle before returning to Edinburgh on 18 March . The former rebels Lords Moray , Argyll and Glencairn were restored to the council .
= = = Murder of Darnley = = =
Mary 's son by Darnley , James , was born on 19 June 1566 in Edinburgh Castle , but the murder of Rizzio led inevitably to the breakdown of her marriage . In October 1566 , while staying at Jedburgh in the Scottish Borders , Mary made a journey on horseback of at least four hours each way to visit the Earl of Bothwell at Hermitage Castle , where he lay ill from wounds sustained in a skirmish with border reivers . The ride was later used as evidence by Mary 's enemies that the two were lovers , though no suspicions were voiced at the time and Mary had been accompanied by her councillors and guards . Immediately after her return to Jedburgh , she suffered a serious illness that included frequent vomiting , loss of sight , loss of speech , convulsions and periods of unconsciousness . She was thought to be near death or dying . Her recovery from 25 October onwards was credited to the skill of her French physicians . The cause of her illness is unknown ; diagnoses include physical exhaustion and mental stress , haemorrhage of a gastric ulcer , and porphyria .
At Craigmillar Castle , near Edinburgh , at the end of November 1566 , Mary and leading nobles held a meeting to discuss the " problem of Darnley " . Divorce was discussed , but then a bond was probably sworn between the lords present to remove Darnley by other means : " It was thought expedient and most profitable for the common wealth ... that such a young fool and proud tyrant should not reign or bear rule over them ; ... that he should be put off by one way or another ; and whosoever should take the deed in hand or do it , they should defend . " Darnley feared for his safety and after the baptism of his son at Stirling shortly before Christmas , he went to Glasgow to stay on his father 's estates . At the start of the journey , he was afflicted by a fever , possibly smallpox , syphilis , or the result of poison , and he remained ill for some weeks .
In late January 1567 , Mary prompted her husband to return to Edinburgh . He recuperated from his illness in a house belonging to the brother of Sir James Balfour at the former abbey of Kirk o ' Field , just within the city wall . Mary visited him daily , so that it appeared a reconciliation was in progress . On the night of 9 – 10 February 1567 , Mary visited her husband in the early evening and then attended the wedding celebrations of a member of her household , Bastian Pagez . In the early hours of the morning , an explosion devastated Kirk o ' Field , and Darnley was found dead in the garden , apparently smothered . There were no visible marks of strangulation or violence on the body . Bothwell , Moray , Secretary Maitland , the Earl of Morton and Mary herself were among those who came under suspicion . Elizabeth wrote to Mary of the rumours , " I should ill fulfil the office of a faithful cousin or an affectionate friend if I did not ... tell you what all the world is thinking . Men say that , instead of seizing the murderers , you are looking through your fingers while they escape ; that you will not seek revenge on those who have done you so much pleasure , as though the deed would never have taken place had not the doers of it been assured of impunity . For myself , I beg you to believe that I would not harbour such a thought . "
By the end of February , Bothwell was generally believed to be guilty of Darnley 's assassination . Lennox , Darnley 's father , demanded that Bothwell be tried before the Estates of Parliament , to which Mary agreed , but Lennox 's request for a delay to gather evidence was denied . In the absence of Lennox , and with no evidence presented , Bothwell was acquitted after a seven @-@ hour trial on 12 April . A week later , Bothwell managed to convince more than two dozen lords and bishops to sign the Ainslie Tavern Bond , in which they agreed to support his aim to marry the queen .
= = Imprisonment in Scotland and abdication = =
Between 21 and 23 April 1567 , Mary visited her son at Stirling for the last time . On her way back to Edinburgh on 24 April , Mary was abducted , willingly or not , by Lord Bothwell and his men and taken to Dunbar Castle , where he may have raped her . On 6 May , Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh and on 15 May , at either Holyrood Palace or Holyrood Abbey , they were married according to Protestant rites . Bothwell and his first wife , Jean Gordon , who was the sister of Lord Huntly , had divorced twelve days previously .
Originally Mary believed that many nobles supported her marriage , but things soon turned sour between the newly elevated Bothwell ( created Duke of Orkney and consort of the Queen ) and his former peers , and the marriage proved to be deeply unpopular . Catholics considered the marriage unlawful , since they did not recognise Bothwell 's divorce or the validity of the Protestant service . Both Protestants and Catholics were shocked that Mary should marry the man accused of murdering her husband . The marriage was tempestuous , and Mary became despondent . Twenty @-@ six Scottish peers , known as the confederate lords , turned against Mary and Bothwell , raising an army against them . Mary and Bothwell confronted the lords at Carberry Hill on 15 June , but there was no battle as Mary 's forces dwindled away through desertion during negotiations . Bothwell was given safe passage from the field , and the lords took Mary to Edinburgh , where crowds of spectators denounced her as an adulteress and murderer . The following night , she was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle , on an island in the middle of Loch Leven . Between 20 and 23 July , Mary miscarried twins . On 24 July , she was forced to abdicate in favour of her one @-@ year @-@ old son James . Moray was made regent , while Bothwell was driven into exile . He was imprisoned in Denmark , became insane and died in 1578 .
= = Escape and imprisonment in England = =
On 2 May 1568 , Mary escaped from Loch Leven Castle with the aid of George Douglas , brother of Sir William Douglas , the castle 's owner . Managing to raise an army of 6 @,@ 000 men , she met Moray 's smaller forces at the Battle of Langside on 13 May . Defeated , she fled south ; after spending the night at Dundrennan Abbey , she crossed the Solway Firth into England by fishing boat on 16 May . She landed at Workington in Cumberland in the north of England and stayed overnight at Workington Hall . On 18 May , local officials took her into protective custody at Carlisle Castle .
Mary apparently expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne . Elizabeth was cautious , ordering an inquiry into the conduct of the confederate lords and the question of whether Mary was guilty of Darnley 's murder . In mid @-@ July 1568 , English authorities moved Mary to Bolton Castle , because it was further from the Scottish border but not too close to London . A commission of inquiry , or conference as it was known , was held in York and later Westminster between October 1568 and January 1569 . In Scotland , her supporters fought a civil war against Regent Moray and his successors .
= = = Casket letters = = =
As an anointed queen , Mary refused to acknowledge the power of any court to try her and refused to attend the inquiry at York personally ( she sent representatives ) , but Elizabeth forbade her attendance anyway . As evidence against Mary , Moray presented the so @-@ called casket letters — eight unsigned letters purportedly from Mary to Bothwell , two marriage contracts , and a love sonnet or sonnets said to have been found in a silver @-@ gilt casket just less than one foot ( 30 cm ) long , decorated with the monogram of King Francis II . Mary denied writing them , arguing that her handwriting was not difficult to imitate , and insisted they were forgeries . They are widely believed to be crucial as to whether Mary shares the guilt for Darnley 's murder . The chair of the commission of inquiry , the Duke of Norfolk , described them as horrible letters and diverse fond ballads , and sent copies to Elizabeth , saying that if they were genuine they might prove Mary 's guilt .
The authenticity of the casket letters has been the source of much controversy among historians . It is impossible now to prove either way . The originals , written in French , were probably destroyed in 1584 by Mary 's son . The surviving copies , in French or translated into English , do not form a complete set . There are incomplete printed transcriptions in English , Scots , French , and Latin from the 1570s . Other documents scrutinised included Bothwell 's divorce from Jean Gordon . Moray had sent a messenger in September to Dunbar to get a copy of the proceedings from the town 's registers .
Mary 's biographers , such as Antonia Fraser , Alison Weir , and John Guy , have come to the conclusion that either the documents were complete forgeries , or incriminating passages were inserted into genuine letters , or that the letters were written to Bothwell by some other person or by Mary to some other person . Guy points out that the letters are disjointed , and that the French language and grammar employed in the sonnets are too poor for a writer with Mary 's education . However , certain phrases of the letters ( including verses in the style of Ronsard ) and certain characteristics of style would be compatible with known writings of Mary .
The casket letters did not appear publicly until the Conference of 1568 , although the Scottish privy council had seen them by December 1567 . Mary had been forced to abdicate and held captive for the best part of a year in Scotland . The letters were never made public to support her imprisonment and forced abdication . Historian Jenny Wormald believes this reluctance on the part of the Scots to produce the letters , and their destruction in 1584 , whatever their content , constitute proof that they contained real evidence against Mary , whereas Weir thinks it demonstrates the lords required time to fabricate them . At least some of Mary 's contemporaries who saw the letters had no doubt that they were genuine . Among them was the Duke of Norfolk , who secretly conspired to marry Mary in the course of the commission , although he denied it when Elizabeth alluded to his marriage plans , saying " he meant never to marry with a person , where he could not be sure of his pillow " .
The majority of the commissioners accepted the casket letters as genuine after a study of their contents and comparison of the penmanship with examples of Mary 's handwriting . Elizabeth , as she had wished , concluded the inquiry with a verdict that nothing was proven , either against the confederate lords or Mary . For overriding political reasons , Elizabeth wished neither to convict nor acquit Mary of murder , and there was never any intention to proceed judicially ; the conference was intended as a political exercise . In the end , Moray returned to Scotland as its regent , and Mary remained in custody in England . Elizabeth had succeeded in maintaining a Protestant government in Scotland , without either condemning or releasing her fellow sovereign . In Fraser 's opinion , it was one of the strangest " trials " in legal history , ending with no finding of guilt against either party with one let home to Scotland while the other remained in custody .
= = = Plots = = =
On 26 January 1569 , Mary was moved to Tutbury Castle and placed in the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury and his formidable wife Bess of Hardwick . Elizabeth considered Mary 's designs on the English throne to be a serious threat and so confined her to Shrewsbury 's properties , including Tutbury , Sheffield Castle , Wingfield Manor and Chatsworth House , all located in the interior of England halfway between Scotland and London , and distant from the sea . Mary was permitted her own domestic staff , which never numbered less than 16 , and needed 30 carts to transport her belongings from house to house . Her chambers were decorated with fine tapestries and carpets , as well as her cloth of state on which she had the French phrase En ma fin est mon commencement ( " In my end lies my beginning " ) embroidered . Her bedlinen was changed daily , and her own chefs prepared meals with a choice of 32 dishes served on silver plates . She was occasionally allowed outside under strict supervision , spent seven summers at the spa town of Buxton , and spent much of her time doing embroidery . Her health declined , perhaps through porphyria or lack of exercise , and by the 1580s , she had severe rheumatism in her limbs , rendering her lame .
In May 1569 , Elizabeth attempted to mediate the restoration of Mary in return for guarantees of the Protestant religion , but a convention held at Perth rejected the deal overwhelmingly . Norfolk continued to scheme for a marriage with Mary , and Elizabeth imprisoned him in the Tower of London between October 1569 and August 1570 . Early in the following year , Moray was assassinated . Moray 's death coincided with a rebellion in the North of England , led by Catholic earls , which persuaded Elizabeth that Mary was a threat . English troops intervened in the Scottish civil war , consolidating the power of the anti @-@ Marian forces . Elizabeth 's principal secretaries Sir Francis Walsingham and William Cecil , Lord Burghley , watched Mary carefully with the aid of spies placed in Mary 's household .
In 1571 , Cecil and Walsingham uncovered the Ridolfi Plot , which was a plan to replace Elizabeth with Mary with the help of Spanish troops and the Duke of Norfolk . Norfolk was executed , and the English Parliament introduced a bill barring Mary from the throne , to which Elizabeth refused to give royal assent . To discredit Mary , the casket letters were published in London . Plots centred on Mary continued . Pope Gregory XIII endorsed one plan in the latter half of the 1570s to marry her to the governor of the Low Countries and half @-@ brother of Philip II of Spain , Don John of Austria , who was supposed to organise the invasion of England from the Spanish Netherlands . After the Throckmorton Plot of 1583 , Walsingham introduced the Bond of Association and the Act for the Queen 's Safety , which sanctioned the killing of anyone who plotted against Elizabeth and aimed to prevent a putative successor from profiting from her murder . In February 1585 , William Parry was convicted of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth , without Mary 's knowledge , though her agent Thomas Morgan was implicated . In April , Mary was placed in the stricter custody of Sir Amias Paulet , and at Christmas she was moved to a moated manor house at Chartley .
= = Death = =
= = = Trial = = =
On 11 August 1586 , after being implicated in the Babington Plot , Mary was arrested while out riding and taken to Tixall . In a successful attempt to entrap her , Walsingham had deliberately arranged for Mary 's letters to be smuggled out of Chartley . Mary was misled into thinking her letters were secure , while in reality they were deciphered and read by Walsingham . From these letters it was clear that Mary had sanctioned the attempted assassination of Elizabeth . She was moved to Fotheringhay Castle in a four @-@ day journey ending on 25 September , and in October was put on trial for treason under the Act for the Queen 's Safety before a court of 36 noblemen , including Cecil , Shrewsbury , and Walsingham . Spirited in her defence , Mary denied the charges . She told her triers , " Look to your consciences and remember that the theatre of the whole world is wider than the kingdom of England " . She drew attention to the facts that she was denied the opportunity to review the evidence , that her papers had been removed from her , that she was denied access to legal counsel and that as a foreign anointed queen she had never been an English subject and thus could not be convicted of treason .
Mary was convicted on 25 October and sentenced to death with only one commissioner , Lord Zouche , expressing any form of dissent . Despite this , Elizabeth hesitated to order her execution , even in the face of pressure from the English Parliament to carry out the sentence . She was concerned that the killing of a queen set a discreditable precedent , and was fearful of the consequences , especially if , in retaliation , Mary 's son James formed an alliance with the Catholic powers and invaded England . Elizabeth asked Paulet , Mary 's final custodian , if he would contrive a clandestine way to " shorten the life " of Mary , which he refused to do on the grounds that he would not make " a shipwreck of my conscience , or leave so great a blot on my poor posterity " . On 1 February 1587 , Elizabeth signed the death warrant , and entrusted it to William Davison , a privy councillor . On the 3rd , ten members of the Privy Council of England , having been summoned by Cecil without Elizabeth 's knowledge , decided to carry out the sentence at once .
= = = Execution = = =
At Fotheringhay on the evening of 7 February 1587 , Mary was told that she was to be executed the next morning . She spent the last hours of her life in prayer , distributing her belongings to her household , and writing her will and a letter to the King of France . The scaffold that was erected in the Great Hall was two feet high and draped in black . It was reached by two or three steps and furnished with the block , a cushion for her to kneel on and three stools , for her and the earls of Shrewsbury and Kent , who were there to witness the execution . The executioners ( one named Bull and his assistant ) knelt before her and asked forgiveness . She replied , " I forgive you with all my heart , for now , I hope , you shall make an end of all my troubles . " Her servants , Jane Kennedy and Elizabeth Curle , and the executioners helped Mary to remove her outer garments , revealing a velvet petticoat and a pair of sleeves in crimson @-@ brown , the liturgical colour of martyrdom in the Catholic Church , with a black satin bodice and black trimmings . As she disrobed she smiled and said that she " never had such grooms before ... nor ever put off her clothes before such a company " . She was blindfolded by Kennedy with a white veil embroidered in gold , knelt down on the cushion in front of the block , on which she positioned her head , and stretched out her arms . Her last words were , " In manus tuas , Domine , commendo spiritum meum " ( " Into thy hands , O Lord , I commend my spirit " ) .
Mary was not beheaded with a single strike . The first blow missed her neck and struck the back of her head . The second blow severed the neck , except for a small bit of sinew , which the executioner cut through using the axe . Afterward , he held her head aloft and declared , " God save the Queen . " At that moment , the auburn tresses in his hand turned out to be a wig and the head fell to the ground , revealing that Mary had very short , grey hair . A small dog owned by the queen , a Skye terrier , is said to have been hiding among her skirts , unseen by the spectators . Following the beheading , it refused to be parted from its owner 's body and was covered in her blood , until it was forcibly taken away and washed . Items supposedly worn or carried by Mary at her execution are of doubtful provenance ; contemporary accounts state that all her clothing , the block , and everything touched by her blood was burnt in the fireplace of the Great Hall to obstruct relic @-@ hunters .
= = = Legacy = = =
When the news of the execution reached Elizabeth , she became indignant and asserted that Davison had disobeyed her instructions not to part with the warrant and that the Privy Council had acted without her authority . Elizabeth 's vacillation and deliberately vague instructions gave her plausible deniability , to attempt to avoid the direct stain of Mary 's blood . Davison was arrested , thrown into the Tower of London , and found guilty of misprision . He was released 19 months later after Cecil and Walsingham interceded on his behalf .
Mary 's request to be buried in France was refused by Elizabeth . Her body was embalmed and left unburied in a secure lead coffin until her burial , in a Protestant service , at Peterborough Cathedral in late July 1587 . Her entrails , removed as part of the embalming process , were buried secretly within Fotheringhay Castle . Her body was exhumed in 1612 when her son , King James VI and I , ordered that she be reinterred in Westminster Abbey , in a chapel opposite the tomb of Elizabeth I. In 1867 , her tomb was opened to try to ascertain the resting place of James I ; he was ultimately found with Henry VII , but many of her other descendants , including Elizabeth of Bohemia , Prince Rupert of the Rhine and the children of Anne , Queen of Great Britain , were interred in her vault .
Assessments of Mary in the sixteenth century divided between Protestant reformers such as George Buchanan and John Knox , who vilified her mercilessly , and Catholic apologists such as Adam Blackwood , who praised , defended and eulogised her . After the accession of James I in England , historian William Camden wrote an officially sanctioned biography that drew from original documents . It condemned Buchanan 's work as an invention , and " emphasized Mary 's evil fortunes rather than her evil character " . Differing interpretations persisted into the eighteenth century : William Robertson and David Hume argued that the casket letters were genuine and that Mary was guilty of adultery and murder , while William Tytler argued the reverse . In the latter half of the twentieth century , the work of Antonia Fraser was acclaimed as " more objective ... free from the excesses of adulation or attack " that had characterised older biographies , and her contemporaries Gordon Donaldson and Ian B. Cowan also produced more balanced works . Historian Jenny Wormald concluded that Mary was a tragic failure , who was unable to cope with the demands placed on her , but hers was a rare dissenting view in a post @-@ Fraser tradition that Mary was a pawn in the hands of scheming noblemen . There is no concrete proof of her complicity in Darnley 's murder or of a conspiracy with Bothwell . Such accusations rest on assumptions , and Buchanan 's biography is today discredited as " almost complete fantasy " . Mary 's courage at her execution helped establish her popular image as the heroic victim in a dramatic tragedy .
= = Family tree = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
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= New Jersey Route 147 =
Route 147 is a 4 @.@ 20 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 76 km ) state highway located in Cape May County in New Jersey , United States . It is a short connector between U.S. Route 9 in Middle Township and North Wildwood at New York Avenue . West of U.S. Route 9 , the road continues to Route 47 as County Route 618 ( Indian Trail Road ) ; this route along with Route 147 provides an alternate route to The Wildwoods from Route 47 . East of New York Avenue , the route continues south through The Wildwoods as County Route 621 ( New Jersey Avenue ) . The route passes through mostly marshland along its journey , intersecting the Garden State Parkway at a partial interchange and County Route 619 ( Ocean Drive ) . The portion of the route east of the intersection with the latter forms a part of Ocean Drive . When the 500 @-@ series county routes were established in New Jersey in the 1950s , what is now Route 147 became a part of County Route 585 , a route running from Lower Township north to Absecon . Route 147 was designated along County Route 585 between U.S. Route 9 and the North Wildwood border . The route was extended to its current location in North Wildwood by the 1990s .
= = Route description = =
Route 147 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 9 in the Burleigh section of Middle Township , heading to the east along North Wildwood Boulevard , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The road continues to the west of U.S. Route 9 as County Route 618 ( Indian Trail Road ) to Route 47 . The road passes residences and businesses to the north and woodland to the south before coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Garden State Parkway that has access to and from the northbound direction of the parkway .
Past the Garden State Parkway , Route 147 becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway that briefly passes more homes and commercial establishments before entering a delta @-@ type series of marshy rivers and inlets . It turns to the southeast and comes to an intersection with County Route 665 before crossing the Grassy Sound on a bridge . After the bridge , the route comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of County Route 619 ( Ocean Drive ) .
At this point , the Ocean Drive moniker merges onto Route 147 and the road crosses over the Beach Creek into the beach resort of North Wildwood . Here , the route turns south and becomes Spruce Avenue , which heads between marshland to the west and resort homes to the east . At the intersection with West Angelsea Drive , Route 147 becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road that continues past more developments , turning to the southeast . Route 147 heads through a mix or residential and commercial establishments before ending at the intersection with New York Avenue . From here , County Route 621 continues south along the roadway as New Jersey Avenue . Route 147 , along with County Route 618 , provide an alternate route to The Wildwoods from Route 47 .
= = History = =
What is now Route 147 was an unimproved road back in 1927 . When the 500 @-@ series county routes were established in the 1950s , this road became a part of County Route 585 , a route that ran from Route 109 ( then a part of U.S. Route 9 ) in Lower Township north to U.S. Route 30 and Route 157 in Absecon . The route was also designated as part of County Route 18 , which continued west past U.S. Route 9 to Route 47 . In 1971 , Route 147 was designated to replace the portion of County Route 18 / County Route 585 between U.S. Route 9 in Burleigh and the North Wildwood border . As a result of a bridge replacement over the Grassy Sound , Route 147 was realigned off its former drawbridge , and the former alignment became Cape May County Route 665 . The southern terminus of County Route 585 was eventually truncated its current location at Route 52 in Somers Point . By the 1990s , Route 147 was extended to its current terminus at New York Avenue in North Wildwood .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Cape May County .
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= Alex Lawless =
Alexander Graham " Alex " Lawless ( born 26 March 1985 ) is a Welsh professional footballer who plays as a midfielder and is unattached .
Lawless began his career with the Cardiff City youth system before playing for Welsh Football League team Ton Pentre . He joined FA Premier League team Fulham in 2003 and he was released in 2005 . He spent a season in the Football League with Torquay United , before joining Forest Green Rovers in the Conference National . He spent three seasons with them , winning the club 's players ' player of the season award in the 2007 – 08 season and playing in the Final of the Conference League Cup . He joined York City in 2009 and played for them in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium . He signed for current club Luton Town , initially on loan , in 2010 . After taking part in two unsuccessful play @-@ off campaigns with the club , Lawless was part of the Luton side that won the Conference Premier title and promotion to the Football League in the 2013 – 14 season .
He has represented Wales at various levels . He earned two caps for the under @-@ 19 team , before making one appearance for the under @-@ 21 team in 2006 . He has made two appearances for the semi @-@ pro team , making his debut against Italy in 2007 and scoring against England C in a 2 – 1 defeat in 2008 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Tonypandy , Rhondda Cynon Taf , Lawless was educated at Tonypandy Comprehensive School and began his career with the youth system of Cardiff City . After being released by Cardiff he stayed at school and studied for his A @-@ levels . He later played for Welsh Football League Division One team Ton Pentre , making 33 league appearances and scoring 10 goals in the 2002 – 03 season ; this included two goals in a 9 – 0 victory over Milford in December 2002 . Following a six @-@ week trial , he signed professional terms with FA Premier League team Fulham on 21 August 2003 .
= = = Torquay United = = =
He was released by Fulham in May 2005 , and he was offered a trial with League Two team Torquay United in July . Lawless signed for the club on a free transfer and manager Leroy Rosenior said " It 's important that the supporters are patient with these youngsters and give them time to learn and develop " . He made his debut on 6 August 2005 in a 0 – 0 draw at home to Notts County , although he only lasted 26 minutes before being replaced by substitute Tony Bedeau . His return from an injury after nearly a month out came in a 2 – 1 victory over Shrewsbury Town in September , which was Torquay 's first win of the season . He picked up another injury in November 2005 , and made his return after three months of not playing by starting in a 1 – 0 victory over Bristol Rovers on 17 December 2005 . He scored an own goal after 86 minutes against Wycombe Wanderers on 26 December 2005 , which resulted in Torquay drawing 2 – 2 . His final appearance of the 2005 – 06 season came in a 2 – 0 defeat to Lincoln City in February 2006 . He was released by Torquay after making 16 appearances .
= = = Forest Green Rovers = = =
Lawless joined Conference National team Forest Green Rovers on non @-@ contract terms on 4 August 2006 . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Dagenham & Redbridge on 12 August 2006 . Lawless scored his first goal for the club with a " spectacular " strike from long @-@ range to give Forest Green the lead against Morecambe on 24 February 2007 , but they went on to lose 3 – 1 . He finished the 2006 – 07 season with 40 appearances and one goal . He scored the only goal for Forest Green in their 1 – 0 victory over Crawley Town on 10 February 2008 , after scoring in the 73rd minute . After playing for the Wales semi @-@ pro team manager Jim Harvey was worried over Lawless ' fitness , although he was able to play in Forest Green 's following game against Cambridge United . Lawless made 41 appearances and scored three goals for Forest Green as they earned their highest ever finish of eighth in the Conference Premier in the 2007 – 08 season . He won the players ' player of the season award , being described as the team 's unsung hero .
On the opening day of the 2008 – 09 season he filled in at right @-@ back due to an injury to Kris Thomas and scored with a 20 yard strike to give Forest Green a 1 – 1 draw against Kettering Town . He garnered praise from Harvey , who said Lawless had a " super game " . A hip injury forced him to miss a game against Northwich Victoria in September 2008 , before making his return later that month in a 3 – 0 defeat to Stevenage Borough . During a game against former club Torquay on 23 September 2008 he suffered an ankle injury which forced him to miss three games . He made his return in a 2 – 2 draw with Cambridge United on 16 October 2008 . He then picked up a hamstring injury and in his return scored with a " fierce " long @-@ range strike to give Forest Green a 1 – 0 victory over Mansfield Town on 22 November 2008 . Following this game , his hamstring tightened and was ruled out for a month due to a back injury . After making good progress with the injury he returned in a 1 – 1 draw with Kidderminster Harriers on 26 December 2008 .
Lawless scored against Championship team Derby County with a " superb finish past Carroll from a tight angle " after evading the opponent defence in an FA Cup third round tie on 3 January 2009 , which put Forest Green 2 – 0 up , although they went on to lose 4 – 3 . He missed Forest Green 's FA Trophy tie against Redditch United because of a hamstring injury , as well as the semi @-@ final of the Conference League Cup against Woking . He made his return in a 2 – 1 defeat to Eastbourne Borough on 17 January 2009 and was substituted in the 64th minute as a precaution . After missing the match against Histon because of a one @-@ match suspension , Lawless contributed with an assist and a goal on his return against Northwich on 18 February 2009 , after heading from a corner kick for John Hardiker to score and himself finishing with a goal from close range . He was forced to miss games against Cambridge United and Kidderminster in April due to a stomach illness , and he made his return in the 2009 Conference League Cup Final , which was lost 3 – 0 to AFC Telford United on a penalty shoot @-@ out , after a 0 – 0 extra time draw . His season ended prematurely after he suffered a broken leg against York City following a heavy challenge on 21 April 2009 , with an X @-@ ray confirming his fibula endured a hairline fracture . He completed the season with 39 appearances and six goals and Harvey hoped his budget would allow for Lawless to stay at the club .
= = = York City = = =
Lawless signed for Conference Premier rivals York City on a one @-@ year contract on 17 June 2009 , despite there being two Football League clubs looking to sign him . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat to Oxford United on 8 August 2009 . After suffering from a virus he was forced to miss a game against Cambridge United in September 2009 , and he recovered ahead of York 's game against Kidderminster . He scored his first goal for York with the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory over Gateshead on 24 November 2009 . He pulled his hamstring in a 1 – 0 defeat to Eastbourne on 27 February 2010 and made his return as a 64th @-@ minute substitute in a 4 – 0 victory at Grays Athletic on 30 March . He played in both legs of York 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victory over Luton Town , which finished 2 – 0 on aggregate . He started in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium on 16 May , which York lost 3 – 1 to Oxford . He finished the season with 45 appearances and one goal for York .
Lawless made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in the opening game , a 2 – 1 defeat to Kidderminster on 14 August 2010 . He scored his first goal of the season with York 's second in a 3 – 1 victory at Tamworth on 25 September 2010 .
= = = Luton Town = = =
On 8 November 2010 , Lawless joined York 's Conference Premier rivals Luton Town , initially on loan , with a permanent transfer due to take place in January 2011 . York were reluctant to let him leave , but relented when Luton increased their original offer on three occasions . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat at Wrexham on 11 November 2010 and , in the following game , Lawless scored his first Luton goal with the winner in a 1 – 0 victory at Altrincham . Lawless signed for Luton permanently for an undisclosed fee on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract on 5 January 2011 . His first appearance after signing was as a 74th @-@ minute substitute in a 0 – 0 draw at Bath City on 8 January 2011 . After the departure of fellow midfielder Andy Drury to Ipswich Town in late January 2011 , Lawless played a much more prominent role in a Luton side that eventually finished the 2010 – 11 season third in the table . He scored the opening goal , a 35 yard strike described as " superb " , in Luton 's 3 – 0 play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg victory away at Wrexham . He then played in the 2 – 1 home victory in the second leg , and in the 2011 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final against AFC Wimbledon at Wembley he missed the opening penalty kick in the penalty shoot @-@ out , which Luton lost 4 – 3 .
During the half @-@ time break of Luton 's 3 – 0 defeat away at his former club York on 24 September 2011 , Lawless broke his hand after punching a wall out of frustration , resulting in him being ruled out for around a month and being handed a fine by his club . He played in Luton 's 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final 2 – 1 defeat at Wembley , coincidentally against York , on 20 May 2012 . Lawless signed a one @-@ year contract extension in July 2012 , despite poor performances during the 2011 – 12 season making him a target for fans .
Manager Paul Buckle praised Lawless for his " quality ... hard work and ... discipline " following his 100th appearance for the club in December 2012 . He scored the winning goal with a volley into the bottom corner in Luton 's 1 – 0 victory over Championship side Wolverhampton Wanderers in the FA Cup third round on 5 January 2013 , and was voted as the competition 's Player of the Round . Lawless finished the season with 48 appearances and five goals . His performances saw him voted by both Luton supporters and his teammates as the club 's Player of the Season for the 2012 – 13 season ; a marked turnaround from the previous year . He signed a new two @-@ year contract with Luton in May 2013 after having talks with two unnamed League One clubs .
Lawless was sidelined with a groin injury at the beginning of the 2013 – 14 season , and did not make his first start until 17 September in a 3 – 0 victory against Dartford , in which he scored one goal and set up another . This victory provided the springboard for Luton to embark on a 27 @-@ game unbeaten run in the league , in which Lawless was heavily involved , scoring five further times and contributing ten assists . After playing in 32 games and scoring six goals , including many games in an unfamiliar position as a left midfielder , he missed the final part of the season due to injury . On 15 April 2014 , with three games to spare , Luton won the Conference Premier title and were promoted to League Two ; this was Lawless ' first title and promotion as a player .
Lawless struggled with multiple injuries during the 2014 – 15 season , making 15 league appearances ( only six of which were starts ) and scoring three goals . Despite this limited playing time , Lawless triggered a contract extension during the season to keep him at the club until the end of the 2015 – 16 season .
On 10 May 2016 , it was announced that Lawless would not have his contract renewed after making 203 appearances and scoring 22 goals for Luton since joining the club in 2010 . He left the club upon the expiry of his contract .
= = International career = =
Lawless earned two caps for the Wales under @-@ 19 team and he made his only under @-@ 21 appearance in a 1 – 0 defeat against Northern Ireland on 28 February 2006 , eventually being substituted for Marc Williams on 84 minutes . He made his debut for the Wales semi @-@ pro team in their 4 – 2 defeat to Italy on 14 November 2007 . He was part of the semi @-@ pro team to play against England C in February 2008 , and he scored in their 2 – 1 defeat with a shot from 20 yards . He was named in the team to play Finland in November , although he was forced to miss the game because of an injury .
= = Style of play = =
Lawless is able to play as a right or left midfielder , a central midfielder and a right @-@ back . While being equally comfortable playing at any of these positions , he prefers to play in a midfield role . He has also played in the hole and has given a composed performance as a second striker . His play as a right midfielder is " skilful " and he has been described as being " comfortable on the ball , a good passer , mobile and with an eye for goal " . Stevenage Borough manager Graham Westley described him as a player " who impresses me with his consistency " . After signing for York , manager Martin Foyle said " He is a great all rounder , a technically good footballer and has a very professional attitude towards the game . " His partnership with Neil Barrett in the central midfield for York drew praise from teammate Richard Brodie , who said " The midfield two worked really well together and picked up the second balls . Alex Lawless was flawless and he should be playing in the Football League " .
= = Personal life = =
After joining York City in 2009 , Lawless moved into a house with teammates Neil Barrett , James Meredith , Richard Pacquette and Danny Parslow . He has an interest in art , which he studied as a GCSE , saying " I wouldn ’ t mind trying to make a living from it one day but my main priority is football " . He is a Manchester United supporter and attention to his interest in art was first drawn after producing a painting of manager Alex Ferguson .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 7 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Luton Town
Conference Premier : 2013 – 14
= = = Individual = = =
Luton Town Player of the Season : 2012 – 13
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= Leotia lubrica =
Leotia lubrica , commonly referred to as a jelly baby , is a species of fungus in the family Leotiaceae . The species produces small fruit bodies up to 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in height , featuring a " head " and a stalk . Ochre tinted with olive @-@ green in colour , the heads are irregularly shaped , while the stalk , of a similar colour , attaches them to the ground . The appearance can be somewhat variable and is similar to a number of other species , including Cudonia confusa , C. circinans , L. atrovirens and L. viscosa . L. lubrica was first validly described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli , but it was later transferred to Leotia by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon . Its relationship with other members of the genus , of which it is the type species , is complicated .
Growing in woodland among moss , plant detritus or other habitats , the L. lubrica fruit bodies are typically found in large numbers , though they can grow in tight clumps or even individually . The species feeds as a saprotroph . The youngest fruit bodies are small and conical , but the fertile head quickly grows from the stalk . It is often described as inedible , despite its common name , but has also been reported as edible and even good . L. lubrica has been recorded in Europe , North America , Asia and Australasia .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The first species was first validly described scientifically by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in his 1772 work Flora Carniolica exhibens plantas Carnioliae indigenas et distributas in classes , genera , species , varietates , ordine Linnaeano . Scopoli either named the species Elvella lubrica or Helvella lubrica , with the specific name lubrica meaning slimy . Christiaan Hendrik Persoon transferred the species to Leotia , where it remains , in 1794 . Other synonyms include Leotia gelatinosa , used by John Hill in 1751 , Helvella gelatinosa , used in Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard 's Histoire des champignons de la France , and Peziza cornucopiae , a name given by Georg Franz Hoffmann in 1790 . The fruit bodies of the mushrooms are typically referred to as jelly babies , but other common names include the lizard tuft , the ochre jelly club , the slippery cap , the green slime fungus , and the gumdrop fungus . The term " yellow jelly babies " is sometimes used to differentiate the species from green jelly babies , Leotia viscosa .
Leotia lubrica is the type species of the genus Leotia . It has been hypothesised that the species has a close relationship with L. atrovirens ; mycologist Geoffrey Kibby suggested that greenish color of L. atrovirens may be due to infection by an imperfect fungus on L. lubrica , while David Arora proposed that the two species may intergrade . In 2004 , results of phylogenetic analysis suggested that L. lubrica , L. atrovirens and L. viscosa , while morphologically well @-@ defined , were not monophyletic . L. lubrica specimens could be split into at least two different groups , one of which also contained specimens of L. viscosa . These groups could be differentiated morphologically by the colour of the stalk when dried . The most basal was shown to be L. atrovirens .
= = Description = =
Leotia lubrica produces fruit bodies which range from 1 to 6 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in height . Each body has a single fertile " head " measuring up to 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) across , which is an olive @-@ greenish ochre and gelatinous . To the touch , the surface of the head can be smooth , clammy or slimey . While in shape it is convex , the head is made up of irregular lobes and undulations , and the edge is rolled inward . The underside is paler in colour than the upper surface , and smooth . The head is attached to a central stalk , which ranges from 3 to 6 mm wide , though thinner toward the substrate . The stalk is typically cylindrical , but can be flattened , and occasionally has furrows . The colour is similar to that of the head , though more yellow , and the surface is covered in very small granules of a greenish colour . The flesh is gelatinous in the head , while the stalk is mostly hollow , but it can be filled with gel .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Leotia lubrica spores are borne in asci measuring around 150 by 10 – 12 micrometres ( μm ) . They are club @-@ shaped , and each ascus typically bears eight spores . The asci are inoperculate , meaning that they lack a " lid " and must split to release their spores . The elongated ascospores themselves measure 20 to 25 by 5 to 6 μm , and are subfusiform , that is , they taper slightly at each end . The surface is smooth , and they can be curved , and the spores typically contain four small drops of oil . The mature spores are septate ; that is , they are divided by several septa throughout their length , with 5 to 7 partitions typical , and hyaline . The threadlike , colourless paraphyses measure 105 to 124 by 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 8 μm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Leotia lubrica fruit bodies are similar to those of Cudonia confusa , commonly known as the cinnamon jellybaby . The species can be differentiated by the fact that L. lubrica fruit bodies are more sturdy , and those of C. confusa are much paler in colour . Another Cudonia species , C. circinans ( which is highly similar to C. lutea ) , is similar to L. lubrica , though it can be differentiated by its colour ( which is more brown ) , spores ( which are smaller and thinner ) and texture ( which is less slimy and gelatinous than L. lubrica ) . L. lubrica fruit bodies can also be mistaken for those of the much rarer L. atrovirens , which can be differentiated by its darker colouration . L. viscosa can again be differentiated by colouration ; the species has a green head . However , as L. lubrica fruit bodies can sometimes have a greenish hue , differentiation between the two species is not always easy .
= = Edibility = =
Its fruit bodies are of little culinary interest , and , contrary to what is suggested by the common name , are typically described as inedible by field guides . However , it has also been reported that , while it is little known , the species is in fact edible , with Charles McIlvaine even considering it good . By comparison , American mycologists Alan Bessette and Walter J. Sundberg describe the species as edible , but describe the taste as " bland " . In the field , the flesh has no discernible smell or taste .
= = Habitat , distribution and ecology = =
Leotia lubrica favours damp deciduous woodland , but can also be found under hardwoods . Particular favoured habitats include path sides and underneath bracken , while favoured substrates include soil , moss and plant waste , where it feeds as a saprotroph . Fruit bodies are typically encountered from late summer to late autumn in Europe , and from late spring to autumn in North America , where it is the most common Leotia species . It has also been recorded in eastern Asia , in China and Tibet , as well as in New Zealand and Australia .
The fruit bodies are typically found growing in large numbers , sometimes in clumps , though solitary specimens are occasionally encountered . Several bodies can be connected at their bases , or younger bodies can grow out of the bases of older ones . The youngest fruit bodies are conical in shape . When the body reaches around 2 mm in length , the tip of the cone begins to expand , forming the head . This is the stage at which the hymenium becomes differentiated from the rest of the body , and the bodies quickly reach their mature form , maturing only through growth after that point . Fruit bodies can be infected by the mould Hypomyces leotiarum .
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= U.S. Route 219 in Maryland =
U.S. Route 219 ( US 219 ) is a part of the U.S. Highway System that runs from Rich Creek , Virginia to West Seneca , New York . In the U.S. state of Maryland , the U.S. Highway runs 48 @.@ 40 miles ( 77 @.@ 89 km ) from the West Virginia state line near Red House to the Pennsylvania state line near Grantsville . Known as Garrett Highway for much of its length in Maryland , US 219 is the primary north – south route in Garrett County , connecting Interstate 68 ( I @-@ 68 ) and Oakland . The highway also provides the main access to the resort area of Deep Creek Lake , which includes Maryland 's only ski area , Wisp Ski Resort .
The part of US 219 between Oakland and Keyser 's Ridge was designated as part of the original state road system in 1909 by the Maryland State Roads Commission and constructed in the early 1910s . Chestnut Ridge Road near Grantsville was upgraded to a modern road in the late 1910s , while the Seneca Trail south of Oakland was mostly built in the 1920s . The US 219 designation was assigned to Chestnut Ridge Road and Maryland Route 37 ( MD 37 ) was assigned to the highway south of Keyser 's Ridge when national and state route numbers were assigned in 1926 and 1927 . The intersection with US 40 near Grantsville was the southern terminus of US 219 until the U.S. Highway was extended through West Virginia in 1935 . US 219 was almost completely rebuilt in the 1940s and 1950s , and moved onto I @-@ 68 in the late 1970s . Future plans call for a bypass of Oakland and construction of freeway north from I @-@ 68 to connect with other freeway portions of US 219 in Pennsylvania .
= = Route description = =
US 219 enters Maryland in the southwest corner of Garrett County just to the west of Backbone Mountain . The U.S. Highway heads northeast from the West Virginia state line as two @-@ lane Garrett Highway . After crossing the Youghiogheny River , US 219 meets US 50 ( George Washington Highway ) at an intersection with a two @-@ way stop in the hamlet of Red House . The highway turns northwest to intersect Ben Dewitt Road , a shortcut between US 219 and US 50 at the state line to the west , then resumes its northeasterly course heading toward Gortner , where the highway crosses Cherry Creek and Ambrose Run . US 219 veers north and crosses the Little Youghiogheny River and CSX 's Mountain Subdivision before entering the town of Oakland and meeting the west end of MD 135 ( Maryland Highway ) . The U.S. Highway turns west onto Oak Street while Ninth Street ( unsigned MD 219 ) continues north . US 219 heads west through the Oakland Historic District . At the intersection with MD 39 ( Oak Street ) next to the Garrett County Courthouse , the highway turns north onto Third Street . US 219 parallels Cherry Glade Run north out of town .
US 219 passes along the eastern edge of Mount Nebo Wildlife Management Area and crosses Hoop Pole Hill . North of Sand Flat Road , the highway passes Mayhew Inn Road , which leads west to Swallow Falls State Park . US 219 descends from Hoop Pole Ridge and reaches the southwestern shore of Deep Creek Lake in the hamlet of Thayerville . After passing Glendale Road , which heads east toward Deep Creek Lake State Park and other destinations on the east side of the lake , the highway turns northwest and parallels the west shore of the lake east of Roman Nose Hill . After passing Lakeshore Drive , US 219 crosses the lake on the Deep Creek Bridge . The highway becomes a partially controlled access highway on the hillside above the lake , while Deep Creek Drive follows the shore . US 219 continues north through the unincorporated village of McHenry . In McHenry , the highway intersects Mosser Road , which provides access to Garrett College and Garrett County Airport , and Sang Run Road , which leads to Wisp Ski Resort . After meeting the northern end of Deep Creek Drive , the highway leaves Deep Creek Lake and curves northeast at its junction with MD 42 ( Friendsville Road ) . US 219 continues northeast along Rocklick Creek and the South Branch of Bear Creek . After leaving the South Branch , the highway follows Main Street through the town of Accident . Within the town , the highway intersects Accident Friendsville Road and Accident Bittinger Road , which heads east toward the James Drane House .
After leaving Accident , US 219 intersects an access road to Bear Creek Road and Fish Hatchery Road near the Kaese Mill . After the highway crosses the latter road and Bear Creek , it begins the ascent to Keyser 's Ridge , with the northbound direction gaining a climbing lane . After passing Accident Garage Road , Northern Garrett High School , and a scenic overlook , the highway curves to the east and then back north as it approaches the summit . The climbing lane ends northbound and another climbing lane begins in the southbound direction . Shortly after the descent from the summit , US 219 meets I @-@ 68 ( National Freeway ) and US 40 at Exit 14 of I @-@ 68 at Keyser 's Ridge . US 219 exits onto the eastbound direction of the freeway at a cloverleaf interchange , while US 40 heads north from the interchange to meet the west end of US 40 Alternate then turn northwest into Pennsylvania . After meeting MD 495 at Exit 19 in Grantsville , US 219 exits north onto Chestnut Ridge Road at Exit 22 . The highway intersects US 40 Alternate ( National Pike ) in the hamlet of High Point before crossing the Pennsylvania state line , where US 219 continues north toward Meyersdale .
US 219 is part of the National Highway System for its entire length in Maryland . The highway is also part of Corridor N of the Appalachian Development Highway System from I @-@ 68 to the Pennsylvania state line .
= = History = =
In 1909 , the Maryland State Roads Commission targeted the pre @-@ existing road from the Northwestern Turnpike at Red House to the National Turnpike at Keyser 's Ridge for upgrade to an all @-@ weather road as part of the original state road system . The existing road followed roughly the same alignment as the present US 219 , with four major deviations : south of Oakland , where the road followed Monte Vista Road , Underwood Road , and Third Street north to Oak Street ; at Deep Creek , where the road crossed Deep Creek to the east of the present Deep Creek Bridge ; Hoyes , where the road followed Friendsville Road north to Hoyes , then Hoyes Road east to the present alignment ; and north of Accident , where the road turned northeast and used a very curvy alignment to cross Bear Creek and climb the lower slopes of Keyser 's Ridge to meet the present road near Northern Garrett High School . The new highway was completed from Oakland to Thayerville in 1910 . The segment from Thayerville to McHenry , which followed the pre @-@ existing alignment , was under construction by 1911 and completed in 1913 . The highway from McHenry to Accident , which bypassed Hoyes , was completed in 1914 . Finally , the section from Accident to Keyser 's Ridge , which bypassed the crooked road around Bear Creek , was completed in 1915 .
Once the highway from Oakland to Keyser 's Ridge was completed , attention turned to the south of Oakland . The new road , constructed from Oakland to Gortner in 1915 and 1916 , met the road to Mountain Lake Park , now Oakland Drive , next to Southern Garrett High School , then followed Oak Street west into the county seat . The road from Gortner to Red House was constructed between 1924 and 1927 . The highway was paved south to the West Virginia state line in 1928 . The Chestnut Ridge Road was completed in 1923 . The Deep Creek Dam was constructed starting in 1923 and Deep Creek Lake began to fill in January 1925 . The road was relocated around Deep Creek Lake and the first Deep Creek Bridge was built in 1924 . Chestnut Ridge Road was designated the southern end of US 219 in the U.S. Highway System designated in 1926 . The road south from Keyser 's Ridge was marked as MD 37 in 1927 . In 1935 , US 219 was extended west along US 40 and then south toward West Virginia , replacing the MD 37 designation for its entire length .
After World War II , US 219 was reconstructed into its modern form for most of its length . The segment between Oakland and Thayerville was reconstructed between 1948 and 1950 . The stretch from Keyser 's Ridge to Accident was relocated around 1950 . The section of US 219 between Gortner and Red House was widened between 1950 and 1952 . The stretch between Thayerville and the Deep Creek Bridge was rebuilt from 1952 to 1955 . The McHenry to Accident part of US 219 was reconstructed starting in 1952 . Chestnut Ridge Road was relocated around 1956 . Finally , US 219 between Gortner and Oakland was rebuilt between 1957 and 1959 , including a relocation at the northern end that included its present intersection with MD 135 and a bridge over the B & O Railroad . In the late 1960s , US 219 was relocated from the Deep Creek Bridge through McHenry , leaving behind Deep Creek Drive as an old alignment . After the construction of I @-@ 68 in the mid @-@ 1970s , US 219 was moved to the new freeway between Keyser 's Ridge and Chestnut Ridge Road in 1978 . The present Deep Creek Bridge was completed in 1987 , replacing the 1924 structure .
= = Future = =
There are two projects planned for US 219 in Maryland . The Oakland Bypass will run from the present intersection of US 219 and MD 135 on the east edge of the town to US 219 north of the Walmart Supercenter . There are also plans by Maryland and Pennsylvania to upgrade US 219 to a freeway northward from I @-@ 68 east of Grantsville .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Garrett County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
US 219 has eight unsigned auxiliary routes , several of which connect with segments of MD 826 . US 219A and US 219B are found around Oakland , US 219C through 219G are located between Accident and Keyser 's Ridge , and US 219J is near Grantsville .
US 219A is the designation for Weber Road , a 0 @.@ 10 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) connector between MD 826A ( Weber Road / SHA Drive ) and the intersection of US 219 and MD 826B ( Lumber City Road ) in Oakland .
US 219B is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826C between Gortner and Oakland .
US 219C is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826G between Accident and Bear Creek .
US 219D is the designation for a 0 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826J ( Stockyard Road ) near its southern end in Keyser 's Ridge .
US 219E is the designation for a 0 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826J ( Stockyard Road ) near its northern end in Keyser 's Ridge .
US 219F is the designation for a 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826K south of Keyser 's Ridge .
US 219G is the designation for Ryland Court , a 0 @.@ 04 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 064 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826L south of Keyser 's Ridge .
US 219J is the designation for a 0 @.@ 14 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 23 km ) segment of Chestnut Ridge Road immediately south of Exit 22 of I @-@ 68 .
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= Annelid =
The annelids ( Annelida , from Latin anellus , " little ring " ) , also known as the ringed worms or segmented worms , are a large phylum , with over 17 @,@ 000 extant species including ragworms , earthworms , and leeches . The species exist in and have adapted to various ecologies - some in marine environments as distinct as tidal zones and hydrothermal vents , others in fresh water , and yet others in moist terrestrial environments .
The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical , triploblastic , coelomate , invertebrate organisms . They also have parapodia for locomotion . Most textbooks still use the traditional division into polychaetes ( almost all marine ) , oligochaetes ( which include earthworms ) and leech @-@ like species . Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme , viewing leeches as a sub @-@ group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub @-@ group of polychaetes . In addition , the Pogonophora , Echiura and Sipuncula , previously regarded as separate phyla , are now regarded as sub @-@ groups of polychaetes . Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa , a " super @-@ phylum " of protostomes that also includes molluscs , brachiopods , flatworms and nemerteans .
The basic annelid form consists of multiple segments . Each segment has the same sets of organs and , in most polychaetes , has a pair of parapodia that many species use for locomotion . Septa separate the segments of many species , but are poorly defined or absent in others , and Echiura and Sipuncula show no obvious signs of segmentation . In species with well @-@ developed septa , the blood circulates entirely within blood vessels , and the vessels in segments near the front ends of these species are often built up with muscles that act as hearts . The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments , which facilitates movement by peristalsis ( " ripples " that pass along the body ) or by undulations that improve the effectiveness of the parapodia . In species with incomplete septa or none , the blood circulates through the main body cavity without any kind of pump , and there is a wide range of locomotory techniques – some burrowing species turn their pharynges inside out to drag themselves through the sediment .
Although many species can reproduce asexually and use similar mechanisms to regenerate after severe injuries , sexual reproduction is the normal method in species whose reproduction has been studied . The minority of living polychaetes whose reproduction and lifecycles are known produce trochophore larvae , that live as plankton and then sink and metamorphose into miniature adults . Oligochaetes are full hermaphrodites and produce a ring @-@ like cocoon around their bodies , in which the eggs and hatchlings are nourished until they are ready to emerge .
Earthworms are Oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil . The burrowing of marine polychaetes , which may constitute up to a third of all species in near @-@ shore environments , encourages the development of ecosystems by enabling water and oxygen to penetrate the sea floor . In addition to improving soil fertility , annelids serve humans as food and as bait . Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water . Although blood @-@ letting is no longer in favor with doctors , some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over @-@ harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries . Ragworms ' jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer an exceptional combination of lightness and strength .
Since annelids are soft @-@ bodied , their fossils are rare – mostly jaws and the mineralized tubes that some of the species secreted . Although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids , the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period . Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous , about 299 million years ago . Palaeontologists disagree about whether some body fossils from the mid Ordovician , about 472 to 461 million years ago , are the remains of oligochaetes , and the earliest indisputable fossils of the group appear in the Tertiary period , which began 65 million years ago .
= = Classification and diversity = =
There are over 22 @,@ 000 living annelid species , ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus ( Cognetti , 1922 ) , which can both grow up to 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long . Although research since 1997 has radically changed scientists ' views about the evolutionary family tree of the annelids , most textbooks use the traditional classification into the following sub @-@ groups :
Polychaetes ( about 12 @,@ 000 species ) . As their name suggests , they have multiple chetae ( " hairs " ) per segment . Polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs , and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors . Most are marine animals , although a few species live in fresh water and even fewer on land .
Clitellates ( about 10 @,@ 000 species ) . These have few or no chetae per segment , and no nuchal organs or parapodia . However , they have a unique reproductive organ , the ring @-@ shaped clitellum ( " pack saddle " ) around their bodies , which produces a cocoon that stores and nourishes fertilized eggs until they hatch or , in moniligastrids , yolky eggs that provide nutrition for the embyros . The clitellates are sub @-@ divided into : Oligochaetes ( " with few hairs " ) , which includes earthworms . Oligochaetes have a sticky pad in the roof of the mouth . Most are burrowers that feed on wholly or partly decomposed organic materials .
Hirudinea , whose name means " leech @-@ shaped " and whose best known members are leeches . Marine species are mostly blood @-@ sucking parasites , mainly on fish , while most freshwater species are predators . They have suckers at both ends of their bodies , and use these to move rather like inchworms .
The Archiannelida , minute annelids that live in the spaces between grains of marine sediment , were treated as a separate class because of their simple body structure , but are now regarded as polychaetes . Some other groups of animals have been classified in various ways , but are now widely regarded as annelids :
Pogonophora / Siboglinidae were first discovered in 1914 , and their lack of a recognizable gut made it difficult to classify them . They have been classified as a separate phylum , Pogonophora , or as two phyla , Pogonophora and Vestimentifera . More recently they have been re @-@ classified as a family , Siboglinidae , within the polychaetes .
The Echiura have a checkered taxonomic history : in the 19th century they were assigned to the phylum " Gephyrea " , which is now empty as its members have been assigned to other phyla ; the Echiura were next regarded as annelids until the 1940s , when they were classified as a phylum in their own right ; but a molecular phylogenetics analysis in 1997 concluded that echiurans are annelids .
Myzostomida live on crinoids and other echinoderms , mainly as parasites . In the past they have been regarded as close relatives of the trematode flatworms or of the tardigrades , but in 1998 it was suggested that they are a sub @-@ group of polychaetes . However , another analysis in 2002 suggested that myzostomids are more closely related to flatworms or to rotifers and acanthocephales .
= = Distinguishing features = =
No single feature distinguishes Annelids from other invertebrate phyla , but they have a distinctive combination of features . Their bodies are long , with segments that are divided externally by shallow ring @-@ like constrictions called annuli and internally by septa ( " partitions " ) at the same points , although in some species the septa are incomplete and in a few cases missing . Most of the segments contain the same sets of organs , although sharing a common gut , circulatory system and nervous system makes them inter @-@ dependent . Their bodies are covered by a cuticle ( outer covering ) that does not contain cells but is secreted by cells in the skin underneath , is made of tough but flexible collagen and does not molt – on the other hand arthropods ' cuticles are made of the more rigid α @-@ chitin , and molt until the arthropods reach their full size . Most annelids have closed circulatory systems , where the blood makes its entire circuit via blood vessels .
= = Description = =
= = = Segmentation = = =
Most of an annelid 's body consists of segments that are practically identical , having the same sets of internal organs and external chaetae ( Greek χαιτη , meaning " hair " ) and , in some species , appendages . However , the frontmost and rearmost sections are not regarded as true segments as they do not contain the standard sets of organs and do not develop in the same way as the true segments . The frontmost section , called the prostomium ( Greek προ- meaning " in front of " and στομα meaning " mouth " ) contains the brain and sense organs , while the rearmost , called the pygidium ( Greek πυγιδιον , meaning " little tail " ) or periproct contains the anus , generally on the underside . The first section behind the prostomium , called the peristomium ( Greek περι- meaning " around " and στομα meaning " mouth " ) , is regarded by some zoologists as not a true segment , but in some polychaetes the peristomium has chetae and appendages like those of other segments .
The segments develop one at a time from a growth zone just ahead of the pygidium , so that an annelid 's youngest segment is just in front of the growth zone while the peristomium is the oldest . This pattern is called teloblastic growth . Some groups of annelids , including all leeches , have fixed maximum numbers of segments , while others add segments throughout their lives .
The phylum 's name is derived from the Latin word annelus , meaning " little ring " .
= = = Body wall , chetae and parapodia = = =
Annelids ' cuticles are made of collagen fibers , usually in layers that spiral in alternating directions so that the fibers cross each other . These are secreted by the one @-@ cell deep epidermis ( outermost skin layer ) . A few marine annelids that live in tubes lack cuticles , but their tubes have a similar structure , and mucus @-@ secreting glands in the epidermis protect their skins . Under the epidermis is the dermis , which is made of connective tissue , in other words a combination of cells and non @-@ cellular materials such as collagen . Below this are two layers of muscles , which develop from the lining of the coelom ( body cavity ) : circular muscles make a segment longer and slimmer when they contract , while under them are longitudinal muscles , usually four distinct strips , whose contractions make the segment shorter and fatter . Some annelids also have oblique internal muscles that connect the underside of the body to each side .
The setae ( " hairs " ) of annelids project out from the epidermis to provide traction and other capabilities . The simplest are unjointed and form paired bundles near the top and bottom of each side of each segment . The parapodia ( " limbs " ) of annelids that have them often bear more complex chetae at their tips – for example jointed , comb @-@ like or hooked . Chetae are made of moderately flexible β @-@ chitin and are formed by follicles , each of which has a chetoblast ( " hair @-@ forming " ) cell at the bottom and muscles that can extend or retract the cheta . The chetoblasts produce chetae by forming microvilli , fine hair @-@ like extensions that increase the area available for secreting the cheta . When the cheta is complete , the microvilli withdraw into the chetoblast , leaving parallel tunnels that run almost the full length of the cheta . Hence annelids ' chetae are structurally different from the setae ( " bristles " ) of arthropods , which are made of the more rigid α @-@ chitin , have a single internal cavity , and are mounted on flexible joints in shallow pits in the cuticle .
Nearly all polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs , while other major annelid groups lack them . Parapodia are unjointed paired extensions of the body wall , and their muscles are derived from the circular muscles of the body . They are often supported internally by one or more large , thick chetae . The parapodia of burrowing and tube @-@ dwelling polychaetes are often just ridges whose tips bear hooked chetae . In active crawlers and swimmers the parapodia are often divided into large upper and lower paddles on a very short trunk , and the paddles are generally fringed with chetae and sometimes with cirri ( fused bundles of cilia ) and gills .
= = = Nervous system and senses = = =
The brain generally forms a ring round the pharynx ( throat ) , consisting of a pair of ganglia ( local control centers ) above and in front of the pharynx , linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it . The brains of polychaetes are generally in the prostomium , while those of clitellates are in the peristomium or sometimes the first segment behind the peristomium . In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex , with visible hindbrain , midbrain and forebrain sections . The rest of the central nervous system is generally " ladder @-@ like " , consisting of a pair of nerve cords that run through the bottom part of the body and have in each segment paired ganglia linked by a transverse connection . From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body . However , in most polychaetes the two main nerve cords are fused , and in the tube @-@ dwelling genus Owenia the single nerve chord has no ganglia and is located in the epidermis .
As in arthropods , each muscle fiber ( cell ) is controlled by more than one neuron , and the speed and power of the fiber 's contractions depends on the combined effects of all its neurons . Vertebrates have a different system , in which one neuron controls a group of muscle fibers . Most annelids ' longitudinal nerve trunks include giant axons ( the output signal lines of nerve cells ) . Their large diameter decreases their resistance , which allows them to transmit signals exceptionally fast . This enables these worms to withdraw rapidly from danger by shortening their bodies . Experiments have shown that cutting the giant axons prevents this escape response but does not affect normal movement .
The sensors are primarily single cells that detect light , chemicals , pressure waves and contact , and are present on the head , appendages ( if any ) and other parts of the body . Nuchal ( " on the neck " ) organs are paired , ciliated structures found only in polychaetes , and are thought to be chemosensors . Some polychaetes also have various combinations of ocelli ( " little eyes " ) that detect the direction from which light is coming and camera eyes or compound eyes that can probably form images . The compound eyes probably evolved independently of arthropods ' eyes . Some tube @-@ worms use ocelli widely spread over their bodies to detect the shadows of fish , so that they can quickly withdraw into their tubes . Some burrowing and tube @-@ dwelling polychaetes have statocysts ( tilt and balance sensors ) that tell them which way is down . A few polychaete genera have on the undersides of their heads palps that are used both in feeding and as " feelers " , and some of these also have antennae that are structurally similar but probably are used mainly as " feelers " .
= = = Coelom , locomotion and circulatory system = = =
Most annelids have a pair of coelomata ( body cavities ) in each segment , separated from other segments by septa and from each other by vertical mesenteries . Each septum forms a sandwich with connective tissue in the middle and mesothelium ( membrane that serves as a lining ) from the preceding and following segments on either side . Each mesentery is similar except that the mesothelium is the lining of each of the pair of coelomata , and the blood vessels and , in polychaetes , the main nerve cords are embedded in it . The mesothelium is made of modified epitheliomuscular cells ; in other words , their bodies form part of the epithelium but their bases extend to form muscle fibers in the body wall . The mesothelium may also form radial and circular muscles on the septa , and circular muscles around the blood vessels and gut . Parts of the mesothelium , especially on the outside of the gut , may also form chloragogen cells that perform similar functions to the livers of vertebrates : producing and storing glycogen and fat ; producing the oxygen @-@ carrier hemoglobin ; breaking down proteins ; and turning nitrogenous waste products into ammonia and urea to be excreted .
Many annelids move by peristalsis ( waves of contraction and expansion that sweep along the body ) , or flex the body while using parapodia to crawl or swim . In these animals the septa enable the circular and longitudinal muscles to change the shape of individual segments , by making each segment a separate fluid @-@ filled " balloon " . However , the septa are often incomplete in annelids that are semi @-@ sessile or that do not move by peristalsis or by movements of parapodia – for example some move by whipping movements of the body , some small marine species move by means of cilia ( fine muscle @-@ powered hairs ) and some burrowers turn their pharynges ( throats ) inside out to penetrate the sea @-@ floor and drag themselves into it .
The fluid in the coelomata contains coelomocyte cells that defend the animals against parasites and infections . In some species coelomocytes may also contain a respiratory pigment – red hemoglobin in some species , green chlorocruorin in others ( dissolved in the plasma ) – and provide oxygen transport within their segments . Respiratory pigment is also dissolved in the blood plasma . Species with well @-@ developed septa generally also have blood vessels running all long their bodies above and below the gut , the upper one carrying blood forwards while the lower one carries it backwards . Networks of capillaries in the body wall and around the gut transfer blood between the main blood vessels and to parts of the segment that need oxygen and nutrients . Both of the major vessels , especially the upper one , can pump blood by contracting . In some annelids the forward end of the upper blood vessel is enlarged with muscles to form a heart , while in the forward ends of many earthworms some of the vessels that connect the upper and lower main vessels function as hearts . Species with poorly developed or no septa generally have no blood vessels and rely on the circulation within the coelom for delivering nutrients and oxygen .
However , leeches and their closest relatives have a body structure that is very uniform within the group but significantly different from that of other annelids , including other members of the Clitellata . In leeches there are no septa , the connective tissue layer of the body wall is so thick that it occupies much of the body , and the two coelomata are widely separated and run the length of the body . They function as the main blood vessels , although they are side @-@ by @-@ side rather than upper and lower . However , they are lined with mesothelium , like the coelomata and unlike the blood vessels of other annelids . Leeches generally use suckers at their front and rear ends to move like inchworms . The anus is on the upper surface of the pygidium .
= = = Respiration = = =
In some annelids , including earthworms , all respiration is via the skin . However , many polychaetes and some clitellates ( the group to which earthworms belong ) have gills associated with most segments , often as extensions of the parapodia in polychaetes . The gills of tube @-@ dwellers and burrowers usually cluster around whichever end has the stronger water flow .
= = = Feeding and excretion = = =
Feeding structures in the mouth region vary widely , and have little correlation with the animals ' diets . Many polychaetes have a muscular pharynx that can be everted ( turned inside out to extend it ) . In these animals the foremost few segments often lack septa so that , when the muscles in these segments contract , the sharp increase in fluid pressure from all these segments everts the pharynx very quickly . Two families , the Eunicidae and Phyllodocidae , have evolved jaws , which can be used for seizing prey , biting off pieces of vegetation , or grasping dead and decaying matter . On the other hand , some predatory polychaetes have neither jaws nor eversible pharynges . Selective deposit feeders generally live in tubes on the sea @-@ floor and use palps to find food particles in the sediment and then wipe them into their mouths . Filter feeders use " crowns " of palps covered in cilia that wash food particles towards their mouths . Non @-@ selective deposit feeders ingest soil or marine sediments via mouths that are generally unspecialized . Some clitellates have sticky pads in the roofs of their mouths , and some of these can evert the pads to capture prey . Leeches often have an eversible proboscis , or a muscular pharynx with two or three teeth .
The gut is generally an almost straight tube supported by the mesenteries ( vertical partitions within segments ) , and ends with the anus on the underside of the pygidium . However , in members of the tube @-@ dwelling family Siboglinidae the gut is blocked by a swollen lining that houses symbiotic bacteria , which can make up 15 % of the worms ' total weight . The bacteria convert inorganic matter – such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from hydrothermal vents , or methane from seeps – to organic matter that feeds themselves and their hosts , while the worms extend their palps into the gas flows to absorb the gases needed by the bacteria .
Annelids with blood vessels use metanephridia to remove soluble waste products , while those without use protonephridia . Both of these systems use a two @-@ stage filtration process , in which fluid and waste products are first extracted and these are filtered again to re @-@ absorb any re @-@ usable materials while dumping toxic and spent materials as urine . The difference is that protonephridia combine both filtration stages in the same organ , while metanephridia perform only the second filtration and rely on other mechanisms for the first – in annelids special filter cells in the walls of the blood vessels let fluids and other small molecules pass into the coelomic fluid , where it circulates to the metanephridia . In annelids the points at which fluid enters the protonephridia or metanephridia are on the forward side of a septum while the second @-@ stage filter and the nephridiopore ( exit opening in the body wall ) are in the following segment . As a result , the hindmost segment ( before the growth zone and pygidium ) has no structure that extracts its wastes , as there is no following segment to filter and discharge them , while the first segment contains an extraction structure that passes wastes to the second , but does not contain the structures that re @-@ filter and discharge urine .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
= = = = Asexual reproduction = = = =
Polychaetes can reproduce asexually , by dividing into two or more pieces or by budding off a new individual while the parent remains a complete organism . Some oligochaetes , such as Aulophorus furcatus , seem to reproduce entirely asexually , while others reproduce asexually in summer and sexually in autumn . Asexual reproduction in oligochaetes is always by dividing into two or more pieces , rather than by budding . However , leeches have never been seen reproducing asexually .
Most polychaetes and oligochaetes also use similar mechanisms to regenerate after suffering damage . Two polychaete genera , Chaetopterus and Dodecaceria , can regenerate from a single segment , and others can regenerate even if their heads are removed . Annelids are the most complex animals that can regenerate after such severe damage . On the other hand , leeches cannot regenerate .
= = = = Sexual reproduction = = = =
It is thought that annelids were originally animals with two separate sexes , which released ova and sperm into the water via their nephridia . The fertilized eggs develop into trochophore larvae , which live as plankton . Later they sink to the sea @-@ floor and metamorphose into miniature adults : the part of the trochophore between the apical tuft and the prototroch becomes the prostomium ( head ) ; a small area round the trochophore 's anus becomes the pygidium ( tail @-@ piece ) ; a narrow band immediately in front of that becomes the growth zone that produces new segments ; and the rest of the trochophore becomes the peristomium ( the segment that contains the mouth ) .
However , the lifecycles of most living polychaetes , which are almost all marine animals , are unknown , and only about 25 % of the 300 + species whose lifecycles are known follow this pattern . About 14 % use a similar external fertilization but produce yolk @-@ rich eggs , which reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton , or eggs from which miniature adults emerge rather than larvae . The rest care for the fertilized eggs until they hatch – some by producing jelly @-@ covered masses of eggs which they tend , some by attaching the eggs to their bodies and a few species by keeping the eggs within their bodies until they hatch . These species use a variety of methods for sperm transfer ; for example , in some the females collect sperm released into the water , while in others the males have a penis that inject sperm into the female . There is no guarantee that this is a representative sample of polychaetes ' reproductive patterns , and it simply reflects scientists ' current knowledge .
Some polychaetes breed only once in their lives , while others breed almost continuously or through several breeding seasons . While most polychaetes remain of one sex all their lives , a significant percentage of species are full hermaphrodites or change sex during their lives . Most polychaetes whose reproduction has been studied lack permanent gonads , and it is uncertain how they produce ova and sperm . In a few species the rear of the body splits off and becomes a separate individual that lives just long enough to swim to a suitable environment , usually near the surface , and spawn .
Most mature clitellates ( the group that includes earthworms and leeches ) are full hermaphrodites , although in a few leech species younger adults function as males and become female at maturity . All have well @-@ developed gonads , and all copulate . Earthworms store their partners ' sperm in spermathecae ( " sperm stores " ) and then the clitellum produces a cocoon that collects ova from the ovaries and then sperm from the spermathecae . Fertilization and development of earthworm eggs takes place in the cocoon . Leeches ' eggs are fertilized in the ovaries , and then transferred to the cocoon . In all clitellates the cocoon also either produces yolk when the eggs are fertilized or nutrients while they are developing . All clitellates hatch as miniature adults rather than larvae .
= = Ecological significance = =
Charles Darwin 's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms ( 1881 ) presented the first scientific analysis of earthworms ' contributions to soil fertility . Some burrow while others live entirely on the surface , generally in moist leaf litter . The burrowers loosen the soil so that oxygen and water can penetrate it , and both surface and burrowing worms help to produce soil by mixing organic and mineral matter , by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and thus making it more quickly available to other organisms , and by concentrating minerals and converting them to forms that plants can use more easily . Earthworms are also important prey for birds ranging in size from robins to storks , and for mammals ranging from shrews to badgers , and in some cases conserving earthworms may be essential for conserving endangered birds .
Terrestrial annelids can be invasive in some situations . In the glaciated areas of North America , for example , almost all native earthworms are thought to have been killed by the glaciers and the worms currently found in those areas are all introduced from other areas , primarily from Europe , and , more recently , from Asia . Northern hardwood forests are especially negatively impacted by invasive worms through the loss of leaf duff , soil fertility , changes in soil chemistry and the loss of ecological diversity . Especially of concern is Amynthas agrestis and at least one state ( Wisconsin ) has listed it as a prohibited species .
Earthworms migrate only a limited distance annually on their own , and the spread of invasive worms is increased rapidly by anglers and from worms or their cocoons in the dirt on vehicle tires or footwear .
Marine annelids may account for over one @-@ third of bottom @-@ dwelling animal species around coral reefs and in tidal zones . Burrowing species increase the penetration of water and oxygen into the sea @-@ floor sediment , which encourages the growth of populations of aerobic bacteria and small animals alongside their burrows .
Although blood @-@ sucking leeches do little direct harm to their victims , some transmit flagellates that can be very dangerous to their hosts . Some small tube @-@ dwelling oligochaetes transmit myxosporean parasites that cause whirling disease in fish .
= = Interaction with humans = =
Earthworms make a significant contribution to soil fertility . The rear end of the Palolo worm , a marine polychaete that tunnels through coral , detaches in order to spawn at the surface , and the people of Samoa regard these spawning modules as a delicacy . Anglers sometimes find that worms are more effective bait than artificial flies , and worms can be kept for several days in a tin lined with damp moss . Ragworms are commercially important as bait and as food sources for aquaculture , and there have been proposals to farm them in order to reduce over @-@ fishing of their natural populations . Some marine polychaetes ' predation on molluscs causes serious losses to fishery and aquaculture operations .
Scientists study aquatic annelids to monitor the oxygen content , salinity and pollution levels in fresh and marine water .
Accounts of the use of leeches for the medically dubious practise of blood @-@ letting have come from China around 30 AD , India around 200 AD , ancient Rome around 50 AD and later throughout Europe . In the 19th century medical demand for leeches was so high that some areas ' stocks were exhausted and other regions imposed restrictions or bans on exports , and Hirudo medicinalis is treated as an endangered species by both IUCN and CITES . More recently leeches have been used to assist in microsurgery , and their saliva has provided anti @-@ inflammatory compounds and several important anticoagulants , one of which also prevents tumors from spreading .
Ragworms ' jaws are strong but much lighter than the hard parts of many other organisms , which are biomineralized with calcium salts . These advantages have attracted the attention of engineers . Investigations showed that ragworm jaws are made of unusual proteins that bind strongly to zinc .
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Since annelids are soft @-@ bodied , their fossils are rare . Polychaetes ' fossil record consists mainly of the jaws that some species had and the mineralized tubes that some secreted . Some Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia in some ways resemble polychaetes , but the similarities are too vague for these fossils to be classified with confidence . The small shelly fossil Cloudina , from 549 to 542 million years ago , has been classified by some authors as an annelid , but by others as a cnidarian ( i.e. in the phylum to which jellyfish and sea anemones belong ) . Until 2008 the earliest fossils widely accepted as annelids were the polychaetes Canadia and Burgessochaeta , both from Canada 's Burgess Shale , formed about 505 million years ago in the early Cambrian . Myoscolex , found in Australia and a little older than the Burgess Shale , was possibly an annelid . However , it lacks some typical annelid features and has features which are not usually found in annelids and some of which are associated with other phyla . Then Simon Conway Morris and John Peel reported Phragmochaeta from Sirius Passet , about 518 million years old , and concluded that it was the oldest annelid known to date . There has been vigorous debate about whether the Burgess Shale fossil Wiwaxia was a mollusc or an annelid . Polychaetes diversified in the early Ordovician , about 488 to 474 million years ago . It is not until the early Ordovician that the first annelid jaws are found , thus the crown @-@ group cannot have appeared before this date and probably appeared somewhat later . By the end of the Carboniferous , about 299 million years ago , fossils of most of the modern mobile polychaete groups had appeared . Many fossil tubes look like those made by modern sessile polychaetes , but the first tubes clearly produced by polychaetes date from the Jurassic , less than 199 million years ago .
The earliest good evidence for oligochaetes occurs in the Tertiary period , which began 65 million years ago , and it has been suggested that these animals evolved around the same time as flowering plants in the early Cretaceous , from 130 to 90 million years ago . A trace fossil consisting of a convoluted burrow partly filled with small fecal pellets may be evidence that earthworms were present in the early Triassic period from 251 to 245 million years ago . Body fossils going back to the mid Ordovician , from 472 to 461 million years ago , have been tentatively classified as oligochaetes , but these identifications are uncertain and some have been disputed .
= = = Family tree = = =
Traditionally the annelids have been divided into two major groups , the polychaetes and clitellates . In turn the clitellates were divided into oligochaetes , which include earthworms , and hirudinomorphs , whose best @-@ known members are leeches . For many years there was no clear arrangement of the approximately 80 polychaete families into higher @-@ level groups . In 1997 Greg Rouse and Kristian Fauchald attempted a " first heuristic step in terms of bringing polychaete systematics to an acceptable level of rigour " , based on anatomical structures , and divided polychaetes into :
Scolecida , less than 1 @,@ 000 burrowing species that look rather like earthworms .
Palpata , the great majority of polychaetes , divided into :
Canalipalpata , which are distinguished by having long grooved palps that they use for feeding , and most of which live in tubes .
Aciculata , the most active polychaetes , which have parapodia reinforced by internal spines ( aciculae ) .
Also in 1997 Damhnait McHugh , using molecular phylogenetics to compare similarities and differences in one gene , presented a very different view , in which : the clitellates were an offshoot of one branch of the polychaete family tree ; the pogonophorans and echiurans , which for a few decades had been regarded as a separate phyla , were placed on other branches of the polychaete tree . Subsequent molecular phylogenetics analyses on a similar scale presented similar conclusions .
In 2007 Torsten Struck and colleagues compared 3 genes in 81 taxa , of which 9 were outgroups , in other words not considered closely related to annelids but included to give an indication of where the organisms under study are placed on the larger tree of life . For a cross @-@ check the study used an analysis of 11 genes ( including the original 3 ) in 10 taxa . This analysis agreed that clitellates , pogonophorans and echiurans were on various branches of the polychaete family tree . It also concluded that the classification of polychaetes into Scolecida , Canalipalpata and Aciculata was useless , as the members of these alleged groups were scattered all over the family tree derived from comparing the 81 taxa . In addition , it also placed sipunculans , generally regarded at the time as a separate phylum , on another branch of the polychaete tree , and concluded that leeches were a sub @-@ group of oligochaetes rather than their sister @-@ group among the clitellates . Rouse accepted the analyses based on molecular phylogenetics , and their main conclusions are now the scientific consensus , although the details of the annelid family tree remain uncertain .
In addition to re @-@ writing the classification of annelids and 3 previously independent phyla , the molecular phylogenetics analyses undermine the emphasis that decades of previous writings placed on the importance of segmentation in the classification of invertebrates . Polychaetes , which these analyses found to be the parent group , have completely segmented bodies , while polychaetes ' echiurans and sipunculan offshoots are not segmented and pogonophores are segmented only in the rear parts of their bodies . It now seems that segmentation can appear and disappear much more easily in the course of evolution than was previously thought . The 2007 study also noted that the ladder @-@ like nervous system , which is associated with segmentation , is less universal previously thought in both annelids and arthropods .
Annelids are members of the protostomes , one of the two major superphyla of bilaterian animals – the other is the deuterostomes , which includes vertebrates . Within the protostomes , annelids used to be grouped with arthropods under the super @-@ group Articulata ( " jointed animals " ) , as segmentation is obvious in most members of both phyla . However , the genes that drive segmentation in arthropods do not appear to do the same in annelids . Arthropods and annelids both have close relatives that are unsegmented . It is at least as easy to assume that they evolved segmented bodies independently as it is to assume that the ancestral protostome or bilaterian was segmented and that segmentation disappeared in many descendant phyla . The current view is that annelids are grouped with molluscs , brachiopods and several other phyla that have lophophores ( fan @-@ like feeding structures ) and / or trochophore larvae as members of Lophotrochozoa . Bryozoa may be the most basal phylum ( the one that first became distinctive ) within the Lophotrochozoa , and the relationships between the other members are not yet known . Arthropods are now regarded as members of the Ecdysozoa ( " animals that molt " ) , along with some phyla that are unsegmented .
The " Lophotrochozoa " hypothesis is also supported by the fact that many phyla within this group , including annelids , molluscs , nemerteans and flatworms , follow a similar pattern in the fertilized egg 's development . When their cells divide after the 4 @-@ cell stage , descendants of these 4 cells form a spiral pattern . In these phyla the " fates " of the embryo 's cells , in other words the roles their descendants will play in the adult animal , are the same and can be predicted from a very early stage . Hence this development pattern is often described as " spiral determinate cleavage " .
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= Hunting Trip =
" Hunting Trip " is the tenth episode of the second season of American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the sixteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 19 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie tries to prove she can hang out with the guys by attending Ron 's annual hunting trip , where Ron is accidentally shot .
The episode was written by Daniel J. Goor and was directed by series co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . It also introduced a romantic subplot between the characters Andy and April which continued throughout the second season and into the third . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur said the pairing was not previously planned , but grew when it was discovered actors Aubrey Plaza and Chris Pratt had strong comedic chemistry together .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Hunting Trip " was seen by 4 @.@ 61 million viewers , a slight drop from the previous week 's episode , " The Camel " . The episode received generally positive to mixed reviews , with commentators particularly praising the Andy and April subplot , as well as the continued development of Leslie Knope 's character .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Andy ( Chris Pratt ) giving piggyback rides to everyone in the parks department . Later , Ron ( Nick Offerman ) , Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) and Mark ( Paul Schneider ) look forward to their annual " trail survey " , which is actually a yearly secret hunting trip . Determined to prove she can be just like one of the guys around the office , Leslie insists the ladies of the parks department attend the trip this year , as well as Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , who has also never been invited . Ron is visibly disappointed .
Leslie asks April ( Aubrey Plaza ) to check on a budgeting request while they are gone . What should be a simple chore , however , has April waiting on hold at the phone for hours . When she desperately has to use the restroom , Andy agrees to wait by the phone . When she returns , the two start to bond by making up their own lyrics to the hold music , playing a non @-@ water game of Marco Polo around the office , and seeing who can make the best spit @-@ take . When Andy says he is jealous that his ex @-@ girlfriend Ann ( Rashida Jones ) is going to the hunting trip with Mark , April offers to give him a hickey to make Ann jealous , which Andy accepts .
Meanwhile , the others arrive at the cabin for the hunting trip . Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) proves to be an excellent hunter and bags the first quail . Growing increasingly agitated , Ron agrees to a challenge that Leslie cannot shoot more birds than he can , and they split up . After a few hours of hunting , Ron screams and the others rush to his side and find he has been shot in the head . Ann , a nurse , takes Ron back to the cabin , where he is absolutely furious even though the injury is not serious . Ron asks whether Leslie shot him , but she insists she did not . Ron takes several pain pills and washes it down with scotch , which forces Ann and Leslie to hold his mouth open and induce vomiting , despite fierce opposition from Ron himself .
The others discuss who shot Ron , and Tom creates a minor panic when he suggests perhaps an outsider is hunting them . Ann takes Leslie aside and says she knows who shot Ron , and a few minutes later Leslie admits to the group that she was the shooter , even though Ann knows this is not the case . A park ranger ( Jay Johnston ) arrives and interrogates Leslie , implying that the accident is the result of her femininity . Leslie knows that she is a good hunter , but goes along with the ranger 's sexist implications in order to appease him . Later , a bandaged Ron repeatedly berates Leslie , prompting Ann to insist Tom come forward . Tom admits he shot Ron , and that Leslie covered for him because he did not have his hunting license , which could have resulted in a $ 25 @,@ 000 fine and prison time . Ron is impressed with Leslie , whom he calls a " stand @-@ up guy " . The episode ends with a get well party for Ron , where Ann is unimpressed with Andy 's hickey , and the whole party is horrified by Ron 's head wound .
= = Production = =
" Hunting Trip " was written by Daniel J. Goor and directed by series co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . The episode introduced a romantic subplot between the characters Andy and April which continued throughout the second season and into the third . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur said the pairing was not previously planned , but grew when it was discovered during the filming of " Hunting Trip " that actors Aubrey Plaza and Chris Pratt had strong comedic chemistry together . However , Schur also said the idea to pair them together in " Hunting Trip " stemmed in part from a line Plaza improvised in the first season finale " Rock Show " , when Andy explained his style of music and April replied that she completely understood him . Schur said , " At the time , it was this little nothing , throwaway thing , but when we watched it , we thought there might be something there . "
During a November 2009 panel at the Paley Center for Media in New York City , Plaza said , " You 're going to see more scenes with Andy and April . There could be a love connection for them . " Daniels said some of his favorite moments from the series were in " Hunting Trip " and he particularly loved the " interpersonal stuff " between Andy and April , who he described as " two characters that you didn 't know had any interest in one another " . Pratt specifically sought to make Plaza laugh during their scene together and was ultimately successful . He told Daniels before filming , " I 'm gonna get something out of her . " " Hunting Trip " included a scene in which Leslie tells the state trooper multiple reasons or excuses for why she apparently shot Ron , all of which were edited together in a series of jump cuts . The technique has been commonly used throughout the Parks and Recreation series to condense multiple takes of improvisation from Poehler .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on November 19 , 2009 , " Hunting Trip " was seen by 4 @.@ 61 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . " Hunting Trip " drew a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . It constituted about a five percent drop in viewership from the previous week 's episode , " The Camel " , which itself was a five percent drop from the previous episode , " Ron and Tammy " . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several particularly praising the subplot between Aubrey Plaza and Chris Pratt . Reviewers also praised the continued developed of the Leslie Knope character , who proves to be intelligent and capable in " Hunting Trip " , rather than the clueless protagonist she appeared to be in earlier episodes . In 2011 , New York magazine writer called it " one of the breakout episodes that saw the show finding its momentum and figuring out how to transfer the dynamic outside of the office " .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said " Hunting Trip " was not as funny as the previous episode , " The Camel " , but that it included excellent physical comedy like Ron 's refusal to throw up , and Andy 's piggyback rides throughout Pawnee town hall . Sepinwall also praised Leslie 's intelligence and savvy , which he said differentiates the show from Greg Daniels ' other show , The Office and its protagonist Michael Scott . IGN writer Matt Fowler particularly praised the pairing of Aubrey Plaza and Chris Pratt , which he called simultaneously funny , naturalistic and sweet . Fowler said the main hunting plot was funny , but " I 'm not a huge fan of horrific personal injury as a vehicle for humor " . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said he liked the episode , but that the main hunting subplot was messy because there was too much action involving too many supporting cast members . Heisler said the Andy and April subplot was more effective . Slate magazine writer Jonah Weiner praised " Hunting Trip " , especially the scene in which the characters become convinced they are being stalked by the Predator , the alien antagonist from the 1987 film of the same name . Weiner called it a " detour into an inspired absurdity that tugs against and tweaks the show 's bureaucratic backdrop " . Time magazine television critic James Poniewozik said " Hunting Trip " demonstrated how far Leslie Knope had developed since the first season . Poniewozik praised the " ultra @-@ deadpan " pairing of Andy and April , which he said was another in a continued line of " interesting combinations for its side players " . Steve Penner of The Portsmouth Herald said the sequence of Poehler 's statements to the park trooper was " worthy of her absolutely best SNL impressions " .
= = DVD release = =
" Hunting Trip " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD also included deleted scenes from each episode . It also included a commentary track for " Hunting Trip " featuring Amy Poehler , Nick Offerman , Aziz Ansari , Rashida Jones , Chris Pratt , Jim O 'Heir , Retta , Aubrey Plaza , Michael Schur and Greg Daniels . " Hunting Trip " was also included in the DVD box @-@ set for the sixth season of The Office .
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= The Girl Reporter =
The Girl Reporter is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film follows two sweethearts , May and Will , who are reporters for the Daily Wave newspaper . Will leaves the newspaper to work as a secretary to Blake , the commissioner of public works . Blake takes a bribe and blames Will and fires him . May sets out to clear his name and becomes Blake 's new secretary . May investigates and clears Will 's name while proving Blake 's corruption . The film was released on August 16 , 1910 and saw a wide national release . The film received mixed responses from critics who liked the acting , but found issues with the staging and the plausibility of the plot . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 20 , 1910 . It states : " May Merrill and Will Marshall are sweethearts and both reporters on the Daily Wave . Will leaves the paper to accept a position of private secretary to Blake , commissioner of public works . Shortly after Will takes up his new work Blake is threatened with exposure and punishment on his charge of accepting a bribe . In order to save himself , Blake makes it appear that Will is the guilty party . May is sent to investigate the matter for the Wave . When she discovers that Will is accused , she determines to devote all of her time to clearing him , and with this end in view , she applies for the vacant position of private secretary to Blake . Assisted by Pete , faithful office boy from the Wave , who follows her to her new position , May does some clever detective work and , clearing Will , manages to fix the guilt where it belongs , on the shoulders of Blake . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Though the roles of the actors are unknown , it is likely that numerous other character roles and persons appeared in the film . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . The cast could include either or both leading ladies of the company , Anna Rosemond and Violet Heming . One of the more prominent leading male actors was Frank H. Crane .
Though critics would reveal that the plot strained plausibility , the little known production details surrounding the film show that the Thanhouser staging was effective to one reviewer . Recently , the quality of the Thanhouser films were commended in an editorial by " The Spectator " in The New York Dramatic Mirror contained specific praise for Thanhouser productions by stating , " ... practically all other Independent American companies , excepting Thanhouser , show haste and lack of thought in their production . Crude stories are crudely handled , giving the impression that they are rushed through in a hurry - anything to get a thousand feet of negative ready for the market . Such pictures , of course , do not cost much to produce , but they are not of a class to make reputation . The Thanhouser company , alone of the Independents , shows a consistent effort to do things worthwhile ... " Bowers would note that the plot focusing on a female reporter would prove to be a popular subject and referred to The Girl Reporter 's Big Scoop by the Kalem Company and Perils of Our Girl Reporter by Niagara Film Studios @-@ Mutual . Bowers also included another production bearing the same name The Girl Reporter by the Crystal Film Company in 1913 . Another girl reporter would be featured A Columbus Day Conspiracy by the Thanhouser Company .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 970 feet long , was released on August 16 , 1910 . The film saw a wide national release , with theater advertisements in Arizona , Missouri , Indiana , Nebraska , Washington state , and Illinois . The film was also shown by the Province Theatre of Vancouver , British Columbia in Canada within days of its release .
The film received positive attention by film critics and seems to have been well @-@ staged because a reviewer of The Moving Picture News states , " This film points a moral and adorns a tale . Clean as a hound 's tooth , sweet as a nut . Full of life . The tale of the triumph of a courageous girl , backed by an inimitable office boy , and the downfall of the grafter are well planned and well rendered . The copy room set our mind flying back to our own ' cub ' days . By the way , the paper on the wall of the traction company office is somewhat weird . A good , healthy , vigorous production in every sense . " The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer said the acting was good , but found fault with the plot itself . The reviewer states , " This film story has melodramatic interest , and the acting is good , but the means by which some of the incidents are brought about will not stand the acid test . For instance , if a political boss wants to ' shake down ' a traction company for $ 5 @,@ 000 , would he submit the proposition in writing ? ... The scenes in the newspaper reporters ' room would have been more convincing in the first scene if the staff had been more busy in writing copy instead of waving their arms and moving about . " The term " traction company " refers to a streetcar company .
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= Barton Fink =
Barton Fink is a 1991 American period film written , produced , directed and edited by the Coen brothers . Set in 1941 , it stars John Turturro in the title role as a young New York City playwright who is hired to write scripts for a film studio in Hollywood , and John Goodman as Charlie , the insurance salesman who lives next door at the run @-@ down Hotel Earle .
The Coens wrote the screenplay in three weeks while experiencing difficulty during the writing of Miller 's Crossing . Soon after Miller 's Crossing was finished , the Coens began filming Barton Fink , which had its premiere at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1991 . In a rare sweep , Barton Fink won the Palme d 'Or , as well as awards for Best Director and Best Actor ( Turturro ) . Although the film received critical acclaim and was nominated for three Academy Awards , it was a box office bomb , only grossing $ 6 million against its $ 9 million budget . The process of writing and the culture of entertainment production are two prominent themes of Barton Fink . The world of Hollywood is contrasted with that of Broadway , and the film analyzes superficial distinctions between high culture and low culture . Other themes in the film include fascism and World War II ; slavery and conditions of labor in creative industries ; and how intellectuals relate to " the common man " . Because of its diverse elements , the film has defied efforts at genre classification , being variously referred to as a film noir , a horror film , a Künstlerroman , and a buddy film .
The feel of the Hotel Earle was central to the development of the story , and careful deliberation went into its design . There is a sharp contrast between Fink 's living quarters and the polished , pristine environs of Hollywood , especially the home of Jack Lipnick . On the wall of Fink 's room there hangs a single picture of a woman at the beach ; this captures Barton 's attention , and the image reappears in the final scene of the film . Although the picture and other elements of the film ( including a mysterious box given to Fink by Charlie ) appear laden with symbolism , critics disagree over their possible meanings . The Coens have acknowledged some intentional symbolic elements while denying an attempt to communicate any message in the film overall . The film contains allusions to many real @-@ life people and events , most notably the writers Clifford Odets and William Faulkner . The characters of Barton Fink and W. P. Mayhew are widely seen as fictional representations of these men , but the Coens stress important differences . They have also admitted to parodying film magnates like Louis B. Mayer , but they note that Fink 's agonizing tribulations in Hollywood are not meant to reflect their own experiences .
Barton Fink was influenced by several earlier works , including the films of Roman Polanski , particularly Repulsion ( 1965 ) and The Tenant ( 1976 ) . Other influences are Stanley Kubrick 's The Shining and Preston Sturges 's Sullivan 's Travels . The film contains a number of literary allusions to works by William Shakespeare , John Keats , and Flannery O 'Connor , and in particular , Nikos Kazantzakis 's novel , Zorba the Greek . There are also religious overtones , including references to the Book of Daniel , King Nebuchadnezzar , and Bathsheba .
= = Plot = =
In 1941 , Barton Fink 's first Broadway play , Bare Ruined Choirs , has achieved critical and popular success . His agent informs him that Capitol Pictures in Hollywood has offered him a thousand dollars per week to write film scripts . Barton hesitates , worried that moving to California would separate him from " the common man " , his focus as a writer . He accepts the offer , however , and checks into the Hotel Earle , a large and unusually deserted building . His room is sparse and draped in subdued colors ; its only decoration is a small painting of a woman on the beach , arm raised to block the sun .
In his first meeting with Capitol Pictures boss Jack Lipnick , Barton explains that he chose the Earle because he wants lodging that is ( as Lipnick says ) " less Hollywood " . Lipnick promises that his only concern is Barton 's writing ability and assigns his new employee to a wrestling film . Back in his room , however , Barton is unable to write . He is distracted by sounds coming from the room next door , and he phones the front desk to complain . His neighbor , Charlie Meadows , is the source of the noise and visits Barton to apologize , insisting on sharing some alcohol from a hip flask to make amends . As they talk , Barton proclaims his affection for " the common man " , and Charlie describes his life as an insurance salesman . Later , Barton falls asleep , but is awakened by the incessant whine of a mosquito .
Still unable to proceed beyond the first lines of his script , Barton consults producer Ben Geisler for advice . Irritated , the frenetic Geisler takes him to lunch and orders him to consult another writer for assistance . While in the men 's room , Barton meets the novelist William Preston ( W.P. ) " Bill " Mayhew , who is vomiting in the next stall . They briefly discuss movie writing and arrange a second meeting later in the day . When Barton arrives , Mayhew is drunk and yelling wildly . His secretary , Audrey Taylor , reschedules the meeting and confesses to Barton that she and Mayhew are in love . When they finally meet for lunch , Mayhew , Audrey , and Barton discuss writing and drinking . Before long , Mayhew argues with Audrey , slaps her , and wanders off , drunk . Rejecting Barton 's offer of consolation , Audrey explains that she feels sorry for Mayhew since he is married to another woman who is " disturbed " .
With one day left before his meeting with Lipnick to discuss the movie , Barton phones Audrey and begs her for assistance . She visits him at the Earle , and after she admits that she wrote most of Mayhew 's scripts , they apparently have sex ; Barton later confesses to Charlie they did so . When Barton awakens the next morning , he , again , hears the sound of the mosquito , finds it on Audrey 's back , and slaps it dead . When Audrey does not respond , Barton turns her onto her side only to find that she has been violently murdered . He has no memory of the night 's events . Horrified , he summons Charlie and asks for help . Charlie is repulsed but disposes of the body and orders Barton to avoid contacting the police . After a meeting with an unusually supportive Lipnick , Barton tries writing again and is interrupted by Charlie , who announces he is going to New York for several days . Charlie leaves a package with Barton and asks him to watch it .
Soon afterward , Barton is visited by two police detectives , who inform him that Charlie 's real name is Karl " Madman " Mundt . Mundt is a serial killer wanted for several murders ; after shooting his victims , they explain , he decapitates them and keeps the heads . Stunned , Barton returns to his room and examines the box . Placing it on his desk without opening it , he begins writing and produces the entire script in one sitting . After a night of celebratory dancing , Barton returns to find the detectives in his room , who , after handcuffing Barton to the bed , then reveal they 've found evidence of Mundt 's latest murders . Each of the men notes how hot it is , and Charlie appears , and does the same ; soon the source of heat is revealed : the hotel has become engulfed in flames . Running through the hallway , screaming , Charlie shoots the policemen with a shotgun . As the hallway burns , Charlie speaks with Barton about their lives and the hotel , breaks the bed frame to which Barton is handcuffed ( thus freeing him ) , then retires to his own room , saying as he goes that he paid a visit to Barton 's parents and uncle in New York . Barton leaves the ( still @-@ burning ) hotel , carrying the box and his script . Shortly thereafter he attempts to telephone his family , but there is no answer .
In a final meeting , a disappointed Lipnick , in uniform ( as he attempts to secure an Army Reserve commission ) , angrily chastises Barton for writing " a fruity movie about suffering " then informs him that he is to remain in Los Angeles ; although Barton will remain under contract , Capitol Pictures will not produce anything he writes so he can be ridiculed as a loser around the studio while Lipnick is in the war . Dazed , Barton wanders onto a beach , still carrying the package . He meets a woman who looks just like the one in the picture on his wall at the Earle , and she asks about the box . He tells her he does not know what it contains nor who owns it . She then assumes the pose from the picture .
= = Cast = =
John Turturro as Barton Fink
John Goodman as Charlie Meadows
Michael Lerner as Jack Lipnick
Judy Davis as Audrey Taylor
John Mahoney as W. P. Mayhew
Tony Shalhoub as Ben Geisler
Jon Polito as Lou Breeze
Steve Buscemi as Chet
David Warrilow as Garland Stanford
Richard Portnow as Detective Mastrionotti
Christopher Murney as Detective Deutsch
Megan Fay as Poppy Carnahan
Lance Davis as Richard St. Claire
Frances McDormand as Voice of stage actress ( uncredited )
Barry Sonnenfeld as Page ( uncredited )
Max Grodenchik as Clapper Boy
= = Production = =
= = = Background and writing = = =
In 1989 , filmmakers Joel and Ethan Coen began writing the script for a film eventually released as Miller 's Crossing . The many threads of the story became complicated , and after four months they found themselves lost in the process . Although biographers and critics later referred to it as writer 's block , the Coen brothers rejected this description . " It 's not really the case that we were suffering from writer 's block , " Joel said in a 1991 interview , " but our working speed had slowed , and we were eager to get a certain distance from Miller 's Crossing . " They went from Los Angeles to New York and began work on a different project .
In three weeks , the Coens wrote a script with a title role written specifically for actor John Turturro , with whom they 'd been working on Miller 's Crossing . The new movie , Barton Fink , was set in a large , seemingly @-@ abandoned hotel . This setting , which they named the Hotel Earle , was a driving force behind the story and mood of the new project . While filming their 1984 film Blood Simple in Austin , Texas , the Coens had seen a hotel which made a significant impression : " We thought , ' Wow , Motel Hell . ' You know , being condemned to live in the weirdest hotel in the world . "
The writing process for Barton Fink was smooth , they said , suggesting that the relief of being away from Miller 's Crossing may have been a catalyst . They also felt satisfied with the overall shape of the story , which helped them move quickly through the composition . " Certain films come entirely in one 's head ; we just sort of burped out Barton Fink . " While writing , the Coens created a second leading role with another actor in mind : John Goodman , who had appeared in their 1987 comedy Raising Arizona . His new character , Charlie , was Barton 's next @-@ door neighbor in the cavernous hotel . Even before writing , the Coens knew how the story would end , and wrote Charlie 's final speech at the start of the writing process .
The script served its diversionary purpose , and the Coens put it aside : " Barton Fink sort of washed out our brain and we were able to go back and finish Miller 's Crossing . " Once production of the first movie was finished , the Coens began to recruit staff to film Barton Fink . Turturro looked forward to playing the lead role , and spent a month with the Coens in Los Angeles to coordinate views on the project : " I felt I could bring something more human to Barton . Joel and Ethan allowed me a certain contribution . I tried to go a little further than they expected . "
As they designed detailed storyboards for Barton Fink , the Coens began looking for a new cinematographer , since their associate Barry Sonnenfeld – who had filmed their first three movies – was occupied with his own directorial debut , The Addams Family . The Coens had been impressed with the work of English cinematographer Roger Deakins , particularly the interior scenes of the 1988 film Stormy Monday . After screening other films he had worked on ( including Sid and Nancy and Pascali 's Island ) , they sent a script to Deakins and invited him to join the project . His agent advised against working with the Coens , but Deakins met with them at a cafe in Notting Hill and they soon began working together on Barton Fink .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in June 1990 and took eight weeks ( a third less time than required by Miller 's Crossing ) , and the estimated final budget for the movie was US $ 9 million . The Coens worked well with Deakins , and they easily translated their ideas for each scene onto film . " There was only one moment we surprised him , " Joel Coen recalled later . An extended scene called for a tracking shot out of the bedroom and into a sink drain " plug hole " in the adjacent bathroom as a symbol of sexual intercourse . " The shot was a lot of fun and we had a great time working out how to do it , " Joel said . " After that , every time we asked Roger to do something difficult , he would raise an eyebrow and say , ' Don 't be having me track down any plug @-@ holes now . ' "
Three weeks of filming were spent in the Hotel Earle , a set created by art director Dennis Gassner . The film 's climax required a huge spreading fire in the hotel 's hallway , which the Coens originally planned to add digitally in post @-@ production . When they decided to use real flames , however , the crew built a large alternate set in an abandoned aircraft hangar at Long Beach . A series of gas jets were installed behind the hallway , and the wallpaper was perforated for easy penetration . As Goodman ran through the hallway , a man on an overhead catwalk opened each jet , giving the impression of a fire racing ahead of Charlie . Each take required a rebuild of the apparatus , and a second hallway ( sans fire ) stood ready nearby for filming pick @-@ up shots between takes . The final scene was shot near Zuma Beach , as was the image of a wave crashing against a rock .
The Coens edited the film themselves , as is their custom . " We prefer a hands @-@ on approach , " Joel explained in 1996 , " rather than sitting next to someone and telling them what to cut . " Because of rules for membership in film production guilds , they are required to use a pseudonym ; " Roderick Jaynes " is credited with editing Barton Fink . Only a few filmed scenes were removed from the final cut , including a transition scene to show Barton 's movement from New York to Hollywood . ( In the movie , this is shown enigmatically with a wave crashing against a rock . ) Several scenes representing work in Hollywood studios were also filmed , but edited out because they were " too conventional " .
= = = Setting = = =
The spooky , inexplicably empty feel of the Hotel Earle was central to the Coens ' conception of the movie . " We wanted an art deco stylization " , Joel explained in a 1991 interview , " and a place that was falling into ruin after having seen better days " . Barton 's room is sparsely furnished with two large windows facing another building . The Coens later described the hotel as a " ghost ship floating adrift , where you notice signs of the presence of other passengers , without ever laying eyes on any " . In the movie , residents ' shoes are an indication of this unseen presence ; another rare sign of other inhabitants is the sound from adjacent rooms . Joel said : " You can imagine it peopled by failed commercial travelers , with pathetic sex lives , who cry alone in their rooms " .
Heat and moisture are other important elements of the setting . The wallpaper in Barton 's room peels and droops ; Charlie experiences the same problem and guesses heat is the cause . The Coens used green and yellow colors liberally in designing the hotel " to suggest an aura of putrefaction " .
The atmosphere of the hotel was meant to connect with the character of Charlie . As Joel explained : " Our intention , moreover , was that the hotel function as an exteriorization of the character played by John Goodman . The sweat drips off his forehead like the paper peels off the walls . At the end , when Goodman says that he is a prisoner of his own mental state , that this is like some kind of hell , it was necessary for the hotel to have already suggested something infernal . " The peeling wallpaper and the paste which seeps through it also mirror Charlie 's chronic ear infection and the resultant pus .
When Barton first arrives at the Hotel Earle , he is asked by the friendly bellhop Chet ( Steve Buscemi ) if he is " a trans or a res " – transient or resident . Barton explains that he isn 't sure but will be staying " indefinitely " . The dichotomy between permanent inhabitants and guests reappears several times , notably in the hotel 's motto , " A day or a lifetime " , which Barton notices on the room 's stationery . This idea returns at the end of the movie , when Charlie describes Barton as " a tourist with a typewriter " . His ability to leave the Earle ( while Charlie remains ) is presented by critic Erica Rowell as evidence that Barton 's story represents the process of writing itself . Barton , she says , represents an author who is able to leave a story , while characters like Charlie cannot .
In contrast , the offices of Capitol Pictures and Lipnick 's house are pristine , lavishly decorated , and extremely comfortable . The company 's rooms are bathed in sunlight , and Ben Geisler 's office faces a lush array of flora . Barton meets Lipnick in one scene beside an enormous , spotless swimming pool . This echoes his position as studio head , as he explains : " ... you can 't always be honest , not with the sharks swimming around this town ... if I 'd been totally honest , I wouldn 't be within a mile of this pool – unless I was cleaning it . " In his office , Lipnick showcases another trophy of his power : statues of Atlas , the Titan of Greek mythology who declared war on the gods of Mount Olympus and was severely punished .
Barton watches dailies from another wrestling film being made by Capitol Pictures ; the date on the clapperboard is December 9 , two days after the attack on Pearl Harbor . Later , when Barton celebrates the completed script by dancing at a USO show , he is surrounded by soldiers . In Lipnick 's next appearance , he wears a colonel 's uniform , which is really a costume from his company . Lipnick has not actually entered the military but declares himself ready to fight the " little yellow bastards " . Originally , this historical moment just after the United States entered World War II was to have a significant impact on the Hotel Earle . As the Coens explained : " [ W ] e were thinking of a hotel where the lodgers were old people , the insane , the physically handicapped , because all the others had left for the war . The further the script was developed , the more this theme got left behind , but it had led us , in the beginning , to settle on that period . "
= = = = The Picture = = = =
The picture in Barton 's room of a woman at the beach is a central focus for both the character and camera . He examines it frequently while at his desk , and after finding Audrey 's corpse in his bed he goes to stand near it . The image is repeated at the end of the film , when he meets an identical @-@ looking woman at an identical @-@ looking beach , who strikes an identical pose . After complimenting her beauty , he asks her : " Are you in pictures ? " She blushes and replies : " Don 't be silly . "
The Coens decided early in the writing process to include the picture as a key element in the room . " Our intention , " Joel explained later , " was that the room would have very little decoration , that the walls would be bare and that the windows would offer no view of any particular interest . In fact , we wanted the only opening on the exterior world to be this picture . It seemed important to us to create a feeling of isolation . "
Later in the film , Barton places into the frame a small picture of Charlie , dressed in a fine suit and holding a briefcase . The juxtaposition of his neighbor in the uniform of an insurance salesman and the escapist image of the woman on the beach leads to a confusion of reality and fantasy for Barton . Critic Michael Dunne notes : " [ V ] iewers can only wonder how ' real ' Charlie is . ... In the film 's final shot ... viewers must wonder how ' real ' [ the woman ] is . The question leads to others : How real is Fink ? Lipnick ? Audrey ? Mayhew ? How real are films anyway ? "
The picture 's significance has been the subject of broad speculation . Washington Post reviewer Desson Howe said that despite its emotional impact , the final scene " feels more like a punchline for punchline 's sake , a trumped @-@ up coda " . In her book @-@ length analysis of the Coen brothers ' films , Rowell suggests that Barton 's fixation on the picture is ironic , considering its low culture status and his own pretensions toward high culture ( speeches to the contrary notwithstanding ) . She further notes that the camera focuses on Barton himself as much as the picture while he gazes at it . At one point , the camera moves past Barton to fill the frame with the woman on the beach . This tension between objective and subjective points of view appears again at the end of the film , when Barton finds himself – in a sense – inside the picture .
Critic M. Keith Booker calls the final scene an " enigmatic comment on representation and the relationship between art and reality " . He suggests that the identical images point to the absurdity of art which reflects life directly . The film transposes the woman directly from art to reality , prompting confusion in the viewer ; Booker asserts that such a literal depiction therefore leads inevitably to uncertainty .
= = Genre = =
The Coens are known for making films that defy simple classification . Although they refer to their first film , Blood Simple ( 1984 ) , as a relatively straightforward example of detective fiction , the Coens wrote their next script , Raising Arizona ( 1987 ) , without trying to fit a particular genre . They decided to write a comedy but intentionally added dark elements to produce what Ethan calls " a pretty savage film " . Their third film , Miller 's Crossing ( 1990 ) , reversed this order , mixing bits of comedy into a crime film . Yet it also subverts single @-@ genre identity by using conventions from melodrama , love stories , and political satire .
This trend of mixing genres continued and intensified with Barton Fink ( 1991 ) ; the Coens insist the film " does not belong to any genre " . Ethan has described it as " a buddy movie for the ' 90s " . It contains elements of comedy , film noir , and horror , but other film categories are present . Actor Turturro referred to it as a coming of age story , while literature professor and film analyst R. Barton Palmer calls it a Künstlerroman , highlighting the importance of the main character 's evolution as a writer . Critic Donald Lyons describes the movie as " a retro @-@ surrealist vision " .
Because it crosses genres , fragments the characters ' experiences , and resists straightforward narrative resolution , Barton Fink is often considered an example of postmodernist film . In his book Postmodern Hollywood , Booker says the movie renders the past with an impressionist technique , not a precise accuracy . This technique , he notes , is " typical of postmodern film , which views the past not as the prehistory of the present but as a warehouse of images to be raided for material " . In his analysis of the Coens ' films , Palmer calls Barton Fink a " postmodern pastiche " which closely examines how past eras have represented themselves . He compares it to The Hours ( 2002 ) , a film about Virginia Woolf and two women who read her work . He asserts that both films , far from rejecting the importance of the past , add to our understanding of it . He quotes literary theorist Linda Hutcheon : the kind of postmodernism exhibited in these films " does not deny the existence of the past ; it does question whether we can ever know that past other than through its textualizing remains " .
Certain elements in Barton Fink highlight the veneer of postmodernism : the writer is unable to resolve his modernist focus on high culture with the studio 's desire to create formulaic high @-@ profit films ; the resulting collision produces a fractured story arc emblematic of postmodernism . The Coens ' cinematic style is another example ; when Barton and Audrey begin making love , the camera pans away to the bathroom , then moves toward the sink and down its drain . Rowell calls this a " postmodern update " of the notorious sexually suggestive image of a train entering a tunnel , used by director Alfred Hitchcock in his film North by Northwest ( 1959 ) .
= = Style = =
Barton Fink uses several stylistic conventions to accentuate the story 's mood and give visual emphasis to particular themes . For example , the opening credits roll over the Hotel Earle 's wallpaper , as the camera moves downward . This motion is repeated many times in the film , especially pursuant to Barton 's claim that his job is to " plumb the depths " while writing . His first experiences in the Hotel Earle continue this trope ; the bellhop Chet emerges from beneath the floor , carrying a shoe ( which he has presumably been polishing ) suggesting the real activity is underground . Although Barton 's floor is presumably six floors above the lobby , the interior of the elevator is shown only while it is descending . These elements – combined with many dramatic pauses , surreal dialogue , and implied threats of violence – create an atmosphere of extreme tension . The Coens explained that " the whole movie was supposed to feel like impending doom or catastrophe . And we definitely wanted it to end with an apocalyptic feeling " .
The style of Barton Fink is also evocative – and representative – of films of the 1930s and ' 40s . As critic Michael Dunne points out : " Fink 's heavy overcoat , his hat , his dark , drab suits come realistically out of the Thirties , but they come even more out of the films of the Thirties . " The style of the Hotel Earle and atmosphere of various scenes also reflect the influence of pre @-@ WWII filmmaking . Even Charlie 's underwear matches that worn by his filmic hero Jack Oakie . At the same time , camera techniques used by the Coens in Barton Fink represent a combination of the classic with the original . Careful tracking shots and extreme close @-@ ups distinguish the film as a product of the late 20th century .
From the start , the film moves continuously between Barton 's subjective view of the world and one which is objective . After the opening credits roll , the camera pans down to Barton , watching the end of his play . Soon we see the audience from his point of view , cheering wildly for him . As he walks forward , he enters the shot and the viewer is returned to an objective point of view . This blurring of the subjective and objective returns in the final scene .
The shifting point of view coincides with the movie 's subject matter : filmmaking . The film begins with the end of a play , and the story explores the process of creation . This metanarrative approach is emphasized by the camera 's focus in the first scene on Barton ( who is mouthing the words spoken by actors offscreen ) , not on the play he is watching . As Rowell says : " [ T ] hough we listen to one scene , we watch another . ... The separation of sound and picture shows a crucial dichotomy between two ' views ' of artifice : the world created by the protagonist ( his play ) and the world outside it ( what goes into creating a performance ) " .
The film also employs numerous foreshadowing techniques . Signifying the probable contents of the package Charlie leaves with Barton , the word " head " appears 60 times in the original screenplay . In a grim nod to later events , Charlie describes his positive attitude toward his " job " of selling insurance : " Fire , theft and casualty are not things that only happen to other people . "
= = = Symbolism = = =
Much has been written about the symbolic meanings of Barton Fink . Rowell proposes that it is " a figurative head swelling of ideas that all lead back to the artist " . The proximity of the sex scene to Audrey 's murder prompts Lyons to insist : " Sex in Barton Fink is death " . Others have suggested that the second half of the movie is an extended dream sequence .
The Coens , however , have denied any intent to create a systematic unity from symbols in the film . " We never , ever go into our films with anything like that in mind " , Joel said in a 1998 interview . " There 's never anything approaching that kind of specific intellectual breakdown . It 's always a bunch of instinctive things that feel right , for whatever reason " . The Coens have noted their comfort with unresolved ambiguity . Ethan said in 1991 : " Barton Fink does end up telling you what 's going on to the extent that it 's important to know ... What isn 't crystal clear isn 't intended to become crystal clear , and it 's fine to leave it at that . " Regarding fantasies and dream sequences , he said :
It is correct to say that we wanted the spectator to share in the interior life of Barton Fink as well as his point of view . But there was no need to go too far . For example , it would have been incongruous for Barton Fink to wake up at the end of the film and for us to suggest thereby that he actually inhabited a reality greater than what is depicted in the film . In any case , it is always artificial to talk about " reality " in regard to a fictional character .
The homoerotic overtones of Barton 's relationship with Charlie are not unintentional . Although one detective demands to know if they had " some sick sex thing " , their intimacy is presented as anything but deviant , and cloaked in conventions of mainstream sexuality . Charlie 's first friendly overture toward his neighbor , for example , comes in the form of a standard pick @-@ up line : " I 'd feel better about the damned inconvenience if you 'd let me buy you a drink " . The wrestling scene between Barton and Charlie is also cited as an example of homoerotic affection . " We consider that a sex scene " , Joel Coen said in 2001 .
= = = Sound and music = = =
Many of the sound effects in Barton Fink are laden with meaning . For example , Barton is summoned by a bell while dining in New York ; its sound is light and pleasant . By contrast , the eerie sustained bell of the Hotel Earle rings endlessly through the lobby , until Chet silences it . The nearby rooms of the hotel emit a constant chorus of guttural cries , moans , and assorted unidentifiable noises . These sounds coincide with Barton 's confused mental state and punctuate Charlie 's claim that " I hear everything that goes on in this dump " . The applause in the first scene foreshadows the tension of Barton 's move west , mixed as it is with the sound of an ocean wave crashing – an image which is shown onscreen soon thereafter .
Another symbolic sound is the hum of a mosquito . Although his producer insists that these parasites don 't live in Los Angeles ( since " mosquitos breed in swamps ; this is a desert " ) , its distinctive sound is heard clearly as Barton watches a bug circle overhead in his hotel room . Later , he arrives at meetings with mosquito bites on his face . The insect also figures prominently into the revelation of Audrey 's death ; Barton slaps a mosquito feeding on her corpse and suddenly realizes she 's been murdered . The high pitch of the mosquito 's hum is echoed in the high strings used for the movie 's score . During filming , the Coens were contacted by an animal rights group who expressed concern about how mosquitoes would be treated .
The score was composed by Carter Burwell , who has worked with the Coens since their first film . Unlike earlier projects , however – the Irish folk tune used for Miller 's Crossing and an American folk song as the basis for Raising Arizona – Burwell wrote the music for Barton Fink without a specific inspiration . The score was released in 1996 on a compact disc , combined with the score for the Coens ' film Fargo ( 1996 ) .
Several songs used in the film are laden with meaning . At one point Mayhew stumbles away from Barton and Audrey , drunk . As he wanders , he hollers the folk song " Old Black Joe " ( 1853 ) . Composed by Stephen Foster , it tells the tale of an elderly slave preparing to join his friends in " a better land " . Mayhew 's rendition of the song coincides with his condition as an oppressed employee of Capitol Pictures , and it foreshadows Barton 's own situation at the movie 's end .
When he finishes writing his script , Barton celebrates by dancing at a USO show . The song used in this scene is a rendition of " Down South Camp Meeting " , a swing tune . Its lyrics ( unheard in the film ) state : " Git ready ( Sing ) / Here they come ! The choir 's all set " . These lines echo the title of Barton 's play , Bare Ruined Choirs . As the celebration erupts into a melee , the intensity of the music increases , and the camera zooms into the cavernous hollow of a trumpet . This sequence mirrors the camera 's zoom into a sink drain just before Audrey is murdered earlier in the film .
= = = Clifford Odets = = =
The character of Barton Fink is based loosely on Clifford Odets , a playwright from New York who in the 1930s joined the Group Theatre , a gathering of dramatists which included Harold Clurman , Cheryl Crawford , and Lee Strasberg . Their work emphasized social issues and employed Stanislavski 's system of acting to recreate human experience as truthfully as possible . Several of Odets ' plays were successfully performed on Broadway , including Awake and Sing ! and Waiting for Lefty ( both in 1935 ) . When public tastes turned away from politically engaged theatre and toward the familial realism of Eugene O 'Neill , Odets had difficulty producing successful work , so he moved to Hollywood and spent 20 years writing film scripts .
The Coens wrote with Odets in mind ; they imagined Barton Fink as " a serious dramatist , honest , politically engaged , and rather naive " . As Ethan said in 1991 : " It seemed natural that he comes from Group Theater and the decade of the thirties . " Like Odets , Barton believes that the theatre should celebrate the trials and triumphs of everyday people ; like Barton , Odets was highly egotistical . In the movie , a review of Barton 's play Bare Ruined Choirs indicates that his characters face a " brute struggle for existence ... in the most squalid corners " . This wording is similar to the comment of biographer Gerald Weales that Odets ' characters " struggle for life amidst petty conditions " . Lines of dialogue from Barton 's work are reminiscent of Odets ' play Awake and Sing ! . For example , one character declares : " I 'm awake now , awake for the first time " . Another says : " Take that ruined choir . Make it sing " .
However , many important differences exist between the two men . Joel Coen said : " Both writers wrote the same kind of plays with proletarian heroes , but their personalities were quite different . Odets was much more of an extrovert ; in fact he was quite sociable even in Hollywood , and this is not the case with Barton Fink ! " Although he was frustrated by his declining popularity in New York , Odets was successful during his time in Hollywood . Several of his later plays were adapted – by him and others – into movies . One of these , The Big Knife ( 1955 ) , matches Barton 's life much more than Odets ' . In it , an actor becomes overwhelmed by the greed of a movie studio which hires him and eventually commits suicide . Another similarity to Odets ' work is Audrey 's death , which mirrors a scene in Deadline at Dawn ( 1946 ) , a film noir written by Odets . In that film , a character awakens to find that the woman he bedded the night before has been inexplicably murdered .
Odets chronicled his difficult transition from Broadway to Hollywood in his diary , published as The Time Is Ripe : The 1940 Journal of Clifford Odets ( 1988 ) . The diary explored Odets ' philosophical deliberations about writing and romance . He often invited women into his apartment , and he describes many of his affairs in the diary . These experiences , like the extended speeches about writing , are echoed in Barton Fink when Audrey visits and seduces Barton at the Hotel Earle . Turturro was the only member of the production who read Odets ' Journal , however , and the Coen brothers urge audiences to " take account of the difference between the character and the man " .
= = = William Faulkner = = =
Some similarities exist between the character of W.P. Mayhew and novelist William Faulkner . Like Mayhew , Faulkner became known as a preeminent writer of Southern literature and later worked in the movie business . Like Faulkner , Mayhew is a heavy drinker and speaks contemptuously about Hollywood . Faulkner 's name appeared in the Hollywood 1940s history book City of Nets , which the Coens read while creating Barton Fink . Ethan explained in 1998 : " I read this story in passing that Faulkner was assigned to write a wrestling picture .... That was part of what got us going on the whole Barton Fink thing . " Faulkner worked on a wrestling film called Flesh ( 1932 ) , which starred Wallace Beery , the actor for whom Barton is writing . The focus on wrestling was fortuitous for the Coens , as they participated in the sport in high school .
However , the Coens disavow a significant connection between Faulkner and Mayhew , calling the similarities " superficial " . " As far as the details of the character are concerned , " Ethan said in 1991 , " Mayhew is very different from Faulkner , whose experiences in Hollywood were not the same at all . " Unlike Mayhew 's inability to write due to drink and personal problems , Faulkner continued to pen novels after working in the movie business , winning several awards for fiction completed during and after his time in Hollywood .
= = = Jack Lipnick = = =
Lerner 's Academy Award @-@ nominated character of studio mogul Jack Lipnick is a composite of several Hollywood producers , including Harry Cohn , Louis B. Mayer , and Jack L. Warner – three of the most powerful men in the film industry at the time in which Barton Fink is set . Like Mayer , Lipnick is originally from the Belarusian capital city Minsk . When World War II broke out , Warner pressed for a position in the military and ordered his wardrobe department to create a military uniform for him ; Lipnick does the same in his final scene . Warner once referred to writers as " schmucks with Underwoods " , leading to Barton 's use in the film of an Underwood typewriter .
At the same time , the Coens stress that the labyrinth of deception and difficulty Barton endures is not based on their own experience . Although Joel has said that artists tend to " meet up with Philistines " , he added : " Barton Fink is quite far from our own experience . Our professional life in Hollywood has been especially easy , and this is no doubt extraordinary and unfair " . Ethan has suggested that Lipnick – like the men on which he is based – is in some ways a product of his time . " I don 't know that that kind of character exists anymore . Hollywood is a little more bland and corporate than that now " .
= = = Cinema = = =
The Coens have acknowledged several cinematic inspirations for Barton Fink . Chief among these are three movies by Polish @-@ French filmmaker Roman Polanski : Repulsion ( 1965 ) , Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac ( 1966 ) , and The Tenant ( 1976 ) . These movies employ a mood of psychological uncertainty coupled with eerie environments that compound the mental instability of the characters . Barton 's isolation in his room at the Hotel Earle is frequently compared to that of Trelkovsky in his apartment in The Tenant . Ethan said regarding the genre of Barton Fink : " [ I ] t is kind of a Polanski movie . It is closer to that than anything else . " By coincidence , Polanski was the head of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival in 1991 , where Barton Fink premiered . This created an awkward situation . " Obviously " , Joel Coen said later , " we have been influenced by his films , but at this time we were very hesitant to speak to him about it because we did not want to give the impression we were sucking up " .
Other works cited as influences for Barton Fink include the film The Shining ( 1980 ) , produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick , and the comedy Sullivan 's Travels ( 1941 ) , written and directed by Preston Sturges . Set in an empty hotel , Kubrick 's movie concerns a writer unable to proceed with his latest work . Although the Coens approve of comparisons to The Shining , Joel suggests that Kubrick 's film " belongs in a more global sense to the horror film genre " . Sullivan 's Travels , released the year in which Barton Fink is set , follows successful director John Sullivan , who decides to create a movie of deep social import – not unlike Barton 's desire to create entertainment for " the common man " . Sullivan eventually decides that comedic entertainment is a key role for filmmakers , similar to Jack Lipnick 's assertion at the end of Barton Fink that " the audience wants to see action , adventure " .
Additional allusions to films and film history abound in Barton Fink . At one point a character discusses " Victor Soderberg " ; the name is a reference to Victor Sjöström , a Swedish director who worked in Hollywood under the name Victor Seastrom . Charlie 's line about how his troubles " don 't amount to a hill of beans " is a probable homage to the film Casablanca ( 1942 ) . Another similarity is that of Barton Fink 's beach scene to the final moment in La Dolce Vita ( 1960 ) , wherein a young woman 's final line of dialogue is obliterated by the noise of the ocean . The unsettling emptiness of the Hotel Earle has also been compared to the living spaces in Key Largo ( 1948 ) and Sunset Boulevard ( 1950 ) .
= = Themes = =
Two of the film 's central themes – the culture of entertainment production and the writing process – are intertwined and relate specifically to the self @-@ referential nature of the work ( as well as the work within the work ) . It is a movie about a man who writes a movie based on a play , and at the centre of Barton 's entire opus is Barton himself . The dialogue in his play Bare Ruined Choirs ( also the first lines of the film , some of which are repeated at the end of the film as lines in Barton 's screenplay The Burlyman ) give us a glimpse into Barton 's self @-@ descriptive art . The mother in the play is named " Lil " , which is later revealed to be the name of Barton 's own mother . In the play , " The Kid " ( a representation of Barton himself ) refers to his home " six flights up " – the same floor where Barton resides at the Hotel Earle . Moreover , the characters ' writing processes in Barton Fink reflect important differences between the culture of entertainment production in New York 's Broadway district and Hollywood .
= = = Broadway and Hollywood = = =
Although Barton speaks frequently about his desire to help create " a new , living theater , of and about and for the common man " , he does not recognize that such a theater has already been created : the movies . In fact , he disdains this authentically popular form . On the other hand , the world of Broadway theatre in Barton Fink is a place of high culture , where the creator believes most fully that his work embodies his own values . Although he pretends to disdain his own success , Barton believes he has achieved a great victory with Bare Ruined Choirs . He seeks praise ; when his agent Garland asks if he 's seen the glowing review in the Herald , Barton says " No " , even though his producer had just read it to him . Barton feels close to the theatre , confident that it can help him create work that honors " the common man " . The men and women who funded the production – " those people " , as Barton calls them – demonstrate that Broadway is just as concerned with profit as Hollywood ; but its intimacy and smaller scale allow the author to feel that his work has real value .
Barton does not believe Hollywood offers the same opportunity . In the film , Los Angeles is a world of false fronts and phony people . This is evident in an early line of the screenplay ( filmed , but not included in the theatrical release ) ; while informing Barton of Capitol Pictures ' offer , his agent tells him : " I 'm only asking that your decision be informed by a little realism – if I can use that word and Hollywood in the same breath " . Later , as Barton tries to explain why he 's staying at the Earle , studio head Jack Lipnick finishes his sentence , recognizing that Barton wants a place that is " less Hollywood " . The assumption is that Hollywood is fake and the Earle is genuine . Producer Ben Geisler takes Barton to lunch at a restaurant featuring a mural of the " New York Cafe " , a sign of Hollywood 's effort to replicate the authenticity of the East Coast . Lipnick 's initial overwhelming exuberance is also a façade . Although he begins by telling Barton : " The writer is king here at Capitol Pictures " , in the penultimate scene he insists : " If your opinion mattered , then I guess I 'd resign and let you run the studio . It doesn 't , and you won 't , and the lunatics are not going to run this particular asylum " .
Deception in Barton Fink is emblematic of Hollywood 's focus on low culture , its relentless desire to efficiently produce formulaic entertainment for the sole purpose of economic gain . Capitol Pictures assigns Barton to write a wrestling picture with superstar Wallace Beery in the leading role . Although Lipnick declares otherwise , Geisler assures Barton that " it 's just a B picture " . Audrey tries to help the struggling writer by telling him : " Look , it 's really just a formula . You don 't have to type your soul into it " . This formula is made clear by Lipnick , who asks Barton in their first meeting whether the main character should have a love interest or take care of an orphaned child . Barton shows his iconoclasm by answering : " Both , maybe ? " In the end , his inability to conform to the studio 's norms destroys Barton .
A similar depiction of Hollywood appears in Nathanael West 's novel The Day of the Locust ( 1939 ) , which many critics see as an important precursor to Barton Fink . Set in a run @-@ down apartment complex , the book describes a painter reduced to decorating movie sets . It portrays Hollywood as crass and exploitative , devouring talented individuals in its neverending quest for profit . In both West 's novel and Barton Fink , protagonists suffer under the oppressive industrial machine of the movie studio .
= = = Writing = = =
The film contains further self @-@ referential material , as a film about a writer having difficulty writing ( written by the Coen brothers while they were having difficulty writing Miller 's Crossing ) . Barton is trapped between his own desire to create meaningful art and Capitol Pictures ' need to use its standard conventions to earn profits . Audrey 's advice about following the formula would have saved Barton , but he does not heed it . However , when he puts the mysterious package on his writing desk ( which might have contained her head ) , she might have been helping him posthumously , in other ways . The movie itself toys with standard screenplay formulas . As with Mayhew 's scripts , Barton Fink contains a " good wrestler " ( Barton , it seems ) and a " bad wrestler " ( Charlie ) who " confront " each other at the end . But in typical Coen fashion , the lines of good and evil are blurred , and the supposed hero in fact reveals himself to be deaf to the pleadings of his " common man " neighbor . By blurring the lines between reality and surreal experience , the film subverts the " simple morality tales " and " road maps " offered to Barton as easy paths for the writer to follow .
However , the filmmakers point out that Barton Fink is not meant to represent the Coens themselves . " Our life in Hollywood has been particularly easy " , they once said . " The film isn 't a personal comment " . Still , universal themes of the creative process are explored throughout the movie . During the picnic scene , for example , Mayhew asks Barton : " Ain 't writin ' peace ? " Barton pauses , then says : " No , I 've always found that writing comes from a great inner pain . " Such exchanges led critic William Rodney Allen to call Barton Fink " an autobiography of the life of the Coens ' minds , not of literal fact " . Allen 's comment is itself a reference to the phrase " life of the mind " , used repeatedly in the movie in wildly differing contexts .
= = = Fascism = = =
Several of the film 's elements , including the setting at the start of World War II , have led some critics to highlight parallels to the rise of fascism at the time . For example , the detectives who visit Barton at the Hotel Earle are named " Mastrionatti " and " Deutsch " – Italian and German names , evocative of the regimes of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler . Their contempt for Barton is clear : " Fink . That 's a Jewish name , isn 't it ? ... I didn 't think this dump was restricted . " Later , just before killing his last victim , Charlie says : " Heil Hitler " . Jack Lipnick hails originally from the Belarusian capital city Minsk , which was occupied from 1941 by the Nazis , following Operation Barbarossa .
" [ I ] t 's not forcing the issue to suggest that the Holocaust hovers over Barton Fink " , writes biographer Ronald Bergan . Others see a more specific message in the film , particularly Barton 's obliviousness to Charlie 's homicidal tendencies . Critic Roger Ebert wrote in his 1991 review that the Coens intended to create an allegory for the rise of Nazism . " They paint Fink as an ineffectual and impotent left @-@ wing intellectual , who sells out while telling himself he is doing the right thing , who thinks he understands the ' common man ' but does not understand that , for many common men , fascism had a seductive appeal " . However , he goes on to say : " It would be a mistake to insist too much on this aspect of the movie .... "
Other critics are more demanding . M. Keith Booker writes :
Fink 's failure to " listen " seems intended to tell us that many leftist intellectuals like him were too busy pursuing their own selfish interests to effectively oppose the rise of fascism , a point that is historically entirely inaccurate ... That the Coens would choose to level a charge of irresponsibility against the only group in America that actively sought to oppose the rise of fascism is itself highly irresponsible and shows a complete ignorance of ( or perhaps lack of interest in ) historical reality . Such ignorance and apathy , of course , are typical of postmodern film ....
For their part , the Coens deny any intention of presenting an allegorical message . They chose the detectives ' names deliberately , but " we just wanted them to be representative of the Axis world powers at the time . It just seemed kind of amusing . It 's a tease . All that stuff with Charlie – the " Heil Hitler ! " business – sure , it 's all there , but it 's kind of a tease . " In 2001 , Joel responded to a question about critics who provide extended comprehensive analysis : " That 's how they 've been trained to watch movies . In Barton Fink , we may have encouraged it – like teasing animals at the zoo . The movie is intentionally ambiguous in ways they may not be used to seeing " .
= = = Slavery = = =
Although subdued in dialogue and imagery , the theme of slavery appears several times in the movie . Mayhew 's crooning of the spiritual tune " Old Black Joe " depicts him as enslaved to the movie studio , not unlike the song 's narrator who pines for " my friends from the cotton fields away " . One brief shot of the door to Mayhew 's workspace shows the title of the movie he is supposedly writing : Slave Ship . This is a reference to a 1937 movie written by Mayhew 's inspiration William Faulkner and starring Wallace Beery , for whom Barton is composing a script in the movie .
The symbol of the slave ship is furthered by specific set designs , including the round window in Ben Geisler 's office which resembles a porthole , as well as the walkway leading to Mayhew 's bungalow , which resembles the boarding ramp of a watercraft . Several lines of dialogue make clear by the film 's end that Barton has become a slave to the studio : " [ T ] he contents of your head " , Lipnick 's assistant tells him , " are the property of Capitol Pictures " . After Barton turns in his script , Lipnick delivers an even more brutal punishment : " Anything you write will be the property of Capitol Pictures . And Capitol Pictures will not produce anything you write " . This contempt and control is representative of the opinions expressed by many writers in Hollywood at the time . As Arthur Miller said in his review of Barton Fink : " The only thing about Hollywood that I am sure of is that its mastication of writers can never be too wildly exaggerated " .
= = = " The Common Man " = = =
During the first third of the film , Barton speaks constantly of his desire to lionise " the common man " in his work . In one speech he declares : " The hopes and dreams of the common man are as noble as those of any king . It 's the stuff of life – why shouldn 't it be the stuff of theater ? Goddamnit , why should that be a hard pill to swallow ? Don 't call it new theater , Charlie ; call it real theater . Call it our theater . " Yet , despite his rhetoric , Barton is totally unable ( or unwilling ) to appreciate the humanity of the " common man " living next door to him . Later in the film , Charlie explains that he has brought various horrors upon him because " you DON 'T LISTEN ! " In his first conversation with Charlie , Barton constantly interrupts Charlie just as he is saying " I could tell you some stories- " , demonstrating that despite his fine words he really isn 't interested in Charlie 's experiences ; in another scene , Barton symbolically demonstrates his deafness to the world by stuffing his ears with cotton to block the sound of his ringing telephone .
Barton 's position as screenwriter is of particular consequence to his relationship with " the common man " . By refusing to listen to his neighbor , Barton cannot validate Charlie 's existence in his writing – with disastrous results . Not only is Charlie stuck in a job which demeans him , but he cannot ( at least in Barton 's case ) have his story told . More centrally , the film traces the evolution of Barton 's understanding of " the common man " : At first he is an abstraction to be lauded from a vague distance . Then he becomes a complex individual with fears and desires . Finally he shows himself to be a powerful individual in his own right , capable of extreme forms of destruction and therefore feared and / or respected .
The complexity of " the common man " is also explored through the oft @-@ mentioned " life of the mind " . While expounding on his duty as a writer , Barton drones : " I gotta tell you , the life of the mind ... There 's no road map for that territory ... and exploring it can be painful . The kind of pain most people don 't know anything about . " Barton assumes that he is privy to thoughtful creative considerations while Charlie is not . This delusion shares the film 's climax , as Charlie runs through the hallway of the Earle , shooting the detectives with a shotgun and screaming : " LOOK UPON ME ! I 'LL SHOW YOU THE LIFE OF THE MIND ! ! " Charlie 's " life of the mind " is no less complex than Barton 's ; in fact , some critics consider it more so .
Charlie 's understanding of the world is depicted as omniscient , as when he asks Barton about " the two lovebirds next door " , despite the fact that they are several doors away . When Barton asks how he knows about them , Charlie responds : " Seems like I hear everything that goes on in this dump . Pipes or somethin ' . " His total awareness of the events at the Earle demonstrate the kind of understanding needed to show real empathy , as described by Audrey . This theme returns when Charlie explains in his final scene : " Most guys I just feel sorry for . Yeah . It tears me up inside , to think about what they 're going through . How trapped they are . I understand it . I feel for ' em . So I try to help them out . "
= = = Religion = = =
Themes of religious salvation and allusions to the Bible appear only briefly in Barton Fink , but their presence pervades the story . While Barton is experiencing his most desperate moment of confusion and despair , he opens the drawer of his desk and finds a Gideon Bible . He opens it " randomly " to Chapter 2 in the Book of Daniel , and reads from it : " And the king , Nebuchadnezzar , answered and said to the Chaldeans , I recall not my dream ; if ye will not make known unto me my dream , and its interpretation , ye shall be cut in pieces , and of your tents shall be made a dunghill . " This passage reflects Barton 's inability to make sense of his own experiences ( wherein Audrey has been " cut in pieces " ) , as well as the " hopes and dreams " of " the common man " . Nebuchadnezzar is also the title of a novel that Mayhew gives to Barton as a " little entertainment " to " divert you in your sojourn among the Philistines " .
Mayhew alludes to " the story of Solomon 's mammy " , a reference to Bathsheba , who gave birth to Solomon after her lover David had her husband Uriah killed . Although Audrey cuts Mayhew off by praising his book ( which Audrey herself may have written ) , the reference foreshadows the love triangle which evolves among the three characters of Barton Fink . Rowell points out that Mayhew is murdered ( presumably by Charlie ) soon after Barton and Audrey have sex . Another Biblical reference comes when Barton flips to the front of the Bible in his desk drawer and sees his own words transposed into the Book of Genesis . This is seen as a representation of his hubris as self @-@ conceived omnipotent master of creation , or alternatively , as a playful juxtaposition demonstrating Barton 's hallucinatory state of mind .
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Barton Fink premiered in May 1991 at the Cannes Film Festival . Beating competition which included Jacques Rivette 's La Belle Noiseuse , Spike Lee 's Jungle Fever , and David Mamet 's Homicide , the Coen brothers ' film won three awards : Best Director , Best Actor , and the top prize Palme d 'Or . This sweep of awards in major categories at Cannes was extremely rare , and some critics felt the jury was too generous to the exclusion of other worthy entries . Worried that the triple victory could set a precedent which would undervalue other films , Cannes decided after the 1991 festival to limit each movie to a maximum of two awards .
Barton Fink was also nominated for three Academy Awards : Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Lerner ) , Best Art Direction ( Dennis Gassner , Nancy Haigh ) , and Best Costume Design ( Richard Hornung ) . Lerner lost to Jack Palance for the latter 's role in City Slickers ; the awards for Art Direction ( Gassner and Haigh won by beating themselves ) and Costume Design went to Bugsy .
The film was also nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Barton Fink received positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a 91 % " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 54 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 6 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads : " Twisty and unsettling , the Coen brothers ' satirical tale of a 1940s playwright struggling with writer 's block is packed with their trademark sense of humor and terrific performances from its cast . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 69 out of 100 , based on 19 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews . "
The Washington Post critic Rita Kempley described Barton Fink as " certainly one of the year 's best and most intriguing films " . The New York Times critic Vincent Canby called it " an unqualified winner " and " a fine dark comedy of flamboyant style and immense though seemingly effortless technique " . Critic Jim Emerson called Barton Fink " the Coen brothers ' most deliciously , provocatively indescribable picture yet " .
Some critics disliked the abstruse plot and deliberately enigmatic ending . Chicago Reader critic Jonathan Rosenbaum warned of the Coens ' " adolescent smarminess and comic @-@ book cynicism " , and described Barton Fink as " a midnight @-@ movie gross @-@ out in Sunday @-@ afternoon art @-@ house clothing " . In a 1994 interview , Joel dismissed criticism of unclear elements in their films : " People have a problem dealing with the fact that our movies are not straight @-@ ahead . They would prefer that the last half of Barton Fink just be about a screenwriter 's writing @-@ block problems and how they get resolved in the real world .... " Talk show host Larry King expressed approval of the movie , despite its uncertain conclusion . He wrote in USA Today : " The ending is something I 'm still thinking about and if they accomplished that , I guess it worked . "
= = = Box office performance = = =
The movie opened in the United States on eleven screens on August 23 , 1991 and earned $ 268 @,@ 561 during its opening weekend . During its theatrical release , Barton Fink grossed $ 6 @,@ 153 @,@ 939 in the United States . That the movie failed to recoup the expenses of production amused film producer Joel Silver , with whom the Coens would later work in The Hudsucker Proxy ( 1994 ) : " I don 't think it made $ 5 million , and it cost $ 9 million to make . [ The Coen brothers have ] a reputation for being weird , off @-@ center , inaccessible . "
= = Formats = =
The film was released in VHS home video format on March 5 , 1992 , and a DVD edition was made available on May 20 , 2003 . The DVD contains a gallery of still photos , theatrical trailers , and eight deleted scenes . The film is also available on Blu @-@ ray Disc , in the UK , in a region @-@ free format that will work in any Blu @-@ ray player .
= = Possible sequel = =
The Coen brothers have expressed interest in making a sequel to Barton Fink called Old Fink , which would take place in the 1960s . " It 's the summer of love and [ Fink is ] teaching at Berkeley . He ratted on a lot of his friends to the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee , " said Joel Coen . The brothers have stated that they have had talks with John Turturro about reprising his role as Fink , but they were waiting " until he was actually old enough to play the part . "
Speaking to The A.V. Club in June 2011 , Turturro suggested the sequel would be set in the 1970s , and Fink would be a hippie with a large Jewfro . He said " you 'll have to wait another 10 years for that , at least " .
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= Velodona =
Velodona togata is a species of octopus in the monotypic genus Velodona . First described by Carl Chun in 1915 , with a second subspecies discovered by Guy Coburn Robson in 1924 , it was named for the distinctive membranes on its arms .
Described as being similar to members of the genera Pareledone , Eledone , and Enteroctopus , V. togata has a large body with large eyes and extensive membranes that link the octopus ' arms together . The species has a single line of suckers on each arm , and its head , mantle , and part of its arms are covered in warts . Although the reproductive habits of V. togata have not been extensively studied , the species is believed to be one of the most fecund among octopuses in its region and depth level , despite the species possessing large eggs and extremely large spermatophores .
The species is found in the Indian Ocean , off the coast of South Africa , Mozambique , and Tanzania . The species has been captured from depths between 400 and 750 meters below sea level , and a 2009 study found the species most heavily concentrated between 400 and 600 meters below sea level . V. togata 's conservation status has not been assessed .
= = Taxonomy = =
Velodona togata is a species of octopus , and the sole member of the genus Velodona . It belongs to the family Octopodidae , in the order Octopoda . The species was first discovered by Carl Chun in 1915 . It has two subspecies , Velodona togata togata — the subspecies originally identified by Chun in 1915 — and Velodona togata capensis , which was first described by Guy Coburn Robson in 1924 . The genus and species were named after the distinctive membranes on Velodona togata togata 's arms . Velo is Latin for " veil " and toga is Latin for " gown " or " mantle " .
= = Description = =
Chun described the first specimen he caught , a male , as looking similar to the genus Eledone , but with larger membranes , a differently shaped hectocotylus , and a differently shaped funnel organ ( siphon ) . The specimen had " a sac @-@ shaped body and very large eyes " , with arms that " are folded back and have very large membranes which enclose the whole animal " , and had a " characteristic pale coloration " . Reiterating Chun , Guy Robson summarized the differences between Eledone and V. togata as " the possession of ( a ) a funnel organ composed of two separate pieces , ( b ) a sigmoid bend in the hectocotylized arm , and ( c ) the development of extensive lateral membranes on the arms " . Robson , however , was not fully convinced that the shape of the hectocotylized arm was of value in identifying the species , positing that the curve could have been caused by a shrinkage of the membrane . In comparing the distinctive features of V. togata with other known octopus species , Robson found similarities between V. togata and species in the genera Moschites ( now considered a synonym for Pareledone and Eledone , both in the subfamily Eledoninae ) , and Polypus ( now considered a synonym for Enteroctopus , in the subfamily Octopodinae ) . He found V. togata closest to the southern species of Moschites , such as M. charcoti ( now Pareledone charcoti ) and M. brevis ( now Eledone massyae ) , due to having similar funnel organs and suckers as those species .
The specimen 's head , mantle , and dorsal arms were covered in warts of varying sizes . Chun measured the specimen 's mantle as being 99 millimeters wide and 80 millimeters long . The specimen 's head was as wide as the mantle , and was dominated by large eyes , which were measured as 38 millimeters wide and 53 millimeters long , with sickle @-@ shaped pupils . Chun described the arms as being " well developed " , and noted that the dorsal arms were the longest , and the arms got shorter as they moved to the ventral end . V. togata has a single line of suckers on each arm . Chun described the membranes on the arms in detail , stating that " The arms bear dorsal and ventral membranes . The ventral margins are unusually large and extend to the tip of all arms . They are not restricted to the ventral surface but also extend to the dorsal margin of the neighboring ventral arms , where they again continue to the tip , but are more weakly developed . " . The hectocotylus is on the third arm . V. togata contains an ink sac , but it is tiny and does not contain any ink , a common trait in cephalopods that live in deep water where there is little or no light .
Velodona togata capensis , the subspecies first described by Guy Coburn Robson in 1924 , differs from Velodona togata togata in three areas that Robson considered significant . Where the mantle of Chun 's specimen ( Velodona togata togata ) was significantly wider than it is long , the mantles of Robson 's specimens had a much smaller difference between width and length , with one specimen having a mantle with identical width and length . The length of the membrane that links the octopus 's arms — the umbrella — was shorter in Robson 's specimens than in Chun 's , and there were additional warts with papillates on his specimens that were not described in Chun 's specimen . Robson also noted a significant difference in the hectocotylus in Chun 's specimen and those in his specimens . He noted that while two of his specimens appeared to be fully sexually developed , their hectocotyli looked comparatively underdeveloped . Owing to the difference in overall size between Chun 's and Robson 's specimens , however , Robson conjectured that the difference in hectocotyli may be due to the specimens ' ages . Robson described the coloring of the specimens as " a rather deep reddish brown ( verging in a distinctly purple shade in one ) " for the males , with a " darker brown " for the female .
= = Reproduction = =
Little is known about the reproductive habits of V. togata . A 2009 study , the first to focus on V. togata , conjectured that " The high proportion of immature females obtained in the survey ( 76 % ) and the low proportion of mature females ( 10 % ) could indicate that the spawning season is finishing at the beginning of the autumn . Moreover , the wide size range of the sampled population , with a considerable number of small individuals ( possibly only a few days old ) , suggests the existence of an extended reproduction period . " . Analyzing the spermatophores and eggs of the captured specimens , the 2009 study found that V. togata had a low fecundity value , with females having large eggs and males producing a low number of large spermatophores ( the largest reported of any deep @-@ sea member of the suborder Incirrina ) . Despite this , the species was still one of the most fecund among " deep @-@ sea octopods that inhabit the Southern Ocean " .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The first specimen of Velodona togata ( Velodona togata togata ) was captured off the east coast of Africa at a depth of 749 meters below sea level . The four specimens described by Guy Robson as being members of a separate subspecies ( Velodona togata capensis ) were caught off the " Natal coast " ( modern KwaZulu @-@ Natal coast , South Africa ) at depths of between 220 fathoms ( 402 @.@ 3 meters ) and 250 fathoms ( 457 @.@ 2 meters ) . According to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System ( ITIS ) database , Velodona togata togata is possibly located in the waters north of Zanzibar , Tanzania , while Velodona togata capensis is located off of the " Natal coast , South Africa " .
In 2009 , a Spanish research vessel conducted a study of the cephalopod population off the coast of Mozambique . The study found populations of V. togata across the entire study area , which ran most of the coast of Mozambique , with especially high concentrations at the very southern end of the Mozambiquan coast , in the waters near the city of Maputo . The study performed trawls in four depth groups , 200 – 400 , 400 – 500 , 500 – 600 , and 600 – 700 meters below sea level . While V. togata was found in all four depth ranges , they were most abundant between 400 and 600 meters below sea level . The study also noted that males were most common in the shallower two groups , while females were more common in the deeper two groups .
= = Status = =
The conservation status of Velodona togata has not been assessed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as of IUCN Red List version 2013 @.@ 2 .
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= Order of the Thistle =
The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle is an order of chivalry associated with Scotland . The current version of the Order was founded in 1687 by King James VII of Scotland ( James II of England and Ireland ) who asserted that he was reviving an earlier Order . The Order consists of the Sovereign and sixteen Knights and Ladies , as well as certain " extra " knights ( members of the British Royal Family and foreign monarchs ) . The Sovereign alone grants membership of the Order ; he or she is not advised by the Government , as occurs with most other Orders .
The Order 's primary emblem is the thistle , the national flower of Scotland . The motto is Nemo me impune lacessit ( Latin for " No one provokes me with impunity " ) . The same motto appears on the Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom for use in Scotland and some pound coins , and is also the motto of the Royal Regiment of Scotland , Scots Guards , The Black Watch ( Royal Highland Regiment ) of Canada and Royal Scots Dragoon Guards . The patron saint of the Order is St Andrew .
Most British orders of chivalry cover the whole United Kingdom , but the three most exalted ones each pertain to one constituent country only . The Order of the Thistle , which pertains to Scotland , is the second @-@ most senior in precedence . Its equivalent in England , The Most Noble Order of the Garter , is the oldest documented order of chivalry in the United Kingdom , dating to the middle fourteenth century . In 1783 an Irish equivalent , The Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick , was founded , but has now fallen dormant .
= = History = =
James VII claimed that he was reviving an earlier Order , but this issue is marked by widely varying claims .
According to legend , Achaius , King of Scots ( possibly coming to the aid of Óengus mac Fergusa , King of the Picts ) , while engaged in battle at Athelstaneford with the Saxon King Æthelstan of East Anglia , saw in the heavens the cross of St Andrew . After he won the battle , Achaius is said to have established the Order of the Thistle , dedicating it to the saint , in 786 . The tale is not credible , because the two individuals purported to have fought each other did not even live in the same century . Another story states that Achaius founded the Order in 809 to commemorate an alliance with the Emperor Charlemagne . There is some credibility to this story given the fact that Charlemagne did employ Scottish bodyguards . There is , in addition , a tradition that the order was instituted , or re @-@ instituted , on the battlefield by Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn .
The earliest claim now taken seriously by historians is that James III , who adopted the thistle as the royal plant badge and issued coins depicting thistles , founded the Order during the fifteenth century . He allegedly conferred membership of the " Order of the Burr or Thissil " on King Francis I of France .
However , there is no conclusive evidence for a fifteenth @-@ century order . A French commentator writing in 1558 described the use of the crowned thistle and the cross of St Andrew on Scottish coins and war banners , and added that there was no Scottish order of knighthood . Similarly , John Lesley writing around 1578 , refers to the three foreign orders of chivalry carved on the gate of James V 's Linlithgow Palace with his ornaments of St Andrew , proper to this nation . Some Scottish order of chivalry may have existed during the sixteenth century , possibly founded by James V and called the Order of St. Andrew , but lapsed by the end of that century .
James VII issued letters patent " reviving and restoring the Order of the Thistle to its full glory , lustre and magnificency " on 29 May 1687 . Although the " restoration " in 1687 of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle was accomplished by King James VII & II , the initiative for - essentially - founding this Scottish Royal Order can be attributed to John , 1st Earl and 1st Jacobite Duke of Melfort , then Secretary of State for Scotland , who together with his elder brother James , 4th Earl and 1st Jacobite Duke of Perth , then Lord Chancellor of Scotland , were among the eight Founding Knights . Eight knights , out of a maximum of twelve , were appointed , but the King was deposed in 1688 . His successors , the joint monarchs William and Mary , did not make any further appointments to the Order , which consequently fell into desuetude . In 1703 , however , Anne once again revived the Order of the Thistle , which survives to this day .
= = = Knights founder ( restored order ) = = =
James , Earl of Perth
George , Duke of Gordon
John , Marquis of Atholl
James , Earl of Arran
Kenneth , Earl of Seaforth
John , Earl of Melfort
George , Earl of Dumbarton
Alexander , Earl of Moray
= = Composition = =
The Kings of Scots — later the Kings of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom — have served as Sovereigns of the Order . When James VII revived the Order , the statutes stated that the Order would continue the ancient number of Knights , which was described in the preceding warrant as " the Sovereign and twelve Knights @-@ Brethren in allusion to the Blessed Saviour and his Twelve Apostles " . In 1827 , George IV augmented the Order to sixteen members . Women ( other than Queens regnant ) were originally excluded from the Order ; George VI created his wife Elizabeth Bowes @-@ Lyon a Lady of the Thistle in 1937 via a special statute , and in 1987 Elizabeth II allowed the regular admission of women to both the Order of the Thistle and the Order of the Garter .
From time to time , individuals may be admitted to the Order by special statutes . Such members are known as " Extra Knights " and do not count towards the sixteen @-@ member limit . Members of the British Royal Family are normally admitted through this procedure ; the first to be so admitted was Prince Albert . King Olav V of Norway , the first foreigner to be admitted to the Order , was also admitted by special statute in 1962 .
The Sovereign has historically had the power to choose Knights of the Order . From the eighteenth century onwards , the Sovereign made his or her choices upon the advice of the Government . George VI felt that the Orders of the Garter and the Thistle had been used only for political patronage , rather than to reward actual merit . Therefore , with the agreement of the Prime Minister ( Clement Attlee ) and the Leader of the Opposition ( Winston Churchill ) in 1946 , both Orders returned to the personal gift of the Sovereign .
Knights and Ladies of the Thistle may also be admitted to the Order of the Garter . Formerly , many , but not all , Knights elevated to the senior Order would resign from the Order of the Thistle . The first to resign from the Order of the Thistle was John , Duke of Argyll in 1710 ; the last to take such an action was Thomas , Earl of Zetland in 1872 . Knights and Ladies of the Thistle may also be deprived of their knighthoods . The only individual to have suffered such a fate was John Erskine , 6th Earl of Mar who lost both the knighthood and the earldom after participating in the Jacobite rising of 1715 .
The Order has five officers : the Dean , the Chancellor , the Usher , the Lord Lyon King of Arms and the Secretary . The Dean is normally a cleric of the Church of Scotland . This office was not part of the original establishment , but was created in 1763 and joined to the office of Dean of the Chapel Royal . The two offices were separated in 1969 . The office of Chancellor is mentioned and given custody of the seal of the Order in the 1687 statutes , but no @-@ one was appointed to the position until 1913 . The office has subsequently been held by one of the knights , though not necessarily the most senior . The Usher of the Order is the Gentleman Usher of the Green Rod ( unlike his Garter equivalent , the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod , he does not have another function assisting the House of Lords ) . The Lord Lyon King of Arms , head of the Scottish heraldic establishment and whose office predates his association with the Order serves as King of Arms of the Order . The Lord Lyon often — but not invariably — also serves as the Secretary .
= = Habit and insignia = =
For the Order 's great occasions , such as its annual service each June or July , as well for coronations , the Knights and Ladies wear an elaborate costume :
The mantle is a green robe worn over their suits or military uniforms . The mantle is lined with white taffeta ; it is tied with green and gold tassels . On the left shoulder of the mantle , the star of the Order ( see below ) is depicted .
The hat is made of black velvet and is plumed with white feathers with a black egret or heron 's top in the middle .
The collar is made of gold and depicts thistles and sprigs of rue . It is worn over the mantle .
The St Andrew , also called the badge @-@ appendant , is worn suspended from the collar . It comprises a gold enamelled depiction of St Andrew , wearing a green gown and purple coat , holding a white saltire . Gold rays of a glory are shown emanating from St Andrew 's head .
Aside from these special occasions , however , much simpler insignia are used whenever a member of the Order attends an event at which decorations are worn .
The star of the Order consists of a silver St Andrew 's saltire , with clusters of rays between the arms thereof . In the centre is depicted a green circle bearing the motto of the Order in gold majuscules ; within the circle , there is depicted a thistle on a gold field . It is worn pinned to the left breast . ( Since the Order of the Thistle is the second @-@ most senior chivalric order in the UK , a member will wear its star above that of other orders to which he or she belongs , except that of the Order of the Garter ; up to four orders ' stars may be worn . )
The broad riband is a dark green sash worn across the body , from the left shoulder to the right hip .
At the right hip of the Riband , the badge of the Order is attached . The badge depicts St Andrew in the same form as the badge @-@ appendant surrounded by the Order 's motto .
However , on certain collar days designated by the Sovereign , members attending formal events may wear the Order 's collar over their military uniform , formal wear , or other costume . They will then substitute the broad riband of another order to which they belong ( if any ) , since the Order of the Thistle is represented by the collar .
Upon the death of a Knight or Lady , the insignia must be returned to the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood . The badge and star are returned personally to the Sovereign by the nearest relative of the deceased .
Officers of the Order also wear green robes . The Gentleman Usher of the Green Rod also bears , as the title of his office suggests , a green rod .
One unusual recipient of the Order of the Thistle was James , Earl of Southesk ( 1827 @-@ 1905 ) . He was recognized by the Order for his adventurous spirit and his passion for the wilds of Canada . His portrait in marble by William Grant Stevenson depicts a stern man who had placed himself at some risk as he travelled through the Canadian wilderness and wrote about his admiration for the native peoples of North America .
= = Chapel = =
When James VII created the modern Order in 1687 , he directed that the Abbey Church at the Palace of Holyroodhouse be converted to a Chapel for the Order of the Thistle , perhaps copying the idea from the Order of the Garter ( whose chapel is located in Windsor Castle ) . James VII , however , was deposed by 1688 ; the Chapel , meanwhile , had been destroyed during riots . The Order did not have a Chapel until 1911 , when one was added onto St Giles High Kirk in Edinburgh . Each year , the Sovereign resides at the Palace of Holyroodhouse for a week in June or July ; during the visit , a service for the Order is held . Any new Knights or Ladies are installed at annual services .
Each member of the Order , including the Sovereign , is allotted a stall in the Chapel , above which his or her heraldic devices are displayed . Perched on the pinnacle of a knight 's stall is his helm , decorated with mantling and topped by his crest . If he is a peer , the coronet appropriate to his rank is placed beneath the helm . Under the laws of heraldry , women , other than monarchs , do not normally bear helms nor crests ; instead , the coronet alone is used ( if she is a peeress or princess ) . Lady Marion Fraser had a helm and crest included when she was granted arms ; these are displayed above her stall in the same manner as for knights . Unlike other British Orders , the armorial banners of Knights and Ladies of the Thistle are not hung in the chapel , but instead in an adjacent part of St Giles High Kirk . The Thistle Chapel does , however , bear the arms of members living and deceased on stall plates . These enamelled plates are affixed to the back of the stall and display its occupant 's name , arms , and date of admission into the Order .
Upon the death of a Knight , helm , mantling , crest ( or coronet or crown ) and sword are taken down . The stall plates , however , are not removed ; rather , they remain permanently affixed to the back of the stall , so that the stalls of the chapel are festooned with a colourful record of the Order 's Knights ( and now Ladies ) since 1911 . The entryway just outside the doors of the chapel has the names of the Order 's Knights from before 1911 inscribed into the walls giving a complete record of the members of the order .
= = Precedence and privileges = =
Knights and Ladies of the Thistle are assigned positions in the order of precedence , ranking above all others of knightly rank except the Order of the Garter , and above baronets . Wives , sons , daughters and daughters @-@ in @-@ law of Knights of the Thistle also feature on the order of precedence ; relatives of Ladies of the Thistle , however , are not assigned any special precedence . ( Generally , individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands , but not from their mothers or wives . )
Knights of the Thistle prefix " Sir " , and Ladies prefix " Lady " , to their forenames . Wives of Knights may prefix " Lady " to their surnames , but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Ladies . Such forms are not used by peers and princes , except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms .
Knights and Ladies use the post @-@ nominal letters " KT " and " LT " respectively . When an individual is entitled to use multiple post @-@ nominal letters , " KT " or " LT " appears before all others , except " Bt " or " Btss " ( Baronet or Baronetess ) , " VC " ( Victoria Cross ) , " GC " ( George Cross ) and " KG " or " LG " ( Knight or Lady of the Garter ) .
Knights and Ladies may encircle their arms with the circlet ( a green circle bearing the Order 's motto ) and the collar of the Order ; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter . The badge is depicted suspended from the collar . The Royal Arms depict the collar and motto of the Order of the Thistle only in Scotland ; they show the circlet and motto of the Garter in England , Wales and Northern Ireland .
Knights and Ladies are also entitled to receive heraldic supporters . This high privilege is shared only by members of the Royal Family , peers , Knights and Ladies of the Garter , and Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the junior orders of chivalry and clan chiefs .
= = Current members and officers = =
Sovereign : Elizabeth II
Knights and Ladies Companion :
Andrew , Earl of Elgin and Kincardine KT JP DL ( 1981 )
David , Earl of Airlie KT GCVO PC JP ( 1985 )
Robert , Earl of Crawford and Balcarres KT GCVO PC DL ( 1996 )
Lady Marion Fraser LT ( 1996 )
Norman , Lord Macfarlane of Bearsden KT DL ( 1996 )
James , Lord Mackay of Clashfern KT PC QC ( 1997 )
David , Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG ( 2000 )
Stewart , Lord Sutherland of Houndwood KT ( 2002 )
Sir Eric Anderson KT ( 2002 )
David , Lord Steel of Aikwood KT KBE PC ( 2004 )
George , Lord Robertson of Port Ellen KT GCMG PC ( 2004 )
William , Lord Cullen of Whitekirk KT PC ( 2007 )
David , Lord Hope of Craighead KT PC QC ( 2009 )
Narendra , Lord Patel KT ( 2009 )
David , Earl of Home KT CVO CBE ( 2014 )
Robert , Lord Smith of Kelvin KT CH ( 2014 )
Extra Knights and Ladies Companion :
Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh KG KT OM GBE AK CC CMM QSO PC ADC ( P ) CD ( 1952 )
Prince Charles , Duke of Rothesay KG KT GCB OM AK QSO PC ADC ( P ) CD ( 1977 )
Princess Anne , Princess Royal KG KT GCVO QSO CD ( 2000 )
Prince William , Earl of Strathearn KG KT PC ADC ( P ) ( 2012 )
Officers :
Dean : Very Reverend Professor Iain Torrance , TD
Chancellor : David , Earl of Airlie KT GCVO PC JP
Gentleman Usher of the Green Rod : Rear Admiral Christopher Hope Layman CB DSO LVO
King of Arms : Dr Joseph Morrow ( Lord Lyon King of Arms )
Secretary : Elizabeth Roads LVO ( Snawdoun Herald , Lyon Clerk and Keeper of the Records )
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= Fight Club =
Fight Club is a 1999 American neo @-@ noir drama film based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk . The film was directed by David Fincher , and stars Brad Pitt , Edward Norton and Helena Bonham Carter . Norton plays the unnamed protagonist , an " everyman " who is discontented with his white @-@ collar job . He forms a " fight club " with soap maker Tyler Durden , played by Pitt , and they are joined by men who also want to fight recreationally . The narrator becomes embroiled in a relationship with Durden and a dissolute woman , Marla Singer , played by Bonham Carter .
Palahniuk 's novel was optioned by 20th Century Fox producer Laura Ziskin , who hired Jim Uhls to write the film adaptation . Fincher was one of four directors the producers considered , and was selected because of his enthusiasm for the film . Fincher developed the script with Uhls and sought screenwriting advice from the cast and others in the film industry . The director and the cast compared the film to Rebel Without a Cause ( 1955 ) and The Graduate ( 1967 ) . Fincher intended Fight Club 's violence to serve as a metaphor for the conflict between a generation of young people and the value system of advertising . The director copied the homoerotic overtones from Palahniuk 's novel to make audiences uncomfortable and keep them from anticipating the twist ending .
Studio executives did not like the film and restructured Fincher 's intended marketing campaign to try to reduce anticipated losses . Fight Club failed to meet the studio 's expectations at the box office and received polarized reactions from critics , who debated the explicit violence and moral ambiguity , but praised the acting , directing , themes and messages . It was cited as one of the most controversial and talked @-@ about films of 1999 . The film later found critical and commercial success with its DVD release , which established Fight Club as a cult film .
= = Plot = =
The unnamed narrator ( Edward Norton ) is a traveling automobile recall specialist who suffers from insomnia . One night , he visits a support group for testicular cancer victims , where they assume that he , too , is a victim , and he spontaneously weeps into the nurturing arms of another man , finding a " freedom " that euphorically relieves his insomnia . He becomes addicted to participating in support groups of various kinds , always allowing the groups to assume that he suffers what they do . However , he begins to notice another impostor , Marla Singer ( Helena Bonham Carter ) , whose presence disturbs his bliss . The two negotiate to avoid their attending the same groups , but , before going their separate ways , Marla gives the narrator her phone number .
On a flight home from a business trip , the narrator meets Tyler Durden ( Brad Pitt ) , a soap salesman with whom he begins to converse after noticing the two share the same kind of briefcase . After the flight , the narrator returns home to find that his apartment has been demolished by an explosion . He calls Tyler and they meet at a bar . A conversation about consumerism leads to the narrator moving into Tyler 's dilapidated mansion . Outside the bar , Tyler requests that the narrator hit him , which leads the two to engage in a fistfight . They have further fights outside the bar on subsequent nights , and these fights attract growing crowds of men . The fighting eventually moves to the bar 's basement where the men form a " fight club , " a routine opportunity for the men to fight recreationally .
Marla overdoses on pills and telephones the narrator for help ; he ignores her , but Tyler answers the call and saves her . Tyler and Marla become sexually involved , and Tyler warns the narrator never to talk to Marla about him . More fight clubs form across the country and , under Tyler 's leadership , they become the anti @-@ materialist and anti @-@ corporate organization called " Project Mayhem . " The narrator complains to Tyler that he wants to be more involved in the organization , but then Tyler suddenly disappears . When a member of Project Mayhem is killed by the police during a botched sabotage operation , the narrator tries to shut down the project , and follows evidence of Tyler 's national travels to track him down . In one city , a Project member greets the narrator as Tyler Durden . The narrator calls Marla from his hotel room and discovers that Marla also believes him to be Tyler . He suddenly sees Tyler in his room , and Tyler reveals that they are dissociated personalities in the same body . When the narrator has believed himself to be asleep , Tyler has been controlling his body and travelling to different locations .
The narrator blacks out after the conversation , and when he awakes , he uncovers Tyler 's plans to erase debt by destroying buildings that contain credit card companies ' records . The narrator tries to contact the police , but finds that the officers are members of the Project . He attempts to disarm the explosives in a building , but Tyler subdues him and moves him to the uppermost floor . The narrator , held at gunpoint by Tyler , realizes that , in sharing the same body with Tyler , he himself is actually holding the gun . He fires it into his mouth , shooting through the cheek without killing himself . Tyler collapses with an exit wound to the back of his head , and the narrator stops mentally projecting him . Afterward , Project Mayhem members bring a kidnapped Marla to him , believing him to be Tyler , and leave them alone . The explosives detonate , collapsing many buildings around them ; the narrator and Marla , holding hands , look on .
= = Themes = =
Fincher said Fight Club was a coming of age film , like the 1967 film The Graduate but for people in their 30s . Fincher described the narrator as an " everyman " ; the character is identified in the script as " Jack " , but left unnamed in the film . Fincher outlined the narrator 's background : " He 's tried to do everything he was taught to do , tried to fit into the world by becoming the thing he isn 't . " The narrator cannot find happiness , so he travels on a path to enlightenment in which he must " kill " his parents , his god , and his teacher . At the start of the film , he has killed his parents . With Tyler Durden , he kills his god by doing things they are not supposed to do . To complete the process of maturing , the narrator has to kill his teacher , Tyler Durden .
The character is a 1990s inverse of The Graduate archetype : " a guy who does not have a world of possibilities in front of him , he has no possibilities , he literally cannot imagine a way to change his life . " He is confused and enraged , so he responds to his environment by creating Tyler Durden , a Nietzschean Übermensch , in his mind . While Tyler is who the narrator would want to be , he is not empathetic and does not help the narrator face decisions in his life " that are complicated and have moral and ethical implications " . Fincher explained , " [ Tyler ] can deal with the concepts of our lives in an idealistic fashion , but it doesn 't have anything to do with the compromises of real life as modern man knows it . Which is : You 're not really necessary to a lot of what 's going on . It 's built , it just needs to run now . " While studio executives worried that Fight Club was going to be " sinister and seditious " , Fincher sought to make it " funny and seditious " by including humor to temper the sinister element .
Uhls described the film as a " romantic comedy " , explaining , " It has to do with the characters ' attitudes toward a healthy relationship , which is a lot of behavior which seems unhealthy and harsh to each other , but in fact does work for them — because both characters are out on the edge psychologically . " The narrator seeks intimacy , but he avoids it with Marla Singer , seeing too much of himself in her . While Marla is a seductive and negativist prospect for the narrator , he instead embraces the novelty and excitement that comes with befriending Tyler Durden . The narrator is comfortable being personally connected to Tyler Durden , but he becomes jealous when Tyler becomes sexually involved with Marla . When the narrator argues with Tyler about their friendship , Tyler tells him that being friends is secondary to pursuing the philosophy they have been exploring . Tyler also suggests doing something about Marla , implying that she is a risk to be removed . When Tyler says this , the narrator realizes that his desires should have been focused on Marla and begins to diverge from Tyler 's path .
The unreliable narrator is not immediately aware that Tyler Durden originated in him and is being mentally projected . He also mistakenly promotes the fight clubs as a way to feel powerful , though the narrator 's physical condition worsens while Tyler Durden 's appearance improves . While Tyler desires " real experiences " of actual fights like the narrator at first , he manifests a nihilistic attitude of rejecting and destroying institutions and value systems . His impulsive nature , representing the id , conveys an attitude that is seductive and liberating to the narrator and the members of Project Mayhem . Tyler 's initiatives and methods become dehumanizing ; he orders around the members of Project Mayhem with a megaphone similar to camp directors at Chinese re @-@ education camps . The narrator pulls back from Tyler and in the end , he arrives at a middle ground between his two conflicting selves .
Norton said , " I feel that Fight Club really , in a way ... probed into the despair and paralysis that people feel in the face of having inherited this value system out of advertising . " Pitt said , " Fight Club is a metaphor for the need to push through the walls we put around ourselves and just go for it , so for the first time we can experience the pain . " Fight Club also parallels the 1955 film Rebel Without a Cause ; both probe the frustrations of the people that live in the system . The characters , having undergone societal emasculation , are reduced to " a generation of spectators " . A culture of advertising defines society 's " external signifiers of happiness " , causing an unnecessary chase for material goods that replaces the more essential pursuit of spiritual happiness . The film references Calvin Klein , IKEA , and the Volkswagen New Beetle . Norton said of the Beetle , " We smash it ... because it seemed like the classic example of a Baby Boomer generation marketing plan that sold culture back to us . " His character also walks through his apartment while visual effects identify his many IKEA possessions . Fincher described the narrator 's immersion , " It was just the idea of living in this fraudulent idea of happiness . " Pitt explained the dissonance , " I think there 's a self @-@ defense mechanism that keeps my generation from having any real honest connection or commitment with our true feelings . We 're rooting for ball teams , but we 're not getting in there to play . We 're so concerned with failure and success — like these two things are all that 's going to sum you up at the end . "
The violence of the fight clubs serves not to promote or glorify physical combat , but for participants to experience feeling in a society where they are otherwise numb . The fights tangibly represent a resistance to the impulse to be " cocooned " in society . Norton believed that the fighting between the men strips away the " fear of pain " and " the reliance on material signifiers of their self @-@ worth " , leaving them to experience something valuable . When the fights evolve into revolutionary violence , the film only half @-@ accepts the revolutionary dialectic by Tyler Durden ; the narrator pulls back and rejects Durden 's ideas . Fight Club purposely shapes an ambiguous message , the interpretation of which is left to the audience . Fincher elaborated , " I love this idea that you can have fascism without offering any direction or solution . Isn 't the point of fascism to say , ' This is the way we should be going ' ? But this movie couldn 't be further from offering any kind of solution . "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The novel Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk was published in 1996 . Before its publication , a 20th Century Fox book scout sent a galley proof of the novel to creative executive Kevin McCormick . The executive assigned a studio reader to review the proof as a candidate for a film adaptation , but the reader discouraged it . McCormick then forwarded the proof to producers Lawrence Bender and Art Linson , who also rejected it . Producers Josh Donen and Ross Bell saw potential and expressed interest . They arranged unpaid screen readings with actors to determine the script 's length , and an initial reading lasted six hours . The producers cut out sections to reduce the running time , and they used the shorter script to record its dialogue . Bell sent the recording to Laura Ziskin , head of the division Fox 2000 , who listened to the tape and purchased the rights to Fight Club from Palahniuk for $ 10 @,@ 000 .
Ziskin initially considered hiring Buck Henry to write the adaptation , finding Fight Club similar to the 1967 film The Graduate , which Henry had adapted . When a new screenwriter , Jim Uhls , lobbied Donen and Bell for the job , the producers chose him over Henry . Bell contacted four directors to direct the film . He considered Peter Jackson the best choice , but Jackson was too busy filming the 1996 film The Frighteners in New Zealand . Bryan Singer received the book but did not read it . Danny Boyle met with Bell and read the book , but he pursued another film . David Fincher , who had read Fight Club and had tried to buy the rights himself , talked with Ziskin about directing the film . He hesitated to accept the assignment with 20th Century Fox at first because he had an unpleasant experience directing the 1992 film Alien 3 for the studio . To repair his relationship with the studio , he met with Ziskin and studio head Bill Mechanic . In August 1997 , 20th Century Fox announced that Fincher would direct the film adaptation of Fight Club .
= = = Casting = = =
Producer Ross Bell met with actor Russell Crowe to discuss his candidacy for the role of Tyler Durden . Producer Art Linson , who joined the project late , met with Pitt regarding the same role . Linson was the senior producer of the two , so the studio sought to cast Pitt instead of Crowe . Pitt was looking for a new film after the failure ( in the US market ) of his 1998 film Meet Joe Black , and the studio believed Fight Club would be more commercially successful with a major star . The studio signed Pitt and offered him a US $ 17 @.@ 5 million salary .
For the role of the unnamed narrator , the studio desired a " sexier marquee name " like Matt Damon to increase the film 's commercial prospects ; it also considered Sean Penn . Fincher instead considered Norton a candidate for the role , based on the actor 's performance in the 1996 film The People vs. Larry Flynt . Other studios were approaching Norton for leading roles in developing films like The Talented Mr. Ripley and Man on the Moon . The actor was cast in Runaway Jury , but the film did not reach production . 20th Century Fox offered Norton a $ 2 @.@ 5 million salary to attract him to Fight Club . Norton could not accept the offer immediately because he still owed Paramount Pictures a film ; he had signed a contractual obligation with Paramount to appear in one of the studio 's future films for a smaller salary ( Norton later satisfied the obligation with his role in the 2003 film The Italian Job ) .
In January 1998 , 20th Century Fox announced that Pitt and Norton were cast in the film . The actors prepared for their roles by taking lessons in boxing , taekwondo , grappling , and soapmaking . Pitt voluntarily visited a dentist to have pieces of his front teeth chipped off so his character would not have perfect teeth . The pieces were restored after filming concluded .
Fincher 's first choice for the role of Marla Singer was Janeane Garofalo , who objected to the film 's sexual content . The filmmakers considered Courtney Love and Winona Ryder as candidates early on . The studio wanted to cast Reese Witherspoon , but Fincher objected that she was too young for the role . He chose to cast Bonham Carter based on her performance in the 1997 film The Wings of the Dove .
= = = Writing = = =
Uhls started working on an early draft of the adapted screenplay , which excluded a voice @-@ over because the industry perceived at the time that the technique was " hackneyed and trite " . When Fincher joined the film , he thought that the film should have a voice @-@ over , believing that the film 's humor came from the narrator 's voice . The director described the film without a voice @-@ over as seemingly " sad and pathetic " . Fincher and Uhls revised the script for six to seven months and by 1997 had a third draft that reordered the story and left out several major elements . When Pitt was cast , he was concerned that his character , Tyler Durden , was too one @-@ dimensional . Fincher sought the advice of writer @-@ director Cameron Crowe , who suggested giving the character more ambiguity . Fincher also hired screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker for assistance . The director invited Pitt and Norton to help revise the script , and the group drafted five revisions in the course of a year .
Palahniuk praised the faithful film adaptation of his novel and applauded how the film 's plot was more streamlined than the book 's . Palahniuk recalled how the writers debated if film audiences would believe the plot twist from the novel . Fincher supported including the twist , arguing , " If they accept everything up to this point , they 'll accept the plot twist . If they 're still in the theater , they 'll stay with it . " Palahniuk 's novel also contained homoerotic overtones , which the director included in the film to make audiences uncomfortable and accentuate the surprise of the film 's twists . The bathroom scene where Tyler Durden bathes next to the narrator is an example of the overtones ; the line , " I 'm wondering if another woman is really the answer we need , " was meant to suggest personal responsibility rather than homosexuality . Another example is the scene at the beginning of the film in which Tyler Durden puts a gun barrel down the narrator 's mouth .
The narrator finds redemption at the end of the film by rejecting Tyler Durden 's dialectic , a path that diverged from the novel 's ending in which the narrator is placed in a mental institution . Norton drew parallels between redemption in the film and redemption in The Graduate , indicating that the protagonists of both films find a middle ground between two divisions of self . Fincher considered the novel too infatuated with Tyler Durden and changed the ending to move away from him : " I wanted people to love Tyler , but I also wanted them to be OK with his vanquishing . "
= = = Filming = = =
Studio executives Mechanic and Ziskin planned an initial budget of US $ 23 million to finance the film , but by the start of production , the budget was increased to $ 50 million . Half was paid by New Regency , but during filming , the projected budget escalated to US $ 67 million . New Regency 's head and Fight Club executive producer Arnon Milchan petitioned Fincher to reduce costs by at least US $ 5 million . The director refused , so Milchan threatened Mechanic that New Regency would withdraw financing . Mechanic sought to restore Milchan 's support by sending him tapes of dailies from Fight Club . After seeing three weeks of filming , Milchan reinstated New Regency 's financial backing . The final production budget was $ 63 million .
The fight scenes were heavily choreographed , but the actors were required to " go full out " to capture realistic effects like having the wind knocked out of them . Makeup artist Julie Pearce , who worked for the director on the 1997 film The Game , studied mixed martial arts and pay @-@ per @-@ view boxing to portray the fighters accurately . She designed an extra 's ear to have cartilage missing , citing as inspiration the boxing match in which Mike Tyson bit off part of Evander Holyfield 's ear . Makeup artists devised two methods to create sweat on cue : spraying mineral water over a coat of Vaseline , and using the unadulterated water for " wet sweat " . Meat Loaf , who plays a member of the fight club who has " bitch tits " , wore a 90 @-@ pound ( 40 kg ) fat harness that gave him large breasts for the role . He also wore eight @-@ inch ( 20 cm ) lifts in his scenes with Norton to be taller than him .
Filming lasted 138 days , during which Fincher shot more than 1 @,@ 500 rolls of film , three times the average for a Hollywood film . The locations were in and around Los Angeles , including most notably : The Promenade Towers , Melrose Avenue , St. Brendan 's Catholic Church , and Michael Heizer 's public art sculpture " North , South East , West " . Sets were also built in Century City . Production designer Alex McDowell constructed more than 70 sets . The exterior of Tyler Durden 's house was built in Wilmington , California , while the interior was built on a sound stage at the studio 's location . The interior was given a decayed look to illustrate the deconstructed world of the characters . Marla Singer 's apartment was based on photographs of the Rosalind Apartments in downtown LA . Overall production included 300 scenes , 200 locations , and complex special effects . Fincher compared Fight Club to his succeeding and less complex film Panic Room , " I felt like I was spending all my time watching trucks being loaded and unloaded so I could shoot three lines of dialogue . There was far too much transportation going on . "
= = = Cinematography = = =
Fincher used the Super 35 format to film Fight Club since it gave him maximum flexibility in composing shots . He hired Jeff Cronenweth as cinematographer ; Cronenweth 's father Jordan Cronenweth was the cinematographer who worked for Fincher on the 1992 film Alien 3 but left midway through its production due to Parkinson 's disease . Fincher explored visual styles in his previous films Seven and The Game , and he and Cronenweth drew elements from these styles for Fight Club .
They applied a lurid style , choosing to make people " sort of shiny " . The appearance of the narrator 's scenes without Tyler Durden were bland and realistic . The scenes with Tyler were described by Fincher as " more hyper @-@ real in a torn @-@ down , deconstructed sense — a visual metaphor of what [ the narrator is ] heading into " . The filmmakers used heavily desaturated colors in the costuming , makeup , and art direction . Bonham Carter wore opalescent makeup to portray her romantic nihilistic character with a " smack @-@ fiend patina " . Fincher and Cronenweth drew influences from the 1973 film American Graffiti , which applied a mundane look to nighttime exteriors while simultaneously including a variety of colors .
The crew took advantage of both natural and practical light at filming locations . The director sought various approaches to the lighting setups , for example choosing several urban locations for the city lights ' effects on the shots ' backgrounds . He and the crew also embraced fluorescent lighting at other practical locations to maintain an element of reality and to light the prostheses depicting the characters ' injuries . On the other hand , Fincher also ensured that scenes were not so strongly lit so the characters ' eyes were less visible , citing cinematographer Gordon Willis ' technique as the influence .
Fight Club was filmed mostly at night and Fincher purposely filmed the daytime shots in shadowed locations . The crew equipped the bar 's basement with inexpensive work lamps to create a background glow . Fincher avoided stylish camerawork when filming early fight scenes in the basement and instead placed the camera in a fixed position . In later fight scenes , Fincher moved the camera from the viewpoint of a distant observer to that of the fighter .
The scenes with Tyler Durden were staged to conceal that the character was a mental projection of the unnamed narrator . The character was not filmed in two shots with a group of people , nor was he shown in any over the shoulder shots in scenes where Tyler gives the narrator specific ideas to manipulate him . In scenes before the narrator meets Tyler , the filmmakers inserted Tyler 's presence in single frames for subliminal effect . Tyler appears in the background and out of focus , like a " little devil on the shoulder " . Fincher explained the subliminal frames : " Our hero is creating Tyler Durden in his own mind , so at this point he exists only on the periphery of the narrator 's consciousness . "
While Cronenweth generally rated and exposed the Kodak film stock normally on Fight Club , several other techniques were applied to change its appearance . Flashing was implemented on much of the exterior night photography , the contrast was stretched to be purposely ugly , the print was adjusted to be underexposed , Technicolor 's ENR silver retention was used on a select number of prints to increase the density of the film 's blacks , and high @-@ contrast print stocks were chosen to create a " stepped @-@ on " look on the print with a dirty patina .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Fincher hired visual effects supervisor Kevin Tod Haug , who worked for him on The Game , to create visual effects for Fight Club . Haug assigned the visual effects artists and experts to different facilities that each addressed different types of visual effects : CG modeling , animation , compositing , and scanning . Haug explained , " We selected the best people for each aspect of the effects work , then coordinated their efforts . In this way , we never had to play to a facility 's weakness . " Fincher visualized the narrator 's perspective through a " mind 's eye " view and structured a myopic framework for the film audiences . Fincher also used previsualized footage of challenging main @-@ unit and visual effects shots as a problem @-@ solving tool to avoid making mistakes during the actual filming .
The film 's title sequence is a 90 @-@ second visual effects composition that depicts the inside of the narrator 's brain at a microscopic level ; the camera pulls back to the outside , starting at his fear center and following the thought processes initiated by his fear impulse . The sequence , designed in part by Fincher , was budgeted separately from the rest of the film at first , but the sequence was awarded by the studio in January 1999 . Fincher hired Digital Domain and its visual effects supervisor Kevin Mack , who won an Academy Award for Visual Effects for the 1998 film What Dreams May Come , for the sequence . The company mapped the computer @-@ generated brain using an L @-@ system , and the design was detailed using renderings by medical illustrator Katherine Jones . The pullback sequence from within the brain to the outside of the skull included neurons , action potentials , and a hair follicle . Haug explained the artistic license that Fincher took with the shot , " While he wanted to keep the brain passage looking like electron microscope photography , that look had to be coupled with the feel of a night dive — wet , scary , and with a low depth of field . " The shallow depth of field was accomplished with the ray tracing process .
Other visual effects include an early scene in which the camera flashes past city streets to survey Project Mayhem 's destructive equipment lying in underground parking lots ; the sequence was a three @-@ dimensional composition of nearly 100 photographs of Los Angeles and Century City by photographer Michael Douglas Middleton . The final scene of the demolition of the credit card office buildings was designed by Richard Baily of Image Savant ; Baily worked on the scene for over fourteen months .
Midway through the film , Tyler Durden points out the cue mark — nicknamed " cigarette burn " in the film — to the audience . The scene represents a turning point that foreshadows the coming rupture and inversion of the " fairly subjective reality " that existed earlier in the film . The director explained , " Suddenly it 's as though the projectionist missed the changeover , the viewers have to start looking at the movie in a whole new way . "
= = = Musical score = = =
Fincher was concerned that bands experienced in writing film scores would be unable to tie the movie 's themes together , so he sought a band which had never recorded for film . He pursued Radiohead , but ultimately chose the breakbeat producing duo Dust Brothers to score the film . The duo created a post @-@ modern score that included drum loops , electronic scratches , and computerized samples . Dust Brothers performer Michael Simpson explained the setup : " Fincher wanted to break new ground with everything about the movie , and a nontraditional score helped achieve that . " The film 's climax and end credits feature the song " Where Is My Mind ? " by the Pixies .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Filming concluded in December 1998 , and Fincher edited the footage in early 1999 to prepare Fight Club for a screening with senior executives . They did not receive the film positively and were concerned that there would not be an audience for the film . Executive producer Art Linson , who supported the film , recalled the response : " So many incidences of Fight Club were alarming , no group of executives could narrow them down . " Nevertheless , Fight Club was originally slated to be released in July 1999 but was later changed to August 6 , 1999 . The studio further delayed the film 's release , this time to autumn , citing a crowded summer schedule and a hurried post @-@ production process . Outsiders attributed the delays to the Columbine High School massacre earlier in the year .
Marketing executives at 20th Century Fox faced difficulties in marketing Fight Club and at one point considered marketing it as an art film . They considered that the film was primarily geared toward male audiences because of its violence and believed that not even Pitt would attract female filmgoers . Research testing showed that the film appealed to teenagers . Fincher refused to let the posters and trailers focus on Pitt and encouraged the studio to hire the advertising firm Wieden + Kennedy to devise a marketing plan . The firm proposed a bar of pink soap with the title " Fight Club " embossed on it as the film 's main marketing image ; the proposal was considered " a bad joke " by Fox executives . Fincher also released two early trailers in the form of fake public service announcements presented by Pitt and Norton ; the studio did not think the trailers marketed the film appropriately . Instead , the studio financed a $ 20 million large @-@ scale campaign to provide a press junket , posters , billboards , and trailers for TV that highlighted the film 's fight scenes . The studio advertised Fight Club on cable during World Wrestling Entertainment broadcasts , which Fincher protested , believing that the placement created the wrong context for the film . Linson believed that the " ill @-@ conceived one @-@ dimensional " marketing by marketing executive Robert Harper largely contributed to Fight Club 's lukewarm box office performance in the United States .
= = = Theatrical run = = =
The studio held Fight Club 's world premiere at the 56th Venice International Film Festival on September 10 , 1999 . For the American theatrical release , the studio hired the National Research Group to test screen the film ; the group predicted the film would gross between US $ 13 million and US $ 15 million in its opening weekend . Fight Club opened commercially in the United States and Canada on October 15 , 1999 and earned US $ 11 @,@ 035 @,@ 485 in 1 @,@ 963 theaters over the opening weekend . The film ranked first at the weekend box office , defeating Double Jeopardy and The Story of Us , a fellow weekend opener . The gender mix of audiences for Fight Club , argued to be " the ultimate anti @-@ date flick " , was 61 % male and 39 % female ; 58 % of audiences were below the age of 21 . Despite the film 's top placement , its opening gross fell short of the studio 's expectations . Over the second weekend , Fight Club dropped 42 @.@ 6 % in revenue , earning US $ 6 @,@ 335 @,@ 870 . Against its production budget of US $ 63 million , the film grossed US $ 37 million from its theatrical run in the United States and Canada and earned US $ 100 @.@ 9 million in theaters worldwide . The underwhelming North American performance of Fight Club soured the relationship between 20th Century Fox 's studio head Bill Mechanic and media executive Rupert Murdoch , which contributed to Mechanic 's resignation in June 2000 .
The British Board of Film Classification reviewed Fight Club for its November 12 , 1999 release in the United Kingdom and removed two scenes involving " an indulgence in the excitement of beating a ( defenseless ) man 's face into a pulp " . The board assigned the film an 18 certificate , limiting the release to adult @-@ only audiences in the UK . The BBFC did not censor any further , considering and dismissing claims that Fight Club contained " dangerously instructive information " and could " encourage anti @-@ social ( behavior ) " . The board decided , " The film as a whole is — quite clearly — critical and sharply parodic of the amateur fascism which in part it portrays . Its central theme of male machismo ( and the anti @-@ social behaviour that flows from it ) is emphatically rejected by the central character in the concluding reels . " The scenes were restored in a two @-@ disc DVD edition released in the UK in March 2007 .
= = = Home media = = =
Fincher supervised the composition of the DVD packaging and was one of the first directors to participate in a film 's transition to home media . The film was released in two DVD editions . The single @-@ disc edition included a commentary track , while the two @-@ disc special edition included the commentary track , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clips , deleted scenes , trailers , fake public service announcements , the promotional music video " This is Your Life " , Internet spots , still galleries , cast biographies , storyboards , and publicity materials . The director worked on the DVD as a way to finish his vision for the film . Julie Markell , 20th Century Fox 's senior vice president of creative development , said the DVD packaging complemented the director 's vision : " The film is meant to make you question . The package , by extension , tries to reflect an experience that you must experience for yourself . The more you look at it , the more you 'll get out of it . " The studio developed the packaging for two months . The two @-@ disc special edition DVD was packaged to look covered in brown cardboard wrapper . The title " Fight Club " was labeled diagonally across the front , and packaging appeared tied with twine . Markell said , " We wanted the package to be simple on the outside , so that there would be a dichotomy between the simplicity of brown paper wrapping and the intensity and chaos of what 's inside . " Deborah Mitchell , 20th Century Fox 's vice president of marketing , described the design : " From a retail standpoint , [ the DVD case ] has incredible shelf @-@ presence . "
Fight Club won the 2000 Online Film Critics Society Awards for Best DVD , Best DVD Commentary , and Best DVD Special Features . Entertainment Weekly ranked the film 's two @-@ disc edition in first place on its 2001 list of " The 50 Essential DVDs " , giving top ratings to the DVD 's content and technical picture @-@ and @-@ audio quality . When the two @-@ disc edition went out of print , the studio re @-@ released it in 2004 because of fans ' requests . The film sold more than 6 million copies on DVD and video within the first ten years , making it one of the largest @-@ selling home media items in the studio 's history , in addition to grossing over $ 55 million in video and DVD rentals . With a weak box office performance in the United States and Canada , a better performance in other territories , and the highly successful DVD release , Fight Club generated a US $ 10 million profit for the studio .
The Laserdisc edition was only released in Japan on May 26 , 2000 and features a different cover art , as well as one of the very few Dolby EX soundtracks released on LD .
The VHS edition was released on October 31 , 2000 , as a part of 20th Century Fox 's " Premiere Series " line . It includes a featurette after the film , entitled " Behind the Brawl " .
Fight Club was released in the Blu @-@ ray Disc format in the United States on November 17 , 2009 . Fox Creative chose Neuron Syndicate to design the art for the format 's packaging , and Neuron commissioned five graffiti artists to create 30 pieces of art . The art encompasses urban aesthetics found on the East Coast and West Coast of the United States as well as influences from European street art . The Blu @-@ ray edition opens with a menu screen for the romantic comedy Never Been Kissed starring Drew Barrymore before leading into the actual Fight Club menu screen . David Fincher got permission from Barrymore to include the fake menu screen .
= = Critical reception = =
When Fight Club premiered at the 56th Venice International Film Festival , the film was fiercely debated by critics . A newspaper reported , " Many loved and hated it in equal measures . " Some critics expressed concern that the film would incite copycat behavior , such as that seen after A Clockwork Orange debuted in Britain nearly three decades previously . Upon the film 's theatrical release , The Times reported the reaction : " It touched a nerve in the male psyche that was debated in newspapers across the world . " Although the film 's makers called Fight Club " an accurate portrayal of men in the 1990s , " some critics called it " irresponsible and appalling " . Writing for the Australian newspaper , Christopher Goodwin stated : " Fight Club is shaping up to be the most contentious mainstream Hollywood meditation on violence since Stanley Kubrick 's A Clockwork Orange . "
Janet Maslin , reviewing for The New York Times , praised Fincher 's direction and editing of the film . She wrote that Fight Club carried a message of " contemporary manhood " , and that , if not watched closely , the film could be misconstrued as an endorsement of violence and nihilism . Roger Ebert , reviewing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , called Fight Club " visceral and hard @-@ edged " , and " a thrill ride masquerading as philosophy " that most audiences would not appreciate . Ebert later acknowledged that the film was " beloved by most , not by me " . He was later requested to have a shot @-@ by @-@ shot analysis of Fight Club at the Conference on World Affairs ; he stated that " [ s ] eeing it over the course of a week , I admired its skill even more , and its thought even less . " Jay Carr of The Boston Globe opined that the film began with an " invigoratingly nervy and imaginative buzz " , but that it eventually became " explosively silly " . Newsweek 's David Ansen described Fight Club as " an outrageous mixture of brilliant technique , puerile philosophizing , trenchant satire and sensory overload " and thought that the ending was too pretentious . Richard Schickel of Time described the director 's mise en scène as dark and damp : " It enforces the contrast between the sterilities of his characters ' aboveground life and their underground one . Water , even when it 's polluted , is the source of life ; blood , even when it 's carelessly spilled , is the symbol of life being fully lived . To put his point simply : it 's better to be wet than dry . " Schickel applauded the performances of Brad Pitt and Edward Norton , but he criticized the film 's " conventionally gimmicky " unfolding and the failure to make Helena Bonham Carter 's character interesting .
Cineaste 's Gary Crowdus reviewed the critical reception in retrospect : " Many critics praised Fight Club , hailing it as one of the most exciting , original , and thought @-@ provoking films of the year . " He wrote of the negative opinion , " While Fight Club had numerous critical champions , the film 's critical attackers were far more vocal , a negative chorus which became hysterical about what they felt to be the excessively graphic scenes of fisticuffs ... They felt such scenes served only as a mindless glamorization of brutality , a morally irresponsible portrayal , which they feared might encourage impressionable young male viewers to set up their own real @-@ life fight clubs in order to beat each other senseless . "
Fight Club was nominated for the 2000 Academy Award for Best Sound Editing , but it lost to The Matrix . Bonham Carter won the 2000 Empire Award for Best British Actress . The Online Film Critics Society also nominated Fight Club for Best Film , Best Director , Best Actor ( Norton ) , Best Editing , and Best Adapted Screenplay ( Uhls ) . Though the film won none of the awards , the organization listed Fight Club as one of the top ten films of 1999 . The soundtrack was nominated for a BRIT Award , losing to Notting Hill .
On Rotten Tomatoes , Fight Club holds a rating of 79 % , based on 162 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 3 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Solid acting , amazing direction , and elaborate production design make Fight Club a wild ride . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 66 out of 100 , based on 35 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
= = Cultural impact = =
Fight Club was one of the most controversial and talked @-@ about films of the 1990s . Like other films released that year , including Magnolia , Being John Malkovich and Three Kings , Fight Club was recognized as an innovator in cinematic form and style since it exploited new developments in filmmaking technology . After Fight Club 's theatrical release , it became more popular via word of mouth , and the positive reception of the DVD established it as a cult film that David Ansen of Newsweek conjectured would enjoy " perennial " fame . The film 's success also heightened Palahniuk 's profile to global renown .
Following Fight Club 's release , several fight clubs were reported to have started in the United States . A " Gentleman 's Fight Club " was started in Menlo Park , California in 2000 and had members mostly from the tech industry . Teens and preteens in Texas , New Jersey , Washington state , and Alaska also initiated fight clubs and posted videos of their fights online , leading authorities to break up the clubs . In 2006 , an unwilling participant from a local high school was injured at a fight club in Arlington , Texas , and the DVD sales of the fight led to the arrest of six teenagers . An unsanctioned fight club was also started at Princeton University , where matches were held on campus . The film was suspected of influencing Luke Helder , a college student who planted pipe bombs in mailboxes in 2002 . Helder 's goal was to create a smiley pattern on the map of the United States , similar to the scene in Fight Club in which a building is vandalized to have a smiley on its exterior . On July 16 , 2009 , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old who had formed his own fight club in Manhattan was charged with detonating a homemade bomb outside a Starbucks Coffee shop in the Upper East Side . The New York City Police Department reported the suspect was trying to emulate " Project Mayhem " . In September , 2015 , two employees at Lightbridge Academy , a New Jersey day care center , were charged with instigating " Fight Club @-@ style " brawls between children ( aged four to six years of age ) . The fights were reportedly filmed and uploaded to Snapchat , a video messaging application , and involved approximately a " dozen boys and girls " . In the videos , one of the perpetrators , Erica Kenny , can be heard making references to Fight Club . The charges stem from an incident that occurred on August 13 , 2015 , but investigators are looking into whether the fights were ongoing .
In 2003 , Fight Club was listed as one of the " 50 Best Guy Movies of All Time " by Men 's Journal . In 2006 and 2008 , Fight Club was voted by Empire readers as the eighth and tenth greatest film of all time , respectively . Total Film ranked Fight Club as " The Greatest Film of our Lifetime " in 2007 during the magazine 's tenth anniversary . In 2007 , Premiere selected Tyler Durden 's line , " The first rule of fight club is you do not talk about fight club , " as the 27th greatest movie line of all time . In 2008 , readers of Empire ranked Tyler Durden first on a list of the 100 Greatest Movie Characters . Empire also identified Fight Club as the 10th greatest movie of all time in its 2008 issue The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time .
In 2010 , two viral mash @-@ up videos featuring Fight Club were released . Ferris Club was a mash @-@ up of Fight Club and the film Ferris Bueller 's Day Off . It portrayed Ferris as Tyler Durden and Cameron as the narrator , " claiming to see the real psychological truth behind the John Hughes classic " . The second video Jane Austen 's Fight Club also gained popularity online as a mash @-@ up of Fight Club 's fighting rules and the characters created by 19th century novelist Jane Austen .
= = = American Film Institute nominations = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes – " First rule of Fight Club is – you do not talk about Fight Club . "
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition )
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= Hillingdon House =
Hillingdon House is a Grade II listed mansion in Hillingdon , Greater London . The original house was built in 1717 as a hunting lodge for the Duke of Schomberg . It was destroyed by fire and the present house was built in its place in 1844 .
The British Government purchased Hillingdon House in 1915 and it became a military hospital . In 1917 , what would become the Royal Air Force station RAF Uxbridge was established within the grounds . In military use , the house has served over time as the first headquarters for No. 11 Group RAF and RAF Bomber Command . The River Pinn passes through the grounds of the house from north to south , splitting the former RAF Uxbridge in two .
The Hillingdon House Farm estate to the north of the house includes the Hillingdon Sports and Leisure Complex ( formerly Uxbridge Lido ) . The farm ceased operations in 1965 after the local council served a notice to quit on the tenant . The farmhouse on Honeycroft Hill became a council depot , followed by a plant nursery , before it was sold for residential housing .
Under plans approved in early 2011 for the redevelopment of the RAF station , the house will be renovated and converted to include a restaurant . As of 2014 it is not accessible to the public while the site undergoes redevelopment .
= = History = =
= = = First house = = =
The first house on the site was built as a hunting lodge in 1717 for the Duke of Schomberg , a British army commander of German origin . He is said to have been very argumentative , to the point where he would argue with all those around him bar the enemy .
The house eventually passed to the Chetwynd family , who sold it to the Marchioness of Rockingham , widow of Prime Minister The Marquess of Rockingham , in 1786 for £ 9 @,@ 000 . The Marchioness lived there until her own death in 1804 , upon which the estate passed to her stepsister Elizabeth , widow of William Weddell MP . Her husband had left her Newby Hall in Mayfair , therefore having no need of Hillingdon House , she sold it to Josias Du Pré Porcher in 1805 . In 1810 the estate was sold to Richard Henry Cox , a member of the Cox banking family and the grandson of Richard Cox , founder of the travel company Cox & Kings .
= = = Second house = = =
After the first house burnt down , the present structure was built in 1844 , in a classical Victorian style . In 1892 , an area of the estate south of the house was established as Hillingdon Golf Club , founded by Charles Newton who lived at Hillingdon House , and Charles Stevens , a partner of a local timber company . The estate of Frederick Cox , Richard Henry Cox 's grandson , placed the house on the market in 1914 , describing it as " a brick and stone building , partly stuccoed , with extensive outbuildings and ornamental gardens . " The house and gardens , together with the surrounding parkland and artificial lake created by damming a section of the River Pinn , amounted to more 200 acres ( 81 ha ) .
The British Government bought the house and grounds in 1915 , intending to construct a prisoner of war camp within the grounds . Local opposition to the plan led to the house becoming the Canadian Convalescent Hospital to care for troops evacuated from the front line during the First World War . The hospital opened on 20 September 1915 and closed on 12 December 1917 , having had four commanding officers and five sisters @-@ in @-@ charge .
On 19 November 1917 , 114 officers and 1156 men of the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) Armament School moved into Hillingdon House , with the RFC making a donation of £ 2289 12s 9d to the Canadian Red Cross . Needing a site for the training of recruits in ground gunnery , the RFC used parts of the estate not required by the Canadian hospital and established a firing range on the opposite side of the river from the house .
The Royal Air Force was formed on 1 April 1918 , following the merger of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service . The Uxbridge site came under the control of the new service , becoming known as the RAF Central Depot , Uxbridge . The site was then split to form administratively two RAF stations : the area east of the River Pinn including Hillingdon House became RAF Hillingdon and the remainder RAF Uxbridge . Among the aircraftmen trained at Hillingdon was T. E. Lawrence ( ' Lawrence of Arabia ' ) , whose book The Mint , initially censored for its frank use of four @-@ letter words , describes his time there : " Hillingdon House looked forlorn , because of its black windows , behind whose wideness the clerks lounged with their first cups of tea . ' Jammy [ cunts ] , ' sneered Sailor enviously . "
On 1 March 1929 , the Royal Observer Corps established its headquarters at Hillingdon House , where it remained until transferring to RAF Bentley Priory on 1 March 1936 . No. 11 Group formed on the same day under the command of Air Vice Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , using Hillingdon House as its headquarters . On 13 July , RAF Bomber Command was formed from the old HQ Air Defence of Great Britain and was also based in the house , remaining there until 1940 when the command moved to RAF High Wycombe .
No. 11 Group was relocated to RAF Martlesham Heath in 1958 , when control of RAF Hillingdon passed from Fighter Command to RAF Technical Training Command and the entire site became known as RAF Uxbridge . The RAF School of Education moved into Hillingdon House from RAF Spitalgate on 10 November . Southern Region Air Traffic Services HQ and the Royal Observer Corps ' South East Communications Centre moved into the house in 1960 . On 1 November , the Southern Region Air Traffic Services headquarters moved into Hillingdon House . The station had been home since the end of the war to the London Area Control Centre , renamed the London Air Traffic Control Centre in 1948 and the Uxbridge Air Traffic Control Centre in 1957 . This eventually transferred to RAF West Drayton , which operated as a satellite station of RAF Uxbridge . HQ Military Air Traffic Operations ( HQ MATO ) moved into Hillingdon House in January 1965 .
During the final years of military ownership , Hillingdon House was occupied by the Service Prosecuting Authority and the Civil Aviation Authority 's Air Proximity Board . The house was Grade II listed on 5 June 1984 .
= = = Redevelopment = = =
On 31 March 2010 , RAF Uxbridge closed as part of a rationalisation of Ministry of Defence facilities in Greater London . Under redevelopment plans approved by Hillingdon Council in January 2011 , the house will be converted to include a restaurant . Provision has also been made to retain the carpenter 's block beside the house .
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= Pre @-@ Code Hollywood =
Pre @-@ Code Hollywood refers to the brief era in the American film industry between the introduction of sound pictures in 1929 and the enforcement of the Motion Picture Production Code censorship guidelines in 1934 , usually labeled , albeit inaccurately , as the " Hays Code " . Although the Code was adopted in 1930 , oversight was poor and it did not become rigorously enforced until July 1 , 1934 , with the establishment of the PCA . Before that date , movie content was restricted more by local laws , negotiations between the Studio Relations Committee ( SRC ) and the major studios , and popular opinion , than strict adherence to the Hays Code , which was often ignored by Hollywood filmmakers .
As a result , films in the late 1920s and early 1930s included sexual innuendo , miscegenation , profanity , illegal drug use , promiscuity , prostitution , infidelity , abortion , intense violence , and homosexuality . Strong female characters were ubiquitous , in such films as Female , Baby Face , and Red @-@ Headed Woman . Gangsters in films like The Public Enemy , Little Caesar , and Scarface were seen by many as heroic rather than evil . Along with featuring stronger female characters , films examined female subject matters that would not be revisited until decades later in American films . Nefarious characters were seen to profit from their deeds , in some cases without significant repercussions , and drug use was a topic of several films . Many of Hollywood 's biggest stars such as Clark Gable , Barbara Stanwyck , Joan Blondell and Edward G. Robinson got their start in the era . Other stars who excelled during this period , however , like Ruth Chatterton ( who decamped to England ) and Warren William ( the so @-@ called " king of Pre @-@ Code " , who died in 1948 ) , would wind up essentially forgotten by the general public within a generation .
Beginning in late 1933 and escalating throughout the first half of 1934 , American Roman Catholics launched a campaign against what they deemed the immorality of American cinema . This , plus a potential government takeover of film censorship and social research seeming to indicate that movies which were seen to be immoral could promote bad behavior , was enough pressure to force the studios to capitulate to greater oversight .
= = Origins of the Code = =
In 1922 , after some risqué films and a series of off @-@ screen scandals involving Hollywood stars , the studios enlisted beacon of rectitude and Presbyterian elder William H. " Will " Hays to rehabilitate Hollywood 's image . Hays , later nicknamed the motion picture " Czar " , was paid the then @-@ lavish sum of $ 100 @,@ 000 a year ( equivalent to more than $ 1 @.@ 4 million in 2014 dollars ) . Hays , Postmaster General under Warren G. Harding and former head of the Republican National Committee , served for 25 years as president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America ( MPPDA ) , where he " defended the industry from attacks , recited soothing nostrums , and negotiated treaties to cease hostilities . " Hollywood mimicked the decision Major League Baseball had made in hiring judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis as League Commissioner the previous year to quell questions about the integrity of baseball in wake of the 1919 World Series gambling scandal ; The New York Times called Hays the " screen Landis " .
Hays introduced a set of recommendations dubbed " The Formula " in 1924 , which the studios were advised to heed , and asked filmmakers to describe to his office the plots of pictures they were planning . The Supreme Court had already decided unanimously in 1915 in Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio that free speech did not extend to motion pictures , and while there had been token attempts to clean up the movies before , such as when the studios formed the National Association of the Motion Picture Industry ( NAMPI ) in 1916 , little had come of the efforts .
= = = Creation of the Code and its contents = = =
In 1929 , an American Roman Catholic layman Martin Quigley , editor of the prominent trade paper Motion Picture Herald , and Father Daniel A. Lord , a Jesuit priest , created a code of standards ( which Hays liked immensely ) , and submitted it to the studios . Lord 's concerns centered on the effects sound film had on children , whom he considered especially susceptible to their allure . Several studio heads , including Irving Thalberg of Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) , met with Lord and Quigley in February 1930 . After some revisions , they agreed to the stipulations of the Code . One of the main motivating factors in adopting the Code was to avoid direct government intervention . It was the responsibility of the Studio Relations Committee , headed by Colonel Jason S. Joy , to supervise film production and advise the studios when changes or cuts were required .
The Code was divided into two parts . The first was a set of " general principles " which mostly concerned morality . The second was a set of " particular applications " which was an exacting list of items that could not be depicted . Some restrictions , such as the ban on homosexuality or the use of specific curse words , were never directly mentioned but were assumed to be understood without clear demarcation . Miscegenation , the mixing of the races , was forbidden . It stated that the notion of an " adults @-@ only policy " would be a dubious , ineffective strategy that would be difficult to enforce . However , it did allow that " maturer minds may easily understand and accept without harm subject matter in plots which does younger people positive harm . " If children were supervised and the events implied elliptically , the code allowed what Brandeis University cultural historian Thomas Doherty called " the possibility of a cinematically inspired thought crime " .
The Code sought not only to determine what could be portrayed on screen , but also to promote traditional values . Sexual relations outside of marriage could not be portrayed as attractive and beautiful , presented in a way that might arouse passion , nor be made to seem right and permissible . All criminal action had to be punished , and neither the crime nor the criminal could elicit sympathy from the audience . Authority figures had to be treated respectfully , and the clergy could not be portrayed as comic characters or villains . Under some circumstances , politicians , police officers and judges could be villains , as long as it was clear that they were the exception to the rule .
The entire document contained Catholic undertones and stated that art must be handled carefully because it could be " morally evil in its effects " and because its " deep moral significance " was unquestionable . The Catholic influence on the Code was initially kept secret . A recurring theme was " throughout , the audience feels sure that evil is wrong and good is right . " The Code contained an addendum commonly referred to as the Advertising Code , which regulated film advertising copy and imagery .
= = = Enforcement = = =
On February 19 , 1930 , Variety published the entire contents of the Code and predicted that state film censorship boards would soon become obsolete . However , the men obligated to enforce the code , Jason Joy , who was the head of the Committee until 1932 , and his successor , Dr. James Wingate , were generally ineffective . The very first film the office reviewed , The Blue Angel , which was passed by Joy without revision , was considered indecent by a California censor . Although there were several instances where Joy negotiated cuts from films , and there were indeed definite — albeit loose — constraints , a significant amount of lurid material made it to the screen .
Joy had to review 500 films a year using a small staff and little power . The Hays office did not have the authority to order studios to remove material from a film in 1930 , but instead worked by reasoning and sometimes pleading with them . Complicating matters , the appeals process ultimately put the responsibility for making the final decision in the hands of the studios themselves .
One factor in ignoring the Code was the fact that some found such censorship prudish . This was a period in which the Victorian era was sometimes ridiculed as being naïve and backward . When the Code was announced , The Nation , a liberal periodical , attacked it . The publication stated that if crime were never presented in a sympathetic light , then , taken literally , " law " and " justice " would become the same . Therefore , events such as the Boston Tea Party could not be portrayed . And if clergy were always to be presented positively , then hypocrisy could not be examined either . The Outlook agreed , and , unlike Variety , predicted from the beginning the Code would be difficult to enforce .
Additionally , the Great Depression of the 1930s led many studios to seek income by any way possible . As films containing racy and violent content resulted in high ticket sales , it seemed reasonable to continue producing such films . Soon , the flouting of the code became an open secret . In 1931 , the Hollywood Reporter mocked the code , and Variety followed suit in 1933 . In the same year as the Variety article , a noted screenwriter stated that " the Hays moral code is not even a joke any more ; it 's just a memory . "
= = Early sound film era = =
Although the liberalization of sexuality in American film had increased during the 1920s , the pre @-@ Code era is either dated to the start of the sound film era , or more generally to March 1930 , when the Hays Code was first written . Over the protests of NAMPI , New York became the first state to take advantage of the Supreme Court 's decision in Mutual Film vs. Ohio by instituting a censorship board in 1921 . Virginia followed suit the following year , and eight individual states had a board by the advent of sound film .
Many of these boards were ineffectual . By the 1920s , the New York stage , a frequent source of subsequent screen material , had topless shows ; performances were filled with curse words , mature subject matter , and sexually suggestive dialogue . Early during the sound system conversion process , it became apparent that what might be acceptable in New York would not be so in Kansas . In 1927 , Hays suggested studio executives form a committee to discuss film censorship . Irving G. Thalberg of Metro Goldwyn Mayer ( MGM ) , Sol Wurtzel of Fox , and E. H. Allen of Paramount responded by collaborating on a list they called the " Don 'ts and Be Carefuls " , based on items that were challenged by local censor boards , and which consisted of eleven subjects best avoided , and twenty @-@ six to be handled very carefully . The Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) approved the list , and Hays created the SRC to oversee its implementation . But there was still no way to enforce these tenets . The controversy surrounding film standards came to a head in 1929 .
Director Cecil B. DeMille was responsible for the increasing discussion of sex in cinema in the 1920s . Starting with Male and Female ( 1919 ) , he made a series of films that examined sex and were highly successful . Films featuring Hollywood 's original " It girl " Clara Bow such as The Saturday Night Kid ( released four days before the October 29 , 1929 , market crash ) highlighted Bow 's sexual attractiveness . 1920s stars such as Bow , Gloria Swanson , and Norma Talmadge freely displayed their sexuality in a straightforward fashion .
= = Hollywood during the Great Depression = =
The Great Depression presented a unique time for film @-@ making in the United States . The economic disaster brought on by the stock market crash of 1929 changed American values and beliefs in various ways . Themes of American exceptionalism and traditional concepts of personal achievement , self @-@ reliance , and the overcoming of odds lost great currency . Due to the constant empty economic reassurances from politicians in the early years of the Depression , the American public developed an increasingly jaded attitude .
The cynicism , challenging of traditional beliefs , and political controversy of Hollywood films during this period mirrored the attitudes of many of their patrons . Also gone was the carefree and adventurous lifestyle of the 1920s . " After two years the Jazz Age seems as far away as the days before the war " , F. Scott Fitzgerald commented in 1931 . In the sense noted by Fitzgerald , understanding the moral climate of the early 1930s is complex . Although films experienced an unprecedented level of freedom and dared to portray things that would be kept hidden for several decades , many in America looked upon the stock market crash as a product of the excesses of the previous decade . In looking back upon the 1920s , events were increasingly seen as occurring in prelude to the market crash . In Dance , Fools , Dance ( 1931 ) , lurid party scenes featuring 1920s flappers are played to excess . Joan Crawford ultimately reforms her ways and is saved ; less fortunate is William Bakewell , who continues on the careless path that leads to his ultimate self @-@ destruction .
For Rain or Shine ( 1930 ) , Milton Ager and Jack Yellin composed " Happy Days Are Here Again " . The song was repeated sarcastically by characters in several films such as Under 18 ( 1932 ) and 20 @,@ 000 Years in Sing Sing ( 1933 ) . Less comical was the picture of the United States ' future presented in Heroes for Sale that same year ( 1933 ) , in which a hobo looks into a depressing night and proclaims , " It 's the end of America " .
Heroes for Sale was directed by prolific pre @-@ Code director William Wellman and featured silent film star Richard Barthelmess as a World War I veteran cast onto the streets with a morphine addiction from his hospital stay . In Wild Boys of the Road ( 1933 ) , the young man played by Frankie Darrow leads a group of dispossessed juvenile drifters who frequently brawl with the police . Such gangs were common ; around 250 @,@ 000 youths traveled the country by hopping trains or hitchhiking in search of better economic circumstances in the early 1930s .
Complicating matters for the studios , the advent of sound film in 1927 required an immense expenditure in sound stages , recording booths , cameras , and movie @-@ theater sound systems , not to mention the new @-@ found artistic complications of producing in a radically altered medium . The studios were in a difficult financial position even before the market crash as the sound conversion process and some risky purchases of theater chains had pushed their finances near the breaking point . These economic circumstances led to a loss of nearly half of the weekly attendance numbers and closure of almost a third of the country 's theaters in the first few years of the depression . Even so , 60 million Americans went to the cinema weekly .
Apart from the economic realities of the conversion to sound , were the artistic considerations . Early sound films were often noted for being too verbose . In 1930 , Carl Laemmle criticized the wall @-@ to @-@ wall banter of sound pictures , and director Ernst Lubitsch wondered what the camera was intended for if characters were going to narrate all the onscreen action . The film industry also withstood competition from the home radio , and often characters in films went to great lengths to belittle the medium . The film industry was not above using the new medium to broadcast commercials for its projects however , and occasionally turned radio stars into short feature performers to take advantage of their built @-@ in following .
Seething beneath the surface of American life in the Depression was the fear of the angry mob , portrayed in panicked hysteria in films such as Gabriel Over the White House ( 1933 ) , The Mayor of Hell ( 1933 ) , and American Madness ( 1932 ) . Massive wide shots of angry hordes , comprising sometimes hundreds of men , rush into action in terrifyingly efficient uniformity . Groups of agitated men either standing in breadlines , loitering in hobo camps , or marching the streets in protest became a prevalent sight during the Great Depression . The Bonus Army protests of World War I veterans on the capital in Washington , D.C. , on which Hoover unleashed a brutal crackdown , prompted many of the Hollywood depictions . Although social issues were examined more directly in the pre @-@ Code era , Hollywood still largely ignored the Great Depression , as many films sought to ameliorate patrons , rather than incite them .
Hays remarked in 1932 :
The function of motion pictures is to ENTERTAIN . … This we must keep before us at all times and we must realize constantly the fatality of ever permitting our concern with social values to lead us into the realm of propaganda … the American motion picture … owes no civic obligation greater than the honest presentment of clean entertainment and maintains that in supplying effective entertainment , free of propaganda , we serve a high and self @-@ sufficing purpose .
= = Social problem films = =
Hays and others , such as Samuel Goldwyn , obviously felt that motion pictures presented a form of escapism that served a palliative effect on American moviegoers . Goldwyn had coined the famous dictum , " If you want to send a message , call Western Union " in the Pre @-@ Code era . However , the MPPDA took the opposite stance when questioned about certain so @-@ called " message " films before Congress in 1932 , claiming the audiences ' desire for realism led to certain unsavory social , legal , and political issues being portrayed in film .
The length of pre @-@ Code films was usually comparatively short , but that running time often required tighter material and did not affect the impact of message films . Employees ' Entrance ( 1933 ) received the following review from Jonathan Rosenbaum : " As an attack on ruthless capitalism , it goes a lot further than more recent efforts such as Wall Street , and it 's amazing how much plot and character are gracefully shoehorned into 75 minutes . " The film featured pre @-@ Code megastar Warren William ( later dubbed " the king of Pre @-@ Code " ) , " at his magnetic worst " , playing a particularly vile and heartless department store manager who , for example , terminates the jobs of two long @-@ standing male employees , one of whom commits suicide as a result . He also threatens to fire Loretta Young 's character , who pretends to be single to stay employed , unless she sleeps with him , then attempts to ruin her husband after learning she is married .
Films which stated a position about a social issue were usually labeled either " propaganda films " or " preachment yarns " . In contrast to Goldwyn and MGM 's definitively Republican stance on social issue films , Warner Brothers , led by New Deal advocate Jack L. Warner , was the most prominent maker of these types of pictures and preferred they be called " Americanism stories " . Pre @-@ Code historian Thomas Doherty has written that two recurring elements marked the so @-@ called preachment yarns . " The first is the exculpatory preface ; the second is the Jazz Age prelude . " The preface was essentially a softened version of a disclaimer that intended to calm any in the audience who disagreed with the film 's message . The Jazz Age prelude was almost singularly used to cast shame on the boisterous behavior of the 1920s .
Cabin in the Cotton ( 1932 ) is a Warner Bros. message film about the evils of capitalism . The film takes place in an unspecified southern state where workers are given barely enough to survive and taken advantage of by being charged exorbitant interest rates and high prices by unscrupulous landowners . The film is decidedly anti @-@ capitalist ; however , its preface claims otherwise :
In many parts of the South today , there exists an endless dispute between rich land @-@ owners , known as planters , and the poor cotton pickers , known as " peckerwoods " . The planters supply the tenants with the simple requirements of everyday life and ; in return , the tenants work the land year in and year out . A hundred volumes could be written on the rights and wrongs of both parties , but it is not the object of the producers of Cabin in the Cotton to take sides . We are only concerned with the effort to picture these conditions .
In the end , however , the planters admit their wrongdoing and agree to a more equitable distribution of capital .
The avaricious businessman remained a recurring character in pre @-@ Code cinema . In The Match King ( 1932 ) , Warren William played an industrialist based on real @-@ life Swedish entrepreneur Ivar Kreuger , himself nicknamed the " Match King " , who attempts to corner the global market on matches . William 's vile character , Paul Kroll , commits robbery , fraud , and murder on his way from a janitor to a captain of industry . When the market collapses in the 1929 crash , Kroll is ruined and commits suicide to avoid imprisonment . William played another unscrupulous businessman in Skyscraper Souls ( 1932 ) : David Dwight , a wealthy banker who owns a building named after himself that is larger than the Empire State Building . He tricks everyone he knows into poverty to appropriate others ' wealth . He is ultimately shot by his secretary ( Verree Teasdale ) , who then ends the film and her own life by walking off the roof of the skyscraper .
Americans ' mistrust and dislike of lawyers was a frequent topic of dissection in social problem films such Lawyer Man ( 1933 ) , State 's Attorney , and The Mouthpiece ( 1932 ) . In films such as Paid ( 1930 ) , the legal system turns innocent characters into criminals . The life of Joan Crawford 's character is ruined and her romantic interest is executed so that she may live free , although she is innocent of the crime for which the district attorney wants to convict her . Religious hypocrisy was addressed in such films as The Miracle Woman ( 1931 ) , starring Barbara Stanwyck and directed by Frank Capra . Stanwyck also portrayed a nurse and initially reluctant heroine who manages to save , via unorthodox means , two young children in danger from nefarious characters ( including Clark Gable as a malevolent chauffeur ) in Night Nurse ( 1931 ) .
Countless films dealt with the economic realities of a country struggling to find its next meal . In Blonde Venus ( 1932 ) , Marlene Dietrich 's character resorts to prostitution to feed her child , and Claudette Colbert 's character in It Happened One Night ( 1934 ) gets her comeuppance for throwing a tray of food onto the floor by later finding herself without food or financial resources . Joan Blondell 's character in Big City Blues ( 1932 ) reflects that as a chorus girl she regularly received diamonds and pearls as gifts , but now must content herself with a corned beef sandwich . In Union Depot ( 1932 ) , Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. puts a luscious meal as the first order of business on his itinerary after coming into money .
= = = Political releases = = =
Unsurprisingly , given the social circumstances , politically oriented social problem films ridiculed politicians and portrayed them as incompetent bumblers , scoundrels , and liars . In The Dark Horse ( 1932 ) , Warren William is again enlisted , this time to get an imbecile , who is accidentally in the running for Governor , elected . The candidate wins the election despite his incessant , embarrassing mishaps . Washington Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round portrayed the state of a political system stuck in neutral . Columbia Pictures nearly released the film with a scene of the public execution of a politician as the climax before deciding to cut it .
Cecil B. DeMille released This Day and Age in 1933 , and it stands in stark contrast to his other films of the period . Filmed shortly after DeMille had completed a five @-@ month tour of the Soviet Union , This Day and Age takes place in America and features several children torturing a gangster who got away with the murder of a popular local shopkeeper . The youngsters are seen lowering the gangster into a vat of rats when the police arrive , and their response is to encourage the youths to continue this . The film ends with the youngsters taking the gangster to a local judge and forcing the magistrate to conduct a trial in which the outcome is never in doubt .
The need for strong leaders who could take charge and steer America out of its crisis is seen in Gabriel Over the White House ( 1933 ) , about a benevolent dictator who takes control of the United States . Walter Huston stars as a weak @-@ willed , ineffectual president ( likely modeled after Hoover ) who is inhabited by the archangel Gabriel upon being knocked unconscious . The spirit 's behavior is similar to that of Abraham Lincoln . The president solves the nation 's unemployment crisis and executes an Al Capone @-@ type criminal who has continually flouted the law .
Dictators were not just glorified in fiction . Columbia 's Mussolini Speaks ( 1933 ) was a 76 @-@ minute paean to the Fascist leader , narrated by NBC radio commentator Lowell Thomas . After showing some of the progress Italy has made during Il Duce 's 10 @-@ year reign , Thomas opines , " This is a time when a dictator comes in handy ! " The film was viewed by over 175 @,@ 000 jubilant people during its first two weeks at the cavernous Palace Theater in Albany , New York .
The election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt ( FDR ) in 1932 quelled the public affection for dictators . As the country became increasingly enthralled with FDR , who was featured in countless newsreels , it exhibited less desire for alternative forms of government . Many Hollywood films reflected this new optimism . Heroes for Sale , despite being a tremendously bleak and at times anti @-@ American film , ends on a positive note as the New Deal appears as a sign of optimism . When Wild Boys of the Road ( 1933 ) , directed by William Wellman , reaches its conclusion , a dispossessed juvenile delinquent is in court expecting a jail sentence . However the judge lets the boy go free , revealing to him the symbol of the New Deal behind his desk , and tells him " [ t ] hings are going to be better here now , not only here in New York , but all over the country . " A box @-@ office casualty of this hopefulness was Gabriel Over the White House , which entered production during the Hoover era malaise and sought to capitalize on it . By the time the film was released on March 31 , 1933 , FDR 's election had produced a level of hopefulness in America that rendered the film 's message obsolete .
Adolf Hitler 's rise to power in Germany and his regime 's anti @-@ Semitic policies significantly affected American pre @-@ Code filmmaking . Although Hitler had become unpopular in many parts of the United States , Germany was still a voluminous importer of American films and the studios wanted to appease the German government . The ban on Jews and negative portrayals of Germany in the Fatherland even led to a significant reduction in work for Jews in Hollywood until after the end of World War II . As a result , only two social problem films released by independent film companies addressed the mania in Germany during the pre @-@ Code era ( Are We Civilized ? and Hitler 's Reign of Terror ) .
In 1933 , Herman J. Mankiewicz and producer Sam Jaffe announced they were working on a picture , to be titled Mad Dog of Europe , which was intended to be a full @-@ scale attack on Hitler . Jaffe had quit his job at RKO Pictures to make the film . Hays summoned the pair to his office and told them to cease production as they were causing needless headaches for the studios . Germany had threatened to seize all the properties of the Hollywood producers in Germany and ban the import of any future American films .
= = Crime films = =
In the early 1900s , the United States was still primarily a rural country , especially in self @-@ identity . D. W. Griffith 's The Musketeers of Pig Alley ( 1912 ) is one of the earliest American films to feature urban organized crime . Prohibition 's arrival in 1920 created an environment where anyone who wanted to drink had to consort with criminals , especially in urban areas . Nonetheless , the urban @-@ crime genre was mostly ignored until 1927 when Underworld , which is recognized as the first gangster movie , became a surprise hit . According to the Encyclopedia of Hollywood entry on Underworld , " The film established the fundamental elements of the gangster movie : a hoodlum hero ; ominous , night @-@ shrouded city streets ; floozies ; and a blazing finale in which the cops cut down the protagonist . " Gangster films such as Thunderbolt ( 1929 ) , and Doorway to Hell were released to capitalize on Underworld 's popularity , with Thunderbolt being described as " a virtual remake " of the film . Other late 1920s crime films investigated the connection between mobsters and Broadway productions in movies such as Lights of New York ( 1928 ) , Tenderloin ( 1928 ) and Broadway ( 1929 ) .
The Hays Office had never officially recommended banning violence in any form in the 1920s — unlike profanity , the drug trade or prostitution — but advised that it be handled carefully . New York 's censor board was more thorough than that of any other state , missing only around 50 of the country 's 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 300 annual releases . In 1927 – 28 the violent scenes removed were all of those in which a gun was pointed at the camera , some instances in which guns were pointed " at or into the body of another character " , many shots where machine guns were featured , scenes where criminals shot at law enforcement officers , some scenes involving stabbing or knife brandishing ( audiences considered stabbings more disturbing than shootings ) , most whippings , several involving choking , torture , or electrocution , and any scenes which could be considered educational in their depiction of crime methods . Sadistic violence and reaction shots showing the faces of individuals on the receiving end of violence were considered especially sensitive areas . The Code later recommended against scenes showing robbery , theft , safe @-@ cracking , arson , " the use of firearms " , " dynamiting of trains , machines , and buildings " , and " brutal killings " , on the basis that they would be rejected by local censors .
= = = Birth of the Hollywood gangster = = =
No motion picture genre of the Pre @-@ Code era was more incendiary than the gangster film ; neither preachment yarns nor vice films so outraged the moral guardians or unnerved the city fathers as the high caliber scenarios that made screen heroes out of stone killers .
In the early 1930s , several real @-@ life criminals became celebrities . Two in particular captured the American imagination : Al Capone and John Dillinger . Gangsters like Capone had transformed the perception of entire cities . Capone gave Chicago its " reputation as the locus classicus of American gangsterdom , a cityscape where bullet @-@ proof roadsters with tommygun @-@ toting hoodlums on running boards careened around State Street spraying fusillades of slugs into flower shop windows and mowing down the competition in blood @-@ spattered garages " . Capone appeared on the cover of Time magazine in 1930 . He was even offered 7 @-@ figure sums by two major Hollywood studios to appear in a film but declined . Dillinger became a national celebrity as a bank robber who eluded arrest and escaped confinement several times . He had become the most celebrated public outlaw since Jesse James . His father appeared in a popular series of newsreels giving police homespun advice on how to catch his son . Dillinger 's popularity rose so quickly that Variety joked that " if Dillinger remains at large much longer and more such interviews are obtained , there may be some petitions circulated to make him our president . " Hays wrote a cablegram to all the studios in March 1934 mandating that Dillinger not be portrayed in any motion picture .
The genre entered a new level following the release of Little Caesar ( 1931 ) , which featured Edward G. Robinson as gangster Rico Bandello . Caesar , along with The Public Enemy starring James Cagney as Tom Powers and Scarface ( 1932 ) , featuring Paul Muni as Tony Comante , were , by standards of the time , incredibly violent films that created a new type of anti @-@ hero . Nine gangster films were released in 1930 , 26 in 1931 , 28 in 1932 , and 15 in 1933 , when the genre 's popularity began to subside after the end of Prohibition . The backlash against gangster films was swift . In 1931 , Jack Warner announced that his studio would stop making them and that he himself had never allowed his 15 @-@ year @-@ old son to see them .
Generally considered the grandfather of gangster films , in Little Caesar , Robinson as Rico and his close friend Joe Massara ( Douglas Fairbanks , Jr . ) move to Chicago . Joe wants to go straight and meets a woman . Rico , however , seeks a life of crime and joins the gang of Sam Vettori . He rises to the rank of boss of the crime family . After becoming concerned his friend will betray him he threatens him , at which point Joe 's girlfriend goes to the police . Unable to bring himself to kill Joe and eliminate the witness against him , Rico goes into hiding . He is coaxed out by the police , who publish that he is a coward to the press . Rico is killed in a blaze of gunfire ; his last words are " Mother of mercy , is this the end of Rico ? " Robinson was initially cast in a small role but persuaded the film 's producer to let him play the lead . Wingate , who then headed New York 's censorship board , told Hays that he was flooded with complaints from people who saw kids in theaters nationwide " applaud the gang leader as a hero . " The success of Little Caesar inspired Fox 's The Secret Six ( 1931 ) and Quick Millions ( 1931 ) , and Paramount 's City Streets ( 1931 ) , but the next big Hollywood gangster would come from Warners .
William Wellman 's The Public Enemy ( 1931 ) , released by Warner Brothers , features another career @-@ defining performance , this time James Cagney as Tom Powers . The film is similar to the template set in Little Caesar in that it follows Powers from his rise to his eventual fall in the world of crime . The film was partially based on the real life of Chicago gangster Dion O 'Banion . Cagney 's character is contrasted with his puritanical brother who wants him to go straight ; their mother is at the center of the conflict . Tom Powers is egotistical , amoral , heartless , ruthless , and extremely violent . The best @-@ remembered scene in the picture is referred to as the " grapefruit scene " : when Cagney 's girlfriend ( Mae Clarke ) angers him during breakfast , he shoves half a grapefruit in her face . Instead of scenes from the film , its trailer contained a voiceover warning of the picture 's intensity and showed a gun being fired directly at the camera .
Cagney was even more violent towards women in the gangster film Picture Snatcher ( 1933 ) : in one scene , he knocks out an amorous woman whose feelings he does not reciprocate and violently throws her into the backseat of his car . In April 1931 , the same month as the release of The Public Enemy , Hays recruited former police chief August Vollmer to conduct a study on the effect gangster pictures had on children . After he had finished his work , Vollmer stated that gangster films were innocuous and even overly favorable in depicting the police . Although Hays used the results to defend the film industry , the New York State censorship board was not impressed , and from 1930 through 1932 , removed 2 @,@ 200 crime scenes from pictures .
Some critics have named Scarface ( 1932 ) as the most incendiary pre @-@ Code gangster film . Directed by Howard Hawks and starring Muni as Tony Camonte , the film is partially based on the life of Al Capone and incorporates details of Capone 's biography into the storyline . The film begins with Tony Camonte ( Paul Muni ) working for Johnny Lovo ( Osgood Perkins ) , but he 's dissatisfied with being a subordinate and he 's also attracted to Lovo 's girlfriend Poppy ( Karen Morley ) . He has an unhealthily controlling relationship with his sister Francesca ( Ann Dvorak ) – whom he expects to remain chaste — that many critics have described as incestuous . Lovo warns Camonte to leave the North Side alone as it is controlled by a rival mob , but he ignores this warning and launches a series of executions and extortions that result in a war with the North Side gang . Camonte then forcefully takes the gang over from Lovo , who tries unsuccessfully to kill him for this . Camonte 's attempt to kill Lovo is more successful , and Poppy happily becomes his girl . When Camonte finds Francesca in a hotel room with his closest friend , coin @-@ flipping gangster Guino Rinaldo ( George Raft ) , he kills Rinaldo in a rage . Afterward , he becomes despondent when he learns that the couple had wanted to surprise him with the news that they had gotten married .
The production of Scarface was troubled from the start . The Hays office warned producer Howard Hughes not to make the film ; when it was completed in late 1931 , the Hays office demanded numerous changes including a conclusion where Comante was captured , tried , convicted , and hanged and that the film carry the subtitle Shame of a Nation . Hughes sent the film to numerous state censorship boards , saying that he hoped to show that the film was made to combat the " gangster menace " . After he was unable to get the film past the New York State censor board ( then headed by Wingate ) even after the changes , Hughes sued the New York board and won , allowing him to release the film in a version close to its intended form . When other local censors refused to release the edited version , the Hays Office sent Jason Joy around to them to assure them that the cycle of gangster films of this nature was ending .
Scarface provoked outrage mainly because of its unprecedented violence , but also for its shifts of tone from serious to comedic . Dave Kehr , writing in the Chicago Reader , stated that the film blends " comedy and horror in a manner that suggests Chico Marx let loose with a live machine gun . " In one scene , Camonte is inside a cafe while a torrent of machine @-@ gun fire from the car of a rival gang is headed his way ; when the barrage is over , Camonte picks up one of the newly released tommy guns the gangsters dropped and exhibits childlike wonder and unrestrained excitement over the new toy . Civic leaders became furious that gangsters like Capone ( who was also the blatant inspiration for Little Caesar ) were being applauded in movie houses all across America . The screenplay , adapted by Ben Hecht who was a journalist in Chicago , contained biographical details for Muni 's character in Scarface that were so obviously taken from Capone , and the detail so close , that it was impossible not to draw the parallels .
One of the factors that made gangster pictures so subversive was that , in the difficult economic times of the Depression , there already existed the viewpoint that the only way to get financial success was through crime . The Kansas City Times argued that although adults may not be particularly affected , these films were " misleading , contaminating , and often demoralizing to children and youth . " Exacerbating the problem , some cinema theater owners advertised gangster pictures with a singular irresponsibility . Real @-@ life murders were tied into promotions and " theater lobbies displayed tommy guns and blackjacks " . The situation reached such a nexus that the studios had to ask exhibitors to tone down the gimmickry in their promotions .
= = = Prison films = = =
Prison films of the pre @-@ Code era often involved men and women who were unjustly incarcerated , and films set in prisons of the north tended to portray them as a bastion of solidarity against the crumbling social system of the Great Depression . Sparked by the real @-@ life Ohio penitentiary fire on April 21 , 1930 , in which guards refused to release prisoners from their cells , causing 300 deaths , the films depicted the inhumane conditions inside prisons in the early 1930s . The genre was composed of two archetypes : the prison film and the chain gang film . In the prison film , large hordes of men move about in identical uniforms , resigned to their fate , they live by a well defined code . In the chain gang film , Southern prisoners were subjected to a draconian system of discipline in the blazing outdoor heat , where they were treated terribly by their ruthless captors .
The prototype of the prison genre was The Big House ( 1930 ) . In The Big House , Robert Montgomery plays a squirmy inmate who is sentenced to six years after committing vehicular manslaughter while under the influence . His cell mates are a murderer played by Wallace Beery and a forger played by Chester Morris . The picture features future staples of the prison genre such as solitary confinement , informers , riots , visitations , an escape , and the codes of prison life . The protagonist , Montgomery , ends up being a loathsome character , a coward who will sell anyone in the prison out to get an early release . The film was banned in Ohio , the site of the deadly prison riots that inspired it . Numbered Men , The Criminal Code , Shadow of the Law , Convict 's Code , and others , from no less than seven studios , followed . However , prison films mainly appealed to men , and had weak box office performances as a result .
Studios also produced children 's prison films which addressed the juvenile delinquency problems of America in the Depression . The Mayor of Hell for instance , featured kids killing a murderously abusive reform school overseer without retribution .
= = = = Chain gang films = = = =
The most searing criticism of the American prison system was reserved for the depiction of Southern chain gangs , with I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang being by far the most influential . I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang , which is based on the true story of Robert . E. Burns , is by far the most famous of the early 1930s chain gang films . In the first half of 1931 , True Detective Mysteries magazine had published Burns ' work over six issues , and it was released as a book in January 1932 . Decorated veteran James Allen ( Paul Muni ) returns from World War I a changed man , and seeks an alternative to the tedious job that he left behind . He travels the country looking for construction work . His ultimate goal is to become involved in construction planning . Allen follows a hobo he met at a homeless shelter into a cafe , taking him up on his offer of a free meal . When the hobo attempts to rob the eatery , Allen is charged as an accessory , convicted of stealing a few dollars , and sentenced to ten years in a chain gang . The men are chained together and transported to a quarry to break rocks every day . Even when unchained from each other , shackles remain around their ankles at all times . Allen convinces a large black prisoner who has particularly good aim to hit the shackles on his ankles with a sledgehammer to bend them . He removes his feet from the bent shackles , and in a famous sequence , escapes through the woods while being chased by bloodhounds . On the outside he develops a new identity and becomes a respected developer in Chicago . He is blackmailed into marriage by a woman he does not love who finds out his secret . When he threatens to leave her for a young woman he has fallen in love with , she turns him in . His case becomes a cause célèbre , and he agrees to turn himself in under the agreement that he will serve 90 days and then be released . He is tricked however , and not freed at the agreed upon time . This forces him to escape again , and he seeks out the young woman , telling her that they cannot be together because he will always be hunted . The film ends with her asking him how he survives , and his ominous reply from the darkness : " I steal . "
Although based on reality , Chain Gang changes the facts slightly to appeal to Depression @-@ era audiences by making Allen 's return home one to a country that is struggling economically , even though Burns returned to the roaring twenties . The film 's bleak , anti @-@ establishment ending shocked audiences . Laughter in Hell , a 1933 film directed by Edward L. Cahn and starring Pat O 'Brien , was inspired in part by I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang . O 'Brien plays a railroad engineer who kills his wife and her lover in a jealous rage , and is sent to prison . The dead man 's brother ends up being the warden of the prison and torments O 'Brien 's character . O 'Brien and several others revolt , killing the warden and escaping with his new lover ( Gloria Stuart ) . The film , rediscovered in 2012 , drew controversy for its lynching scene in which several black men were hanged . Reports vary if the blacks were hanged alongside other white men , or by themselves . The New Age ( an African American weekly newspaper ) film critic praised the filmmakers for being courageous enough to depict the atrocities that were occurring in some Southern states .
= = Sex films = =
= = = Promotion = = =
As films featuring prurient elements performed well at the box office , after the crackdown on crime films , Hollywood increased its production of pictures featuring the seven deadly sins . In 1932 , Warner Bros formed an official policy decreeing that " two out of five stories should be hot " , and that nearly all films could benefit by " adding something having to do with ginger . " Filmmakers began putting in overly suggestive material they knew would never reach theaters in hopes that lesser offenses would survive the cutting @-@ room floor . MGM screenwriter Donald Ogden Stewart said that " [ Joy and Wingate ] wouldn 't want to take out too much , so you would give them five things to take out to satisfy the Hays Office — and you would get away with murder with what they left in . " Films such as Laughing Sinners , Safe in Hell , The Devil is Driving , Merrily We Go to Hell , Laughter in Hell , and The Road to Ruin were provocative in their mere titles . Studios marketed their films , sometimes dishonestly , by inventing suggestive tag lines and lurid titles , even going so far as to hold in @-@ house contests for thinking up provocative titles for screenplays . Commonly labeled " sex films " by the censors , these pictures offended taste in more categories than just sexuality . According to a Variety analysis of 440 pictures produced in 1932 – 33 , 352 had " some sex slant " , with 145 possessing " questionable sequences " , and 44 being " critically sexual " . Variety summarized that " over 80 % of the world 's chief picture output was … flavored with bedroom essence . " Attempts to create films for adults only ( dubbed " pinking " ) wound up bringing large audiences of all ages to cinemas .
Posters and publicity photos were often tantalizing . Women appeared in poses and garb not even glimpsed in the films themselves . In some cases actresses with small parts in films ( or in the case of Dolores Murray in her publicity still for The Common Law , no part at all ) appeared scantily clad . Hays became outraged at the steamy pictures circulating in newspapers around the country . The original Hays Code contained an often @-@ ignored note about advertising imagery , but he wrote an entirely new advertising screed in the style of the Ten Commandments that contained a set of twelve prohibitions . The first seven addressed imagery . They prohibited women in undergarments , women raising their skirts , suggestive poses , kissing , necking , and other suggestive material . The last five concerned advertising copy and prohibited misrepresentation of the film 's contents , " salacious copy " , and the word " courtesan " . Studios found their way around the restrictions and published increasingly racy imagery . Ultimately this backfired in 1934 when a billboard in Philadelphia was placed outside the home of Cardinal Dennis Dougherty . Severely offended , Dougherty took his revenge by helping to launch the motion @-@ picture boycott which would later facilitate enforcement of the Code . A commonly repeated theme by those supporting censorship , and one mentioned in the Code itself was the notion that the common people needed to be saved from themselves by the more refined cultural elite .
Despite the obvious attempts to appeal to red @-@ blooded American males , most of the patrons of sex pictures were female . Variety squarely blamed women for the increase in vice pictures :
Women are responsible for the ever @-@ increasing public taste in sensationalism and sexy stuff . Women who make up the bulk of the picture audiences are also the majority reader of the tabloids , scandal sheets , flashy magazines , and erotic books … the mind of the average man seems wholesome in comparison . … Women love dirt , nothing shocks ' em .
Pre @-@ Code female audiences liked to indulge in the carnal lifestyles of mistresses and adulteresses while at the same time taking joy in their usually inevitable downfall in the closing scenes of the picture . While gangster films were claimed to corrupt the morals of young boys , vice films were blamed for threatening the purity of adolescent women .
= = = Content = = =
In pre @-@ Code Hollywood , the sex film became synonymous with women 's pictures — Darryl F. Zanuck once told Wingate that he was ordered by Warner Brothers ' New York corporate office to reserve 20 % of the studio 's output for " women 's pictures , which inevitably means sex pictures . " Vice films typically tacked on endings where the most sin @-@ filled characters were either punished or redeemed . Films explored Code @-@ defying subjects in an unapologetic manner with the premise that an end @-@ reel moment could redeem all that had gone before . The concept of marriage was often tested in films such as The Prodigal ( 1931 ) , in which a woman is having an affair with a seedy character , and later falls in love with her brother @-@ in @-@ law . When her mother @-@ in @-@ law steps in at the end of the film , it is to encourage one son to grant his wife a divorce so she can marry his brother , with whom she is obviously in love . The older woman proclaims the message of the film in a line near the end : " This the twentieth century . Go out into the world and get what happiness you can . "
In Madame Satan ( 1930 ) , adultery is explicitly condoned and used as a sign for a wife that she needs to act in a more enticing way to maintain her husband 's interest . In Secrets ( 1933 ) , a husband admits to serial adultery , only this time he repents and the marriage is saved . The films took aim at what was already a damaged institution . During the Great Depression , relations between spouses often deteriorated due to financial strain , marriages lessened , and husbands abandoned their families in increased numbers . Marriage rates continually declined in the early 1930s , finally rising in 1934 , the final year of the pre @-@ Code era , and although divorce rates lowered , this is likely because desertion was a more likely method of separation . Consequently , female characters , such as Ruth Chatterton 's in Female , live promiscuous bachelorette lifestyles , and control their own financial destiny ( Chatterton supervises an auto factory ) without regret .
One of the most prominent examples of punishment for immoral transgressions in vice film can be seen in The Story of Temple Drake , based on the William Faulkner novel Sanctuary . In Drake , the title character ( Miriam Hopkins ) , a cold , vapid " party girl " , the daughter of a judge , is raped and forced into prostitution by a backwoods character , and according to pre @-@ Code scholar Thomas Doherty , the film implies that the deeds done to her are in recompense for her immorality . Later , in court , she confesses that she killed the man who raped and kept her . She faints after this confession , upon which her lawyer carries her out , leading to a " happy ending " . In the RKO film Christopher Strong , Katharine Hepburn plays an aviator who becomes pregnant from an affair with a married man . She commits suicide by flying her plane directly upwards until she breaks the world altitude record , at which point she takes off her oxygen mask and plummets to earth . Strong female characters often ended films as " reformed " women , after experiencing situations in which their progressive outlook proved faulty .
Female protagonists in aggressively sexual vice films were usually of two general kinds : the bad girl or the fallen woman . In so @-@ called " bad girl " pictures , female characters profited from promiscuity and immoral behavior . Jean Harlow , an actress who was by all reports a lighthearted , kind person offscreen , frequently played bad girl characters and dubbed them " sex vultures " . Two of the most prominent examples of bad girl films , Red @-@ Headed Woman and Baby Face , featured Harlow and Stanwyck . In Red @-@ Headed Woman Harlow plays a secretary determined to sleep her way into a more luxurious lifestyle , and in Baby Face Stanwyck is an abused runaway determined to use sex to advance herself financially .
In Baby Face Stanwyck moves to New York and sleeps her way to the top of Gotham Trust . Her progress is illustrated in a recurring visual metaphor of the movie camera panning ever upward along the front of Gotham Trust 's skyscraper . Men are driven mad with lust over her and they commit murder , attempt suicide , and are ruined financially for associating with her before she mends her ways in the final reel . In another departure from post Code films , Stanwyck 's sole companion for the duration of the picture is a black woman named Chico ( Theresa Harris ) , whom she took with her when she ran away from home at age 14 .
Red @-@ Headed Woman begins with Harlow seducing her boss Bill LeGendre and intentionally breaking up his marriage . During her seductions , he tries to resist and slaps her , at which point she looks at him deliriously and says " Do it again , I like it ! Do it again ! " They eventually marry but Harlow seduces a wealthy aged industrialist who is in business with her husband so that she can move to New York . Although this plan succeeds , she is cast aside when she is discovered having an affair with her chauffeur , in essence cheating on her paramour . Harlow shoots LeGendre , nearly killing him . When she is last seen in the film , she is in France in the back seat of a limousine with an elderly wealthy gentleman being driven along by the same chauffeur . The film was a boon to Harlow 's career and has been described as a " trash masterpiece " .
Cinema classified as " fallen woman " films was often inspired by real @-@ life hardships women endured in the early Depression era workplace . The men in power in these pictures frequently sexually harassed the women working for them . Remaining employed often became a question of a woman 's virtue . In She Had to Say Yes ( 1933 ) , starring Loretta Young , a struggling department store offers dates with its female stenographers as an incentive to customers . Employees ' Entrance was marketed with the tag line " See what out of work girls are up against these days . " Joy complained in 1932 of another genre , the " kept woman " film , which presented adultery as an alternative to the tedium of an unhappy marriage .
Homosexuals were portrayed in such pre @-@ Code films as Our Betters ( 1933 ) , Footlight Parade ( 1933 ) , Only Yesterday ( 1933 ) , Sailor 's Luck ( 1933 ) , and Cavalcade ( 1933 ) . Although the topic was dealt with much more openly than in the decades that followed , the characterizations of gay and lesbian characters were usually derogatory . Gay male characters were portrayed as flighty with high voices , existing merely as buffoonish supporting characters . In films like Ladies They Talk About , lesbians were portrayed as rough , burly characters , but in DeMille 's The Sign of the Cross , a female Christian slave is brought to a Roman prefect and seduced in dance by a statuesque lesbian dancer . Fox nearly became the first American studio to use the word " gay " to refer to homosexuality , but the SRC made the studio muffle the word in the soundtrack of all filmreels that reached theaters . Bisexual actress Marlene Dietrich cultivated a cross @-@ gender fan base and started a trend when she began wearing men 's suits . She caused a commotion when she appeared at the premiere of The Sign of the Cross in 1932 in a tuxedo , complete with top hat and cane . The appearance of homosexual characters was at its height in 1933 ; in that year , Hays declared that all gay male characters would be removed from pictures . Paramount took advantage of the negative publicity Dietrich generated by signing a largely meaningless agreement stating that they would not portray women in male attire .
= = Comedy = =
In the harsh economic times of the early Depression , films and performers often featured an alienated , cynical , and socially dangerous comic style . As with political films , comedy softened with the election of FDR and the optimism of the New Deal . Characters in the pre @-@ Code era frequently engaged in comedic duels of escalating sexual innuendo . In Employee 's Entrance , a woman enters the office of a scoundrel boss who remarks , " Oh , it 's you — I didn 't recognize you with all your clothes on . " Racial stereotypes were usually employed when ethnic characters appeared . Blacks in particular were usually the butt of the wisecrack , never the author . The most acknowledged black comedian was Stepin Fetchit , whose slow @-@ witted comedic character was only meant to be successful in an unintentional manner , with himself as the punchline .
The New York stage was filled with ribald humor and sexually offensive comedy ; when movie producers started to put wisecracks in their sound pictures , they sought New York performers . Popular comics such as the Marx Brothers got their start on Broadway in front of live audiences . Censors complained when they had to keep up with the deluge of jokes in pictures in the early 1930s , some of which were designed to go over their heads . The comic banter of some early sound films was rapid @-@ fire , non @-@ stop , and frequently exhausting for the audience by the final reel .
Mae West had already established herself as a comedic performer when her 1926 Broadway show Sex made national headlines . Tried and convicted of indecency by the New York City District Attorney , she served eight days in prison . West carefully constructed a stage persona and carried it over into her interviews and personal appearances . Despite her voluptuous physique , most of her appeal lay in her suggestive manner . She became a wordsmith in the art of the come @-@ on and the seductive line , and despite her obvious appeal to male audiences , was popular with women as well . Over the cries of the censors , West got her start in the film Night After Night ( 1932 ) , which starred George Raft and Constance Cummings , as a Texas Guinan @-@ esque supporting character . She agreed to appear in the film only after producers agreed to let her write her own lines . In West 's first line on film , after a hat check girl remarks " Goodness , what beautiful diamonds " , West replies , " Goodness had nothing to do with it , dearie . " Raft , who had wanted Texas Guinan herself for the role that went to West , later wrote , " In this picture , Mae West stole everything but the cameras . " She went on to make She Done Him Wrong in 1933 , which became a huge box office hit , grossing $ 3 million against a $ 200 @,@ 000 budget , and then nine months later wrote and starred in I 'm No Angel . She became such a success that her career saved Paramount from financial ruin .
The arrival of sound film created a new job market for writers of screen dialogue . Many newspaper journalists moved to California and became studio @-@ employed screenwriters . This resulted in a series of fast @-@ talking comedy pictures featuring newsmen . The Front Page , later re @-@ made as the much less cynical and more sentimental post @-@ Code His Girl Friday ( 1940 ) , was adapted from the Broadway play by Chicago newsmen , and Hollywood screenwriters , Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur . It was based on Hecht 's experiences working as a reporter for the Chicago Daily Journal .
The Marx Brothers had been stage performers since the early 1900s . By the 1930s , their act consisted of wisecracking leader Groucho , the chronically silent Harpo , the overly ethnic Chico , and the strangely normal Zeppo . The plot of the seminal comedy Duck Soup ( 1933 ) is quite convoluted . Groucho 's plebeian character is named king of the fictional Freedonia , and he is pursued by two bumbling spies played by Chico and Harpo . Zeppo plays a typically normal secretary . Groucho 's con artist character leads Freedonia into war with neighboring Sylvania . The plot essentially exists to provide a framework for several comedic bits and long sketches . The film was unsuccessful at the box office and the anarchic zaniness and subversive nature of the comedy in the film would be unmatched in the brothers ' post @-@ Code work , which was more standardly burlesque .
= = = Cartoons = = =
Theatrical cartoons were also covered by the Production Code . According to Leonard Maltin : " In early 1933 a Georgia theater owner wrote to Film Daily : ' The worst kicks we have are on smut in cartoons . They are primarily a kid draw , and parents frequently object to the filth that is put in them , incidentally without helping the comedy . The dirtiest ones are invariably the least funny . ' " Betty Boop thus underwent some of the most dramatic changes after the Code was imposed : " gone was the garter , the short skirt , the décolletage " .
= = Horror and science fiction = =
Unlike silent @-@ era sex and crime pictures , silent horror movies , despite being produced in the hundreds , were never a major concern for censors or civic leaders . When sound horror films were released however , they quickly caused controversy . Sound provided " atmospheric music and sound effects , creepy @-@ voiced macabre dialogue and a liberal dose of blood @-@ curdling screams " which intensified its effects on audiences , and consequently on moral crusaders . The Hays Code did not mention gruesomeness , and filmmakers took advantage of this oversight . However , state boards usually had no set guidelines and could object to any material they found indecent . Although films such as Frankenstein and Freaks caused controversy when they were released , they had already been re @-@ cut to comply with censors .
Comprising the nascent motion picture genres of horror and science fiction , the nightmare picture provoked individual psychological terror in its horror incarnations , while embodying group sociological terror in its science fiction manifestations . The two main types of pre @-@ Code horror pictures were the single monster movie , and films where masses of hideous beasts rose up and attacked their putative betters . Frankenstein and Freaks exemplified both genres .
The pre @-@ Code horror cycle was similar to other pre @-@ Code cycles in that its boom was motivated by financial necessity . Universal in particular buoyed itself with the production of horror hits such as Dracula ( 1931 ) and Frankenstein , then followed those successes up with Murders in the Rue Morgue ( 1932 ) , The Mummy ( 1932 ) , and The Old Dark House ( 1932 ) . Other major studios responded with their own productions . Much like the crime film cycle however , the intense boom of the horror cycle was ephemeral , and had fallen off at the box office by the end of the pre @-@ Code era .
While Joy declared Dracula " quite satisfactory from the standpoint of the Code " before it was released , and the film had little trouble reaching theaters , Frankenstein was a different story . New York , Pennsylvania , and Massachusetts removed the scene where the monster unintentionally drowns a little girl and lines that referenced Dr. Frankenstein 's God complex . Kansas , in particular , objected to the film . The state 's censor board requested the cutting of 32 scenes , which if removed , would have halved the length of the film .
Paramount 's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde ( 1931 ) played to the Freudian theories popular with the audience of its time . Fredric March played the split @-@ personality title character . Jekyll represented the composed super @-@ ego , and Hyde the lecherous id . Miriam Hopkins 's coquettish prostitute sexually teases Jekyll early in the film by displaying parts of her legs and bosom . Joy felt the scene had been " dragged in simply to titillate the audience . " Hyde coerces her with the threat of violence into becoming his paramour and beats her when she attempts to stop seeing him . She is contrasted with his wholesome fiancée ( Rose Hobart ) , whose chaste nature dissatisfies March 's baser alter ego . The film is considered the " most honored of the Pre @-@ Code horror films . " Many of the graphic scenes between Hyde and Ivy were cut by local censors because of their suggestiveness . Sex was intimately tied to horror in many pre @-@ Code horror movies . In Murders in the Rue Morgue , an adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe 's classic tale which has little in common with the source material , Bela Lugosi plays a mad scientist who tortures and kills women , trying to mix human blood with ape blood during his experiments . His prized experiment , an intelligent ape named Erik , breaks into a woman 's second @-@ floor apartment window and rapes her .
In Freaks , director Tod Browning of Dracula fame helms a picture that depicts a traveling circus populated by a group of deformed carnival freaks . Browning populated the movie with actual carnival sideshow performers including " midgets , dwarfs , hermaphrodites , Siamese twins , and , most awful , the armless and legless man billed as the ' living torso ' " . There is also a group of Pinheads , who are depicted as fortunate in that they are not mentally capable enough to understand that they disgust people . But the truly unsavory characters here are the villains , the circus strongman Hercules and the beautiful high @-@ wire artist Cleopatra , who intends to marry and poison Hans , the midget heir who is enamored of her . At a dinner celebrating their union , one of the freaks dances on the table as they chant " gooble @-@ gobble , gobble , gobble , one of us , one of us , we accept her , we accept her . " Disgusted , Cleopatra insults Hans and makes out with Hercules in front of him . When the freaks discover her plot , they exact revenge by mutilating Cleopatra into a freak . Although circus freaks were common in the early 1930s , the film was their first depiction on screen . Browning took care to linger over shots of the deformed , disabled performers with long takes of them including one of the " living torso " lighting a match and then a cigarette with his mouth . The film was accompanied by a sensational marketing campaign that asked sexual questions such as " Do the Siamese Twins make love ? " , " What sex is the half @-@ man half @-@ woman ? " , and " Can a full grown woman truly love a midget ? " Surprisingly , given its reaction to Frankenstein , the state of Kansas objected to nothing in Freaks . However , other states , such as Georgia , were repulsed by the film and it was not shown in many locales . The film later became a cult classic spurred by midnight movie showings , but it was a box @-@ office bomb in its original release .
In Island of Lost Souls ( 1932 ) , an adaptation of H. G. Wells ' science @-@ fiction novel , The Island of Doctor Moreau , Charles Laughton plays yet another mad scientist with a God complex . As Moreau , Laughton creates a mad scientist 's island paradise , an unmonitored haven where he is free to create a race of man @-@ beasts and Lota , a beast @-@ woman he wants to mate with a normal human male . A castaway lands on his island , providing him an opportunity to see how far his science experiment , the barely clothed , attractive Lota , has come . The castaway discovers Moreau vivisecting one of the beast @-@ men and attempts to leave the island . He runs into the camp of the man @-@ beasts and Moreau beats them back with a whip . The film ends with Lota dead , the castaway rescued , and the man @-@ beasts chanting , " Are we not men ? " as they attack and then vivisect Moreau . The film has been described as " a rich man 's Freaks " due to its esteemed source material . Wells , however , despised the movie for its lurid excesses . It was rejected by 14 local censor boards in the United States , and considered " against nature " in Great Britain , where it was banned until 1958 .
= = Exotic adventure films = =
Pre @-@ Code films contained a continual , recurring theme of white racism . In the early 1930s , the studios filmed a series of pictures that aimed to provide viewers a sense of the exotic , an exploration of the unknown and the forbidden . These pictures often imbued themselves with the allure of interracial sex according to pre @-@ Code historian Thomas Doherty . " At the psychic core of the genre is the shiver of sexual attraction , the threat and promise of miscegenation . " Films such as Africa Speaks were directly marketed by referencing interracial sex ; moviegoers received small packets labeled " Secrets " which contained pictures of naked black women . As portrayals of historic conditions , these movies are of little educational value , but as artifacts that show Hollywood 's attitude towards race and foreign cultures they are enlightening . The central point of interest in The Blonde Captive ( 1931 ) , a film which depicted a blonde woman abducted by a savage tribe of Aboriginal Australians , was not that she was kidnapped , but that she enjoys living among the tribe . The lack of black characters in films highlights their status in Jim Crow America .
In Bird of Paradise , a white American man ( Joel McCrea ) enjoys a torrid affair with a Polynesian princess ( Dolores del Río ) . The film created a scandal when released due to a scene featuring Dolores del Río swimming naked . Orson Welles said del Río represented the highest erotic ideal with her performance in the film .
The white protagonist in Tarzan , the Ape Man ( 1932 ) is the " King of the [ African ] Jungle " . Tarzan ( Johnny Weissmuller ) is a monosyllabic half @-@ naked jungle creature whose attractiveness is derived from his physical prowess ; throughout the movie , he saves Jane ( Maureen O 'Sullivan ) from danger and she swoons in his arms . When Jane 's father warns her " [ h ] e 's not like us " , she responds , " [ h ] e 's white " as evidence to the contrary . In the racy 1934 sequel , Tarzan and His Mate ( the last word meaning both a status and a biological function ) , men come from the U.S. with fancy gowns and other accoutrements to woo and clothe the bra @-@ less , barely clothed Jane , again played by O 'Sullivan , hoping to lure her away from the savage Tarzan . He detests the fancier clothing and tears it off . The film included a skinny @-@ dipping scene with extensive nudity with a body double standing in for O 'Sullivan . Breen , then head of the SRC , objected to the scene , and MGM , the movie 's producer , decided to take their case to the appeals review board . The board consisted of the heads of Fox , RKO , and Universal . After watching the scene " several times " , the board sided with Breen and the MPPDA , and the scene was removed , but MGM still allowed some uncut trailers and a few reels to stay in circulation . MGM marketed the film primarily towards women using taglines such as :
Girls ! Would you live like Eve if you found the right Adam ?
Modern marriages could learn plenty from this drama of primitive jungle mating !
If all marriages were based on the primitive mating instinct , it would be a better world .
Ethnic characters were portrayed against stereotype in Massacre ( 1934 ) . The protagonist ( Richard Barthelmess ) is a Native American who performs in a Wild West Show in full Indian garb , but then slips into a suit and speaks in American slang once the show is over . He has a black butler who is atypically intelligent ; his character merely plays dumb by slipping into a stereotypical slow @-@ witted " negro " character when it suits him , rather than being genuinely unintelligent .
Films such as The Mask of Fu Manchu ( 1932 ) and The Bitter Tea of General Yen ( 1933 ) , explored the exoticism of the Far East — by using white actors , not Asians , in the lead roles . The white actors frequently looked absurd in yellow @-@ face makeup next to genuine Asians , so the studios would cast all the Asian parts white . In Manchu , Karloff plays a mad scientist who wants to find the sword and mask of Genghis Khan as they will give him the power to control the " countless hordes " into battle versus the West . Manchu is a sexual deviant who engages in ritual torture and has occult powers . In a scene cut from the film due to its miscegenation , he shows a man the image of Manchu 's depraved daughter ( Myrna Loy ) violating one of the chaste good characters . He is eventually conquered , but not before he temporarily lays his hand on the sword and proclaims to his men : " Would you have maidens like this [ Karen Morley ] for your wives ? Then conquer and breed ! Kill the white man and take his women ! "
Frank Capra 's The Bitter Tea of General Yen was not quite the same type of film : Stanwyck plays a missionary who goes to civil @-@ war @-@ torn China and meets the titular general ( played by Nils Asther ) after his car kills the driver of her rickshaw . When she is knocked unconscious in a riot , he takes her out of the rabble and onto a train car . She has lurid , horror @-@ themed , symbolic dreams about the General , in which she is both titillated and repulsed by him . The film breaks precedent by developing into an interracial love story , but his army ends in ruins . Yen kills himself at the film 's conclusion — by drinking poisoned tea — rather than be captured and killed . Capra adored the script and disregarded the risk of making a film that broke California 's ( and 29 other states ' ) laws concerning the portrayal of miscegenation . Cinematographer Joseph Walker tested a new technique he created , which he dubbed " Variable Diffusion " , in filming the picture . This rendered the entire picture in very soft focus .
= = Newsreels and documentaries = =
From 1904 until 1967 , when television finally killed them off , newsreels preceded films . In the early sound @-@ film era , they lasted around eight minutes and featured highlights and clips of the world 's biggest stories . Updated twice a week by the five major studios , they became a highly profitable enterprise : in 1933 , newsreels had a total box office take of almost $ 19 @.@ 5 million against an outlay of under $ 10 million . The sound @-@ film era created the narrator ; among the first was Graham McNamee , who provided voiceover during the clips , often delivering hackneyed jokes while delineating the on @-@ screen action . Sound newsreel interviews and monologues featured famous subjects unaccustomed to the new medium . These clips changed public perception of important historical figures depending on their elocution , the sound of their previously unheard voices , and their composure in front of the camera . Around 12 " newsreel theaters " were soon created around the United States , the most successful being the Embassy Newsreel Theater on Broadway . The Embassy was a 578 @-@ seat facility that presented fourteen 45 – 50 minute programs a day , running from 10 in the morning until midnight . It was noted for its discerning , intellectual audience , many of whom did not attend motion @-@ picture theaters .
The most gripping news story of the pre @-@ Code era was the kidnapping of the Lindbergh baby on the evening of 1 March 1932 . As the child was already enormously famous before the kidnapping , the event created a media circus , with news coverage more intense than anything since World War I. Newsreels featuring family photos of the child ( the first time private pictures had been " conscripted for public service " ) asked spectators to report any sight of him . On May 12 , 1932 , the child 's body was found less than five miles from the Lindbergh home . Although newsreels covered the most important topics of the day , they also presented human @-@ interest stories ( such as the immensely popular coverage of the Dionne quintuplets ) and entertainment news , at times in greater detail than more pressing political and social matters .
Some of the images ' impact belies their historical accuracy ; nearly all ceremonies and public events that were filmed for newsreels in the early sound era were staged , and in some cases even reenacted . For instance : when FDR signed an important bill , a member of his cabinet was called away before the staged reenactment began , so the video shows him absent at the time of the signing , although he had been present . The newsreels of FDR were staged to hide his hobbled gait caused by polio . Caught between the desire to present accurate hard @-@ hitting news stories and the need to keep an audience in the mood for the upcoming entertainment , newsreels often soft @-@ pedaled the difficulties Americans faced during the early years of the Great Depression . FDR in particular received favorable treatment from Hollywood , with all five of the major studios producing pro @-@ FDR shorts by late 1933 . These shorts featured some of the studios ' lesser contract talent extolling the virtues of FDR created government and social programs . Roosevelt himself was a natural before the camera . The newsreels were instrumental to the success of his initial campaign , and his enduring popularity while in office . He was described by Variety as the " Barrymore of the Capital " .
Taking advantage of the existence of 30 years of newsreels archives were filmmakers who made early sound era documentaries . World War I was a popular topic of these pictures and spawned the following documentaries ; The Big Drive ( 1933 ) , World in Revolt ( 1933 ) , This is America ( 1933 ) , and Hell 's Holiday ( 1933 ) . The most prescient pre @-@ Code World War I documentary was aptly called The First World War ( 1934 ) and was the most critically and commercially successful documentary of the era .
Filmmakers also made feature @-@ length documentaries that covered the dark recesses of the globe , including the Amazon Rainforest , Native American settlements , the Pacific islands , and everywhere in between . Taking advantage of audiences ' voyeuristic impulses , aided by the allowance of nudity in tribal documentaries , the filming of lands untouched by modernity , and the presentation of locales never before filmed , these movies placated Depression era American audiences by showing them lifestyles more difficult than their own . Also captured were Arctic expeditions in films such 90 ° South and With Byrd at the South Pole , and deepest Africa in the safari films of Martin and Osa Johnson , among others . Some exploitation style documentaries purported to show actual events but were instead staged , elaborate ruses . The most prominent of which was Ingagi ( 1931 ) , a film which claimed to show a ritual where African women were given over to gorillas as sex slaves , but instead was mostly filmed in Los Angeles using local blacks in place of natives . Douglas Fairbanks mocked the phoniness of many pre @-@ Code documentaries in his parody Around the World in 80 Minutes with Douglas Fairbanks , in one scene of which he filmed himself wrestling a stuffed tiger doll , then a tiger @-@ skin rug . Opposing these films was the travelogue which was shown before features and served as a short saccharine form of cinematic tourism .
= = End of an era = =
Pre @-@ Code films began to draw the ire of various religious groups , some Protestant but mostly a contingent of Roman Catholic crusaders . Amleto Giovanni Cicognani , apostolic delegate to the Catholic Church in the United States , called upon Roman Catholics in the United States to unite against the surging immorality of films . As a result , in 1933 the Catholic Legion of Decency , headed by the Reverend John T. McNicholas ( later renamed the National Legion of Decency ) , was established to control and enforce decency standards and boycott films they deemed offensive . They created a rating system for films that started at " harmless " and ended at " condemned " , with the latter denoting a film that was a sin to watch .
“ I wish to join the Legion of Decency , which condemns vile and unwholesome moving pictures . I unite with all who protest against them as a grave menace to youth , to home life , to country and to religion . I condemn absolutely those salacious motion pictures which , with other degrading agencies , are corrupting public morals and promoting a sex mania in our land … Considering these evils , I hereby promise to remain away from all motion pictures except those which do not offend decency and Christian morality . " ( Catholic Legion of Decency Pledge )
The Legion spurred several million Roman Catholics across the U.S. to sign up for the boycott , allowing local religious leaders to determine which films to protest . Conservative Protestants tended to support much of the crackdown , particularly in the South , where anything relating to the state of race relations or miscegenation could not be portrayed . Although the Central Conference of American Rabbis joined in the protest , it was an uneasy alliance as there had always been whispers that at least some of the vitriol from the Christian groups occurred because many studio executives were Jewish .
Hays opposed direct censorship , considering it " Un @-@ American " . He had stated that although there were some tasteless films in his estimation , working with filmmakers was better than direct oversight , and that , overall , films were not harmful to children . Hays blamed some of the more prurient films on the difficult economic times which exerted " tremendous commercial pressure " on the studios more than a flouting of the code . Catholic groups became enraged with Hays and as early as July 1934 were demanding that he resign from his position , which he did not , although his influence waned and Breen took control , with Hays becoming a functionary .
The Payne Study and Experiment Fund was created in 1927 by Frances Payne Bolton to support a study of the influence of fiction on children . The Payne Fund Studies , a series of eight books published from 1933 to 1935 which detailed five ( 5 ) years of research aimed specifically at the cinema 's effects on children , were also gaining publicity at this time , and became a great concern to Hays . Hays had said certain pictures might alter " ... that sacred thing , the mind of a child … that clean , virgin thing , that unmarked state " and have " the same responsibility , the same care about the thing put on it that the best clergyman or the most inspired teacher would have . " Despite its initial reception , the main findings of the study were largely innocuous . It found that cinema 's effect on individuals varied with age and social position , and that pictures reinforced audiences ' existing beliefs . The Motion Picture Research Council ( MPRC , led by honorary vice president Sara Delano Roosevelt — FDR 's mother – and executive director the Rev. William H. Short ) , which funded the study , was not pleased . An " alarmist summary " of the study 's results written by Henry James Forman appeared in McCall 's , a leading women 's magazine of the time , and Forman 's book , Our Movie Made Children , which became a best @-@ seller , publicized the Payne Fund 's results , emphasizing its more negative aspects .
The social environment created by the publicity of the Payne Fund Studies and religious protests reached such a fever pitch that a member of the Hays Office described it as a " state of war " . However , newspapers including The Plain Dealer ( Cleveland ) , New Orleans Times Picayune , Chicago Daily News , Atlanta Journal , Saint Paul Dispatch , the Philadelphia Record and Public Ledger , the Boston American and New York 's Daily News , Daily Mirror , and Evening Post all lambasted the studies . When discussing the Supreme Court 's 1915 decision , film historian Gregory Black argues that the efforts of reformers might have been lessened had " filmmakers been willing to produce films for specialized audiences ( adults only , family , no children ) … but the movers and shakers of the industry wanted or needed the largest possible market . " The most provocative pictures were the most profitable , with the 25 % of the motion picture industry 's output that was the most sensational supporting the cleaner 75 % .
By 1932 , there was an increasing movement for government control . By mid @-@ 1934 when Cardinal Dougherty of Philadelphia called for a Catholic boycott of all films , and Raymond Cannon was privately preparing a congressional bill supported by both Democrats and Republicans which would introduce Government oversight , the studios decided they had had enough . They re @-@ organized the enforcement procedures giving Hays and the recently appointed Joseph I. Breen , a devout Roman Catholic , head of the new Production Code Administration ( PCA ) , greater control over censorship . The studios agreed to disband their appeals committee and to impose a $ 25 @,@ 000 fine for producing , distributing , or exhibiting any film without PCA approval . Hays had originally hired Breen , who had worked in public relations , in 1930 to handle Production Code publicity , and the latter was popular among Catholics . Joy began working solely for Fox Studios , and Wingate had been bypassed in favor of Breen in December 1933 . Hays became a functionary , while Breen handled the business of censoring films .
Breen was a rabid anti @-@ Semite , who was quoted as stating that Jews " are , probably , the scum of the earth . " When Breen died in 1965 , the trade magazine Variety stated , " More than any single individual , he shaped the moral stature of the American motion picture . " Although the Legion 's impact on the more effective enforcement of the Code is unquestionable , its influence on the general populace is harder to gauge . A study done by Hays after the Code was finally fully implemented found that audiences were doing the exact opposite of what the Legion had recommended . Each time the Legion protested a film it meant increased ticket sales ; unsurprisingly , Hays kept these results to himself and they were not revealed until many years later . In contrast to big cities , boycotts in smaller towns were more effective and theater owners complained of the harassment they received when they exhibited salacious films .
Many actors and actresses , such as Edward G. Robinson , Barbara Stanwyck , and Clark Gable , continued their careers apace after the Code was enforced . However , others , such as Ruth Chatterton and Warren William , who excelled during this period , are mostly forgotten today .
= = After the pre @-@ Code era = =
Censors like Martin Quigley and Joseph Breen understood that :
a private industry code , strictly enforced , is more effective than government censorship as a means of imposing religious dogma . It is secret , for one thing , operating at the pre @-@ production stage . The audience never knows what has been trimmed , cut , revised , or never written . For another , it is uniform — not subject to hundreds of different licensing standards . Finally and most important , private censorship can be more sweeping in its demands , because it is not bound by constitutional due process or free @-@ expression rules — in general , these apply to only the government — or by the command of church @-@ state separation … there is no question that American cinema today is far freer than in the heyday of the Code , when Joe Breen 's blue pencil and the Legion of Decency 's ever @-@ present boycott threat combined to assure that films adhered to Catholic Church doctrine .
Termed by Breen as " Compensating moral value " , the maxim was that " any theme must contain at least sufficient good in the story to compensate for , and to counteract , any evil which relates . " Hollywood could present evil behavior , but only if it were eradicated by the end of the film , " with the guilty punished , and the sinner redeemed " .
Pre @-@ Code scholar Thomas Doherty summarized the practical effects :
Even for moral guardians of Breen 's dedication , however , film censorship can be a tricky business . Images must be cut , dialogue overdubbed or deleted , and explicit messages and subtle implications excised from what the argot of film criticism calls the " diegesis " . Put simply , the diegesis is the world of the film , the universe inhabited by the characters existing in the landscape of cinema . " Diegetic " elements are experienced by the characters in the film and ( vicariously ) by the spectator ; " nondiegetic " elements are apprehended by the spectator alone .... The job of the motion picture censor is to patrol the diegesis , keeping an eye and ear out for images , languages , and meanings that should be banished from the world of film .... The easiest part of the assignment is to connect the dots and connect what is visually and verbally forbidden by name . … More challenging is the work of the textual analysis and narrative rehabilitation that discerns and redirects hidden lessons and moral meanings .
The censors thus expanded their jurisdiction from what was seen to what was implied in the spectator 's mind . In The Office Wife ( 1930 ) , several of Joan Blondell 's disrobing maneuvers were strictly forbidden and the implied image of the actress being naked just off @-@ screen was deemed too suggestive even though it relied upon the audience using their imaginations , so post @-@ Code releases of the film had scenes which were blurred or rendered indistinct , if allowed at all .
Following the July 1 , 1934 decision by the studios put the power over film censorship in Breen 's hands , he appeared in a series of newsreel clips promoting the new order of business , assuring Americans that the motion @-@ picture industry would be cleansed of " the vulgar , the cheap , and the tawdry " and that pictures would be made " vital and wholesome entertainment " . All scripts now went through PCA , and several films playing in theaters were ordered withdrawn .
The first film Breen censored in the production stage was the Joan Crawford film Forsaking All Others . Although Independent film producers vowed they would give " no thought to Mr. Joe Breen or anything he represents " , they caved on their stance within one month of making it . The major studios still owned most of the successful theaters in the country , and studio heads such as Harry Cohn of Columbia Pictures had already agreed to stop making indecent films . In several large cities audiences booed when the Production seal appeared before films . But the Catholic Church was pleased , and in 1936 Pope Pius XI stated that the U.S. film industry " has recognized and accepts its responsibility before society . " The Legion condemned zero films produced by the MPPDA between 1936 and 1943 .
A coincidental upswing in the fortunes of several studios was publicly explained by Code proponents such as the Motion Picture Herald as proof positive that the code was working . Another fortunate coincidence for Code supporters was the torrent of famous criminals such as John Dillinger , Baby Face Nelson , and Bonnie and Clyde that were killed by police shortly after the PCA took power . Corpses of the outlaws were shown in newsreels around the country , alongside clips of Al Capone and Machine Gun Kelly in Alcatraz . Among the unarguably positive aspects of the Code being enforced was the money it saved studios in having to edit , cut , and alter films to get approval from the various state boards and censors . The money saved was in the millions annually . A spate of more wholesome family films featuring performers such as Shirley Temple took off .
Stars such as James Cagney redefined their images . Cagney played a series of patriots , and his gangster in Angels with Dirty Faces ( 1937 ) purposefully acts like a coward when he is executed so children who had looked up to him would cease any such admiration . Breen in essence neutered Groucho Marx , removing most of his jokes which directly referenced sex , although some sexual references slipped through unnoticed in the Marx Brothers post @-@ Code pictures . In the political realm , films such Mr. Smith Goes to Washington in which James Stewart tries to change the American system from within while reaffirming its core values , stand in stark contrast to Gabriel Over the White House where a dictator is needed to cure America 's woes .
Some pre @-@ Code movies suffered irreparable damage from censorship after 1934 . When studios attempted to re @-@ issue films from the 1920s and early 1930s , they were forced to make extensive cuts . Films such as Animal Crackers ( 1930 ) , Mata Hari ( 1931 ) , Arrowsmith ( 1931 ) , and A Farewell to Arms ( 1932 ) exist only in their censored versions . Many other films survived intact because they were too controversial to be re @-@ released , such as The Maltese Falcon ( 1931 ) , which was remade a decade later with the same name , and thus never had their master negatives edited . In the case of Convention City ( 1933 ) , which Breen would not allow to be re @-@ released in any form , the entire film remains missing . Although it has been rumored that all prints and negatives were ordered destroyed by Jack Warner in the late thirties , further research shows the negative was in the vaults as late as 1948 when it was junked due to nitrate decomposition .
= = Home video and screenings = =
In the 1980s , New York City Film Forum programmer Bruce Goldstein held the first film festivals featuring pre @-@ Code films . Goldstein is also credited by San Francisco film critic Mick LaSalle as the person to bring the term " pre @-@ Code " into general use .
In the 1990s , MGM released several pre @-@ Code films on laserdisc and VHS . " The Forbidden Hollywood Collection " included : Baby Face ; Beauty and the Boss ; Big Business Girl ; Blessed Event ; Blonde Crazy ; Bombshell ; Dance , Fools , Dance ; Employees ' Entrance ; Ex @-@ Lady ; Female ; Havana Widows ; Heroes for Sale ; Illicit ; I 've Got Your Number ; Ladies They Talk About ; Lady Killer ; Madam Satan ; Night Nurse ; Our Dancing Daughters ; Our Modern Maidens ; The Purchase Price ; Red @-@ Headed Woman ; Scarlet Dawn ; Skyscraper Souls ; The Strange Love of Molly Louvain ; They Call It Sin ; and Three on a Match .
MGM / UA and Turner also released other pre @-@ Code films such as The Divorcee , Doctor X , A Free Soul , Little Caesar , Mystery of the Wax Museum , Possessed , The Public Enemy , Red Dust ( remade in the 1950s as Mogambo ) , and Riptide under other labels . UCLA ran several series of pre @-@ Code films during the 2000s , showcasing films which had not been seen for decades , and not available on any home media .
In 1999 , the Roan Group / Troma Entertainment released two pre @-@ Code DVD collections : Pre @-@ Code Hollywood : The Risqué Years # 1 , featuring Of Human Bondage , Millie and Kept Husbands , and Pre @-@ Code Hollywood 2 , featuring Bird of Paradise and The Lady Refuses .
Warner Bros. Home Video has released a number of their pre @-@ Code films on DVD under the Forbidden Hollywood banner . To date , nine volumes have been released :
Volume 1 , released on December 5 , 2006 , includes Baby Face , Red @-@ Headed Woman , and Waterloo Bridge .
Volume 2 , released on March 4 , 2008 , includes The Divorcee , A Free Soul , Three on a Match , Female , and Night Nurse .
Volume 3 , released on March 24 , 2009 , featured six films from William Wellman : Other Men 's Women , The Purchase Price , Frisco Jenny , Midnight Mary , Heroes for Sale , and Wild Boys of the Road .
Volume 4 , released on August 9 , 2012 , includes Jewel Robbery , Lawyer Man , Man Wanted , and They Call It Sin .
Volume 5 , released on August 9 , 2012 , includes Hard to Handle , Ladies They Talk About , The Mind Reader , and Miss Pinkerton .
Volume 6 , released on April 2 , 2013 includes The Wet Parade , Downstairs , Mandalay , and Massacre .
Volume 7 , released on April 30 , 2013 , includes The Hatchet Man , Skyscraper Souls , Employees ' Entrance , Ex @-@ Lady
Volume 8 , released on October 28 , 2014 , includes Blonde Crazy , Strangers May Kiss , Hi , Nellie , Dark Hazard
Volume 9 , released on October 27 , 2015 , includes Big City Blues , Hell 's Highway , The Cabin in the Cotton , When Ladies Meet , I Sell Anything
Universal Home Video followed suit with Pre @-@ Code Hollywood Collection : Universal Backlot Series . Released on April 7 , 2009 , the box set includes The Cheat , Merrily We Go to Hell , Hot Saturday , Torch Singer , Murder at the Vanities , and Search for Beauty , together with a copy of the entire Hays Code .
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= Erling Folkvord =
Erling Folkvord ( born 15 June 1949 ) is a Norwegian politician for the Red party , and a former member of the Parliament of Norway . A revolutionary socialist , he was one of the leading members of the Workers ' Communist Party and the Red Electoral Alliance before they merged to form Red . He sat as a member of the Parliament of Norway from 1993 to 1997 , becoming the first socialist to the left of the Socialist Left Party and the Labour Party in parliament since 1961 . He later lost his position in 1997 , and has been a candidate for parliament ever since . He has been a member of the Oslo City Council from 1983 to 1993 , and again since 1999 . Folkvord has become one of the best @-@ known Norwegian politicians on the left who is not connected with the Labour Party and the Socialist Left Party .
In the early part of his political career Folkvord was a member of the Red Electoral Alliance . Known for working on several corruption cases earned him the nickname the " watch dog " . Folkvord 's political views turned to communism and anti @-@ capitalism when he became a member of the Workers ' Communist Party . From 1990 to 1997 he was Deputy Leader of the Workers ' Communist Party and in 2001 he became Deputy Leader of the Red Electoral Alliance alongside Chris Hartmann .
= = Early life and career = =
Folkvord is the son of school principal Sverre Folkvord and housewife Eldrid Kjesbu . He finished secondary school earning the examen artium degree in Trondheim and then started studies to become a social worker at the Social School of Trondheim . By 1976 he was the leader of the national Social Agencies Union serving until 1978 . In 1982 , along with fellow Red Electoral Alliance member Harald Stabell , Folkvord sued Oslo 's social @-@ office leading figures , Signe M. Stray Ryssdal and Marit Moe . They accused them of misconduct and of making a false accusation which led to an innocent man going to prison . These accusations eventually led to a police investigation into the matter . After finding no proof of their accusations , Moe sued Folkvord and Stabell for defamatatory charges made against her , but she abstained from pursuing this in court .
Folkvord and Stabell reported to the police that the Norwegian newspaper Dagbladet breached the pimp paragraph of the criminal code . In an interview Folkvord stated that Dagbladet contributed to giving the Norwegian sex market more attention .
= = Political career = =
= = = Council representative = = =
In 1983 Folkvord , along with Liv Finstad , was elected as Red Electoral Alliance representative for the Oslo City Council , taking office on 1 January 1984 . According to Aftenposten , the Red Electoral Alliance and the Christian Democratic Party had the most loyal voter base throughout the election . Folkvord was later highly vocal in his opposition towards the decentralisation of health and social services in Oslo where control was to be given to the boroughs . During his early years as member of the City Council Folkvord used most of his time in defending the then " current " social administration .
By the late 1980s Folkvord had earned the nickname " watch dog " , as he usually wanted an " independent investigation " into corruption matters . This eventually developed into one of his most well @-@ known public traits . When leading an investigation into a corruption case in 1989 , which involved several representatives of the Oslo City Council , he said " It is possible to sweep corruption and other non @-@ essential nonsense out of City Hall . People only need to persist where necessary " . Earlier that year , when finding more proof of a so @-@ called corruption scandal , Folkvord asked for assistance from the district attorney urging him to lead an investigation into the matter .
By 1990 there were talks within the Red Electoral Alliance towards replacing Folkvord and Athar Ali as City Council representatives in Oslo to make way for more women in the top positions within the party . Folkvord was kept since he was a well @-@ known face with the Norwegian media . By September 1990 Folkvord had demanded a police @-@ run investigation against Conservative Party member Michael Tetzschner , accusing him of corruption and hidden money . These charges were included in a broadcast by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation ( NRK ) . Tetzschner replied to this broadcast stating that " The news feature was completely dominated by false information . If the television provider does not make the corrections that are necessary , we 'll bring the case to the Complaints Board of the Broadcasting Corporation " . Folkvord is one of the co @-@ founders of the Oslo party cell , established in early 1991 , of the Red Electoral Alliance . While media speculated that he would become the chapter 's leader , he denied any such allegations , saying their existed " better suited people " then him for that post .
= = = Parliament = = =
Folkvord was elected the Red Electoral Alliance 's Oslo lead candidate in June 1992 . The decision was made based on party leader Aksel Nærstad 's belief that Folkvord could easily win a seat since he had become a " national celebrity " of sorts and due to the support Folkvord enjoyed during the 1989 parliamentary election . Folkvord needed 14 @,@ 000 votes to earn a seat in parliament . In January 1993 , at the national convention , several long @-@ standing members discussed the best way to organise Folkvord 's Oslo electoral campaign . There was optimism among these members believed , along with Nærstad , and they believed before hand that Folkvord would be elected to parliament . The Red Electoral Alliance used a total of NOK 600 @,@ 000 for their nationwide 1993 election campaign , two thirds of it being used to support Folkvords campaign in Oslo . When announcing the results the party managed to become the biggest party in six different constituencies : Grünerløkka , Ankertorget , Tøyen , Kampen , Vålerenga and Gamlebyen . Various analysists , and Folkvord himself , believed the Red Electoral Alliance achieved good results in Oslo because of the Socialist Left Party 's bad election results in the municipality .
When asked what parliamentary committee he wanted to be a member of Folkvord replied that the Standing Committee on Finance and Economic Affairs would be an ideal choice because most of the " assaults " on the working man had their origins in that committee . He was then selected for that very committee in addition to a seat on the Election Committee . He later became elected as a member of the financial committee of parliament .
In 1994 Folkvord criticised the Labour Government for exporting weapons to Turkey , which at that time was engaged in a civil war against the Kurdish people . He claimed it violated a parliamentary decision made in 1959 which said that the government would not distribute , or export , weapons to countries involved in a civil war . Folkvord earned the support of the Socialist Left , the Centre Party and the Christian Democratic Party who all sought to end weapon exports to Turkey . The Conservative Party supported the Labour Party 's decision however , with the then party leader Jan Petersen claiming that the Kurdish liberators were " terrorists " . According to Arbeiderbladet the Norwegian Government had sold NOK 99 million worth of weapons to the Turkish Government in 1989 alone . Folkvord sent a letter to Bjørn Tore Godal , the then Minister of Foreign Affairs , and asked if the Norwegian Government had gotten the approval of the parliament 's Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence to sell weapons to Turkey . In a 1967 decree it became illegal to sell weapons to civil war torned countries , and Folkvord believed that Norway should stopp selling weapons to a country which he considered to be embroilled by civil war .
In early 1995 Folkvord announced that he would not be a candidate for parliament when his term was over . He later claimed the job was " exhausting and stressful " . In an opinion poll , conducted in August 1997 , Folkvords popularity in Oslo had declined while his popularity outside Oslo had increased . During the election the party used NOK 500 @,@ 000 on Folkvord 's re @-@ election campaign , which was estimated to be around 70 % of party 's budget estimated to be around NOK 700 @,@ 000 . On 1 September 1995 Folkvord was arrested by Turkish law enforcement in the Kurdish city of Diyarbakir . The Turkish Government said the main reason was his visit to an illegal Kurdish peace festival . That very same day he was flown to Ankara , and later Istanbul and the following day he was delivered back to Norway . Nicolas Rea , a member of the British House of Lords , took a picture of Folkvord during the event . It was claimed that the picture showed Folkvord being beaten by Turkish officials and that the picture was in @-@ turn burnt by the Turkish police when they saw Rea had a camera .
On 12 September various opinion polls showed that Folkvords popularity had increased again in Oslo which gave rise to speculation that Folkvord would win Inger Lise Husøy 's seat in parliament because of this sudden rise in popularity . When 99 % of the vote in Oslo had been counted the party had managed to earn a disappointing 3 @.@ 9 % , losing its only seat .
= = = 1999 to the 2003 elections = = =
After losing his position in parliament , Folkvord went through a short @-@ period of obscurity . He once again earned media attention when he publicly denounced the Lund Commission . The commission revealed there had been extensive surveillance of Norwegian communists , socialists and other radicals by the Norwegian Police Security Service . Folkvord demanded to be shown his own documentation created during the surveillance . In 1999 Folkvord topped his party 's list of candidates running for a seat in the City Council . Folkvord was successful and earned a seat on the City Council while the party noted an increase of 1 @.@ 3 % . Folkvords main goal during the campaign was to earn a third seat for the Red Electoral Alliance , he failed to do so though the party held its two seats on the City Council . The party earned 2 % and 2 @.@ 1 % of the vote in the county and municipal elections of 1999 .
Before the 2001 parliamentary election both Aslak Sira Myhre , leader of the Red Electoral Alliance , and Folkvord stated their intentions of being top cadidate for the Red Electoral Alliance . Later , when hearing that Myhre sought to become the party 's lead candidate in Oslo , Folkvord told the media he would become third candidat if he was not elected to become the party 's lead candidate . A vote was held at the party convention , which resulted in 50 votes for and 62 against Folkvord as lead candidate . Folkvord became third candidate , and Sigrid Angen became second candidate .
By February 2001 the Workers ' Communist Party proposed making Folkvord the new leader of the Red Electoral Alliance , since Myhre would resign if he was elected to parliament . While the majority of the members wanted a female leader after the departure of Myhre , his supporters were perfectly aware that Folkvord could lose the nomination and a campaign was started to make him deputy leader . The main problem for Folkvord 's opposition was his close ties to the Workers ' Communist Party . At the convention Myhre was re @-@ elected the party 's party leader , with Folkvord and Chris Hartmann stepping in as the party 's new deputy leaders . Myhre did not become a member of parliament .
By March 2003 Myhre had resigned as leader and Torstein Dahle was elected as his successor . Dahle had been the leading figure of the Red Electoral Alliance in Hordaland since the 1990s . When commenting on his resignation , Myhre commented on his 2001 election in Oslo saying " it is sad to resign after a bad election " . During the 2003 local elections three different polls showed that the Red Electoral Alliance was close to earning three seats on the Oslo City Council . Folkvord stated that if the party managed to earn one extra seat , he would use try removing the right @-@ wing Conservative Party from power and replace them with a more left @-@ wing " leaning choice " — such as the Labour Party or the Socialist Left Party . The party increased its vote by 0 @.@ 1 % , earning the party 3 @.@ 1 % of the popular vote in Oslo . The party was not able to win a third seat , retaining the two they held .
= = = Later years : 2004 – present = = =
In February 2004 Folkvord was charged with violating the penal code as he had participated in a demonstration against the Invasion of Iraq in 2003 . Together with other demonstrators he effectively cut off the entrance to the office of Kristin Krohn , the Minister of Defence . Folkvord was accused in a statement saying " his refusal to walk away from the area where it was held an illegal demonstration , despite the fact that he was asked to leave the area " . After the incident he received a fine of NOK 2 @,@ 000 which he refused to pay .
At the Red Electoral Alliance 's city convention Folkvord was elected their lead candidate in Oslo for the 2005 election . Folkvord , along with Torstein Dahle , were the only representatives from the party who had a chance of gaining a seat in parliament . Jens Stoltenberg , leader of the Labour Party , was negative towards the idea of having any representatives from the Red Electoral Alliance in parliament , saying that the voters should do anything in their power to stop them from earning a seat in parliament . When the votes were counted Folkvord did not gain a seat in parliament .
Folkvord later accused many of the prominent members of the Oslo City Council of being involved , or having been involved , in corruption . André Støylen of the Conservative Party said Folkvord should stop accusing and instead go to the police with proof if he had any .
On 27 February 2007 Folkvord announced he would seek another term in the City Council . Folkvord was re @-@ elected lead candidate for the municipal election at the party convention . In March 2007 the Red Electoral Alliance and the Workers ' Communist Party merged and established Red . By 3 September , six days before the election day , Red earned its best showing ever in Oslo earning 4 @.@ 4 % in an opinion poll — an increase of 0 @.@ 3 % from the previous election . When the votes for the municipality of Oslo were counted the party had managed to gain three seats on the City Council , with Folkvord 's position secure . At national level Red had received 1 @.@ 9 % and 2 @.@ 1 % for the municipal and county elections respectively .
During the 2009 election several opinion polls showed that Folkvord and Dahle had enough support to earn two seats in parliament . Jens Stoltenberg and Kristin Halvorsen from the Red @-@ Green Coalition were both highly negative towards the idea of having Red in parliament . Folkvord stated several times that he would demand an immediate withdrawal of Norwegian troops from Afghanistan if elected to parliament . He said this decision involved both the " enthusiastic warriors of the Progress Party " and " the disillusioned skeptics of the Socialist Left " . Folkvord later felt he needed to set pressure on the Labour Party which would , according to him , move them further to the left . Labour Party member Reiulf Steen had reacted positively towards the idea of having Folkvord in parliament saying , " I am a great admirer of Erling Folkvord . He has integrity and great courage . Besides I am overjoyed that Red supports the Red @-@ Green coalition " . When the votes were counted Red had an increase of 1 % from the 2005 election , but it was not enough to secure Folkvord a seat in parliament . When all the votes were counted the party had gained 1 @.@ 3 % of the national vote , an increase of 0 @.@ 1 % .
= = Political positions = =
During an interview in 1993 , Folkvord said his most important commitment if he gained a seat in parliament was giving the National trade union centers more power so that they could better defend the working class . When asked if it was exhausting to promote socialist reforms Folkvord said , " It is . But I think in some ways easier than before [ because many ] fake socialist regimes have collapsed " . Another opinion of his was that " capitalism destroys the natural environment around us making the bourgeois society planners understand that there must be something new in the future . This provides inspiration to win support for socialist beliefs in Norway " . Folkvord 's first contact with anti @-@ capitalist beliefs came when he joined the Workers ' Communist Party . The party told him about " capitalist barbarism " and how the wealthy controlled everything . Folkvord said he believed that " [ this ] can 't be the end of human development " , and that he believes humans are destined to create another more @-@ just system .
Folkvord has long supported the Kurdish independence movement , believing that Norway and other countries in Europe should stop treating the conflicts between Turkish military and the Kurds as an internal Turkish matter . Being an anti @-@ war activist he was highly vocal against Norwegian involvement in the War on Terror since the start of the American led invasion of Iraq . In 2009 Folkvord visited Norwegian soldiers in Afghanistan but claimed that Red was the only Norwegian party not allowed to visit the Afghan city of Meymaneh , the city were the Norwegian troops are stationed . He is also highly vocal against Norwegian membership in the European Union , claiming the organisation is spreading " German imperialism " .
= = Authorship = =
Since earning the position of Oslo City Council representative in 1984 , Folkvord has used much of his time writing books about his political experiences and beliefs . His books have earned much attention by the Norwegian media . He has also collaborated on several books , the most notable being Rapport fra rottereiret – korrupsjon i Norge . In the book Folkvord claimed that Lise Harlem was involved in some sort of corruption in Norway , although to verify this he had only one source , Knut Frigaard . Harlem later wrote an article in Aftenposten stating that the book was " dubiously " written and unreliable . The book also received support from Carl August Fleischer and Liberal Party politician Helge Seip who defended the book against the accusations . Folkvord wrote Rødt ! in 1998 , a book about his tenure as a parliamentary representative . Twelve pages were about Folkvords four @-@ year @-@ term as representative , the other pages contained information criticising fellow parliamentary representatives . When writing the book , he wanted it to have some sort of impact on Red Youth members and other left of center groups or activists . Operasjon Heilomvending , published in 2007 , contained a large amount of criticism of the Socialist Left Party , the Labour Party and the Red @-@ Green Coalition in general . The book Vår korrupte hovedstad ( English : Our Corrupt Capitol ) , was published in 2011 . In 2015 his book [ " the great Oslo robbery " ] Det store Oslo @-@ ranet was published .
= = Family = =
Folkvord has a daughter named Jorunn Folkvord who works as a teacher and is a member of the Norwegian teachers union , Union of Education Norway . She was notable for her far @-@ left political activities in Norway , having membership status in the Workers ' Communist Party and the Red Electoral Alliance . She took part in several notable protests during the 1990s , in one case being arrested by the police . She was also the Leader of Red Youth during the early 1990s .
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= Up All Night ( 30 Rock ) =
" Up All Night " is the thirteenth episode of NBC 's first season of 30 Rock . It was written by the series ' creator and executive producer Tina Fey , and was directed by Michael Engler . It first aired on February 8 , 2007 in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Katrina Bowden , Rachel Dratch , Rachel Hamilton , John Lutz , Maulik Pancholy , Keith Powell , Lonny Ross , Isabella Rossellini , Sherri Shepherd , Jason Sudeikis and Mark Zimmerman . Joy Behar appeared as herself in the episode .
This episode focuses on the events of Valentine 's Day for the cast and crew of TGS with Tracy Jordan , a fictional sketch comedy series . Liz Lemon ( played by Tina Fey ) receives a mysterious gift ; Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) comments that he hates Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) ; Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) forgets Valentine 's Day , which also happens to be his wife , Paula 's ( Paula Pell ) birthday ; Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) divorce from Bianca ( Isabella Rossellini ) is made official ; the writers believe that Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) has romantic feelings for Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) ; and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tries to spend a night with his wife , Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shephard ) .
= = Plot = =
Jack 's wife Bianca asks to finalize their divorce to which Jack agree , demanding various things in their settlement all to which she agrees , and the divorce is set for the next day . It is Valentine 's Day , although the TGS cast and crew still have to work all night . Frank reveals that he hates Jenna when he always chooses to " kill " Jenna in a game of " Marry , Boff , Kill " . Frank believes that Jenna is " phony " , and Jenna tries many times to redeem herself with Frank , with reasons such as her participation in Vagina Day : " a charity event founded by a group of celebrities who have for whatever reason never been asked to participate in The Vagina Monologues " . Eventually , in her final confrontation with Frank , she farts , but Frank is happy , telling her that that is the first real thing she has done , and the two reconcile . Another game of " Marry , Boff , Kill " leads some of the writers into believing that Cerie ( who has been having problems with her fiance Aris ) has feelings for Kenneth when she chooses to " boff " him . The writers send the pair off to get candy for the night . Kenneth and Cerie take a walk around Rockefeller Center , and Cerie reveals that she is not attracted to Kenneth but tells him that he can tell the others that the two made out . However , Kenneth fails to convince the writers that he has done so when he shows them a pair of male underpants , which he claims belong to Cerie .
Jack asks Tracy to have a drink with him to celebrate his impending divorce , but Tracy has to leave early to celebrate Valentine 's Day with his wife through " role @-@ play " . As Jack gets more and more drunk , he reveals that he still has various fantasies about his wife from grabbing one of her breasts to her getting various terminal diseases with him by her bedside . Eventually , he picks up a prostitute ( Rachel Dratch ) , and the two interrupt Tracy and Angie 's Valentine 's Day at the Soho Grand Hotel . Angie , upset that their Valentine 's Day is ruined , demands that Tracy get rid of Jack and the prostitute , so he calls Liz for help . Liz gets Jack and the drunk prostitute out of the hotel , and Liz tells Jack that his relationship with his wife is sick and presents him with a scenario of " Marry , Boff , Kill " , all with his wife , causing Jack to say that he wants to do all of the three but promises Liz that he will get over his wife , and the two leave the prostitute in the street . The next day , Jack and Bianca sign the divorce papers , and Bianca begs Jack not to sell the Arby 's that he had gotten in their settlement . He promises not to do so , but will let the place shut down and become desolate . The two argue , and the sexual tension between the two escalate , until Bianca tears herself away from Jack and leaves .
Pete has forgotten that it is Valentine 's Day , which also happens to be his wife Paula 's birthday . He spends the night running around the city to try to find Valentine 's Day and birthday presents for his wife , only to lose the balloons that he had bought for his wife . Liz has received a gift of chocolate @-@ covered cherries and flowers from a supposed secret admirer . The " admirer " turns out to be " a law stylist " , ( Jason Sudeikis ) and the gifts turn out to be for his girlfriend , Liz Lemler , who works in the accounting department at TGS . However , he tells Liz to keep the flowers but asks for a picture of her with the flowers and her ID to prove to his girlfriend that he did indeed get her something for Valentine 's Day .
= = Production = =
Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock . These cast members include : Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Chris Parnell and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live thirteen times , the second highest amount of episodes of any host of the series .
= = Reception = =
" Up All Night " brought in an average of 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 5 / 6 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 5 refers to 2 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 6 refers to 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast in the U.S ..
Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide wrote that " it would be nearly impossible to measure up to last week 's utterly manic introduction of Prince Gerhardt [ Paul Ruebens ] , so forgive 30 Rock if this week 's outing was ' merely ' very amusing at times . " He added that compared to Jack 's storyline , he " actually wore more grins watching the microscopic B @-@ story with the writers , playing Marry , Boff , Kill . " Robert Canning of IGN thought that " the Valentine 's Day episode of 30 Rock gave us a big surprise : a low @-@ key half hour from a show known for being over the top , " adding that this was " a pleasant surprise " . He said that this episode " proved that [ 30 Rock ] could make with the funny no matter what the tone " . Canning rated this episode 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 .
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= Turning Point ( 2004 wrestling ) =
Turning Point ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , which took place on December 5 , 2004 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first event under the Turning Point chronology . Eight matches were featured on the event 's card .
The main event was a Six Sides of Steel cage match with a pre @-@ match stipulation that the losing team would disband . America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) defeated Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) in this match . A Six Man Tag Team match on the event 's card ended in Jeff Hardy , A.J. Styles , and Randy Savage defeating The Kings of Wrestling ( Jeff Jarrett , Kevin Nash and Scott Hall ) . The event 's undercard featured different varieties of matches . Petey Williams defeated Chris Sabin to retain the TNA X Division Championship in one match on the undercard . Diamond Dallas Page defeated Raven in another match .
Turning Point is remembered for the disbanding of Triple X and for Elix Skipper pulling Chris Harris off the top of a cage with his legs to perform a move he named the New School . The PPV was also the final televised match of Randy Savage 's career . The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the event a 7 out of 10 , which was the same as the 2005 event 's rating .
= = Background = =
Turning Point featured eight professional wrestling matches involving wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or heroes in scripted , tension @-@ filled events that culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event was contested inside a 16 foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high steel structure with six sides — known as Six Sides of Steel ; to win a wrestler must either gain a pinfall or submission , with the losing team disbanding . Participants in the main event included the tag team pairings of America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) . The storyline build to this match on September 8 at TNA 's last weekly PPV event ( # 110 ) . During this event , Harris replaced an injured Daniels and teamed with Skipper to defeat The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) for the NWA World Tag Team Championship . Harris and Skipper then proceeded to lose the championship to Storm and Daniels on the September 24 episode of TNA 's primary television program , TNA Impact ! . After Storm and Daniels lost the championship to Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) on the October 15 episode of Impact ! , tensions between the teams during the respective title reigns gave way to an official rivalry between America 's Most Wanted and Triple X. The teams fought against each other in an Elimination Last Team Standing match at TNA 's previous and first monthly three @-@ hour PPV event , Victory Road . In an Elimination Last Man Standing match , a series of events must take place to eliminate a participant . First , a wrestler must be pinned , and then the pinned wrestler has until the referee 's count of ten to reach their feet before they are officially eliminated from the match . The first two members of a team to be eliminated lose the contest ; America 's Most Wanted was victorious in the Elimination Last Man Standing match at Victory Road . On the November 19 episode of Impact , Daniels insinuated that the two teams were scheduled for a Six Sides of Steel cage match at Turning Point . Later in the episode , newly appointed authority figure Dusty Rhodes announced that the match was indeed scheduled , with the added stipulation that the losing team would have to disband and never team together again in TNA under any circumstances .
A Six Man Tag Team match scheduled pitting the team of Jeff Hardy , A.J. Styles , and Randy Savage against The Kings of Wrestling ( Jeff Jarrett , Kevin Nash , and Scott Hall ) was another highly promoted match . At Victory Road during the main event for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between Jarrett and Hardy , Nash and Hall interfered and cost Hardy the match . Afterwards , Nash , Hall , and Jarrett joined forces and dubbed themselves " The Kings of Wrestling " ; they then proceeded to attack Hardy Following the encounter between Jarrett and Hardy , the 3Live Kru ( B.G. James , Ron Killings , and Konnan ) , and Styles came out to Hardy 's aid . Nash , Hall , and Jarrett quickly won the fight . Savage then made his debut in TNA aligning himself with Styles and Hardy . After multiple fights between the two teams , Savage challenged The Kings of Wrestling to a match at Turning Point on the November 19 episode of Impact . The match was later made official by TNA without The Kings of Wrestling agreeing to it .
A featured preliminary match on Turning Point 's card was for the TNA X Division Championship , in which the champion , Petey Williams , defended the championship against Chris Sabin . The match was promoted for Turning Point on the November 12 episode of Impact ! . In the weeks leading to the encounter , Sabin stated he had found a counter to Williams ' finishing maneuver the Canadian Destroyer , which was thought to be uncounterable . The Canadian Destroyer involves Williams grabbing an opponent with his legs around their head , jumping over their back , causing them to perform a backflip , and forcing their head into the mat after they make the full rotation . Making true to his word , Sabin countered the move three times before Turning Point ; one on the November 12 , one of the November 19 , and the last on the November 30 episodes of Impact ! .
Another match announced for Turning Point was between Raven and Diamond Dallas Page . On the November 12 episode of Impact ! , Page cost Raven a match against Monty Brown , creating a rivalry between the two . On the November 19 episode of Impact ! , Page attacked Raven once again , costing him another match . TNA later scheduled a match between the two at Turning Point .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
Before the event began , a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show aired with a match between The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) and Mikey Batts and Jerrelle Clark . The Naturals won the match by pinfall , after Stevens and Douglas lifted Batts up , placed Batts head and neck onto one of their shoulders , and fell to a seated position to perform a move they dubbed the Natural Disaster .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
In the first match , the 3Live Kru ( B.G. James and Ron Killings ) defending the NWA World Tag Team Championship against Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) , who were accompanied by Coach D 'Amore . Team Canada won the match and the championship after another Team Canada member , Johnny Devine , interfered and hit B.G. with a hockey stick . Roode followed up by pinning B.G. to win the match .
The next encounter pitted the team of Héctor Garza , Sonjay Dutt , and Sonny Siaki were pitted against the team of Kid Kash , Michael Shane , and Frankie Kazarian , who were accompanied by Traci , in a Six Man Tag Team match . Garza , Dutt , and Siaki won the match after Garza jumped off the top rope backwards and twisted in mid @-@ air to perform a corkscrew moonsault onto Kazarian for the pinfall victory .
The third match was a Serengeti Survival match between Monty Brown and Abyss . In this match , there were no disqualifications and the only way to win was by pinfall , submission , or by slamming the opponent into a pile of thumbtacks . Mid @-@ way through the match , Brown grabbed a bag of tacks and poured them on the ring @-@ mat . Afterwards , Brown and Abyss fought to slam each other into the tacks until Brown lifted Abyss up onto his shoulders and threw him forward down to the ring @-@ mat . Brown 's throw caused Abyss to fall on the tacks with his head and back , giving the win to Brown .
A tag team match followed in the fourth match , with Pat Kenney teaming with Johnny B. Badd to fight The New York Connection ( Johnny Swinger and Glenn Gilbertti ) . Jacqueline was the special guest referee for the bout . Badd won the encounter after he lifted Gilberti up onto his shoulders , spun him around , and fell to his back to perform a move known as a TKO . Badd followed by covering Gilberti for the pinfall .
Diamond Dallas Page ( DDP ) and Raven fought in the fifth match . The officiating referee was scripted to be knocked out in the beginning of the match and was later replaced . DDP claimed victory in the match with a move called the Diamond Cutter : DPP grabbed Raven 's head , jumped forward , and landed on his back , causing Raven 's head to impact with his shoulder .
= = = Main event matches = = =
Accompanied by Coach D 'Amore , Petey Williams defended the TNA X Division Championship against Chris Sabin . During the match , Sabin countered the Canadian Destroyer and attempted to perform his signature maneuver , the Cradle Shock . Williams countered the Cradle Shock into a submission maneuver known as the Sharpshooter . While the referee wasn 't looking , Williams hit Sabin with a pair of brass knuckles and gained the pinfall victory to end the match , retaining the TNA X Division Championship .
Next , the Kings of Wrestling ( Kevin Nash , Scott Hall , and Jeff Jarrett ) fought the team of Jeff Hardy , A.J. Styles , and Randy Savage in a Six Man Tag Team match . Earlier in the night , The Kings of Wrestling attacked Savage and stuffed him into the trunk of a limo , which spend off out of the arena 's parking lot . Without Savage , Styles and Hardy had to work the match by themselves . After several minutes of Hardy and Styles fighting off all the members of The Kings of Wrestling , Savage returned to the arena and walked down to the ring , where he was tagged into the match by Hardy . A few moments later , Savage pinned Jarrett after a punch to the jaw .
The main event was a Six Sides of Steel cage match contested between America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) , with the losing team disbanding forever . Mid @-@ way through , Skipper handcuffed Harris to the ropes and kept the key away from the referee . Storm later took the key from Skipper and freed Harris from the cuffs . At one point in the match , Skipper and Daniels double teamed Harris and performed America 's Most Wanted signature finishing maneuver , the Death Sentence by holding Harris in place while the other member climbed to the top rope and performed a leg drop across Harris 's neck and head . Skipper followed by covering Harris for a pinfall , however , he kicked out before the count of three . Harris later climbed up to the top of the cage . While Harris sat on top of the cage , Skipper climbed up at another corner and walked across the top similar to walking a tightrope . Skipper then jumped and grabbed Harris 's head with his legs , falling backwards towards the ring in a move he dubbed the New School . This move caused Harris to fly off of the top of the cage and land on his back in the middle of the ring . A brief time later , all four men were positioned at certain points on one of the padded turnbuckles to perform what TNA calls the " Tower of Doom " . In a variation of the move , Daniels was being held upside @-@ down by Storm , until Skipper grabbed Storm and placed his head between Storm 's legs to lift him off of a padded turnbuckle . Harris then grabbed Skipper and placed Skipper on his shoulders while he held Storm , who remained holding Daniels . Harris then performed a powerbomb on Skipper , while Skipper pulled down Storm , who suplexed Daniels off of the top of the cage . The conclusion to the match saw America 's Most Wanted cuff Daniels to the ropes and perform Triple X 's signature maneuver , the Powerplex by lifting Skipper up onto Storm 's shoulders while Harris held Skipper 's head . Storm and Harris then fell to the mat , forcing Skipper 's neck into Harris 's shoulder and mat while slamming his back into the mat as well . Storm then pinned Skipper for the pinfall victory . As a result of Triple X 's loss , the team had to disband forever .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Turning Point , America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) began a rivalry with Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) over the NWA World Tag Team Championship . They defeated Team Canada on the December 24 episode of Impact ! to earn the chance to challenge them at TNA 's next PPV , Final Resolution . At the event , America 's Most Wanted defeated Team Canada to win the championship .
The rivalry between The Kings of Wrestling ( Jeff Jarrett , Scott Hall , and Kevin Nash ) and Randy Savage , Jeff Hardy , and A.J. Styles slowly died down after the event . Styles went on to Final Resolution to win the TNA X Division Championship in an Ultimate X match , which also involved Chris Sabin and Petey Williams . In an Ultimate X match , four pillars are set up at ringside with steel red ropes attached at the top , which are criss @-@ crossed to form an " X " over the center of the ring . The championship belt is hung on the center " X " with the objective being to remove it and fall to the mat below to win . Hardy defeated Hall at Final Resolution as a replacement for Hector Garza . Savage left the company after the event . The Kings of Wrestling later disbanded ( not official until after Final Resolution ) as a result of Nash being placed in a match where the winner would challenge Jarrett in the main event of Final Resolution for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship ; this match also took place at the event .
In 2007 , Triple X reformed at Victory Road ( which became a July PPV event in 2006 ) with all three members of the original alliance : Daniels , Skipper , and Senshi . Before the reunion in 2007 , Daniels had a successful career as a singles competitor . At TNA 's March PPV event , Destination X , Daniels won the TNA X Division Championship from Styles in an Ultimate X Challenge match involving Ron Killings and his former partner , Eilx Skipper . Afterward , Daniels went on to make successful defenses and winning the championship three times ; Skipper 's singles career was not as victorious .
= = Reception = =
Writer Bob Kapur of the Canadian Online Explorer rated Turning Point a 7 out of 10 , which was the same as the rating for the 2005 event . The TNA X Division Championship bout was rated an 8 out of 10 . The Six Man Tag Team match between The Kings of Wrestling ( Kevin Nash , Scott Hall , and Jeff Jarrett ) and A.J. Styles , Jeff Hardy , and Randy Savage was rated a 3 out of 10 , while the Six Sides of Steel cage match main event was rated a 9 out of 10 . In his review , Kapur stated that he felt the Six Man Tag Team match was " an overbooked train wreck whose only saving grace was Styles 's performance , as he tried to wring out something decent out of the old @-@ timers " . The X Division Championship and main event bouts gained better reviews from Kapur . According to Kapur , the X Division Championship encounter was " a fantastic match which really showcases the talents of both men . " Regarding the main event , Kapur described it as " a fantastic match filled with exciting high spots from bell to bell " . TNA released a list of their top 50 moments in their history in 2006 in a DVD release titled " TNA : The 50 Greatest Moments " , with the main event between America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) being ranked number 6 . On September 20 , 2005 , TNA Home Video released the event in a DVD boxset called " TNA Anthology : The Epic Set " , including TNA 's April 2005 PPV event , Lockdown , and the 2004 Victory Road event .
= = Results = =
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= I Did It , Mama ! =
" I Did It , Mama ! " is a song recorded by Romanian singer @-@ songwriter Alexandra Stan for her eponymous and second studio album , Alesta ( 2016 ) . Released on 27 November 2015 through Global Records as a single , the track was produced by Play & Win members Sebastian Barac and Marcel Botezan , and David Ciente . The writing process was handled by the latter three in collaboration with Stan , Eric Turner and J @-@ Son . An europop , reggaeton , eurodance and dance @-@ pop song incorporating Balcanic and ethnic influences into its sound , the record was described as resembling the lyrical message of Madonna 's " Papa Don 't Preach " ( 1986 ) .
" I Did It , Mama ! " was met with negative to positive reviews , with music critics calling it " an earworm " and " great " , while others named it " boring " and unfriendly for radio airplay . An official music video for " I Did It , Mama ! " was shot by Bogdan Daragiu and uploaded in November 2015 onto YouTube in order to accompany the single 's release . The clip presents Stan being surrounded by different types of half @-@ naked men , and aroused controversy for cut scenes where she is shown miming the sexual intercourse and oral sex with one of her background dancers . Commercially , the track peaked at number nine in Stan 's native country .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
The song was written by Marcel Botezan , Sebastian Barac , J @-@ Son , Eric Turner , David Ciente and Stan , while production was handled by both Botezan and Barac under their alias Play & Win , and Ciente . Lyrically , " I Did It , Mama ! " is about the " conflict between different generations , more specific between children and their parents " . Throughout the lyrics , Stan urges her parents to accept her misunderstood new boyfriend . However , with the refrain of the song , she stands her ground , repeating the track 's title several times . Bradely Stern , writing for music website Pop Crush , compared the message of the song to that of Madonna 's " Papa Don 't Preach " ( 1986 ) , while Stan herself confessed that " [ the song ] is a more rebellious recording that parents may not understand from the first play " . She has , as well , named the tune a mixture between europop , reggaeton and Balkanic music . Hitfire described " I Did , It Mama ! " as a " successful " dance @-@ pop track , and Gay Times named it an " eurodance banger " . Carlo Andriani of Italian portal Daring To Do pointed out ethnic influences featured into its composition .
= = Critical response = =
Upon its release , the track was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Pop Crush was positive towards the song , calling it " an immediately infectious earworm , as with every Stan @-@ pop masterpiece " . The review concluded that " [ the track ] doesn 't make much sense at all , and it doesn 't have to — she ’ s Alexandra Stan , damnit " . Hitfire praised the refrain and the strophes of the tune , but criticized its drop and main part , confessing that they " destroy the song a little bit " . Spanish music website Melty eventually named the recording " great " , foreseeing it successful in European clubs . Daring To Do provided a negative review for " I Did It , Mama ! " , saying that it was " boring " and confessing that its radio potential was " below zero " . Romanian magazine Libertatea compared the song 's title to that of Delia Matache 's " Da , Mama " .
= = Music video and promotion = =
An accompanying music video shot by Bogdan Daragiu for the song was released on 25 November 2015 onto Stan 's YouTube channel . Stan , particularly , confessed that " at the filming of the clip , [ she ] felt very good , like an absolute goddess , with a lot of males teeming around [ her ] for 24 hours " . For the video , several men were employed , such as models , motorcyclists and rugby players from CSA Steaua București . The clip commences with some motorcyclists arriving at an abandoned place , followed by Stan lying on a plastic horse in a neon @-@ lightened room and singing the first strophe in front of the rugby players . Subsequently , she is shown scattered on the ground of a dark room , with half @-@ naked men sporting white fishnet tigths and boots appearing from her left and right . After she and the fellow males perform to the song , the clip ends with Stan being left alone on the horse from the beginning . Scenes interspersed through the main video portray her posing in front of a blue wall , sporting black sun glasses and cross @-@ styled earrings .
The clip received mostly positive reviews , with Pop Crush calling the dresses displayed in it " a campy European mixture of ’ 20s flapper style / old Hollywood glamour in fringe " . Hitfire recommended the video , which they called " a feast for both genders " . Romanian newspapers Cancan and Click ! pointed out cut scenes that portray Stan 's mime of the sexual intercourse and oral sex with a fellow dancer , which , according to them , would have been a reason for the clip to be banned in Romania . Melty named the video " provocant " , while Daring To Do was negative towards it , commending " it presents scenes [ they 've ] already seen countless times , leaving the viewer annoyed with a feeling of déjà vu " .
Stan included " I Did It , Mama ! " on the tracklist for her Japanese one @-@ week concert tours that promoted the release of her studio album , Alesta , in that territory . She as well performed a stripped @-@ down version of the song on Romanian radio station Pro FM . Romania singer , dancer and moderator George Papagheorghe impersonated Stan and covered the track on native interactive talent show Te cunosc de undeva ! .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Alesta .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" I Did It Mama " - 3 : 25
Digital remix EP
" I Did It Mama " ( Jack Mazzoni Remix ) – 4 : 26
" I Did It Mama " ( Jack Mazzoni Radio Remix ) – 3 : 23
" I Did It Mama " ( Franques Remix ) – 4 : 20
" I Did It Mama " ( Franques Extended Mix ) – 5 : 08
" I Did It Mama " ( Fedo Mora & Oki Doro Remix ) – 4 : 30
" I Did It Mama " ( Fedo Mora & Oki Doro Radio Remix ) – 3 : 20
" I Did It Mama " ( Matthew Bee Radio Remix ) – 3 : 32
" I Did It Mama " ( Matthew Bee Remix ) – 4 : 41
= = Charts = =
= = Release = =
= = = Process = = =
" I Did It , Mama " was released digitally worldwide on 27 November 2015 on iTunes through Global and Ego labels . Subsequently , a remixes EP was made available for purchase on 7 January 2016 and 15 January in European territories . The cover artwork for the Italian extended play featured the blue coloring from the original one being edited to green , while the sleeve for the other releases featured it changed to red . Italian radio stations began adding the track onto their playlist on 30 November 2015 .
= = = History = = =
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= Tiga Dara =
Tiga Dara ( Indonesian for Three Maidens ) is a 1957 Indonesian @-@ language musical comedy film starring Chitra Dewi , Mieke Wijaya , and Indriati Iskak . Directed by Usmar Ismail for Perfini , the film follows three sisters who live with their father and grandmother . When the eldest sister , Nunung , shows no interest in marrying , her family tries unsuccessfully to find a husband for her . Nunung initially rejects the advances of a young man named Toto , who instead dates her younger sister . However , when he becomes jealous and travels from Jakarta to Bandung to profess his love , she agrees to marry him .
Produced using government credit and written in an attempt to cover Perfini 's outstanding debts , Tiga Dara was intended to be commercial despite Ismail 's disapproval of such works . After it was released in August 1957 , the film was an immense popular success , launching the careers of its stars , earning the highest box office returns of any Perfini film , and being screened in first @-@ class cinemas . However , even though Tiga Dara was shown at the 1959 Venice Film Festival and received Best Musical Arrangement at the 1960 Indonesian Film Week , Ismail considered it a compromise of his initial vision for Perfini .
Since its release , Tiga Dara has been considered a classic of Indonesian cinema , with themes which remain relevant for modern Indonesian society . It was remade as Tiga Dara Mencari Cinta ( Three Maidens Seek Love ) in 1980 by Djun Saptohadi and influenced Teguh Karya 's Pacar Ketinggalan Kereta ( Lover Left by the Train , 1989 ) . A second remake , Ini Kisah Tiga Dara ( This is the Story of Three Maidens ) , has been produced by Nia Dinata and is scheduled for a September 2016 release . In 2015 Tiga Dara was restored and converted to 4K digital by L 'immagine Ritrovata Laboratory .
= = Plot = =
Three sisters — Nunung ( Chitra Dewi ) , Nana ( Mieke Wijaya ) and Nenny ( Indriati Iskak ) — are being raised by their grandmother ( Fifi Young ) in Jakarta after their mother 's death . Though the sisters ' father Sukandar ( Hassan Sanusi ) lives with them , he is too involved in his own work to pay them heed .
While the sisters are out with Nana 's boyfriend Herman ( Bambang Irawan ) , their grandmother tells Sukandar than she will not live to see Nunung , already aged 29 , marry . He agrees to invite his colleagues to the house . When they come several days later , Nunung impresses all present with her piano @-@ playing and singing . However , the men are all too old , and Nunung 's grandmother insists that Sukandar find a younger man . Nenny , overhearing the conversation , suggests that they hold a party ; this too is a failure , as Nunung takes no interest in the festivities .
Nana is then asked to take Nunung out with her , in the hopes that the eldest sister will meet a marriageable young man . At a party , while Nana mingles with several men , Nunung sits out every dance and eventually leaves with Herman . Asked why she has returned home , Nunung tells her grandmother that she felt too old among the younger party @-@ goers and asks why she was told to go . Nenny , again eavesdropping , shouts out that their grandmother is hoping to find her a husband . Though Nunung is initially angered , she understands her grandmother 's good intentions .
The following day , Nunung is stricken by a scooter driven by Toto ( Rendra Karno ) . Despite an injured leg , Nunung insists on taking a pedicab home ; without her knowledge , Toto follows her . He later returns to apologize , and , though Nunung treats him harshly , is quickly accepted by Nana and her grandmother . Nana asks Toto to visit frequently , and over the next several days Nana pushes away Herman . Nenny , meanwhile , uses her sister 's interest in Toto to become closer to Herman . When Nana announces that she and Toto are engaged , her grandmother is furious ; if Nana marries before her sister , she says , Nunung will never marry .
After Nana and Nunung fight , their guardians decide that it is best for Nunung to go the home of her uncle Tamsil ( Usmar Ismail ) in Bandung and rest . While there , Nunung writes a letter to her father that Joni kisses her goodnight every day . This news sparks Nenny 's titillation and Toto 's jealousy . Nana insists that Toto choose between her and Nunung ; Toto decides to go to Bandung and protest Joni 's impropriety . He confronts Nunung and confesses his love for her . She spitefully tells him that she sleeps with Joni every night .
Herman , at the insistence of Nana , takes the remainder of the family to Bandung , where they meet up with Toto , Nunung , and Tamsil 's family . As Tamsil introduces his sons , Joni is revealed to be a young child . Nunung and Toto embrace , while Nana and Herman make up .
= = Production = =
Tiga Dara was directed and produced by Usmar Ismail for his National Film Company ( Perusahaan Film Nasional , better known as Perfini ) . Although Ismail had wanted to " not consider commercial aspects " of filmmaking when he established Perfini in 1950 , he was forced to recognise the need to make a profitable film as Perfini continued to lose money . Following the failures of Lagi @-@ Lagi Krisis ( More Crises , 1955 ) and Tamu Agung ( Exalted Guest , 1955 ) , the company 's financial situation was bleak , and Ismail fired a number of his staff . With only some leftover government credit to finance his next production , Ismail collaborated with M. Alwi Dahlan to write a film which would be popular with audiences . The resulting story , which may have been inspired by the 1936 musical comedy Three Smart Girls , was Tiga Dara .
Production of Tiga Dara began in 1956 . Chitra Dewi , Mieke Wijaya , and Indriati Iskak were cast as the titular maidens . Dewi had previously appeared in Tamu Agung , and Wijaya had made her debut in the Palembang Film Corporation 's Gagal ( Fail ) the previous year . Iskak , the 14 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of film director Raden Iskak , made her feature film debut with Tiga Dara . Supporting roles were filled by Fifi Young , Rendra Karno , Hassan Sanusi , Bambang Irawan , and Roosilawaty . For the role of Joni , Ismail cast his real @-@ life son , Irwan Usmar Ismail .
As musical films were popular with Indonesian audiences , Tiga Dara was made in that genre . It featured seven songs by Sjaiful Bachri ( who also served as sound editor ) as well as one by Ismail Marzuki and two by Oetjin Noerhasjim . Only Wijaya provided her own vocals ; the other actors were dubbed by Sam Saimun , Elly Sri Kudus , Bing Slamet , Djuita , S. Effendy , and Sitti Nurochma . Long @-@ time Perfini cameraman Max Tera handled cinematography for this black @-@ and @-@ white film , using the company 's outdated equipment , and Soemardjono was in charge of editing .
= = Release and reception = =
Tiga Dara premiered in August 1957 at the Capitol Theatre in Jakarta . Distributed by Perfini , it found popular success and was screened for eight consecutive weeks in cinemas throughout the archipelago . This included several first @-@ class cinemas which were affiliated with the American Motion Picture Association of Indonesia ( AMPAI ) and mostly showed imported films . On 20 September 1957 President Sukarno arranged for a private screening of the film at the Presidential Palace in Bogor for the birthday of his wife , Hartini . " Tiga Dara " competitions between groups of three sisters were held in much of Java , and the term became widely used as the name of batik products , shops , and drinks . At the 1960 Indonesian Film Week , Tiga Dara received Best Musical Arrangement .
Negotiations to bring Tiga Dara to Malaya began soon after its release , and the film was exported , again to commercial success , in exchange for the import of the Malayan film Mega Mendung ( Cloudy Skies ) . In the late 1950s the film was shown in several Italian cities , including Rome , as well as in Yugoslavia . After Floris Ammannati saw the Rome screening , he invited Ismail to show Tiga Dara at the 1959 Venice Film Festival ; Ismail did so , though he considered the Venice screening to be unsuccessful . Tiga Dara was screening in Netherlands New Guinea by August 1960 and in Suriname by August 1963 .
= = Impact = =
Tiga Dara was Perfini 's most lucrative film , grossing almost Rp 10 million in ticket sales , or a profit of Rp 3 @,@ 080 @,@ 000 , during its theatrical run . However , despite this popular success Perfini 's financial situation saw little improvement . Furthermore , Ismail considered the Tiga Dara a disappointment which compromised the goals he had had when he established Perfini . According to fellow Perfini film director D. Djajakusuma :
Usmar [ Ismail ] was ashamed of the film . His intent to sell Tiga Dara when it was still in production showed how difficult it was for him to accept the fact that he had to make that kind of film . ... even though money was coming in , Perfini just was not making the kinds of films that Usmar had dreamed of initially .
In subsequent years Perfini released a number of commercially oriented films , such as Delapan Pendjuru Angin ( Eight Compass Directions , 1957 ) and Asrama Dara ( Dormitory for Girls , 1958 ) . Though none of these were commercial failures , none except for Asrama Dara approached the financial success of Tiga Dara . Ismail attempted to reassert himself as a director of quality not @-@ for @-@ profit films through Pedjuang ( Warriors for Freedom , 1960 ) , which was screened in competition at the 2nd Moscow International Film Festival in 1961 . However , as the years passed he became increasingly distanced from his early goals and had made attempts to enter banking , the nightclub industry , and parliament by the time of his death in 1971 .
Dewi and Wijaya both became popular following the success of Tiga Dara . Dewi continued acting for a further four decades , appearing in her final feature film , Pedang Ulung ( Grand Sword ) , in 1993 , fifteen years before her death . Wijaya 's most recent film role has been in Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( Verses of Love , 2008 ) . Meanwhile , Iskak , who was praised for having a more naturalistic acting style than her stage @-@ trained fellow actors , soared to popularity . She formed a girl group , the Baby Dolls , together with Rima Melati , Gaby Mambo , and Baby Huwae , and acted in a further eight films before retiring from cinema in 1963 .
= = Legacy = =
Tiga Dara has been recognised as a classic of Indonesian cinema and often been shown on television . A 1989 retrospective on Perfini in Tempo argued that the film still showed the sense of honesty and realism common in Ismail 's earlier work , and in a 1991 memorial book for Ismail , Rosihan Anwar wrote that the themes of Tiga Dara remained relevant for the Indonesian people . Similar sentiments were voiced by the film director Nia Dinata in 2016 .
By 2015 the cellulose acetate negatives for Tiga Dara , held at Sinematek Indonesia , were heavily damaged . They were torn in places , and scenes were besmirched by fungus or lost altogether . To better preserve the film for future generations , SA Films arranged for Tiga Dara to be restored by the Bologna @-@ based L 'immagine Ritrovata Laboratory ; the film was the second of Ismail 's oeuvre to be restored , following Lewat Djam Malam ( After the Curfew , 1954 ) in 2012 . Restoration work , which included the reinsertion of lost scenes using extant copies of the film and the removal of dust and fungus , began in early 2015 and was completed on 8 October 2015 . This restoration — converted to 4K digital — is to be screened in Indonesia beginning on 11 August 2016 , with a DVD and Blu @-@ ray release the following year .
Several films have been remade or influenced by Tiga Dara . A remake , Tiga Dara Mencari Cinta ( Three Maidens Seek Love ) , was directed by Djun Saptohadi and released in 1980 . This comedy starred Ingrid Fernandez , Nana Riwayatie , and Winny Aditya Dewi as three sisters who live with their father and face the trials and tribulations of dating . Eight years later , when Teguh Karya was directing Pacar Ketinggalan Kereta ( Lover Left by the Train , 1989 ) , he insisted that the cast and crew watch Tiga Dara in an attempt to transcend it . In Tempo , the writer Putu Wijaya later described Pacar Ketinggalan Kereta as seemingly trying to recapture the family and musical dynamics of Ismail 's story . In 2004 a remake of Tiga Dara , to be directed by Rudi Soedjarwo and involve Dian Sastrowardoyo , Siti Nurhaliza , and Krisdayanti , was announced , though this production has not been realized .
Another updated retelling of the Tiga Dara story , Ini Kisah Tiga Dara ( This is the Story of Three Maidens ) , was shot between 23 February and 27 March 2016 in Maumere , Flores . In a press conference , the film 's director , Nia Dinata , stated that she had enjoyed watching Tiga Dara as a child and that she remained awed by the film 's beauty . She also said that her retelling , though it maintained the spirit of Ismail 's original , would feature a new plot as well as new songs by Titiek Puspa . Ini Kisah Tiga Dara , which stars Shanty , Tara Basro , and Tatyana Akman , is scheduled for a September 2016 release .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Two Fathers =
" Two Fathers " is the eleventh episode of the sixth season and the 128th episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on February 7 , 1999 , on the Fox Network and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on Sky1 . It was written by executive producers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Kim Manners . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 5 and was viewed by a total of 18 @.@ 81 million viewers . The episode received mostly positive reviews .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . " Two Fathers " follows a story which would lead to the destruction of the Syndicate : with the unexpected return of Cassandra Spender and the alien rebels , members of the Syndicate prepare themselves for the final invasion .
" Two Fathers " was written in order to eliminate the Syndicate and relaunch the series ' mythology . With the series being shot in Los Angeles , many members of The X @-@ Files crew had to adjust scenes and filming techniques in order to achieve the " dark and gray feel " that had been a result of filming in Vancouver . The episode is the first of a two @-@ part episode and continues with the episode " One Son " .
= = Plot = =
In a train car , doctors in chemical suits are making incisions on an unseen patient 's stomach ; green fluid seeps out of the wounds , which heal themselves . When Dr. Eugene Openshaw arrives , he is informed that their twenty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old project is finally completed . Moments later , rebel aliens begin to appear and start burning all the doctors , the only survivor being Dr. Openshaw . The patient , Cassandra Spender , had been missing for over a year . Walter Skinner takes her son , Jeffrey Spender , to the scene , where he meets with his mother . Cassandra refuses to talk with Jeffrey about what happened to her because she knows that he won 't believe her . She asks for Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Spender asks Mulder to join him to meet his mother , but Mulder sees it as an attempt to entrap him . Later on , Dr. Openshaw informs the Cigarette Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) about the completion of the project , saying he needs to kill his former wife since she is the first successful alien @-@ human hybrid . The Cigarette Smoking Man 's reaction leads to Dr. Openshaw 's death . Meanwhile one of the Syndicate elders is killed by an alien rebel , who takes on his form .
Mulder and partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) go over the crime scene photos from the train car incident and immediately recognize similarities to murders from a year earlier . Afterwards , Mulder and Scully visit Cassandra who informs them that the aliens are here to destroy all life on Earth , further stating that this alien threat moves through the Universe to colonize other planets . She claims that a rebel force of aliens are mutilating their faces to prevent infection by the black oil .
Alex Krycek reports to the Syndicate on the rebel 's recent attacks . The rebel , masquerading as the elder he killed , proposes that the Syndicate align themselves with the rebels . The Cigarette Smoking Man seems to recognize that the elder has opposed his own previous opinion- that siding with the rebels is suicide .
Mulder and Scully use the X @-@ Files office to find the Cigarette Smoking Man 's real identity , that he is Agent Spender 's father , C.G.B. Spender . Their unauthorized entry at the X @-@ Files office is discovered resulting in both agents ' immediate suspension from the FBI . Agent Spender reports to the Cigarette Smoking Man demanding the truth . Scully meets with Mulder , telling him that C.G.B. Spender is likely another alias and that the man is linked with Mulder 's father , William , who he had worked with on a secret state project . The Cigarette Smoking Man decides to give Agent Spender more responsibility by having him kill the alien rebel masquerading as a Syndicate elder . Spender fails in his task , but Krycek comes to his aid and finishes . Krycek reveals to Spender that his father was responsible for Cassandra 's abductions and that his role is to protect his father 's stake in the project , facts that upset Agent Spender .
The Cigarette Smoking Man reveals everything to Diana Fowley , who agrees to help him . Mulder tells Skinner that Cassandra is in danger because she is the first successful alien @-@ human hybrid ; Skinner goes to the hospital to check on Cassandra but finds her gone . Cassandra , having escaped from the hospital , arrives at Mulder 's apartment and demands that he shoot her because she is the embodiment of fifty years of work by the Syndicate — an alien @-@ human hybrid that will trigger colonization if the aliens learn of her existence .
= = Production = =
The plan to eliminate the Syndicate and relaunch the series ' mythology in a new direction was originally conceived in September 1998 . Director Kim Manners stated " I 've said for years that the show really resolved itself , if you will , by accident . The whole story line of the Syndicate and the bees and the aliens and the chips in the neck , they all seemed to just accidentally fall into place and create an intriguing , mysterious storyline that eventually got so mysterious and so intriguing that Chris had to blow it up , because he couldn 't deal with it anymore . " The original script featured various flashback sequences to the actors Peter Donat , William B. Davis and Veronica Cartwright , all from scenes around twenty @-@ to @-@ thirty years earlier in the show . They did various makeup jobs on the actors to make them look younger . However , the writers eventually came to the conclusion that it " just didn 't [ ... ] work " , so they cut out most of that storyline , which ultimately led to the creation of a whole new direction in which the Cigarette Smoking Man provided a monologue explaining the history of the project instead . The first scene was shot in Long Beach , California .
The scene in which Jeffrey Spender visited his mother , Cassandra Spender , was shot in Los Angeles . Those members of The X @-@ Files crew who had moved with the show from Vancouver to Los Angeles still had problems adjusting to the changes when filming an episode . They were forced to adjust to changes in the sunlight , since Vancouver had this " dark and gray feel " compared to California 's sunny atmosphere . Kim Manners said that it was difficult to get used to the new area of filming . This episode marks the first time new stock footage was used for the J. Edgar Hoover Building in over five years .
The Second Elder 's house was in a relatively expensive neighborhood in Los Angeles . Manners stated that he was " very nervous " when filming this scene because the crew needed to create a fire inside the house , which was done by Kelly Kerby and Bobby Calvert . When the faceless alien attacks the Second Elder , a special effects crew member can be seen behind a window " running with his rig " , according to Manners .
= = Release and reception = =
The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 5 , with a 16 share . It was viewed by a total of 18 @.@ 81 million viewers in the United States . The episode was the third highest rated episode of the sixth season . The episode debuted in the United States and Canada on February 7 , 1999 , at the Fox Network . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 16 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 72 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Veronica Cartwright was nominated for an Emmy for " Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series " for her role in this episode and " One Son " , and the make @-@ up department was nominated for an Emmy award in the category " Outstanding Makeup for a Series " and won . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote positively of the episode , saying it " wonderfully " developed the show 's characters as " it unveiled many of the answers to the questions that have been dangling about for some time with out using Mulder or Scully as conduits for many of these answers . " The main reason behind creating a resolution to the Syndicate arc was that Chris Carter thought the series was going to be cancelled by early 2000 . While promoting the episode , Carter said it would give many long @-@ waited answers but at the same time create new ones . Earl Cressey from DVD Talk named " Two Fathers , " along with its follow @-@ up " One Son , " as one of the " highlights of season six . " Joyce Millman from Salon magazine said the episode ( along with " One Son " ) was one " of the most coherent , [ ... ] almost unbearably tense , hours in the series ' run " . The Michigan Daily reviewer Melissa Runstrom said " Two Fathers " along with " One Son " and season finale " Biogenesis " were the highlights of the sixth season .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " rating . He concluded that the episode is an example of " propulsive fun " and applauded its myriad of attention @-@ grabbing sequences . However , he was critical of its plot , noting that " the series pretty much just picks Cassandra to be the answer to a lot of questions " concerning the show 's mythology . Not all reviews were so glowing . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris wrote positively of the episode 's filming , writing , " visually , the episode looks good [ … ] but the scenes in the hangar are eye @-@ poppers , with doors slowly opening and aliens walking forward , obscured by bright light . " However , she criticized the episode 's plot , noting that " Two Fathers " was " heading straight down a path already trodden by dozens of books , short stories , movies , and other television shows . "
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= Kepler @-@ 9c =
Kepler @-@ 9c is one of the first seven extrasolar planets , exoplanets , discovered by NASA 's Kepler Mission , and one of at least two planets orbiting the star Kepler @-@ 9 . Kepler @-@ 9c and Kepler @-@ 9b were the first exoplanets confirmed to be transiting their star . The planet 's discovery was announced by the Kepler Mission team on August 26 , 2010 after its initial discovery by Kepler . At the time , it was one of 700 planetary candidates noted by Kepler .
Observations of the planet have suggested that it is a hydrogen – helium gas giant that is slightly smaller than Saturn , and that it orbits nearby its star at .225 AU . Kepler @-@ 9c and b are notable in that the planets share a pattern of orbital resonance , in which the orbit of each planet stabilizes the orbit of the other . During the time it was observed by the spacecraft , the planet 's orbit , which lasts on average approximately 38 days , shortened by 39 minutes every orbital period because of this effect . Its orbit , over time , oscillates slightly above and below a 2 : 1 ratio with planet b .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
As with most exoplanets , the name " Kepler @-@ 9c " denotes that it is the second planet discovered in the orbit of the star Kepler @-@ 9 . Kepler @-@ 9 itself was named after the Kepler Mission , a NASA project oriented towards discovering planets that are transiting their home stars .
The planet was one of 700 planetary candidates considered by Kepler in its first 43 days of operation . It was highlighted as a part of one of five star systems that seemed to hold multiple transiting planets . Kepler @-@ 9c and Kepler @-@ 9b were confirmed as the first planets discovered to transit the same star .
Initial estimates concerning Kepler @-@ 9c 's mass were refined by follow @-@ up observations made by the Keck 1 Telescope at the W.M. Keck Observatory at Mauna Kea , Hawaii . Keck was able to confirm that Kepler @-@ 9c and Kepler @-@ 9b were planets that were slightly smaller than planet Saturn .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 9c is a gas giant that is smaller and slightly less massive than planet Saturn . It is approximately 0 @.@ 171 MJ , or 17 % the mass of planet Jupiter . It also has a radius of 0 @.@ 823 RJ , which makes it slightly smaller ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) than Saturn . The planet is , on average , situated 0 @.@ 225 AU from the star .
It is probable that the planet is composed of hydrogen and helium . The planet orbits on the same plane as Kepler @-@ 9b , a second and larger gas giant located in the Kepler @-@ 9 system . While observing the planet , the Kepler team noticed that Kepler @-@ 9b and c orbited in a 1 : 2 ratio , where Kepler @-@ 9b orbits its star every 19 days and Kepler @-@ 9c orbits every 38 days . The gravitational pull that each planet has on the other , known as orbital resonance , keeps the planets in a stable orbit . This phenomenon is the first of its kind seen outside the Solar System . Every time Kepler @-@ 9c completed an orbit during the observation period , its orbital period decreased by about 39 minutes . At some point , however , this trend will reverse and its orbit will increase . The lengths of its orbit will oscillate slightly above and below the 2 : 1 ratio .
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= Richard of Dover =
Richard ( died 1184 ) was a medieval Benedictine monk and Archbishop of Canterbury . Employed by Thomas Becket immediately before Becket 's death , Richard arranged for Becket to be buried in Canterbury Cathedral and eventually succeeded Becket at Canterbury in a contentious election . Much of Richard 's time as archbishop was spent in a dispute with Roger de Pont L 'Evêque , the Archbishop of York over the primacy of England , and with St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury over the archbishop 's jurisdiction over the abbey . Richard had better relations with King Henry II of England than Becket had , and was employed by the king on diplomatic affairs . Richard also had the trust of the papacy , and served as a judge for the papacy . Several of his questions to Pope Alexander III were collected into the Decretals , a collection of ecclesiastical laws , and his patronage of canon lawyers did much to advance the study of canon law in England .
= = Early life = =
Richard was born in Normandy and became a monk at Canterbury , and a chaplain to Theobald of Bec , the Archbishop of Canterbury . At some point , he received an education , but it is not known where or who he studied with . The first notice of him in history is as a monk at Christ Church . He was a colleague of Thomas Becket while they both worked for Theobald . In 1157 he was appointed prior of St. Martin 's priory in Dover . St. Martin 's was a Benedictine priory and a dependent house of Christ Church Cathedral Priory in Canterbury , the cathedral chapter of the archbishops of Canterbury . Right before Becket 's death Richard was employed by Becket to meet with Henry the Young King , but was unsuccessful in the attempt . After Becket 's death , Richard took charge of Becket 's body , and arranged for an immediate burial in Canterbury Cathedral .
= = Archbishop = =
In 1173 , more than two years after the murder of Becket , King Henry II of England decided to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury ; there were two candidates : Richard , and Odo , prior of Canterbury . Previously , Roger , the abbot of Bec Abbey , had been elected , but refused the office . On 3 June 1173 , Richard was chosen , although the monks preferred Odo . Both sides appealed to Rome , and Richard journeyed to Rome with Reginald fitz Jocelin , who had recently been elected Bishop of Bath , to rebut the charges of simony , illegitimate birth , and swearing an oath to the king that had been raised . After hearing the charges , they were dismissed and the election was ratified on 2 April 1174 and on 7 April 1174 the new archbishop was consecrated at Anagni by Pope Alexander III . Richard returned to England at the close of the year bearing his pallium which he had received directly from the pope . He was also granted legatine powers by Alexander III .
Richard clashed with Roger de Pont L 'Evêque , the Archbishop of York , over the respective rights of the two sees throughout his time as archbishop . In 1175 , at a council held in London , there was a fight between their supporters . King Henry II managed to secure a truce for five years between the two archbishops but Richard was soon embroiled in another dispute . This one was with Roger , abbot of St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury and revolved around whether or not the abbey depended directly on the pope or if the archbishop had jurisdictional rights over the abbey . In the end , the papacy arranged a settlement that left the abbey dependent on the pope direct , but gave the archbishop spiritual authority over the churches of the Isle of Thanet , which had previously been held by the abbey .
Richard 's time as archbishop was much less stormy than Becket 's had been , and he seems to have had better relations with the king . Richard attended the royal councils , and more than once was with the king in Normandy . Richard was less dogmatic on the rights of the clergy than his great predecessor had been ; but his compromises were regarded by the monastic writers and the followers of Becket as a sign of weakness . Pope Alexander III took Richard to task when Richard acquiesced in the election of bishops taking place in the royal chapel . As part of his diplomatic efforts on the king 's behalf , Richard escorted Henry 's daughter Joan to Provence on her journey in 1176 to marry King William II of Sicily . Richard also spent part of 1177 in Flanders on diplomatic business for King Henry .
= = Patronage , death and legacy = =
Richard attracted canon lawyers to his household , including Gerard la Pucelle , Peter of Blois , and Henry Pium of Northampton , all of whom advised him on legal matters . At the Council of Westminster that Richard convened in May 1175 , nineteen canons were put forth , dealing with clerical marriage , the oversupply of ordained clergy , the behaviour of the clergy and their dress and tonsure , and simony . Another canon dealt with clandestine marriages and regulated child marriages . He was also heavily involved with trying judicial cases , both in the actual judgment as well as in the execution of judgments made by others . Four of his questions to Alexander III entered the Decretals and the other collections of canon law of the 13th century .
Richard died at Halling , Kent on 16 February 1184 of colic and was buried in his cathedral . A. L. Poole , the historian , felt that Richard was a " feeble and ineffective person . " Frank Barlow , another historian , calls him a " blameless mediocrity " . Richard of Ilchester , a fellow bishop , held that it was Richard of Dover 's defects that prevented the English Church from profiting more from Becket 's martyrdom . However , Richard did much to promote the use of canon law throughout England . Richard was also active in using his legatine powers to interfere in monastic affairs , deposing the abbot of Peterborough Abbey in 1175 and threatening to visit other monastic houses that were exempt from episcopal interference to regulate the monastic affairs . On a more domestic note , Richard was held to have been an able steward of the estates of Canterbury , very much interested in increasing production . He was held to be a pious and gentle man .
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= Cryolophosaurus =
Cryolophosaurus ( / ˌkraɪoʊˌloʊfoʊˈsɔːrəs / or / kraɪˌɒloʊfoʊˈsɔːrəs / ; " CRY @-@ oh @-@ loaf @-@ oh @-@ SAWR @-@ us " ) is a genus of large theropods known from only a single species Cryolophosaurus ellioti , known from the early Jurassic period of Antarctica . It was about 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 21 @.@ 3 ft ) long and 465 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 025 lb ) in weight , making it one of the largest theropods of its time . Individuals of this species may have grown even larger , because the only known specimen probably represents a sub @-@ adult . Cryolophosaurus is known from a skull , a femur and other material , the skull and femur of which have caused its classification to vary greatly . The femur possesses many primitive characteristics that have classified Cryolophosaurus as a dilophosaurid or a neotheropod outside of Dilophosauridae and Averostra , where as the skull has many advanced features , leading the genus to be considered a tetanuran , an abelisaurid , a ceratosaur and even an allosaurid . Since its original description , the consensus is that Cryolophosaurus is either a primitive member of the Tetanurae or a close relative of that group .
Cryolophosaurus possessed a distinctive crest on its head that spanned the head from side to side , similar to a Spanish comb . Based on evidence from related species and studies of bone texture , it is thought that this bizarre crest was used for intra @-@ species recognition . The brain of Cryolophosaurus was also more primitive than those of other theropods .
Cryolophosaurus was first excavated from Antarctica 's Early Jurassic , Sinemurian to Pliensbachian aged Hanson Formation , formerly the upper Falla Formation , by paleontologist Dr. William Hammer in 1991 . It was the first carnivorous dinosaur to be discovered in Antarctica and the first non @-@ avian dinosaur from the continent to be officially named . The sediments in which its fossils were found have been dated at ~ 194 to 188 million years ago , representing the Early Jurassic Period .
= = Description = =
The holotype FMNH PR1821 is the only fully described specimen of Cryolophosaurus . The specimen consists of an incomplete skull and mandibles lacking most of their front half ; nine maxillary teeth ; a fragmentary sixth cervical centrum ; cervical vertebrae 7 @-@ 10 ; several posterior cervical ribs ; several anterior dorsal vertebrae ; most mid and posterior dorsal vertebrae ; several dorsal ribs ; the fifth sacral vertebrae ; three chevrons ; many partial and complete caudal vertebrae and centra ; two partial humeri ; a proximal radius ; a proximal ulna ; a partial ilium ; a proximal pubis ; both ischia , but only one distal ; two incomplete femora ; the distal end of a tibia ; the distal end of a fibula , and the astragalus and calcaneum . In 2013 , new material of Cryolophosaurus was unearthed in Antarctica . The description of this material has not yet been published in a non @-@ abstract form .
Cryolophosaurus was a large , well @-@ built theropod , one of the largest of its time . The genus has been described by Roger Benson and colleagues ( 2012 ) as a top predator in Antarctica . It had slender proportions . Cryolophosaurus was estimated as being 6 to 7 m ( 19 @.@ 7 to 23 @.@ 0 ft ) in length by William R. Hammer & William J. Hickerson ( 1999 ) . A 2007 study by Nathan Smith et al. revised the length to 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 @.@ 3 ft ) . Its weight estimated at 465 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 025 lb ) . Based on these length and weight estimates , Cryolophosaurus is currently the largest known Early Jurassic theropod . Smith et al . ( 2007b ) and Benson et al . ( 2012 ) noted that the holotype individual probably represents a sub @-@ adult , so adults could have been larger .
= = = Skull = = =
The holotype of Cryolophosaurus consists of a high , narrow skull , which was discovered articulated with the rest of the skeleton . The skull is an estimated 65 centimetres ( 26 in ) long . It has a peculiar nasal crest that runs just over the eyes , where it rises up perpendicular to the skull and fans out . It is thin and highly furrowed , giving it a Spanish comb @-@ like appearance . The crest is an extension of the skull bones , near the tear ducts , fused on either side to orbital horns which rise from the eye sockets . While other theropods like the Monolophosaurus have crests , they usually run along the skull instead of across it .
An unpublished study conducted by Vernon Meidlinger @-@ Chin in 2013 suggested that previous studies lacked focus on endocranial details . The study found that the Cryolophosaurus fossil has a nearly complete , undistorted cranial cavity which is complete enough to give an approximate shape and size of the living brain . The endocast features clarified the dissimilarity of the skull with those of Allosauroids and Coelurosaurs giving Cryolophosaurus a basal position in Theropoda .
= = Classification = =
Classification of Cryolophosaurus is difficult because it has a mix of primitive and advanced characteristics . The femur has traits of early theropods , while the skull resembles much later species of the clade Tetanurae , like China 's Sinraptor and Yangchuanosaurus . This led Paul Sereno et al . ( 1994 ) to place Cryolophosaurus in the taxon Allosauridae . Originally , Hammer and colleagues suspected that Cryolophosaurus might be a ceratosaur or even an early abelisaur , with some traits convergent with those of more advanced tetanurans , but ultimately concluded that it was itself the earliest known member of the tetanuran group . While a subsequent study by Hammer ( along with Smith and Currie ) again recovered Cryolophosaurus as a tetanuran , a later ( 2007 ) study by the same authors found that it was more closely related to Dilophosaurus and Dracovenator . Sterling Nesbitt et al . ( 2009 ) , using the characters of Tawa found Cryolophosaurus to be a neither dilophosaurid nor averostran neotheropod but instead the sister group of a clade composed of dilophosaurids and averostrans . However , in 2012 , Matthew Carrano found that Cryolophosaurus was a tetanuran , related to Sinosaurus , but unrelated to Dilophosaurus .
The following family tree illustrates a synthesis of the relationships of the early theropod groups compiled by Hendrickx et al. in 2015 .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Cryolophosaurus originally was collected during the 1990 – 91 austral summer on Mount Kirkpatrick in the Beardmore Glacier region of the Transantarctic Mountains . The discovery was made by Hammer , a professor at Augustana College , and his team . The fossils were found in the siliceous siltstone of the Hanson Formation , formerly the upper Falla Formation , and dated to the Pliensbachian stage of the early Jurassic . Cryolophosaurus was the second dinosaur , and first theropod , to be discovered in Antarctica . It was discovered after Antarctopelta , but named earlier .
In 1991 , both Hammer and the Ohio State University geologist David Elliot excavated separate outcroppings near Beardmore Glacier , sharing logistical expenses . Elliot 's team first came across the remains of Cryolophosaurus in a rock formation around the altitude of 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) high and about 640 km ( 400 mi ) from the South Pole . When the discovery was made , they soon notified Hammer . Over the next three weeks , Hammer excavated 2 @,@ 300 kg ( 5 @,@ 100 lb ) of fossil @-@ bearing rock . The team recovered over 100 fossil bones , including those of Cryolophosaurus . The specimens were formally named and described in 1994 by Hammer and Hickerson , in the journal Science .
During the 2003 season , a field team returned and collected more material from the original site . A second locality was discovered about 30 metres ( 98 ft ) higher in the section on Mt . Kirkpatrick .
The name Cryolophosaurus ellioti is derived from the Greek words κρυος ( meaning ' cold ' or ' frozen ' , in reference to its discovery in Antarctica ) , λοφος ( meaning ' crest ' ) and σαυρος ( meaning ' lizard ' ) , thus " cold crest lizard " . Hammer and Hickerson named the species C. ellioti , after David Elliot , who had made the initial discovery of the fossils .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Cranial ornamentation = = =
Cranial display features , such as the one possessed by Cryolophosaurus , make sense in social , gregarious animals , where other members of the species are available to observe and interpret messages of sexual status . Kevin Padian et al . ( 2004 ) challenged conventional hypotheses that that the purpose of bizarre cranial structures and post @-@ cranial armor in dinosaurs , was either for attracting mates , intimidating / fighting rivals in the group , or intimidating potential predators of other species . Padian et al. noted that based on phylogenetic , histological , and functional evidence these bizarre structures can be explained by the phenomenon of intra @-@ species recognition , which is supported by the fossil evidence . Thomas R. Holtz Jr . ( 2010 ) found that the bizarre crest of Cryolophosaurus was primarily for intra @-@ species recognition , based on evidence from related species and studies of bone texture . According to Thomas Rich and his colleagues , the crest would have been ineffective as a weapon and may have possibly functioned as a display feature during certain types of social behavior such as mating .
= = = Diet = = =
When the type specimen was discovered , several long cervical ribs , of a supposed prosauropod dinosaur were found in the mouth of Cryolophosaurus , which led Hammer ( 1998 ) to conclude that it was feeding on the prosauropod when it died . Hammer further noted that since the ribs were found extending all the way back to the theropod 's neck region , this individual may have choked to death on these ribs . However , Smith et al. concluded that these remains belonged to the Cryolophosaurus specimen itself , and not to Hammer 's " prosauropod " . Hammer also concluded that a post @-@ canine tooth belonging to a tritylodont ( an early mammal relative ) , found with the remains , was part of its stomach contents when it died .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
Some Cryolophosaurus bones have pathologies that show evidence of scavenging . Broken teeth from at least two different theropods have also been found nearby . Another possible pathology is found in the astragalus ( ankle bone ) of Cryolophosaurus . This bone was preserved with a small splint from the fibula located just above the ankle . The splint , however , may also be just a unique morphological feature of Cryolophosaurus .
= = Paleoecology = =
All known specimens of Cryolophosaurus have been recovered in the Hanson Formation , which is one of only two major dinosaur @-@ bearing rock formations found on the continent of Antarctica . It was discovered in " tuffaceous " siltstone deposited in the Sinemurian to Pliensbachian stage of the Early Jurassic , approximately 194 to 188 million years ago . This geological formation is part of the Victoria Group of the Transantarctic Mountains , which is approximately 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level . The high altitude of this site supports the idea that early Jurassic Antarctica had forests populated by a diverse range of species , at least along the coast . The Hanson Formation was deposited in an active volcano − tectonic rift system formed during the breakup of Gondwana .
In the Early Jurassic , Antarctica was closer to the equator and the world was considerably warmer than today , but the climate was still cool temperate . Models of Jurassic air flow indicate that coastal areas probably never dropped much below freezing , although more extreme conditions existed inland . Cryolophosaurus was found about 650 kilometres ( 400 mi ) from the South Pole but , at the time it lived , this was about 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) or so farther north . This formation has produced the remains of Glacialisaurus ( a large basal sauropodomorph ) , a crow @-@ sized pterosaur ( a dimorphodontid ) , a synapsid ( a tritylodont , which is a type of synapsid about the size of a rat ) , herbivorous synapsid , and another unknown theropod . In 2004 , paleontologists Judd Case and James Martin informally recovered the partial remains of a large sauropod dinosaur that has not been formally described as of 2004 . There are also the remains of many plant genera recovered from the Early Jurassic Camp Hill Formation , around the same age as fossils of Cryolophosaurus , proving that dense plant matter had once grown on Antarctica 's surface before it drifted southward .
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= Don 't Starve =
Don 't Starve is a 2013 action @-@ adventure video game with survival and roguelike elements , developed and published by the Canadian indie company Klei Entertainment . The game was initially released via Valve Corporation 's Steam software for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux on April 23 , 2013 . A PlayStation 4 port , renamed Don 't Starve : Giant Edition , became available the following year ( with PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 3 versions released on September 2014 and June 2015 respectively , and an Xbox One version released in August 2015 ) . Don 't Starve for iOS , renamed Don 't Starve : Pocket Edition was released on July 9 , 2015 . Downloadable content titled Reign of Giants was released on April 30 , 2014 , and a multiplayer expansion called Don 't Starve Together became free for existing users on June 3 , 2015 .
The game follows a scientist named Wilson who finds himself in a dark , dreary world and must survive as long as possible . Toward this end , the player must keep Wilson healthy , fed , and mentally stable as he avoids a variety of surreal and supernatural enemies that will try to kill and devour him . The game 's " Adventure " mode adds depth to the sparse plot and pits Wilson against the game 's antagonist , Maxwell .
Don 't Starve was Klei 's first foray into the survival genre . Conceived during the height of a game industry trend of dropping players into a world with few instructions and a goal of survival , the game was influenced by Minecraft , which spearheaded this trend , as well as by filmmaker Tim Burton . The game received positive reviews from critics ; commended for its original art style , music , and variety of ways for the player to die , although its high level of difficulty and implementation of permanent death were less warmly received .
= = Gameplay = =
Don 't Starve is an action @-@ adventure game with a randomly generated open world and elements of survival and roguelike gameplay . Combat is handled by pointing and clicking with the mouse , while other activities are controlled by the keyboard , or using the inbuilt gamepad support to play using a controller , giving it a console @-@ like gameplay feel . The goal is to survive as long as possible , with a count of the number of days the player has survived shown onscreen . The game keeps few records of player progress besides the total number of experience points and the playable characters unlocked . Wilson is the main playable character , but the first character , Willow , can be unlocked with 160 experience points — the player earns 20 each in @-@ game day and receives them after dying — while Woodie , the last , requires the game 's limit of 1 @,@ 600 . As is common among roguelikes , death is permanent , barring the use of several rare and difficult to acquire items , like the Meat Effigy , Touch Stone , and Life Giving Amulet .
The game relies on a day / night cycle that causes meaningful fluctuations in gameplay style . During the day , the player spends most of their time exploring the world ; gathering food , firewood , and other items ; discovering " recipes " to combine available items ; and avoiding enemies . With nightfall comes dangerous monsters as well as an invisible menace ( Charlie ) which attacks the player when the screen is dark . A player must either have a nearby light source or must have some sort of night vision to prevent the night monster from attacking . Crafting , which uses recipes , allows the player to create shelters and weapons like axes . The characters are able to gather and farm plants as well as hunt animals for sustenance , with several characters having dietary perks or restrictions . Food can spoil , however , so the player cannot keep it for too long . Eating spoiled food results in loss of health , sanity , and an increase in hunger . Each in @-@ game day takes 8 minutes of real time .
Death can occur in a variety of ways . The player has three gauges displayed on the game 's heads @-@ up display , which respectively track hunger , health , and sanity . Hunger worsens by default , being replenished with food . Sanity decreases during the dusk and night , or as a result of certain unpleasant actions , such as robbing graves or being in complete darkness ; it can be replenished through mentally stimulating activities , such as sleeping , picking flowers , and wearing " dapper " clothing . When hunger gets too low , it begins to chip away at health , which will eventually result in the player 's death . A large variety of creatures can attack the player , including giant one @-@ eyed birds , tree monsters , tentacles whose owners are not shown , and even small , weak frogs that will nonetheless try to accost the player and steal from them . Additionally , at low enough sanity , figments of the character 's imagination become corporeal and able to attack the player . Some creatures , such as pig @-@ like creatures often found in tribes , begin as neutral to the player ( Excluding the Reign of Giants character Webber ) , but the player 's actions may lead them to be allies or hostile foes .
The game 's bulk occurs in Sandbox Mode , but there is a second mode , Adventure , which the player can access by finding a landmark called " Maxwell 's Door . " Adventure serves as the game 's campaign , and consists of five levels that pit the player against Maxwell , the antagonist of Don 't Starve . The player loses all items and recipes upon entering , and can only pick four to keep upon completion of each chapter . Death or completion of all five chapters results in being returned intact to Sandbox Mode .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Wilson , a gentleman scientist , is the protagonist of Don 't Starve . While Wilson has no special abilities beyond growth of " a magnificent beard " , which slows the speed of freezing in winter , and accelerates overheating in summer , other playable characters do ; a few examples follow . Willow , a firestarter , is immune to fire damage and will start a small fire on the ground , which can set fire to nearby objects , when she has a low sanity level . A girl named Wendy receives visits from her deceased twin sister Abigail when summoned . A strongman named Wolfgang has higher health , offensive capabilities that grow the more his hunger meter is full , but starves faster and loses more sanity when near danger . WX78 is an android who nonetheless needs to eat , sleep , and stay mentally stimulated , but does not become ill from spoiled food , can increase its maximum health , hunger , and sanity with gears ( which are reset to the original maximum after dying and respawning , but the corpse leaves behind a portion of the used ones ) , and takes damage from rain . WX @-@ 78 also attracts lightning , being made of conductible material , that makes it surrounded by a glow , which gradually decreases with time as the charge wears off , refills health , and lowers sanity while continuing to speed the loss of it .
The game 's antagonist is named Maxwell . Maxwell is described as a puppet master who is " dapper " and " frail " in stature . He is part @-@ demon and transforms incrementally as his anger at the player increases over the five chapters of Adventure . He is the final unlockable character , obtained after completion of the story rather than with experience points . The character version of Maxwell starts with a Dark Sword , Night Armor , Purple Gem , 4 Nightmare Fuel and the Codex Umbra , a book that when activated , costing 2 Nightmare Fuel , depletes 15 health , lowers maximum sanity by 55 , and spawns a shadow clone of himself that aids him in battle , mining and wood chopping . The Shadow Puppet has 75 health and deals 40 damage with each attack . When it dies , it disappears and returns Maxwell 's lost maximum of sanity . A maximum of 3 puppets can be spawned at once , and each will disappear 2 @.@ 5 days after it is spawned .
= = = Story = = =
As the game itself opens with Maxwell snidely informing the player of their gaunt appearance and includes little further story , the game 's setup is told through its trailer . On a dark and stormy night , Wilson appears to be getting nowhere in a chemistry experiment until he is startled by his radio speaking to him . It reveals that it has noticed his trouble and has " secret knowledge " for him . When he eagerly agrees , a flurry of equations and diagrams encircle him and fill his head with this information . Using white rats , a typewriter , and his own blood , among other tools and materials , Wilson creates a giant machine . The radio commends his work and tells him to pull the machine 's switch . He hesitates , but at the radio 's insistence , he does it ; the machine rattles violently and a pair of ghostly arms whisk him into a different world while an apparition of Maxwell cackles .
As the player wakes up each morning during the Adventure mode , Maxwell appears over them and comments . At first he seems impressed at the player 's hardiness ; he then becomes irritated and urges the player to turn back . He offers the player a truce but then becomes completely enraged .
At the end of Adventure , the player reaches an island called Maxwell 's Island with a hall belonging to Maxwell on it . The player finds Maxwell trapped in a throne encircled by short stone pillars . The player is at first unable to free him , but finds a keyhole , as well as a key nearby . The player sets Maxwell free , but he turns into a skeleton and disintegrates as soon as he stands up . The ghostly arms from the trailer then grab the player and ensnare them in the throne . An epilogue implies that the player will take on a villainous role similar to Maxwell 's using newfound powers given by the throne , but will nonetheless be trapped forever .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and design = = =
Don 't Starve was developed and published by indie studio Klei Entertainment . The game began development as part of a 48 @-@ hour game jam in 2010 . The team liked the idea but shelved it until two years later , when they had the time to flesh it out . Full development commenced in 2012 , while Klei was nearing the end of the development process of Mark of the Ninja . This was during the heat of an industry trend of creating games in which players are dropped into a world with few instructions and a goal of survival . The torch of this movement was held by the 2011 sandbox game Minecraft . Member Kevin Forbes stated in an interview that Minecraft was one of the team 's biggest influences , particularly its exploration elements . However , as the game was conceived as a " weird experiment " , the team 's main goal was to innovate in terms of gameplay and aesthetics , specifically by adding a layer of emphasis on characterization and themes . Another influence was the 2005 Nintendo DS title Lost in Blue , which contains similar supernatural elements and a day / night cycle .
The game 's dark and supernatural yet cartoonish art style was influenced by the work of filmmaker Tim Burton , to which it has been frequently compared , and by writers Edward Gorey and H.P. Lovecraft . Forbes noted the team 's ambition of creating something " dark and creepy . " After conception of the basic game setup , Forbes penned a backstory influenced by steampunk and horror , and lead creative director Jeff Agala added comic strip @-@ like art elements . To further the game 's atmosphere of loneliness and directionlessness , Klei decided firmly against multiplayer gameplay . However , in December of 2014 , after numerous requests , Klei finally released the multiplayer version of the game titled " Don 't Starve Together " on steam early access after an initial closed beta release . The game is still in beta .
Development was marked by a few changes to the game 's formula that would be reverted . Most notably , at one point during development , Klei wanted to add quests to the existing open gameplay . Klei shelved this idea when they realized that " having external goals is extremely counter to what is fun about the game . " Nevertheless , Klei co @-@ founder Jamie Cheng has emphasized that Klei values the freedom to try different approaches that being tied to a major publisher would not afford them .
Cheng related in an interview that Don 't Starve 's development taught Klei a considerable amount about the nature of the emergent gameplay that was endemic to its open and random world ; Klei tries to experiment with a new genre with each project and prefers not to create sequels to any of its games . These lessons would later be used to balance the mechanics of Klei 's upcoming project Invisible , Inc .
= = = Releases and updates = = =
Klei employees argued at length about whether to release Don 't Starve as a free @-@ to @-@ play game . Forbes stated that he " wouldn 't rule it out as a business model " but that the team was not ready to make such a decision . It was , however , free in the early days of beta testing .
Don 't Starve was released in beta form in 2012 , a move that Klei decided on to find out " what aspects of the game players are really responding to , and [ nip ] usability issues in the bud . " Klei 's Cory Rollins has stated that he finds that most developers ' beta periods simply serve as an early release of the game and result in few glitches being fixed , and wanted to make more use of the strategy . Added benefits the team discovered during beta testing were that it forced them to make important decisions about the game 's upcoming release well in advance , and that it solidified a player base . In addition , Klei added the ability for food to spoil during this time , inspired by a forum thread about such possibilities . Cheng found Don 't Starve to have " ended up a way better game because of the community . " It spent a few months in beta testing , and Klei continued to give updates for months after its release .
In June 2013 , shortly after the game 's main release , a PlayStation 4 version was announced ; it would not be released until January of the following year . In a January 2014 interview , Rollins mentioned internal discussions of creating a PlayStation Vita version of Don 't Starve , citing massive community interest in playing it on the PlayStation 4 remotely . An iOS edition was released in July 2014 . The company is also considering other mobile phone adaptations , as well as a potential sequel , but is not prioritizing them .
= = = = Don 't Starve : Reign of Giants = = = =
Don 't Starve : Reign of Giants , the game 's first paid downloadable content expansion , was announced on February 18 , 2014 . Three cryptic teasers were released , each named after a season of the year . The first , " Fall " , shows a badger @-@ like creature , while " Winter " adds an unlockable arachnid character named Webber and " Spring " a furry leg accompanied by a hatching egg . The expansion was made available as early access at the beginning of April and was released on April 30 . It contains new items , characters , and environments .
= = = = Don 't Starve Together = = = =
On May 7 , 2014 , Klei announced that a free multiplayer expansion , Don 't Starve Together , would be coming later that year . As they had initially decided not to create multiplayer , Klei clarified on their official forums that they originally had not been " confident that it would actually work both in concept and implementation " but had changed their minds in response to popular demand and bringing in new help .
Don 't Starve Together made its debut on Steam 's Early Access program on December 15 , 2014 . It supports up to six players at a time , who can be either existing friends or strangers and can play in public or private games . The expansion contains most , if not all , features of the single @-@ player game , but with ongoing balance patches being made for multiplayer . The game was officially released out of early access on April 21 , 2016 .
= = = = Don 't Starve : Giant Edition = = = =
A PlayStation Vita port of Don 't Starve titled Don 't Starve : Giant Edition was announced on August 25 , 2014 and was released on September 2 , 2014 in North America , and September 3 , 2014 in Europe . This was also announced to be released for the Wii U via the Nintendo eShop on March 4 , 2015 . Wii U Specific Features : Enjoy Off @-@ TV Mode ! Use companion map via the Wii U GamePad to navigate around the world “ Reign of Giants ” DLC available at launch . Giant Edition was released in North America on May 28 , 2015 and in Europe on June 4 , 2015 . A PlayStation 3 port was developed by Abstraction Games and released in North America on June 23 , 2015 , as well as in Europe on June 24 , 2015 . An Xbox One version was released on August 26 , 2015 .
= = = = Don 't Starve : Shipwrecked = = = =
Don 't Starve : Shipwrecked , co @-@ developed by Super Time Force studio Capybara Games , was released on PC on the first day of December 2015 in early access . This expansion includes new characters , biomes , creatures , and seasonal effects .
Don 't Starve : Pocket Edition
Don 't Starve : Pocket Edition was released on July 9 , 2015 , for iOS and includes the Reign of Giants DLC . An Android version is planned to be released in September 2016 .
= = Reception = =
Don 't Starve received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . The game sold one million copies by the end of 2013 . Don 't Starve was a finalist for the grand prize and " Excellence in Design " subcategory at the 2014 Independent Games Festival awards ceremony . It also received honorable mentions for " Excellence in Visual Art " and " Excellence in Audio . "
The game 's art style was critically acclaimed . Summarizing that the " distinct art style and atmosphere set a cool vibe , " GameSpot 's Nathan Meunier commended the atmosphere and visual design . Marty Sliva of IGN claimed an " immense appreciation for the paper @-@ cutout graphical style and whimsical presentation " , going on to praise the threatening qualities bestowed upon mundane objects by the " gothic @-@ inspired look . " Game Informer writer Jeff Marchiafava stated that " the cartoony art style makes exploring your massive , randomized world a joy . " Writing for the newspaper Toronto Sun , Steve Tilley called the art " whimsical and wonderful " and the presentation in general " captivating . " Reviewing the PlayStation 4 version specifically , Jordan Devore of Destructoid said that it looked and played very well on the console , though he did note some pixelation effects when the screen zooms in on the inventory . He also found that the gamepad controls , while less efficient than a keyboard , were similarly enjoyable .
The music was generally well received . Sliva compared it to carnival music and called it " immediately catchy " though lacking in variation . Giancarlo Saldana of GamesRadar called it " eerie [ yet ] calming " and praised its role in complementing the simultaneously lonesome and dangerous world .
Critics universally acknowledged , but gave mixed opinions on , the game 's high level of difficulty . This sentiment was epitomized by Sliva 's comment that " Don 't Starve will never , ever hold your hand , and I both love it and hate it for that . " For example , he felt some of his deaths were unfairly caused by the game 's camera system obscuring needed objects . Meunier stated that " survival doesn 't come easy , but there 's an undeniable thrill to the challenge , " but also placed the high difficulty in his list of the game 's cons . Leon Hurley of Official PlayStation Magazine claimed that " learning is half the fun and even the smallest victory makes you feel like you ’ re winning with a capital FU . " Reviewers also felt that players ' levels of satisfaction would depend heavily on their levels of commitment to survival .
The lack of a permanent saving mechanic and permanence of death were criticized . Marchiafava , while normally a fan of permadeath in games , found it problematic in Don 't Starve because , unlike other games such as The Binding of Isaac and Spelunky , Don 't Starve is much longer and so death felt like more of a loss . Meunier noted that the novelty and thrills of each new run wear off somewhat " when you 're stuck tackling the same menial tasks over and over again to regain lost ground . " Sliva expressed disappointment at being given " nearly no recognition from Don 't Starve itself " upon being killed by a frog , and reported being bored for roughly 30 minutes at the overly familiar starts of later playthroughs . Brown thought similarly , also calling the early game in particular " a bit dull . " Saldana , however , reasoned that " you at least gain some knowledge of how things work " and would thus make incremental , enjoyable progress .
The variety of unusual , numerous , and frequently placed ways for the player to die were singled out for praise . Focusing on the harm caused by subzero temperatures during winter , Meunier found that " these interesting wrinkles add depth and additional difficulty to the already challenging survival mechanics at play . " Jessica Conditt of Joystiq praised the high number of possible causes of death as well as the game 's efficient and easy @-@ to @-@ understand display of the player 's health , hunger , and mental stability . Saldana noted that the unfamiliarity of some monster designs would help to keep the player wary .
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= Amenemhat IV =
See Amenemhat , for other individuals with this name .
Amenemhat IV ( also Amenemhet IV ) was the seventh and penultimate pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty of Egypt ( c . 1990 – 1800 BC ) during the late Middle Kingdom period ( c . 2050 – 1710 BC ) , ruling for over nine years in the late 19th century BC or the early 18th century BC .
Amenemhat IV may have been the son , grandson or step @-@ son of his predecessor , the powerful Amenemhat III . His reign started with a two @-@ year coregency with Amenemhat III and was seemingly peaceful . He undertook expeditions in the Sinai for turquoise , in Upper Egypt for amethyst and to the Land of Punt . He also maintained trade relations with Byblos as well as the Egyptian presence in Nubia . Amenemhat IV built some parts of the temple of Hathor at Serabit el @-@ Khadim in the Sinai and constructed the well @-@ preserved temple of Renenutet in Medinet Madi .
Amenemhat IV 's tomb has not been identified , although the Southern Mazghuna pyramid is a possibility . He was succeeded by Sobekneferu , possibly his sister or step @-@ sister , whose short reign marked the end of the 12th Dynasty and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom 's decline into the Second Intermediate Period .
= = Family = =
Amenemhat IV was the son of a woman named Hetepi . Hetepi 's only known attestation is an inscription on the wall of the temple of Renenutet at Medinet Madi where she is given the title of " King 's Mother " but not those of " King 's Wife " , " King 's Daughter " or " King 's Sister " . Consequently , her relation to Amenemhat III is unknown and she may have been non @-@ royal . The relation of Amenemhat IV to Amenemhat III is similarly uncertain ; the former could have been the son or grandson of the latter . Similarly , while Manetho states that he married his half @-@ sister Sobekneferu , this claim is not yet supported by archaeological evidence . In particular , Sobekneferu is not known to have borne the title of " King 's Wife " . Instead , the egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that Amenemhat IV was adopted by Amenemhat III and thus became Sobekneferu 's step @-@ brother , thereby explaining the Manethonian tradition .
Amenemhat may have died without a male heir , which could explain why he was succeeded by Sobekneferu . However , some egyptologists , such as Aidan Dodson and Kim Ryholt , have proposed that the first two rulers of the 13th Dynasty , Sobekhotep I and Amenemhat Sonbef , were his sons . Amenenmhat IV may have been Sobeknefru 's spouse , but no evidence currently substantiates this hypothesis .
= = Reign = =
Amenemhat IV first came to power as a junior coregent of his predecessor Amenemhat III , whose reign marks the apex of the Middle Kingdom period . The coregency is well attested by numerous monuments and artefacts where the names of the two kings parallel each other . The length of this coregency is uncertain ; it could have lasted from one to seven years , although most scholars believe it was only two years long . The Turin Canon , a king list redacted during the early Ramesside period , records Amenemhat IV on Column 6 , Row 1 , and credits him with a reign of 9 years , 3 months and 27 days . Amenemhat IV is also recorded on Entry 65 of the Abydos King List and Entry 38 of the Saqqara Tablet , both of which date to the New Kingdom .
In spite of the Turin canon , the duration of Amenemhat 's reign is uncertain . It was given as eight years under the name Ammenemes in Manetho 's Aegyptiaca . In any case , Amenemhat 's rule seems to have been peaceful and uneventful . Amenemhat IV is well attested by contemporary artefacts , including a number of scarab- and cylinder @-@ seals .
= = = Expeditions and foreign relations = = =
Four expeditions to the turquoise mines of Serabit el @-@ Khadim in the Sinai are dated to his reign by in @-@ situ inscriptions . The latest took place in his ninth year on the throne and could be the last expedition of the Middle Kingdom , since the next inscription dates to Ahmose I 's reign , some 200 years later . In his Year 2 , Amenemhat IV sent another expedition to mine amethyst in the Wadi el @-@ Hudi in the south of Egypt . The leader of the expedition was the assistant treasurer Sahathor . Farther south , three Nile @-@ records are known from Kumna in Nubia that are explicitly dated to his Years 5 , 6 and 7 on the throne , showing that the Egyptian presence in the region was maintained during his lifetime .
Important trade relations must have existed during his reign with the city of Byblos , on the coast of modern @-@ day Lebanon , where an obsidian and gold chest as well as a jar lid bearing Amenemhat IV 's name have been found . A gold plaque showing Amenemhat IV offering to a god may also originate there .
Recently , continuing excavations at Wadi Gawasis on the Red Sea coast have produced two wooden chests and an ostracon inscribed with a hieratic text mentioning an expedition to the fabled Land of Punt in Year 8 of Amenemhat IV , under the direction of the royal scribe Djedy . Two fragments of a stela depicting him and dating to his Year 7 were found at Berenice on the Red Sea .
= = = Building activities = = =
Amenemhat IV completed the temple of Renenutet and Sobek at Medinet Madi started by Amenemhat III , which is " the only intact temple still existing from the Middle Kingdom " according to Zahi Hawass , a former Secretary @-@ General of Egypt 's Supreme Council of Antiquities ( SCA ) . The foundations of the temple , administrative buildings , granaries and residences were uncovered by an Egyptian archaeological expedition in early 2006 . Amenemhat IV possibly also built a temple in the northeastern Fayum at Qasr el @-@ Sagha .
Amenemhat IV is responsible for the completion of a shrine at the temple of Hathor in the Sinai and may also have undertaken works in Karnak where a pedestal for a sacred barque inscribed with Amenemhat III and IV names was found in 1924 .
= = = Legacy = = =
Less than 10 years after Amenemhat IV 's death , the 12th Dynasty came to an end and was replaced by the much weaker 13th Dynasty . Although the first two rulers of this dynasty may have been sons of Amenemhat IV , political instability quickly became prevalent and kings rarely ruled beyond a couple of years . The influx of Asiatic immigrants in the Nile Delta which had started during the reigns of Amenemhat IV 's predecessor accelerated under his own reign , becoming completely unchecked . Under the 13th Dynasty , the Asiatic population of the Delta founded an independent kingdom ruled by kings of Canaanite descent forming the 14th Dynasty and reigning from Avaris . Around 80 years after the reign of Amenemhat IV , " the administration [ of the Egyptian state ] seems to have completely collapsed " , marking the start of the Second Intermediate Period .
= = Tomb = =
The tomb of Amenemhat IV has not been identified . He is nonetheless often associated with the ruined Southern Mazghuna pyramid . No inscriptions have been found within the pyramid to ascertain the identity of its owner , but its architectural similarity with the second pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara led egyptologists to date the pyramid to the late 12th or early 13th Dynasty . Less likely , Amenemhat IV could have been interred in Amenemhat III 's first pyramid in Dashur , since his name has been found on an inscription in the mortuary temple .
At Dahshur , next to the pyramid of Amenemhat II , the remains of another pyramid dating to the Middle Kingdom were discovered during building works . The pyramid has not yet been excavated , but a fragment inscribed with the royal name " Amenemhat " has been unearthed . It is therefore possible that this pyramid belongs to Amenemhat IV , although there are also kings of the 13th Dynasty who bore the name Amenemhat and who could have built the pyramid . Alternatively , the relief fragment may originate ( come ) from the nearby pyramid of Amenemhat II .
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= Rudolph Cartier =
Rudolph Cartier ( born Rudolph Kacser , renamed himself in Germany to Rudolph Katscher ; 17 April 1904 – 7 June 1994 ) was an Austrian television director , filmmaker , screenwriter and producer who worked predominantly in British television , exclusively for the BBC . He is best known for his 1950s collaborations with screenwriter Nigel Kneale , most notably the Quatermass serials and their 1954 adaptation of George Orwell 's dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four .
After studying architecture and then drama , Cartier began his career as a screenwriter and then film director in Berlin , working for UFA Studios . After a brief spell in the United States he moved to the United Kingdom in the 1930s , and began working for BBC Television in 1952 . He went on to produce and direct over 120 productions in the next 24 years , ending his television career with the play Loyalties in 1976 .
Active in both dramatic programming and opera , Cartier won the equivalent of a BAFTA in 1957 for his work in the former , and one of his operatic productions was given an award at the 1962 Salzburg Festival . The British Film Institute 's " Screenonline " website describes him as " a true pioneer of television " , while the critic Peter Black once wrote that : " Nobody was within a mile of Rudolph Cartier in the trick of making a picture on a TV screen seem as wide and as deep as CinemaScope . "
= = Early life and career = =
Born in Vienna , Austria @-@ Hungary ( now Austria ) , Cartier initially studied to become an architect , before changing career paths and enrolling to study drama at the Vienna Academy of Music and Dramatic Art . There he was taught by Max Reinhardt , who proved a major influence on Cartier . Reinhardt thought of a script as being similar to a musical score , which should be interpreted by a director in the same way as a musician interpreting a piece of music — an approach with which Cartier agreed .
Cartier became involved in the film industry in 1929 , when he successfully submitted a script to a company based in Berlin , Germany . He then became a staff scriptwriter for UFA Studios , the primary German film company of the era , for which he worked on crime films and thrillers . While at UFA , he worked with noted writers , directors and producers including Ewald André Dupont and Erich Pommer . In 1933 he became a film director , overseeing the thriller Unsichtbare Gegner for producer Sam Spiegel .
The same year as Unsichtbare Gegner was released , the Nazis came to power in Germany , and the Jewish Cartier left the country . Several members of Cartier 's family who had remained in Europe , including his mother , later died in the Holocaust . Encouraged by a UFA colleague , Billy Wilder , to come to Hollywood , Cartier changed his surname and moved to the United States . However , unlike Wilder , Cartier did not find success in America , and in 1935 he moved again , to the United Kingdom .
Little further is recorded of Cartier 's career until after the Second World War , when he began writing storylines for several minor British films . He also worked as a film producer , overseeing a 1951 short film adaptation of the Sherlock Holmes story The Man with the Twisted Lip . Cartier returned for a time to the United States , where he studied production methods in the new medium of television .
In 1952 , Michael Barry , with whom Cartier had worked on an aborted project in 1948 , became the new Head of Drama at BBC Television and interviewed Cartier for a post as a staff television producer in the drama department , a job which also involved directing . At his interview , Cartier told Barry that he thought his department 's output was " dreadful " , and that television drama needed " new scripts and a new approach " . In a 1990 interview about his career , he told BBC Two 's The Late Show that the BBC drama department had " needed me like water in the desert " . Barry shared many of Cartier 's views on the need to improve television drama , and he hired him for the producer 's job .
= = BBC television = =
Cartier 's first BBC television production was a play entitled Arrow to the Heart , transmitted on the evening of 20 July 1952 . It was initially adapted by Cartier from Albrecht Goes ' novel Unruhige Nacht , but Barry felt that the dialogue was " too Germanic " and assigned drama department staff scriptwriter Nigel Kneale to edit the script . Arrow to the Heart was the first of many collaborations between the pair , who enjoyed during the next few years a highly productive working relationship , despite profound creative disagreements on occasion . Cartier and Kneale were an important presence in the British television drama of the era and were , according to television historian Lez Cooke , " responsible for introducing a completely new dimension to television drama in the early to mid @-@ 1950s " .
= = = Collaborations with Nigel Kneale = = =
Cartier and Kneale 's first major production was the six @-@ part serial The Quatermass Experiment , broadcast in the summer of 1953 . A science @-@ fiction story , it relates the sending of the first humans into space by Professor Bernard Quatermass and the consequences when an alien presence invades the crew 's rocket during its flight and returns to Earth in the body of the one remaining crewmember , having absorbed the consciousnesses and shredded the bodies of the other two . A critical and popular success , The Quatermass Experiment has been described by the British Film Institute 's Screenonline website as " one of the most influential series of the 1950s " . Cartier 's contribution to the serial 's success was highlighted in his 1994 obituary in The Times newspaper , which also called the serial " a landmark in British television drama as much for its visual imagination as for its ability to shock and disturb " .
The success of The Quatermass Experiment led to two sequels , Quatermass II ( 1955 ) and Quatermass and the Pit ( 1958 – 59 ) , both produced and directed by Cartier and written by Kneale . Both were successful and critically acclaimed , and Cartier 's production work on them became increasingly ambitious . For Quatermass II , he pre @-@ filmed a significant amount of material on location , using 35 mm film , opening the drama out from a confined studio setting with the most ambitious location shooting yet attempted in British television . Cartier , with his previous experience as a film director , particularly enjoyed working on these cinema @-@ style filmed scenes .
The appeal of the Quatermass serials has been attributed by the Museum of Broadcast Communications to the depiction of " A new range of gendered fears about Britain 's postwar and post @-@ colonial security . As a result , or perhaps simply because of Kneale and Cartier 's effective combination of science fiction and poignant melodrama , audiences were captivated . " The Screenonline website suggests that the visual impact of Cartier 's interpretation of Kneale 's scripts was a major factor in their success , which it attributes to their " originality , mass appeal and dynamism ... The Quatermass Experiment became a landmark of science fiction and the cornerstone of the genre on British television . "
Aside from the Quatermass serials , Cartier and Kneale collaborated on several one @-@ off dramas , including literary and theatrical adaptations of Wuthering Heights ( 6 December 1953 ) and The Moment of Truth ( 10 March 1955 ) , as well as Kneale 's own The Creature ( 30 January 1955 ) . Of particular note was their collaboration on an adaptation of George Orwell 's novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , originally broadcast on 12 December 1954 , regarded as Cartier 's most famous work . The Times 's review the day after its broadcast noted its " vividness ... the two minutes ' hate was , for instance , a wonderfully riotious orgy of vindictiveness . " The production also attracted considerable controversy . There were questions asked in the House of Commons concerning some of the graphic scenes of horror in the play , and the BBC received several telephone calls threatening Cartier 's life if the second live performance , scheduled for 16 December , went ahead . The BBC took these threats seriously enough to assign him bodyguards . Cartier appeared live on television himself to defend the production in a studio debate , and eventually the Board of Governors of the BBC voted that the second performance should go ahead as planned . The production had by this time received the backing of the Duke of Edinburgh , who commented during a speech to the Royal Society of Arts that he and the Queen had watched and enjoyed the first performance .
Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four had been a success , but it was also one of the most expensive television dramas ever made in the UK . Cartier often spent large amounts of money on his productions . Earlier in 1954 , Michael Barry had heavily criticised him for the money and resources he had expended in an adaptation of Rebecca . In a memo written after that production 's transmission , Barry admonished Cartier for his over @-@ ambitious production :
The performance of Rebecca seems to me to have taken us further into the danger area instead of showing any improvement . I am unable to defend at a time when departmental costs and scene loads are in an acute state the load imposed by Rebecca on Design and Supply and the expenditure upon extras and costumes ... the vast area of the hall and the stairway never justified the great expenditure of effort required in building and one is left with a very clear impression of reaching a point where the department must be accused of not knowing what it is doing .
= = = Later life and work = = =
Despite Barry 's concerns , Cartier continued to work successfully in television , and at the 1957 Guild of Television Producers and Directors Awards ( later known as the British Academy Television Awards , or BAFTAs ) he was the winner of the Drama category . He made a brief return to filmmaking in 1958 when he directed the feature Passionate Summer , but he saw himself primarily as a television director , and it remained his favourite medium . " The essence of television is that you can control the viewer 's response to a much greater extent than other media permit , " he told The Times in 1958 .
Cartier also directed several operas for the BBC , a genre for which he had a great passion . He oversaw adaptations of established operas such as Salome ( 1957 ) and Carmen ( 1962 ) as well as original productions written especially for television . Tobias and the Angel , written for the BBC by Sir Arthur Bliss and Christopher Hassall and produced by Cartier in 1960 , won the Merit Award in the Salzburg Opera Prize at the 1962 Salzburg Festival .
Cartier continued to direct television dramas during the 1960s , although after Barry stepped down as Head of Drama in 1961 , he lost much of his creative independence . Barry 's successor , Sydney Newman , abolished the BBC 's traditional producer @-@ director role and split the responsibilities into separate posts , leaving directors such as Cartier with less control over their productions . Cartier also found himself assigned to direct episodes of regular drama series , as such as Maigret and Z @-@ Cars .
Cartier was still able to direct several notable productions during the decade , including a number which explored the Nazi era in Germany from which he had escaped in 1933 . These included the World War II dramas Cross of Iron ( 1961 , dealing with the court martial of a U @-@ Boat captain in a British prisoner of war camp ) and The July Plot ( 1964 , about the 1944 plot to assassinate Hitler ) , as well as Firebrand ( 1967 , about the 1933 Reichstag fire , an event Cartier had personally witnessed ) . He also began , for the first time , to direct pieces which dealt with the Holocaust , such as Doctor Korczak and the Children ( 1962 , concerning the Warsaw Ghetto orphanage ) and The Joel Brand Story ( 1965 , about Adolf Eichmann 's 1944 offer to the Allies of the lives of 1 million Jews in exchange for 10 @,@ 000 trucks ) . Other notable 1960s productions included adaptations of Anna Karenina ( 1961 , starring Sean Connery and Claire Bloom ) and Wuthering Heights ( 1962 , a new version of Kneale 's 1953 script , starring Bloom and Keith Michell ) . Lee Oswald — Assassin ( 1966 ) was a drama @-@ documentary telling the story of Lee Harvey Oswald , based on the Warren Commission 's findings , while Conversation at Night ( 1969 ) saw the first television acting appearance of Alec Guinness .
Cartier 's career continued into the 1970s . In 1974 , he directed episodes of Fall of Eagles ; and his final credit came with the play Loyalties , screened in 1976 . By this time , he had worked on over 120 productions for the BBC . Subsequently , he worked for a time for the BBC 's " purchased drama " department , advising on which plays and series might be bought @-@ in from European broadcasters . Throughout his career , Cartier refused to work for commercial television : " I hate the idea of my creative work being constantly interrupted for commercial reasons , " he once commented . " I am an artist , not a salesman . "
Cartier was married three times , lastly to Margaret Pepper from 1949 until his death . He had one daughter , Corinne , with Pepper , and another from a previous marriage . Cartier died on 7 June 1994 , at the age of 90 ; his death was overshadowed in the media by that of Dennis Potter , another important figure in the history of British television drama , who died on the same day .
= = Legacy = =
Nearly all of Cartier 's 1950s television productions were performed live , and the majority of them were not recorded — he once described them as being " gone with the speed of light " . Several of those which do survive have been highly regarded by later reviewers . In 2000 , the British Film Institute ( BFI ) compiled a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century . Voted on by a group of industry professionals , the list featured both Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four and Quatermass and the Pit . In the accompanying analysis of each entry to the list , Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four was described as " An early example of the power of television drama ... Even now , the torture sequences retain their power to shock and disturb . "
Nigel Kneale , scriptwriter of both of the Cartier dramas acclaimed by the BFI , felt that the productions would not have been as successful as they were had they been handled by any other director . " I don 't think any of the things I wrote then would have come to anything much in other hands . In his they worked . " Television historian Jason Jacobs , a lecturer in film and television studies at the University of Warwick , wrote in 2000 that Kneale and Cartier together created an entirely new , more expansive vision for British television drama in the 1950s .
" It was the arrival of Nigel Kneale ... and Rudolph Cartier ... that challenged the intimate drama directly . Cartier is rightly recognised as a major influence on the visual development of British television drama ... Cartier and Kneale had the ambition for their productions to affect a mass audience , and the scope of their attention was not confined to the ' cosy ' aesthetics of intimacy . Cartier uses the close @-@ up both to reveal emotions and as a shock device : a more threatening — and perhaps exhilarating — method than was used before . ' Intimacy ' is reformulated by Cartier in terms of his power and control over the viewer — no longer a part of the family , but isolated in his home . "
Cartier 's pioneering use of an increased number of pre @-@ filmed sequences to open out the studio @-@ bound , live television drama productions of the 1950s is also praised by Lez Cooke . " While film inserts were being used in television drama from the early 1950s , Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four represented the most extensive use of them in a TV play up to that time , and signalled Cartier 's determination to extend the boundaries of TV drama . " Similarly , his Times obituary stated that : " At a time when studio productions were usually as static as the conventional theatre , he was widely respected for a creative contribution to British television drama which gave it a new dimension . "
In addition to his 1950s productions , several of Cartier 's later works have also been regarded as influential . His 1962 production of Wuthering Heights was praised by Dennis Potter , then a television critic , who wrote in the Daily Herald newspaper that the production " was like a thunderstorm on the flat , dreary plains of the week 's television ... The howl of the wind against the windows , the muted pain of Claire Bloom as the wretched Cathy , and the hunted misery of Keith Mitchell as Heathcliff , made this a more than adequate offering of a great work . " While Screenonline states that Lee Oswald — Assassin ( 1966 ) " could be argued [ to be ] of historical interest only " , due to its basis in the flawed Warren Commission report , The Times praised it as being " possibly the first drama @-@ documentary " .
Not all of Cartier 's work was so well regarded ; in particular , his cinematic efforts have not achieved the level of praise of his television work . In the book America 's Best , Britain 's Finest : A Survey of Mixed Movies , critic John Howard Reid says of Cartier 's 1958 film Passionate Summer : " It 's hard to believe that ... anyone could make such a dull movie . Yet this is precisely what director Rudolph Cartier has done . I 've never heard of Mr Cartier before or since but presumably he made this brief foray into films from that synthetic world of ugly close @-@ ups — TV . "
Speaking to The Times in 1958 , Cartier explained that television was still developing as a medium , and that part of his work was to help create the next generation of those who would produce television drama . " The BBC is producing producers as well as plays . They are feeling their way towards what television drama will one day be , and we are trying to create a generation of writers who study the medium . " His 1994 obituary in the same newspaper judged that he had been successful in creating a lasting influence on later producers , describing his 1962 production of the opera Carmen as " an example and inspiration to a younger generation of television producers " .
In 1990 , the BBC Two arts magazine programme The Late Show produced an edition which featured a retrospective of Cartier 's work , including a new interview with the director discussing his career . This feature was repeated on BBC Two under the title Rudolph Cartier : A Television Pioneer on 1 July 1994 , followed by a tribute screening of the surviving telerecording copy of the second performance of Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four .
= = Selected filmography = =
The Copper ( 1930 )
The Man with the Claw ( 1931 )
Invisible Opponent ( 1933 )
The Oil Sharks ( 1933 )
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= Battle of Stillman 's Run =
The Battle of Stillman 's Run , also known as the Battle of Sycamore Creek or the Battle of Old Man 's Creek , occurred in Illinois on May 14 , 1832 . The battle was named for the panicked retreat by Major Isaiah Stillman and his detachment of 275 Illinois militia after being attacked by many fewer Sauk warriors of Black Hawk 's British Band . The engagement was the first battle of the Black Hawk War ( 1832 ) , which developed after Black Hawk crossed the Mississippi River from Iowa into Illinois with his band of Sauk and Fox warriors to try to reclaim territory . The militia had pursued a small group of Sauk scouts to the main British Band camp following a failed attempt by Black Hawk 's emissaries to negotiate a truce .
During the engagement , 12 militia men were killed by Band warriors while making a stand on a small hill . The remainder of the militia fled back to Dixon 's Ferry . Citizens erected a monument in 1901 in Stillman Valley , Illinois commemorating the battle . A 2006 article corroborates that militia volunteer Abraham Lincoln was present at the battleground 's burials ; sources agree about little else . Investigation continues in the early 21st century about facts of the skirmish .
= = Background = =
Black Hawk , a Sauk chief , believed that the Treaty of St. Louis ( 1804 ) was invalid . It ceded Sauk territory to the US that included his birthplace . He led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River from Iowa to Illinois beginning in 1830 . Each time , he was persuaded to return west without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliances with other tribes and the British , he again moved his " British Band " into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return to Iowa , but ensuing events led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other engagements followed , and the state militias of Wisconsin and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's band . The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War .
On April 5 , 1832 , Black Hawk and around 1 @,@ 000 warriors and civilians recrossed the Mississippi River into Illinois in an attempt to reclaim their land . About half of Black Hawk 's band were combatants and the rest were a combination of women , children , and elderly . The band consisted of Sauk , Fox , some Potawatomi , and some Kickapoo ; in addition some members of the Ho @-@ Chunk nation were sympathetic to Black Hawk . Black Hawk 's reason for crossing into Illinois was that he wanted to reclaim lost lands , and perhaps , create a confederacy of Native Americans to stand against white settlement . Other Illinois tribes promised aid to the British Band and Black Hawk believed that he had been promised assistance by the British in Canada .
Black Hawk led the march of the group along the Rock River into Illinois . Illinois Governor John Reynolds perceived the return of Black Hawk as an invasion , and he immediately called up the militia . General Henry Atkinson , whom Black Hawk addressed as " White Beaver , " commanded the military expedition .
= = Prelude = =
Atkinson was not told about Governor Reynolds ' decision to order Major Isaiah Stillman 's militia to march on Old Man 's Creek , despite being in overall command . Reynolds ' orders , issued on his behalf by General Samuel Whiteside to Stillman , were for Stillman to find Black Hawk and coerce him into submission . Following these orders , Stillman moved on Old Mans Creek . Whiteside had refused to accept Stillman 's battalion under his command , thus leaving it " orphaned " and under the direct command of Governor Reynolds . The militia commanded by Whiteside grew restless as they awaited the arrival of Atkinson and his Army regulars ; many of the volunteer militia wanted to quit the war and head back home . When diplomacy failed to persuade Black Hawk to take his band back west to Iowa , Stillman and Bailey 's battalions of Illinois Militia were marched up the Rock River .
Prior to the battle at Stillman 's Run , Black Hawk 's grand vision of British support , and a Native American confederacy had collapsed . No parties aided him and his followers . The British Band started to weaken with hunger , and Black Hawk soon realized that the only option was to return across the Mississippi River . When he detected the U.S. militia camp eight miles ( 13 km ) away , Black Hawk sent out peace envoys in order to negotiate a truce . They were told to wave a white flag at the militia .
= = Battle = =
On May 14 , 1832 , a detachment of 275 militia under the command of Majors Isaiah Stillman and David Bailey , under orders from Illinois Governor Reynolds , were encamped near Old Man 's Creek , not far from its confluence with the Rock River . The militia camp was located about three miles ( 5 km ) east of the Rock River near present @-@ day Stillman Valley , Illinois , and seven miles ( 11 km ) south of the Sauk encampment . It is believed that the militia and its commanders were unaware of their proximity to Black Hawk 's British Band .
In conference with the local Potawatomi , Black Hawk learned of Stillman 's presence and sent three emissaries to the militia camp under a flag of parley in order to negotiate a peace with the soldiers . The already suspicious soldiers took the three emissaries to their camp , and during the proceedings the militia became aware of several of Black Hawk 's scouts in the surrounding hills , watching the proceedings . Once the scouts were spotted , soldiers shot at the three emissaries , killing one . The other two fled back toward their camp , located near the confluence of the Rock and Kishwaukee rivers .
The scouts were pursued by the disorganized militia and several were killed . The surviving scouts arrived at Black Hawk 's camp ahead of the militia and reported the events . At the camp , the warriors set up a skirmish line in order to fend off the pending militia attack . The militia soldiers , intent on pursuing the scouts , chased them back toward the main force of Black Hawk 's warriors and their skirmish line . Black Hawk and his force concealed themselves and ambushed the pursuers . Believing that thousands of Sauk and Fox were attacking them , the militia panicked and fled back to the main force camped at Dixon 's Ferry . Stillman 's exact whereabouts are unknown during this point in the battle . His later account published in a newspaper did not mention his location and noted his only order was to retreat . Stillman 's account , published in the Missouri Republican , has been called fanciful .
Twelve of Stillman 's militia were killed in the melee . A band of volunteers under the leadership of Captain John Giles Adams made a stand on a hill south of the main militia camp . The men fought by moonlight as the main body of the militia fled back to Dixon . The entire 12 @-@ man detachment , including Adams , was killed in the fight . Dyer has said that Adams may have been killed by his own men as he attempted to muster them to battle . The number of Sauk and Fox killed in the engagement is largely unknown ; the militia party that was sent to locate the " missing " 53 militia men found no dead Sauk . Black Hawk is quoted as saying at least three and maybe as many as five of his warriors were killed .
= = Lincoln 's role = =
The facts about Abraham Lincoln 's service during the Black Hawk War have been disputed . Lincoln was associated with two major battle sites , including Stillman 's Run , in the aftermath of combat . A number of sources assert that on June 26 , 1832 , the morning after the Second Battle of Kellogg 's Grove , members of the company of Captain Jacob M. Early arrived at the grove to help bury the dead . One of these soldiers was Lincoln , who assisted with the burial . His later statement about the events has been linked to both the battle at Kellogg 's Grove and the fight at Stillman 's Run .
The Lincoln quote was featured in both William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Wiek 's Life of Lincoln and Carl Sandburg 's Lincoln biography , Abraham Lincoln The Prairie Years . Lincoln 's presence at Stillman 's Run has been under investigation in the early 21st century , but his presence at Kellogg 's Grove has been corroborated by several sources . In a 2006 article , author Scott Dyer asserted that Whiteside 's men , including Captain Lincoln , " paraded " the area the morning after , and buried the dead from Stillman 's Run . Their movements were an unsuccessful effort to draw out the Sauk , after which they returned to Dixon 's Ferry .
During an 1848 speech before the U.S. Congress in which he referred to his Black Hawk War service , Lincoln noted Stillman 's Run by name :
The marble facade on the Stillman Valley monument , erected in 1901 to commemorate the battle , refers to Lincoln 's presence at Stillman 's Run , " The presence of soldier , statesman , martyr , Abraham Lincoln assisting in the burial of these honored dead has made this spot more sacred . " Other sources assert that General Whiteside originally buried the dead in a common grave on a ridge south of the battlefield , marked with a rudimentary wooden memorial . These sources make no mention of Lincoln .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the first confrontation with Black Hawk at Stillman Valley , the press reported that 2 @,@ 000 " bloodthirsty warriors were sweeping all Northern Illinois with the bosom of destruction , " sending shock waves of terror through the region . Past midnight on May 15 , soldiers from Stillman 's ill @-@ fated detachment began streaming back into Dixon 's Ferry , wide @-@ eyed and panic @-@ stricken , telling tales of a horrible slaughter that had ensued during the battle . In the immediate aftermath of the battle , 53 militia men were missing . Later officials determined that the majority of these men had simply bypassed Dixon 's Ferry on their way home .
After this initial skirmish , Black Hawk led many of the civilians in his band to the Michigan Territory . On May 19 , the militia traveled up the Rock River trailing and searching for Black Hawk and his band . Several small skirmishes and massacres ensued over the next month in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin before the militia regained public confidence in battles at Bloody Lake and Waddams Grove .
Critics of the Illinois Militia , mostly members of the Regular Army , attacked their behavior at the debacle at Stillman ' Run . They began to refer to the battle at Old Man 's Creek as the Battle of Stillman 's Run , because Stillman had apparently fled with the panicked militia .
Armed hostilities during the Black Hawk War began at Stillman 's Run , and the victory was unexpected for Black Hawk and his British Band . Black Hawk feared that the white militia and its allies would seek revenge through his total defeat . Leading his starving band , Black Hawk fled from Atkinson 's pursuing army . The chase would take them as far as present day Madison , Wisconsin . It ended at the Battle of Bad Axe , where the militia and its allies massacred a weakened foe , by then made up of mostly women and children .
The remains of the soldiers at Stillman 's Run were originally buried in a common grave , but who buried them remains an open question . A memorial , erected in 1901 , stands near their marked graves . The monument and battle site are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places . They are near Illinois Route 72 a block west of present @-@ day Stillman Creek .
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= Australian Defence Force =
The Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Australia . It consists of the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , Australian Army , Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and a number of ' tri @-@ service ' units . The ADF has a strength of just over 80 @,@ 000 full @-@ time personnel and active reservists , and is supported by the Department of Defence and several other civilian agencies .
During the first decades of the 20th century , the Australian Government established the armed services as separate organisations . Each service had an independent chain of command . In 1976 , the government made a strategic change and established the ADF to place the services under a single headquarters . Over time , the degree of integration has increased and tri @-@ service headquarters , logistics and training institutions have supplanted many single @-@ service establishments .
The ADF is technologically sophisticated but relatively small . Although the ADF 's 57 @,@ 982 full @-@ time active @-@ duty personnel , 23 @,@ 232 active reserves and 22 @,@ 166 standby reserves make it the largest military in Oceania , it is still smaller than most Asian militaries . Nonetheless , the ADF is supported by a significant budget by worldwide standards and is able to deploy forces in multiple locations outside Australia .
= = Role = =
= = = Legal standing = = =
The ADF 's legal standing draws on the executive government sections of the Australian Constitution . Section 51 ( vi ) gives the Commonwealth Government the power to make laws regarding Australia 's defence and defence forces . Section 114 of the Constitution prevents the States from raising armed forces without the permission of the Commonwealth and Section 119 gives the Commonwealth responsibility for defending Australia from invasion and sets out the conditions under which the government can deploy the defence force domestically .
Section 68 of the Constitution sets out the ADF 's command arrangements . The Section states that " the command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor @-@ General as the Queen 's representative " . In practice , the Governor @-@ General does not play an active part in the ADF 's command structure , and the elected government controls the ADF . The Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control . The Minister acts on most matters alone , though the National Security Committee of Cabinet considers important matters . The Minister then advises the Governor @-@ General who acts as advised in the normal form of executive government . The Commonwealth Government has never been required by the Constitution or legislation to seek parliamentary approval for decisions to deploy military forces overseas or go to war .
= = = Current priorities = = =
The ADF 's current priorities are set out in the 2016 Defence White Paper , which identifies three main areas of focus . The first of these is to defend Australia from direct attack or coercion . The second priority is to contribute to the security of South East Asia and the South Pacific . The third priority is to contribute to stability across the Indo @-@ Pacific region and a " rules @-@ based global order which supports our interests " . The white paper states that the government will place equal weight on the three priorities when developing the ADF 's capabilities .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Australia has maintained military forces since federation as a nation in January 1901 . Shortly after Federation , the Australian Government established the Australian Army and Commonwealth Naval Force by amalgamating the forces each of the states had maintained . In 1911 , the Government established the Royal Australian Navy , which absorbed the Commonwealth Naval Force . The Army established the Australian Flying Corps in 1912 although this separated to form the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921 . The services were not linked by a single chain of command , as they each reported to their own separate Minister and had separate administrative arrangements . The three services saw action around the world during World War I and World War II , and took part in conflicts in Asia during the Cold War .
The importance of ' joint ' warfare was made clear to the Australian military during World War II when Australian naval , ground and air units frequently served as part of single commands . Following the war , several senior officers lobbied for the appointment of a commander in chief of the three services . The government rejected this proposal and the three services remained fully independent . The absence of a central authority resulted in poor co @-@ ordination between the services , with each service organising and operating on the basis of a different military doctrine .
The need for an integrated command structure received more emphasis as a result of the inefficient arrangements which at times hindered the military 's efforts during the Vietnam War . In 1973 , the Secretary of the Department of Defence , Arthur Tange , submitted a report to the Government that recommended the unification of the separate departments supporting each service into a single Department of Defence and the creation of the post of Chief of the Defence Force Staff . The government accepted these recommendations and the Australian Defence Force was established on 9 February 1976 .
= = = Defence of Australia era = = =
Until the 1970s , Australia 's military strategy centred on the concept of ' forward defence ' , in which the role of the Australian military was to co @-@ operate with allied forces to counter threats in Australia 's region . In 1969 , when the United States began the Guam Doctrine and the British withdrew ' east of Suez ' , Australia developed a defence policy emphasising self @-@ reliance of the Australian continent . This was known as the Defence of Australia Policy . Under this policy , the focus of Australian defence planning was to protect Australia 's northern maritime approaches ( the sea @-@ air gap ) against enemy attack . In line with this goal , the ADF was restructured to increase its ability to strike at enemy forces from Australian bases and to counter raids on continental Australia . The ADF achieved this by increasing the capabilities of the RAN and RAAF and relocating regular Army units to northern Australia .
At this time , the ADF had no military units on operational deployment outside Australia . In 1987 , the ADF made its first operational deployment as part of Operation Morris Dance , in which several warships and a rifle company deployed to the waters off Fiji in response to the 1987 Fijian coups d 'état . While broadly successful , this deployment highlighted the need for the ADF to improve its capability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events .
Since the late 1980s , the Government has increasingly called upon the ADF to contribute forces to peacekeeping missions around the world . While most of these deployments involved only small numbers of specialists , several led to the deployment of hundreds of personnel . Large peacekeeping deployments were made to Namibia in early 1989 , Cambodia between 1992 and 1993 , Somalia in 1993 , Rwanda between 1994 and 1995 and Bougainville in 1994 and from 1997 onwards .
The Australian contribution to the 1991 Gulf War was the first time Australian personnel were deployed to an active war zone since the establishment of the ADF . Although the warships and clearance diving team deployed to the Persian Gulf did not see combat , the deployment tested the ADF 's capabilities and command structure . Following the war the Navy regularly deployed a frigate to the Persian Gulf or Red Sea to enforce the trade sanctions imposed on Iraq .
= = = East Timor and after = = =
In 1996 , John Howard led the Liberal Party 's election campaign and became Prime Minister . Subsequently , there were significant reforms to the ADF 's force structure and role . The new government 's defence strategy placed less emphasis on defending Australia from direct attack and greater emphasis on working in co @-@ operation with regional states and Australia 's allies to manage potential security threats . From 1997 the Government also implemented a series of changes to the ADF 's force structure in an attempt to increase the proportion of combat units to support units and improve the ADF 's combat effectiveness .
The ADF 's experiences during the deployment to East Timor in 1999 led to significant changes in Australia 's defence policies and to an enhancement of the ADF 's ability to conduct operations outside Australia . This successful deployment was the first time a large Australian military force had operated outside of Australia since the Vietnam War and revealed shortcomings in the ADF 's ability to mount and sustain such operations .
In 2000 , the Government released a new Defence White Paper , Defence 2000 – Our Future Defence Force that placed a greater emphasis on preparing the ADF for overseas deployments . The Government committed to improve the ADF 's capabilities by improving the readiness and equipment of ADF units , expanding the ADF and increasing real Defence expenditure by 3 % per year ; in the event , expenditure increased by 2 @.@ 3 % per annum in real terms in the period to 2012 – 13 . In 2003 and 2005 , the Defence Updates emphasised this focus on expeditionary operations and led to an expansion and modernisation of the ADF .
Since 2000 , the ADF 's expanded force structure and deployment capabilities have been put to the test on several occasions . Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States , Australia committed a special forces task group and an air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling aircraft to operations in Afghanistan , and naval warships to the Persian Gulf as Operation Slipper . In 2003 , approximately 2 @,@ 000 ADF personnel , including a special forces task group , three warships and 14 F / A @-@ 18 Hornet aircraft , took part in the invasion of Iraq .
Later in 2003 , elements of all three services deployed to the Solomon Islands as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands . In late 2004 , over 1 @,@ 000 ADF personnel deployed to Indonesia in Operation Sumatra Assist following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In May 2006 , approximately 2 @,@ 000 ADF personnel deployed to East Timor in Operation Astute following unrest between elements of the Timor Leste Defence Force .
= = = Current operations = = =
In September 2015 , 2 @,@ 241 ADF personnel were deployed on operations in Australian territory and overseas .
The ADF currently has several forces deployed to the Middle East . The ADF 's contribution to the Military intervention against ISIL makes up the largest overseas commitment with 780 personnel deployed as part of Operation Okra . As of November 2015 , six F / A @-@ 18A Hornets , one E @-@ 7A Wedgetail and one KC @-@ 30A tanker were deployed to strike Islamic State targets in Iraq and Syria . Approximately 380 personnel were deployed to Iraq as part of an international effort to provide training and other forms of assistance to the Iraqi military . Deployments in Afghanistan number 250 personnel in Operation Highroad , a non @-@ combat training mission supporting the Afghan National Army . A frigate is also deployed to the Middle East in maritime security operations in and around the Gulf of Aden as part of the Combined Maritime Forces . Australian personnel also form part of peacekeeping missions in Israel , Jordan , Egypt and Sudan . The ADF has a further 400 personnel based in the Middle East to support operations in the region .
Australian military units are also deployed on operations in Australia 's immediate region . As of September 2015 , 500 personnel were deployed on Australia 's northern approaches in maritime security operations , forming Operation Resolute . ADF units undertake periodic deployments in the South China Sea and South West Pacific .
= = = Future trends = = =
Australia 's changing security environment will lead to new demands being placed on the Australian Defence Force . Although it is not expected that Australia will face any threat of direct attack from another country , terrorist groups and tensions between nations in East Asia pose threats to Australian security . More broadly , the Australian Government believes that it needs to make a contribution to maintaining the rules based order globally . There is also a risk that climate change , weak economic growth and social factors could cause instability in South Pacific countries .
Australian demographic trends will put pressure on the ADF in the future . Excluding other factors , the ageing of the Australian population will result in smaller numbers of potential recruits entering the Australian labour market each year . Some predictions are that population ageing will result in slower economic growth and increased government expenditure on pensions and health programs . As a result of these trends , the ageing of Australia 's population may worsen the ADF 's manpower situation and may force the Government to reallocate some of the Defence budget . Relatively few young Australians consider joining the military and the ADF has to compete for recruits against private sector firms which are able to offer higher salaries .
The ADF has developed strategies to respond to Australia 's changing strategic environment . The 2016 Defence White Paper states that " the Government will ensure Australia maintains a regionally superior ADF with the highest levels of military capability and scientific and technological sophistication " . To this end , the government intends to improve the ADF 's combat power and expand the number of military personnel . This will include introducing new technologies and capabilities . The ADF is also seeking to improve its intelligence capabilities and co @-@ operation between the services .
= = Current structure = =
The Australian Defence Force , Department of Defence and Defence Materiel Organisation ( DMO ) make up the Australian Defence Organisation ( ADO ) , which is often referred to as ' Defence ' . A diarchy of the Chief of the Defence Force ( CDF ) and the Secretary of the Department of Defence administers the ADO . The ADF is the military component of the ADO and consists of the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) .
The Department of Defence is staffed by both civilian and military personnel and includes agencies such as the DMO , Defence Intelligence Organisation ( DIO ) and Defence Science and Technology Group ( DST Group ) . The DMO purchases and maintains defence equipment . The DSTO provides science and technology support to the defence forces .
= = = Command arrangements = = =
The ADF 's command arrangements are specified in the Defence Act ( 1903 ) and subordinate legislation . This act states that the Minister of Defence " shall have the general control and administration of the Defence Force " and that the CDF , the Secretary of the Department of Defence and the chiefs of the three services must act " in accordance with any directions of the Minister " . The leaders of the ADO are also responsible to the junior ministers who are appointed to manage specific elements of the defence portfolio . The position of Minister for Defence is held by Senator Marise Payne who is also currently serving in the capacity of Acting Minister for Defence Materiel and Science and Darren Chester is the Assistant Minister for Defence .
The CDF is the most senior appointment in the ADF . The CDF commands the ADF , and is notionally the equal of the Secretary of Defence , the most senior public servant in the Department of Defence . The CDF is the only four @-@ star officer in the ADF and is a general , admiral or air chief marshal . As well as having command responsibilities , the CDF is the Minister of Defence 's principal military adviser . Air Chief Marshal Mark Binskin is the current CDF , and assumed this position on 30 June 2014 . Hugh White , a prominent academic and former Deputy Secretary in the Department of Defence , has criticised the ADF 's current command structure . White argues that the Minister plays too large a role in military decision @-@ making and does not provide the CDF and Secretary of Defence with necessary and sufficient authority to manage the ADO effectively .
Under the current ADF command structure the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the ADF is distinct from the command of military operations . The services are administered through the ADO , with the head of each service ( the Chief of Navy , Chief of Army and Chief of Air Force ) and the service headquarters being responsible for raising , training and sustaining combat forces . The Chiefs are also the CDF 's principal advisor on matters concerning the responsibilities of their service .
While the individual members of each service ultimately report to their service 's Chief , the Chiefs do not control military operations . Control of ADF operations is exercised through a formal command chain headed by the Chief of Joint Operations ( CJOPS ) , who reports directly to the CDF . The CJOPS commands the Headquarters Joint Operations Command ( HQJOC ) as well as temporary joint task forces . These joint task forces comprise units assigned from their service to participate in operations or training exercises .
= = = Joint combat forces = = =
Operational command of the ADF is exercised by HQJOC , which is located at a purpose @-@ built facility near Bungendore , New South Wales . This is a ' joint ' headquarters comprising personnel from the three services and includes a continuously manned Joint Control Centre . HQJOC 's main role is to " plan , monitor and control " ADF operations and exercises , and it is organised around groups of plans , operations and support staff . HQJOC also monitors the readiness of the ADF units which are not assigned to operations and contributes to developing Australia 's military doctrine .
As well as HQJOC , the ADF has permanent joint operational commands responsible to the CJOPS . Joint Operations Command ( JOC ) includes the two headquarters responsible for patrolling Australia 's maritime borders on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis , Northern Command and Border Protection Command . Other JOC units include the Joint Movements Group and the Air and Space Operations Centre . Individual ADF units and Joint Task Groups are assigned to JOC during operations , and HQJOC includes officers responsible for submarine and special operations forces .
= = = Royal Australian Navy = = =
The Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force . The RAN operates just under 50 commissioned warships , including frigates , submarines , patrol boats and auxiliary ships , as well as a number of non @-@ commissioned vessels . In addition , the RAN maintains a force of combat , logistics and training helicopters . The RAN is one of the most modern navies in the Pacific and is responsible for defending Australian waters and undertaking operations in distant locations .
There are two parts to the RAN 's structure . One is an operational command , Fleet Command , and the other is a support command , Navy Strategic Command . The Navy 's assets are administered by four ' forces ' which report to the Commander Australian Fleet . These are the Fleet Air Arm , the Mine Warfare , Clearance Diving , Hydrographic , Meteorological and Patrol Force , Submarine Force and Surface Force . All naval bases across Australia also report to the Commander Australian Fleet .
= = = Australian Army = = =
The Australian Army is Australia 's military land force . While the Australian Army is principally a light infantry force , it is currently being ' hardened and networked ' and expanded to enable it to conduct higher @-@ intensity operations .
The Army is organised into three main elements which report to the Chief of Army ; the Headquarters of the 1st Division , Special Operations Command and Forces Command . Headquarters 1st Division is responsible for high @-@ level training activities and is capable of being deployed to command large scale ground operations . It does not have any combat units permanently assigned to it , though it commands units during training activities and the Land Combat Readiness Centre reports to the divisional headquarters . Most of the Army 's units report to Forces Command , which is responsible for overseeing their readiness and preparing them for operations . Special Operations Command is responsible for preparing the ADF 's special forces units for operational deployments . This organisation came into effect during January 2011 ; before this time the Army 's three regular brigades were permanently assigned to the Headquarters 1st Division .
The Australian Army 's main combat forces are grouped in brigades . Its main conventional forces are three regular combat brigades which are organised on a common structure ; the 1st , 3rd and 7th Brigades . Support for the units in these formations is provided by an aviation brigade ( 16th Brigade ) , a combat support and ISTAR brigade ( 6th Brigade ) and a logistics brigade ( the 17th Brigade ) . In addition , there are six Army Reserve brigades ; these brigades are administrated by the 2nd Division and " paired " with the three regular combat brigades . The Army 's main tactical formations are combined arms battlegroups made up of elements drawn from different units .
Special Operations Command ( SOC ) commands the ADF 's special forces units . It comprises the Special Air Service Regiment , two commando regiments , the Special Operations Engineer Regiment and signals , logistics and training units . The Army 's special forces units have been expanded since 2001 and are well equipped and capable of being deployed by sea , air or land . It currently comprises approximately 2 @,@ 200 personnel .
= = = Royal Australian Air Force = = =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) is the air force branch of the ADF . The RAAF has modern combat and transport aircraft and a network of bases in strategic locations across Australia .
The RAAF has a single operational command , Air Command . Air Command is the operational arm of the RAAF and consists of Air Combat Group , Air Mobility Group , Surveillance and Response Group , Combat Support Group , Air Warfare Centre and Air Force Training Group . Each group consists of several wings .
The RAAF has nineteen flying squadrons ; four combat squadrons , two maritime patrol squadrons , six transport squadrons , six training squadrons ( including three Operational Conversion Units and a forward air control training squadron ) as well as one Airborne Early Warning & Control squadron and a Joint Terminal Attack Controller squadron . The Air Force also includes a single independent flight ( No. 5 Flight ) . The ground units supporting these flying squadrons include three expeditionary combat support squadrons , three security force squadrons and a range of intelligence , air traffic control , communications , radar and medical units .
= = Logistic support = =
The ADF 's logistics are managed by the DMO and the Joint Logistics Command . The DMO was created in 2000 by merging the ADF 's Support Command Australia with the Department of Defence 's Defence Acquisition Organisation and National Support Division . The DMO purchases all forms of equipment and services used by the ADF and is also responsible for maintaining this equipment throughout its life of type .
The DMO is not responsible for directly supplying deployed ADF units ; this is the responsibility of the Joint Logistics Command and the single service logistic units . These units include the Navy 's Systems Command and replenishment ships , the Army 's 17th Combat Service Support Brigade and Combat Service Support Battalions , and the Combat Support Group RAAF .
The increasing role of the private sector forms an important trend in the ADF 's logistics arrangements . During the 1990s many of the ADF 's support functions were transferred to the private sector to improve the efficiency with which they were provided . Since these reforms most of the ' garrison ' support services at military bases have been provided by private firms . The reforms also led to many of the ADF 's logistics units being disbanded or reduced in size . Since this time private firms have increasingly been contracted to provide critical support to ADF units deployed outside Australia . This support has included transporting equipment and personnel and constructing and supplying bases .
= = Military intelligence and surveillance = =
The Australian Defence Force 's intelligence collection and analysis capabilities include each of the services ' intelligence systems and units , two joint civilian @-@ military intelligence gathering agencies and two strategic and operational @-@ level intelligence analysis organisations .
Each of the three services has its own intelligence collection assets . RAN doctrine states that " all maritime units " contribute to the collection of intelligence and many of the RAN 's ships are capable of collecting communications and electronic transmissions . The Collins class submarines are particularly effective in this role . The Army 's intelligence and surveillance units include the 1st Intelligence Battalion , 7th Signal Regiment ( Electronic Warfare ) , three Regional Force Surveillance Units and the Special Air Service Regiment . The RAAF monitors the airspace of Australia and neighbouring countries using the Vigilare system , which combines input from the service 's Jindalee Operational Radar Network , other ADF air defence radars ( including airborne and naval systems ) and civilian air traffic control radars . The RAAF 's other intelligence assets include No. 87 Squadron and the AP @-@ 3C Orion aircraft operated by No. 92 Wing . A Space Situational Awareness capability is currently being installed at Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt to allow the tracking of space assets and debris . Australia also provides personnel to the US Joint Space Operations Center in Colorado Springs which tracks and identifies any man @-@ made object in orbit .
The Defence Intelligence and Security Group within the Department of Defence supports the services and co @-@ operate with the civilian agencies within the Australian Intelligence Community . This Group consists of the Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation ( DIGO ) , Australian Signals Directorate ( ASD ) and Defence Intelligence Organisation ( DIO ) . The DIGO is responsible for geospatial intelligence and producing maps for the ADF , the ASD is Australia 's signals intelligence agency and the DIO is responsible for the analysis of intelligence collected by the other intelligence agencies . The three agencies are headquartered in Canberra , though the DIGO has staff in Bendigo and the ASD maintains several permanent signals collection facilities in other locations .
The ASD includes a Cyber Security Operations Centre ( CSOC ) which is responsible for protecting Defence and other Australian Government agencies against cyberwarfare attacks . The CSOC was established in January 2010 and is jointly staffed by the DSD , other sections of the ADO , Attorney @-@ General 's Department , Australian Security Intelligence Organisation and Australian Federal Police . Unlike the United States military , the ADF does not class cyberwarfare as being a separate sphere of warfare .
= = Personnel = =
The Australian military has been an all @-@ volunteer force since the abolition of conscription in 1972 . Both women and men can enlist in the ADF , although there are some restrictions on the positions that women may fill . In general , only Australian citizens can enlist in the ADF though permanent residents are accepted in " exceptional circumstances " . The minimum age for recruits is 17 and the retirement age is 60 for permanent personnel and 65 for reservists . Discipline of defence personnel is guided by the Defence Force Discipline Act ( 1982 ) , ultimately overseen by the Judge Advocate General of the ADF .
= = = Personnel numbers = = =
Over the 2014 – 15 financial year the ADF had an average strength of 56 @,@ 922 permanent ( full @-@ time ) and 23 @,@ 232 reserve ( part @-@ time ) personnel . There were a further 22 @,@ 166 inactive members of the Standby Reserve as at June 2009 . The Army is the largest service , followed by the RAAF and RAN . The ADO also employed 19 @,@ 988 civilian Australian Public Service ( APS ) staff as of the 2014 – 15 financial year . The average distribution of ADF personnel between the services and categories of service over the 2014 – 15 financial year was as follows :
During the 2009 – 10 financial year 6 @,@ 063 people enlisted in the ADF on a permanent basis . This represented 91 % of the ADF 's recruitment target for that year . A further 671 people enlisted as part of the gap year scheme ( 96 % of the target ) and 2 @,@ 629 joined the reserves ( 84 % of the target ) . During that financial year 4 @,@ 000 people left the ADF 's permanent force , representing a 7 @.@ 1 % separation rate .
The number of ADF personnel has changed over the last 20 years . During the 1990s the strength of the ADF was reduced from around 70 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 permanent personnel as a result of budget cuts and the commercialisation of some elements of the military . The ADF began to grow from 2000 after the defence white paper released that year called for an expansion to the military 's strength . During the 2003 – 04 to 2005 – 06 financial years the strength of the ADF dropped as a result of problems with attracting further recruits . The ADF has consistently grown in all subsequent financial years , however . This growth is attributable to increased spending on recruitment and improved recruitment and retention policies . Nevertheless , some parts of the ADF are suffering from shortages of personnel ( such as technicians and trades people ) and demand for skilled labour in the broader economy is driving up the wages the ADF needs to pay to retain key personnel . As of May 2010 , 20 employment categories were considered " critical or perilous " due to a shortage of skilled personnel , though this had been reduced from 32 such categories in 2009 .
As of the 2011 – 12 budget , Defence planned to have a strength of 58 @,@ 627 full @-@ time personnel supported by 21 @,@ 397 civilians and contractors in the 2018 – 19 financial year . The Strategic Reform Program has included transferring the roles filled by several hundred ADF members to civilian APS staff as a means of reducing costs .
= = = Reserves = = =
Each of the branches of the ADF has a reserve component . These forces are the Royal Australian Naval Reserve , Australian Army Reserve and Royal Australian Air Force Reserve . The main role of the reserves is to supplement the permanent elements of the ADF during deployments and crises , including natural disasters . This can include attaching individual reservists to regular units or deploying units composed entirely of reserve personnel . As reservists serve on a part @-@ time basis , they are less costly to the government than permanent members of the ADF , but the nature of their service can mean that reservists have a lower level of readiness than regular personnel and require further training before they can be deployed . It has historically proven difficult to set a level of training requirements which allows reservists to be rapidly deployable yet does not act as a disincentive to recruitment and continued participation .
There are two main categories of reserve personnel ; those in the active reserve and those in the standby reserve . Members of the active reserve have an annual minimum training obligation . Army and RAAF reservists may also volunteer for the high readiness reserve ; this category of reservists have higher training and active service obligations . Members of the standby reserve are not required to undertake training , and would only be called up in response to a national emergency or to fill a specialised position . Most standby reservists are former full @-@ time members of the ADF .
While Australian Naval Reserve personnel are assigned to permanent units , most members of the Army Reserve and Air Force Reserve are members of reserve units . Most of the RAAF 's reserve units are not intended to be deployed , and reserve personnel are generally attached to regular air force units during their periods of active service . The Army Reserve is organised into permanent combat and support units , though most are currently manned at levels well below their authorised strengths and are not capable of deploying as formed units . There have been long @-@ running debates over whether the Army Reserve and its structure remain relevant to modern warfare .
The ADF 's increased activities since 1999 and shortfalls in recruiting permanent personnel has led to reservists being more frequently called to active service . This has included large scale domestic deployments , which have included providing security for major events such as the 2000 Summer Olympics and responding to natural disasters . Large numbers of reserve personnel have also been deployed as part of ADF operations in Australia 's region ; this has included the deployment of Army Reserve rifle companies to East Timor and the Solomon Islands . Smaller numbers of reservists have taken part in operations in locations distant from Australia . Notably , companies of the Army Reserve 1st Commando Regiment were regularly deployed to Afghanistan as part of the Special Operations Task Group .
= = = Training = = =
Individual training of Australian servicemen and women is generally provided by the services in their own training institutions . Each service has its own training organisation to manage this individual training . Where possible , however , individual training is increasingly being provided through tri @-@ service schools .
Military academies include HMAS Creswell for the Navy , Royal Military College , Duntroon for the Army , and the Officer Training School – RAAF Base East Sale for the Air Force . The Australian Defence Force Academy is a tri @-@ service university for officer cadets of all services wishing to attain a university degree through the Australian Defence Force . Navy recruit training is conducted at HMAS Cerberus , Army recruits are trained at the Army Recruit Training Centre and Air Force recruits at RAAF Base Wagga .
= = = Women in the ADF = = =
Women first served in the Australian military during World War II when each service established a separate female branch . The RAAF was the first service to fully integrate women into operational units , doing so in 1977 , with the Army and RAN following in 1979 and 1985 respectively . The ADF initially struggled to integrate women , with integration being driven by changing Australian social values and Government legislation rather than a change in attitudes within the male @-@ dominated military .
The number of positions available to women in the ADF has increased over time . Although servicewomen were initially barred from combat positions , these restrictions began to be lifted in 1990 . In 2010 approximately 92 % of employment categories and 84 % of positions in the ADF were available to females as well as males . The only positions which women are currently excluded from are those in which there is a high probability of ' direct combat ' , which includes all infantry positions and other positions in which there is a high probability of hand to hand combat . As a result , while almost all positions in the Navy and Air Force are open to women , women are excluded from a high proportion of Army positions .
Despite the expansion in the number of positions available to women and other changes which aim to encourage increased female recruitment and retention , there has been little growth in the proportion of female permanent defence personnel . In the 1989 – 1990 financial year women made up 11 @.@ 4 % of the ADF personnel . In the 2008 – 2009 financial year women occupied 13 @.@ 5 % of ADF positions . During the same period the proportion of civilian positions filled by women in the Australian Defence Organisation increased from 30 @.@ 8 % to 42 @.@ 8 % . As of the 2014 – 15 financial year , women made up 14 @.@ 5 % of permanent ADF positions and 16 @.@ 1 % of reserve positions . In 2008 , defence minister Joel Fitzgibbon instructed the ADF to place a greater emphasis on recruiting women and addressing barriers to women being promoted to senior roles . In September 2011 Minister for Defence Stephen Smith announced that the Cabinet had decided to remove all restrictions on women serving in combat positions , and that this change would come into effect within five years . This decision was supported by the CDF and the chiefs of the services . Women became able to apply for all positions other than special forces roles in the Army on 1 January 2013 ; it is planned that this remaining restriction will be removed in 2014 once the physical fitness standards required for service in these units are determined . Women will be directly recruited into all frontline combat positions from late 2016 . In 2015 the ADF adopted targets to increase the proportion of service personnel who are female by 2018 .
There continue to be concerns over the incidence of sexual abuse and gender @-@ based discrimination in the ADF . In 2014 the Defence Abuse Response Taskforce estimated that around 1 @,@ 100 currently @-@ serving ADF personnel had abused other members of the military , and recommended that a royal commission be conducted to investigate long @-@ running allegations of sexual abuse and assault of servicewomen at the Australian Defence Force Academy . In 2013 Chief of Army General David Morrison publicly released a video in which he warned against gender @-@ based discrimination , and stated that he would dismiss members of the Army who engaged in such conduct .
= = = Ethnic composition = = =
A high percentage of ADF personnel are drawn from the Anglo @-@ Celtic portion of Australia 's population . In 2007 the proportion of ADF personnel born in Australia and the other predominately Anglo @-@ Celtic countries was higher than this population group 's share of both the Australian workforce and overall population . As a result , analyst Mark Thomson has argued that the ADF is unrepresentative of Australia 's society in this regard and that recruiting more personnel from other ethnic backgrounds would improve the ADF 's language skills and cultural empathy .
The ADO is seeking to expand the number of Indigenous Australians it recruits and improve their retention rate . Restrictions on Indigenous Australians ' ability to enlist in the military existed until the 1970s , though hundreds of Indigenous men and women had joined the military when restrictions were reduced during the world wars . By 1992 the representation of Indigenous Australians in the ADF was equivalent to their proportion of the Australian population , though they continue to be under @-@ represented among the officer corps . Two of the Army 's three Regional Force Surveillance Units ( NORFORCE and the 51st Battalion , Far North Queensland Regiment ) are manned mostly by Indigenous Australian reservists . In 2007 Indigenous Australians made up 1 @.@ 4 % of permanent ADF personnel and 1 @.@ 8 % of reservists .
= = = Sexuality = = =
Australia allows gay men and lesbians to serve openly . Openly gay and lesbian personnel were banned from the ADF until November 1992 when the Australian Government decided to remove this prohibition . The heads of the services and most military personnel opposed this change at the time , and it caused considerable public debate . Opponents of lifting the ban on gay and lesbian personnel argued that doing so would greatly harm the ADF 's cohesiveness and cause large numbers of resignations . This did not eventuate , and the reform caused relatively few problems . A 2000 study found that lifting the ban on gay service did not have any negative effects on the ADF 's morale , effectiveness or recruitment and retention , and may have led to increased productivity and improved working environments .
Since 1 January 2009 same @-@ sex couples have had the same access to military retirement pensions and superannuation as opposite @-@ sex couples . Transgender personnel are also permitted to serve in the ADF , and are provided with support when necessary . The ADF has permitted a contingent of gay and lesbian personnel to march together in the Sydney Mardi Gras since 2008 , and from 2013 these personnel were authorised to wear their uniforms during the parade .
= = Defence expenditure and procurement = =
= = = Current expenditure = = =
The Australian Government allocated A $ 31 @.@ 9 billion to the Australian Defence Organisation in the 2015 – 16 financial year . This level of expenditure is equivalent to approximately 1 @.@ 92 % of Australian Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) . This was an increase from the A $ 25 @.@ 4 billion allocated in the 2013 – 14 financial year which represented approximately 1 @.@ 59 % of GDP . In 2013 – 14 the Defence budget was 6 @.@ 6 % of the Government 's planned expenditure . In broad terms , 42 @.@ 2 % of the 2011 – 12 defence budget will be allocated to personnel expenses , 35 @.@ 4 % to operating costs and 22 @.@ 4 % to investment . The amount allocated to defence in the 2013 – 14 budget was 2 @.@ 3 % higher than that in the previous year 's budget in real terms , though the 2012 – 13 expenditure was the lowest proportion of GDP to be allocated to Defence since 1938 . The 2013 – 14 budget also forecast that total expenditure on Defence over the next six years will be $ 200 billion , representing a real annual growth rate of 2 @.@ 5 % . This was despite the former Labor Government promising to increase Defence spending by 3 % in real terms until 2016 at the 2007 election .
The 2009 defence white paper included a commitment to increase defence spending by 3 % in real terms each year over a 21 @-@ year period . The white paper also specified that defence would be required to undertake a package of reforms named the ' Strategic Reform Program ' which aimed to save A $ 20 @.@ 6 billion over ten years through improvements to management practices and other efficiencies . However , the actual rate of growth in funding over the seven years covered by the white paper will be 1 % .
In relative terms , Australia 's defence expenditure as a proportion of GDP is greater than that of most developed Western nations , but is smaller than the proportion allocated to defence by Australia 's larger neighbours . The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute has estimated that Australia 's defence spending in 2010 was the 13th highest of any country in purchasing power parity terms . As a proportion of GDP Australia 's defence spending ranks as 57th of the countries for which data is available .
= = = Long term procurement projects = = =
The Defence Capability Plan ( DCP ) sets out the ADF 's long term capital programs . DCPs have been regularly produced since 2000 . The current public version DCP , which was released in 2009 and updated in late 2010 , contains 140 projects and phases of projects which have a total estimated cost of A $ 153 billion in 2010 dollars . Work on these projects will take place between 2011 and 2020 . The most expensive and complex projects in the DCP are the Collins class submarine replacement project , the purchase of at least 72 F @-@ 35 Lightning II fighters , upgrades to the RAAF 's Wedgetail AEW & C aircraft , the replacement of many of the ADF 's wheeled vehicles , the replacement of the Army 's ASLAV and M @-@ 113s and the development of new offshore combatant vessels and frigates to replace most of the RAN 's surface combatants .
= = Current equipment = =
The Australian Defence Force seeks to be a high @-@ technology force , and much of its equipment is scheduled to be replaced or upgraded in the near future . Australia does not possess weapons of mass destruction and has ratified the Biological Weapons Convention , Chemical Weapons Convention and Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty . Although most of the ADF 's weapons are only used by single service , there is an increasing emphasis on commonality . The three services use the same small arms and the FN Herstal 35 is the ADF 's standard hand gun , the F88 Austeyr the standard rifle , the F89 Minimi the standard light support weapon , the FN Herstal MAG @-@ 58 the standard light machine gun and the Browning M2HB the standard heavy machine gun .
The Royal Australian Navy operates 47 commissioned ships and submarines , and 3 non @-@ commissioned vessels . The Navy 's 11 frigates are its most capable surface combatants ; the three remaining Adelaide @-@ class frigates provide the RAN 's surface offensive capability , while the eight Anzac @-@ class frigates are general purpose escorts . The RAN 's submarine force has six Collins @-@ class submarines . There are 13 Armidale @-@ class patrol boats for border security and fisheries patrol duties in Australia 's northern waters . The RAN 's amphibious force comprises the two Canberra @-@ class landing helicopter docks and the dock landing ship HMAS Choules . The Navy 's minesweeping force operates six Huon @-@ class minehunters . Two replenishment vessels ( Sirius and Success ) and six survey vessels ( the Leeuwin and Paluma classes ) support these combatants . Non @-@ commissioned ships operated by the RAN include the sail training ship Young Endeavour and two Cape @-@ class patrol boats leased to the RAN from the Australian Border Force . As of September 2014 , the Fleet Air Arm 's helicopter force comprised 42 helicopters ; 16 Seahawks and 4 MH @-@ 60R Romeos for anti @-@ submarine tasks , 6 MRH 90 transport helicopters , 13 Eurocopter AS350 Squirrels and 3 Bell 429 GlobalRangers for training purposes .
The Australian Army is primarily a light infantry force with equipment which may be carried by individual soldiers . It is also equipped with armoured vehicles and artillery ; the Army is introducing more armoured vehicles into service as part of the ' hardened and networked army ' initiative . The Army 's armoured , mechanised and motorised units are currently equipped with 59 M1A1 Abrams main battle tanks , 774 M113 armoured personnel carriers ( including vehicles in store ) , and 257 ASLAV armoured reconnaissance vehicles . 838 Bushmaster Protected Mobility Vehicles are currently in service with 214 on order as of July 2012 . The Army 's artillery holdings consist of 112 L119 Hamel 105 mm calibre towed guns , 36 155 mm towed M198 howitzers , an unspecified number of 81 mm mortars and 30 RBS @-@ 70 surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . As of July 2015 , Australian Army Aviation is equipped with 115 helicopters , including 19 Kiowa reconnaissance helicopters , 22 Eurocopter Tiger armed reconnaissance helicopters , 34 S @-@ 70A @-@ 9 Blackhawk , six CH @-@ 47D Chinooks , one CH @-@ 47F Chinook ( with six on order ) , 27 of a planned 46 MRH 90 transport helicopters , and 12 Bell 206 training aircraft . The Army also operates 18 AAI RQ @-@ 7 Shadows as well as several ScanEagle and Skylark unmanned aerial vehicles . To support amphibious operations , the Army is equipped with 15 LCM @-@ 8 watercraft .
The Royal Australian Air Force operates combat , maritime patrol , transport and training aircraft . As at July 2015 the combat aircraft force comprised 71 F / A @-@ 18A and B Hornets and 24 F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets . The maritime patrol force was equipped with 15 AP @-@ 3C Orions and 6 Boeing E @-@ 7A Wedgetail AEW & C aircraft . The air transport force operated 12 C @-@ 130J @-@ 30 Super Hercules , 6 C @-@ 17 Globemaster IIIs with 2 on order , 2 C @-@ 27 Spartans with 8 on order and 9 Super King Air 200 / 300 utility transport aircraft . The RAAF also operates 3 Bombardier Challenger and 2 Boeing Business Jet 737 aircraft as VIP transports . 5 Airbus KC @-@ 30B Multi @-@ Role Tanker Transports were in service . The RAAF also operates 67 Pilatus PC @-@ 9 , 8 Beechcraft B300 King Air and 33 Hawk 127 training aircraft .
= = Current bases = =
The Australian Defence Force maintains 60 major bases and many other facilities across all the states and territories of Australia . These bases occupy millions of hectares of land , giving the ADO Australia 's largest real estate portfolio . Defence Housing Australia manages around 17 @,@ 000 residences occupied by members of the ADF . While most of the Army 's permanent force units are based in northern Australia , the majority of Navy and Air Force units are based near Sydney , Brisbane and Perth . Few ADF bases are currently shared by different services . Small Army and RAAF units are also located at Royal Malaysian Air Force Base Butterworth .
The administrative headquarters of the ADF and the three services is located in Canberra alongside the main offices of the Department of Defence and Defence Materiel Organisation and the interim headquarters of Joint Operations Command . JOC and the other operational headquarters will be co @-@ located near Bungendore , New South Wales as part of the Headquarters Joint Operations Command Project .
The Royal Australian Navy has two main bases ; Fleet Base East ( HMAS Kuttabul ) in Sydney and Fleet Base West ( HMAS Stirling ) near Perth . The Navy 's operational headquarters , Fleet Headquarters , is located adjacent to Fleet Base East . The majority of the Navy 's patrol boats are based at HMAS Coonawarra in Darwin , Northern Territory with the remaining patrol boats and the hydrographic fleet located at HMAS Cairns in Cairns . The Fleet Air Arm is based at HMAS Albatross near Nowra , New South Wales .
The Australian Army 's regular units are concentrated in a few bases , most of which are located in Australia 's northern states . The Army 's operational headquarters , Forces Command , is located at Victoria Barracks in Sydney . Most elements of the Army 's three regular brigades are based at Robertson Barracks near Darwin , Lavarack Barracks in Townsville , Queensland , and Gallipoli Barracks in Brisbane . The Deployable Joint Force ( Land ) Headquarters is also located at Gallipoli Barracks . Other important Army bases include the Army Aviation Centre near Oakey , Queensland , Holsworthy Barracks near Sydney , Woodside Barracks near Adelaide , South Australia and Campbell Barracks in Perth . Dozens of Army Reserve depots are located across Australia .
The Royal Australian Air Force maintains several air bases , including three which are only occasionally activated . The RAAF 's operational headquarters , Air Command , is located at RAAF Base Glenbrook near Sydney . The Air Force 's combat aircraft are based at RAAF Base Amberley near Ipswich , Queensland , RAAF Base Tindal near Katherine , Northern Territory and RAAF Base Williamtown near Newcastle , New South Wales . The RAAF 's maritime patrol aircraft are based at RAAF Base Edinburgh near Adelaide and most of its transport aircraft are based at RAAF Base Richmond in Sydney . RAAF Base Edinburgh is also home to the control centre for the Jindalee Operational Radar Network . Most of the RAAF 's training aircraft are based at RAAF Base Pearce near Perth with the remaining aircraft located at RAAF Base East Sale near Sale , Victoria and RAAF Base Williamtown . The RAAF also maintains a network of bases in northern Australia to support operations to Australia 's north . These bases include RAAF Base Darwin and RAAF Base Townsville and three ' bare bases ' in Queensland and Western Australia . Of the RAAF 's operational bases , only Tindal is located near an area in which the service 's aircraft might feasibly see combat . While this protects the majority of the RAAF 's assets from air attack , most air bases are poorly defended and aircraft are generally hangared in un @-@ hardened shelters .
= = Domestic responsibilities = =
The Australian Defence Force has domestic responsibilities . In most of these tasks the ADF supports the relevant civilian authorities . These responsibilities are typically undertaken by specialised elements of the ADF , though the services ' combat elements can be deployed within Australia in response to major emergencies .
The ADF makes a significant contribution to Australia 's domestic maritime security . ADF ships , aircraft and Regional Force Surveillance Units conduct patrols of northern Australia in conjunction with the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service . This operation , which is code @-@ named Operation Resolute , is commanded by the Border Protection Command which is jointly manned by members of the ADF and Customs . Up to 400 personnel were assigned to Operation Resolute in July 2010 .
While the ADF does not have a significant nation @-@ building role , it provides assistance to remote Indigenous Australian communities through the Army Aboriginal Community Assistance Program . Under this program , which has been conducted since 1996 , an engineer squadron works with one community for several months each year to upgrade local infrastructure and provide training . The ADF also took part in the intervention in remote Northern Territory Indigenous communities between June 2007 and October 2008 . During this operation ADF personnel provided logistical support to the Northern Territory Emergency Response Task Force and helped conduct child health checks .
The ADF shares responsibility for counter @-@ terrorism with civilian law enforcement agencies . Under the Australian National Counter @-@ Terrorism Plan the State and Territory police and emergency services have the primary responsibility for responding to any terrorist incidents on Australian territory . If a terrorist threat or the consequences of an incident are beyond the capacity of civilian authorities to resolve the ADF may be ' called out ' to provide support . To meet its counter @-@ terrorism responsibilities the ADF maintains two elite Tactical Assault Groups , the Special Operations Engineer Regiment as well as a company @-@ sized high readiness group in each Army Reserve brigade and the 1st Commando Regiment . While these forces provide a substantial counter @-@ terrorism capability , the ADF does not regard domestic security as being part of its ' core business ' .
= = Foreign defence relations = =
The Australian Defence Force cooperates with militaries around the world . Australia 's formal military agreements include the ANZUS Alliance with the United States of America , the Closer Defence Program with New Zealand and the Five Power Defence Arrangements with Malaysia , Singapore , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . Australia is currently developing closer security ties with Japan . ADF activities under these agreements include participating in joint planning , intelligence sharing , personnel exchanges , equipment standardisation programs and joint exercises . Australia is also a member of the UKUSA signals intelligence gathering agreement .
New Zealand , Singapore and the United States maintain military units in Australia . The New Zealand and Singaporean forces are limited to small training units at ADF bases , with the New Zealand contingent comprising nine Army personnel involved in air navigation training . Two Republic of Singapore Air Force pilot training squadrons are based in Australia ; 126 Squadron at the Oakey Army Aviation Centre and 130 Squadron at RAAF Base Pearce . The Singapore Army also uses the Shoalwater Bay Military Training Area in Queensland for annual large @-@ scale exercises .
Two United States intelligence and communications facilities are located in Australia ; the Pine Gap satellite tracking station near Alice Springs and Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt near Exmouth , Western Australia . Pine Gap is jointly operated by Australian and United States personnel and Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt has been an exclusively Australian @-@ operated facility since 1999 . In early 2007 the Australian Government approved the construction of a new unmanned US communications installation at the Defence Signals Directorate Australian Defence Satellite Communications Station facility near Geraldton , Western Australia . The United States Military also frequently uses Australian exercise areas and these facilities have been upgraded to support joint Australian @-@ United States training . As well as these facilities , between 200 and 300 US Military personnel are posted to Australia to liaise with the ADF and in November 2011 the Australian and American Governments announced plans to rotate United States Marine Corps and United States Air Force units through bases in the Northern Territory for training purposes .
The ADF provides assistance to militaries in Australia 's region through the Defence Cooperation Program . Under this program the ADF provides assistance with training , infrastructure , equipment and logistics and participates in joint exercises with countries in South East Asia and Oceania . The Pacific Patrol Boat Program is the largest Defence Cooperation Program activity and supports 22 Pacific class patrol boats operated by twelve South Pacific countries . Other important activities include supporting the development of the Timor Leste Defence Force and Papua New Guinea Defence Force and supplying watercraft to the Armed Forces of the Philippines . Australia also directly contributes to the defence of Pacific countries by periodically deploying warships and aircraft to patrol their territorial waters ; this includes an annual deployment of RAAF AP @-@ 3 Orions to the region as part of a multi @-@ national maritime surveillance operation . Under an informal agreement Australia is responsible for the defence of Nauru .
= = Assessment of capabilities = =
The ADF 's capabilities enable it to carry out a range of tasks . The size of the force that the government can deploy differs according to the likelihood of high @-@ intensity combat and the distance from Australia . In overall terms , Dr. Mark Thomson of the Australian Strategic Policy Institute assesses the ADF 's size and capability as being typical for a Western nation with Australia 's economic and population base .
The ADF has probably the most capable air and naval capabilities in the South @-@ East Asia region , though the small size of the Army and the age of much of the RAN and RAAF 's equipment constrains Australia 's ability to make large @-@ scale deployments or engage in high @-@ intensity combat . The ADF 's personnel shortages may also limit its ability to quickly conduct new deployments .
The ADF is highly capable of defeating direct attacks on Australia by conventional forces , though such attacks are highly improbable at present . The ADF 's intelligence gathering capabilities should enable it to detect any attacking force before it reaches Australia . Once detected , the RAN and RAAF would be able to defeat the attacking force while it was still in Australia 's maritime approaches . The Army and RAAF are also capable of defeating small raiding forces once they are detected . The ADF currently maintains sufficient forces to meet its domestic security and counter @-@ terrorism responsibilities .
The RAN and RAAF are capable of deploying significant numbers of capable ships and aircraft , these forces are large and modern enough to operate independently in a high @-@ threat environment and would typically make up a small part of a larger international coalition force . Due to its relatively small size the Army 's capability for high intensity warfare is more limited than that of the other services .
As a result of these limitations , the ADF is capable of providing only relatively small , but high @-@ quality , ' niche ' forces for high intensity warfare . Such forces include the Navy 's submarines , the Army 's special forces and the RAAF 's Orion aircraft . However , the ADF 's logistic capabilities are insufficient to independently supply such forces deployed in areas distant from Australia . As a result , the ADF can only contribute forces to high intensity warfare outside of Australia 's region when larger coalition partners provide logistical support .
The ADF is highly capable of undertaking peacekeeping operations around the world . The Navy 's frigates and transport ships , the Army 's light infantry battalions and the RAAF 's transport aircraft are well @-@ suited to peacekeeping . The ADF has the capability to undertake peacekeeping and low @-@ intensity warfare operations independently in Australia 's region and can sustain such deployments for a lengthy period . It is also capable of leading international peacekeeping forces in the Asia @-@ Pacific region and , in the unlikely event of an external attack , defending Australia 's Pacific neighbours .
= = = Works consulted = = =
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= Battle of Old Trafford =
The " Battle of Old Trafford " is a name used by the British press to refer to a Premier League match played on Sunday , 21 September 2003 between Manchester United and Arsenal . The name was later applied to the same fixture during the following season . The final result , a 0 – 0 draw , turned out to be significant for Arsenal as they went on to finish the league season without a single defeat , something that had only been achieved once before in English football , by Preston North End in 1888 – 89 .
The highlights of the match included the sending @-@ off of Arsenal captain Patrick Vieira for a second bookable offence , for an incident that also brought about a booking for Manchester United centre @-@ forward Ruud van Nistelrooy , and the decision by referee Steve Bennett to award Manchester United a penalty kick in the last minute of the match . Players from both teams were charged by The Football Association ( the FA ) for their reactions at the end of the game , five Arsenal players and two Manchester United players were forced to pay fines .
= = Background = =
Fixtures between Manchester United and Arsenal had seen a number of controversial incidents in the previous seasons . The rivalry between the two clubs had grown more intense since the formation of the Premier League in 1992 , since when all but one Premier League title had been won by Manchester United or Arsenal ( Blackburn Rovers won the title in 1994 – 95 ) . However , the rivalry could be traced back to Alex Ferguson 's first fixture against Arsenal as United manager in 1987 , when David Rocastle was sent off and a row erupted . The following season , Brian McClair missed a penalty for United in an FA Cup tie and Nigel Winterburn made a point of aggravating him . McClair got his revenge in 1990 : after a lunging tackle from Winterburn on Denis Irwin , McClair and Irwin both kicked Winterburn while he lay on the floor , sparking a 21 @-@ man brawl . Both teams were fined and deducted points and it has often been suggested that this was a turning point in relations . The rivalry continued to intensify as " hard men " such as Patrick Vieira , Roy Keane and Martin Keown joined the sides .
The previous league match between the two clubs in April 2003 at Highbury was a competitive and bad @-@ tempered affair . In a match that finished in a 2 – 2 draw , Sol Campbell received a straight red card for violent conduct after elbowing Ole Gunnar Solskjær in the face . Manchester United went on to claim the title from Arsenal by five points after clawing back from being eight points down at the start of March 2003 .
The clubs had also been paired together in the fourth round of the FA Cup in February 2003 . Paul Scholes and Ruud van Nistelrooy of Manchester United , and Patrick Vieira of Arsenal were all shown yellow cards within the first seven minutes of the match and referee Jeff Winter had to call Vieira and Roy Keane together to calm their team @-@ mates down . Keane himself received a yellow card in the first half and Ryan Giggs missed an open goal from 18 yards . Arsenal eventually won the match 2 – 0 and the result infuriated Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson to such an extent that he kicked a boot across the changing room that hit David Beckham above the left eye .
As Manchester United and Arsenal won the Premier League and FA Cup respectively , both teams met in another heated match at the Millennium Stadium a month earlier for the 2003 Community Shield . Phil Neville was booked in the first minute for a challenge on Patrick Vieira , and a minute later Ashley Cole received a booking for fouling Ole Gunnar Solskjær . Yellow cards were also given to Quinton Fortune and Paul Scholes for United and Patrick Vieira for Arsenal , Arsenal substitute Francis Jeffers was shown a straight red for a kick on Phil Neville and , despite originally going unpunished , Sol Campbell was later given a three @-@ match ban by the FA for kicking out at Eric Djemba @-@ Djemba . The game finished 1 – 1 after 90 minutes and United eventually won the Shield 4 – 3 on penalties . Ruud van Nistelrooy had his spot kick saved by debutant Jens Lehmann but it was his opposite number and fellow debutant Tim Howard who was the hero , saving penalties from Giovanni van Bronckhorst and Robert Pirès .
Arsenal entered the match in second place in the Premier League after five matches , holding an unbeaten record that stretched back to the end of the previous season . Manchester United were a point behind Arsenal in third place , but they had already lost one match that season , against Southampton three weeks earlier .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Arsenal were missing defender Sol Campbell from their team after the death of his father , and manager Arsène Wenger dropped wingers Robert Pirès and Sylvain Wiltord in favour of Ray Parlour and Fredrik Ljungberg , creating a more physical midfield . Wenger 's tactics worked , as the Arsenal defence withstood the pressure from the Manchester United attack . United themselves were without Paul Scholes due to injury , and they played a 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 formation with Phil Neville , Roy Keane and Quinton Fortune completing a defensively minded midfield .
When Cristiano Ronaldo was fouled on the right wing 40 yards from goal in the 13th minute , Ryan Giggs was presented with the first chance of the match ; although intended as a cross , Giggs ' free @-@ kick hit the outside of the post . Another foul on Ronaldo gave Giggs another chance to apply pressure with a crossed free @-@ kick shortly after , but Ruud van Nistelrooy was only able to loop the ball over the goal with his head with goalkeeper Jens Lehmann beaten . Arsenal 's attacking play lacked their usual ambition , with their best opportunity coming in the 75th minute , when a deft touch from Dennis Bergkamp almost played Patrick Vieira into the penalty area .
The match was characterised by a large number of fouls – 13 by United , 18 by Arsenal – and referee Steve Bennett showed four yellow cards to each team , although most of those came as a result of the fracas at the end of the game . Vieira was booked in the 77th minute for a foul on Quinton Fortune , and was shown a second yellow card not long after , in the 80th minute . In challenging for a high ball outside the Arsenal penalty area , Van Nistelrooy jumped up onto Vieira 's back . Vieira fell to the ground and kicked out at Van Nistelrooy in retaliation , causing the Manchester United striker to jump backwards . Van Nistelrooy was booked for the original foul , and although Vieira 's kick failed to connect with the Dutchman , the referee believed that the intent was there and booked Vieira for the second time , resulting in his dismissal .
Despite Arsenal being reduced to 10 men , the scores remained level as the game went into its final minute , when Diego Forlán went to ground in the penalty area under a challenge from Arsenal defender Martin Keown while trying to reach a Gary Neville cross . The referee deemed this a foul and awarded a penalty . Van Nistelrooy stepped up to take the penalty , despite having missed his previous two penalties for Manchester United . Lehmann tried to put him off by moving from side to side along the goal line , and it appeared to work : the shot hit the bar and rebounded back into play , and the Dutchman was immediately confronted by Keown . Within a minute , the final whistle blew and the match finished as a goalless draw .
At the final whistle , Van Nistelrooy was immediately confronted by Arsenal players Martin Keown , Lauren , Ray Parlour , Ashley Cole and Kolo Touré . Keown jumped up next to Van Nistelrooy and brought his arms down hard on the Dutchman 's back , while Lauren pushed Van Nistelrooy in the back and Parlour and Cole offered verbal abuse . Van Nistelrooy did not react and was escorted away by Manchester United captain Roy Keane , but the incident escalated away from the two of them . In defence of their team @-@ mate , Manchester United players Ryan Giggs , Cristiano Ronaldo , Gary Neville , Mikaël Silvestre , Quinton Fortune and Rio Ferdinand also became involved in the situation .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Aftermath = =
In the post @-@ match interviews , Van Nistelrooy was accused by both Vieira and Arsenal 's manager , Arsène Wenger , of feigning contact to get Vieira sent off , while United manager Alex Ferguson defended his player and denied he had dived .
As a result of these reactions , six Arsenal players , two Manchester United players and Arsenal Football Club itself were charged with improper conduct by The Football Association . As a club , Arsenal were charged with " failing to ensure the proper behaviour of their players " , while their players ' charges ranged from one charge of improper conduct for Ashley Cole 's " involvement in a confrontation with Cristiano Ronaldo after the final whistle " to Lauren 's two counts of violent behaviour for " kicking out at Quinton Fortune following the penalty award and for forcibly pushing Ruud van Nistelrooy in the back following the final whistle " , and two counts of improper conduct for " confronting Van Nistelrooy after Patrick Vieira 's sending @-@ off , and for confronting Ryan Giggs after the final whistle " . Manchester United as a club were not charged , but Ryan Giggs was charged with improper conduct for " his involvement in a confrontation with Lauren after the match had ended " and Cristiano Ronaldo was charged with improper conduct for " confronting Martin Keown at the conclusion of the match " . Phil Neville was also warned about his future behaviour .
Arsenal and their players pleaded guilty to the charges against them , but still received a £ 175 @,@ 000 fine , the largest ever given to a club by the FA . Lauren , Martin Keown , Patrick Vieira and Ray Parlour were all suspended for between one and four matches : Lauren received a four @-@ game ban – half of the potential ban he could have received – and a £ 40 @,@ 000 fine ; Keown was suspended for three matches and had to pay a £ 20 @,@ 000 fine ; Vieira and Parlour were given one @-@ game bans and had to pay £ 20 @,@ 000 and £ 10 @,@ 000 respectively . Jens Lehmann was originally charged but this was later dropped . Ashley Cole was not suspended but was given a £ 10 @,@ 000 fine . Ryan Giggs and Cristiano Ronaldo both pleaded not guilty to their involvement in the incident , but after a five @-@ hour hearing in December 2003 , Giggs was handed a £ 7 @,@ 500 fine and Ronaldo a £ 4 @,@ 000 fine and both were warned about their future conduct .
Arsenal finished the league season without a single defeat and earned the tag of The Invincibles , a tag once given to the 1888 – 89 Preston North End team , the only previous team to go through a league season undefeated . Van Nistelrooy 's missed penalty , therefore , was a crucial moment in Arsenal 's season . The return fixture between the two sides at Highbury finished as a 1 – 1 draw and passed without incident . The team was recognised for its excellent conduct throughout the rest of the campaign , being awarded the season 's Fair Play Award . Manchester United finished in third place in the league table behind Chelsea but defeated Millwall in the 2004 FA Cup Final . Their run included a semi @-@ final victory against Arsenal courtesy of a Paul Scholes goal . The following season , after Manchester United had brought Arsenal 's unbeaten run to an end after 49 matches , the two clubs were involved in another incident at Old Trafford , variously dubbed the Battle of Old Trafford II , the Battle of the Buffet or simply the Battle of Old Trafford .
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= Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde =
Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde is the debut album of American hip hop group The Pharcyde , released on November 24 , 1992 through Delicious Vinyl Records . The album was produced by former group member J @-@ Swift , and features only one guest appearance , provided by little known Los Angeles rapper Bucwheed ( known then as " Buckwheat " from The Wascals ) . In the years after its release , Bizarre Ride has been hailed by music critics and alternative hip hop fans , as a classic hip hop album along with Souls of Mischief 's " 93 ' til Infinity " , and has appeared in numerous publications ' " best albums " lists .
Released during the dominant Gangsta rap era of West Coast hip hop , Bizarre Ride was described as " refreshing " due to its playful , light @-@ hearted humor and lush , jazzy production . Along with albums such as To Whom It May Concern ... by Freestyle Fellowship , and I Wish My Brother George Was Here by Del tha Funkee Homosapien , Bizarre Ride helped establish a new alternative scene on the West Coast , followed by artists such as Hieroglyphics , The Coup and Jurassic 5 . Despite its wide critical acclaim , the album produced only moderate sales , peaking at No. 75 on the Billboard 200 album chart in 1993 . However , on the strength of the second single , " Passin ' Me By " , the album was certified gold in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 28 , 1996 .
= = Conception = =
= = = Background = = =
High school friends " Slimkid3 " ( Tre Hardson ) , " Imani " ( Emandu Wilcox ) and " Bootie Brown " ( Romye Robinson ) began their career in the entertainment industry as dancers and choreographers under the moniker " Two For Two " , making numerous appearances in music videos . Their most notable exposure came with a short stint on the television show In Living Color . While working on the show , the group met their future manager Suave , then a road manager for Candyman and Tone Loc . The trio met Derrick " Fatlip " Stewart and producer John " J @-@ Swift " Martinez at an after @-@ school music program called South Central Unit . The program 's teacher , Reggie Andrews , taught the group about essential elements of the music industry , and later oversaw the group 's writing and recording sessions . While attending SCU , the group recorded their first demo tape , which included the track " Ya Mama " . In 1991 , the group signed a deal with Delicious Vinyl Records , following a performance of the track " Ya Mama " at an artist showcase . Soon after , the group made their first notable appearance , with the track " Soul Flower " , released on the Heavy Rhyme Experience album by the Brand New Heavies .
= = = Recording = = =
The four emcees , along with producer J @-@ Swift , began recording their debut album in 1991 at the Hollywood Sounds studio in California , with Delicious Vinyl Records head Michael Ross overseeing the project as Executive Producer . J @-@ Swift produced 10 songs and five interludes — 15 of the album 's 16 tracks . Before the completion of the album , Swift had a falling @-@ out with the group over internal problems . He claimed that he was not properly compensated for his work , and that the other group members had tried to take production credit , when he had crafted all the beats himself . After leaving Pharcyde , J @-@ Swift began a crack cocaine habit , which he has yet to completely recover from . In a 2006 interview with Mass Appeal Magazine , Swift stated :
I would be in the studio crying ’ cause I couldn ’ t believe that I was in the situation that I was in . I was like , What did I do to deserve this ? All I did was try to help everybody , so I was kinda feeling sorry for myself . I was feeling suicidal but I knew that I didn ’ t have the balls to put a gun to my head , so I figured I ’ d smoke dope and just kill myself off this dope .
Now without a producer or a finished product , the group recruited local producer L.A. Jay to craft the album 's final recording , " Otha Fish " , which was also co @-@ produced by SlimKid 3 .
= = Music = =
= = = Lyrical content = = =
Much of the album 's acclaim was due to the eccentric , comedic content provided by the four emcees , who were described as a " pack of class clowns set loose in a studio " by Rolling Stone . The album 's wacky storytelling and light @-@ hearted playfulness provided an alternative to the pessimistic , hardcore hip hop that had ruled the scene at the time . Due to its light lyrical content , the album has been described as an extension of the " Daisy Age " , established by De La Soul and the Native Tongues Posse . AllMusic described the group 's rapping as " amazing " , and stated , " The L.A.-based quartet introduced listeners to an uproarious vision of earthy hip @-@ hop informed by P @-@ Funk silliness and an everybody @-@ on @-@ the @-@ mic street @-@ corner atmosphere that highlights the incredible rapping skills of each member . " Instead of focusing on the troubles of the inner city , the quartet use their verses to provide humorous first @-@ person narratives , with varying topics . On the album opener " Oh Shit " , SlimKid , Imani and Fatlip trade embarrassing tales about drunken antics , unusual sex partners and transsexuals . SlimKid , Imani and guest rapper Buckwheat use the song " On the DL " to vent personal stories that they 'd like to be kept " on the down @-@ low " , with topics including masturbation and murder . On the single " 4 Better or 4 Worse " , Fatlip dedicates an entire verse to prank calling , in which the rapper spouts insane and psychotic threats while a confused female victim continually threatens to call the police . The group 's debut single " Ya Mama " , described by the Rolling Stone Album Guide as the album 's most memorable track , calling it a " marathon game of the dozens " , sees the four rappers trading comical insults towards each other 's mothers . An online reviewer comments on the group 's humorous rapping style :
The first album by the lovably obnoxious California rappers , is a wonderfully adventurous exploration that covers almost every social topic known to man in the best way possible – with a brilliant mixture of low and high comedy and introspective contemplation . The four rappers that form The Pharcyde are all very humorous , thoughtful , surprsingly lucid and self @-@ depreciating , and most importantly , they can actually rap .
While the majority of the album has a focus on comedic stories , the song " Officer " touches on the topic of racial profiling . " Otha Fish " finds the group rising up and moving on from their past hang @-@ ups as described in the previous track , " Passing Me By " , the album 's hit single . On the song , the four recount heartbreaking tales of school @-@ boy crushes that had eluded them . Their mix of humor and social insight was one factor in the album 's acclaim . An editorial reviewer comments on the group 's unique style :
When the Pharcyde burst onto the scene in the summer of ' 92 with its brilliantly disconnected grab bag Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde , it seemed at first an innocuously enjoyable , goofy if somewhat lightweight disc . However , it would swiftly become clear that there were deeper waters stirring within the Pharcyde 's rhymes and rhythms , and that the group 's style was unlike that of those who came before . The main distinction came in the Pharcyde 's subject matters , which run the gamut from the usual sexual conquests all the way to rejection and masturbation . The group 's lyrics are often reflective and vulnerable , bordering on self @-@ deprecating at times . While many rappers who came before poked fun at themselves as a gimmick , the Pharcyde relates its rebuffs with confident candor . "
= = = Production = = =
Bizarre Ride also featured the acclaimed production work of J @-@ Swift , who provides the album with a lush , jazzy soundscape through use of live instrumentation and sampling . Swift relied on a large number of samples , by artists including James Brown , Donald Byrd , Sly & the Family Stone , The Meters , Quincy Jones , Jimi Hendrix , Roy Ayers and Marvin Gaye . Aside from the samples , Swift also provided piano , bass and rhodes on the album , and fellow producer JMD provided drum arrangements . These upbeat key arrangements and quick @-@ paced drum loops provide much of the backdrop for the rapper 's animated lyrical deliveries . Allmusic calls the album 's production " easily some of the tightest and most inventive of any hip @-@ hop record of the era . " NME magazine stated , " The Pharcyde use jazz samples and phat beats to the ultimate effect : to create their own sonic Utopia . " . An online review describes the album 's unique musical atmosphere and layered production :
The music on the album is very lush and multi @-@ layered , with a mixture of live instruments , turntable wankery , and samples from jazz , R & B , funk , classic rock and everything in between . Powerful beats pervade , with some of the most kinetic bass lines this side of funkadelic . The Pharcyde forgoes the minimalism that now dominates mainstream rap music , favoring intense rhythmic layering and a strong melodic element instead . Piano lines cascade down dropping bass lines while three or four vocal tracks attack from all sides . The music is jaunty , elaborate and even atmospheric in parts ( consider the stoner rap anthem " Pack the Pipe " ) , all of it drawn tightly together with the band 's satirical lyrical outlook .
= = = Singles = = =
Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde featured four singles , all of which were accompanied by music videos . The group 's debut single , " Ya Mama " , was originally released in 1991 , then re @-@ packaged by Delicious Vinyl in 1992 , with two additional songs , " I 'm That Type of Nigga " and " Soul Flower " . Though the song landed the group their record deal , it failed to reach any Billboard singles chart . Their first major exposure came with the release of the album 's second single , " Passin ' Me By " . Utilizing a sample from Quincy Jones ' " Summer in the City " , the song became the group 's biggest crossover hit , peaking at No. 52 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and No. 1 on the Hot Rap Singles chart . The song was later featured on the soundtrack to , and in Adam Sandler 's 1999 film Big Daddy . The song is now considered a classic hip hop single , and was later included on comprehensive hip hop compilation albums like The Hip Hop Box and Hip Hop Gold . The album 's third single , " 4 Better or 4 Worse " , was released in mid @-@ 1993 , and featured the stoner song " Pack the Pipe " and the throwback track " Return of the B @-@ Boy " as its B @-@ Side . The single did not reach any Billboard chart . The final single , the SlimKid solo track " Otha Fish " , was released in late 1993 . The song became the second charting single from the album , though not as highly placed as " Passing Me By " , reaching only the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart .
A number of tracks from the album were later remixed . " Ya Mama " , " Soul Flower " , " Otha Fish " , and " Passing Me By " all featured a number of remixes , which were later included on the 2005 Pharcyde compilation album Sold My Soul : The Remix & Rarity Collection .
= = Reception = =
At the time of its release , Bizarre Ride received mostly positive , though at times , mixed reviews . In the years following its release , critical reaction became increasingly more positive . A number of music publications have since recognized the album as a classic . Bizarre Ride was listed on Pitchfork Media 's " Top 100 Favorite Records of the 90s " , and was also featured in the 2005 publication 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , in which it is stated :
When many MCs and rappers were striving to ' keep it real ' , The Pharcyde instead went out of their way to ' keep it original ' . J @-@ Swift 's production , along with the core members , sacrificed the more immediately catchy hooks for greater depth and a lush , soulful sound . While this may have cost them audiences at the time , the album is now a true classic , both of its time and of hip hop . It remains an influence on the scene even today .
Hip hop magazine The Source originally gave the album a humble 3 ½ ( out of 5 ) mic rating , but in 1998 , included Bizarre Ride on their 100 Best Rap Albums list . Allmusic gave the album a perfect 5 Star rating , while Rolling Stone and Q both gave Bizarre Ride positive 4 Star ratings .
An Ink Blot Magazine review called Bizarre Ride " the most fun album ever " , and stated :
Bizarre Ride II The Pharcyde reaffirms every positive stereotype you 've ever heard about hip hop while simultaneously exploding every negative myth with under a barrage of head @-@ twisting rhymes , jazz breaks and straight @-@ up funk . The samples nod ( wink ? ) at the past , the urgency of the rhymes keep things rooted in the present and the vibrancy of the overall vision keeps Bizarre Ride ... reaching for the future . Make no mistake , this is one of the most important records in the history of hip hop . It is the sound of black music 's past erupting in a riot of colour and excitement and possibility . It 'll make you dance , it 'll make you smile , and it 'll make you wanna do it all over again .
NME ( December 25 , 1993 , p . 67 ) – Ranked No. 39 in New Musical Express ' list of `The Top 50 LPs Of 1993 ' – " ... a cartoon @-@ strip of blunt @-@ smoking antics , sexual innuendo and unashamed political incorrectness , crammed with infectious funky beats .... "
In November 2010 , Kanye West named the album as his ' favorite album of all time ' .
= = = Influence = = =
While alternative East Coast hip hop albums , such as De La Soul 's 3 Feet High and Rising ultimately sold over a million copies , there was no equivalent from the West Coast . With Bizarre Ride , The Pharcyde became one of the first alternative acts on the West Coast to sell large numbers of albums . Though Bizarre Ride did reach Gold status , the album 's sales paled in comparison to West Coast G @-@ funk releases of the era , such as The Chronic by Dr. Dre and Doggystyle by Snoop Dogg .
While Bizarre Ride sparked the career of The Pharcyde , the group did not attempt to capitalize on the album 's reception . Following the release , the group set out on the Lollapalooza tour , and waited almost three years to release their second album , Labcabincalifornia . While the album featured two highly regarded hit singles , " Runnin ' " and " Drop " , it received mixed reviews . Critics weighed the album against their debut , and some felt Labcabincalifornia fell victim to the sophomore jinx . Group member Bootie Brown later stated in a 2005 interview :
I don ’ t think it ’ s that they slept on it , they were just expecting a sound like Bizarre [ Ride II ] and we came out with something different . But after people actually listened , they felt it and vibed to it and now it ’ s considered a classic .
Following the release of Labcabincalifornia , member Fatlip split from The Pharcyde , and the group did not return until 2000 , releasing the album Plain Rap to mediocre reviews . Though the album marked the first collaboration between the group and J @-@ Swift , Bootie Brown and Imani had a falling out with SlimKid ( now known by his birth name Tre Hardson ) , before the album was released , turning the group into a duo . In 2004 , Imani and Bootie released the group 's fourth album , Humboldt Beginnings , receiving little attention and harsh reviews . Tre and Fatlip have both since released solo albums , but no project released by the group or its members since their debut has been able to reach the acclaim of Bizarre Ride .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing and production information is taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
All information is taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Chart history = =
= = = Album chart positions = = =
All chart positions from Billboard magazine ( North America ) .
= = = Singles chart positions = = =
All chart positions from Billboard magazine ( North America ) .
= = Accolades = =
Information is taken from Acclaimed Music . ( * ) designates lists which are unordered .
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= SM U @-@ 29 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 29 or U @-@ XXIX was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 29 , built by the Hungarian firm of Ganz Danubius at Fiume , was launched in October 1916 and commissioned in January 1917 .
U @-@ 29 had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
During her service career , U @-@ 29 sank three ships and damaged two others , sending a combined tonnage of 9 @,@ 838 GRT to the bottom . U @-@ 29 was at Fiume at war 's end and was surrendered at Venice in March 1919 . She was granted to France as war reparation in 1920 , but foundered while under tow to Bizerta for scrapping .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 29 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 29 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 29 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
After intricate political negotiations to allocate production of the class between Austrian and Hungarian firms , U @-@ 27 was ordered from Ganz Danubius on 12 October 1915 . She was laid down on 3 March 1916 at Fiume and launched on 21 October .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 29 underwent diving trials at Fiume and then made her way to Pola on 29 November 1916 . There , on 21 January 1917 , SM U @-@ 29 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffleutnant Leo Prásil . Prásil , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old native of Pola , had previously served as commander of U @-@ 10 .
U @-@ 29 departed on her first patrol on 23 January , destined for duty in the Mediterranean . The next day , however , the U @-@ boat encountered a severe storm near Lussin that damaged her . Prásil steered the boat into the harbor at Brgulje to wait out the storm . Departing Brgulje on the 25th to resume her journey to the Mediterranean , the submarine developed a leak when performing a test dive . U @-@ 29 headed back to Pula for repairs , which lasted until 30 January . On 5 February the U @-@ boat set out for Cattaro , which she reached after three days journey .
Prásil took U @-@ 29 out of Cattaro on 17 February to begin the delayed patrol in the Mediterranean , but on the 20th encountered another severe storm . Suffering no damage in the tempest , the boat continued on . On 24 February , she had an at @-@ sea rendezvous with U @-@ 43 . On 1 March the U @-@ boat 's gyrocompass broke down , necessitating a return to port . Two days later , as she neared Cattaro , U @-@ 29 encountered yet another storm , this one again damaging the ship . The beleaguered U @-@ boat headed back to the base at Pula for more repairs , and remained there until early April .
On 4 April , U @-@ 29 set out from Pula , touched at Cattaro , and continued on into the Mediterranean for her second patrol there . While 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ) from Cape Matapan , Prásil torpedoed and sank the steamer Dalton , traveling in ballast . U @-@ 29 took the master of the 3 @,@ 486 @-@ ton British ship captive ; three other men lost their lives in the attack . Five days later and some 115 nautical miles ( 213 km ) away , U @-@ 29 torpedoed Mashobra , a British India Line passenger steamer of 8 @,@ 173 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ship , en route from Calcutta to London with a general cargo , was finished off by U @-@ 29 's deck gun . As with Dalton , Mashobra 's master was taken prisoner . Eight persons died in the attack . U @-@ 29 's gyrocompass broke down again on 17 April , once again forcing the boat to return for repairs . U @-@ 29 's second Mediterranean tour ended when Prásil docked the boat at Cattaro on 19 April .
U @-@ 29 's third Mediterranean deployment began on 8 May when she departed Cattaro . After eleven days at sea , Prásil torpedoed the British cargo ship Mordenwood 90 nautical miles ( 170 km ) from Cape Matapan . U @-@ 29 took the 3 @,@ 125 @-@ ton ship 's master captive . Two sources disagree on the number of casualties when Mordenwood went down , but place the number at either 21 or 31 . Escorting destroyers launched a depth charge attack on U @-@ 29 but did not succeed in damaging the U @-@ boat . Two days later , U @-@ 29 launched a torpedo attack on the British steamer Marie Suzanne but did not sink the ship . U @-@ 29 arrived at Cattaro on 25 May .
After a brief time in port , U @-@ 29 set out for the Mediterranean again on 17 June . One day out , the U @-@ boat came under attack from an airplane out of Valona , compelling U @-@ 29 to crash dive ; none of the three bombs dropped by the aircraft hit their mark . U @-@ 29 's patrol ended without success when she docked at Cattaro on 6 July . After a return to Pola on 12 July , the U @-@ boat underwent extensive repairs that kept her out of action for the next nine months .
On 16 March 1918 , the newly refitted boat sailed from Pola to Cattaro , departing that port for another Mediterranean tour on 25 March . Near Valona the next day , an Italian destroyer attempted to ram U @-@ 29 , scraping one of her propellers against U @-@ 29 's conning tower . The damage done was slight and U @-@ 29 continued on into the Mediterranean , weathering a storm in the Ionian Sea on the 27th . On 4 April , U @-@ 29 launched a torpedo attack on what was thought to be a cargo ship . In fact , it was the British protected cruiser Edgar which had been hit . Edgar was damaged but did not sink ; she suffered no casualties in the attack . The following day Prásil attempted to torpedo a ship in a convoy but missed and was exposed to a depth charge attack by the convoy 's escorts . The U @-@ boat ended the patrol with no further successes .
In June , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy planned an assault on the Otranto Barrage , similar to a May 1917 action that evolved into the Battle of Otranto Straits . U @-@ 29 was deployed from Cattaro on 9 June in advance of the attack . One of the seven separate groups participating in the attack , the two dreadnoughts Tegetthoff and Szent István , came under attack from Italian MAS torpedo boats in the early morning hours of 10 June . Szent István was hit and sank just after 06 : 00 , and the entire operation was called off . U @-@ 29 returned to Cattaro on 12 June . Over the next two months , U @-@ 29 operated in the Adriatic out of Cattaro , patrolling off Durazzo and the Albanian coast .
While at Cattaro , command of U @-@ 29 passed to Linienschiffleutnant Friedrich Sterz on 4 September . The 27 @-@ year @-@ old native of Pergine , Tyrolia ( in present @-@ day Italy ) , had previously commanded U @-@ 22 and , like Prásil , had also served a stint as commander of U @-@ 10 . After assuming command of U @-@ 29 , Sterz set sail for Durazzo the same day . The U @-@ boat had encounters with MAS torpedo boats on 9 and 12 September . On the latter date , U @-@ 29 had to crash dive to avoid a bombing attack from Allied airplanes . None of the seven bombs hit their mark and U @-@ 29 returned to Cattaro on 16 September .
Linienschiffleutnant Robert Dürrial replaced Sterz as commander on 29 September . The Galician Dürrial , like both Stertz and Prásil , had served as the commander of U @-@ 10 , but had most recently commanded U @-@ 21 . A day after assuming command , Dürrial headed for the Albanian coast in U @-@ 29 and patrolled off Durazzo .
After the Armistice with Bulgaria on 29 September ended Bulgaria 's participation in the war , Durazzo gained importance to the remaining Central Powers as the main port for supplying their forces fighting in the Balkans . Anticipating this , the Allies put together a force to bombard Durazzo . While the second echelon of the attacking force got into position to bombard the town , U @-@ 29 and sister boat U @-@ 31 maneuvered to attack . While U @-@ 31 was able to hit and damage the British cruiser Weymouth , U @-@ 29 was blocked by screening ships and herself attacked . The Allied escorts ( mainly American submarine chasers ) subjected U @-@ 29 to a heavy depth charge attack . U @-@ 29 was able to make her way back to Cattaro on 8 October .
Over the next three weeks , U @-@ 29 patrolled between Cattaro and Antivari , Montenegro . After her arrival back at Cattaro on 1 November , U @-@ 29 was moored between the coastal battleship Monarch and U @-@ 14 . There she remained until she was awarded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 29 was towed , along with sister boats U @-@ 31 and U @-@ 41 , from Cattaro for Bizerta for scrapping , but foundered on the way . In total , U @-@ 29 sank three ships with a combined tonnage of 14 @,@ 784 , and damaged one warship .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
* damaged but not sunk
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= Black @-@ throated blue warbler =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler ( Setophaga caerulescens ) is a small passerine bird of the New World warbler family . Its breeding ranges are located in the interior of deciduous and mixed coniferous forests in eastern North America . Over the cooler months , it migrates to islands in the Caribbean and Central America . It is a very rarely found in western Europe , where it is considered to be a non @-@ indigenous species . The black @-@ throated blue warbler is sexually dimorphic ; the adult male has a black face and cheeks , deep blue upperparts and white underparts , while the adult female is olive @-@ brown above and light yellow below .
Predominantly insectivorous , the black @-@ throated blue warbler supplements its diet with berries and seeds in winter . It builds its nests in thick shrubs and the closeness of its nesting sites to the ground make it a favored species for the study of warbler behavior in the wild . The black @-@ throated blue warbler defends its territory against other birds of the same species for both nesting and winter habitats . As the black @-@ throated blue warbler requires large , unbroken forest areas for nesting , its numbers are declining .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin described the black @-@ throated blue warbler in 1789 . Its species name is the Latin adjective caerulescens meaning " turning blue " .
The black @-@ throated blue warbler is one of the New World warblers or wood @-@ warblers in the family Parulidae . This species was originally placed under the genus Dendroica . It was recently adjusted to be a member of genus Setophaga along with all other members of the genus Dendroica , based on the findings from a recent phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA in 2010 . The old genus Dendroica was then deleted . Within the genus , it appears to have no particularly close relatives .
The species breeds in North America and winters in the Caribbean . Some studies have observed significant differences in terms of migratory behavior and plumage color between northern and southern populations within the breeding range . The northern population mainly winters in the western Caribbean ( Cuba and Jamaica ) while the southern population usually spends the winter on eastern islands ( Hispaniola and Puerto Rico ) . Moreover , males in the southern population have darker plumage than those in the northern population . These differences have led biologists to consider them as separate subspecies . However , a recent study in the United States reveals no significant genetic differentiation between northern ( samples from Michigan , New Hampshire and New York states ) and southern populations ( sample from North Carolina ) . The study results actually show a recent population expansion from a single glacial refugium , therefore the current populations are homogeneous in terms of genetics . The differentiation that is observed between the northern and southern populations should have occurred quite recently .
= = Description = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler measures 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) in length and weighs 8 @.@ 4 – 12 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 30 – 0 @.@ 44 oz ) . The adult male has white underparts with a black throat , face and flanks . The upperparts are deep blue . The immature male is similar , but with greener upperparts . The female has olive @-@ brown upperparts and light yellow underparts with darker wings and tail , gray crown and brown patches on the cheek . Both sexes have a thin pointed bill and small white wing patches which are not always visible . Like many other warbler species , it has colorful plumage during the spring and summer . However , outside the breeding season its plumage is drab and less distinctive . In the fall , the black @-@ throated blue warbler can be distinguished by its small white wing patches . Juveniles have brown upperparts with a creamy supercilium and brownish spots on the throat , the breast and the belly .
The bird 's song can be described as a buzzed zee @-@ zee @-@ zeeee with an upward inflection . Its call is a flat ctuk .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler is a migratory species . It breeds in temperate mature deciduous forests or mixed coniferous @-@ deciduous forest with a thick understory . The species is often found in hilly and mountainous regions in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada . In late summer , it migrates to the tropical wooded and scrub habitats in the Greater Antilles for wintering . Along the migration route , the black @-@ throated blue warbler can be observed in habitats such as parks and gardens . Its nesting site is more important than its foraging site in playing a role in determining the habitat of the black @-@ throated blue warbler . The black @-@ throated blue warbler is an open @-@ nesting species , that nests very close to the ground so it has to choose a protected nesting site where the risk of predation is relatively low .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Feeding and foraging = = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler forages actively in low vegetation , sometimes hovering or catching insects in flight . It often forages in one area for a while before moving on to the next . It mainly eats invertebrates such as caterpillars , crane flies , and spiders . It may supplement its diet with seeds , berries , and fruit in the winter .
Males and females prefer different foraging sites . While males usually hover among the higher shrub foliage between 3 and 9 m ( 9 @.@ 8 and 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , females tend to forage at lower strata . The time within a breeding season influences where the males forage . When it is time to feed the fledglings , males come down to the same foraging strata as females . The black @-@ throated blue warbler mostly forages in the understory instead of the canopy . The large leaves and long branches in the understory affect its foraging behaviors . The black @-@ throated blue warbler more often hovers rather than gleans its prey because it is more difficult to glean among thick understory foliage .
= = = Breeding = = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler is a monogamous species . Its breeding season usually begins in May and ends in July . As a songbird , the male black @-@ throated blue warbler attracts a female ’ s attention by singing a soft melody . He then follows the female while she is foraging or searching for nesting sites . As soon as the female stops to rest , the male droops his wings slightly , stretches his head forward and up , opens his bill , and faces the female . The female also makes displays to the male by vibrating her wings . In response , the male mounts the female for 2 – 3 seconds and then flies off .
A 1996 , researchers showed that the black @-@ throated blue warbler prefers to reside in hardwood forests with higher shrub densities where food is more abundant compared to lower shrub density plots . Within these high shrub density habitats , not only is there a higher density of warblers , but the population age average is also older , being composed of males and females who are at least two years of age .
The black @-@ throated blue warbler uses social cues in its evaluation and choice of nesting sites . In particular , it listens to the post @-@ breeding songs given out by other males . These songs have strong temporal dependencies . Males sing at the beginning and the peak of breeding season , but songs are not indicative of reproductive success . Near the end of a breeding season , a male that has successfully mated continues to sing while a male that has failed to reproduce abandons the habitat . Therefore , post @-@ breeding songs are reliable indicators of reproductive success within the particular habitat and convey essential information to the natal and breeding dispersers . In comparison to the traditional idea of direct assessment of the vegetation structure , the vocal cue is much more efficient and easier to obtain , hence revealing the advantage of social communication in survival and reproduction . A female , however , does not respond to post @-@ breeding songs directly . Instead , she is likely to rely on the presence of males in deciding nesting sites .
= = = = Extra @-@ pair mating = = = =
Although the black @-@ throated blue warbler is a socially monogamous species , males are frequently observed in territories of other males , suggesting the occurrence of extra @-@ pair matings . Nestling parentage is identified by microsatellites in a study plot at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire . The results show that extra @-@ pair fertilization occurs and that the majority of the extra @-@ pair sires come from males in neighboring territories . Only very few extra @-@ pair sires are from distant territories . This local reproductive interaction is also supported by another study conducted earlier , which finds that extra pair fertilizations are strongly and positively correlated with local synchrony but there is no significant association with population level synchrony .
Males engage in mate guarding during the period females are most vulnerable to successful extra pair copulations . They usually stay close to their social mate , singing slowly on the side and following the mate while she is foraging or searching for a nesting site . The guarding behavior , though , may conflict with males ’ pursuit of extra @-@ pair fertilizations . It is not yet clear to what extent a male will prefer mate guarding over extra @-@ pair fertilizations . Male retention studies have shown that removal of a male increases the chance of extra @-@ pair offspring in the brood , suggesting that mate guarding reduces extra @-@ pair fertilization attempts . The extra @-@ pair fertilization rate nonetheless cannot be eliminated even if males are allowed to stay near their social mates during fertility risk period . Several hypotheses try to explain this phenomenon : females may be able to manage extra @-@ pair mating even while its social mate is guarding it , or females may reject extra @-@ pair copulation attempts by other males in the absence of male guarding .
Females who participate in extra @-@ pair fertilizations may incorporate better genes in their offspring than they could get with their social mate , but they are likely to receive less help with parental care from their social mates because of cheating . Extra @-@ pair fertilization , therefore , can be costly to females as well . A possible theory why extra @-@ pair fertilization occurs is that female organisms select males with overall high heterozygosity or dissimilar genetics from themselves . A microsatellite study suggests an alternative to heterozygosity selection . Because no correlation is found between female extra @-@ pair fertilization frequencies and the overall heterozygosity of their social mates , it is suggested that females may choose only a selective set of heterozygous genes , particularly the MHC locus , which can affect the immunocompetence of offspring .
= = = Sexual selection = = =
Males ’ differential recognition of local and nonlocal songs has been studied in two populations : one in the northern United States ( New Hampshire ) and the other in the southern United States ( North Carolina ) . An asymmetry of response has been found between the two populations . The northern black @-@ throated blue warbler responds strongly to local songs but relatively weakly to the song of southern warblers . In contrast , a warbler from the south responds equally to songs from both the north and the south . A potential explanation of this asymmetry is the difference in female preference between the northern and southern black @-@ throated blue warblers . Females from the north are less likely to mate with a “ heterospecific ” male from the south ; therefore it is not necessary for a northern male to respond strongly to the song of a southern challenger . It is possible that a barrier to gene flow from south to north exists while a barrier to the reverse does not . Therefore , female choice of male songs is likely to play a role in gene flow and reproductive isolation , which may eventually lead to diversification .
It has long been believed that a male black @-@ throated blue warbler achieves reproductive maturation well into its first breeding season . A yearling participates in extra @-@ pair mating and cuckoldry as much as or even more than older males . However , research by Graves has found opposing evidence in terms of testicular size and sperm production . Directional asymmetry is present in many passerine birds . The left testicle is often larger in size than the right one , and this holds true for both yearling and older male warblers . However , the testicle to body mass ratio nonetheless is much lower in yearlings than in older males . Moreover , older males have a greater degree of directional asymmetry than do yearlings . Because the size of testes in birds is correlated to the ejaculate quality , it is likely that females employ age @-@ dependent choice in favor of older males who can be distinguished by their definitive age @-@ specific plumage .
= = Status and threats = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler enjoys a large range and a big population . Its population trend is currently increasing . This species was ranked as Least Concern by the IUCN in 2012 . Deforestation and habitat fragmentation are threatening the black @-@ throated blue warbler in its tropical wintering areas . A report in 2000 discussed the impact of global climate change on the population dynamics of the black @-@ throated blue warbler by an observation from 1986 to 1998 . In particular , the effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) was studied in relation to the survival , fecundity and recruitment of this migratory bird . It was found that El Niño years ( the warm South Pacific oceanic phase ) were associated with lower adult survival rate in their wintering ground , Jamaica , lower fecundity in the breeding habitats in New Hampshire of the United States , and lower annual recruitment of yearlings and juveniles to both breeding and wintering grounds . All the three factors were relatively higher during La Niña years ( cold South Pacific ocean ) when the weather was wetter and the food availability was much more abundant . Long @-@ term global warming can aggravate the ENSO effect , adding to the fluctuation of the black @-@ throated blue warbler population .
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= Alboin =
Alboin ( 530s – June 28 , 572 ) was king of the Lombards from about 560 until 572 . During his reign the Lombards ended their migrations by settling in Italy , the northern part of which Alboin conquered between 569 and 572 . He had a lasting effect on Italy and the Pannonian Basin ; in the former his invasion marked the beginning of centuries of Lombard rule , and in the latter his defeat of the Gepids and his departure from Pannonia ended the dominance there of the Germanic peoples .
The period of Alboin 's reign as king in Pannonia following the death of his father , Audoin , was one of confrontation and conflict between the Lombards and their main neighbors , the Gepids . The Gepids initially gained the upper hand , but in 567 , thanks to his alliance with the Avars , Alboin inflicted a decisive defeat on his enemies , whose lands the Avars subsequently occupied . The increasing power of his new neighbours caused Alboin some unease however , and he therefore decided to leave Pannonia for Italy , hoping to take advantage of the Byzantine Empire 's reduced ability to defend its territory in the wake of the Gothic War .
After gathering a large coalition of peoples , Alboin crossed the Julian Alps in 568 , entering an almost undefended Italy . He rapidly took control of most of Venetia and Liguria . In 569 , unopposed , he took northern Italy 's main city , Milan . Pavia offered stiff resistance however , and was only taken after a siege lasting three years . During that time Alboin turned his attention to Tuscany , but signs of factionalism among his supporters and Alboin 's diminishing control over his army increasingly began to manifest themselves .
Alboin was assassinated on June 28 , 572 , in a coup d 'état instigated by the Byzantines . It was organized by the king 's foster brother , Helmichis , with the support of Alboin 's wife , Rosamund , daughter of the Gepid king whom Alboin had killed some years earlier . The coup failed in the face of opposition from a majority of the Lombards , who elected Cleph as Alboin 's successor , forcing Helmichis and Rosamund to flee to Ravenna under imperial protection . Alboin 's death deprived the Lombards of the only leader who could have kept the newborn Germanic entity together , the last in the line of hero @-@ kings who had led the Lombards through their migrations from the vale of the Elbe to Italy . For many centuries following his death Alboin 's heroism and his success in battle were celebrated in Saxon and Bavarian epic poetry .
= = Father 's rule = =
The Lombards under King Wacho had migrated towards the east into Pannonia , taking advantage of the difficulties facing the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy following the death of its founder , Theodoric in 526 . Wacho 's death in about 540 brought his son Walthari to the throne , but as the latter was still a minor the kingdom was governed in his stead by Alboin 's father , Audoin , of the Gausian clan . Seven years later Walthari died , giving Audoin the opportunity to crown himself and overthrow the reigning Lethings .
Alboin was probably born in the 530s in Pannonia , the son of Audoin and his wife , Rodelinda . She may have been the niece of King Theodoric and betrothed to Audoin through the mediation of Emperor Justinian . Like his father , Alboin was raised a pagan , although Audoin had at one point attempted to gain Byzantine support against his neighbours by professing himself a Christian . Alboin took as his first wife the Christian Chlothsind , daughter of the Frankish King Chlothar . This marriage , which took place soon after the death of the Frankish ruler Theudebald in 555 , is thought to reflect Audoin 's decision to distance himself from the Byzantines , traditional allies of the Lombards , who had been lukewarm when it came to supporting Audoin against the Gepids . The new Frankish alliance was important because of the Franks ' known hostility to the Byzantine empire , providing the Lombards with more than one option . However , the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire interprets events and sources differently , believing that Alboin married Chlothsind when already a king in or shortly before 561 , the year of Chlothar 's death .
Alboin first distinguished himself on the battlefield in a clash with the Gepids . At the Battle of Asfeld ( 552 ) , he killed Turismod , son of the Gepid king Thurisind , in a victory that resulted in the Emperor Justinian 's intervention to maintain equilibrium between the rival regional powers . After the battle , according to a tradition reported by Paul the Deacon , to be granted the right to sit at his father 's table , Alboin had to ask for the hospitality of a foreign king and have him donate his weapons , as was customary . For this initiation , he went to the court of Thurisind , where the Gepid king gave him Turismod 's arms . Walter Goffart believes it is probable that in this narrative Paul was making use of an oral tradition , and is sceptical that it can be dismissed as merely a typical topos of an epic poem .
= = Reign in Pannonia = =
Alboin came to the throne after the death of his father , sometime between 560 and 565 . As was customary among the Lombards , Alboin took the crown after an election by the tribe 's freemen , who traditionally selected the king from the dead sovereign 's clan . Shortly afterwards , in 565 , a new war erupted with the Gepids , now led by Cunimund , Thurisind 's son . The cause of the conflict is uncertain , as the sources are divided ; the Lombard Paul the Deacon accuses the Gepids , while the Byzantine historian Menander Protector places the blame on Alboin , an interpretation favoured by historian Walter Pohl .
An account of the war by the Byzantine Theophylact Simocatta sentimentalises the reasons behind the conflict , claiming it originated with Alboin 's vain courting and subsequent kidnapping of Cunimund 's daughter Rosamund , that Alboin proceeded then to marry . The tale is treated with scepticism by Walter Goffart , who observes that it conflicts with the Origo Gentis Langobardorum , where she was captured only after the death of her father . The Gepids obtained the support of the Emperor in exchange for a promise to cede him the region of Sirmium , the seat of the Gepid kings . Thus in 565 or 566 Justinian 's successor Justin II sent his son @-@ in @-@ law Baduarius as magister militum ( field commander ) to lead a Byzantine army against Alboin in support of Cunimund , ending in the Lombards ' complete defeat .
Faced with the possibility of annihilation , Alboin made an alliance in 566 with the Avars under Bayan I , at the expense of some tough conditions ; the Avars demanded a tenth of the Lombards ' cattle , half of the war booty , and on the war 's conclusion all of the lands held by the Gepids . The Lombards played on the pre @-@ existing hostility between the Avars and the Byzantines , claiming that the latter were allied with the Gepids . Cunimund , on the other hand , encountered hostility when he once again asked the Emperor for military assistance , as the Byzantines had been angered by the Gepids ' failure to cede Sirmium to them , as had been agreed . Moreover , Justin II was moving away from the foreign policy of Justinian , and believed in dealing more strictly with bordering states and peoples . Attempts to mollify Justin II with tributes failed , and as a result the Byzantines kept themselves neutral if not outright supportive of the Avars .
In 567 the allies made their final move against Cunimund , with Alboin invading the Gepids ' lands from the northwest while Bayan attacked from the northeast . Cunimund attempted to prevent the two armies joining up by moving against the Lombards and clashing with Alboin somewhere between the Tibiscus and Danube rivers . The Gepids were defeated in the ensuing battle , their king slain by Alboin , and Cunimund 's daughter Rosamund taken captive , according to references in the Origo . The full destruction of the Gepid kingdom was completed by the Avars , who overcame the Gepids in the east . As a result , the Gepids ceased to exist as an independent people , and were partly absorbed by the Lombards and the Avars . Some time before 568 , Alboin 's first wife Chlothsind died , and after his victory against Cunimund Alboin married Rosamund , to establish a bond with the remaining Gepids . The war also marked a watershed in the geo @-@ political history of the region , as together with the Lombard migration the following year , it signalled the end of six centuries of Germanic dominance in the Pannonian Basin .
= = Preparations and departure from Pannonia = =
Despite his success against the Gepids , Alboin had failed to greatly increase his power , and was now faced with a much stronger threat from the Avars . Historians consider this the decisive factor in convincing Alboin to undertake a migration , even though there are indications that before the war with the Gepids a decision was maturing to leave for Italy , a country thousands of Lombards had seen in the 550s when hired by the Byzantines to fight in the Gothic War . Additionally , the Lombards would have known of the weakness of Byzantine Italy , which had endured a number of problems after being retaken from the Goths . In particular the so @-@ called Plague of Justinian had ravaged the region and conflict remained endemic , with the Three @-@ Chapter Controversy sparking religious opposition and administration at a standstill after the able governor of the peninsula , Narses , was recalled . Nevertheless , the Lombards viewed Italy as a rich land which promised great booty , assets Alboin used to gather together a horde which included not only Lombards but many other peoples of the region , including Heruli , Suebi , Gepids , Thuringii , Bulgars , Sarmatians , the remaining Romans and a few Ostrogoths . But the most important group , other than the Lombards , were the Saxons , of whom 20 @,@ 000 participated in the trek . These Saxons were tributaries to the Frankish King Sigebert , and their participation indicates that Alboin had the support of the Franks for his venture .
The precise size of the heterogeneous group gathered by Alboin is impossible to know , and many different estimates have been made . Neil Christie considers 150 @,@ 000 – 500 @,@ 000 to be a realistic size , a number which would make the Lombards a more numerous force than the Ostrogoths on the eve of their invasion of Italy . Jörg Jarnut proposes 100 @,@ 000 – 150 @,@ 000 as an approximation ; Wilfried Menghen in Die Langobarden estimates 150 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 ; while Stefano Gasparri cautiously judges the peoples united by Alboin to be somewhere between 100 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 .
As a precautionary move Alboin strengthened his alliance with the Avars , signing what Paul calls a foedus perpetuum ( " perpetual treaty " ) and what is referred to in the 9th @-@ century Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani as a pactum et foedus amicitiae ( " pact and treaty of friendship " ) , adding that the treaty was put down on paper . By the conditions accepted in the treaty , the Avars were to take possession of Pannonia and the Lombards were promised military support in Italy should the need arise ; also , for a period of 200 years the Lombards were to maintain the right to reclaim their former territories if the plan to conquer Italy failed , thus leaving Alboin with an alternative open . The accord also had the advantage of protecting Alboin 's rear , as an Avar @-@ occupied Pannonia would make it difficult for the Byzantines to bring forces to Italy by land . The agreement proved immensely successful , and relations with the Avars were almost uninterruptedly friendly during the lifetime of the Lombard Kingdom .
A further cause of the Lombard migration into Italy may have been an invitation from Narses . According to a controversial tradition reported by several medieval sources , Narses , out of spite for having been removed by Justinian 's successor Justin II , called the Lombards to Italy . Often dismissed as an unreliable tradition , it has been studied with attention by modern scholars , in particular Neil Christie , who see in it a possible record of a formal invitation by the Byzantine state to settle in northern Italy as foederati , to help protect the region against the Franks , an arrangement that may have been disowned by Justin II after Narses ' removal .
= = = March to Italy = = =
The Lombard migration started on Easter Monday , April 2 , 568 . The decision to combine the departure with a Christian celebration can be understood in the context of Alboin 's recent conversion to Arian Christianity , as attested by the presence of Arian Gothic missionaries at his court . The conversion is likely to have been motivated mostly from political considerations , and intended to consolidate the migration 's cohesion , distinguishing them from the Catholic Romans . It also connected Alboin and his people to the Gothic heritage , and in this way obtain the support of the Ostrogoths serving in the Byzantine army as foederati . It has been speculated that Alboin 's migration could have been partly the result of a call from surviving Ostrogoths in Italy .
The season chosen for leaving Pannonia was unusually early ; the Germanic peoples generally waited until autumn before beginning a migration , giving themselves time to do the harvesting and replenish their granaries for the march . The reason behind the spring departure could be the anxiety induced by the neighboring Avars , despite the friendship treaty . Nomadic peoples like the Avars also waited for autumn to begin their military campaigns , as they needed enough forage for their horses . A sign of this anxiety can also be seen in the decision taken by Alboin to ravage Pannonia , which created a safety zone between the Lombards and the Avars .
The road followed by Alboin to reach Italy has been the subject of controversy , as is the length of the trek . According to Neil Christie the Lombards divided themselves into migrational groups , with a vanguard scouting the road , probably following the Poetovio – Celeia – Emona – Forum Iulii route , while the wagons and most of the people proceeded slowly behind because of the goods and chattels they brought with them , and possibly also because they were waiting for the Saxons to join them on the road . By September raiding parties were looting Venetia , but it was probably only in 569 that the Julian Alps were crossed at the Vipava Valley ; the eyewitness Secundus of Non gives the date as May 20 or 21 . The 569 date for the entry into Italy is not void of difficulties however , and Jörg Jarnut believes the conquest of most of Venetia had already been completed in 568 . According to Carlo Guido Mor , a major difficulty remains in explaining how Alboin could have reached Milan on September 3 assuming he had passed the border only in the May of the same year .
= = Invasion of Italy = =
= = = Foundation of the Duchy of Friuli = = =
The Lombards penetrated into Italy without meeting any resistance from the border troops ( milities limitanei ) . The Byzantine military resources available on the spot were scant and of dubious loyalty , and the border forts may well have been left unmanned . What seems certain is that archaeological excavations have found no sign of violent confrontation in the sites that have been excavated . This agrees with Paul the Deacon 's narrative , who speaks of a Lombard takeover in Friuli " without any hindrance " .
The first town to fall into the Lombards ' hands was Forum Iulii ( Cividale del Friuli ) , the seat of the local magister militum . Alboin chose this walled town close to the frontier to be capital of the Duchy of Friuli and made his nephew and shield bearer , Gisulf , duke of the region , with the specific duty of defending the borders from Byzantine or Avar attacks from the east . Gisulf obtained from his uncle the right to choose for his duchy those farae , or clans , that he preferred .
Alboin 's decision to create a duchy and designate a duke were both important innovations ; until then , the Lombards had never had dukes or duchies based on a walled town . The innovation adopted was part of Alboin 's borrowing of Roman and Ostrogothic administrative models , as in Late Antiquity the comes civitatis ( city count ) was the main local authority , with full administrative powers in his region . But the shift from count ( comes ) to duke ( dux ) and from county ( comitatus ) to duchy ( ducatus ) also signalled the progressive militarization of Italy . The selection of a fortified town as the centre for the new duchy was also an important change from the time in Pannonia , for while urbanized settlements had previously been ignored by the Lombards , now a considerable part of the nobility settled itself in Forum Iulii , a pattern that was repeated regularly by the Lombards in their other duchies .
= = = Conquest of Milan = = =
From Forum Iulii , Alboin next reached Aquileia , the most important road junction in the northeast , and the administrative capital of Venetia . The imminent arrival of the Lombards had a considerable impact on the city 's population ; the Patriarch of Aquileia Paulinus fled with his clergy and flock to the island of Grado in Byzantine @-@ controlled territory .
From Aquileia , Alboin took the Via Postumia and swept through Venetia , taking in rapid succession Tarvisium ( Treviso ) , Vicentia ( Vicenza ) , Verona , Brixia ( Brescia ) and Bergomum ( Bergamo ) . The Lombards faced difficulties only in taking Opitergium ( Oderzo ) , which Alboin decided to avoid , as he similarly avoided tackling the main Venetian towns closer to the coast on the Via Annia , such as Altinum , Patavium ( Padova ) , Mons Silicis ( Monselice ) , Mantua and Cremona . The invasion of Venetia generated a considerable level of turmoil , spurring waves of refugees from the Lombard @-@ controlled interior to the Byzantine @-@ held coast , often led by their bishops , and resulting in new settlements such as Torcello and Heraclia .
Alboin moved west in his march , invading the region of Liguria ( north @-@ west Italy ) and reaching its capital Mediolanum ( Milan ) on September 3 , 569 , only to find it already abandoned by the vicarius Italiae ( vicar of Italy ) , the authority entrusted with the administration of the diocese of Annonarian Italy . Archbishop Honoratus , his clergy , and part of the laity accompanied the vicarius Italiae to find a safe haven in the Byzantine port of Genua ( Genoa ) . Alboin counted the years of his reign from the capture of Milan , when he assumed the title of dominus Italiae ( Lord of Italy ) . His success also meant the collapse of Byzantine defences in the northern part of the Po plain , and large movements of refugees to Byzantine areas .
Several explanations have been advanced to explain the swiftness and ease of the initial Lombard advance in northern Italy . It has been suggested that the towns ' doors may have been opened by the betrayal of the Gothic auxiliaries in the Byzantine army , but historians generally hold that Lombard success occurred because Italy was not considered by Byzantium as a vital part of the empire , especially at a time when the empire was imperilled by the attacks of Avars and Slavs in the Balkans and Sassanids in the east . The Byzantine decision not to contest the Lombard invasion reflects the desire of Justinian 's successors to reorient the core of the Empire 's polices eastward .
= = = Impact of the migration on Annonarian Italy = = =
The impact of the Lombard migration on the Late Roman aristocracy was disruptive , especially in combination with the Gothic War ; the latter conflict had finished in the north only in 562 , when the last Gothic stronghold , Verona , was taken . Many men of means ( Paul 's possessores ) either lost their lives or their goods , but the exact extent of the despoliation of the Roman aristocracy is a subject of heated debate . The clergy was also greatly affected . The Lombards were mostly pagans , and displayed little respect for the clergy and Church property . Many churchmen left their sees to escape from the Lombards , like the two most senior bishops in the north , Honoratus and Paulinus . However , most of the suffragan bishops in the north sought an accommodation with the Lombards , as did in 569 the bishop of Tarvisium Felix when he journeyed to the Piave river to parley with Alboin , obtaining respect for the Church and its goods in return for this act of homage . It seems certain that many sees maintained an uninterrupted episcopal succession through the turmoil of the invasion and the following years . The transition was eased by the hostility existing among the northern Italian bishops towards the papacy and the empire due to the religious dispute involving the " Three @-@ Chapter Controversy " . In Lombard territory , churchmen were at least sure to avoid imperial religious persecution .
In the view of Pierre Riché , the disappearance of 220 bishops ' seats indicates that the Lombard migration was a crippling catastrophe for the Church . Yet according to Walter Pohl the regions directly occupied by Alboin suffered less devastation and had a relatively robust survival rate for towns , whereas the occupation of territory by autonomous military bands interested mainly in raiding and looting had a more severe impact , with the bishoprics in such places rarely surviving .
= = = Siege of Ticinum = = =
The first attested instance of strong resistance to Alboin 's migration took place at the town of Ticinum ( Pavia ) , which he started to besiege in 569 and captured only after three years . The town was of strategic importance , sitting at the confluence of the rivers Po and Ticino and connected by waterways to Ravenna , the capital of Byzantine Italy and the seat of the Praetorian prefecture of Italy . Its fall cut direct communications between the garrisons stationed on the Alpes Maritimae and the Adriatic coast .
Careful to maintain the initiative against the Byzantines , by 570 Alboin had taken their last defences in northern Italy except for the coastal areas of Liguria and Venetia and a few isolated inland centres such as Augusta Praetoria ( Aosta ) , Segusio ( Susa ) , and the island of Amacina in the Larius Lucus ( Lake Como ) . During Alboin 's kingship the Lombards crossed the Apennines and plundered Tuscia , but historians are not in full agreement as to whether this took place under his guidance and if this constituted anything more than raiding . According to Herwig Wolfram , it was probably only in 578 – 579 that Tuscany was conquered , but Jörg Jarnut and others believe this began in some form under Alboin , although it was not completed by the time of his death .
Alboin 's problems in maintaining control over his people worsened during the siege of Ticinum . The nature of the Lombard monarchy made it difficult for a ruler to exert the same degree of authority over his subjects as had been exercised by Theodoric over his Goths , and the structure of the army gave great authority to the military commanders or duces , who led each band ( fara ) of warriors . Additionally , the difficulties encountered by Alboin in building a solid political entity resulted from a lack of imperial legitimacy , as unlike the Ostrogoths , they had not entered Italy as foederati but as enemies of the Empire .
The king 's disintegrating authority over his army was also manifested in the invasion of Frankish Burgundy which from 569 or 570 was subject to yearly raids on a major scale . The Lombard attacks were ultimately repelled following Mummolus ' victory at Embrun . These attacks had lasting political consequences , souring the previously cordial Lombard @-@ Frankish relations and opening the door to an alliance between the Empire and the Franks against the Lombards , a coalition agreed to by Guntram in about 571 . Alboin is generally thought not to have been behind this invasion , but an alternative interpretation of the transalpine raids presented by Gian Piero Bognetti is that Alboin may actually have been involved in the offensive on Guntram as part of an alliance with the Frankish king of Austrasia , Sigebert I. This view is met with scepticism by scholars such as Chris Wickham .
The weakening of royal authority may also have resulted in the conquest of much of southern Italy by the Lombards , in which modern scholars believe Alboin played no role at all , probably taking place in 570 or 571 under the auspices of individual warlords . However it is far from certain that the Lombard takeover occurred during those years , as very little is known of Faroald and Zotto 's respective rise to power in Spoletium ( Spoleto ) and Beneventum ( Benevento ) .
= = Assassination = =
= = = Earliest narratives = = =
Ticinum eventually fell to the Lombards in either May or June 572 . Alboin had in the meantime chosen Verona as his seat , establishing himself and his treasure in a royal palace built there by Theodoric . This choice may have been another attempt to link himself with the Gothic king .
It was in this palace that Alboin was killed on June 28 , 572 . In the account given by Paul the Deacon , the most detailed narrative on Alboin 's death , history and saga intermingle almost inextricably . Much earlier and shorter is the story told by Marius of Aventicum in his Chronica , written about a decade after Alboin 's murder . According to his version the king was killed in a conspiracy by a man close to him , called Hilmegis ( Paul 's Helmechis ) , with the connivance of the queen . Helmichis then married the widow , but the two were forced to escape to Byzantine Ravenna , taking with them the royal treasure and part of the army , which hints at the cooperation of Byzantium . Roger Collins describes Marius as an especially reliable source because of his early date and his having lived close to Lombard Italy .
Also contemporary is Gregory of Tours ' account presented in the Historia Francorum , and echoed by the later Fredegar . Gregory 's account diverges in several respects from most other sources . In his tale it is told how Alboin married the daughter of a man he had slain , and how she waited for a suitable occasion for revenge , eventually poisoning him . She had previously fallen in love with one of her husband 's servants , and after the assassination tried to escape with him , but they were captured and killed . However , historians including Walter Goffart place little trust in this narrative . Goffart notes other similar doubtful stories in the Historia and calls its account of Alboin 's demise " a suitably ironic tale of the doings of depraved humanity " .
= = = Skull cup = = =
Elements present in Marius ' account are echoed in Paul 's Historia Langobardorum , which also contains distinctive features . One of the best known aspects unavailable in any other source is that of the skull cup . In Paul , the events that lead to Alboin 's downfall unfold in Verona . During a great feast , Alboin gets drunk and orders his wife Rosamund to drink from his cup , made from the skull of his father @-@ in @-@ law Cunimund after he had slain him in 567 and married Rosamund . Alboin " invited her to drink merrily with her father " . This reignited the queen 's determination to avenge her father .
The tale has been often dismissed as a fable and Paul was conscious of the risk of disbelief . For this reason , he insists that he saw the skull cup personally during the 740s in the royal palace of Ticinum in the hands of king Ratchis . The use of skull cups has been noticed among nomadic peoples and , in particular , among the Lombards ' neighbours , the Avars . Skull cups are believed to be part of a shamanistic ritual , where drinking from the cup was considered a way to assume the dead man 's powers . In this context , Stefano Gasparri and Wilfried Menghen see in Cunimund 's skull cup the sign of nomadic cultural influences on the Lombards : by drinking from his enemy 's skull Alboin was taking his vital strength . As for the offering of the skull to Rosamund , that may have been a ritual request of complete submission of the queen and her people to the Lombards , and thus a cause of shame or humiliation . Alternatively , it may have been a rite to appease the dead through the offering of a libation . In the latter interpretation , the queen 's answer reveals her determination not to let the wound opened by the killing of her father be healed through a ritual act , thus openly displaying her thirst for revenge .
The episode is read in a radically different way by Walter Goffart . According to him , the whole story assumes an allegorical meaning , with Paul intent on telling an edifying story of the downfall of the hero and his expulsion from the promised land , because of his human weakness . In this story , the skull cup plays a key role as it unites original sin and barbarism . Goffart does not exclude the possibility that Paul had really seen the skull , but believes that by the 740s the connection between sin and barbarism as exemplified by the skull cup had already been established .
= = = Death = = =
In her plan to kill her husband she found an ally in Helmichis , the king 's foster brother and spatharius ( arms bearer ) . According to Paul the queen then recruited the king 's cubicularius ( bedchamberlain ) , Peredeo , into the plot , after having seduced him . When Alboin retired for his midday rest on June 28 , care was taken to leave the door open and unguarded . Alboin 's sword was also removed , leaving him defenceless when Peredeo entered his room and killed him . Alboin 's remains were allegedly buried beneath the palace steps .
Peredeo 's figure and role is mostly introduced by Paul ; the Origo had for the first time mentioned his name as " Peritheus " , but there his role had been different , as he was not the assassin , but the instigator of the assassination . In the vein of his reading of the skull cup , Goffart sees Peredeo as not as a historical figure but as an allegorical character : he notes a similarity between Peredeo 's name and the Latin word peritus , meaning " lost " , a representation of those Lombards who entered into the service of the Empire .
Alboin 's death had a lasting impact , as it deprived the Lombards of the only leader they had that could have kept together the newborn Germanic entity . His end also represents the death of the last of the line of the hero @-@ kings that had led the Lombards through their migrations from the Elba to Italy . His fame survived him for many centuries in epic poetry , with Saxons and Bavarians celebrating his prowess in battle , his heroism , and the magical properties of his weapons .
= = Aftermath = =
To complete the coup d 'état and legitimize his claim to the throne , Helmichis married the queen , whose high standing arose not only from being the king 's widow but also from being the most prominent member of the remaining Gepid nation , and as such her support was a guarantee of the Gepids ' loyalty to Helmichis . The latter could also count on the support of the Lombard garrison of Verona , where many may have opposed Alboin 's aggressive policy and could have cultivated the hope of reaching an entente with the Empire . The Byzantines were almost certainly deeply involved in the plot . It was in their interest to stem the Lombard tide by bringing a pro @-@ Byzantine regime into power in Verona , and possibly in the long run break the unity of the Lombards ' kingdom , winning over the dukes with honors and emoluments .
The coup ultimately failed , as it met with the resistance of most of the warriors , who were opposed to the king 's assassination . As a result , the Lombard garrison in Ticinum proclaimed Duke Cleph the new king , and Helmichis , rather than going to war against overwhelming odds , escaped to Ravenna with Longinus ' assistance , taking with him his wife , his troops , the royal treasure and Alboin 's daughter Albsuinda . In Ravenna the two lovers became estranged and killed each other . Subsequently Longinus sent Albsuinda and the treasure to Constantinople .
Cleph kept the throne for only 18 months before being assassinated by a slave . Possibly he too was killed at the instigation of the Byzantines , who had every interest in avoiding a hostile and solid leadership among the Lombards . An important success for the Byzantines was that no king was proclaimed to succeed Cleph , opening a decade of interregnum , thus making them more vulnerable to attacks from Franks and Byzantines . It was only when faced with the danger of annihilation by the Franks in 584 that the dukes elected a new king in the person of Authari , son of Cleph , who began the definitive consolidation and centralization of the Lombard kingdom while the remaining imperial territories were reorganized under the control of an exarch in Ravenna with the capacity to defend the country without the Emperor 's assistance .
The consolidation of Byzantine and Lombard dominions had long @-@ lasting consequences for Italy , as the region was from that moment on fragmented among multiple rulers until Italian unification in 1871 .
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= Blue carbon =
Blue carbon is the carbon captured by the world 's oceans and coastal ecosystems . The carbon captured by living organisms in oceans is stored in the form of biomass and sediments from mangroves , salt marshes , seagrasses and potentially algae .
= = Overview = =
Historically the ocean and terrestrial forest ecosystems have been the major natural carbon ( C ) sinks . New research on the role of vegetated coastal ecosystems have highlighted their potential as highly efficient C sinks , and led to the scientific recognition of the term " Blue Carbon " . " Blue Carbon " designates carbon that is fixed via ocean and coastal ecosystems , rather than traditional land ecosystems , like forests . Although the ocean ’ s vegetated habitats cover less than 0 @.@ 5 % of the seabed , they are responsible for more than 50 % , and potentially up to 70 % , of all carbon storage in ocean sediments . Mangroves , salt marshes and seagrasses make up the majority of the ocean ’ s vegetated habitats but only equal 0 @.@ 05 % of the plant biomass on land . Despite their small footprint , they can store a comparable amount of carbon per year and are highly efficient carbon sinks . Seagrasses , mangroves and salt marshes can capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere by sequestering the C in their underlying sediments , in underground and below @-@ ground biomass , and in dead biomass . In plant biomass such as leaves , stems , branches or roots , blue carbon can be sequestered for years to decades , and for thousands to millions of years in underlying plant sediments . Current estimates of long @-@ term blue carbon C burial capacity are variable , and research is ongoing . Although vegetated coastal ecosystems cover less area and have less aboveground biomass than terrestrial plants they have the potential to impact longterm C sequestration , particularly in sediment sinks . One of the main concerns with Blue Carbon is the rate of loss of these important marine ecosystems is much higher than any other ecosystem on the planet , even compared to rainforests . Current estimates suggest a loss of 2 @-@ 7 % per year , which is not only lost carbon sequestration , but also lost habitat that is important for managing climate , coastal protection , and health .
= = Types of blue carbon ecosystems = =
= = = Seagrass = = =
Seagrass are a group of about 60 angiosperm species that have adapted to an aquatic life , and can grow in meadows along the shores of all continents except Antarctica . Seagrass meadows form in maximum depths of up to 50m , depending on water quality and light availability , and can include up to 12 different species in one meadow . These seagrass meadows are highly productive habitats that provide many ecosystem services , including sediment stabilization , habitat and biodiversity , better water quality , and carbon and nutrient sequestration . The current documented seagrass area is 177 @,@ 000 km2 , but is thought to underestimate the total area since many areas with large seagrass meadows have not been thoroughly documented . Most common estimates are 300 @,@ 000 to 600 @,@ 000 km2 , with up to 4 @,@ 320 @,@ 000 km2 suitable seagrass habitat worldwide . Although seagrass makes up only 0 @.@ 1 % of the area of the ocean floor , it accounts for approximately 10 @-@ 18 % of the total oceanic carbon burial . Currently global seagrass meadows are estimated to store as much as 19 @.@ 9 Pg ( gigaton , or billion tons ) of organic carbon . Carbon primarily accumulates in marine sediments , which are anoxic and thus continually preserve organic carbon from decadal @-@ millennial time scales . High accumulation rates , low oxygen , low sediment conductivity and slower microbial decomposition rates all encourage carbon burial and carbon accumulation in these coastal sediments . Compared to terrestrial habitats that lose carbon stocks as CO2 during decomposition or by disturbances like fires or deforestation , marine carbon sinks can retain C for much longer time periods . Carbon sequestration rates in seagrass meadows vary depending on the species , characteristics of the sediment , and depth of the habitats , but on average the carbon burial rate is approximately 138 g C m − 2 yr − 1 . Seagrass habitats are threatened by coastal eutrophication , increased seawater temperatures , increased sedimentation and coastal development , and sea @-@ level rise which may decrease light availability for photosynthesis . Seagrass loss has accelerated over the past few decades , from 0 @.@ 9 % per year prior to 1940 to 7 % per year in 1990 , with about 1 / 3 of global loss since WWII . Scientists encourage protection and continued research of these ecosystems for organic carbon storage , valuable habitat and other ecosystem services .
= = = Mangrove = = =
Mangroves are woody halophytes that form intertidal forests and provide many important ecosystem services including coastal protection , nursery grounds for coastal fish and crustaceans , forest products , recreation , nutrient filtration and carbon sequestration . Currently they are found in 123 countries , with 73 identified species . They grow along coastlines in subtropical and tropical waters , depending mainly on temperature , but also vary with precipitation , tides , waves and water flow . Because they grow at the intersection between land and sea , they have semi @-@ terrestrial and marine components , including unique adaptations including aerial roots , viviparous embryos , and highly efficient nutrient retention mechanisms . Mangroves cover approximately 150 @,@ 000 km2 worldwide , but have declined by 20 % in the last 25 years , mainly due to coastal development and land conversion . Mangrove deforestation is slowing , from 1 @.@ 04 % loss per year in the 1980s to 0 @.@ 66 % loss in the early 2000s , as research and understanding of mangrove benefits have increased . Mangrove forests are responsible for approximately 10 % of global carbon burial , with an estimated carbon burial rate of 174 g C m − 2 yr − 1 . Mangroves , like seagrasses , have potential for high levels of carbon sequestration . They account for 3 % of the global carbon sequestration by tropical forests and 14 % of the global coastal ocean 's carbon burial . Mangroves are naturally disturbed by floods , tsunamis , coastal storms like cyclones and hurricanes , lightning , disease and pests , and changes in water quality or temperature . Although they are resilient to many of these natural disturbances , they are highly susceptible to human impacts including urban development , aquaculture , mining , and overexploitation of shellfish , crustaceans , fish and timber . Mangroves provide globally important ecosystem services and carbon sequestration and are thus an important habitat to conserve and repair when possible .
= = = Marsh = = =
Marshes , intertidal ecosystems dominated by herbaceous vegetation , can be found globally on coastlines from the arctic to the subtropics . In the tropics , marshes are replaced by mangroves as the dominant coastal vegetation . Marshes have high productivity , with a large portion of primary production in belowground biomass . This belowground biomass can form deposits up to 8m deep . Marshes provide valuable habitat for plants , birds , and juvenile fish , protect coastal habitat from storm surge and flooding , and can reduce nutrient loading to coastal waters . Similarly to mangrove and seagrass habitats , marshes also serve as important carbon sinks . Marshes sequester C in underground biomass due to high rates of organic sedimentation and anaerobic @-@ dominated decomposition . Salt marshes cover approximately 22 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 km2 globally , with an estimated carbon burial rate of 210 g C m − 2 yr − 1 . Tidal marshes have been impacted by humans for centuries , including modification for grazing , haymaking , reclamation for agriculture , development and ports , evaporation ponds for salt production , modification for aquaculture , insect control , tidal power and flood protection . Marshes are also susceptible to pollution from oil , industrial chemicals , and most commonly , eutrophication . Introduced species , sea @-@ level rise , river damming and decreased sedimentation are additional longterm changes that affect marsh habitat , and in turn , may affect carbon sequestration potential .
= = = Algae = = =
Both macroalgae and microalgae are being investigated as possible means of carbon sequestration . Because algae lack the complex lignin associated with terrestrial plants , the carbon in algae is released into the atmosphere more rapidly than carbon captured on land . Algae have been proposed as a short @-@ term storage pool of carbon that can be used as a feedstock for the production of various biogenic fuels . Microalgae are often put forth as a potential feedstock for carbon @-@ neutral biodiesel and biomethane production due to their high lipid content . Macroalgae , on the other hand , do not have high lipid content and have limited potential as biodiesel feedstock , although they can still be used as feedstock for other biofuel generation . Macroalgae have also been investigated as a feedstock for the production of biochar . The biochar produced from macroalgae is higher in agriculturally important nutrients than biochar produced from terrestrial sources . Another novel approach to carbon capture which utilizes algae is the Bicarbonate @-@ based Integrated Carbon Capture and Algae Production Systems ( BICCAPS ) developed by a collaboration between Washington State University in the United States and Dalian Ocean University in China . Many cyanobacteria , microalgae , and macroalgae species can utilize carbonate as a carbon source for photosynthesis . In the BICCAPS , alkaliphilic microalgae utilize carbon captured from flue gases in the form of bicarbonate . In South Korea , macroalgae have been utilized as part of a climate change mitigation program . The country has established the Coastal CO2 Removal Belt ( CCRB ) which is composed of artificial and natural ecosystems . The goal is to capture carbon using large areas of kelp forest .
= = Ecosystem restoration = =
Restoration of mangrove forests , seagrass meadows , marshes , and kelp forests has been implemented in many countries . These restored ecosystems have the potential to act as carbon sinks . Restored seagrass meadows were found to start sequestering carbon in sediment within about four years . This was the time needed for the meadow to reach sufficient shoot density to cause sediment deposition . Similarly , mangrove plantations in China showed higher sedimentation rates than barren land and lower sedimentation rates than established mangrove forests . This pattern in sedimentation rate is thought to be a function of the plantation ’ s young age and lower vegetation density .
= = Nutrient stoichiometry of seagrasses = =
The primary nutrients determining sea grass growth are carbon ( C ) , nitrogen ( N ) , phosphorus ( P ) , and light for photosynthesis . Nitrogen and P can be acquired from sediment pore water or from the water column , and sea grasses can uptake N in both ammonium ( NH4 + ) and nitrate ( NO3- ) form .
A number of studies from around the world have found that there is a wide range in the concentrations of C , N , and P in seagrasses depending on their species and environmental factors . For instance , plants collected from high @-@ nutrient environments had lower C : N and C : P ratios than plants collected from low @-@ nutrient environments . Sea grass stoichiometry does not follow the Redfield ratio commonly used as an indicator of nutrient availability for phytoplankton growth . In fact , a number of studies from around the world have found that the proportion of C : N : P in sea grasses can vary significantly depending on their species , nutrient availability , or other environmental factors . Depending on environmental conditions , sea grasses can be either P @-@ limited or N @-@ limited .
An early study of sea grass stoichiometry suggested that the " Redfield " balanced ratio between N and P for sea grasses is approximately 30 : 1 . However , N and P concentrations are strictly not correlated , suggesting that sea grasses can adapt their nutrient uptake based on what is available in the environment . For example , sea grasses from meadows fertilized with bird excrement have shown a higher proportion of phosphate than unfertilized meadows . Alternately , sea grasses in environments with higher loading rates and organic matter diagenesis supply more P , leading to N @-@ limitation . P availability in T. testudinum is the limiting nutrient . The nutrient distribution in T. testudinum ranges from 29 @.@ 4 @-@ 43 @.@ 3 % C , 0 @.@ 88 @-@ 3 @.@ 96 % N , and 0 @.@ 048 @-@ 0 @.@ 243 % P. This equates to a mean ratio of 24 @.@ 6 C : N , 937 @.@ 4 C : P , and 40 @.@ 2 N : P. This information can also be used to characterize the nutrient availability of a bay or other water body ( which is difficult to measure directly ) by sampling the sea grasses living there .
Light availability is another factor that can affect the nutrient stoichiometry of sea grasses . Nutrient limitation can only occur when photosynthetic energy causes grasses to grow faster than the influx of new nutrients . For example , low light environments tend to have a lower C : N ratio . Alternately , high @-@ N environments can have an indirect negative effect to sea grass growth by promoting growth of algae that reduce the total amount of available light .
Nutrient variability in sea grasses can have potential implications for wastewater management in coastal environments . High amounts of anthropogenic nitrogen discharge could cause eutrophication in previously N @-@ limited environments , leading to hypoxic conditions in the sea grass meadow and affecting the carrying capacity of that ecosystem .
A study of annual deposition of C , N , and P from P. Oceanica sea grass meadows in northeast Spain found that the meadow sequestered 198 g C m @-@ 2 yr @-@ 1 , 13 @.@ 4 g N m @-@ 2 yr @-@ 1 , and 2 @.@ 01 g P m @-@ 2 yr @-@ 1 into the sediment . Subsequent remineralization of carbon from the sediments due to respiration returned approximately 8 % of the sequestered carbon , or 15 @.@ 6 g C m @-@ 2 yr -1 .
= = Distribution and decline of blue carbon ecosystems = =
Seagrasses , mangroves and marshes are types of vegetated coastal habitats that cover approximately 49 million hectares worldwide . Seagrass ecosystems range from polar to tropical regions , mangroves are found in tropical and sub @-@ tropical ecosystems and tidal marshes are found in mostly temperate regions such as on the east coast of the United States . As habitats that sequester carbon are altered and decreased , that stored amount of C is being released into the atmosphere , continuing the current accelerated rate of climate change . Impacts on these habitats globally will directly and indirectly release the previously stored carbon , which had been sequestered in sediments of these habitats . Declines of vegetated coastal habitats are seen worldwide ; examples seen in mangroves are due to clearing for shrimp ponds such is the case in Indonesia , while in seagrasses there are both natural causes due to pathogens and may be exacerbated by anthropogenic effects . Quantifying rates of decrease are difficult to calculate , however measurements have been estimated by researchers indicating that if blue carbon ecosystems continue to decline , for any number of reasons , 30 @-@ 40 % of tidal marshes and seagrasses and approximately 100 % of mangroves could be gone in the next century .
Decline in seagrasses are due to a number of factors including drought , water quality issues , agricultural practices , invasive species , pathogens , fishing and climate change . Over 35 % of global mangrove habitat remains . Decreases in habitat is due to damming of rivers , clearing for aquaculture , development etc . , overfishing , and climate change , according to the World Wildlife Fund . Nearly 16 % of mangroves assessed by the IUCN are on the IUCN Red List ; due to development and other causes 1 in 6 worldwide mangroves are in threat of extinction . Dams threaten habitats by slowing the amount of freshwater reaching mangroves . Coral reef destruction also plays a role in mangrove habitat health as reefs slow wave energy to a level that mangroves are more tolerant of . Salt marshes may not be expansive worldwide in relation to forests , but they have a C burial rate that is over 50 times faster than tropical rainforests . Rates of burial have been estimated at up to 87 @.@ 2 ± 9 @.@ 6 Tg C yr @-@ 1 which is greater than that of tropical rainforests , 53 ± 9 @.@ 6 Tg C yr @-@ 1 . Since the 1800s salt marshes have been disturbed due to development and a lack of understanding their importance . The 25 % decline since that time has led to a decrease in potential C sink area coupled with the release of once buried C. Consequences of increasingly degraded marsh habitat are a decrease in C stock in sediments , a decrease in plant biomass and thus a decrease in photosynthesis reducing the amount of CO2 taken up by the plants , failure of C in plant blades to be transferred into the sediment , possible acceleration of erosive processes due to the lack of plant biomass , and acceleration of buried C release to the atmosphere .
Reasons for decline of mangroves , seagrass , and marshes include land use changes , climate and drought related effects , dams built in the watershed , convergence to aquaculture and agriculture , land development and sea @-@ level rise due to climate change . Increases in these activities can lead to significant decreases in habitat available and thus increases in released C from sediments . As anthropogenic effects and climate change are heightened , the effectiveness of blue carbon sinks will diminish and CO2 emissions will be further increased . Data on the rates at which CO2 is being released into the atmosphere is not robust currently , however research is being conducted to gather a better information to analyze trends . Loss of underground biomass ( roots and rhizomes ) will allow for CO2 to be emitted changing these habitats into sources rather than carbon sinks .
= = Sedimentation and blue carbon burial = =
Organic carbon is only sequestered from the oceanic system if it reaches the sea floor and gets covered by a layer of sediment . Reduced oxygen levels in buried environments mean that tiny bacteria who eat organic matter and respire CO2 can ’ t decompose the carbon , so it is removed from the system permanently . Organic matter that sinks but is not buried by a sufficiently deep layer of sediment is subject to re @-@ suspension by changing ocean currents , bioturbation by organisms that live in the top layer of marine sediments , and decomposition by heterotrophic bacteria . If any of these processes occur , the organic carbon is released back into the system . Carbon sequestration takes place only if burial rates by sediment are greater than the long term rates of erosion , bioturbation , and decomposition .
= = = Spatial variability in sedimentation = = =
Sedimentation is the rate at which floating or suspended particulate matter sinks and accumulates on the ocean floor . The faster ( more energetic ) the current , the more sediment it can pick up . As sediment laden currents slow , the particles fall out of suspension and come to rest on the sea floor . In other words , a fast current can pick up lots of heavy grains , where as a slow current can pick up only tiny pieces . As one can imagine , different places in the ocean vary drastically when it comes to the amount of suspended sediment and rate of deposition .
= = = = Open ocean = = = =
The open ocean has very low sedimentation rates because most of the sediments that make it here are carried by the wind . Wind transport accounts for only a small fraction of the total sediment delivery to the oceans . Additionally , there is much less plant and animal life living in the open ocean that could be buried . Therefore , carbon burial rates are relatively slow in the open ocean .
= = = = Coastal margins = = = =
Coastal margins have high sedimentation rates due to sediment input by rivers , which account for the vast majority of sediment delivery to the ocean . In most cases , sediments are deposited near the river mouth or are transported in the alongshore direction due to wave forcing . In some places sediment falls into submarine canyons and is transported off @-@ shelf , if the canyon is sufficiently large or the shelf is narrow . Coastal margins also contain diverse and plentiful marine species , especially in paces that experience periodic upwelling . More marine life combined with higher sedimentation rates on coastal margins creates hotspots for carbon burial .
= = = = Submarine Canyons = = = =
Marine canyons are magnets for sediment because as currents carry sediment on the shelf in the alongshore direction , the path of the current crosses canyons perpendicularly . When the same amount of water flow is suddenly in much deeper water it slows down and deposits sediment . Due to the extreme depositional environment , carbon burial rates in the Nazare Canyon near Portugal are 30 times greater than the adjacent continental slope ! This canyon alone accounts for about 0 @.@ 03 % of global terrestrial organic carbon burial in marine sediments . This may not seem like much , but the Nazarre submarine canyon only makes up 0 @.@ 0001 % of the area of the worlds ocean floor .
= = = Human changes to global sedimentary systems = = =
Humans have been modifying sediment cycles on a massive scale for thousands of years through a number of mechanisms .
= = = = Agriculture / land clearing = = = =
The first major change to global sedimentary cycling happened when humans started clearing land to grow crops . In a natural ecosystem , roots from plants hold sediment in place when it rains . Trees and shrubs reduce the amount of rainfall that impacts the dirt , and create obstacles that forest streams must flow around . When all vegetation is removed rainfall impacts directly on the dirt , there are no roots to hold on to the sediment , and there is nothing to stop the stream from scouring banks as it flows straight downhill . Because of this , land clearing causes an increase in erosion rates when compared to a natural system .
= = = = Dams = = = =
The first dams date back to 3000 BC and were built to control flood waters for agriculture . When sediment laden river flow reaches a dam ’ s reservoir , the water slows down as it pools . Since slower water can ’ t carry as much sediment , virtually all of the sediment falls out of suspension before the water passes through the dam . The result is that most dams are nearly 100 % efficient sediment traps . Additionally , the use of dams for flood control reduces the ability of downstream channels to produce sediment . Since the vast majority of sedimentation occurs during the biggest floods , reduced frequency and intensity of flood @-@ like flows can drastically change production rates . For thousands of years there were too few dams to have a significant impact on global sedimentary cycles , except for local impacts on a few river deltas such as the Nile which were significant . However The popularization of hydroelectric power in the last century has caused an enormous boom in dam building . Currently only a third of the world ’ s largest rivers flow unimpeded to the ocean .
= = = = Channelization = = = =
In a natural system , the banks of a river will meander back and forth as different channels erode , accrete , open , or close . Seasonal floods regularly overwhelm riverbanks and deposit nutrients on adjacent flood plains . These services are essential to natural ecosystems , but can be troublesome for humans , who love to build infrastructure and development close to rivers . In response , rivers in populated areas are often channelized , meaning that their banks and sometimes beds are armored with a hard material , such as rocks or concrete , which prevent erosion and fixes the stream in place . This inhibits sedimentation because there is much less soft substrate left for the river to take downstream .
= = = = Impacts = = = =
Currently , the net effect of humans on global sedimentary cycling is a drastic reduction in the amount of sediment that makes it to the ocean . If we continue to build dams and channelize rivers , we will continue to see a number of problems in coastal areas including sinking deltas , shrinking beaches , and disappearing salt marshes . In addition , it ’ s possible that we might ruin the ability of coastal margins to bury blue carbon . Without sequestration of carbon in coastal marine sediments , we will likely see accelerated global climate change .
= = Other Factors influencing blue carbon burial rates = =
= = = Density of vegetation = = =
The density of vegetation in mangrove forests , seagrass meadows , and tidal marshes is an important factor in carbon burial rates.The density of the vegetation must be sufficient to change water flows enough to reduce erosion and increase sediment deposition .
= = = Nutrient load = = =
Increases in carbon capture and sequestration have been observed in both mangrove and seagrass ecosystems which have been subjected to high nutrient loads , either intentionally or due to waste from human activities . Intentional fertilization has been used in seagrass meadow restoration . Perches for seabirds are installed in the meadow and the bird droppings are the fertilizer source . The fertilization allows fast growing varieties of seagrasses to establish and grow . The species composition of these meadows is markedly different than the original seagrass meadow , although after the meadow has been reestablished and fertilization terminated , the meadows return to a species composition that more closely resembles an undisturbed meadow . Research done on mangrove soils from the Red Sea have shown that increases in nutrient loads to these soils do not increase carbon mineralization and subsequent CO2 release . This neutral effect of fertilization was not found to be true in all mangrove forest types . Carbon capture rates also increased in these forests due to increased growth rates of the mangroves . In forests with increases in respiration there were also increases in mangrove growth of up to six times the normal rate .
= = Engineered approaches to blue carbon = =
A US Department of Energy study from 2001 proposed to replicate a natural process of carbon sequestration in the ocean by combining water rich in CO2 gas with carbonate [ CO3- ] to produce a bicarbonate [ HCO3- ] slurry . Practically , the engineered process could involve hydrating the CO2 from power plant flue gas and running it through a porous bed of limestone to ‘ fix ’ the carbon in a saturated bicarbonate solution . This solution could then be deposited at sea to sink in the deep ocean . The cost of this process , from capture to ocean burial , was estimated to range between $ 90 to $ 180 per tonne of CO2 and was highly dependent on the distance required to transport limestone , seawater , and the resulting bicarbonate solution .
Expected benefits from bicarbonate production over direct CO2 gas injection would be a significantly lesser increase in ocean acidity and a longer timescale for burial before the captured carbon would be released back to the atmosphere .
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= Underground Electric Railways Company of London =
The Underground Electric Railways Company of London Limited ( UERL ) , known operationally as the Underground for much of its existence , was established in 1902 . It was the holding company for the three deep @-@ level " tube " underground railway lines opened in London during 1906 and 1907 : the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway , the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway and the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway . It was also the parent company from 1902 of the District Railway , which it electrified between 1903 and 1905 . The UERL is a precursor of today 's London Underground ; its three tube lines form the central sections of today 's Bakerloo , Northern and Piccadilly lines .
The UERL struggled financially in the first years after the opening of its lines and narrowly avoided bankruptcy in 1908 by restructuring its debt . A policy of expansion by acquisition was followed before World War I , so that the company came to operate the majority of the underground railway lines in and around London . It also controlled large bus and tram fleets , the profits from which subsidised the financially weaker railways . After the war , railway extensions took the UERL 's services out into suburban areas to stimulate additional passenger numbers , so that , by the early 1930s , the company 's lines stretched beyond the County of London and served destinations in Middlesex , Essex , Hertfordshire and Surrey .
In the 1920s , competition from small unregulated bus operators reduced the profitability of the road transport operations , leading the UERL 's directors to seek government regulation . This led to the establishment of the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933 , which absorbed the UERL and all of the independent and municipally operated railway , bus and tram services in the London area .
= = Establishment = =
= = = Background = = =
The first deep @-@ level tube railway , the City & South London Railway ( C & SLR ) , opened in 1890 . Its early success resulted in a rush of proposals to Parliament for other deep @-@ level routes under the capital , but by 1901 only two more lines had opened : the Waterloo & City Railway ( W & CR ) in 1898 and the Central London Railway ( CLR ) in 1900 . Construction had started on one other line and then stopped following a financial crisis . The rest of the companies were struggling to raise funding .
The District Railway ( DR ) was a sub @-@ surface underground railway which had opened in 1868 . Its steam @-@ hauled services operated around the Inner Circle and on branches to Hounslow , Wimbledon , Richmond , Ealing , Whitechapel and New Cross . By 1901 , the DR was struggling to compete with emerging motor bus and electric tram companies and the CLR which were eroding its passenger traffic . To become more competitive , the DR was contemplating a programme of electrification , although it was not financially strong enough to raise the capital to carry out the work on its own . It also had parliamentary approval for a congestion @-@ relieving deep @-@ level line that was to run beneath its existing route between Gloucester Road and Mansion House .
By 1898 , American financier Charles Tyson Yerkes had made a large fortune developing the electric tramway and elevated railway systems in Chicago , but his questionable business methods , which included bribery and blackmail , had finally drawn the disapproving attention of the public . Yerkes had unsuccessfully attempted to bribe the city council and Illinois state legislature into granting him a 100 @-@ year franchise for the tramway system . Following a public backlash , he sold his Chicago investments and turned his attention to opportunities in London .
= = = Acquisitions = = =
Yerkes ' first acquisition in London was the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) . The company had parliamentary permission to build a deep @-@ level tube railway from Charing Cross to Hampstead and Highgate , but had been unable to raise the finance , selling only a tiny fraction of the shares available . Robert Perks , a solicitor for a number of railway companies and Member of Parliament for Louth , had suggested the CCE & HR to Yerkes and the American 's consortium bought the company for £ 100 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 9 @.@ 8 million today ) on 28 September 1900 .
Perks was also a large shareholder in Yerkes ' next target , the Metropolitan District Railway , usually known as the District Railway or DR. By March 1901 , the syndicate had acquired a controlling interest in the DR and made a proposal for its electrification . Yerkes established the Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company ( MDETC ) on 15 July 1901 with himself as managing director . The company raised £ 1 million ( £ 97 @.@ 9 million today ) to carry out the electrification works including the construction of the generating station and supplying the new electric rolling stock . In September 1901 , Perks became the DR 's chairman .
The Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway ( B & PCR ) was a tube railway company which had been purchased by the DR in 1898 , but had remained a separate financial entity . It had permission to construct a line from South Kensington to Piccadilly Circus , but had not raised the capital to do so . At South Kensington it was to connect to the deep level line planned by the DR. On 12 September 1901 , the DR @-@ controlled board of the B & PCR sold the company to the MDETC . In the same month , the B & PCR took over the Great Northern and Strand Railway ( GN & SR ) , a tube railway with permission to build a line from Strand to Finsbury Park . The routes of the B & PCR and GN & SR were subsequently linked and combined with part of the DR 's tube route to create the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) .
Yerkes ' final purchase was the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) in March 1902 for £ 360 @,@ 000 ( £ 35 @.@ 3 million today ) . The BS & WR had permission to construct a line from Paddington to Elephant & Castle and , unlike his other tube railway purchases , construction work had started in 1898 . Substantial progress had been made before it was stopped following the collapse of the BS & WR 's parent company , the London & Globe Finance Corporation , due to the fraud of its managing director Whitaker Wright in 1900 . With a varied collection of companies under his control , Yerkes established the UERL in April 1902 to take control of them all and manage the planned works , and took the position of chairman . On 8 June 1902 , the UERL took over the MDETC and paid off the company 's shareholders with cash and UERL shares .
= = = Finances = = =
The UERL was set up with an initial capitalisation of £ 5 million ( £ 490 million today ) . The company was backed by three merchant banks , Speyer Brothers in London , Speyer & Co. in New York and Old Colony Trust Company in Boston , each of which was to receive £ 250 @,@ 000 from the capital raised . Almost 60 per cent of the initial share offering was bought in the United States , with a third sold in Britain and the rest mainly in the Netherlands . Further capital was soon needed for the construction works and additional share and bond issues followed . The UERL eventually raised a total of £ 18 million ( £ 1 @.@ 74 billion today ) .
Like many of Yerkes ' schemes in the United States , the structure of the UERL 's finances was highly complex and involved the use of novel financial instruments . One method , used by Yerkes to raise £ 7 million , was " profit @-@ sharing secured notes " , a form of bond which was secured against the value of shares . They were sold at a 4 per cent discount , paid 5 per cent interest and were due for repayment in 1908 . The assumption was that shares would inevitably rise in value once the UERL 's tube railways were operational and producing a profit . Investors in the notes would gain the double benefit of the growth in share price and interest .
= = Engineering works = =
= = = Electrification of the District Railway = = =
Before its takeover , the DR had carried out some joint electrification experiments with the Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) , the other sub @-@ surface line with which the DR shared the Inner Circle . A section of track between Earl 's Court and High Street Kensington was electrified with a four @-@ rail system and a jointly owned test train operated a shuttle service between February and November 1900 . Having proven the practicality of electric traction , the two companies set up a joint committee to select a supplier of equipment for the electrification of their networks .
The committee 's preferred system was a 3 @,@ 000 volt , three @-@ phase alternating current system proposed by Hungarian electrical engineering company Ganz . The system delivered current by overhead conductor wires and was cheaper than alternatives using power rails and required fewer electrical sub @-@ stations . An experimental line had been constructed by Ganz in Budapest , although the system had not yet been adopted for the full @-@ scale operation of a railway . Before the appointment of Ganz could be finalised , Yerkes took control of the DR. He and his engineers preferred the low voltage direct current conductor rail system they had worked with in the United States and were intending to use on the tube lines when they were constructed ; they rejected the Ganz system putting the DR and the MDETC into dispute with the MR which wanted to proceed with the Ganz system . After some acrimonious debate between the two companies , some of which was carried out in public through the letters pages of The Times newspaper , the dispute went to arbitration at the Board of Trade . The decision was made in December 1901 to use the four @-@ rail system , although the arbitrator , Alfred Lyttelton , was critical of the DR 's unilateral decision .
Victorious , the MDETC quickly began the electrification of the DR 's tracks , starting with an extension from Ealing Common to South Harrow that opened with its first electric service in June 1903 . Conversion of the rest of the DR 's tracks was completed in mid @-@ 1905 , although failure to coordinate installations with the MR meant that the first electric services on the Inner Circle from 1 July 1905 were disrupted for several months due to equipment failures on the MR 's trains . Power came from the UERL 's own Lots Road Power Station on Chelsea Creek . Originally planned by the B & PCR , construction of the power station began in 1902 and finished in December 1904 . It became operational on 1 February 1905 , generating three @-@ phase alternating current at 11 @,@ 000 volts , which was converted to 550 volts direct current at track @-@ side transformers located around the network . The power station was constructed large enough to power all of the UERL 's lines once they opened plus others later . By the time the last of the DR 's steam trains were retired on 5 November 1905 , the UERL had spent £ 1 @.@ 7 million ( £ 165 million today ) on the electrification of the line .
= = = Construction of the tube railways = = =
With funds in place , construction of the BS & WR was quickly restarted . 50 per cent of the tunnelling and 25 per cent of the station work had been completed before work had been stopped , and by February 1904 virtually all of the tunnels and underground parts of the stations between Elephant & Castle and Marylebone were complete and works on the station buildings were under way . Construction of the GNP & BR and the CCE & HR began in July 1902 and proceeded quickly so that the UERL was able to record in its annual report in October 1904 that 80 per cent of the GNP & BR 's and 75 per cent of the CCE & HR 's tunnels had been completed .
Following the pattern adopted by the earlier tube lines , each of the UERL 's lines was constructed as a pair of circular tunnels using tunnelling shields with segmental cast iron tunnel linings bolted together and grouted into place as the shield advanced . Generally the tunnels followed surface roads and were constructed side by side , but where the width of the road above was insufficient , tunnels were placed one above the other . Stations on all three lines were provided with surface buildings designed by the UERL 's architect Leslie Green in a standardised style modified for each site . These consisted of two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed buildings faced with red glazed terracotta blocks with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . The stations had flat roofs and were designed to accommodate upward extension for commercial development . Most stations were provided with between two and four lifts and an emergency spiral staircase in a separate shaft . At platform level , the wall tiling featured the station name and an individual geometric pattern and colour scheme designed by Green .
The UERL used a Westinghouse automatic signalling system operated through electrified track circuits . This controlled signals based on the presence or absence of a train on the track ahead . Signals incorporated an arm that was raised when the signal was red . If a train failed to stop at a red signal , the arm would activate a " tripcock " on the train ; applying the brakes automatically .
= = Operation = =
= = = Early struggle for survival = = =
Apart from the electrification of the DR , Yerkes did not live to see the completion of the fast @-@ paced construction works that he set in motion ; he died in New York on 29 December 1905 and was replaced as UERL chairman by Edgar Speyer . Speyer was chairman of the UERL 's backer Speyer Brothers and a partner in Speyer & Co . Sir George Gibb , general manager of the North Eastern Railway , was appointed managing director . The BS & WR opened to passengers on 10 March 1906 . The GNP & BR followed on 15 December 1906 , with the CCE & HR on 22 June 1907 . The three tube lines quickly came to be known as the Bakerloo Tube , Piccadilly Tube and Hampstead Tube .
Yerkes also did not live to see the UERL 's financial struggle during the first years after the opening of the new lines . Because of greatly over @-@ optimistic pre @-@ opening predictions of passenger numbers , the lines failed to generate the income expected and needed to fund the interest payments on the UERL 's substantial borrowings . In the Bakerloo Tube 's first twelve months of operation , it carried 20 @.@ 5 million passengers , less than sixty per cent of the 35 million that had been predicted during the planning of the line . The Piccadilly Tube achieved 26 million of a predicted 60 million and the Hampstead Tube managed 25 million of a predicted 50 million . For the DR , the UERL had predicted an increase to 100 million passengers after electrification , but achieved 55 million . The lower than expected passenger numbers were partly due to competition between the UERL 's lines and those of the other tube and sub @-@ surface railway companies , and the further spread of electric trams and motor buses , replacing slower , horse @-@ drawn road transport , took a large number of passengers away from the trains . The low price of tickets also depressed income .
The crisis point for the UERL was the need to redeem the five @-@ year profit @-@ sharing secured notes on 30 June 1908 . The UERL did not have the money . Speyer unsuccessfully tried to persuade the London County Council ( LCC ) to inject £ 5 million into the UERL and used some of his own bank 's money to pay @-@ off disgruntled shareholders threatening bankruptcy proceedings . Eventually , Speyer and Gibb managed to obtain agreement from the shareholders to convert the notes into long @-@ term debt to be repaid in 1933 and 1948 .
= = = Consolidation = = =
As Speyer and Gibb worked to restructure the debt , the UERL 's general manager , Albert Stanley , appointed by Gibb in 1907 , began to increase the UERL 's income by improving management structures . With commercial manager Frank Pick , Stanley instigated a plan to increase passenger numbers ; developing the " Underground " brand and establishing a joint booking system and coordinated fares throughout all of London 's underground railways , including those not controlled by the UERL .
In 1909 , the UERL overcame the objections of previously reluctant American investors , and announced a parliamentary bill for the formal merger of the Bakerloo , Hampstead and Piccadilly Tube lines into a single company , the London Electric Railway Company ( LER ) . This bill received Royal Assent and was enacted on 26 July 1910 as the London Electric Railway Amalgamation Act , 1910 , The DR was not merged with the tube lines and remained a separate company .
As managing director of the UERL from 1910 , Stanley led further transport consolidation with the UERL 's take @-@ over of London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) in 1912 and the CLR and the C & SLR on 1 January 1913 . The LGOC was the dominant bus operator in the capital and its high profitability ( it paid dividends of 18 per cent compared with Underground Group companies ' dividends of 1 to 3 per cent ) subsidised the rest of the group . Through the UERL 's shareholding in the London and Suburban Traction Company ( LSTC ) , which it owned jointly with British Electric Traction , the UERL took control in 1913 of the London United Tramways , the Metropolitan Electric Tramways and the South Metropolitan Electric Tramways . The UERL also took control of bus builder AEC . The much enlarged group became known as the Combine . Only the MR ( and its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway ) and the W & CR ( by then fully owned by the London and South Western Railway ) remained outside of the Underground Group 's control .
= = = Extensions and improvements = = =
Another way in which the UERL tried to improve income was the construction of extensions to its lines to generate additional passenger traffic , often through the stimulation of new housing developments in the areas through which the lines ran . The DR was extended to Uxbridge in 1910 , by a connection made to the MR. In 1913 , the Bakerloo Tube was extended to Paddington and to Queen 's Park and Watford Junction four years later . The Hampstead tube was extended a short distance at its southern end to provide an interchange with the Bakerloo and the DR at Embankment in 1914 . It was extended at its northern end from Golders Green into the Middlesex countryside to reach Edgware in 1924 . In 1926 , the Hampstead tube was extended south to connect to the C & SLR at Kennington in conjunction with a reconstruction of the C & SLR and its 1926 extension from Clapham Common to Morden . The CLR was extended to Ealing Broadway in 1920 . Permission for an extension of the line to Richmond was obtained in 1913 and again in 1920 , but was not used . Later , during 1932 and 1933 , the Piccadilly Tube was extended at both ends : in the north from Finsbury Park to Cockfosters , and in the west from Hammersmith to Hounslow and Uxbridge using the DR 's tracks .
In addition , a programme of modernising many of the Underground 's busiest central London stations was started ; providing them with escalators to replace lifts . New and refurbished rolling stock was gradually introduced on a number of lines with automatic sliding doors along the length of the carriages instead of manual end gates , reducing boarding times . By the middle of the 1920s , the organisation had expanded to such an extent that a large , new headquarters building designed by Charles Holden was constructed at 55 Broadway over St. James 's Park station .
= = Move to public ownership = =
Starting in the early 1920s , competition from numerous small bus companies , nicknamed " pirates " because they operated irregular routes and plundered the LGOC 's passengers , eroded the profitability of the Combine 's bus operations . This had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole group . Stanley lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Stanley and Labour politician Herbert Morrison , London County Councillor ( and later member of parliament and Minister of Transport ) at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Stanley aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the Metropolitan Railway and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . As Stanley had done with shareholders in 1910 over the consolidation of the three UERL controlled tube lines , he used his persuasiveness to obtain their agreements to the government buy @-@ out of their stock .
The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 , with Stanley as chairman and Pick as Chief Executive .
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= Revolution ( Beatles song ) =
" Revolution " is a song by the Beatles , written by John Lennon and credited to Lennon – McCartney . Two versions of the song were recorded in 1968 : a hard rock version , released as the B @-@ side of the " Hey Jude " single , and a slower , bluesier arrangement ( titled " Revolution 1 " ) for the Beatles ' self @-@ titled double album , commonly known as " the White Album " . Although the single version was issued first , it was recorded several weeks after " Revolution 1 " , as a re @-@ make specifically intended for release as a single . A third connected piece , written by Lennon , is the experimental track " Revolution 9 " , based on the latter parts of the same performance that produced " Revolution 1 " , and which also appears on the White Album .
Inspired by political protests in early 1968 , Lennon 's lyrics expressed doubt in regard to some of the tactics . When the single version was released in August , the political left viewed it as betraying their cause . The release of the album version in November indicated Lennon 's uncertainty about destructive change , with the phrase " count me out " recorded differently as " count me out , in " . In 1987 , the song became the first Beatles recording to be licensed for a television commercial , which prompted a lawsuit from the surviving members of the group .
In the same year Nina Simone recorded her single " Revolution " with some structural similarities ( some lyrics are also the same ) to the Beatles ' song , but credited to her and Weldon Irvine .
= = Background and composition = =
In early 1968 , media coverage in the aftermath of the Tet Offensive spurred increased protests in opposition to the Vietnam War , especially among university students . The protests were most prevalent in the US , but on 17 March , several thousand demonstrators marched to the American embassy in London 's Grosvenor Square and violently clashed with police . Major protests concerning other political issues made international news , such as the March 1968 protests in Poland against their communist government , and the campus uprisings of May 1968 in France .
By and large , the Beatles had avoided publicly expressing their political views , with " Taxman " being their only overtly political track thus far . During his time in Rishikesh , Lennon decided to write a song about the recent wave of social upheaval . He recalled , " I thought it was about time we spoke about it [ revolution ] , the same as I thought it was about time we stopped not answering about the Vietnamese war . I had been thinking about it up in the hills in India . "
Despite Lennon 's antiwar feelings , he had yet to become anti @-@ establishment , and expressed in " Revolution " that he wanted " to see the plan " from those advocating toppling the system . The repeated phrase " it 's gonna be alright " in " Revolution " came directly from Lennon 's Transcendental Meditation experiences in India , conveying the idea that God would take care of the human race no matter what happened politically . Another influence on Lennon was his burgeoning relationship with avant @-@ garde artist Yoko Ono ; Ono attended the recording sessions , and participated in the unused portion of " Revolution 1 " which evolved into " Revolution 9 " .
Around the fourth week of May 1968 , the Beatles met at Kinfauns , George Harrison 's home in Esher , to demonstrate their compositions to each other in preparation for recording their next studio album . A bootleg recording from that informal session shows that " Revolution " had two of its three verses intact . The line referencing Mao Zedong was added to the lyrics in the studio . During filming of a promotional clip later that year , Lennon told the director that it was the most important lyric of the song . Lennon had changed his mind by 1972 , saying " I should have never put that in about Chairman Mao " .
= = Recording = =
= = = Revolution 1 = = =
The Beatles began their studio sessions for the new album on 30 May , starting with " Revolution 1 " ( simply titled " Revolution " for the first few sessions ) . The first day concentrated on recording the basic rhythm track . Take 18 lasted 10 : 17 , much longer than the earlier takes , and it was this take that was chosen for additional overdubs recorded over the next two sessions .
During overdubs which brought the recording to take 20 , Lennon took the unusual step of performing his lead vocal while lying on the floor . He also altered one line into the ambiguous " you can count me out , in " . He later explained that he included both because he was undecided in his sentiments . The appended " in " did not appear on the lyric sheet included with the original album .
" Revolution 1 " has a blues style , performed at a relaxed tempo . The electric guitar heard in the intro ( similar to the blues song " Dust My Broom " ) shows a blues influence , and the " shoo @-@ bee @-@ do @-@ wop " backing vocals are a reference to Doo Wop music . The basic time signature is 12 / 8 ( or 4 / 4 in a " shuffle " style ) , but the song has several extra half @-@ length bars during the verses . There are also two extra beats at the end of the last chorus , the result of an accidental bad edit during the mixing process that was left uncorrected at Lennon 's request .
= = = = Take 20 = = = =
Low @-@ quality monitor mixes of the full @-@ length version of " Revolution " appeared on various bootlegs , such as From Kinfauns to Chaos , throughout the 1990s . Then in 2009 , a high @-@ quality version labelled " Revolution Take 20 " appeared on the bootleg CD Revolution : Take ... Your Knickers Off ! The release triggered considerable interest among the media and fans of the group . This version , RM1 ( Remix in Mono # 1 ) of Take 20 , runs to 10 minutes 46 seconds ( at the correct speed ) and was created at the end of the 4 June session , with a copy taken away by Lennon . It was an attempt by Lennon to augment the full @-@ length version of " Revolution " in a way that satisfied him before he chose to split the piece between the edited " Revolution 1 " and the musique concrète " Revolution 9 " .
The bootlegged recording starts with engineer Geoff Emerick announcing the remix as " RM1 of Take ... " and then momentarily forgetting the take number , which Lennon jokingly finishes with " Take your knickers off and let 's go " , hence the name of the bootleg CD . The first half of the recording is almost identical to the released track " Revolution 1 " . It lacks the electric guitar and horn overdubs of the final version , but features two tape loops in the key of A ( same as the song ) that are faded in and out at various points . After the final chorus , the song launches into an extended coda similar to that in " Hey Jude " . ( The album version only features about 40 seconds of this coda . ) Beyond the point where the album version fades out , the basic instrumental backing keeps repeating while the vocals and overdubs become increasingly chaotic : Harrison and Paul McCartney repeatedly sing " dada , mama " in a childlike register ; Lennon 's histrionic vocals are randomly distorted in speed ( a little of this can be heard in the fade of " Revolution 1 " ) ; and radio tuning noises à la " I Am the Walrus " appear . Several elements of this coda appear in the officially released " Revolution 9 " . Throughout the body of that song , Lennon 's histrionic vocal track periodically appears ( albeit minus the speed distortion ) , as do the tape loops .
After the band track ends , the song moves into avant @-@ garde territory , with Yoko Ono reciting some prose over an unknown , vaguely operatic recording ( possibly captured live from the radio ) . Ono 's piece begins with the words " Maybe , it 's not that … " , with her voice trailing off at the end ; Lennon or Harrison jokingly replies , " It is ' that ' ! " As the piece continues , Lennon quietly mumbles " Gonna be alright " a few times . Then follows a brief piano riff , some comments from Lennon and Ono on how well the track has preceded , and final appearances of the tape loops . Most of this coda was lifted for the end of " Revolution 9 " , with a little more piano at the beginning ( which monitor mixes reveal was present in earlier mixes of " Revolution " ) and minus Lennon 's ( or Harrison 's ) joking reply .
= = = = Splitting of Revolution 1 and Revolution 9 = = = =
Lennon soon decided to divide the existing ten @-@ minute recording into two parts : a more conventional Beatles track and an avant @-@ garde sound collage . Within days after take 20 , work began on " Revolution 9 " using the last six minutes of the take as a starting point . Numerous sound effects , tape loops , and overdubs were recorded and compiled over several sessions almost exclusively by Lennon and Ono , although Harrison provided assistance for additional spoken overdubs . With more than 40 sources used for " Revolution 9 " , only small portions of the take 20 coda are heard in the final mix ; most prominent from take 20 are Lennon 's multiple screams of " right " and " alright " , and around a minute near the end featuring Ono 's lines up to " you become naked " .
On 21 June , the first part of take 20 received several overdubs and became officially titled " Revolution 1 " . The overdubs included a lead guitar line by Harrison and a brass section of two trumpets and four trombones . Final stereo mixing was completed on 25 June . The final mix included the hurried announcement of " take two " by Geoff Emerick at the beginning of the song .
= = = Revolution ( single version ) = = =
Lennon wanted " Revolution 1 " to be the next Beatles single , but McCartney was reluctant to invite controversy , and argued along with Harrison that the track was too slow for a single . Lennon persisted , and rehearsals for a faster and louder re @-@ make began on 9 July ; recording started the following day . This proved an immense success .
The song begins with " a startling machine @-@ gun fuzz guitar riff " , with Lennon and Harrison 's guitars prominent throughout the track . The distorted guitar sound was achieved by direct injection of the guitar signal into the mixing console . Emerick later explained that he routed the signal through two microphone preamplifiers in series while keeping the amount of overload just below the point of overheating the console . Lennon overdubbed the opening scream , and double @-@ tracked some of the words " so roughly that its careless spontaneity becomes a point in itself " , according to author Ian MacDonald .
" Revolution " was performed in a higher key , B major , compared to the A major of " Revolution 1 " , although the distortion changes the key slightly , leaving the song halfway between B ♭ and B. The " shoo @-@ bee @-@ do @-@ wop " backing vocals were omitted in the re @-@ make , and an instrumental break was added . " Revolution " was given a climactic end , as opposed to the fade out of " Revolution 1 " . For this version , Lennon unequivocally sang " count me out " . An electric piano overdub by Nicky Hopkins was added on 11 July , with final overdubs on 13 July and mono mixing on 15 July .
= = Release and reception = =
" Revolution " was released as the B @-@ side of the " Hey Jude " single in late August 1968 . In the US , the song peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single was listed as a double @-@ sided number 1 in Australia , while " Revolution " topped New Zealand 's singles chart for one week , following " Hey Jude " ' s five @-@ week run at number 1 there . " Revolution 1 " was released on The Beatles in late November 1968 . It was the opening track on side four of the LP , four spots ahead of the companion piece " Revolution 9 " .
" Revolution " later appeared on the 1970 US compilation album Hey Jude , the first time the song was issued in stereo . Lennon disliked the stereo mix , saying in a 1974 interview that the mono mix of " Revolution " was a " heavy record " but " then they made it into a piece of ice cream ! " The song was released on other compilations , including 1967 – 1970 and Past Masters . It was remixed for the 2006 soundtrack album Love , appearing in full length on the DVD @-@ Audio version and as a shortened edit on other versions .
Music journalist Greil Marcus noted that the political critics had overlooked the music ; he wrote that while " there is sterility and repression in the lyrics " , the " freedom and movement in the music ... dodges the message and comes out in front . " Among later music critics , Dave Marsh included " Revolution " in his 1989 book covering the 1001 greatest singles , describing it as a " gem " with a " ferocious fuzztone rock and roll attack " and a " snarling " Lennon vocal . Writing for AllMusic , Richie Unterberger called " Revolution " one of the Beatles ' " greatest , most furious rockers " with " challenging , fiery lyrics " where the listener 's " heart immediately starts pounding before Lennon goes into the first verse " .
= = = Political reception = = =
Politically , the release of " Revolution " prompted immediate responses from the New Left and counterculture press . Ramparts branded it a " betrayal " , and the New Left Review said the song was " a lamentable petty bourgeois cry of fear " . The far left contrasted " Revolution " with a song by the Rolling Stones that was inspired by similar events and released around the same time : " Street Fighting Man " was perceived to be more supportive of their cause . Others on the left praised the Beatles for rejecting radicalism and advocating " pacifist idealism " . The song 's apparent scepticism about revolution caused Lennon to become the target of a few minority Trotskyist , Leninist and in particular Maoist groups .
The far right remained suspicious of the Beatles , saying they were moderate subversives who were " warning the Maoists not to ' blow ' the revolution by pushing too hard " . As further evidence of group 's supposed " pro @-@ Soviet " sentiments , the John Birch Society magazine cited another song on the White Album , " Back in the U.S.S.R. " Anti @-@ communist and far @-@ right groups also picked on the track " Piggies " , which was about social class and corporate greed .
= = Promotional clips = =
Filming for promotional clips of " Hey Jude " and " Revolution " took place on 4 September 1968 under the direction of Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg . Two finished clips of " Revolution " were produced , with only lighting differences and other minor variations . The Beatles sang the vocals live over the pre @-@ recorded instrumental track from the single version . Their vocals included elements from " Revolution 1 " : McCartney and Harrison sang the " shoo @-@ bee @-@ doo @-@ wap " backing vocals , and Lennon sang " count me out , in " . Lennon also substituted " we 'd all love " for " we all want " in the opening verse . Later it was correctly pointed out that a track of Lennon 's voice is in fact playing in the background during the performance and can be heard quite noticeably at the end of the song when he fails to shout out his last and most explosive " All right " . Instead , the shout is heard from the soundtrack after he has already stopped singing and backed away from the microphone .
While the " Hey Jude " clip debuted on David Frost 's ITV television programme , the " Revolution " clip was first broadcast on the BBC1 programme Top of the Pops on 19 September 1968 . The first US screening of " Revolution " was on the 13 October 1968 broadcast of The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour . The promo clip is included in the three @-@ disc versions , titled 1 + , of the Beatles ' 2015 video compilation 1 .
= = Personnel = =
Revolution
John Lennon – vocal , lead guitar , handclaps , scream
Paul McCartney – bass guitar , Hammond organ , handclaps
George Harrison – lead guitar , handclaps
Ringo Starr – drums , handclaps
Nicky Hopkins – electric piano
Revolution 1
John Lennon – lead vocal , acoustic guitar , lead guitar
Paul McCartney – bass guitar , piano , organ , backing vocals
George Harrison – lead guitar , backing vocals
Ringo Starr – drums
Francie Schwartz - backing vocals
Derek Watkins and Freddy Clayton – trumpets
Don Lang , Rex Morris , J. Power , and Bill Povey – trombones
Personnel per Ian MacDonald
= = Use in Nike advertisement = =
In 1987 , " Revolution " became the first Beatles recording to be licensed for use in a television commercial . Nike paid $ 500 @,@ 000 for the right to use the song for one year , split between recording owner Capitol @-@ EMI and song publisher ATV Music Publishing ( owned by Michael Jackson ) . Commercials using the song started airing in March 1987 .
The three surviving Beatles , through their record company Apple , filed a lawsuit in July 1987 objecting to Nike 's use of the song . The suit was aimed at Nike , its advertising agency Wieden + Kennedy , and Capitol @-@ EMI Records . Capitol @-@ EMI said the lawsuit was groundless because they had licensed the use of " Revolution " with the " active support and encouragement of Yoko Ono Lennon , a shareholder and director of Apple " . Ono had expressed approval when the commercial was released , saying the commercial " is making John 's music accessible to a new generation " .
The " Revolution " lawsuit and others involving the Beatles and EMI were settled out of court in November 1989 , with the terms kept secret . The financial website TheStreet.com included the Nike " Revolution " advertisement campaign in its list of the 100 key business events of the 20th century , as it helped " commodify dissent " .
= = Cover versions = =
= = = Thompson Twins version = = =
Thompson Twins covered " Revolution " on their 1985 album Here 's to Future Days , from which it was released as the fourth and final single . The song peaked at number 56 in the UK , spending five weeks on the chart . The band made a promotional video for the single version of the song . The B @-@ side , " The Fourth Sunday " , was exclusive to this single .
Thompson Twins also performed the song with Madonna and Nile Rodgers at Live Aid in July 1985 .
= = = = Formats = = = =
7 " UK vinyl single ( 1985 ) Arista TWINS 10
Side A
" Revolution " – 3 : 23
Side B
" The Fourth Sunday " – 4 : 18
12 " UK vinyl single ( 1985 ) Arista TWINS 1210
Side One
" Revolution " ( Extended Mix ) – 6 : 25
Side Two
" The Fourth Sunday " – 4 : 18
12 " UK vinyl single ( 1985 ) Arista TWINS 2210
Side One
" Revolution " ( Remix ) – 6 : 00
Side Two
" The Fourth Sunday " – 4 : 18
= = = = Chart performance = = = =
= = = = Official versions = = = =
= = = = Personnel = = = =
Tom Bailey – vocals , piano , Fairlight , synthesizers , guitar , contrabass , Fairlight and drum programming
Alannah Currie – lyrics , marimba , backing vocals , acoustic drums , percussion , tuned percussion
Joe Leeway – backing vocals , congas , percussion
Steve Stevens – additional guitar
Produced by Nile Rodgers and Tom Bailey
Mixed by James Farber
Mixed at Skyline Studio , NYC
Photography – Rebecca Blake
Artwork / Design – Andie Airfix , Satori
Art Direction – Alannah
= = = Stone Temple Pilots version = = =
In October 2001 , Stone Temple Pilots performed " Revolution " live during Come Together : A Night for John Lennon 's Words and Music , a television special in tribute to Lennon that raised funds for victims of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center . After their performance received significant radio airplay , the group recorded a studio version of the song , which was released as a single in November 2001 . The song reached number 30 on the US Mainstream Rock Tracks chart .
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= Furtum =
Furtum was a delict of Roman law comparable to the modern offence of theft ( as it is usually translated ) despite being a civil and not criminal wrong . In the classical law and later , it denoted the contrectatio ( “ handling ” ) of most types of property with a particular sort of intention – fraud and in the later law , a view to gain . It is unclear whether a view to gain was always required or added later , and , if the latter , when . This meant that the owner did not consent , although Justinian broadened this in at least one case . The law of furtum protected a variety of property interests , but not land , things without an owner , or types of state or religious things . An owner could commit theft by taking his things back in certain circumstances , as could a borrower or similar user through misuse .
The Romans distinguished between " manifest " and " non @-@ manifest theft " based on how close to the scene of the crime the thief was caught , although exactly where the line was debated by jurists . Under the Twelve Tables , death or flogging could be expected for a manifest thief , later changed to damages of four times the thing . The penalty for non @-@ manifest theft was two times . There were complementary actions against the occupier of the property where the stolen goods were found , if the defendant did not bring the thing to court or refused a search . Vindicatio or condictio could also be undertaken by the owner of the thing , in addition to an action under furtum .
= = Contrectatio = =
Contrectatio meant " handling " and was established as the prohibited action associated with furtum before the end of the republic . Furtum had in the early and mid @-@ Republic required the carrying away of a thing . This was widened and there are several examples from the classical Rome and later where it is even hard to find physical contact in any sense . Contrectatio extended to dealing with the thing as if the owner , and " physical interference " can be considered a more accurate term than just touching . The idea of furtum , and conrectatio in particular , broadened during the republic to complement the narrowly defined Lex Aquilia . This did , for example , include using a borrowed thing in a way which went beyond that agreed with the lender ( furtum usus ) , such as borrowing a horse and riding it for longer than agreed . During the Republic , no distinction was made in language between furtum usus and furtum in general . Contrectio included what might be thought of as fraud : knowingly accepting a wrongful payment , or embezzlement , for example . The case of wrongful payment is problematic , because a mistaken payment still transferred ownership ; it seems contradictory that the receiver was granted ownership and still liable for theft . To accept a thing as a pledge knowing that it did not belong to the pledgor was also furtum – not merely acting as an accomplice . Plautus , a playwright , suggests that failing to report a theft after the fact was furtum , but this should not be assumed . The development of contrectio as the preferred prohibited act accompanied that of the criminal law , the actio doli ( for fraud ) and the Aquilian actions .
An accomplice could be sued if he had provided help ope consilio – a physical act relating to the method of execution , rather than mere encouragement . It appears that Labeo was the first to require help or advice , and earlier sources suggest that both help and advice was required . Labeo 's version was certainly entrenched by the early second century AD . An accomplice was treated as if he himself had committed the crime . Only one person needed to have handled the thing for all wrongdoers to be liable . Republican jurists were harder on accomplices than later jurists under the empire . Indeed , Ulpian considers the unwitting accomplice , who accidentally knocks out of the victim 's hand some coins which are then stolen , an accomplice to the theft . Some commentators have gone as far to say that the veteres ( " ancients " ) may not have even required a third party to remove the coins , as long as they were otherwise lost to the owner .
= = Requisite intent = =
The requisite intention ( sometimes described as " animus furandi " ) was a fraud ( fraudulosa ) . The act had to be against the will of the owner . The prospective thief also had to believe that he did not have the owner 's consent . This is confirmed in Gaius in the case of the slave who alerts his master to the fact that he has been bribed by another to steal from his master . The owner now consents to the thief 's appropriation so he can be caught in the act , and therefore prevents the crime actually occurring . Justinian , however , reverses this distinction for public policy reasons , and thus creates rather an anomaly . The acts had to be done deliberately , not merely negligently .
Intention to make a gain was probably necessary in Justinian 's time . It is thought that this was the case during classical Rome , as well : an example of Gaius is quoted in the Digest , and implies so ; Sabinus is quoted by Gellius as including such a condition . It is not entirely clear , however . This rule complements the existence of damnum iniuria datum . In a notable example , a man , acting dishonestly , calls a mule @-@ driver to court frivolously , which caused the mules to be lost . Although this was classed as theft , there is no obvious intention to make a gain . This may have been because if the mules were lost , they had necessarily been stolen by someone . That being the case , the perpetrator could be held as an accomplice . Damnum iniuria datum focussed on wrongful damage to property . It is then , in form , more appropriate an action than furtum in cases where a loss has been caused , although the penalty nature of furtum did mean it could result in a higher payment .
Infantes ( young children ) and furiosi ( " lunatics " ) were considered incapable of formulating the necessary intention and could therefore not commit furtum .
= = Protected interests = =
The thing must be movable , if it is to be stolen . Whilst an immovable thing cannot be carried away , the pre @-@ classical extension to other types of interference with property means that immovable were not by their nature excluded . Gaius indicates that certain veteres ( " ancients " ) believed that land could be stolen . This was also the view of Sabinus , but it was rejected by other classical jurists . A thing separated from the land could be stolen , however . Usucapio was particularly important with regard to land , and therefore the exclusion may have be retained to help the good faith possessor of land to usucapt . Res sanctae and religiosia were covered by separate delicts ; and one could not steal a res nullius . One can commit furtum of one 's own property , for example by taking back a thing pledged to a creditor , or by secretly reclaiming one 's own thing from a good faith possessor . Free persons could also be stolen , for example , children ; a wife in manu ; indicati and auctorati . This was probably a hang @-@ over from a time when dominium ( ownership ) , manus and potestas were indistinct and not formally separate . Res hereditariae could not be stolen , perhaps for want of a suitable plaintiff with a sufficient interest .
The general rule was that anyone with an interest in the safety of the thing stolen may sue . It could be that the owner did not have a sufficient interest to bring an action . If one person had a positive right in a thing , such as a pledgee , usufructory , or good faith possessor , both he and the owner could sue . The unsecured creditor could not . Those obliged by contract to return the thing , and other forms of " negative interest " , had an action available at the expense of owner . This was only true so long as the person obliged was solvent – that is , under a real risk of losing out by a theft . If the person obliged was insolvent , the owner would have an action instead . The plaintiff with a negative interest was precluded from an action if it was by his own fault ( dolus ) , or other dishonest . The lower standard of care required of a depositee meant he could not be sued by a depositor , and so had no action available for furtum . A vendor , who had agreed a price but not delivered his thing , retained legal ownership of the thing . Thus if the thing was stolen , the vendor had the action on the theft because he was liable to the purchaser .
= = Applicable actions = =
There were several possible actions available to the claimant . In the typical theft , the damages were a multiple of the value of the thing stolen , available through the actio furti . A subsequent rise in the value of the thing stolen whilst the claim was being brought was borne by the defendant , if found liable . If part of a thing was stolen , probably the value of that part . A successful action for theft brought with it infamia for the thief . If the claimant had an interest short of ownership , then the value of that interest formed the basis for the damages instead . An heir of the claimant could sue , but the heir of a thief was not liable . Some types of theft were criminal wrongs by the end of the republic . Ulpian reports that criminal proceedings were more common , and Julian that a successful prosecution prevented a civil action under furtum . Even furtum itself was not compensatory but penal in nature .
In the time of the Twelve Tables , a " manifest " thief and a " non @-@ manifest " thief were treated differently . Manifest theft denoted some sort of being caught in the act . Being found later with the stolen thing was not manifest theft , unless it was found during a seemingly bizarre ritual ( furtum lance licioque conceptum ) , whereby the searcher would come with a silver platter and wearing few clothes . Gaius is highly critical of the by @-@ then obsolete ritual , imagining the platter was for removal of the goods . In practice , it may have been for an offering to the household gods . Being almost naked would have prevented the searcher bringing with him a thing he would then pretend to find . Gaius reports that manifest theft brought a penalty of a severe flogging and enslavement for freemen . Slaves found liable for manifest furtum would be thrown off to their deaths off the Tarpeian Rock . The manifest thief was at the time of the Twelve tables was not given a full trial , his case merely adjudicated by a magistrate . The extreme penalty must have acted as a deterrent . The victim could kill the thief on the spot in two situations : at night , and where the thief was using a weapon and had been verbally warned . The verbal warning was designed to make the act of killing more public , and prevent it being an underhand way of committing murder . This rule was accepted by Gaius but is questioned by Ulpian . The penalty for non @-@ manifest theft was always double damages .
By the classical period , physical punishment had been abandoned for manifest theft and Gaius records merely four @-@ times damages , introduced by the praetor . This meant , somewhat strangely , that a praetorian action could be more serious than a civil action , which was unusual . Gaius also elaborates slightly on what constitutes manifest theft . He says that most jurists believed it extended to being caught in the place of the theft with the thing , and no further . Julian ( jurist ) , Ulpian , and Justinian all described it as including the thief who was still carrying the thing to its intended hiding place . There may have been a maximum time limit on manifest theft of this type , but it is unclear how long it was . The general rules for furtum were almost fully developed by the classical period and few significant changes were made during and after it .
There were now four possible actions for theft , by the victim : the action furti itself and three complementary actions . The actio furti concepti was available against the occupier of the building in which the stolen goods were found , regardless of his knowledge of them and brought three @-@ times damages . The actio furti prohibiti could be pursued against anyone who declined a search with witnesses , with four @-@ times damages . The actio furti non exhibiti could be brought if the respondent did not bring the thing to court , although its penalty is unclear . There was a further action available to the respondent of an actio furti concepti who had been found liable : he could sue the person who gave it to him , for the extent of his own liability . That the victim could sue both the thief and handler , if he could show who the thief was , which would have difficult without the presence of the thing . This was both penal , and an attempt to give the plaintiff enough actions to compensate him , because the thief , at least was not usually solvent .
By Justinian 's time , the scheme was simpler : instead of complementing actions for manifest and non @-@ manifest theft , handling stolen goods , or concealing them made one instead liable for non @-@ manifest theft , whose two @-@ times penalty was maintained . Searches were carried out by public authorities , and the wide definition of theft covered a bad faith receiver of goods .
There were reipersecutory actions available in addition to penal actions , those actions which followed from a finding of theft but were additional to it . An action for furtum allowed the dominus or his heirs a claim under vindicatio ( and action in rem ) , which would result in the thing being returned if its value could not be paid instead . It also allowed a claim by the owner for the thing ’ s value under the condictio furtiva against the thief in personam , although only one could be successful . Allowing a condictio was anomalous : it was an action more usually brought by a non @-@ owner , possibly kept over from before condictio was restricted in this way . It is also possible it was allowed because it granted to the claimant an advantage insofar as he did not need ascertain who had the property itself . Gaius suggests that it was kept " out of hatred for thieves " . A possessory interdict was another option in either case .
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= Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex =
Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex is a platform game published by Universal Interactive Studios along with Konami and developed by Traveller 's Tales for the PlayStation 2 , Xbox and was ported by Eurocom for GameCube . It was first released on the PlayStation 2 in North America on October 29 , 2001 .
The game is the fourth main installment ( sixth overall ) in the Crash Bandicoot video game series . It is the first main installment of the series not to be developed by Naughty Dog , and the first of the entire series to not be released exclusively for a PlayStation console . The story centers on the appearance of Crunch Bandicoot , a genetically advanced bandicoot created by the main antagonist of the series , Doctor Neo Cortex , who is aided by a group of destructive masks known as the Elementals . Crash Bandicoot and his sister Coco must travel the world and gather special Crystals that will return the Elementals to a hibernated state , and defeat Crunch .
Critical reception of the game was mixed , with many reviewers opining that the game recycled elements from its PlayStation predecessors with minimal innovation . The PlayStation 2 edition has sold 1 @.@ 95 million copies in North America , and the game qualified for various best @-@ seller ranges , including the Platinum Range for PlayStation 2 , Xbox Classics , and Player 's Choice on GameCube . It was released as a launch title for the Xbox Originals line of downloadable original @-@ Xbox games for the Xbox 360 's Live Marketplace service on December 4 , 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex is a platform game in which the player controls Crash and Coco Bandicoot , who must gather 25 Crystals and defeat the main antagonists of the story : Doctor Neo Cortex , his new superweapon Crunch Bandicoot and Crunch 's power sources , the renegade Elementals . Much of the game takes place in a " Virtual Reality ( VR ) Hub System " created by Coco to help Crash gather the Crystals . The VR Hub System is split up into five " VR Hubs " ; initially , only the first VR Hub is available . Each VR Hub has five teleportation portals to different levels . The goal in each level is to find and obtain the Crystal hidden in the area . In some levels , the Crystal will be located at the end of a level or must be earned by completing a specific challenge . Most levels contain a " Bonus Platform " that leads to a special bonus area , where the player must navigate through a maze and collect everything in sight . Once a bonus area is completed , it cannot be played again unless the level is replayed . After completing all five levels in a VR Hub , a sixth teleportation portal to a boss fight with Crunch will appear . By defeating the boss , the next VR Hub will become available for play . When all 25 Crystals are collected and Doctor Cortex and Crunch are defeated , the game is won .
Besides Crystals , Gems and Colored Gems can be collected for extra accomplishment . Gems are rewarded to the player if all of the crates in a level are broken open or if a secret area is completed . Colored Gems are found in special levels and lead to hidden areas . " Relics " can be won by re @-@ entering a level where the Crystal has already been retrieved . To obtain a Relic , the player must initiate the " Time Trial " mode and race through a level in the pre @-@ designated time displayed before entering a level . To begin a Time Trial run , the player must enter a level and activate the floating stopwatch near the beginning of the level to activate the timer ; if the stopwatch is not touched , the level can be played regularly . The player must then race through the level as quickly as possible . Scattered throughout the level are yellow crates with the numbers one , two , or three on them . When these crates are broken , the timer is frozen for the number of seconds designated by the box . As no lives are lost in the Time Trial mode , the level can be played through as often as the player desires . Sapphire , Gold and Platinum Relics can be won depending on how low the player 's final time is . The first five Relics the player receives unlocks access to a secret level . Every five Relics thereafter open up another level in the Secret Warp Room . The levels in the Secret Warp Room must be won before the game can be fully completed .
Crash and Coco Bandicoot start the game with four lives . Crash and Coco lose a life when they are struck by an enemy attack or suffer any other type of damage . More lives can be earned by collecting 100 " Wumpa Fruits " or break open a special crate to collect a life . Crash and Coco can be shielded from enemy attack by collecting an Aku Aku mask . Collecting three of these masks allows temporary invulnerability from all minor dangers . If Crash or Coco run out of lives , the game is over . However , the game can be continued by selecting " Continue " at the " Game over " screen .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Ten returning characters from previous Crash titles star in Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex along with five new characters . The protagonist of the game , Crash Bandicoot , is a genetically enhanced eastern barred bandicoot who must defeat the antagonist Doctor Neo Cortex and his new superweapon . Coco Bandicoot , Crash 's younger sister , is a highly intelligent computer expert with an interest in Hong Kong martial arts films . Aku Aku is an omnipotent witch doctor who guides and aids Crash and Coco in stopping the plans of Doctor Neo Cortex . Pura , Coco 's pet tiger cub , serves a very minor role and appears only in the introduction of the game .
The main antagonist of the series , Doctor Neo Cortex , is a mad scientist who created Crash Bandicoot among other characters and now seeks Crash 's elimination along with world domination . The controlling force behind Cortex 's plots for conquering the world is Uka Uka , the twin brother of Aku Aku . Four recurring villains from the series serve minor roles in the game : Doctor N. Gin , Cortex 's main assistant ; Doctor Nefarious Tropy , a scientist who specialises in time travel ; Tiny Tiger , a hulking and ferocious thylacine ; and Dingodile , a dingo @-@ crocodile hybrid armed with a flamethrower .
Five new characters in the series make their appearance in Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex , of which the most important is Doctor Cortex 's genetically enhanced superweapon Crunch Bandicoot , a bionic bandicoot created for the purpose of destroying Crash Bandicoot . Acting as Crunch 's power source are the Elementals , a group of destructive masks who control the elements of Earth , Water , Fire and Air . The Elementals consist of Rok @-@ Ko , a temperamental and rock @-@ headed earthbending mask who controls earthquakes and landslides , Wa @-@ Wa , a waterbending mask who controls thunderstorms and floods , Py @-@ Ro , an easily perturbed firebending mask who controls volcano eruptions , and Lo @-@ Lo , a joke @-@ cracking airbending mask who controls tornadoes .
= = = Story = = =
In a space station orbiting the Earth , Uka Uka , having called a convention of villains , berates Doctor Neo Cortex , Tiny Tiger , Dingodile , Dr. Nefarius Tropy and Dr. N. Gin for their low " track record for spreading evil " , and orders them to come up with a plan to eliminate Crash Bandicoot , their main opponent . Cortex comes forward with the announcement of a previously secret " genetically enhanced superweapon of unbelievable strength " , but reveals that it is missing a power source . Uka Uka then suggests using the Elementals , a group of renegade masks who had elemental power over earth , water , fire and air and used these elements to ravage the globe until they were imprisoned by The Ancients with the aid of special Crystals that put the masks in a state of hibernation . Cortex deduces that if they awaken the Elementals and harness their destructive power , they can bring his secret weapon to life and eliminate Crash Bandicoot forever .
Back on Earth , the world is suddenly terrorised by severe natural disasters , leading Aku Aku to conclude that Uka Uka is up to something . A confrontation with Uka Uka confirms his suspicions and nearly results in his destruction at the hands of the Elementals . Aku Aku returns to Crash and Coco Bandicoot and alerts them of the current situation , disclosing that the only way to stop the Elementals is to imprison them once more with the Crystals , which have been scattered across the Earth . Using Coco 's new Virtual Reality Hub System , Crash and Coco travel the world and gather the Crystals , fending off attacks from Cortex 's superweapon , Crunch Bandicoot , and the Elementals along the way . However , by the time the Crystals have been gathered and the Elementals have been put in their hibernation state , Crunch 's elemental powers have reached maximum capacity , forcing Crash to battle Crunch at full power in Cortex 's space station . Nevertheless , Crash defeats Crunch , which releases him from Cortex 's control . Infuriated by this failure , Uka Uka attacks Cortex with a fireball , only to have it hit a vital part of the space station , which causes a chain reaction that results in the space station 's self @-@ destruction . Crash , Aku Aku , and Crunch escape and return to the Bandicoot home on Coco 's space fighter ship , while Cortex and Uka Uka deploy an escape pod and end up landing somewhere in Antarctica , where Uka Uka furiously chases Cortex around a small ice floe .
= = Development = =
Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex was originally intended to be designed by Mark Cerny , who had designed all the games in the series thus far , and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . The game under Cerny 's direction was to be a free @-@ roaming title with puzzle elements that would see Crash travelling between different planets . In early 2000 , when Universal approached Traveller 's Tales to be the development team behind the game , they produced a 3 @-@ D rendered demo of Crash running through a volcanic level . Development of the game 's engine began in mid @-@ 2000 .
On September 21 , 2000 , Universal Interactive Studios and Konami announced that they had entered an agreement that would enable Konami to publish a Crash Bandicoot game for next @-@ generation game systems , with Universal Interactive handling the production of the games . The agreement served to break the Crash Bandicoot franchise 's exclusivity to Sony @-@ produced consoles and effectively made Crash Bandicoot a mascot character for Universal rather than Sony . After Universal fell out with Cerny and Sony , Traveller 's Tales was forced to alter the game from a free @-@ roaming title to a standard Crash title in the lieu of Warped , the third game in the series . Traveller 's Tales had to begin development of the game from scratch and were given only twelve months to complete the game .
The character Crunch Bandicoot was designed by Craig Whittle of Traveller 's Tales and Sean Krankel of Universal . The concept of battling mini @-@ bosses within the game 's levels was dropped to uphold the fast and frantic pace of the series ' gameplay . Multiplayer capability was also considered before being dropped . An earlier draft of the story featured an alternate version of the game 's climax and ending , which involved Crash battling Crunch in a mechanical robot suit . At the end of the fight , Crunch would destroy Crash 's suit with a bolt of electricity . The resulting debris would render Cortex unconscious , destroy the remote control device controlling Crunch and start an electrical fire in the space station . As the Bandicoots escape to resume their beach @-@ going vacation , the ruins of the space station would crash @-@ land onto the island of Cortex 's original settlement , conveniently allowing Cortex and Uka Uka to resume their world domination bids .
The majority of the characters and vehicles in the game were built and textured by Nicola Daly and animated by Jeremy Pardon . The main game systems and game code as a whole were coded by John Hodskinson . The game 's music is composed by Andy Blythe and Marten Joustra of Swallow Studios . A rearranged version of the original Crash Bandicoot theme by Mutato Muzika 's Josh Mancell also appears in the game . The game 's sound effects were created by Ron Horwitz , Tom Jaeger , John Robinson , and Harry Woolway of Universal Sound Studios . The game 's voice actors were cast and directed by Margaret Tang . Only two of the series ' original voice actors reprised their roles for the game : Clancy Brown voices the dual role of Doctor Neo Cortex and Uka Uka , while Mel Winkler provides the voice of Aku Aku . Debi Derryberry inherited the role of Coco Bandicoot from Hynden Walch , while Corey Burton voices the returning villains Doctor N. Gin and Doctor Nefarious Tropy , taking over for Brendan O 'Brien and Michael Ensign respectively . Kevin Michael Richardson provides the voice of new character Crunch Bandicoot , while the Elementals , consisting of Rok @-@ Ko , Wa @-@ Wa , Py @-@ Ro and Lo @-@ Lo , are voiced by Thomas F. Wilson , R. Lee Ermey , Mark Hamill , and Jess Harnell respectively .
Following the release of the PlayStation 2 edition on October 29 , 2001 , the Xbox version of the game was announced by Universal Interactive on January 31 , 2002 . The Xbox version features reduced loading times and improved graphics . On September 17 , 2002 , the game was released on the GameCube , initially in North America .
= = Reception = =
Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex received mixed to generally positive reviews , with some critics criticizing the game for making little changes to the formula established by its predecessors . Louis Bedigian of GameZone wrote a positive review , saying that " any Crash Bandicoot fan would be a fool not to go out and buy this game . I started playing at 2am one night and did not stop until three in the afternoon ! " Doug Perry of IGN described the game as " a decent playing and pretty looking Crash Bandicoot game . It 's nothing terribly special , but it 's not bad , not bad at all . " Official US PlayStation Magazine felt that " when the strongest feeling I get from a game is the desire to play its predecessors , something 's not quite right . " Game Informer criticized the " outrageously bad load times " , saying that they " keep the game from being average . " Star Dingo of GamePro cautioned that " if you were hoping the new management would give Crash a big kick in the pants , however , this is one pair of pants you will find quite unkicked . " Electronic Gaming Monthly criticised the trial @-@ and @-@ error gameplay , saying that " when forced to blindly jump , die , then discover what you missed , where I come from , that ’ s just cheating . "
Play Magazine noted that " they 've caressed the music to great effect , made the bosses a bit more challenging , [ and ] adhered to a massive replayability standard that would drive any developer to drink . " Game Informer felt that " every little morsel of platforming goodness in The Wrath of Cortex has already been done to death on the Playstation . " Carlos McElfish of GameZone warned that " if you are looking for an innovative and original experience that does justice to the series you ’ ll have to look elsewhere . " Official Xbox Magazine concluded that " this is a game for those who want what Crash has always had to offer – good graphics , jump @-@ and @-@ spin gameplay , and tons of collectible items . Nothing more , nothing less . " Hilary Goldstein felt that while Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex was " a fun game for the most part , " " it fails in some areas , like proper game balance and correct use of surround sound . " Star Dingo of GamePro concluded that " love it or hate it , Wrath of Cortex Xbox is more of more of the same . " Electronic Gaming Monthly felt that " save for a few additions to WOC , like some cool hamster @-@ ball levels , it 's almost identical to its predecessors . "
The GameCube version rated the lowest among critics out of the three versions . Ben Kosmina of Nintendo World Report promised that " gamers experiencing the wacky mascot for the first time may enjoy it . " Michael Lafferty of GameZone described the game as " safe , sterile and redundant . " Matt Casamassina on IGN concluded that " at the end of the day this is the same Crash game I played so many years ago without any real innovations or evolutions . " Nintendo Power praised the " sheer variety " of the gameplay . Kilo Watt of GamePro said that " graphically , this version is slightly below the recent Xbox release but in line with the competent PlayStation 2 iteration . " Electronic Gaming Monthly agreed that " Wrath on the GC is much more polished here than on the PS2 , " while Play Magazine denounced the GameCube version as " a shell of the other two console versions , so I beg you to pass . "
Commercially , the PlayStation 2 version sold over 1 @.@ 95 million units in North America , and around 170 @,@ 000 copies in 2001 in Japan . As a result , the game was re @-@ released for the Platinum Range on October 11 , 2002 , for the Sony Greatest Hits line @-@ up on October 15 , 2002 , and for the Best line @-@ up on October 17 , 2002 . The " Greatest Hits " version of the game features quicker load times than those of the original version . The Xbox version was re @-@ released for the Xbox Classics line @-@ up on April 11 , 2003 , and the GameCube version was re @-@ released for the Player 's Choice line @-@ up in Europe on October 22 , 2004 .
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= South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut =
South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut is a 1999 American adult animated musical comedy film based on the Comedy Central television series South Park . The film was directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and stars the regular television cast of Parker , Matt Stone , Mary Kay Bergman , and Isaac Hayes , with guest performances by George Clooney , Eric Idle , and Mike Judge . The plot follows the four boys — Stan Marsh , Kyle Broflovski , Eric Cartman , and Kenny McCormick — as they see a controversial R @-@ rated movie featuring Canadians Terrance and Phillip and begin cursing incessantly . Their parents pressure the United States to wage war against Canada for allegedly corrupting their children .
The film tackles issues of censorship and bad parenting and parodies the animated films of the Disney Renaissance as well as musicals such as the West End 's Les Misérables , and satirizes the controversy surrounding the show itself . The movie also heavily satirizes the Motion Picture Association of America ; Parker and Stone battled the MPAA throughout the production process and the movie received an R rating just two weeks prior to its release . A writing team consisting of Parker , Stone , and Pam Brady was assembled . They conceived numerous plot ideas , with Parker and Stone 's being the one developed into a film . The film features twelve original songs by Parker and Marc Shaiman with additional lyrics by Stone .
The film was released in theaters on June 30 , 1999 , and on home video on November 23 , 1999 . Produced on a $ 21 million budget , it went on to gross $ 83 @.@ 1 million worldwide in theaters , making it the highest @-@ grossing R @-@ rated animated film of all time . The song " Blame Canada " earned Parker and Marc Shaiman a nomination for Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 72nd Academy Awards . The song was performed by Robin Williams at the ceremony .
= = Plot = =
Stan Marsh , Kenny McCormick , Kyle Broflovski and Eric Cartman head to the local movie theater to see the new film Terrance and Phillip : Asses of Fire which stars the boys ' favorite Canadian comedy duo Terrance and Phillip ( " Mountain Town " ) , but when the boys get there , they are refused entry due to the film being rated R by the MPAA , so they pay a homeless man to accompany them . The boys learn obscene phrases from the movie ( " Asses of fire " ) which makes the other kids in town want to see the movie .
The following day , the kids begin swearing in class , and they are sent to see Counselor Mr. Mackey , who informs their mothers . Learning that the language was from the movie , their parents force the teachers to enforce a strict dress code banning all types of Terrance and Phillip clothing . While more drastic measures are being taken , Mr. Mackey abandons their previous lesson plans and run a rehabilitation center for the kids to get them to stop swearing ( " It 's Easy , M 'Kay " ) . Afterwards , the boys and the rest of the children go to see the movie again . Kenny bets Cartman $ 100 that he can set his fart on fire like Terrance did in the film . Kenny immolates himself and dies when the doctors accidentally replace his heart with a baked potato . Stan , Kyle , and Cartman are grounded for seeing the Terrance & Phillip movie again . Kenny is refused admission to Heaven and sent to Hell ( " Hell Isn 't Good " ) , where he is tormented by Satan and Saddam Hussein who are gay lovers . The parents of South Park organize a boycott against Canada and Terrance and Phillip ( " Blame Canada " ) , which is led by Kyle 's mother Sheila . The new group of angry mob - called " Mothers Against Canada " - has Terrance and Phillip arrested as war criminals , and when the United States refuses to release the duo , Canada retaliates by bombing the residence of the Baldwin brothers .
Sheila , now appointed as the " Secretary of Offense of the United States " , and President Bill Clinton announce that the United States will go to war with Canada and will have Terrance and Phillip executed at an upcoming USO show . After overhearing Cartman leading the kids in annoying Kyle with a song degrading herself and admonishing her ridiculous methods ( " Kyle 's Mom 's a Bitch " ) , she has Dr. Vosknocker forcibly implant a V @-@ Chip in Cartman . The device gives sharp violent electrical shock every time Cartman swears . Meanwhile , back in Hell , Satan declares that if the blood of the two innocent Canadians touches American soil , it will be time for him to rise up and rule the world . Saddam wants to come with him , but Satan is tired of being bossed around by Saddam ( " Up There " ) . Kenny tells Satan to break up with Saddam to which Satan initially agrees , but Saddam wins back Satan with a song ( " I Can Change " ) . Later , Kenny 's ghost visits Cartman to warn him of the consequences of executing Terrance and Phillip . After failing to convince their parents , the boys decide to take matters into their own hands ( " What Would Brian Boitano Do " ) . They have a secret meeting to talk about how they can save Terrance and Phillip . They form La Resistance and Gregory tells Stan to recruit a God @-@ hating French expert on covert operations named " The Mole " ( " La Resistance " ) .
While the troops , waiting for the execution of Terrance and Phillip , are being entertained by Big Gay Al ( " I 'm Super " ) , La Resistance and The Mole infiltrate the USO show , but The Mole is discovered by Sheila and the guards , and he is killed by the guard dogs after Cartman fails to deactivate the alarms ( " The Mole 's Reprise " ) . The remaining three boys attempt to warn their mothers and the army about what will happen if Terrance and Phillip are killed , but they instead laugh at them , and Mr. Garrison throws the switch to the electric chair . A large Canadian force attacks the base and a massive battle ensues between the two armies . In the confusion , the boys are able to free Terrance and Phillip , though Cartman 's V @-@ chip begins to malfunction from the electric shock . The other mothers , seeing the destruction their " Mothers Against Canada " movement has incited , decide to call it quits and head off to look for their children . After being stunned by an explosion , Stan has a hallucination and is visited by " The Clitoris " which tells him that all he needs is confidence if he wants to win Wendy 's heart and also reminds him about what 's more important : saving the world .
Stan leads the kids to find Terrance and Phillip who have been cornered by the US army . La Resistance forms a human shield while Kyle tries to persuade the army and his mother against killing the two , stating that he wants her to stop fighting everyone and deal with him . However , Sheila refuses and shoots Terrance and Phillip , which fulfills the prophecy and results in Satan , his minions , and Saddam rising from Hell and attacking both Canadian and United States armies . As a result , Sheila now regrets everything , even though she wanted " to make the world a better place for children " . Saddam immediately tries to usurp Satan 's authority , demanding homage and announcing his intent to rule the world himself . Cartman is able to hold Saddam off by using his malfunctioning V @-@ Chip to generate massive blasts of lightning every time he swears . With Kenny 's encouragement , Satan finally gets rid of Saddam by casting him back to Hell and getting impaled on a sharp stalagmite . Satan then grants Kenny a wish in repayment : Kenny asks for everything to return to how it was before the war , even though it means he 'll go back to Hell . He takes off his hood to say goodbye to his friends , revealing his face and voice for the first time . All the other deceased characters are brought back to life , the Canadians and Americans become friends again , Wendy becomes Stan 's girlfriend again and dumps Gregory ( she never really liked him ) , and everything returns to normal in South Park ( " Mountain Town ( reprise ) " ) . Instead of returning to Hell , Kenny ascends to Heaven due to his act of sacrifice , where naked angels are waiting for him and he is granted a halo and wings .
= = Cast = =
Trey Parker as Stan Marsh / Eric Cartman / Gregory / Satan / Mr. Garrison / Mr. Hat / Phillip Niles Argyle / Randy Marsh / Tom – News Reporter / Midget In A Bikini / Canadian Ambassador / Bombardiers / Mr. Mackey / Army General / Ned Gerblanski / Christophe – Ze Mole ( or The Mole ) / Big Gay Al ( singing voice ) / Additional Voices / Adolf Hitler
Matt Stone as Kyle Broflovski / Kenny McCormick / Saddam Hussein ( credited as " Himself " ) / Terrance Henry Stoot / Big Gay Al / Ticket Taker / Jimbo Kearn / Gerald Broflovski / Additional Voices
Mary Kay Bergman as Liane Cartman / Sheila Broflovski / Sharon Marsh / Carol McCormick / Wendy Testaburger / Clitoris / Additional Voices
Isaac Hayes as Chef Jerome McElroy
Jesse Howell , Anthony Cross @-@ Thomas & Franchesca Clifford as Ike Broflovski ( Franchesca Clifford was credited as " Francesca Clifford " )
Bruce Howell as Man In Theatre
Deb Adair as Woman In Theatre
Jennifer Howell as Bebe Stevens
George Clooney as Dr. Gouache
Brent Spiner as Conan O 'Brien
Minnie Driver as Brooke Shields
Dave Foley as the Baldwin brothers
Eric Idle as Dr. Vosknocker
Nick Rhodes as Canadian Fighter Pilot
Toddy E. Walters as Winona Ryder
Stewart Copeland as American Soldier # 1
Stanley G. Sawicki as American Soldier # 2
Mike Judge as Kenny 's Goodbye
Howard McGillin as Gregory ( singing voice ) ( uncredited )
= = Themes = =
South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut is a cautionary tale on the dangers of censorship . It uses the execution of Terrance and Phillip as the Seventh Sign in a parody of the Apocalypse . Cartman 's use of foul language helps to avert the disaster . Parents and " lazy child rearing " come in for particularly sharp criticism . On their way to see Terrance and Phillip , the boys sing that " movies teach us what our parents don 't have time to say ! " During " Blame Canada " a couple are seen abandoning their baby in their enthusiasm to join Mothers Against Canada . The song ends with : " We must blame them and cause a fuss / Before somebody thinks of blaming us ! " Much of the film 's satire and many of the songs are concerned with the refusal of people to accept responsibility for failure and their tendency to look for scapegoats ( Some of the songs are also parodies of musical theatre , but this is usually secondary to furthering the satire ) . Movies , government , society , foreigners , and Satan are all blamed leading Kyle to remark : " whenever I get in trouble , you go off and blame everybody else . But I 'm the one to blame . Deal with me . " The movie is also self @-@ reflective in nature . The enthusiasm the kids display for seeing the Terrence and Phillip movie reflects the creators ' anticipation of the real world enthusiasm many people , including those under age , would experience to see the movie .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Developmental stages began for the film midway through the series ' first season production in January 1998 . Co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone signed a deal with Comedy Central in April 1998 that contracted the duo to producing South Park episodes until 1999 , gave them a slice of the lucrative spinoff merchandising the show generated within its first year , as well as an unspecified seven @-@ figure cash bonus to bring the show to the big screen , in theaters . A large part of Parker and Stone 's conditions attached to any potential movie project was that it must at least be R @-@ rated , to keep in touch with the series ' humor and its roots , the short The Spirit of Christmas . Parker stated that their desire was to approach the film from a much more creative perspective and do something other than a simple movie @-@ length version of a regular episode . Despite alleged pressure from Paramount Pictures officials to keep the movie toned down , the two won the battle for a more mature rating . " They really wanted to be able to go beyond the South Park television show , " said Comedy Central spokesman Tony Fox to TV Guide at the time . " They really fought hard for and won the right to make an R @-@ rated movie . " Paramount executives went as far to prepare graphs displaying how much more money a PG @-@ 13 @-@ rated South Park feature would perhaps accumulate . The William Morris Agency , which represented Parker and Stone , pushed for movie production to begin as soon as possible , while public interest was still high , instead of several years into its run , as was done with Beavis and Butt @-@ head Do America , possibly because Beavis and Butt @-@ head and South Park were owned by Viacom Music and Entertainment Group , a unit of the Viacom Media Networks division of Viacom after Van Toffler left Viacom Media Networks on February 17 , 2015 .
= = = Casting = = =
The cast of South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut is mostly carried over faithfully from the television series . Co @-@ creator Trey Parker voices the characters of Eric Cartman and Stan Marsh , and Satan , Clyde Donovan , Mr. Garrison , Phillip Niles Argyle , Randy Marsh , Mr. Mackey , Ned Gerblanski , the singing voice of Big Gay Al , the speaking voice of Gregory , The Mole , and President Bill Clinton , as well as multiple other background characters . Matt Stone portrays Kyle Broflovski and Kenny McCormick , as well as Saddam Hussein ( even though during the end credits it says that he was voiced by himself ) , Terrance Henry Stoot , Big Gay Al , Jimbo Kearn , Gerald Broflovski , Bill Gates , and additional voices . Mary Kay Bergman voices Wendy Testaburger , the core mothers of the film ( Sheila Broflovski , Sharon Marsh , Liane Cartman , and Carol McCormick ) , Shelley Marsh , and the clitoris . Isaac Hayes reprised his role from the series as Chef , and voice clips of staff children Jesse Howell , Anthony Cross @-@ Thomas , and Franchesca Clifford make up Ike Broflovski . Guest voices for the film included George Clooney as Dr. Gouache , Brent Spiner as Conan O 'Brien , Minnie Driver as Brooke Shields , Eric Idle as Dr. Vosnocker , and Dave Foley provides the combined voices of Alec , Billy , Daniel , and Stephen Baldwin .
Michael McDonald as himself ( the track " Eyes of a Child " ) and as Satan 's high notes in " Up There " , and Howard McGillin provides Gregory 's singing voice in " La Resistance ( Medley ) " . Stewart Copeland , former drummer for The Police , guests as an American soldier . Mike Judge , creator and voices of Beavis and Butt @-@ head , King of the Hill and The Goode Family , provides Kenny 's voice in his sole speaking appearance at the end of the film . Although initially denied by Paramount , Metallica lead singer James Hetfield said in 2001 that he provides vocals for the track " Hell Isn 't Good " .
= = = Writing = = =
The season one episode " Death " heavily influenced the film 's screenplay . The plot and theme of both scripts revolves heavily around the parents of South Park protesting about Terrance and Phillip due to the perceived negative influence it has over their children . Parker said , " After about the first year of South Park , Paramount already wanted to make a South Park movie , and we sort of thought this episode would make the best model just because we liked the sort of pointing at ourselves kind of thing . " During the time , the team was also busy writing the second and third seasons of the series , the former of which Parker and Stone later described as " disastrous " . As such , they figured the phenomenon would be over soon , and they decided to write a personal , fully committed musical .
= = = Animation = = =
The animation in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut was created in 3D using Alias | Wavefront ( now the Alias Systems Corporation ) PowerAnimator software , running on Silicon Graphics O2 and Octane workstations . Characters and individual scene elements were designed with both texture mapping and shading that , when rendered , resemble 2D paper cut @-@ out stop @-@ motion animation . The artists at South Park Studios ( at the time , called South Park Productions ) used a multiprocessor SGI Origin 2000 and 31 multiprocessor Origin 200 servers ( with 1 @.@ 14 terabytes of storage ) for both rendering and asset management . Backgrounds , characters and other items could be saved separately or as fully composited scenes , with speedy access later . " By creating flat characters and backgrounds in a 3D environment , we are able to add textures and lighting effects that give the film a cut @-@ out construction paper stop @-@ motion style which would have taken many more months if done traditionally , " said Gina Shay , line producer of the film . The animation team , beginning with season five , began using Maya instead of PowerAnimator . The studio now runs a 120 @-@ processor render farm that can produce 30 or more shots an hour . As the show 's visual quality has substantially improved in recent seasons , the animation of South Park : Bigger , Longer , & Uncut is a prime example of the show 's old , cruder , even more primitive animation style . In the audio commentary on the Blu @-@ ray reissue of the film , Stone and Parker take ample time to criticize how " bad and time consuming " the animation was during the era . IGN described the animation as " fall [ ing ] somewhere within the middle ground — not quite cardboard cutouts , but not quite fully computerized either . " Nate Boss , in a review of the Blu @-@ ray reissue for High @-@ Def Digest , commented , " There is no comparing the two , as the movie has a classic ( for South Park , at least ) animated feel , so full of the cut @-@ outs we have grown to love , while the newer seasons sport a more computer processed feel . " The film , unlike the television series ( at the time ) , was animated in widescreen ( 1 @.@ 78 : 1 ) . " Although the ' primitive ' animation of South Park is supposedly a joke , it 's really a secret weapon , " said Stephanie Zacharek of Salon . " The simplicity of Parker and Stone 's technique is what makes it so effective . "
= = = Editing and censorship = = =
The team working on the film commuted between the project and the series , pushing both to scheduling extremes ( changes to Bigger , Longer & Uncut were made as late as two weeks before its release ) and fighting constantly with Paramount . " They wanted a Disney kind of trailer . We said no . They put together a totally un @-@ South Park MTV video for the song ' What Would Brian Boitano Do ? ' . We had to go make our own version . " Paramount 's first trailer for the film advertised it , according to Parker , as " the laughiest movie of the summer " , and promoted it in a way that South Park is completely against . Parker and Stone told the studio of their dissatisfaction with the trailer , and upon the creation of a second trailer with minimal changes , the two broke the videocassette in half and sent it back in its original envelope . " It was war , " said Stone in 2000 . " They were saying , ' Are you telling us how to do our job ? ' And I was going , ' Yes , because you 're fucking stupid and you don 't know what you 're doing . ' " In another instance , Paramount took the songs from the film and created a music video to be aired on MTV . In accordance with broadcast standards , the studio cut various " R @-@ rated " parts out and edited it into what Parker described as a " horrible little medley " , with all humor absent . The studio sent the original tape to Parker and Stone over a weekend , with plans to send it to MTV on Monday to prepare it for airtime beginning Wednesday . Stone instead put the tape in the trunk of his car and went home . Paramount threatened to sue Parker and Stone in response . Parker also noted that the title was an obvious innuendo , and " they ( the MPAA ) just didn 't get it " .
= = Music = =
The musical score and songs featured in the film were composed and written by Parker and Marc Shaiman . The musical features 14 songs , each evoking a familiar Broadway style . The soundtrack also parodies many familiar Disney conventions , with several songs spoofing Disney musicals such as Beauty and the Beast and The Little Mermaid . The tracks " Mountain Town " brought comparisons to Oklahoma ! and the opening to Beauty and the Beast , and the " La Resistance " medley drew forth favorable Les Misérables comparisons . " I 'm Super " recalls Beauty and the Beast 's " Be Our Guest " and South Pacific 's Honey Bun and " Kyle 's Mom 's a Bitch " echoes Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , " Up There " , " I Can Change " and the " Mountain Town ( Reprise ) " recalls The Little Mermaid 's " Part of Your World " , " Poor Unfortunate Souls " and " Part of Your World ( Finale ) " , and " Uncle Fucka " is reminiscent of Oklahoma ! ( especially the ending ) . " Eyes of the Child " recalls pop versions of Disney songs played at the end credits like " Colors of the Wind " and " A Whole New World " and " Go The Distance " . The score received critical acclaim , with Entertainment Weekly claiming it is " a cast album that gleefully sends up all the Hollywood musical conventions we 're being deprived of . " The soundtrack was released June 15 , 1999 by Atlantic Records and Warner Music Group . " Blame Canada " was constantly highlighted as one of the best from the soundtrack and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song . " I was like , ' We 're going to get nominated for an Academy Award for this . ' I really was , " Parker said . " I even told him [ Shaiman ] . " The song takes place in the film when the United States blames Canada for corrupting its youth . " We 're making fun of people who pick ridiculous targets to blame anything about what 's going on in their lives , so Canada was just the perfect , ridiculous , innocuous choice for a target , " said Shaiman . In 2011 , Time called the music of the film the " finest , sassiest full @-@ movie musical score since the disbanding of the Freed unit at MGM . "
= = = Soundtrack = = =
= = = = Musical numbers = = = =
" Mountain Town " – Stan Marsh ( Trey Parker ) , Kenny McCormick ( Matt Stone ) , Kyle Broflovski ( Matt Stone ) , Eric Cartman ( Trey Parker ) , Sharon Marsh ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Sheila Broflovski ( Mary Kay Bergman )
" Uncle Fucka " – Terrance ( Matt Stone ) and Phillip ( Trey Parker )
" Wendy 's Song ( There 's the Girl That I Like ) " – Stan Marsh ( Trey Parker )
" It 's Easy , MMMKay " – Mr. Mackey ( Trey Parker ) , Stan ( Trey Parker ) , Cartman ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone ) , Gregory ( Howard McGillin ) , South Park Elementary Students
" Hell Isn ’ t Good " – D.V.D.A. featuring James Hetfield
" Blame Canada " – Sheila Broflovski ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Sharon Marsh ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Liane Cartman ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Carol McCormick ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Citizens of South Park
" Kyle 's Mom 's a Bitch " – Cartman ( Trey Parker ) , South Park Elementary Students
" What Would Brian Boitano Do ? " – Stan ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone ) , Cartman ( Trey Parker )
" Up There " – Satan ( Trey Parker ( and Michael McDonald on the high notes ) )
" La Resistance " – Gregory ( Howard McGillin ) , South Park Elementary Students , Shelia Broflovksi ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Soldiers ( Trey Parker and Matt Stone ) , Satan ( Trey Parker ) , Terrance ( Matt Stone ) , Phillip ( Trey Parker ) , Stan ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone ) , Cartman ( Trey Parker )
" I Can Change " – Saddam Hussein ( Matt Stone ) , Satan ( Trey Parker )
" I 'm Super " – Big Gay Al ( Trey Parker )
" The Mole 's Reprise " – Christophe le Mole ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone )
" Mountain Town ( Reprise ) " – Chef ( Issac Hayes ) , Stan ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone ) , Cartman ( Trey Parker ) , Sheila Broflovski ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Sharon Marsh ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Liane Cartman ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Citizens of South Park
" What Would Brian Boitano Do ? Pt . II " – D.V.D.A
" Eyes of a Child " – Michael McDonald
= = Release = =
Paramount Pictures won a jump ball with Warner Bros. ( parent companies Viacom and Time Warner , respectively , jointly owned Comedy Central until Time Warner exited the venture in 2003 ) to release the film in the United States , with Warner Bros. getting the international rights . Viacom bought all of Comedy Central in 2004 , but Warner Bros. continued to distribute the film internationally .
The film was rated R for " pervasive vulgar language and crude sexual humor , and for some violent images " by the Motion Picture Association of America ; this rating did not come as surprise to most media outlets , as many had predicted long before that the film would likely be for ages 18 and over . However , there was much more discussion within the MPAA than initially reported in the media . The board 's objections to the film were described in highly specific terms by Paramount Pictures executives in private memos circulating at Paramount . For months the ratings board insisted on the more prohibitive NC @-@ 17 . South Park was screened by the MPAA six times — five times , the board returned the movie to Paramount with an NC @-@ 17 . The last submission the filmmakers received was an NC @-@ 17 , two weeks before release . A marketing agent from Paramount called the two and explained that the studio " needed " an R. In response , Stone called producer Scott Rudin and " freaked out . " Rudin then called a Paramount executive and , in Stone 's words , " freaked out on them . " The next day the film was changed to an R rating without reason , with the original film intact . " The ratings board only cared about the dirty words ; they 're so confused and arbitrary , " said Parker to The New York Times shortly before the release of the picture . " They didn 't blink twice because of violence . " During production of the trailer for the film , the raters objected to certain words but had no problem with a scene in which cartoon bullets are killing soldiers . " They had a problem with words , not bullets , " he said . The MPAA gave Paramount specific notes for the film ; in contrast , Parker and Stone 's NC @-@ 17 comedy Orgazmo , released in 1998 by Rogue Pictures , was not given any specifications on how to make the movie acceptable for an R rating . The duo attributed the R rating to the fact that Paramount is a member of the MPAA ; the distributor dismissed these claims . The film was given a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification for " frequent coarse language and crude sexual references " with no cuts made . It was rated MA15 + ( Mature accompanied for those under 15 ) by the Australian Classification Board without cuts .
As predicted through the actions of the boys in the film , there were numerous news reports of underage South Park fans engaging in unsuccessful attempts to gain entrance to the film at theaters . There were reports of adolescents purchasing tickets for WB 's own Wild Wild West and instead sitting in to see South Park . This came as a result of a movie @-@ industry crackdown that would make it tougher for children to sneak into R @-@ rated films , as proposed by President Bill Clinton at the time in response to the moral panic generated by the Columbine High School massacre , which occurred two months before the film 's release . South Park was cited , along with American Pie , as an explicit film released in the summer of 1999 tempting teens to sneak into theaters . When the film was released in the United Kingdom in August 1999 , there were similar reports of the film drawing an underage crowd .
Hayes , voice of Chef in the film , responded to conservatives urging prudishness as a cure for society 's ills : " If we give in to that and allow [ entertainment ] to become a scapegoat , you might wind up living in who @-@ know 's @-@ what kind of state .... If you believe in [ your artistic vision ] and you 've got a moral conviction , take it to ' em ! " The rating of film later brought comparisons to Stanley Kubrick 's Eyes Wide Shut , released in theaters in a digitally altered and censored version just two weeks after South Park . Kubrick 's original cut was given an NC @-@ 17 rating , but Warner Bros. then blocked out characters in an orgy scene so the film could be rated R. In response to these debates and controversy , Stone called the MPAA a " bumbling , irresponsible organization " .
= = = Promotion = = =
The licensing arm of Paramount took the step of significantly expanding retail distribution beyond specialty stores ( Hot Topic , Spencer 's ) to big chains ( Target , J.C. Penney ) , which involved carefully stripping T @-@ shirts of racy slogans from the television show . Licensing industry observers credited Comedy Central with carving out a profitable niche in an industry dominated by powerful partnerships that link fast @-@ food chains and Hollywood movie studios , which was particularly tough for South Park , as no fast @-@ food chains wanted to ally themselves with the show 's racy content . Eventually , J.C. Penney ended the tie @-@ ins with the show in April 1999 as a result of customer complaints . On July 7 , 1999 , Parker and Stone appeared on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien to promote the film 's release . During the interview , Parker and Stone showed a clip of the film in which a caricature of O 'Brien , played by Brett Spiner , hands over Terrence and Phillip to the US government and jumps to his death from the set of Late Night . Upon seeing the clip , a bemused O 'Brien responded that his interns saw the film and thought it was " really funny " , but were annoyed that the Late Night set was portrayed as on the top floor of the GE Building , when it was really on the sixth floor . The film also suffered negative publicity before release . It was initially reported that on the day of the Columbine High School massacre , a friend of the killers was seen wearing a black T @-@ shirt depicting characters from South Park . Both Parker and Stone come from Colorado , and Stone went to Heritage High School , not far from Columbine High . He proceeded to take three days off from work following the shootings . " Nothing seemed funny after that , " he said . South Park was , at the time , generally waning in popularity : ratings dropped nearly 40 percent with the premiere of the series ' third season and , according to Entertainment Weekly , " it [ wasn 't ] the pop @-@ culture behemoth it was last year [ 1998 ] . " In response to the decline , Parker commented , " Suddenly we suck and we 're not cool anymore . The funny thing is , last year we were saying the same things and we were hip , fresh , and cute . Now they 're telling us we 're pushing 30 , we 're failures , and we 're sellouts . "
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD worldwide November 23 , 1999 , with a VHS release initially for rental services only , such as Blockbuster . A traditional retail VHS release followed on May 16 , 2000 . The DVD contained three theatrical trailers for special features , which many criticized as being typical of " bare @-@ bones " DVD releases . There is also a NTSC laserdisc version that was released on January 18 , 2000 ; copies are extremely rare . The film was re @-@ released on Blu @-@ ray on June 30 , 2009 in celebration of its decade @-@ long anniversary . The film 's 1080p AVC encode ( at 1 @.@ 78 : 1 ) was taken from the original film source as well with random audio sync issues , despite the fact the film was animated entirely digitally . IGN 's Scott Lowe explained , " Although clearly aged , South Park : Bigger , Longer , and Uncut looks great and is free of the washed out , compressed imperfections of previous standard definition releases of the film . " However , Michael Zupan of DVDTalk notes that an automatic digital scratch removal process may have inadvertently removed some intentional lines from the picture , notably during Cartman 's first scene with the V @-@ chip . The disc contained a full @-@ length audio commentary from Parker and Stone , as well as other crew members though most of them had no recollection of making the film due to heavy scheduling .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film has a " certified fresh " approval rating of 81 % with an average rating of 7 / 10 based on 94 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes ; the site 's consensus states : " Its jokes are profoundly bold and rude but incredibly funny at the same time . " It also has a 73 out of 100 rating based on 31 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , at Metacritic . Rita Kempley of The Washington Post called the film " outrageously profane " and " wildly funny " , writing that " While censorship is the filmmakers ' main target [ … ] [ Parker and Stone 's ] favorite monster is the Motion Picture Association of America , self @-@ appointed guardians of the nation 's chastity . It 's all in good dirty fun and in service of their pro @-@ tolerance theme . " Stephen Holden of The New York Times heavily praised the film , regarding the film 's " self @-@ justifying moral " as " about mass entertainment , censorship and freedom of speech . " He also praised Cartman 's subjection to the V @-@ chip , which he called " the movie 's sharpest satirical twist , reminiscent of A Clockwork Orange " . Entertainment Weekly graded the film an A − and praised the film 's message in a post @-@ Columbine society , as well as Parker and Shaiman 's musical numbers , which " brilliantly parody / honor the conventions of Broadway show tunes and , especially , the Disney @-@ formula ditties that began with Alan Menken and Howard Ashman . " The Washington Post 's Michael O 'Sullivan neutrally regarded the offensive nature of the film , commenting " Yes , the lampooning is more broad than incisive , but under the bludgeoning of this blunt instrument very few sacred cows are left standing . " In a review that was later quoted on the film 's original home video cover , Richard Corliss from Time warned viewers " You may laugh yourself sick – as sick as this ruthlessly funny movie is . " Corliss would later name the film his fifth favorite animated film of all time . The film had its fair share of critical detractors , without noting the conservative family groups offended by the film 's humor . Jack Matthews of the Daily News suggested the film 's running time made Parker and Stone " run out of ideas " , while Roger Ebert stated that the " vicious social satire " of the film both " offended " and " amazed " him . Ebert called the film " the year 's most slashing political commentary " , but also said , " It is too long and runs out of steam , but it serves as a signpost for our troubled times . Just for the information it contains about the way we live now , thoughtful and concerned people should see it . After all , everyone else will . "
= = = Box office = = =
On a budget of $ 21 million , the film opened at No. 4 with a gross of $ 14 @,@ 783 @,@ 983 over the four @-@ day Independence Day weekend from 2 @,@ 128 theaters for an average of $ 6 @,@ 947 per theater ( $ 11 @,@ 090 @,@ 000 and an average of $ 5 @,@ 211 over three days ) and a total of $ 19 @,@ 637 @,@ 409 since its Wednesday launch . It ended up with a gross of $ 52 @,@ 037 @,@ 603 in the United States and Canada , with the 3 @-@ day opening making up 38 % of the final domestic gross . It made an additional $ 31 @.@ 1 million internationally for a total of $ 83 @,@ 137 @,@ 603 worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for " Blame Canada " . When the time came to perform the track live at the ceremony , as is customary for the Academy Awards , it ran into trouble with ABC 's standards and practices department : censors demanded they write TV @-@ friendly lyrics . " It would be ironic to have to change the words in a movie about censorship , " remarked Shaiman . Censors were particularly unhappy with the use of the word " fuck " and allusions to the Ku Klux Klan . When Parker and Shaiman declined these requests , Robin Williams , a friend of Shaiman 's , sang the song with black tape over his mouth and turning his back when curse words were to be sung . Parker and Stone attended the ceremony in drag , wearing replicas of dresses previously worn at the Oscars by Gwyneth Paltrow and Jennifer Lopez . The two claimed years later that they took acid before the ceremony and were high while wearing the outfits . The song ended up losing to " You 'll Be in My Heart " , a Tarzan song by Phil Collins ( that film came from ABC parent Disney ) . In response , Parker and Stone ridiculed him in two consecutive episodes of the series ' fourth season ( " Cartman 's Silly Hate Crime 2000 " and " Timmy 2000 " ) . In DVD commentary , Parker states " we were fully expecting to lose , just not to Phil Collins " .
= = = = American Film Institute lists = = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
Blame Canada – Nominated
AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals – Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Animated Film
= = = Lists and records = = =
The film has been nominated by the American Film Institute for their list of the Greatest American Musicals .
In 2000 , readers of Total Film magazine voted the film at No. 13 in the greatest comedy films of all time .
In 2001 , Terry Gilliam selected it as one of the ten best animated films of all time .
In 2006 , South Park finished fifth on the United Kingdom Channel 4 's " 50 Greatest Comedy Films " vote .
Readers of Empire Magazine , in a 2006 poll , voted it No. 166 in the greatest films of all time .
In 2008 , the film was included in Entertainment Weekly 's list of the " 25 Movie Sequels We 'd Line Up to See " and " The Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years " .
The film is No. 5 on Bravo 's 100 Funniest Movies .
IGN named it the sixth greatest animated film of all time in their Top 25 list .
In Guinness World Records 2001 , this film was said to have the most profanity used in an animated film . It contained a total of 399 swear words ( the word " fuck " was used 146 times ) , 199 offensive gestures and also contained 221 acts of violence .
= = Legacy = =
Jack Valenti , president of the MPAA , later said he regretted not giving the film an NC @-@ 17 rating . In response to the film 's controversy , the MPAA began backing up their ratings on print posters by posting reasons to explain them , beginning in 2000 . The film 's use of profanity gained it a Guinness World Record in their 2001 edition for " Most Swearing in an Animated Film " ( 399 profane words , including 146 uses of " fuck " ; 128 offensive gestures ; and 221 acts of violence — in effect , one every six seconds ) . In the song " Uncle Fucka " , the curse word " fuck " is said 31 times . The pop punk band Blink @-@ 182 would often end songs on their The Mark , Tom , and Travis Show Tour with lines from " Uncle Fucka " throughout 2000 . The lines can be heard on the band 's live album , The Mark , Tom , and Travis Show ( The Enema Strikes Back ! ) . While the real Hussein was on trial for genocide charges in 2006 , Matt Stone joked that the U.S. military was showing the movie repeatedly to the former dictator as a form of torture . Parker and Stone were also given a signed photo of Hussein by the American soldiers . In 2011 , Time called South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut the sixth greatest animated feature of all @-@ time .
= = Possible sequel = =
Parker and Stone said in a 2008 interview that a theatrically released sequel would most likely be what concludes the series .
In 2011 , when the official South Park website FAQ was asked whether a sequel would be made , it was responded with " the first South Park movie was so potent , we 're all still recovering from the blow . Unfortunately , at the current moment , there are no plans for a second South Park movie . But you never know what the future may bring , crazier things have happened ... "
In 2013 , Warner Bros. Entertainment relinquished to Paramount Pictures its rights to co @-@ finance a potential future South Park movie , as well as a future Friday the 13th sequel , during their negotiations to co @-@ finance the Christopher Nolan science fiction film Interstellar . Previous efforts to create a second South Park film were complicated due to both studios retaining certain rights to the property .
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= Conrad I of Salzburg =
Conrad I [ of Abenberg ] ( German : Konrad von Abenberg , c . 1075 – 9 April 1147 ) was Archbishop of Salzburg , Austria , in the first half of the 12th century .
Born into the Abenberg @-@ Frensdorf nobility , Conrad was raised for a clerical career at the court of Emperor Henry IV , where he was a member of the court chapel . He became a canon in Hildesheim . After escorting Emperor Henry V in July 1110 , Conrad sided with the Pope in the Investiture Controversy , which eventually led to his exile for several years . He returned to Salzburg in 1121 and played an important role in the major political events of the day , including the election of Lothair of Supplinburg as King of Germany in 1125 and the papal schism of 1130 in which he played a role in the recognition of Pope Innocent II by the king .
During the absence of Lothair of Supplinburg in Italy , Conrad was ordained as the archbishop of Salzburg on 4 June 1133 . As a prince @-@ bishop , he was influential in German politics and was an extremely energetic reformer who is often called " the second founder of the Church of Salzburg . " He presided over an assembly that supervised the affairs of the religious houses , maintained strong control over tithes , and was responsible for building Salzburg Cathedral and the cemetery in 1140 . Conrad also supervised the construction of numerous other monasteries and the castles of Hohensalzburg , Werfen , and Friesach .
= = Early life and work = =
Conrad of Abenberg came from the family of the Counts of Abenberg @-@ Frensdorf , and had many distinguished relatives in Germany . He was born around 1075 , son of Count Wolfram I von Abenberg . His mother was probably the daughter of Heinrich I , viscount of Regensburg . Conrad had two older brothers , Otto and Wolfram . He was raised for a clerical career at the court of the Emperor Henry IV , where he was a member of the court chapel . He became a canon in Hildesheim .
= = Archbishop of Salzburg = =
= = = Military and political endeavors = = =
Conrad seems to have been involved when Henry V revolted against his father in 1105 . This would explain his election as Archbishop of Salzburg at the Diet of Mainz on 7 January 1106 . At that time the anti @-@ Archbishop Berthold von Moosburg was installed in Salzburg . Conrad came to Salzburg accompanied by his brothers , the counts Otto and Wolfram , with an escort of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers . Some of these soldiers may well have been servitors , servile rather than free vassals . With this display of force , he was able to force Berthold to abdicate . Pope Paschal II consecrated him as bishop on 21 October 1106 and gave him the pallium .
In July 1110 , Conrad accompanied Emperor Henry V to Italy . Conrad brought a strong military escort on this visit . However , Conrad sided with the Pope in the Investiture Controversy . Due to further conflicts with imperial officials , Conrad had to flee in 1112 and was not able to return to Salzburg until 1121 . While in exile , he lived in Tuscany , Admont in Styria , and Saxony .
Conrad played an important role in the major political events of the day , including the election of Lothair of Supplinburg as King of Germany in 1125 , whom he supported during the fight against the Hohenstaufen usurpation . During the papal schism of 1130 he played a role in the recognition of Pope Innocent II by the king . After this , tensions rose between Conrad and Lothair due to diverging views on church politics . Lothair visited Italy in 1132 @-@ 33 , and was crowned emperor by Innocent II on 4 June 1133 . In his absence , Conrad was ordained an archbishop . This directly infringed on the emperor 's right , recently confirmed by the Pope , to invest a bishop with his regalia before he was ordained . It earned a stern rebuke from Lothair .
When Lothair died , Conrad initially resisted the election of the Hohenstaufen Conrad III and supported Henry X , Duke of Bavaria instead . Conrad later came round to support the king .
= = = Reform and administration = = =
On his return from exile in 1121 or 1122 , Conrad found his diocese " very poor and greatly devastated . " Conrad worked with notables such as Hartmann von Brixen and Gerhoh von Reichersberg to reform the clergy in his archdiocese . In particular , he undertook a major reform of the cathedral clergy . Conrad presided over an assembly that supervised the affairs of the religious houses , including the cathedral , and used the canons to help administer his possessions . He maintained strong control over tithes , allocating them between the monasteries and parish priests to avoid disputes over their distribution . During his administration , clerics of servile origin steadily gained in status , now called ministerialis rather than servitor .
Conrad rebuilt and expanded Salzburg Cathedral and built the cathedral chapter house , and in 1140 he created the cathedral cemetery . He built hospitals for the poor of the city , and commenced construction of St. Peter 's monastery where his former residence stood , moving to a new archbishop 's residence nearer the cathedral . Conrad founded several monasteries and reformed others , a total of 17 in which the rule of the Augustinian Canons Regular prevailed . These included St. Zeno , Gurk , Reichersberg , Berchtesgaden , Baumburg , Gars am Inn , Au am Inn , Ranshofen , Höglwörth , Herrenchiemsee , Seckau and Suben . The archbishop supported the Benedictines .
During his exile , Duke Henry III of Eppenstein , brother of Ulrich I , patriarch of Aquileia ( r . 1086 – 1121 ) , had seized property belonging to the Salzburg diocese in Friuli and Carinthia . Conrad excommunicated him and sent a force of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to Carinthia , forcing the duke to return the properties . Later , Conrad reached an agreement of " peace and friendship " ( pax et amicitia ) with the Patriarch Pellegrino I of Aquileia ( r . 1130 – 1161 ) whereby he agreed to pay tithes to Aquileia for those properties which the archdiocese held in the patriarchate . Conrad 's example was followed by pledges to pay their tithes from the others present when the agreement was reached .
Conrad completed construction of the castles of Hohensalzburg , Werfen , and Friesach , which Archbishop Gebhard had started to build in 1077 . In Styria , he reformed the military organization and administration of church properties , and built strong fortresses . For defense against Hungary , he built strongholds at Leibnitz ( Seggau ) and Pettau ( Ptuj ) , and Brestanica castle . He also expanded the Burg Deutschlandsberg castle at the center of the Salzburg possessions in western Styria . In 1131 , he made peace with King Béla II of Hungary , which was followed by a long period of stability in the border region .
Conrad died on 9 April 1147 in Lungau , Salzburg . An anonymous biography , known as the Vita Chuonradi archiepiscopi Salisburgensis , was composed in the 1170s . It portrays Conrad as a man of peace . His role in the royal elections of 1125 and 1138 place him among the leading German Prince @-@ bishops in the High Middle Ages . He earned the title of " second founder of the Salzburg church . "
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= The Harrowing ( Inside No. 9 ) =
" The Harrowing " is the sixth and final episode of the first series of British dark comedy anthology series Inside No. 9 . It aired on 12 March 2014 on BBC Two . The episode was written by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , and stars Shearsmith , Aimee @-@ Ffion Edwards , Helen McCrory , Poppy Rush and Sean Buckley . While comedic in places , " The Harrowing " makes extensive use of gothic horror elements transmuted into a modern context . The plot follows Katy ( Edwards ) , who has been hired to housesit for eccentric siblings Hector ( Shearsmith ) and Tabitha ( McCrory ) . They rarely leave the house , but have an event to attend . They tell Katy about their bedridden , disabled brother Andras ( Buckley ) , who cannot speak but will ring a bell if he needs assistance . Katy is joined by her friend Shell ( Rush ) once Hector and Tabitha leave , and , upon hearing Andras 's bell , the pair reluctantly head upstairs . The episode takes place in Hector and Tabitha 's mansion , which is kept deliberately cold and filled with paintings depicting Hell . The writers experimented with a variety of possible endings , hoping to make the episode 's close both interesting and scary .
Critics agreed that the episode was the most gothic and scary of the series , with journalists writing for The Sunday Times saying that " The Harrowing " would be best avoided by those of a nervous disposition . Critics writing in the Metro felt that the episode was a poor finale for the series , and that the episode 's ending was unsatisfying . By contrast , Alex Hoskins , writing for the Cheddar Valley Gazette , felt the episode 's ending was very strong , and Bruce Dessau described " The Harrowing " as an excellent end to the series . On an Empire Online list , " The Harrowing " , particularly its final scene , was selected as the 17th best TV moment of the year . The episode was watched by 833 @,@ 000 people on its first showing , which was 4 @.@ 7 % of the audience . Due in part to her appearance , Edwards was nominated for a " Daffta " award .
= = Production = =
Writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , who had previously worked together on The League of Gentlemen and Psychoville , took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from " David and Maureen " , episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville . This episode , in turn , was inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . " David and Maureen " took place entirely in a single room , and was filmed in only two shots . At the same time , the concept of Inside No. 9 was a " reaction " to Psychoville , with Shearsmith saying that " We 'd been so involved with labyrinthine over @-@ arcing , we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week . That 's appealing , because as a viewer you might not like this story , but you 've got a different one next week . " As an anthology series with horror themes , Inside No. 9 also pays homage to Tales of the Unexpected , The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents .
As the format of Inside No. 9 requires new characters each week , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . " The Harrowing " starred Aimee @-@ Ffion Edwards as Katy , Helen McCrory as Tabitha , Shearsmith as Hector , Poppy Rush as Shell and Sean Buckley as Andras . " The Harrowing " was the only episode in the series in which Pemberton did not star ; Shearsmith played a character in all but " Last Gasp " . Comedy critic Bruce Dessau noted that Shearsmith 's role was actually relatively minor , saying that the house was the real star .
Pemberton and Shearsmith are fans of classic horror films , and the episode displays inspiration from the likes of Alfred Hitchcock 's filmography and the Hammer Horror films . Pemberton called the episode the " most genre " of the series , while Shearsmith described it as their attempt to produce a " full on ... gothic horror @-@ esque " episode . The writers utilised the horror norm of a gothic mansion rather than bringing horror into a normal home . This route , Shearsmith suggested , has now become atypical . The setting allowed the writers to mix modern elements with traditional gothic horror , sometimes for comedic effect ( a reference to " something called broadbands " ) , and sometimes to add to the horror ( mobile phones cannot be used , as the characters are in a " dead zone " ) . While the writers did want the episode grounded in reality , they also wanted to make more use of gothic horror tropes than they had in other episodes of Inside No. 9 . " The Harrowing " was advertised with a poster homage to classic horror films . The poster was designed by Graham Humphreys , a graphic designer known for his work on horror film posters . The episode 's name was taken from the Harrowing of Hell , the story of Jesus Christ 's descent to Hell in Christian theology .
The character Katy is initially hired to babysit , though it turns out that there is no baby . Previous horror films , including When a Stranger Calls , have made use of a babysitter as a plot device , and an urban legend involves a babysitter downstairs with a threat upstairs . Both the viewer and the babysitter learn about the environment together , with both beginning in a position of ignorance . For Pemberton , the device works because the character has been moved from a safe environment into the unknown . In " The Harrowing " , he suggests , it is obvious that there is something in the bedroom . The writers experimented with different endings , in an attempt to make the bedroom 's contents interesting and genuinely scary .
= = Plot = =
Katy has been hired to take care of Hector and Tabitha 's mansion while the two go out for the evening . They usually never leave the house , but have a rare event to attend . Tabitha greets Katy at the door and explains that the house is always kept at − 3 ° C as Hector and Tabitha 's disabled brother , Andras , needs the air to be at this temperature . The paintings on the house 's walls depict the Harrowing of Hell . After meeting Hector , Katy is disturbed by Tabitha 's descriptions of Andras , who , it is claimed , does not have a mouth . He instead keeps a bell , which he never uses , beside his bed . Katy is told not to go upstairs .
Hector and Tabitha leave . Katy is spooked by the house , especially when she finds a stuffed cat on the sofa . She sees an old photograph of Hector , Tabitha and Andras as children , but Andras does not look disabled . Katy 's friend Shell arrives and plays with Hector 's stairlift , sending it upstairs . Katy warns Shell not to break anything , and is startled to see the now @-@ live cat . Katy tries to call her father so she can leave , but the house has no mobile phone signal and the house phone 's party line is tied up . As she prepares to leave , the stairlift returns downstairs and Andras 's bell rings . Katy is scared of going upstairs , but , at Shell 's insistence , the two go to check on him .
Katy and Shell explore and enter Hector 's bedroom , where they find a circle of salt around the bed . They hear the bell again and trace the sound to Andras 's room . When Katy opens the bed 's curtains , Andras 's deformed body is revealed ; he is tied to the bed and gagged . Katy goes to untie him , believing that Hector and Tabitha have kept him prisoner . Shell asks how Andras could have rung the bell if his hands were tied . Hector and Tabitha appear and show that it is they who rang the bell . They quote Dante 's Inferno and explain that Hell is cold , as the text says , so the house must be kept refrigerated for Andras . They say he was possessed at age ten by Castiel , demon of mischief , but Castiel needs a new human host every fifty years , and Andras is now dying . Katy was chosen as the next host after a mutual friend at Tabitha and Hector 's church recommended her to them . It is revealed that Shell also attends the church , and she helped them to lure Katy . Shell implies that the church 's members protect the earth from being overrun by demons .
Tabitha and Hector prepare to inject Katy with a sedative , but she fights back . She runs downstairs only to find that the door is locked . Shell arrives and says that Katy cannot escape . Shell says she wanted to be Castiel 's new human host , but she is too weak , whereas Katy has the strength of character needed to keep the demon contained . Shell injects Katy , who collapses . Upstairs , Hector strips Katy and ties her to a chair , while Tabitha feeds Andras his " last supper " : rusks and baby milk , the only food he can manage . Hector , Tabitha and Shell leave Katy to become acquainted with Castiel , who , they say , will possess her as Andras dies . Andras advances on Katy as she screams .
= = Reception = =
Critics variously called " The Harrowing " the " nastiest " , " most Gothic " and most horrorific episode of Inside No. 9 . It was described as " unashamedly macabre " by Metro journalists , " genuinely frightening " by David Upton of PopMatters , and " a genuine fright fest " by Dessau . Despite both reviews characterising " The Harrowing " as one of the weaker episodes of the series , it was called " very creepy " in the Liverpool Echo , and the closing scene was described as extremely scary in the Metro . Critics writing for The Sunday Times said that the episode " really is best avoided by those of a nervous disposition " , and the sentiment was echoed in the Cheddar Valley Gazette , where it was suggested that the character of Andras " certainly warranted the warning of disturbing scenes " given before the episode .
Concerning the comedic elements of " The Harrowing " , Sunday Times critics said that " comedy doesn 't come blacker than this " . Jack Seale , of the Radio Times , said that viewers would " marvel at how [ the writers could ] pepper the elegant script with gags without breaking the spell " . Dessau also felt that the script was " great " , and commented on a " particularly pithy " joke , " just when you least expect it " . Nick Rutherford and Keith Watson , writing for the Metro , downplayed the comedy of the episode , saying that " the odd defiantly bad joke ... pierced the darkness " . They felt that " The Harrowing " was a weak instalment of Inside No. 9 , giving it three out of five stars . The ending , these critics suggested , was " a bit of a cop out " rather than " daring " . For them , unlike in other Inside No. 9 scripts , there was no twist . Alex Hoskins , writing for the Cheddar Valley Gazette , acknowledged that the " ending will most likely have sparked an online outcry " , but felt that " it was fantastic , fearless and a perfect end to [ the ] series " . Dessau shared a positive view , saying that the series ended " on an absolute high " , with one of his favourite episodes .
= = = Viewership and recognition = = =
" The Harrowing " was watched by 833 @,@ 000 people , which was 4 @.@ 7 % of the audience . This was a recovery from the series low of the previous week 's " The Understudy " , but was fewer viewers than any of the first four episodes . The average viewing figures for the series were 904 @,@ 000 people , or 4 @.@ 9 % of the audience , lower than the slot average of 970 @,@ 000 ( 5 @.@ 1 % of the audience ) .
Due in part to her appearance in the episode , Edwards was shortlisted for WalesOnline 's " Daffta " award for best actress , but lost in the public vote to Eve Myles . For Hallowe 'en 2014 , ezine Den of Geek listed " 31 scary TV episodes that truly terrified us " . Phoebe @-@ Jane Boyd selected " The Harrowing " , commenting on its divergence from previous episodes of Inside No. 9 and the clash of humour and horror tropes . Describing the character of Andras , she explained that " Seeing him jerkily moving towards [ Katy ] with glee , hissing ' mischief ' ... ' straight into camera , is shocking , unexpected , and above all , just horrible . " " The Harrowing " , particularly its final scene , was selected as Empire Online 's 17th greatest television moment of 2014 . " Though there are dark laughs in the episode " , it was claimed on the website , " the ending is pure nightmare fodder , the babysitter helpless as a Castiel @-@ possessed man advances , hissing , ' Mischief ! ' Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , we both salute you and request you contribute to our therapy bills " .
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= Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia =
The Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske ; ZNDH ) , was the air force of the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) , a puppet state established with the support of the Axis Powers on the territory of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia during World War II . The ZNDH was founded under German authority in April 1941 , following the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia .
Although it could not be considered a large air arm in the wider context of World War II , the ZNDH nonetheless had on its charge at one time or another some 650 aircraft between April 1941 and May 1945 , as well as anti @-@ aircraft and paratroop units . From humble beginnings in 1941 , the ZNDH was still providing some measure of air @-@ support ( fighter , attack and transport ) until the last days of World War II in Europe .
The ZNDH maintained a flying training school equipped with gliders and trainers , originally at Rajlovac airfield near Sarajevo and then at Velika Gorica and Pleso airfields in Zagreb . Its parachute and paratroop school was located in Koprivnica .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The ZNDH came into being as early as 19 April 1941 , just nine days after the proclamation of the NDH . Its commander was Colonel Vladimir Kren , a former captain of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vazduhoplovstvo Vojske Kraljevine Jugoslavije ; VVKJ ) , who had defected to the Germans in Graz in his Potez 25 on 4 April 1941 and declared himself an Ustaše supporter .
The first task of the new air force , the backbone of which was provided by 500 former VVKJ officers and 1 @,@ 600 NCOs , was the acquisition or salvage of aircraft , weapons , machinery , equipment and fuel that had survived the fighting and had not been confiscated by the German or Italian forces .
Following the brief April War , the Germans had captured over 300 ex @-@ VVKJ aircraft . They considered them to be of little use for the Luftwaffe , so it was decided to equip the ZNDH with an appropriate number of these aircraft . These aircraft , scattered in every corner of Yugoslavia , were then collected , minor damage repaired and stocks of fuel and spare parts stored at airfield workshops . Naturally , the majority of the aircraft were more or less damaged and action was undertaken to repair as many of them as possible . Former VVKJ pilots of Croatian background and other personnel of aeronautical specialty were approached and offered instant rehabilitation ( most of them were in German POW camps ) , jobs and safety for their families .
Kren also initiated the formation of an early warning system , anti @-@ aircraft batteries ( armed with German and Czech weapons ) and various training and servicing departments , ammunition stores and workshop facilities . The fuel necessary for the operations of the ZNDH was supplied by the Germans from former Yugoslav stocks in Kraljevo , Serbia .
As early as May 1941 , the NDH had asked Germany for , among other things , 22 Messerschmitt Bf 109s . Instead , they got some of the remaining largely obsolete aircraft of the VVKJ . At the same time , Germany appropriated six captured Dornier Do 17K bombers , which were then supplied to Bulgaria . Romania received six ex @-@ VVKJ Hawker Hurricanes , as well as six Bristol Blenheims , whilst Finland received 20 half @-@ completed Blenheims , together with manufacturing tools and production equipment , as well as a huge variety of spare parts .
During the middle part of 1941 , some of the ZNDH 's man @-@ power capacity ( one fighter squadron and one medium bomber squadron ) was sent to the Eastern Front as part of the Luftwaffe , the Croatian Air Force Legion ( Croatian : Hrvatska Zrakoplovna Legija ; HZL ; German : Kroatische Luftwaffen Legion ) . Most of the Croatian Air Force Legion 's personnel were back on NDH territory by late 1942 ( bomber squadron ) / early 1944 ( fighter squadron ) to help counter the growing Allied air threat .
The personnel of the ZNDH took over and re @-@ activated the airfields at Zagreb , Sarajevo , Mostar , Banja Luka and Zemun , where the Ikarus and Zmaj aircraft plants were located . By June 1941 , the Germans had begun to pass on to the ZNDH various captured VVKJ aircraft , including eight Bristol Blenheim I and five Potez 25 bombers . These and most of the 211 ex @-@ VVKJ aircraft received by the ZNDH had first to be repaired and / or overhauled at the Ikarus plant in Zemun .
= = = The first missions : 1941 = = =
In late 1941 the ZNDH had 95 aircraft distributed in four groups and eight squadrons . Fighting the Yugoslav Partisans from the air had begun already in late June 1941 , when Breguet 19 and Potez 25 bombers had proved most suitable . The Breguets could carry a bomb load of up to 400 kilograms ( 880 lb ) using 24 12 @-@ kilogram ( 26 lb ) bombs , whilst the Potez 25s could carry about half that amount . Both types were also armed with three 7 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) machine guns . Altogether the ZNDH eventually came to possess 50 Breguet 19s and 45 Potez 25s . The operational use of these light bombers was not limited to fighting the Partisans ; the aircraft were also used to supply isolated or surrounded army strong points .
The emblem of the ZNDH was to be the red and white chequerboard insignia , ( Croatian : Šahovnica ) , derived from the Croat coat of arms , dating back to the 10th century , carried on the fin . In January 1945 this was replaced by the black and white trefoil cross of King Zvonimir .
As well as the Breguet and Potez aircraft , which were the most numerous types in the ZNDH inventory , Zmaj Fizir FP @-@ 2 light biplane trainers were also converted to carry six 12 kilograms ( 26 lb ) bombs . These aircraft were used to bomb and strafe Partisan troops and positions in northern Bosnia but they also faced anti @-@ aircraft fire . The first missions cost the ZNDH a Breguet and a Potez aircraft , both of which crash landed after being hit by Partisan ground fire . The ZNDH crews had little chance of survival after being hit , as flying suits , helmets and parachutes were not available at the time - hence their desperate crash @-@ landings .
Similar actions continued throughout 1941 . The ZNDH flew many missions in support of Army troops in limited scale operations against the Partisans mostly over eastern and western Bosnia , as well as over other parts of the NDH . By September , the ZNDH introduced larger aircraft for bombing Partisan forces and territory . Two bombers , an Avia Fokker F.IX derived F.39 and a Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 were available for operations and had the added advantage of being able to carry 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) bombs . They were extensively used for bombing villages and road communications . However it was soon established that the vintage biplane Breguet 19 and Potez 25 aircraft were ideally suited for missions against Partisan troop concentrations . Although they were outdated and certainly their use would be out of the question on any other front , their performance and armament made them very dangerous for an ill @-@ armed enemy . The Partisans were scattered in villages , forests and mountains and their positions could only be detected by a slow moving aircraft . Visual reconnaissance missions using hand @-@ held cameras were also flown . Aerial reconnaissance supplied the army with vital data about Partisan movements and positions and about the situation in Partisan territory in general . This was all the more important because the army desperately lacked radio equipment of all kinds . Light aircraft were frequently used for liaison duties , particularly connecting the surrounding army garrisons and higher command . Often the Army requested one or two aircraft to be temporarily attached to particular army units to closely co @-@ operate with ground troops .
The ZNDH 's fighter force was poorly equipped in every respect , consisting of 12 ex @-@ VVKJ machines including four Ikarus IK @-@ 2s , seven ancient Avia BH @-@ 33 Es and one Hawker Fury II . Fortunately for this ill @-@ equipped force , there was no aerial opposition and some more modern fighter aircraft were received from 1942 onwards .
Colder October and November weather limited aerial activities over the NDH . The Partisan operations spread to eastern Serbian territory and the squadrons based at Sarajevo airfield made their appearance on the Bosnian @-@ Serbian border area . The Partisans were trying to secure and expand their territory in the eastern part of Yugoslavia , which they had liberated in the autumn of 1941 . The ZNDH flew daily supply missions with their Avia @-@ Fokker F.39 and due to the lack of other aircraft also used the venerable Breguets and Potez . These could land on hastily prepared strips and performed very well in airlifting supplies to the surrounded garrison of Višegrad .
= = = Expansion : 1942 = = =
In 1942 , fighting with the Partisans intensified . Not only had they liberated a substantial territory in the eastern part of Yugoslavia , but they encouraged rebellion all over the country . The German , Italian and NDH governments were aware of this danger and they used every means available to destroy the Partisan forces . They planned several large @-@ scale operations for this purpose in which air support played a very important role .
The first half of 1942 was marked by several deliveries of new or refurbished aircraft from Germany and Italy , aside from those received from Ikarus in Zemun . First of all the ZNDH received 10 brand new Caproni Ca.311 M medium bombers from Italy . These aircraft had been ordered and paid for by the Yugoslav Government for service in the VVKJ , but the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia prevented delivery . The ZNDH also purchased 20 AVIA F.L.3 basic trainers , nine Fiat G.50bis fighters and one Fiat G.50B two @-@ seat fighter trainer . The Fiat aircraft were to provide the ZNDH 's fighter pilots with some operational training on more modern aircraft .
Other batches of overhauled ex @-@ VVKJ aircraft also arrived from the Ikarus aircraft plant in Zemun , including 11 Dornier Do @-@ 17K , three Bristol Blenheim Mk I and one Caproni Ca.310 bombers , 15 Rogožarski PVT and 11 Rogožarski R @-@ 100 attack aircraft , which had been fitted with bomb racks to carry 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) bombs , plus a few Breguet 19s , Potez 25s , Zmaj Fizir FNs and Zmaj Fizir FP @-@ 2s . From Prague in Czechoslovakia ( under German occupation ) , the ZNDH received seven Avia Fokker F.7 transports , one Avia Fokker F.9 and one Avia Fokker F.18. Of these , the F.7s and F.18 were pre @-@ war Czech airliners . As the ZNDH suffered from a total lack of transport aircraft , these were immediately pressed into service , after only minor adjustments . Some were even used to provide scheduled air @-@ line services .
The nine Fiat G.50bis fighters took off from Turin @-@ Fiat Aviazione on 12 June 1942 , but before crossing the border they were stopped by an order from Capo di Stato Maggiore Cavallero , that was afraid the ZNDH pilots could defect with the new Fiat aircraft . The G.50 aircraft had to wait until 25 June before being delivered to the 16th Squadron at Banja Luka , but during the course of 1942 , five were transferred to the 1st Squadron stationed in Zagreb in order to strengthen the defence of the NDH capital . Their deployment between the two squadrons was aimed to further familiarise the ZNDH fighter pilots with more sophisticated aircraft . Until that time , the only fighters available in numbers were the seven ancient Avia BH @-@ 33E biplanes and four Ikarus IK @-@ 2 gull wing fighters ( for which there were very few spares ) , as well as 11 Rogožarski R @-@ 100 parasol wing fighter @-@ trainers .
Thanks to this extended aircraft park the ZNDH could now form new units : in January the 1st Group , comprising the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 19th Squadrons was formed at Zagreb , and then the 2nd Group with the 4th , 5th and 6th squadrons and the 3rd Group with the 7th , 8th and 9th Squadrons at Sarajevo 's Rajlovac airfield , whilst the 6th Group was formed at Banja Luka 's Zaluzani airfield in June 1942 to cover operations in central Croatia and western Bosnia .
These reinforcements came just in time to participate in a large German offensive against the Partisan forces in eastern Bosnia . Initially , the Regia Aeronautica also participated in this campaign , but after a tragic incident where an Italian bomber mistakenly attacked German positions near Vlasenica , the German command assigned the ZNDH the responsibility for providing the entire aerial support mission for formations on the ground . At this time there were no significant Luftwaffe forces based in Yugoslavian territory . In support of the ground forces , the ZNDH flew 121 combat missions in January , 100 missions in February and 350 in March . Although the Axis ground forces generally succeeded in their operations in January and February , in March they were forced to release the pressure as other Partisan units attacked several solitary NDH garrisons , threatening to destroy them .
Aside from constant bombing sorties , Potez 25 and Breguet 19 aircraft were also used for daily supply missions to the besieged army garrison at Rogatica . They would land under fire at a small improvised grass landing strip , unloading ammunition and other supplies while keeping their engines running and taking off as soon as was possible . On 23 March , a ZNDH Potez 25 was shot down by the Partisans and the crew were killed . Three days later an Avia Fokker F.9 was damaged whilst dropping ammunition to Rogatica but managed to return to base safely . As a result of the determined re @-@ supply effort by the ZNDH , the Rogatica garrison succeeded in holding out until relieved by German @-@ NDH forces on 17 April .
As the weather improved towards the summer , flying activity intensified . Some 325 missions were flown during April , with a further 350 sorties during May , including direct combat support , reconnaissance and supply missions , as well as leaflet dropping . Most of the missions were performed by the 2nd and 3rd Group 's squadrons based at Sarajevo , which was the strongest operational base at that time . The Zagreb air base was principally employed in attacking Partisan positions in western Slavonia and Bosnia .
The 10 new Caproni Ca.311Ms were tried out during the successive attacks on Partisan territory . They were equally divided between 3rd Squadron ( Zagreb ) and 7th Squadron ( Rajlovac ) . During September and October Blenheims from 8th Squadron and the Dornier Do 17Ks from 3rd and 9th Squadrons were extensively used to attack Partisan positions in Bihać , Bugojno , Livno and Duvno and Bosnia . Owing to the availability of increased numbers of aircraft , the 6th Group was formed at Banja Luka comprising the 13th , 16th , 17th and 18th Squadrons . Not only did this medium bomber force fly reconnaissance and bombing missions against Partisan forces , but also flew deep into territory under Partisan control and attacked railway stations , road traffic , agricultural depots and food stocks . The Partisan forces were aware of the threat to their operations that the ZNDH provided and were constantly trying to improve their anti @-@ aircraft defence , which relied mainly on machineguns .
December 1942 also saw the return of the HZL bomber squadron to Croatia from service on the Eastern Front , where they had flown more than 1 @,@ 500 sorties . Upon its return the squadron was redesignated 1 . / ( Kroat . ) KG after having flown its nine Dornier Do 17Z bombers from Russia back to the NDH . The Dorniers proved a welcome addition to the strike power of the Axis forces fighting the Partisans in Yugoslavian territory right up to the end of 1944 . In late 1943 , a second squadron , 2 . / ( Kroat . ) KG was formed to provide operational training . It was equipped with Italian designed and built CANT Z.1007 and Fiat BR.20 medium bombers .
During the course of 1942 , the ZNDH flew some 4 @,@ 800 sorties , of which 30 % were combat missions , with 35 aircraft being lost . Of these losses , 19 were to Partisan ground fire , 12 to accidents and four deserted . By the end of the year the ZNDH aircraft park consisted of 191 aircraft , formed into 14 squadrons .
1942 had seen the first desertions of aircraft from the ZNDH , the first on 23 May when a Breguet and a Potez had defected to the Partisan forces . The army conducted an intensive search for the aircraft and in response the Partisans produced two decoy scale @-@ model aircraft , made of wood and canvas , which were duly destroyed by ZNDH bombers . Both " destroyed " aircraft were able to perform a number of attacks on army units ( armed with hand @-@ made pipe bombs ) before either being shot down ( the Breguet on 4 June ) or destroyed on the ground ( the Potez on 6 July ) . The two other defections occurred in July and October , with a Blenheim bomber in each case flying to Turkey .
= = = = ZNDH paratroops = = = =
In January 1942 , the ZNDH formed a parachute unit , known as the 1st Light Infantry Parachute Company ( Croatian : 1 Padobranski lovački sat , 1 PLS ) . It had a strength of 120 men and was based in the northern town of Koprivnica , near the border with Hungary . An Avia Fokker F.7 tri @-@ motor transport aircraft was assigned to the unit on a permanent basis , with other transports assigned as required . The paratroops were equipped with rifles , sub @-@ machine guns , light machine guns and light mortars . After a period of training , 1 PLS made a demonstration mass tactical jump on 6 July 1943 at Borongaj airfield , Zagreb . Forty five paratroopers made a successful jump from three Avia Fokker transports .
On 6 November 1943 , three brigades of the Partisans , supported by artillery and heavy machine @-@ guns mounted an attack on the town of Koprivnica , which they took on 9 November . The paratroops of 1 PLS held out at their base for three days before withdrawing into Hungary and continuing the battle with other NDH and German defending forces until 29 November . They received direct air support from ZNDH Dornier Do 17Ks , as well as supplies from light aircraft , but were unable to prevent the loss of their base , together with 20 men , all of their parachute equipment and their transport aircraft . The ZNDH also lost a Dornier Do 17K bomber and a Bücker Bü 131 biplane shot down during this period .
The unit was re @-@ deployed in 1944 to Borongaj airfield in Zagreb and in June 1944 grew in strength with the addition of three further companies and was re @-@ designated as the 1st Light Infantry Parachute Battalion ( Croatian : 1 Padobranska lovačka bojna , 1 PLB ) . They were responsible for the ground defence of this important air base and also performed ceremonial guard duties in Zagreb itself . By late January 1945 the unit was equipped with white winter jackets for camouflage and attached to the NDH Motorized Brigade , seeing its first action on this new sector , south of Zagreb . 1 PLB remained in constant action against the advancing Partisans until the last unit surrendered in Austria on 14 May 1945 , one week after the official end of World War II .
= = = 1943 = = =
At the beginning of 1943 the Axis forces had complete control of the airspace over Yugoslavian territory . No aerial opposition of any kind was expected and that was the primary reason that the bomber force could operate without any fighter cover , notwithstanding the fact that there was a total lack of any serious fighter force in the ZNDH 's squadrons . However , the situation started to change by the beginning of 1943 . The Headquarters ( HQ ) of the ZNDH had plans to re @-@ arm at least one Group with more modern aircraft of German or Italian origin . The Italians refused to supply the requested Macchi C.200 and Macchi C.202 fighters , as the Regia Aeronautica needed every aircraft to fill its own squadrons in the beginning of 1943 .
This was because the situation began to change in favour of the Allies . They had landed in North Africa while the Soviets were undertaking their great winter offensive , endangering , and eventually defeating , the German 6th Army around Stalingrad .
The Partisan movement in Yugoslavia , aside from some smaller territories , established a large liberated territory extending west of the rivers Neretva and Bosna , in the direction of the cities of Zagreb and Rijeka . The Partisan force had grown stronger – it had more than 60 @,@ 000 armed fighters in this so @-@ called " Tito 's State " who were both well trained and supported by artillery . On 20 January 1943 , the German HQ in Yugoslavia launched an offensive codenamed Case White ( German : Fall Weiss ) , intending to regain the lost territory . The attack was supported by aircraft from the Luftwaffe , Regia Aeronautica and the ZNDH . Aircraft from the 2nd and 3rd Groups from Sarajevo and the 6th Group from Banja Luka were involved in bombing raids as well as leaflet dropping missions .
The Banja Luka air base was reinforced by a newly formed 5th Group after the end of Case White . The ZNDH now consisted of three air bases with six Groups and 14 squadrons . During 1943 new aircraft continued to arrive , with 30 overhauled Dornier Do 17E bombers delivered from Germany and divided between the 3rd Squadron ( Zagreb ) , and the 13th and 15th Squadrons ( Banja Luka ) . From Italy came 34 long promised ex @-@ VVKJ Bücker Bü 131 Jungmans and 25 Saiman 200 light biplane trainers and liaison aircraft , which were dispatched to all three air bases . They were also used to deliver mail and fresh meat to isolated / surrounded towns and garrisons .
Although the ZNDH had a brief role in the subsequent anti @-@ Partisan offensive , Case Black ( German : Fall Schwarz ) in mid @-@ 1943 , its main involvement was on the front in the central NDH . As always , the Partisan resistance displayed frustrating survivability and effectiveness and new events started to influence the fighting in Yugoslavia . The Partisan forces were well aware of the constant threat of air attack posed by the ZNDH 's medium bomber force and on 10 August 1943 undertook a devastating night attack by a brigade on Sarajevo 's Rajlovac airfield . The three and a half hour assault on the airfield left 10 ZNDH bombers , plus another five Luftwaffe bombers and transports , destroyed , with another 17 aircraft damaged . Although some aircrews returned fire from the machine @-@ gun turrets of their aircraft , Partisan losses were less than 20 . Afterwards ZNDH Command complained that the German ordered dispersal of aircraft around the airfield 's perimeter , in case of air attack , made the aircraft especially vulnerable to just this type of ground attack .
By mid @-@ 1943 , following the capture of southern Italy , Allied aircraft started to appear over the Balkans . NDH military command was aware of this danger and was trying to persuade the Germans to provide at least two squadrons of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters to the ZNDH . However , instead of Bf 109s , the only reinforcement fighters that came from Germany were the first of a batch of 36 overhauled captured French Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 fighters in October , plus another dozen which arrived in December . The Germans also supplied 25 Beneš @-@ Mráz Beta @-@ Minor sporting two seater monoplanes , which were dispatched between the squadrons for liaison duty , as the lack of radio communications equipment at squadron level was still evident .
Mid @-@ September 1943 saw the dismissal of Kren from command of the ZNDH . He was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Adalbert Rogulja , who initiated a major reorganisation .
Following the capitulation of Italy in September 1943 , around 60 Regia Aeronautica aircraft were found at Mostar and Zadar airfields and 33 machines were incorporated into the ZNDH . This number included further Fiat G.50 fighters , as well as six Fiat CR.42 biplane fighters . Some CANT Z.1007 and Fiat BR.20 bombers were also added into the ZNDH . The Luftwaffe subsequently also supplied the HZL fighter squadron with about 20 @-@ 25 Fiat G.50s captured by German troops on Regia Aeronautica airfields in the Balkans .
The capitulation of Italy also brought with it the real threat of an invasion by the Allies of the Dalmatian coast . As a result , on 9 September , orders were received by 1 . / ( Kroat . ) KG to execute two coastal reconnaissance sorties over the central and south Adriatic each morning and afternoon . On 10 October one of its Dornier Do 17Zs was intercepted by eight Spitfire Mk.VIII fighters of No. 92 Squadron RAF near the coast of Italy . All of the fighters made firing passes on the Dornier , which was shot down , the crew bailing out . One Spitfire was hit by return fire and crashed into the sea , killing its pilot . After this , reconnaissance sorties were confined to the vicinity of the Dalmatian coast .
Attacks on Partisan forces continued , and on 3 October seven Dornier Do @-@ 17Zs caught 2 @.@ bataljon of Brigada Braća Radić ( 2nd battalion of the Radić Brothers Brigade ) on the move at Šemovac , on the Varaždin @-@ Ludbreg road . In over one hour 's concentrated aerial bombardment , the battalion sustained some 60 casualties , including 42 dead .
Although the ZNDH was now able to mount a credible threat against the insurgents , by then a new menace was arriving from the other side of the Adriatic . On 30 June 1943 , the first Allied reconnaissance flights were reported , followed by the first USAAF bombers , when 61 B @-@ 24 Liberators of IX Bomber Command overflew the NDH on a deep penetration raid on the Austrian city of Wiener Neustadt on 13 August . The ZNDH 's 3rd Flak Group , defending Brod na Savi ( Slavonski Brod ) , managed to shoot down a single bomber en route to its target . The best aircraft that the ZNDH could put up to defend its homeland at the end of 1943 were 20 Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406s , 10 Fiat G.50s , six Fiat CR.42s , five Avia BH @-@ 33s and two Ikarus IK @-@ 2 fighters – aircraft that had been obsolete in 1940 .
By the end of 1943 the ZNDH was 9 @,@ 775 strong and equipped with 295 aircraft , having lost 61 shot down , destroyed on the ground , in accidents and five desertions .
= = = 1944 = = =
With the capitulation of Italy , the ZNDH lost an important source of new aircraft and the tide turned significantly when Allied air raids on targets in the Balkans became a reality . The Luftwaffe fighter squadrons stationed in Ljubljana , Zagreb , southern Austria and northern Italy fought heavy battles to stop the American USAAF heavy bomber armada . The ZNDH was also included in the defence with the newly formed 11th Fighter Group ( Croatian : 11 lovačka skupina ) consisting of the 21st , 22nd and 23rd Fighter Squadrons ( Croatian : Lovačka jata ) equipped with Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 and Fiat G.50 aircraft .
1944 also saw the return of the HZL fighter squadron to the NDH from service on the Eastern Front . It was redesignated Kroat . JGr 1 and its operational fighter squadron was redesignated 2 . / ( Kroat . ) JGr . Soon after arrival 2 . / ( Kroat . ) JGr sent its ZNDH pilots to collect 12 brand new Macchi C.202 fighters direct from the plant near Milan in Italy . The Italian designed and built Macchi C.202 fighter was the first up @-@ to @-@ date fighter available to the ZNDH . These aircraft retained their Luftwaffe markings whilst in service with the unit . A second training / operational conversion squadron was also formed , designated 3 . / ( Kroat . ) JGr and equipped with Fiat G.50 , Macchi C.200 and Fiat CR.42 fighters . After a period of operational conversion , the squadron commenced operations against the frequent incursions over the NDH by USAAF and RAF aircraft . During a period of intensive activity over the summer of 1944 , the squadron claimed some 20 Allied aircraft shot down , while at the same time receiving six further Macchi C.202s , as well as four brand new Macchi C.205s.
The ZNDH 's long obsolete Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 and Fiat G.50 fighter aircraft also attempted to intercept the USAAF bomber formations , often stressing their old engines beyond the limit . They were no match for the escorting Mustang and Thunderbolt USAAF fighters and suffered heavy losses , both in the air and on the ground .
By the end of 1944 the HZL squadron had handed in its remaining worn @-@ out Macchis for brand new German Messerschmitt Bf 109G & K fighters . A total of 21 Bf 109s had been delivered to the ZNDH by year 's end .
Allied aircraft specifically started targeting ZNDH and Luftwaffe bases and aircraft for the first time as a result of the Seventh anti @-@ Partisan Offensive , including Operation Rösselsprung in late May 1944 . Until then Axis aircraft could fly inland almost at will as long as they remained at low altitude . Partisan units on the ground frequently complained about enemy aircraft attacking them while hundreds of Allied aircraft flew above at higher altitude . This changed during Rösselsprung as Allied fighter @-@ bombers went low en @-@ masse for the first time , establishing full aerial superiority . Consequently , both the ZNDH and Luftwaffe were forced to limit their operations in clear weather to early morning and late afternoon hours .
In June , the ZNDH finally received from Germany the long @-@ promised airdrop containers for aerial resupply of ammunition and other equipment , constantly in need by besieged and encircled garrisons all over the NDH . They were immediately put to good use and eased the work of the already overstretched ZNDH . The Dornier Do 17s of the ZNDH proved to be especially well suited for such tasks . June also saw Kren returned to his previous position as head of the ZNDH .
Toward the end of June , the ZNDH received the first of 22 Bücker Bü 181 Bestmann aircraft . The 19th and 20th Transport Squadrons received five each , with the remainder issued to the 1st Pilot School . Besides liaison duties , they were used to transport fresh meat from Bosnia to Zagreb , where there was a food shortage .
Fifteen Ju 87D dive bombers and a few Ju 87R @-@ 2 extended range dive bombers are known to have been supplied to the HZL , and six of these were flown operationally against Soviet troops in the late summer of 1944 .
In the second half of 1944 , the situation on all fronts rapidly worsened for the Axis forces . Soviet , Bulgarian and Partisan armies had liberated the whole eastern part of Yugoslavia and Partisan forces in Bosnia pressed their attacks on even larger Axis garrisons . In a surprise attack on 20 September , they captured the city of Banja Luka and the ZNDH 's airbase at Zaluzani airfield , including 11 unserviceable aircraft . In the total confusion during the attack on the airfield , a number of ZNDH crews managed to take off and escape at the last moment , some even starting their take off runs when barely clear of open hangar doors , using suppressing fire provided by their machine @-@ gun turrets , whilst others took off under heavy Partisan fire . The city and airbase were re @-@ taken several days later in a heavy counter @-@ attack by NDH and German troops .
The Germans also continued to supply second @-@ line aircraft to the ZNDH , including between nine and 12 exotic Fieseler Fi 167 biplane torpedo bombers . These had been originally designed and intended for use aboard the German aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin , which was never completed . After that they were sold to the NDH , where their short @-@ field and load @-@ carrying abilities made them ideal not only for attack missions , but also for transporting ammunition and other supplies to besieged army garrisons . Many of these missions were flown between their arrival in September 1944 and the end of the War ( under the right conditions , the aircraft could descend almost vertically ) . During one such mission , near Sisak on 10 October 1944 , an Fi 167 of the ZNDH was attacked by five P @-@ 51 Mustang Mk IIIs of 213 Squadron RAF . The crew of the Fieseler ( piloted by an ex @-@ HZL eight @-@ kill Flying ace ) , exploiting the aircraft 's extreme maneuverability to the fullest , had the distinction of shooting down one of the Mustangs before itself being shot down ; possibly one of the last biplane " kills " of the war .
= = = 1945 = = =
1944 had been a catastrophic year for the ZNDH . Aircraft losses amounted to 234 , primarily on the ground , and it entered 1945 with 196 machines , including 17 Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs , 12 Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406s , seven Fiat G.50s and two Fiat CR.42 fighters and some 30 multi @-@ engined bombers , although shortages of fuel had begun to hamper operations .
Further deliveries of new aircraft from Germany continued in the early months of 1945 to replace losses . Some 39 by the end of March . These included , in addition to regular Messerschmitt Bf 109G deliveries , the final dozen Dornier Do 17 medium bombers in January . In March , despite losses of 15 Bf 109G & Ks , ten Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 , three Fiat CR.42 and two Fiat G.50 , the ZNDH 's fighter force included 23 Messerschmitt Bf 109G & Ks , three Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 , six Fiat G.50 and two Messerschmitt Bf 110G fighters . With the Bf 109G the ZNDH were finally able to face the USAAF and RAF on equal terms , with two squadrons equipped with the type from late 1944 . The ZNDH still had 176 aircraft on its strength in April 1945 .
The Dornier Do 17 medium bombers of the ZNDH were still hitting back when and where they could and on 31 December 1944 a Dornier Do 17E attacked an RAF 148 Squadron Handley Page Halifax bomber on the ground at the Partisan airfield at Grabovnica near Čazma , destroying it with bombs . On 10 February 1945 , after a bridge @-@ busting sortie on the Drava river , a single ZNDH Dornier Do 17Z caught 1 . Zagorska Brigada ( 1st Zagorje Brigade ) marching in the open near Daruvar . The Yugoslav Partisans ( by now known as the Jugoslovenska Armija - Yugoslav Army ) unit suffered some two dozen casualties . Late in the afternoon of 30 March , four Dornier Do 17Z bombers , escorted by four Bf 109G fighters attacked Jugoslovenska Armija positions near Gospić . On 15 April 1945 , a force made up of a Dornier Do 17Z , escorted by two Bf 109Gs destroyed two Partisan aircraft at their airfield at Sanski Most .
Despite these attacking raids , with the outcome of the war by now quite obvious , defections of ZNDH personnel and aircraft to the Allies and Partisans intensified , including two Bf 109s to Italy on 16 April and a further two Messerschmitts to the Partisans in Mostar on 20 April .
The last fighter delivery took place on 23 April 1945 . It was also on this day that the final Croatian kills were scored when an ex @-@ HZL 16 @-@ kill ace and his wingman claimed two RAF P @-@ 51 Mustangs shot down in their Bf 109Gs , one of which was confirmed . The last attack mission was flown on 6 May , when two ancient Rogožarski R @-@ 100 fighter trainers bombed the railway bridge over the Kupa River in an effort to stop the Partisan advance on Karlovac , south of Zagreb . One of the Yugoslav @-@ built parasol wing aircraft was hit by ground fire and the pilot crash @-@ landed near his target . He was captured and shot on the spot .
That evening , with Partisan forces advancing upon the NDH capital of Zagreb , the commanding officer of the ZNDH fighter group gathered together his men at Zagreb 's Lucko airfield and released them from their oath of loyalty and announced that each was free to go . Some flew their aircraft and crews , including several Dornier Do 17s and a CANT Z.1007 to Italy and the Allied forces there . Some flew their aircraft over to the Partisans , including several light aircraft and some Bf 109s , whilst others , also including Bf 109s , as well as at least one Dornier Do @-@ 17Z , a Messerschmitt Bf 110G @-@ 2 , a Bristol Blenheim I and a Yugoslav @-@ designed and built Zmaj Fizir FP @-@ 2 sought sanctuary at Klagenfurt in Austria .
The four @-@ year campaign of the ZNDH , during which it had on its charge at one time or another some 650 aircraft , thus ended with the capture of the airbases around Zagreb on 8 May 1945 and the ZNDH ceased to exist . Its colourful collection of often vintage aircraft , scattered on deserted airfields , received new markings , a red star , and formed the basis of the new Yugoslav Air Force .
= = Ranks = =
= = Commanders = =
Vladimir Kren ( 1941 – 1943 )
Adalbert Rogulja ( 1943 – 1944 )
Vladimir Kren ( 1944 – 1945 )
= = Service types = =
= = Journal = =
The ZNDH published a weekly journal called Hrvatska Krila ( Croatian Wings ) .
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= Sumatran rhinoceros =
The Sumatran rhinoceros , also known as the hairy rhinoceros or Asian two @-@ horned rhinoceros ( Dicerorhinus sumatrensis ) , is a rare member of the family Rhinocerotidae and one of five extant rhinoceroses . It is the only extant species of the genus Dicerorhinus . It is the smallest rhinoceros , although it is still a large mammal ; it stands 112 – 145 cm ( 3 @.@ 67 – 4 @.@ 76 ft ) high at the shoulder , with a head @-@ and @-@ body length of 2 @.@ 36 – 3 @.@ 18 m ( 7 @.@ 7 – 10 @.@ 4 ft ) and a tail of 35 – 70 cm ( 14 – 28 in ) . The weight is reported to range from 500 to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 to 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , averaging 700 – 800 kg ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 800 lb ) , although there is a single record of a 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) specimen . Like both African species , it has two horns ; the larger is the nasal horn , typically 15 – 25 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) , while the other horn is typically a stub . A coat of reddish @-@ brown hair covers most of the Sumatran rhino 's body .
Members of the species once inhabited rainforests , swamps , and cloud forests in India , Bhutan , Bangladesh , Myanmar , Laos , Thailand , Malaysia , Indonesia , and China . In historical times , they lived in southwest China , particularly in Sichuan . They are now critically endangered , with only five substantial populations in the wild : four on Sumatra and one on Borneo . Their numbers are difficult to determine because they are solitary animals that are widely scattered across their range , but they are estimated to number fewer than 100 . Survival of the Peninsular Malaysia population is in doubt , and one of the Sumatran populations may already be extinct . Total numbers today may be as low as 80 . In 2015 , researchers announced that the Bornean rhinoceros had become extinct from the northern part of Borneo ( Sabah , Malaysia ) ; however , a new population was discovered in East Kalimantan in early 2016 .
The Sumatran rhino is a mostly solitary animal except for courtship and offspring @-@ rearing . It is the most vocal rhino species and also communicates through marking soil with its feet , twisting saplings into patterns , and leaving excrement . The species is much better studied than the similarly reclusive Javan rhinoceros , in part because of a program that brought 40 Sumatran rhinos into captivity with the goal of preserving the species . The program was considered a disaster even by its initiator ; most of the rhinos died and no offspring were produced for nearly 20 years , representing an even worse population decline than in the wild . In March 2016 , a Sumatran rhinoceros was spotted in Indonesian Borneo .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The first documented Sumatran rhinoceros was shot 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) outside Fort Marlborough , near the west coast of Sumatra , in 1793 . Drawings of the animal , and a written description , were sent to the naturalist Joseph Banks , then president of the Royal Society of London , who published a paper on the specimen that year . In 1814 , the species was given a scientific name by Johann Fischer von Waldheim , a German scientist and curator of the State Darwin Museum in Moscow , Russia .
The scientific name Dicerorhinus sumatrensis comes from the Greek terms di ( δι , meaning " two " ) , cero ( κέρας , meaning " horn " ) , and rhinos ( ρινος , meaning " nose " ) . Sumatrensis signifies " of Sumatra " , the Indonesian island where the rhinos were first discovered . Carl Linnaeus originally classified all rhinos in the genus , Rhinoceros ; therefore , the species was originally identified as Rhinoceros sumatrensis or sumatranus . Joshua Brookes considered the Sumatran rhinoceros , with its two horns , a distinct genus from the one @-@ horned Rhinoceros , and gave it the name Didermocerus in 1828 . Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger proposed the name Dicerorhinus in 1841 . In 1868 , John Edward Gray proposed the name Ceratorhinus . Normally , the oldest name would be used , but a 1977 ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature established the proper genus name as Dicerorhinus .
The three subspecies are :
D. s. sumatrensis , known as the Western Sumatran rhinoceros , which has only 75 to 85 rhinos remaining , mostly in the national parks of Bukit Barisan Selatan and Gunung Leuser in Sumatra , but also in Way Kambas National Park in small numbers . They have recently gone extinct in Peninsular Malaysia . The main threats against this subspecies are habitat loss and poaching . A slight genetic difference is noted between the Western Sumatran and Bornean rhinos . The rhinos in the Malaysian Peninsular were once known as D. s. niger , but were later recognized to be a synonym of D. s. sumatrensis . Three males and four females currently live in captivity at the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary at Way Kambas , the youngest male having been bred and born there in 2012 . Another calf , a female , was born at the sanctuary in May 2016 . The sanctuary 's two males were born at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden .
D. s. harrissoni , known as the Bornean Rhinoceros or Eastern Sumatran rhinoceros , which was once common throughout Borneo ; now , only about 15 individuals are estimated to survive . The known population lives in East Kalimantan , with them having recently gone extinct in Sabah . Reports of animals surviving in Sarawak are unconfirmed . This subspecies is named after Tom Harrisson , who worked extensively with Bornean zoology and anthropology in the 1960s . The Bornean subspecies is markedly smaller than the other two . The captive population consists of one male and two females at the Borneo Rhinoceros Sanctuary in Sabah .
D. s. lasiotis , known as the Northern Sumatran rhinoceros or Chittagong rhinoceros , which once roamed India and Bangladesh , but has been declared extinct in these countries . Unconfirmed reports suggest a small population may still survive in Burma , but the political situation in that country has prevented verification . The name lasiotis is derived from the Greek for " hairy @-@ ears " . Later studies showed that their ear @-@ hair was not longer than other Sumatran rhinos , but D. s. lasiotis remained a subspecies because it was significantly larger than the other subspecies .
= = = Evolution = = =
Ancestral rhinoceroses first diverged from other perissodactyls in the Early Eocene . Mitochondrial DNA comparison suggests the ancestors of modern rhinos split from the ancestors of Equidae around 50 million years ago . The extant family , the Rhinocerotidae , first appeared in the Late Eocene in Eurasia , and the ancestors of the extant rhino species dispersed from Asia beginning in the Miocene .
The Sumatran rhinoceros is considered the least derived of the extant species , as it shares more traits with its Miocene ancestors . Paleontological evidence in the fossil record dates the genus Dicerorhinus to the Early Miocene , 23 – 16 million years ago . Many fossils have been classified as members of Dicerorhinus , but no other recent species are in the genus . Molecular dating suggests the split of Dicerorhinus from the four other extant species as far back as 25 @.@ 9 ± 1 @.@ 9 million years . Three hypotheses have been proposed for the relationship between the Sumatran rhinoceros and the other living species . One hypothesis suggests the Sumatran rhinoceros is closely related to the black and white rhinos in Africa , evidenced by the species having two horns , instead of one . Other taxonomists regard the Sumatran rhinoceros as a sister taxon of the Indian and Javan rhinoceros because their ranges overlap so closely . A third hypothesis , based on more recent analyses , however , suggests that the two African rhinos , the two Asian rhinos , and the Sumatran rhinoceros represent three essentially separate lineages that split around 25 @.@ 9 million years ago ; which group diverged first remains unclear .
Because of morphological similarities , the Sumatran rhinoceros is believed to be closely related to the extinct woolly rhinoceros ( Coelodonta antiquitatis ) . The woolly rhinoceros , so named for the coat of hair it shares with the Sumatran rhinoceros , first appeared in China ; by the Upper Pleistocene , it ranged across the Eurasian continent from Korea to Spain . The woolly rhinoceros survived the last Ice Age , but , like the woolly mammoth , most or all became extinct around 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Although some morphological studies questioned the relationship , recent molecular analysis has supported the two species as sister taxa .
= = Description = =
A mature Sumatran rhino stands about 120 – 145 cm ( 3 @.@ 94 – 4 @.@ 76 ft ) high at the shoulder , has a body length of around 250 cm ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , and weighs 500 – 800 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 800 lb ) , though the largest individuals in zoos have been known to weigh as much as 2 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) . Like the African species , it has two horns . The larger is the nasal horn , typically only 15 – 25 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) , though the longest recorded specimen was much longer at 81 cm ( 32 in ) . The posterior horn is much smaller , usually less than 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , and often little more than a knob . The larger nasal horn is also known as the anterior horn ; the smaller posterior horn is known as the frontal horn . The horns are dark grey or black in color . The males have larger horns than the females , though the species is not otherwise sexually dimorphic . The Sumatran rhino lives an estimated 30 – 45 years in the wild , while the record time in captivity is a female D. lasiotis , which lived for 32 years and 8 months before dying in the London Zoo in 1900 .
Two thick folds of skin encircle the body behind the front legs and before the hind legs . The rhino has a smaller fold of skin around its neck . The skin itself is thin , 10 – 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 63 in ) , and in the wild , the rhino appears to have no subcutaneous fat . Hair can range from dense ( the most dense hair in young calves ) to scarce , and is usually a reddish @-@ brown . In the wild , this hair is hard to observe because the rhinos are often covered in mud . In captivity , however , the hair grows out and becomes much shaggier , likely because of less abrasion from walking through vegetation . The rhino has a patch of long hair around its ears and a thick clump of hair at the end of its tail . Like all rhinos , they have very poor vision . The Sumatran rhinoceros is fast and agile ; it climbs mountains easily and comfortably traverses steep slopes and riverbanks .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Sumatran rhinoceros lives in both lowland and highland secondary rainforest , swamps , and cloud forests . It inhabits hilly areas close to water , particularly steep upper valleys with copious undergrowth . The Sumatran rhinoceros once inhabited a continuous range as far north as Burma , eastern India , and Bangladesh . Unconfirmed reports also placed it in Cambodia , Laos , and Vietnam . All known living animals occur in Peninsular Malaysia , the island of Sumatra , and Sabah , Borneo . Some conservationists hope Sumatran rhinos may still survive in Burma , though it is considered unlikely . Political turmoil in Burma has prevented any assessment or study of possible survivors . The last reports of stray animals from Indian limits were in 1990s .
The Sumatran rhino is widely scattered across its range , much more so than the other Asian rhinos , which has made it difficult for conservationists to protect members of the species effectively . Only five areas are known to contain Sumatran rhinoceros : Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park , Gunung Leuser National Park , and Way Kambas National Park on Sumatra ; Danum Valley in Sabah , Malaysia , on the island of Borneo , and on Indonesian Borneo west of Samarindah .
The Kerinci Seblat National Park , Sumatra 's largest , was estimated to contain a population of around 500 rhinos in the 1980s , but due to poaching , this population is now considered extinct . The survival of any animals in Peninsula Malaysia is extremely unlikely .
Genetic analysis of Sumatran rhino populations has identified three distinct genetic lineages . The channel between Sumatra and Malaysia was not as significant a barrier for the rhinos as the Barisan Mountains along the length of Sumatra , for rhinos in eastern Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia are more closely related than the rhinos on the other side of the mountains in western Sumatra . In fact , the eastern Sumatra and Malaysia rhinos show so little genetic variance , the populations were likely not separate during the Pleistocene , when sea levels were much lower and Sumatra formed part of the mainland . Both populations of Sumatra and Malaysia , however , are close enough genetically that interbreeding would not be problematic . The rhinos of Borneo are sufficiently distinct that conservation geneticists have advised against crossing their lineages with the other populations . Conservation geneticists have recently begun to study the diversity of the gene pool within these populations by identifying microsatellite loci . The results of initial testing found levels of variability within Sumatran rhino populations comparable to those in the population of the less endangered African rhinos , but the genetic diversity of Sumatran rhinos is an area of continuing study .
Although the rhino had been thought to be extinct in Kalimantan since the 1990s , in March 2013 World Wildlife Fund ( WWF ) announced that the team when monitoring orangutan activity found in West Kutai Regency , East Kalimantan , several fresh rhino foot trails , mud holes , traces of rhino @-@ rubbed trees , traces of rhino horns on the walls of mud holes , and rhino bites on small branches . The team also identified that rhinos ate more than 30 species of plants . On 2 October 2013 , video images made with camera traps showing the Sumatran rhino in Kutai Barat , Kalimantan , were released by the World Wildlife Fund . Experts assume the videos show two different animals , but aren 't quite certain . According to the Indonesia 's Minister of Forestry , Zulkifli Hasan called the video evidence " very important " and mentioned Indonesia 's " target of rhino population growth by three percent per year " . On 22 March 2016 it was announced by the WWF that a live Sumatran Rhino was found in Kalimantan ; it was the first contact in over 40 years . The rhino , a female , is being transported to a nearby sanctuary .
= = Behaviour = =
Sumatran rhinoceroses are solitary creatures except for pairing before mating and during offspring rearing . Individuals have home ranges ; bulls have territories as large as 50 km2 ( 19 sq mi ) , whereas females ' ranges are 10 – 15 km2 ( 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 8 sq mi ) . The ranges of females appear to be spaced apart ; males ' ranges often overlap . No evidence indicates Sumatran rhinos defend their territories through fighting . Marking their territories is done by scraping soil with their feet , bending saplings into distinctive patterns , and leaving excrement . The Sumatran rhino is usually most active when eating , at dawn , and just after dusk . During the day , they wallow in mud baths to cool down and rest . In the rainy season , they move to higher elevations ; in the cooler months , they return to lower areas in their range . When mud holes are unavailable , the rhino will deepen puddles with its feet and horns . The wallowing behaviour helps the rhino maintain its body temperature and protect its skin from ectoparasites and other insects . Captive specimens , deprived of adequate wallowing , have quickly developed broken and inflamed skins , suppurations , eye problems , inflamed nails , and hair loss , and have eventually died . One 20 @-@ month study of wallowing behavior found they will visit no more than three wallows at any given time . After two to 12 weeks using a particular wallow , the rhino will abandon it . Typically , the rhino will wallow around midday for two to three hours at a time before venturing out for food . Although in zoos the Sumatran rhino has been observed wallowing less than 45 minutes a day , the study of wild animals found 80 – 300 minutes ( an average of 166 minutes ) per day spent in wallows .
There has been little opportunity to study epidemiology in the Sumatran rhinoceros . Ticks and gyrostigma were reported to cause deaths in captive animals in the 19th century . The rhino is also known to be vulnerable to the blood disease surra , which can be spread by horse @-@ flies carrying parasitic trypanosomes ; in 2004 , all five rhinos at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Centre died over an 18 @-@ day period after becoming infected by the disease . The Sumatran rhino has no known predators other than humans . Tigers and wild dogs may be capable of killing a calf , but calves stay close to their mothers , and the frequency of such killings is unknown . Although the rhino 's range overlaps with elephants and tapirs , the species do not appear to compete for food or habitat . Elephants ( Elephas maximus ) and Sumatran rhinos are even known to share trails , and many smaller species such as deer , boars , and wild dogs will use the trails the rhinos and elephants create .
The Sumatran rhino maintains trails across its range . These trails fall into two types . Main trails will be used by generations of rhinos to travel between important areas in the rhino 's range , such as between salt licks , or in corridors through inhospitable terrain that separates ranges . In feeding areas , the rhinos will make smaller trails , still covered by vegetation , to areas containing food the rhino eats . Sumatran rhino trails have been found that cross rivers deeper than 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) and about 50 m ( 160 ft ) across . The currents of these rivers are known to be strong , but the rhino is a strong swimmer . A relative absence of wallows near rivers in the range of the Sumatran rhinoceros indicates they may occasionally bathe in rivers in lieu of wallowing .
= = = Diet = = =
Most feeding occurs just before nightfall and in the morning . The Sumatran rhino is a browser , with a diet of young saplings , leaves , fruits , twigs , and shoots . The rhinos usually consume up to 50 kg ( 110 lb ) of food a day . Primarily by measuring dung samples , researchers have identified more than 100 food species consumed by the Sumatran rhinoceros . The largest portion of the diet is tree saplings with a trunk diameter of 1 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 in ) . The rhinoceros typically pushes these saplings over with its body , walking over the sapling without stepping on it , to eat the leaves . Many of the plant species the rhino consumes exist in only small portions , which indicates the rhino is frequently changing its diet and feeding in different locations . Among the most common plants the rhino eats are many species from the Euphorbiaceae , Rubiaceae , and Melastomataceae families . The most common species the rhino consumes is Eugenia .
The vegetal diet of the Sumatran rhinoceros is high in fiber and only moderate in protein . Salt licks are very important to the nutrition of the rhino . These licks can be small hot springs , seepages of salty water , or mud @-@ volcanoes . The salt licks also serve an important social purpose for the rhinos — males visit the licks to pick up the scent of females in oestrus . Some Sumatran rhinos , however , live in areas where salt licks are not readily available , or the rhinos have not been observed using the licks . These rhinos may get their necessary mineral requirements by consuming plants rich in minerals .
= = = Communication = = =
The Sumatran rhinoceros is the most vocal of the rhinoceros species . Observations of the species in zoos show the animal almost constantly vocalizing , and it is known to do so in the wild , as well . The rhino makes three distinct noises : eeps , whales , and whistle @-@ blows . The eep , a short , one @-@ second @-@ long yelp , is the most common sound . The whale , named for its similarity to vocalizations of the humpback whale , is the most song @-@ like vocalization and the second @-@ most common . The whale varies in pitch and lasts from four to seven seconds . The whistle @-@ blow is named because it consists of a two @-@ second @-@ long whistling noise and a burst of air in immediate succession . The whistle @-@ blow is the loudest of the vocalizations , loud enough to make the iron bars in the zoo enclosure where the rhinos were studied vibrate . The purpose of the vocalizations is unknown , though they are theorized to convey danger , sexual readiness , and location , as do other ungulate vocalizations . The whistle @-@ blow could be heard at a great distance , even in the dense brush in which the Sumatran rhino lives . A vocalization of similar volume from elephants has been shown to carry 9 @.@ 8 km ( 6 @.@ 1 mi ) and the whistle @-@ blow may carry as far . The Sumatran rhinoceros will sometimes twist the saplings they do not eat . This twisting behavior is believed to be used as a form of communication , frequently indicating a junction in a trail .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Females become sexually mature at the age of six to seven years , while males become sexually mature at about 10 years old . The gestation period is around 15 – 16 months . The calf , which typically weighs 40 – 60 kg ( 88 – 132 lb ) , is weaned after about 15 months and stays with its mother for the first two to three years of its life . In the wild , the birth interval for this species is estimated to be four to five years ; its natural offspring @-@ rearing behavior is unstudied .
The reproductive habits of the Sumatran rhinoceros have been studied in captivity . Sexual relationships begin with a courtship period characterized by increased vocalization , tail raising , urination , and increased physical contact , with both male and female using their snouts to bump the other in the head and genitals . The pattern of courtship is most similar to that of the black rhinoceros . Young Sumatran rhino males are often too aggressive with females , sometimes injuring and even killing them during the courtship . In the wild , the female could run away from an overly aggressive male , but in their smaller captive enclosures , they cannot ; this inability to escape aggressive males may partly contribute to the low success rate of captive @-@ breeding programs .
The period of oestrus itself , when the female is receptive to the male , lasts about 24 hours , and observations have placed its recurrence between 21 and 25 days . Rhinos in the Cincinnati Zoo have been observed copulating for 30 – 50 minutes , similar in length to other rhinos ; observations at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Centre in Malaysia have shown a briefer copulation cycle . As the Cincinnati Zoo has had successful pregnancies , and other rhinos also have lengthy copulatory periods , a lengthy rut may be the natural behavior . Though researchers observed successful conceptions , all these pregnancies ended in failure for a variety of reasons until the first successful captive birth in 2001 ; studies of these failures at the Cincinnati Zoo discovered the Sumatran rhino 's ovulation is induced by mating and it had unpredictable progesterone levels . Breeding success was finally achieved in 2001 , 2004 , and 2007 by providing a pregnant rhino with supplementary progestin . Recently , a calf was born in captivity of an endangered female in western Indonesia , only the fifth such birth in one and a quarter century .
= = Conservation = =
Sumatran rhinoceroses were once quite numerous throughout Southeast Asia . Fewer than 100 individuals are now estimated to remain . The species is classed as critically endangered ( primarily due to illegal poaching ) while the last survey in 2008 estimated that around 250 individuals survived . Until the early 1990s , the population decline was estimated at more than 50 % per decade , and the small , scattered populations now face high risks of inbreeding depression . Most remaining habitat is in relatively inaccessible mountainous areas of Indonesia .
Poaching of Sumatran rhinoceros is a cause for concern , as the price of its horn has been estimated as high as US $ 30 @,@ 000 per kilogram . This species has been overhunted for many centuries , leading to the current greatly reduced – and still declining – population . The rhinos are difficult to observe and hunt directly ( one field researcher spent seven weeks in a treehide near a salt lick without ever observing a rhino directly ) , so poachers make use of spear traps and pit traps . In the 1970s , uses of the rhinoceros 's body parts among the local people of Sumatra were documented , such as the use of rhino horns in amulets and a folk belief that the horns offer some protection against poison . Dried rhinoceros meat was used as medicine for diarrhea , leprosy , and tuberculosis . " Rhino oil " , a concoction made from leaving a rhino 's skull in coconut oil for several weeks , may be used to treat skin diseases . The extent of use and belief in these practices is not known . Rhinoceros horn was once believed to be widely used as an aphrodisiac ; in fact traditional Chinese medicine never used it for this purpose . Nevertheless , hunting in this species has primarily been driven by a demand for rhino horns with supposedly medicinal properties .
The rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia , which the Sumatran rhino inhabits , are also targets for legal and illegal logging because of the desirability of their hardwoods . Rare woods such as merbau , meranti and semaram are valuable on the international markets , fetching as much as $ 1 @,@ 800 per m3 ( $ 1 @,@ 375 per cu yd ) . Enforcement of illegal @-@ logging laws is difficult because humans live within or near many of the same forests as the rhino . The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake has been used to justify new logging . Although the hardwoods in the rainforests of the Sumatran rhino are destined for international markets and not widely used in domestic construction , the number of logging permits for these woods has increased dramatically because of the tsunami . However , while this species has been suggested to be highly sensitive to habitat disturbance , apparently it is of little importance compared to hunting , as it can withstand more or less any forest condition .
The Bornean rhino in Sabah was confirmed to be extinct in the wild in April 2015 , with only 3 individuals left in captivity .
The mainlaind Sumatran rhino in Malaysia was confirmed to be extinct in the wild in August 2015 .
In March 2016 there was a rare sighting of a Sumatran Rhino in Kalimantan , the Indonesian part of Borneo . The last time there was a Sumatran Rhino in the Kalimantan area was approximately 40 years ago . This optimism was met with despair as that very specific Sumatran Rhino was found dead several weeks later after the sighting . The reason of the death is currently unknown .
= = = In captivity = = =
Sumatran rhinoceroses do not thrive outside of their ecosystem . The London Zoo acquired a male and female in 1872 that had been captured in Chittagong in 1868 . The female named " Begum " survived until 1900 , the record lifetime for a captive rhino . Begum was one of at least seven specimens of the extinct subspecies D. s. lasiotis that were held in zoos and circuses . In 1972 , Subur , the only Sumatran rhino remaining in captivity , died at the Copenhagen Zoo .
Despite the species ' persistent lack of reproductive success , in the early 1980s , some conservation organizations began a captive @-@ breeding program for the Sumatran rhinoceros . Between 1984 and 1996 , this ex situ conservation program transported 40 Sumatran rhinos from their native habitats to zoos and reserves across the world . While hopes were initially high , and much research was conducted on the captive specimens , by the late 1990s , not a single rhino had been born in the program , and most of its proponents agreed the program had been a failure . In 1997 , the IUCN 's Asian rhino specialist group , which once endorsed the program , declared it had failed " even maintaining the species within acceptable limits of mortality " , noting that , in addition to the lack of births , 20 of the captured rhinos had died . In 2004 , a surra outbreak at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Centre killed all the captive rhinos in Peninsular Malaysia , reducing the population of captive rhinos to eight .
Seven of these captive rhinos were sent to the United States ( the other was kept in Southeast Asia ) , but by 1997 , their numbers had dwindled to three : a female in the Los Angeles Zoo , a male in the Cincinnati Zoo , and a female in the Bronx Zoo . In a final effort , the three rhinos were united in Cincinnati . After years of failed attempts , the female from Los Angeles , Emi , became pregnant for the sixth time , with the zoo 's male Ipuh . All five of her previous pregnancies ended in failure . Researchers at the zoo had learned from previous failures , though , and with the aid of special hormone treatments , Emi gave birth to a healthy male calf named Andalas ( an Indonesian literary word for Sumatra ) in September 2001 . Andalas 's birth was the first successful captive birth of a Sumatran rhino in 112 years . A female calf , named " Suci " ( Indonesian for " pure " ) , followed on 30 July 2004 . On 29 April 2007 , Emi gave birth a third time , to her second male calf , named Harapan ( Indonesian for " hope " ) or Harry . In 2007 , Andalas , who had been living at the Los Angeles Zoo , was returned to Sumatra to take part in breeding programs with healthy females , leading to the siring and 23 June 2012 birth of male calf Andatu , the fourth captive @-@ born calf of the era ; Andalas had been mated with Ratu , a wild @-@ born female living in the Rhino Sanctuary at Way Kambas National Park .
Despite the recent successes in Cincinnati , the captive @-@ breeding program has remained controversial . Proponents argue that the zoos have aided the conservation effort by studying the reproductive habits , raising public awareness and education about the rhinos , and helping raise financial resources for conservation efforts in Sumatra . Opponents of the captive breeding program argue that the losses are too great ; the program is too expensive ; removing rhinos from their habitat , even temporarily , alters their ecological role ; and captive populations cannot match the rate of recovery seen in well @-@ protected native habitats . In October 2015 Harpan , the last rhino in the Western Hemisphere , left the Cincinnati Zoo to Indonesia .
= = Cultural depictions = =
Aside from those few individuals kept in zoos and pictured in books , the Sumatran rhinoceros has remained little known , overshadowed by the more common Indian , black and white rhinos . Recently , however , video footage of the Sumatran rhinoceros in its native habitat and in breeding centers has been featured in several nature documentaries . Extensive footage can be found in an Asia Geographic documentary The Littlest Rhino . Natural History New Zealand showed footage of a Sumatran rhino , shot by freelance Indonesian @-@ based cameraman Alain Compost , in the 2001 documentary The Forgotten Rhino , which featured mainly Javan and Indian rhinos .
Though they were documented by droppings and tracks , pictures of the Bornean rhinoceros were first taken and widely distributed by modern conservationists in April 2006 , when camera traps photographed a healthy adult in the jungles of Sabah in Malaysian Borneo . On 24 April 2007 , it was announced that cameras had captured the first @-@ ever video footage of a wild Bornean rhino . The night @-@ time footage showed the rhino eating , peering through jungle foliage , and sniffing the film equipment . The World Wildlife Fund , which took the video , has used it in efforts to convince local governments to turn the area into a rhino conservation zone . Monitoring has continued ; 50 new cameras have been set up , and in February 2010 , what appeared to be a pregnant rhino was filmed .
A number of folk tales about the Sumatran rhino were collected by colonial naturalists and hunters from the mid @-@ 19th century to early 20th century . In Burma , the belief was once widespread that the Sumatran rhino ate fire . Tales described the fire @-@ eating rhino following smoke to its source , especially campfires , and then attacking the camp . There was also a Burmese belief that the best time to hunt was every July , when the Sumatran rhinos would congregate beneath the full moon . In Malaya , it was said that the rhino 's horn was hollow and could be used as a sort of hose for breathing air and squirting water . In Malaya and Sumatra , it was once believed that the rhino shed its horn every year and buried it under the ground . In Borneo , the rhino was said to have a strange carnivorous practice : after defecating in a stream , it would turn around and eat fish that had been stupefied by the excrement .
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