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= Music of the Katamari Damacy series =
Katamari Damacy ( 塊魂 , lit . " Clump Spirit " ) is a third @-@ person puzzle @-@ action video game that was published and developed by Namco for the PlayStation 2 video game console . The success of the game led to the release of five sequels in Japan and other territories : We Love Katamari , Me & My Katamari , Beautiful Katamari , Katamari Damacy Mobile , I Love Katamari , and Katamari Forever . It also inspired a spin @-@ off game , a Tetris @-@ like Korogashi Puzzle Katamari Damacy . The music of the Katamari Damacy series refers to the soundtracks to all of these games , five of which have been released as albums . Katamari Fortissimo Damacy , a soundtrack album for the original game , was released by Columbia Music Entertainment in 2004 , Katamari wa Damacy was released as a soundtrack album for We Love Katamari by Columbia Music Entertainment in 2005 , and Katamari Original Soundtrack Damacy was released in 2006 as a soundtrack album for Me & My Katamari by the same publisher and also included tracks from We Love that were not included in its album . Katamari Suteki Damacy was released by Columbia Music Entertainment in 2007 as a soundtrack album for Beautiful Katamari , and the latest album , Katamari Damacy Tribute Original Soundtrack : Katamari Takeshi , was released in 2009 by Columbia Music Entertainment as the soundtrack album for Katamari Forever . The soundtracks to the other Katamari games have been composed of tracks from previous games in the series , and have not had separate album releases .
Both the soundtracks and their associated albums have been well received by reviewers , who have cited the " catchiness " and " quirkiness " of the music as their most notable features . The soundtrack to Katamari Damacy won both IGN 's and GameSpot 's " Soundtrack of the Year 2004 " awards , while the theme song to We Love Katamari was awarded Best Original Vocal / Pop Song at the 4th Annual Game Audio Network Guild awards in 2006 . None of the other soundtracks have been nominated for any awards . They were still well received by reviewers , with the music of the PlayStation Portable game Me & My Katamari receiving the weakest reviews due to its extensive reuse of songs from previous games in the series .
= = Katamari Damacy = =
Katamari Damacy is a third @-@ person puzzle @-@ action video game that was published and developed by Namco for the PlayStation 2 in 2004 . The music in the game was widely hailed as imaginative and original , and was considered one of its top selling points . Its eclectic composition featured elements of traditional electronic video game music , as well as heavy jazz and samba influences . The tracks were composed by multiple composers , with Yuu Miyake composing the most at seven and acting as the sound director ; other composers for the game were Asuka Sakai , Akitaka Tohyama , Yoshihito Yano , Yuri Misumi , and Hideki Tobeta . Many of the tracks feature vocals from popular J @-@ pop singers such as Yui Asaka and anime voice actors such as Nobue Matsubara and Ado Mizumori . Miyake has stated that they chose the artists by looking for " Japanese singers who were well @-@ known in Japan but nobody had heard from in awhile [ sic ] for whatever reason " . Miyake wanted to use vocal songs because he felt that they were necessary " to make music that only Katamari Damacy could do , really fun music " . He has said that game director Keita Takahashi did not give detailed directions on the sound design of the game , allowing Miyake and his team to instead create whatever they felt would fit best .
The artists were chosen after the lyrics were written , and were selected based on how well Miyake and Takahashi felt they would " gel with the world of Katamari Damacy and the content of the song lyrics " . They were also chosen to create a " pretty silly , goofy selection of singers " that would appeal to " a broad spectrum of people from different generations " . Once the lyrics and singers had been chosen , the music was written specifically for each artist with the intention of creating songs that were " familiar " but not " trendy " so that they would not seem dated in the future . The " humming " in the opening song , described by Miyake as " na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ Katamari " , was included as an experiment by Miyake to try to create a " memorable " theme associated with the game , in response to criticisms that modern game music was not as memorable as that of older games . Miyake says that " Cherry Tree Times " is his favorite piece from the series .
Katamari Fortissimo Damacy ( 塊フォルテッシモ魂 , Katamari Forutesshimo Damashii , lit . " Clump Fortissimo Spirit " ) is the soundtrack album to the game . It includes all of the tracks featured in the game , as well as an additional track , " Katamari March Damacy " , a bonus song that was not included in the game . The album has 21 tracks that span a duration of 1 : 15 : 13 . It was released on May 19 , 2004 by Columbia Music Entertainment with the catalog number COCX @-@ 32760 .
The soundtrack to Katamari Damacy won both IGN 's and GameSpot 's " Soundtrack of the Year 2004 " awards . It was also nominated for " Outstanding Achievement in Original Musical Composition " at the 8th annual Interactive Achievement Awards in February 2005 . In GameSpot 's review of the game , they described the soundtrack as based around a " singular , extremely catchy theme " that appeared as pop , jazz , and humming throughout the " insidiously infectious " music . IGN 's review of the game said that " not since Mario created its everlasting tune have we heard tracks so catchy and so genuine " . The soundtrack album was praised in a review by Square Enix Music Online , who said that in addition to the music being " outside the box " , the soundtrack " fits with the graphics and game play in every way possible " , is " extremely pleasing to the ears " , and " could very well be a great album with no game attached " . He described the music as " fun " , " catchy " , and " quirky " and highly recommended the album . The album reached # 191 on the Japanese Oricon charts .
= = We Love Katamari = =
We Love Katamari ( みんな大好き塊魂 , Minna Daisuki Katamari Damashii , roughly " Everyone Loves Clump Spirit " ) , is the sequel to Katamari Damacy published by Namco for the PlayStation 2 in 2005 . It features music from Namco composers Yuu Miyake , Akitaka Tohyama , Asuka Sakai , Hideki Tobeta , and Katsuro Tajima , all of whom except for Tajima had composed for the previous soundtrack . Like the previous soundtrack , it also features a plethora of Japanese artists , including DOKAKA , Illreme , Arisa , KIRINJI , YOU , Karie Kahimi , Maki Nomiya and Shigeru Matsuzaki . The music has been described as covering styles ranging from swing and techno to J @-@ pop and " other kooky sounds " . Sound director Yuu Miyake has stated that he wanted to use only non @-@ Japanese musicians in contrast to the first game using only Japanese artists , but was unable due to a " lack of foreign friends and ability to negotiate " . He has stated that his goal for the soundtrack was to take what his team had done for the first game and raise the quality , creating a " more grown @-@ up feeling " . He originally wanted to additionally take the music " far beyond imagination " and fans ' expectations , but was stymied by a lack of resources .
Katamari wa Damacy ( 塊は魂 , Katamari wa Damashii ) is the official soundtrack album for the game . It does not include all the music from the game , omitting many of the instrumental tracks heard throughout the game . These omissions were later added on the second disc of the soundtrack album of Me & My Katamari . The album was published by Columbia Music Entertainment on July 20 , 2005 with the catalog number COCX @-@ 33273 ; its 18 tracks span a duration of 1 : 19 : 53 .
We Love Katamari was nominated for the " best audio " award at the 2005 British Academy of Film and Television Arts awards . While the soundtrack as a whole did not win any awards like its predecessor , " Katamari on the Swing " won the award for Best Original Vocal / Pop Song at the 4th Annual Game Audio Network Guild awards in 2006 . The album reached # 100 on the Japanese Oricon charts . GameSpot 's review of the game termed the music " utterly avant @-@ garde " and a " completely off @-@ the @-@ wall soundtrack that has the same key themes as the first game " , though " decidedly less focused on catchiness " than that of the first game and more " experimental " . Square Enix Music Online , in their review of the soundtrack album , said that it " pretty much lives up to the original 's reputation " and is full of " lots of great original compositions that fit with the concept " . While they said that the soundtrack has " more flaws and it 's a bit less memorable " than the soundtrack to Katamari Damacy , it was still " just as fun and as quirky as the last " .
= = Me & My Katamari = =
Me & My Katamari ( 僕の私の塊魂 , Boku no Watashi no Katamari Damashii , lit . " Our Clump Spirit " ) is the third game in the series , and was released on the PlayStation Portable by Namco in 2005 . Its soundtrack was primarily composed of tracks from the previous two games , and has been described as " ranging from smoky lounge music to bleepy Japanese pop songs " . The new tracks were composed by Yuu Miyake , Yuri Misawa , Hideki Tobeta , Yoshihito Yano , Akitaka Tohyama , and Naoki Tohyama ; Misawa and Tohyama were new composers to the series , while Miyake reprised his role from the previous two games as sound director .
Katamari Original Soundtrack Damacy ( 塊オリジナルサウンドトラック魂 , Katamari Orijinaru Saundotorakku Damashii ) is the soundtrack album for the game . In addition to the new tracks , it includes previously unreleased tracks from We Love Katamari as tracks 10 @-@ 17 on the first disc . Its second disc is made up of orchestral arrangements of previous tracks , tracks from other Namco games , three ambient noise tracks , two taiko drum tracks , and one a cappella track . The album was released by Columbia Music Entertainment on December 26 , 2005 with the catalog numbers COCX @-@ 33517 ~ 8 . Its 37 tracks have a total length of 1 : 48 : 55 .
In their review of the game , GameSpot called the music " catchy and eclectic " , though they disapproved of the amount of reused tracks from previous Katamari games . IGN was more ambivalent , saying that while they had no complaints about the music , they also saw " nothing to really praise either " . Square Enix Music Online , in their review of the album , said that the album 's " lack of humorous vocal tracks and high quality experimental instrumentals " meant that it did not match up to the previous soundtracks in the series . They additionally felt that the second disc did not add much to the album , and that on the whole the new Me & My Katamari tracks were not strong or numerous enough to make the purchase worthwhile . Unlike the previous two soundtracks in the series , the soundtrack to Me & My Katamari did not win any awards .
Track list
= = Beautiful Katamari = =
Beautiful Katamari ( ビューティフル塊魂 , Byūtifuru Katamari Damashii , lit . " Beautiful Clump Spirit " ) , is a video game produced by Namco Bandai for the Xbox 360 in 2007 . Like previous games in the series , its music was composed by a large number of composers : Yuri Misumi , Yuu Miyake , Hiroto Sasaki , Akitaka Tohyama , and Yoshito Yano returned as previous composers for the series , and were joined by Rio Hamamoto , Yuji Masubuchi , Keiichi Okabe , Hiroto Sasaki , Tetsuya Uchida , and Ryo Watanabe . Yuu Miyake did not reprise his role as sound director for the game ; this role was instead filled by Tetsuya Uchida . The music for Beautiful Katamari has been described as " the same sort of mix of J @-@ pop , techno @-@ infused jazz , and ambient electro " as that of the original game . Unlike Me & My Katamari , the majority of the music for the game was original , though a few tracks from earlier in the series were remixed .
Katamari Suteki Damacy ( 塊ステキ魂 , Katamari Suteki Damashii , lit . " Clump Lovely Spirit " ) is the soundtrack album for the game . The album has 17 tracks and has a length of 1 : 10 : 04 ; it was published by Columbia Music Entertainment on November 21 , 2007 with the catalog number COCX @-@ 34602 .
GameSpot , in their review of the game , termed the music " one of the quirkiest and most oddly listenable soundtracks in gaming " , and said that it fit the mood of the game as well as the soundtrack to the first two games . Square Enix Music Online , in their review of the soundtrack album , said that while it had " a lot of original worth " , that it was not any better than the first two soundtrack albums of the series and instead came across as more of the same . They termed the album overall as a " bit underwhelming " and marred by a few " dud " tracks . The album reached # 253 on the Japanese Oricon charts .
= = Katamari Forever = =
Katamari Forever , known in Japan as Katamari Damacy TRIBUTE ( 塊魂TRIBUTE , lit . " Katamari Damashii Tribute " ) , was released for the PlayStation 3 in 2009 by Namco Bandai . The music for the game includes a number of remixed tracks from previous iterations of the series , using a combination of " electric " and " organic " sounds according to the sound director Yuu Miyake . Miyake employed the help of over 20 other Japanese artists and remixers to help the soundtrack , which was designed to act as part of a " musical trilogy " with the soundtrack to Katamari Damacy and We Love Katamari . This was accomplished by choosing tracks from those games that were either fan or staff favorites and having them remixed by both Japanese and non @-@ Japanese artists , though Miyake notes that the majority of the artists were Japanese as he did not know many non @-@ Japanese musicians , the same problem that kept non @-@ Japanese artists out of the first two soundtracks of the " trilogy " . Miyake has stated that focusing so much on using music from earlier in the series made it very challenging to still allow each artist to explore their creativity , and does not intend to repeat this strategy if a new game is ever made .
Katamari Damacy Tribute Original Soundtrack : Katamari Takeshi ( 「 塊魂トリビュート 」 オリジナル ・ サウンドトラック ) is the soundtrack album for the game . It was released on August 19 , 2009 by Columbia Music Entertainment with the catalog numbers COCX @-@ 35745 ~ 6 . Its 36 tracks on two discs span a duration of 2 : 38 : 21 . The musical styles used in the soundtrack have been described as an " eclectic mix of sunny J @-@ pop , throbbing dance music , jolly jazz , and more " .
GameSpot , in their review of the game , said that Katamari Forever " carries on the series ' tradition of wildly catchy soundtracks " and said that the remixes of the older songs " sound terrific " . PALGN concurred , calling it a " great soundtrack " . The album was received warmly by reviewers such as Square Enix Music Online , who said that it was full of " fresh , diverse , and often downright weird remixes " . Describing it as much more of a spiritual successor to the original game 's soundtrack than the prior sequels , they said that it kept the " upbeat , humorous , and sentimental feel " of the songs in the original while taking them in new directions . The album reached # 158 on the Japanese Oricon charts .
= = Touch My Katamari = =
Touch My Katamari , known in Japan as Katamari Damacy No @-@ Vita ( 塊魂ノビータ , Katamari Damashī Nobīta ) , is a video game produced by Namco Bandai Games for the PlayStation Vita in 2011 . As has become commonplace for the series , its music was composed by a large number of composers : a large team headed by Taku Inoue included series veteran Yuu Miyake , Ken Inaoka , BAKUBAKU DOKIN , Akitaka Tohyama , Hiroyuki Kawada , Yoshihito Yano , Yuichi Nakamura , Hiroshi Okubo , and Trine . The music includes both original pieces as well as many remixes of pieces from prior games , such as a new version of " Lonely Rolling Star " . Inoue was charged by Miyake with making the music of the game " newer and fresher " , as Miyake was tired of the series repeating the same concepts , and Inoue attempted to impart his own style into the original pieces and to use new styles of arrangements .
The music was released in several forms . First , as a soundtrack album , Katamari Damacy Novita Original Soundtrack : Katamori Damacy ( 塊魂ノ ･ ビ ～ タ オリジナルサウンドトラック 「 かたもりだましい 」 ) , which contains 16 tracks and has a length of 1 : 12 : 12 . It was published by Columbia Music Entertainment on December 21 , 2011 with the catalog number COCX @-@ 37131 . An additional two digital @-@ only publications of songs from the game , titled Kamatari Damacy - Touch My Katamari Original Sound Track 2 and Katamari Aventur Damacy - Touch My Katamari Original Sound Track 3 , were released on April 10 , 2012 and November 20 , 2012 , with eleven and three songs and lengths of 33 : 01 and 10 : 10 , respectively .
Christopher Huynh of Video Game Music Online ( formerly Square Enix Music Online ) , in their review of Katamori Damacy , felt that the soundtrack had the energy of the first few soundtracks in the series , while providing a more cohesive experience by not including " filler " tracks like previous albums .
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= Ramone Moore =
Ramone Edward Moore , Jr . ( born May 27 , 1989 ) is an American professional basketball player .
He attended South Philadelphia High School , where he was coached by George Anderson . Moore led the Philadelphia Public League in scoring as a senior and earned Public League MVP honors . He enrolled at Temple as a non @-@ scholarship student and redshirted his freshman year . As a redshirt sophomore , he was the Atlantic 10 Sixth Man of the Year . As a junior , he was an All @-@ Atlantic 10 Second Team selection after leading the team in scoring and more than doubling his points per game average .
= = Early life and high school career = =
Moore was born on May 27 , 1989 in Philadelphia , the son of Ramone Moore , Sr. and Stephanie Pugh . The younger Moore spent his childhood on the basketball court , playing until nightfall to hone his skills . He attended South Philadelphia High School , the alma mater of basketball players Nate Blackwell and Lionel Simmons . He played on the school basketball team , the Rams , and was coached by George Anderson . As a junior , he was named All @-@ Philadelphia Public League honorable mention .
In Moore 's senior year , he led the Public League in scoring with 25 @.@ 1 points per game and was named Public League Most Valuable Player . He finished his career at South Philadelphia High with 1 @,@ 186 points . He was on the All @-@ State Second Team and the Philadelphia Daily News named him to their All @-@ City Team . In addition , Moore participated in the All @-@ Star Labor Classic . Hoop Scoop named him the 166th best player in the Class of 2007 . On January 9 , 2007 , Moore committed to Temple University over the University of Nebraska . He said that he originally wanted to move out of the city , but Nebraska was simply too far . Ultimately , his relationship with Temple coach Fran Dunphy , who began recruiting Moore at a summer Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) event , proved to be the deciding factor . Moore said that he " not only know what kind of coach [ Dunphy ] ' s going to be , but he 's going to help turn me into a man . "
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
To improve his academic profile , Moore planned to attend American Christian School in Aston , Pennsylvania , but a new NCAA rule was instituted that limited the number of core classes able to be taken at a prep school . Lacking the required number of credits to receive an athletic scholarship , he enrolled at Temple as a non @-@ scholarship student and sat out his freshman year as a redshirt . In his freshman debut the following year , he scored 11 points against East Tennessee State . Moore followed that performance up with a double @-@ double of 11 points and 10 rebounds versus the College of Charleston , and a season @-@ high 13 points in a loss to Clemson . As a freshman , Moore averaged 4 @.@ 5 points and 2 @.@ 3 rebounds per game in 13 @.@ 2 minutes of playing time . After his 13th game , he was suspended due to Temple eligibility rules and did not play in the remainder of the season .
= = = Sophomore = = =
In his sophomore season , Moore played 34 games , starting five , and averaged 7 @.@ 6 points and 3 @.@ 0 rebounds per game . In the November 17 game against Georgetown , with Temple maintaining a one point lead with 23 seconds left , Moore missed the front end of a one @-@ and @-@ one foul shot . Afterwards , Greg Monroe of Georgetown hit a layup to give the Hoyas a 46 – 45 victory . The following game against Siena , Moore was at the foul line with a one @-@ point lead and , with 22 seconds left , hit both free throws to hand Temple a 73 – 69 victory . He increased his scoring average to 9 @.@ 8 points per game in conference play , receiving more minutes due to a head injury to teammate Juan Fernandez . On February 20 , 2010 , he scored a season @-@ high 24 points in an overtime victory over city rival Saint Joseph 's , and made a critical fullcourt layup with 1 @.@ 5 seconds left to send the game into overtime . Moore helped Temple to a 29 – 5 record and a third consecutive Atlantic 10 conference tournament title and an automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament . He was named Atlantic 10 Sixth Man of the year .
= = = Junior = = =
Prior to his junior season , Moore participated in workouts in Houston with Houston Rocket and former Villanova Wildcat Kyle Lowry . The workouts focused on three point shooting , and Moore improved his percentages from 12 @.@ 5 percent as a sophomore to 38 @.@ 3 percent as a junior . His averages increased as well , to 15 @.@ 2 points per game , a team high , and 4 @.@ 2 rebounds per game , while also being the only Temple player to start all 34 games . On December 9 , 2010 , Moore scored a season @-@ high 30 points in a 68 – 65 upset of Georgetown . He shot 12 @-@ for @-@ 18 in the game , which was coach Fran Dunphy 's 400th career victory . During the season , Moore scored in double @-@ digits in 15 straight games .
Moore led Temple to a 26 – 8 record and a seven seed in the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . He had 23 points as they defeated tenth @-@ seeded Penn State in the Round of 64 , 66 – 64 . Moore finished with 17 points against San Diego State , but the Owls fell in double overtime . He was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 Second Team at the conclusion of the regular season and was a Philadelphia Big Five First Team honoree . He was recognized as an All @-@ Fourth District second @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All ‐ America teams . Since the Atlantic 10 Conference was its own district , this is equivalent to being named second team All @-@ Atlantic 10 by the NABC . Moore considered entering the 2011 NBA Draft to receive NBA evaluations , but decided not to fill out the paperwork .
= = = Senior = = =
Moore was a Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team selection as a senior . He changed his jersey number from 23 to 10 in honor of his cousin Zaire , who died in a car crash in the summer of 2011 at the age of 10 . He told that he wants to be an NBA player , but that he 's ready to play even elsewhere .
He was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team at the conclusion of the regular season . He was recognized as an All @-@ Fourth District first @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All @-@ America teams . According to the Sporting News , Moore was the Player of the Year in the Atlantic 10 .
= = Professional career = =
On December 19 , 2012 , Moore was acquired by the Springfield Armor of the NBA D @-@ League after he had stints in Italy for Pallacanestro Biella and Israel for Hapoel Tel Aviv B.C ..
On August 29 , 2013 , Moore 's rights were acquired by the Delaware 87ers in the 2013 NBA Development League Expansion Draft .
In September 2013 , he signed with Alba Fehérvár in Hungary .
= = Statistics = =
= = = NCAA = = =
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= Bart the Lover =
" Bart the Lover " is the sixteenth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 13 , 1992 . In the episode Mrs. Edna Krabappel , Bart 's teacher , feels increasingly isolated and , looking for a companion , places a personal ad in the newspaper . Bart , who was given a month 's detention for breaking the class fish tank with his yo @-@ yo , decides to get revenge by responding to the ad . He creates a new adult male alter ego named Woodrow , inspired by a picture of former President Woodrow Wilson , and Mrs. Krabappel becomes infatuated with " Woodrow " . Meanwhile , Ned Flanders asks Homer to cut down on his swearing , so Homer starts using a swear jar .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Carlos Baeza . Vitti had wanted an episode centered on Mrs. Krabappel that examined what it was like to have Bart as a student . It was the first episode of the show to feature her in a prominent role . The subplot where Homer tries to clean up his language was written partially in response to the many complaints the show had been getting about the amount of cursing on the show . Woodrow 's voice was performed by Harry Shearer , who did an impression of Ricardo Montalbán . The picture Bart sends Edna is of NHL and WHA star Gordie Howe . The writers had originally wanted to use a picture of American football player Johnny Unitas , but were unable to get the rights to use his image for free .
In its original airing on the Fox Network during February sweeps , the episode had a 12 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating , finishing the week ranked 29th , up from the season 's average . Marcia Wallace , the voice of Mrs. Krabappel , won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for her role in the episode .
= = Plot = =
Springfield Elementary School teacher Mrs. Edna Krabappel feels increasingly lonely , and , searching for love , places a personal ad in the newspaper . A yo @-@ yo craze sweeps through the school after a group of four demonstrate the potential of the toys . Bart breaks the class fish tank with his yo @-@ yo , and is given one month of detention by Mrs. Krabappel . While snooping in her desk to take back his yo @-@ yo , he discovers her personal ad and decides to get revenge on her , by pulling a prank and responding by mail . He creates a new adult male alter ego named Woodrow , after former President Woodrow Wilson . Mrs. Krabappel responds by sending a suggestive photograph . Bart writes a response to Edna using lines from an old love letter Homer had sent Marge .
Meanwhile , Marge notices that their dog Santa 's Little Helper needs a new dog house . She wants to buy one , but Homer says that he can save money by building one instead . His infuriating attempts at constructing the dog house cause him to curse loud enough for Todd Flanders to overhear . Todd says " hell no " and " damn " at the dinner table , so his father Ned tries to find out where he learned such language - with possibilities being bumper stickers , comic books , Grandma , television and his elder brother Rod . Ned discovers that Homer is the source when he and his kids hear him curse in frustration after getting his jacket stuck to a piece of wood in another failed attempt to build a dog house . He complains to Homer , who in turn criticizes Ned 's mustache . Ned promises to shave off his mustache in return for Homer 's curtailing uses of profanity . When Homer claims that it is too late for him to stop , Marge disagrees and reveals her own experience with her father 's cursing that lead her mother to use a swear jar . Homer promises to put money in a " swear jar " - 25 cents for each curse . The next couple of days he keeps his word to put money inside the jar for every time he uses profanity in frustration ( this including accidentally placing a 20 dollar note in the church collection plate , failing to knock down all the pins while bowling , seeing a newly clean shaven Ned who got hired as a spokesman in a commercial , failing yet again to build a dog house and having a beehive fall on him while sleeping in a hammock ) until it gets to the point where he instead speaks calmly upon being injured ; " I 'm not going to swear , but I am going to KICK THIS DOGHOUSE DOWN ! " . Homer 's constant cursing puts more than enough money in the swear jar to purchase a dog house for Santa 's Little Helper , along with an added bonus ; Duff Beer for Homer for at least committing .
Edna asks " Woodrow " for a photograph , so Bart searches through a book called NHL Stars of 1969 and sends her a picture of hockey star Gordie Howe . Bart , as Woodrow , writes Mrs. Krabappel more letters , telling her what she wants to hear . He then sends a letter asking for them to meet at the Gilded Truffle . Bart sees Mrs. Krabappel waiting for Woodrow . Bart decides to watch a movie thinking Krabappel thinks " Woodrow " is on his way to meet her . But on his way back home he sees Mrs. Krabappel still waiting at the empty restaurant , all alone and on the verge of tears . Bart feels guilty to see her so sad .
Bart talks to Mrs. Krabappel after class and starts to feel worse about what he did when he is unable to console her . He confesses to the family what he has done , and , realizing the truth would humiliate her , they all write a poetic and loving letter to tell her why Woodrow must leave which makes Mrs. Krabappel feel better . On Bart 's last day of detention , Mrs. Krabbapel suggest they spend it outside and Bart agrees .
= = Production = =
The script for " Bart the Lover " was written by Jon Vitti , who wanted an episode centered on Mrs. Krabappel that examined what it was like to have Bart as a student . Executive producer Mike Reiss pitched the idea of having Bart answer Mrs. Krabappel 's personal ad . It was the first episode of the show to feature Mrs. Krabappel in a prominent role . The subplot where Homer tries to clean up his language was written partially in response to the many complaints the show had been getting about the language on the show . Near the end of the episode , there is a montage where Homer has a series of bad experiences that cause him to curse , although the scene always cuts out before he can be heard swearing . While recording Homer 's lines for that sequence , Dan Castellaneta was told to include the cursing . According to Mike Reiss , by coincidence , some eight @-@ year @-@ old children were allowed to visit the studio the day those lines were recorded . Reiss recalls that " their eyes were as big as saucers " after hearing Homer curse . The ending of the episode was largely pitched by James L. Brooks , who wanted a scene where the entire family got together to write Woodrow 's final letter to Edna .
The episode was directed by Carlos Baeza . In the background of the classroom , there are several portraits of past United States presidents . These were added for the scene where Bart tries to think of a name for his fictional letter writer , and sees a portrait of Woodrow Wilson . Woodrow 's voice was performed by Harry Shearer , who did an impression of Ricardo Montalbán . The picture Bart sends Edna is of NHL and WHA star Gordie Howe . The writers had originally wanted to use a picture of American football player Johnny Unitas , but were unable to get the rights to use his image for free . Howe , their second choice , was suggested by Al Jean , who had been a Detroit Red Wings fan growing up . At the end of the episode , Howe 's NHL and WHA statistics are shown because the writers decided to try something different in filling a slight time under @-@ run .
During the opening sequence in which Bart 's class watch a film about zinc , a character in the film tries to shoot himself in the head . The Fox censors objected to this , so the producers had to claim that the character was not aiming at his head . For the name of the yo @-@ yo trick that Bart performs for Milhouse , the writers had wanted to use a term that was slang for masturbation . They proposed several names to the censors , and " Plucking the Pickle " was the term they deemed acceptable .
= = Cultural references = =
The 1950s educational film at the beginning of the episode is a reference to old science movies that were often shown in classes when the writers were in school , specifically it was a parody of the 1940s educational short film " A Case of Spring Fever " ( later featured on Mystery Science Theater 3000 ) . The Twirl King yo @-@ yo champions are based on groups that companies like Duncan sent to schools to perform tricks . King Crimson guitarist Adrian Belew 's name appears on a paper Edna Krabappel is grading during detention . Todd Flanders watches a television show that features Gomer Pyle from Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C .. Bart sees the fictional movie Ernest Needs A Kidney , based on the character Ernest P. Worrell . Rod and Todd Flanders sing the song " Bringing in the Sheaves " , because the writers liked having them sing " obscure religious songs " .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing on the Fox Network during February sweeps , the episode had a 12 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating and was viewed in approximately 11 @.@ 88 million homes . It finished the week of February 10 – 16 , 1992 ranked 29th , up from the season 's average rank of 39th . The Simpsons was the second highest rated show on Fox that week , after Married ... with Children .
Marcia Wallace , the voice of Mrs. Krabappel , won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for her role in the episode . She was one of six voice @-@ actors from The Simpsons to win the award that year . She is one of three guest stars on the show to win the award . The other two are Jackie Mason , who shared the award in 1992 , and Kelsey Grammer who won in 2006 for voicing Sideshow Bob .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . It was named the eighth best episode of The Simpsons by Sarah Culp of The Quindecim . Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict said " Bart the Lover " represent The Simpsons " at its apex as a well tuned talent machine grinding out the good stuff with surprising accuracy and skill . " Gibron added that the episode shows that the made @-@ up romance between Mrs. Krabappel and Woodrow " works because it 's so painfully true . [ ... ] How the kiss @-@ off to Mrs. Krabappel is created and handled shows that The Simpsons has heart to add to its humor . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 5 / 5 rating . He thought the intertwining of the two plots in the episode " works very well , creating a fast paced story . Bart 's alias , Woodrow , is a delight to hear in voice @-@ overs and Homer 's antics produce many laughs . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said " Bart the Lover " stands out as a " very strong episode " because it " steers clear of most potentially sappy material and offers a lively piece . [ ... ] The ' B ' story in which Homer tries not to swear also swings and creates some great moments . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said they " loved " Homer 's suggestion for the kiss @-@ off letter from Woodrow : " Dear Baby . Welcome to Dumpsville , population : you . P.S. I am gay . " In 2000 , the staff of the Star Tribune listed their top ten episodes . " Bart the Lover " was listed at number four .
In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed an education film seen in the episode among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " , writing : " ' Thank goodness I still live in a world of telephones , car batteries , handguns and many things made of zinc , ' says Jimmy , a character in an educational film . When confronted with a world without zinc he attempts suicide but fails , as his zinc @-@ free gun cannot work . " In 2002 , Bill Brioux of The Canadian Press ranked the episode and its use of Gordie Howe as the top reference to Canada on the show . In 2004 , ESPN released a list of the Top 100 Simpsons sport moments , ranking Gordie Howe 's image in the episode at number 34 .
In 2013 a Wired article described the episode as " the best Krabappel ( and arguably the best Simpsons ) episode " .
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= Kakha Kaladze =
Kakhaber " Kakha " Kaladze ( Georgian : კახაბერ ( კახა ) კალაძე [ kʼaxabɛr kʼalad ͡ zɛ ] ; born 27 February 1978 ) is a Georgian politician and retired footballer , who played as a defender . A versatile player , he was capable of playing both as a centre @-@ back and as a left @-@ back . He played for the Georgia national team from 1996 to 2011 . He was voted Georgian Footballer of the Year in 2001 – 2003 , and 2006 and was considered as one of Georgia 's most important players .
Kaladze started his football career in 1993 at Umaglesi Liga club Dinamo Tbilisi and made 82 appearances in a five @-@ year spell . In 1998 , he moved to the Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv and made 71 appearances until 2001 , when he was signed by the Italian Serie A club Milan . He has won one Serie A , three Ukrainian Premier League and five Umaglesi Liga titles . With Milan , he won the Champions League on two occasions , the UEFA Super Cup once and the FIFA Club World Cup once . After captaining his country 50 times in 84 appearances , Kaladze announced his retirement from the Georgian national team on 11 December 2011 .
Born in Samtredia , a town in Imereti Province , Kaladze comes from a footballing family as his father played for Lokomotiv Samtredia and was also president of the team for some time . His brother was kidnapped in a high @-@ profile case in 2001 and officially declared dead in 2006 , resulting in two men being sentenced to prison for a combined total of 30 years . Outside of football , he owns a company called Kala Capital and an organisation called Kala Foundation , as well as being an ambassador for SOS Children 's Villages . He is married to Anouki Areshidze , with whom he has three children with .
Kaladze became involved in the politics of Georgia as a member of the opposition Georgian Dream – Democratic Georgia party , founded by Bidzina Ivanishvili in February 2012 . He was elected to the Parliament of Georgia on 1 October 2012 and approved as Deputy Prime Minister as well as Minister of Energy in the cabinet of Bidzina Ivanishvili on 25 October 2012 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Kaladze started his career playing as a striker for his local club Lokomotiv Samtredia , where his father was president , until former Georgia international footballer David Kipiani requested Kakha to join Dinamo Tbilisi . At Dinamo , he played in 82 domestic league games and scored one goal . He made his top @-@ flight debut as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old with Dinamo during the 1993 – 94 campaign . Kaladze claims that a good performance against Italy while playing for Georgia in a match that ended 0 – 0 brought him to the attention of Dynamo Kyiv ; he later said , " In that game I was up against Christian Vieri and I marked him well . "
A fee equivalent to € 280 @,@ 000 was enough to take him to the Ukrainian Premier League and Dynamo Kiev in January 1998 , where he signed a four @-@ year deal . Here he scored six goals in 71 league games over the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons he spent there . The Ukrainian club had been under the ownership of Hryhoriy Surkis and the late Valeriy Lobanovskyi had just been installed as manager ; they would go on to win eight consecutive league titles . Kaladze also appeared in both legs of the semi @-@ final of the 1998 – 99 Champions League against Bayern Munich , which Dynamo Kyiv lost 4 – 3 on aggregate . En route to the semi @-@ finals , they beat teams like Real Madrid , Barcelona and Arsenal . He won eight league titles in a row during his time at both Dinamo Tbilisi and Dynamo Kyiv .
= = = A.C. Milan = = =
In 2001 , Kaladze became the most expensive Georgian footballer in history when Milan paid € 16 million to bring him to Italy . He cited an injury to Aleksei Gerasimenko as his reason for leaving . At first , Kaladze was tried in different positions and faced competition for places in defense from players such as Jaap Stam and Cafu . In the 2002 – 03 season , however , he made 46 appearances in all competitions , including 27 Serie A appearances . That year , Milan won the Champions League , where they beat Juventus on penalties in the final ( despite Kaladze missing his penalty ) and the Coppa Italia , where they beat Roma 6 – 3 on aggregate in the final . After Kaladze 's double success , the Georgian postal service issued a special stamp bearing the player 's image . He is the first Georgian player to win a Champions League title .
Kaladze was limited to just six league appearances and 11 total appearances in the 2003 – 04 season . In the next season , Kaladze played just 19 Serie A matches and five in the Champions League as Milan finished as runners @-@ up in both competitions . He was an unused substitute in that season 's Champions League final , where Milan lost on penalties to Liverpool after a 3 – 3 draw . He was said to be frustrated with his lack of first @-@ team options and a move to Chelsea , in exchange for Hernán Crespo or for £ 4 million , was widely reported . Kaladze himself said , " I have agreed everything with the Chelsea management . Now it is necessary to wait for them to reach an agreement with Milan and I think I could become a Chelsea player next week . " Chelsea opted to sign Asier del Horno instead and Kaladze later declared himself " glad " that the deal fell through . On 30 June 2005 , he extended his contract with Milan until 2010 and again on 4 September 2006 , this time until 2011 . In 2005 – 06 , an injury to Paolo Maldini meant that Kaladze was moved back into the centre of defence , his favoured position . Milan finished third that season , although they would have finished second if there were no 2006 Italian football scandal which resulted in a 30 @-@ point deduction .
In the 2006 – 07 Serie A campaign , Kaladze scored a goal against Sampdoria which turned out to be his only goal of the season . Milan finished in fourth place with an eight @-@ point deduction relating to the previous season 's scandal . Kaladze won his second Champions League title on 23 May 2007 after Milan beat Liverpool 2 – 1 in the final ; he came on as a 79th @-@ minute substitute in that match . He later picked up the FIFA Club World Cup in December that year where Milan beat Boca Juniors 4 – 2 in the final , though Kaladze was one of two players to be sent off in that match . He had established himself as a first @-@ team regular in the 2007 – 08 season , making 32 appearances , but had only featured sparingly in the 2008 – 09 season due to a knee ligament injury sustained in a UEFA Cup match against Zürich . Kaladze 's performance in the 15 February 2009 Milan derby was described as a " horror show " on the Channel 4 website which started a dispute over an alleged smear campaign between Kaladze and the Georgian newspaper Lelo , who used the quote , " Milan really does need a new centre @-@ back after Kakha Kaladze ’ s horror show in the derby . " Milan finished third in the league that season , ten points behind Serie A champions Inter Milan ; Kaladze believed this was caused by the many injuries suffered by the Milan squad .
= = = Genoa = = =
On 31 August 2010 , Kaladze signed with Genoa ; Milan later revealed that it was a free transfer . In the 2010 – 11 season , he played 26 matches and scored one goal , which came against Parma on 30 January 2011 . He was named as second @-@ best defender of the 2010 – 11 Serie A by La Gazzetta dello Sport , being surpassed only by his former teammate , Milan 's Thiago Silva . On 12 May 2012 , Kaladze announced his retirement from football .
= = International career = =
Kaladze won his first cap against Cyprus in a friendly match on 27 March 1996 , coming on as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute for Mikhail Kavelashvili . Later that year , he was sent off for the first time in his international career against Lebanon in a friendly match . He subsequently featured in his country 's qualifying campaigns for the 1998 , 2002 , 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups , and the 2000 , 2004 and 2008 UEFA European Championships . Georgia , however , have never qualified for the FIFA World Cup or the UEFA European Championship since they split from the Soviet Union . His competitive debut was against Poland on 14 June 1997 in a 1998 World Cup qualifier ; Georgia lost the match 4 – 1 . Just two matches later , Kaladze was sent off for the second time playing for Georgia , along with Georgi Kinkladze , against Moldova in another 1998 World Cup qualifier . Georgia finished in fourth place in the group and failed to qualify . In qualifying for Euro 2000 , Georgia finished at the bottom of the group ( Group 2 ) in sixth place , with just one win . Kaladze occasionally captained the side during these qualifiers in the absence of Georgi Nemsadze .
The qualifiers for the 2002 World Cup ended with Georgia finishing in third place , ahead of Hungary and Lithuania . Kaladze played in all of the matches and often missed the friendlies in between . Kaladze only played in three matches during the Euro 2004 qualifiers , where Georgia finished in last place in the group . He did , however , feature in a 1 – 0 victory over neighbouring Russia , a victory considered to be one of Georgia 's greatest successes . Kaladze played in all but one of the 2006 World Cup qualifying matches , where Georgia finished sixth in the group , with Kazakhstan being the only team to finish below them . He played fewer matches during the qualification for Euro 2008 and once again Georgia failed to qualify as they finished in sixth place despite starting their campaign with a 6 – 0 win over the Faroe Islands .
He scored his first ever international goal against Latvia on 6 February 2008 in a friendly which Georgia lost 3 – 1 . On 5 September 2009 , Kaladze scored two own goals in a 2010 World Cup qualifying match against Italy within the space of 11 minutes . The match ended 2 – 0 to Italy . Kaladze was the captain of the national team , until 11 December 2011 , when he announced his retirement .
= = = International goal = = =
Scores and results list Georgia 's goal tally first .
= = Advertising = =
As many footballers , Kaladze appeared in various publicity and advertising capacities , capitalizing on his popularity as an Italian club footballer .
= = Personal life = =
In 2001 , Kakha Kaladze 's brother Levan , a medical student , was kidnapped in Georgia , with a ransom of $ 600 @,@ 000 demanded . Georgia 's president at the time , Eduard Shevardnadze , promised that " everything is being done to locate him " . Despite this assurance , the only time that Levan was ever seen was in a video where he was shown blindfolded and begging for help . Following the kidnapping , Kaladze threatened to take up Ukrainian citizenship , but reverted his decision , stating , " There was a time when I thought about quitting the national side completely , but I couldn 't do it out of respect for the Georgian people and the fans who come and give us such support . " Roughly four years later , on 6 May 2005 , Georgian police officers found eight dead bodies in the Svaneti region and it was speculated that Levan was among the dead . On 21 February 2006 , Levan was officially identified among the deceased , after tests from FBI experts . The local media claimed that the ransom was paid by Kaladze 's family , although another source says that Kaladze 's father attempted to meet the kidnappers , who fled as they believed he was followed by the police . Two men were sentenced to prison for the murder : David Asatiani for 25 years and Merab Amisulashvili for five years . On 14 July 2009 , Kaladze 's wife Anouki gave birth to their first @-@ born son in Milan . The couple named their son Levan , in memory of Kaladze 's brother .
Kaladze has also been active in charitable causes and is a FIFA ambassador for the SOS Children 's Villages . Through his Kala Foundation , a charitable organisation established in 2008 , Kaladze raised € 50 @,@ 000 to benefit South Ossetian refugees during the Russian invasion of Georgia . Kaladze also plans to release an autobiography with the proceeds going to the Kala Foundation .
= = Political career = =
= = = Business ventures = = =
Along with his football career , Kaladze is an investor in Georgia , Italy , Ukraine and Kazakhstan . Kaladze owns Kala Capital , an investment company established in 2008 in Georgia with a focus on energy businesses , and whose chief executive is former Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Noghaideli .
Kaladze 's other businesses include the Buddha Bar in Kiev that opened in 2008 . Kaladze is also the owner of a restaurant called Giannino , founded in 1899 by Giannino Bindi , which is based in Milan . The restaurant has had a Michelin star under Davide Oldani .
Kala Capital owned 45 percent of the Georgia Hydropower Construction Company company SakHidroEnergoMsheni , a joint stock company incorporated in Georgia in 1998 . His candidacy as Minister of Energy and Natural Resources in October 2012 was therefore overshadowed by concerns about a serious risk that a conflict of interests might arise . Reports on the same day indicated that Kaladze might refuse the energy portfolio or sell off his shares in Georgia Hydropower Construction Company within 10 days of his appointment .
= = = Political office and conflict of interests = = =
Kaladze became involved in the politics of Georgia as a member of the opposition Georgian Dream – Democratic Georgia party founded by billionaire Bidzina Ivanishvili in February 2012 . He was elected to the Parliament of Georgia on 1 October 2012 . He was approved as Deputy Prime Minister as well as Minister of Energy in the cabinet of Bidzina Ivanishvili on 25 October 2012 . The appointment was met with skepticism in professional energy circles . More importantly , it stirred an intense debate on a conflict of interest arising from Kaladze 's business interests in the Georgia Hydropower Construction Company , in which Kala Capital owned 45 percent . Kala Capital sold the shares to GMC Group in November 2012 but concerns whether his indirect commercial interests had been abandoned remain .
= = Career statistics = =
1European competitions include the UEFA Champions League , UEFA Cup , and UEFA Super Cup2Other tournaments include the Supercoppa Italiana and FIFA Club World Cup
= = = International = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Player = = =
Dinamo Tbilisi
Georgian League : 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98
Georgian Cup : 1994 , 1995 , 1996 , 1997
Dynamo Kyiv
Ukrainian Premier League : 1998 – 99 , 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01
Ukrainian Cup : 1998 , 1999 , 2000
Milan
Serie A : 2003 – 04
Coppa Italia : 2002 – 03
Italian Supercup : 2004
UEFA Champions League : 2003 , 2007
UEFA Super Cup : 2003 , 2007
FIFA Club World Cup : 2007
= = = = Individual = = = =
Georgian Footballer of the Year : 5
2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2006 , 2011
Source : Eurosport at Yahoo
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= Consciousness =
Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness , or , of being aware of an external object or something within oneself . It has been defined as : sentience , awareness , subjectivity , the ability to experience or to feel , wakefulness , having a sense of selfhood , and the executive control system of the mind . Despite the difficulty in definition , many philosophers believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is . As Max Velmans and Susan Schneider wrote in The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness : " Anything that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness , making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives . "
Western philosophers , since the time of Descartes and Locke , have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and pin down its essential properties . Issues of concern in the philosophy of consciousness include whether the concept is fundamentally coherent ; whether consciousness can ever be explained mechanistically ; whether non @-@ human consciousness exists and if so how can it be recognized ; how consciousness relates to language ; whether consciousness can be understood in a way that does not require a dualistic distinction between mental and physical states or properties ; and whether it may ever be possible for computing machines like computers or robots to be conscious , a topic studied in the field of artificial intelligence .
Thanks to recent developments in technology , consciousness has become a significant topic of research in psychology , neuropsychology and neuroscience within the past few decades . The primary focus is on understanding what it means biologically and psychologically for information to be present in consciousness — that is , on determining the neural and psychological correlates of consciousness . The majority of experimental studies assess consciousness by asking human subjects for a verbal report of their experiences ( e.g. , " tell me if you notice anything when I do this " ) . Issues of interest include phenomena such as subliminal perception , blindsight , denial of impairment , and altered states of consciousness produced by alcohol and other drugs , or spiritual or meditative techniques .
In medicine , consciousness is assessed by observing a patient 's arousal and responsiveness , and can be seen as a continuum of states ranging from full alertness and comprehension , through disorientation , delirium , loss of meaningful communication , and finally loss of movement in response to painful stimuli . Issues of practical concern include how the presence of consciousness can be assessed in severely ill , comatose , or anesthetized people , and how to treat conditions in which consciousness is impaired or disrupted .
= = Etymology and early history = =
The origin of the modern concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Locke 's Essay Concerning Human Understanding , published in 1690 . Locke defined consciousness as " the perception of what passes in a man 's own mind " . His essay influenced the 18th @-@ century view of consciousness , and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnson 's celebrated Dictionary ( 1755 ) . " Consciousness " ( French : conscience ) is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and d 'Alembert 's Encyclopédie , as " the opinion or internal feeling that we ourselves have from what we do . "
The earliest English language uses of " conscious " and " consciousness " date back , however , to the 1500s . The English word " conscious " originally derived from the Latin conscius ( con- " together " and scio " to know " ) , but the Latin word did not have the same meaning as our word — it meant " knowing with " , in other words " having joint or common knowledge with another " . There were , however , many occurrences in Latin writings of the phrase conscius sibi , which translates literally as " knowing with oneself " , or in other words " sharing knowledge with oneself about something " . This phrase had the figurative meaning of " knowing that one knows " , as the modern English word " conscious " does . In its earliest uses in the 1500s , the English word " conscious " retained the meaning of the Latin conscius . For example , Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote : " Where two , or more men , know of one and the same fact , they are said to be Conscious of it one to another . " The Latin phrase conscius sibi , whose meaning was more closely related to the current concept of consciousness , was rendered in English as " conscious to oneself " or " conscious unto oneself " . For example , Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of " being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness " . Locke 's definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place .
A related word was conscientia , which primarily means moral conscience . In the literal sense , " conscientia " means knowledge @-@ with , that is , shared knowledge . The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by writers such as Cicero . Here , conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else . René Descartes ( 1596 – 1650 ) is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning . Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use " conscience " . In Search after Truth ( Regulæ ad directionem ingenii ut et inquisitio veritatis per lumen naturale , Amsterdam 1701 ) he says " conscience or internal testimony " ( conscientiâ , vel interno testimonio ) .
= = In the dictionary = =
The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries and associated cognate meanings which have ranged from formal definitions to somewhat more skeptical definitions . One formal definition indicating the range of these cognate meanings is given in Webster 's Third New International Dictionary stating that consciousness is : " ( 1 ) a. awareness or perception of an inward psychological or spiritual fact : intuitively perceived knowledge of something in one 's inner self. b. inward awareness of an external object , state , or fact. c. concerned awareness : INTEREST , CONCERN -- often used with an attributive noun . ( 2 ) : the state or activity that is characterized by sensation , emotion , volition , or thought : mind in the broadest possible sense : something in nature that is distinguished from the physical . ( 3 ) : the totality in psychology of sensations , perceptions , ideas , attitudes and feelings of which an individual or a group is aware at any given time or within a particular time span -- compare STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS . "
= = Philosophy of mind = =
The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness . The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy in 1998 defines consciousness as follows :
Consciousness — Philosophers have used the term ' consciousness ' for four main topics : knowledge in general , intentionality , introspection ( and the knowledge it specifically generates ) and phenomenal experience ... Something within one 's mind is ' introspectively conscious ' just in case one introspects it ( or is poised to do so ) . Introspection is often thought to deliver one 's primary knowledge of one 's mental life . An experience or other mental entity is ' phenomenally conscious ' just in case there is ' something it is like ' for one to have it . The clearest examples are : perceptual experience , such as tastings and seeings ; bodily @-@ sensational experiences , such as those of pains , tickles and itches ; imaginative experiences , such as those of one 's own actions or perceptions ; and streams of thought , as in the experience of thinking ' in words ' or ' in images ' . Introspection and phenomenality seem independent , or dissociable , although this is controversial .
In a more skeptical definition of consciousness , Stuart Sutherland has exemplified some of the difficulties in fully ascertaining all of its cognate meanings in his entry for the 1989 version of the Macmillan Dictionary of Psychology :
Consciousness — The having of perceptions , thoughts , and feelings ; awareness . The term is impossible to define except in terms that are unintelligible without a grasp of what consciousness means . Many fall into the trap of equating consciousness with self @-@ consciousness — to be conscious it is only necessary to be aware of the external world . Consciousness is a fascinating but elusive phenomenon : it is impossible to specify what it is , what it does , or why it has evolved . Nothing worth reading has been written on it .
Most writers on the philosophy of consciousness have been concerned to defend a particular point of view , and have organized their material accordingly . For surveys , the most common approach is to follow a historical path by associating stances with the philosophers who are most strongly associated with them , for example Descartes , Locke , Kant , etc . An alternative is to organize philosophical stances according to basic issues .
= = = The coherence of the concept = = =
Philosophers and non @-@ philosophers differ in their intuitions about what consciousness is . While most people have a strong intuition for the existence of what they refer to as consciousness , skeptics argue that this intuition is false , either because the concept of consciousness is intrinsically incoherent , or because our intuitions about it are based in illusions . Gilbert Ryle , for example , argued that traditional understanding of consciousness depends on a Cartesian dualist outlook that improperly distinguishes between mind and body , or between mind and world . He proposed that we speak not of minds , bodies , and the world , but of individuals , or persons , acting in the world . Thus , by speaking of " consciousness " we end up misleading ourselves by thinking that there is any sort of thing as consciousness separated from behavioral and linguistic understandings . More generally , many philosophers and scientists have been unhappy about the difficulty of producing a definition that does not involve circularity or fuzziness .
= = = Types of consciousness = = =
Many philosophers have argued that consciousness is a unitary concept that is understood intuitively by the majority of people in spite of the difficulty in defining it . Others , though , have argued that the level of disagreement about the meaning of the word indicates that it either means different things to different people ( for instance , the objective versus subjective aspects of consciousness ) , or else is an umbrella term encompassing a variety of distinct meanings with no simple element in common .
Ned Block proposed a distinction between two types of consciousness that he called phenomenal ( P @-@ consciousness ) and access ( A @-@ consciousness ) . P @-@ consciousness , according to Block , is simply raw experience : it is moving , colored forms , sounds , sensations , emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center . These experiences , considered independently of any impact on behavior , are called qualia . A @-@ consciousness , on the other hand , is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report , reasoning , and the control of behavior . So , when we perceive , information about what we perceive is access conscious ; when we introspect , information about our thoughts is access conscious ; when we remember , information about the past is access conscious , and so on . Although some philosophers , such as Daniel Dennett , have disputed the validity of this distinction , others have broadly accepted it . David Chalmers has argued that A @-@ consciousness can in principle be understood in mechanistic terms , but that understanding P @-@ consciousness is much more challenging : he calls this the hard problem of consciousness .
Some philosophers believe that Block 's two types of consciousness are not the end of the story . William Lycan , for example , argued in his book Consciousness and Experience that at least eight clearly distinct types of consciousness can be identified ( organism consciousness ; control consciousness ; consciousness of ; state / event consciousness ; reportability ; introspective consciousness ; subjective consciousness ; self @-@ consciousness ) — and that even this list omits several more obscure forms .
There is also debate in whether or not a @-@ consciousness and p @-@ consciousness always co @-@ exist or if they can exist separately . Although p @-@ consciousness without a @-@ consciousness is more widely accepted , there have been some hypothetical examples of A without P. Block for instance suggests the case of a “ zombie ” that is computationally identical to a person but without any subjectivity . However , he remains somewhat skeptical concluding " I don ’ t know whether there are any actual cases of A @-@ consciousness without P @-@ consciousness , but I hope I have illustrated their conceptual possibility . "
= = = Mind – body problem = = =
Mental processes ( such as consciousness ) and physical processes ( such as brain events ) seem to be correlated : but what is the basis of this connection and correlation between what seem to be two very different kinds of processes ?
The first influential philosopher to discuss this question specifically was Descartes , and the answer he gave is known as Cartesian dualism . Descartes proposed that consciousness resides within an immaterial domain he called res cogitans ( the realm of thought ) , in contrast to the domain of material things , which he called res extensa ( the realm of extension ) . He suggested that the interaction between these two domains occurs inside the brain , perhaps in a small midline structure called the pineal gland .
Although it is widely accepted that Descartes explained the problem cogently , few later philosophers have been happy with his solution , and his ideas about the pineal gland have especially been ridiculed . However , no alternative solution has gained general acceptance . Proposed solutions can be divided broadly into two categories : dualist solutions that maintain Descartes ' rigid distinction between the realm of consciousness and the realm of matter but give different answers for how the two realms relate to each other ; and monist solutions that maintain that there is really only one realm of being , of which consciousness and matter are both aspects . Each of these categories itself contains numerous variants . The two main types of dualism are substance dualism ( which holds that the mind is formed of a distinct type of substance not governed by the laws of physics ) and property dualism ( which holds that the laws of physics are universally valid but cannot be used to explain the mind ) . The three main types of monism are physicalism ( which holds that the mind consists of matter organized in a particular way ) , idealism ( which holds that only thought or experience truly exists , and matter is merely an illusion ) , and neutral monism ( which holds that both mind and matter are aspects of a distinct essence that is itself identical to neither of them ) . There are also , however , a large number of idiosyncratic theories that cannot cleanly be assigned to any of these schools of thought .
Since the dawn of Newtonian science with its vision of simple mechanical principles governing the entire universe , some philosophers have been tempted by the idea that consciousness could be explained in purely physical terms . The first influential writer to propose such an idea explicitly was Julien Offray de La Mettrie , in his book Man a Machine ( L 'homme machine ) . His arguments , however , were very abstract . The most influential modern physical theories of consciousness are based on psychology and neuroscience . Theories proposed by neuroscientists such as Gerald Edelman and Antonio Damasio , and by philosophers such as Daniel Dennett , seek to explain consciousness in terms of neural events occurring within the brain . Many other neuroscientists , such as Christof Koch , have explored the neural basis of consciousness without attempting to frame all @-@ encompassing global theories . At the same time , computer scientists working in the field of artificial intelligence have pursued the goal of creating digital computer programs that can simulate or embody consciousness .
A few theoretical physicists have argued that classical physics is intrinsically incapable of explaining the holistic aspects of consciousness , but that quantum theory may provide the missing ingredients . Several theorists have therefore proposed quantum mind ( QM ) theories of consciousness . Notable theories falling into this category include the holonomic brain theory of Karl Pribram and David Bohm , and the Orch @-@ OR theory formulated by Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose . Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness , as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness . None of the quantum mechanical theories has been confirmed by experiment . Recent publications by G. Guerreshi , J. Cia , S. Popescu , and H. Briegel could falsify proposals such as those of Hameroff , which rely on quantum entanglement in protein . At the present time many scientists and philosophers consider the arguments for an important role of quantum phenomena to be unconvincing .
Apart from the general question of the " hard problem " of consciousness , roughly speaking , the question of how mental experience arises from a physical basis , a more specialized question is how to square the subjective notion that we are in control of our decisions ( at least in some small measure ) with the customary view of causality that subsequent events are caused by prior events . The topic of free will is the philosophical and scientific examination of this conundrum .
= = = Problem of other minds = = =
Many philosophers consider experience to be the essence of consciousness , and believe that experience can only fully be known from the inside , subjectively . But if consciousness is subjective and not visible from the outside , why do the vast majority of people believe that other people are conscious , but rocks and trees are not ? This is called the problem of other minds . It is particularly acute for people who believe in the possibility of philosophical zombies , that is , people who think it is possible in principle to have an entity that is physically indistinguishable from a human being and behaves like a human being in every way but nevertheless lacks consciousness . Related issues have also been studied extensively by Greg Littmann of the University of Illinois. and Colin Allen a professor at Indiana University regarding the literature and research studying artificial intelligence in androids .
The most commonly given answer is that we attribute consciousness to other people because we see that they resemble us in appearance and behavior ; we reason that if they look like us and act like us , they must be like us in other ways , including having experiences of the sort that we do . There are , however , a variety of problems with that explanation . For one thing , it seems to violate the principle of parsimony , by postulating an invisible entity that is not necessary to explain what we observe . Some philosophers , such as Daniel Dennett in an essay titled The Unimagined Preposterousness of Zombies , argue that people who give this explanation do not really understand what they are saying . More broadly , philosophers who do not accept the possibility of zombies generally believe that consciousness is reflected in behavior ( including verbal behavior ) , and that we attribute consciousness on the basis of behavior . A more straightforward way of saying this is that we attribute experiences to people because of what they can do , including the fact that they can tell us about their experiences .
= = = Animal consciousness = = =
The topic of animal consciousness is beset by a number of difficulties . It poses the problem of other minds in an especially severe form , because non @-@ human animals , lacking the ability to express human language , cannot tell us about their experiences . Also , it is difficult to reason objectively about the question , because a denial that an animal is conscious is often taken to imply that it does not feel , its life has no value , and that harming it is not morally wrong . Descartes , for example , has sometimes been blamed for mistreatment of animals due to the fact that he believed only humans have a non @-@ physical mind . Most people have a strong intuition that some animals , such as cats and dogs , are conscious , while others , such as insects , are not ; but the sources of this intuition are not obvious , and are often based on personal interactions with pets and other animals they have observed .
Philosophers who consider subjective experience the essence of consciousness also generally believe , as a correlate , that the existence and nature of animal consciousness can never rigorously be known . Thomas Nagel spelled out this point of view in an influential essay titled What Is it Like to Be a Bat ? . He said that an organism is conscious " if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism — something it is like for the organism " ; and he argued that no matter how much we know about an animal 's brain and behavior , we can never really put ourselves into the mind of the animal and experience its world in the way it does itself . Other thinkers , such as Douglas Hofstadter , dismiss this argument as incoherent . Several psychologists and ethologists have argued for the existence of animal consciousness by describing a range of behaviors that appear to show animals holding beliefs about things they cannot directly perceive — Donald Griffin 's 2001 book Animal Minds reviews a substantial portion of the evidence .
On July 7 , 2012 , eminent scientists from different branches of neuroscience gathered at the University of Cambridge to celebrate the Francis Crick Memorial Conference , which deals with consciousness in humans and pre @-@ linguistic consciousness in nonhuman animals . After the conference , they signed in the presence of Stephen Hawking , the ' Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness ' , which summarizes the most important findings of the survey :
" We decided to reach a consensus and make a statement directed to the public that is not scientific . It 's obvious to everyone in this room that animals have consciousness , but it is not obvious to the rest of the world . It is not obvious to the rest of the Western world or the Far East . It is not obvious to the society . "
" Convergent evidence indicates that non @-@ human animals [ ... ] , including all mammals and birds , and other creatures , [ ... ] have the necessary neural substrates of consciousness and the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors . "
= = = Artifact consciousness = = =
The idea of an artifact made conscious is an ancient theme of mythology , appearing for example in the Greek myth of Pygmalion , who carved a statue that was magically brought to life , and in medieval Jewish stories of the Golem , a magically animated homunculus built of clay . However , the possibility of actually constructing a conscious machine was probably first discussed by Ada Lovelace , in a set of notes written in 1842 about the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage , a precursor ( never built ) to modern electronic computers . Lovelace was essentially dismissive of the idea that a machine such as the Analytical Engine could think in a humanlike way . She wrote :
It is desirable to guard against the possibility of exaggerated ideas that might arise as to the powers of the Analytical Engine . ... The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything . It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform . It can follow analysis ; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths . Its province is to assist us in making available what we are already acquainted with .
One of the most influential contributions to this question was an essay written in 1950 by pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing , titled Computing Machinery and Intelligence . Turing disavowed any interest in terminology , saying that even " Can machines think ? " is too loaded with spurious connotations to be meaningful ; but he proposed to replace all such questions with a specific operational test , which has become known as the Turing test . To pass the test , a computer must be able to imitate a human well enough to fool interrogators . In his essay Turing discussed a variety of possible objections , and presented a counterargument to each of them . The Turing test is commonly cited in discussions of artificial intelligence as a proposed criterion for machine consciousness ; it has provoked a great deal of philosophical debate . For example , Daniel Dennett and Douglas Hofstadter argue that anything capable of passing the Turing test is necessarily conscious , while David Chalmers argues that a philosophical zombie could pass the test , yet fail to be conscious . A third group of scholars have argued that with technological growth once machines begin to display any substantial signs of human @-@ like behavior then the dichotomy ( of human consciousness compared to human @-@ like consciousness ) becomes passé and issues of machine autonomy begin to prevail even as observed in its nascent form within contemporary industry and technology .
In a lively exchange over what has come to be referred to as " the Chinese room argument " , John Searle sought to refute the claim of proponents of what he calls " strong artificial intelligence ( AI ) " that a computer program can be conscious , though he does agree with advocates of " weak AI " that computer programs can be formatted to " simulate " conscious states . His own view is that consciousness has subjective , first @-@ person causal powers by being essentially intentional due simply to the way human brains function biologically ; conscious persons can perform computations , but consciousness is not inherently computational the way computer programs are . To make a Turing machine that speaks Chinese , Searle imagines a room with one monolingual English speaker ( Searle himself , in fact ) , a book that designates a combination of Chinese symbols to be output paired with Chinese symbol input , and boxes filled with Chinese symbols . In this case , the English speaker is acting as a computer and the rulebook as a program . Searle argues that with such a machine , he would be able to process the inputs to outputs perfectly without having any understanding of Chinese , nor having any idea what the questions and answers could possibly mean . If the experiment were done in English , since Searle knows English , he would be able to take questions and give answers without any algorithms for English questions , and he would be effectively aware of what was being said and the purposes it might serve . Searle would pass the Turing test of answering the questions in both languages , but he is only conscious of what he is doing when he speaks English . Another way of putting the argument is to say that computer programs can pass the Turing test for processing the syntax of a language , but that the syntax cannot lead to semantic meaning in the way strong AI advocates hoped .
In the literature concerning artificial intelligence , Searle 's essay has been second only to Turing 's in the volume of debate it has generated . Searle himself was vague about what extra ingredients it would take to make a machine conscious : all he proposed was that what was needed was " causal powers " of the sort that the brain has and that computers lack . But other thinkers sympathetic to his basic argument have suggested that the necessary ( though perhaps still not sufficient ) extra conditions may include the ability to pass not just the verbal version of the Turing test , but the robotic version , which requires grounding the robot 's words in the robot 's sensorimotor capacity to categorize and interact with the things in the world that its words are about , Turing @-@ indistinguishably from a real person . Turing @-@ scale robotics is an empirical branch of research on embodied cognition and situated cognition .
= = Scientific study = =
For many decades , consciousness as a research topic was avoided by the majority of mainstream scientists , because of a general feeling that a phenomenon defined in subjective terms could not properly be studied using objective experimental methods . In 1975 George Mandler published an influential psychological study which distinguished between slow , serial , and limited conscious processes and fast , parallel and extensive unconscious ones . Starting in the 1980s , an expanding community of neuroscientists and psychologists have associated themselves with a field called Consciousness Studies , giving rise to a stream of experimental work published in books , journals such as Consciousness and Cognition , Frontiers in Consciousness Research , and the Journal of Consciousness Studies , along with regular conferences organized by groups such as the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness .
Modern medical and psychological investigations into consciousness are based on psychological experiments ( including , for example , the investigation of priming effects using subliminal stimuli ) , and on case studies of alterations in consciousness produced by trauma , illness , or drugs . Broadly viewed , scientific approaches are based on two core concepts . The first identifies the content of consciousness with the experiences that are reported by human subjects ; the second makes use of the concept of consciousness that has been developed by neurologists and other medical professionals who deal with patients whose behavior is impaired . In either case , the ultimate goals are to develop techniques for assessing consciousness objectively in humans as well as other animals , and to understand the neural and psychological mechanisms that underlie it .
= = = Measurement = = =
Experimental research on consciousness presents special difficulties , due to the lack of a universally accepted operational definition . In the majority of experiments that are specifically about consciousness , the subjects are human , and the criterion used is verbal report : in other words , subjects are asked to describe their experiences , and their descriptions are treated as observations of the contents of consciousness . For example , subjects who stare continuously at a Necker cube usually report that they experience it " flipping " between two 3D configurations , even though the stimulus itself remains the same . The objective is to understand the relationship between the conscious awareness of stimuli ( as indicated by verbal report ) and the effects the stimuli have on brain activity and behavior . In several paradigms , such as the technique of response priming , the behavior of subjects is clearly influenced by stimuli for which they report no awareness .
Verbal report is widely considered to be the most reliable indicator of consciousness , but it raises a number of issues . For one thing , if verbal reports are treated as observations , akin to observations in other branches of science , then the possibility arises that they may contain errors — but it is difficult to make sense of the idea that subjects could be wrong about their own experiences , and even more difficult to see how such an error could be detected . Daniel Dennett has argued for an approach he calls heterophenomenology , which means treating verbal reports as stories that may or may not be true , but his ideas about how to do this have not been widely adopted . Another issue with verbal report as a criterion is that it restricts the field of study to humans who have language : this approach cannot be used to study consciousness in other species , pre @-@ linguistic children , or people with types of brain damage that impair language . As a third issue , philosophers who dispute the validity of the Turing test may feel that it is possible , at least in principle , for verbal report to be dissociated from consciousness entirely : a philosophical zombie may give detailed verbal reports of awareness in the absence of any genuine awareness .
Although verbal report is in practice the " gold standard " for ascribing consciousness , it is not the only possible criterion . In medicine , consciousness is assessed as a combination of verbal behavior , arousal , brain activity and purposeful movement . The last three of these can be used as indicators of consciousness when verbal behavior is absent . The scientific literature regarding the neural bases of arousal and purposeful movement is very extensive . Their reliability as indicators of consciousness is disputed , however , due to numerous studies showing that alert human subjects can be induced to behave purposefully in a variety of ways in spite of reporting a complete lack of awareness . Studies of the neuroscience of free will have also shown that the experiences that people report when they behave purposefully sometimes do not correspond to their actual behaviors or to the patterns of electrical activity recorded from their brains .
Another approach applies specifically to the study of self @-@ awareness , that is , the ability to distinguish oneself from others . In the 1970s Gordon Gallup developed an operational test for self @-@ awareness , known as the mirror test . The test examines whether animals are able to differentiate between seeing themselves in a mirror versus seeing other animals . The classic example involves placing a spot of coloring on the skin or fur near the individual 's forehead and seeing if they attempt to remove it or at least touch the spot , thus indicating that they recognize that the individual they are seeing in the mirror is themselves . Humans ( older than 18 months ) and other great apes , bottlenose dolphins , killer whales , pigeons , European magpies and elephants have all been observed to pass this test .
= = = Neural correlates = = =
A major part of the scientific literature on consciousness consists of studies that examine the relationship between the experiences reported by subjects and the activity that simultaneously takes place in their brains — that is , studies of the neural correlates of consciousness . The hope is to find that activity in a particular part of the brain , or a particular pattern of global brain activity , which will be strongly predictive of conscious awareness . Several brain imaging techniques , such as EEG and fMRI , have been used for physical measures of brain activity in these studies .
Another idea that has drawn attention for several decades is that consciousness is associated with high @-@ frequency ( gamma band ) oscillations in brain activity . This idea arose from proposals in the 1980s , by Christof von der Malsburg and Wolf Singer , that gamma oscillations could solve the so @-@ called binding problem , by linking information represented in different parts of the brain into a unified experience . Rodolfo Llinás , for example , proposed that consciousness results from recurrent thalamo @-@ cortical resonance where the specific thalamocortical systems ( content ) and the non @-@ specific ( centromedial thalamus ) thalamocortical systems ( context ) interact in the gamma band frequency via synchronous oscillations .
A number of studies have shown that activity in primary sensory areas of the brain is not sufficient to produce consciousness : it is possible for subjects to report a lack of awareness even when areas such as the primary visual cortex show clear electrical responses to a stimulus . Higher brain areas are seen as more promising , especially the prefrontal cortex , which is involved in a range of higher cognitive functions collectively known as executive functions . There is substantial evidence that a " top @-@ down " flow of neural activity ( i.e. , activity propagating from the frontal cortex to sensory areas ) is more predictive of conscious awareness than a " bottom @-@ up " flow of activity . The prefrontal cortex is not the only candidate area , however : studies by Nikos Logothetis and his colleagues have shown , for example , that visually responsive neurons in parts of the temporal lobe reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes ( i.e. , bistable percepts during binocular rivalry ) .
Modulation of neural responses may correlate with phenomenal experiences . In contrast to the raw electrical responses that do not correlate with consciousness , the modulation of these responses by other stimuli correlates surprisingly well with an important aspect of consciousness : namely with the phenomenal experience of stimulus intensity ( brightness , contrast ) . In the research group of Danko Nikolić it has been shown that some of the changes in the subjectively perceived brightness correlated with the modulation of firing rates while others correlated with the modulation of neural synchrony . An fMRI investigation suggested that these findings were strictly limited to the primary visual areas . This indicates that , in the primary visual areas , changes in firing rates and synchrony can be considered as neural correlates of qualia — at least for some type of qualia .
In 2011 , Graziano and Kastner proposed the " attention schema " theory of awareness . In that theory , specific cortical areas , notably in the superior temporal sulcus and the temporo @-@ parietal junction , are used to build the construct of awareness and attribute it to other people . The same cortical machinery is also used to attribute awareness to oneself . Damage to these cortical regions can lead to deficits in consciousness such as hemispatial neglect . In the attention schema theory , the value of explaining the feature of awareness and attributing it to a person is to gain a useful predictive model of that person 's attentional processing . Attention is a style of information processing in which a brain focuses its resources on a limited set of interrelated signals . Awareness , in this theory , is a useful , simplified schema that represents attentional states . To be aware of X is explained by constructing a model of one 's attentional focus on X.
In the 2013 , the perturbational complexity index ( PCI ) was proposed , a measure of the algorithmic complexity of the electrophysiological response of the cortex to transcranial magnetic stimulation . This measure was shown to be higher in individuals that are awake , in REM sleep or in a locked @-@ in state than in those who are in deep sleep or in a vegetative state , making it potentially useful as a quantitative assessment of consciousness states .
Assuming that not only humans but even some non @-@ mammalian species are conscious , a number of evolutionary approaches to the problem of neural correlates of consciousness open up . For example , assuming that birds are conscious — a common assumption among neuroscientists and ethologists due to the extensive cognitive repertoire of birds — there are comparative neuroanatomical ways to validate some of the principal , currently competing , mammalian consciousness – brain theories . The rationale for such a comparative study is that the avian brain deviates structurally from the mammalian brain . So how similar are they ? What homologues can be identified ? The general conclusion from the study by Butler , et al . , is that some of the major theories for the mammalian brain also appear to be valid for the avian brain . The structures assumed to be critical for consciousness in mammalian brains have homologous counterparts in avian brains . Thus the main portions of the theories of Crick and Koch , Edelman and Tononi , and Cotterill seem to be compatible with the assumption that birds are conscious . Edelman also differentiates between what he calls primary consciousness ( which is a trait shared by humans and non @-@ human animals ) and higher @-@ order consciousness as it appears in humans alone along with human language capacity . Certain aspects of the three theories , however , seem less easy to apply to the hypothesis of avian consciousness . For instance , the suggestion by Crick and Koch that layer 5 neurons of the mammalian brain have a special role , seems difficult to apply to the avian brain , since the avian homologues have a different morphology . Likewise , the theory of Eccles seems incompatible , since a structural homologue / analogue to the dendron has not been found in avian brains . The assumption of an avian consciousness also brings the reptilian brain into focus . The reason is the structural continuity between avian and reptilian brains , meaning that the phylogenetic origin of consciousness may be earlier than suggested by many leading neuroscientists .
Joaquin Fuster of UCLA has advocated the position of the importance of the prefrontal cortex in humans , along with the areas of Wernicke and Broca , as being of particular importance to the development of human language capacities neuro @-@ anatomically necessary for the emergence of higher @-@ order consciousness in humans .
= = = Biological function and evolution = = =
Opinions are divided as to where in biological evolution consciousness emerged and about whether or not consciousness has any survival value . It has been argued that consciousness emerged ( i ) exclusively with the first humans , ( ii ) exclusively with the first mammals , ( iii ) independently in mammals and birds , or ( iv ) with the first reptiles . Other authors date the origins of consciousness to the first animals with nervous systems or early vertebrates in the Cambrian over 500 million years ago . Donald Griffin suggests in his book Animal Minds a gradual evolution of consciousness . Each of these scenarios raises the question of the possible survival value of consciousness .
Thomas Henry Huxley defends in an essay titled On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata , and its History an epiphenomenalist theory of consciousness according to which consciousness is a causally inert effect of neural activity — “ as the steam @-@ whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery ” . To this William James objects in his essay Are We Automata ? by stating an evolutionary argument for mind @-@ brain interaction implying that if the preservation and development of consciousness in the biological evolution is a result of natural selection , it is plausible that consciousness has not only been influenced by neural processes , but has had a survival value itself ; and it could only have had this if it had been efficacious . Karl Popper develops in the book The Self and Its Brain a similar evolutionary argument .
Regarding the primary function of conscious processing , a recurring idea in recent theories is that phenomenal states somehow integrate neural activities and information @-@ processing that would otherwise be independent . This has been called the integration consensus . Another example has been proposed by Gerald Edelman called dynamic core hypothesis which puts emphasis on reentrant connections that reciprocally link areas of the brain in a massively parallel manner . Edelman also stresses the importance of the evolutionary emergence of higher @-@ order consciousness in humans from the historically older trait of primary consciousness which humans share with non @-@ human animals ( see Neural correlates section above ) . These theories of integrative function present solutions to two classic problems associated with consciousness : differentiation and unity . They show how our conscious experience can discriminate between a virtually unlimited number of different possible scenes and details ( differentiation ) because it integrates those details from our sensory systems , while the integrative nature of consciousness in this view easily explains how our experience can seem unified as one whole despite all of these individual parts . However , it remains unspecified which kinds of information are integrated in a conscious manner and which kinds can be integrated without consciousness . Nor is it explained what specific causal role conscious integration plays , nor why the same functionality cannot be achieved without consciousness . Obviously not all kinds of information are capable of being disseminated consciously ( e.g. , neural activity related to vegetative functions , reflexes , unconscious motor programs , low @-@ level perceptual analyses , etc . ) and many kinds of information can be disseminated and combined with other kinds without consciousness , as in intersensory interactions such as the ventriloquism effect . Hence it remains unclear why any of it is conscious . For a review of the differences between conscious and unconscious integrations , see the article of E. Morsella .
As noted earlier , even among writers who consider consciousness to be a well @-@ defined thing , there is widespread dispute about which animals other than humans can be said to possess it . Edelman has described this distinction as that of humans possessing higher @-@ order consciousness while sharing the trait of primary consciousness with non @-@ human animals ( see previous paragraph ) . Thus , any examination of the evolution of consciousness is faced with great difficulties . Nevertheless , some writers have argued that consciousness can be viewed from the standpoint of evolutionary biology as an adaptation in the sense of a trait that increases fitness . In his article " Evolution of consciousness " , John Eccles argued that special anatomical and physical properties of the mammalian cerebral cortex gave rise to consciousness ( " [ a ] psychon ... linked to [ a ] dendron through quantum physics " ) . Bernard Baars proposed that once in place , this " recursive " circuitry may have provided a basis for the subsequent development of many of the functions that consciousness facilitates in higher organisms . Peter Carruthers has put forth one such potential adaptive advantage gained by conscious creatures by suggesting that consciousness allows an individual to make distinctions between appearance and reality . This ability would enable a creature to recognize the likelihood that their perceptions are deceiving them ( e.g. that water in the distance may be a mirage ) and behave accordingly , and it could also facilitate the manipulation of others by recognizing how things appear to them for both cooperative and devious ends .
Other philosophers , however , have suggested that consciousness would not be necessary for any functional advantage in evolutionary processes . No one has given a causal explanation , they argue , of why it would not be possible for a functionally equivalent non @-@ conscious organism ( i.e. , a philosophical zombie ) to achieve the very same survival advantages as a conscious organism . If evolutionary processes are blind to the difference between function F being performed by conscious organism O and non @-@ conscious organism O * , it is unclear what adaptive advantage consciousness could provide . As a result , an exaptive explanation of consciousness has gained favor with some theorists that posit consciousness did not evolve as an adaptation but was an exaptation arising as a consequence of other developments such as increases in brain size or cortical rearrangement . Consciousness in this sense has been compared to the blind spot in the retina where it is not an adaption of the retina , but instead just a by @-@ product of the way the retinal axons were wired . Several scholars including Pinker , Chomsky , Edelman , and Luria have indicated the importance of the emergence of human language as an important regulative mechanism of learning and memory in the context of the development of higher @-@ order consciousness ( see Neural correlates section above ) .
= = = States of consciousness = = =
There are some brain states in which consciousness seems to be absent , including dreamless sleep , coma , and death . There are also a variety of circumstances that can change the relationship between the mind and the world in less drastic ways , producing what are known as altered states of consciousness . Some altered states occur naturally ; others can be produced by drugs or brain damage . Altered states can be accompanied by changes in thinking , disturbances in the sense of time , feelings of loss of control , changes in emotional expression , alternations in body image and changes in meaning or significance .
The two most widely accepted altered states are sleep and dreaming . Although dream sleep and non @-@ dream sleep appear very similar to an outside observer , each is associated with a distinct pattern of brain activity , metabolic activity , and eye movement ; each is also associated with a distinct pattern of experience and cognition . During ordinary non @-@ dream sleep , people who are awakened report only vague and sketchy thoughts , and their experiences do not cohere into a continuous narrative . During dream sleep , in contrast , people who are awakened report rich and detailed experiences in which events form a continuous progression , which may however be interrupted by bizarre or fantastic intrusions . Thought processes during the dream state frequently show a high level of irrationality . Both dream and non @-@ dream states are associated with severe disruption of memory : it usually disappears in seconds during the non @-@ dream state , and in minutes after awakening from a dream unless actively refreshed .
Research conducted on the effects of partial epileptic seizures on consciousness found that patients who suffer from partial epileptic seizures experience altered states of consciousness . In partial epileptic seizures , consciousness is impaired or lost while some aspects of consciousness , often automated behaviors , remain intact . Studies found that when measuring the qualitative features during partial epileptic seizures , patients exhibited an increase in arousal and became absorbed in the experience of the seizure , followed by difficulty in focusing and shifting attention .
A variety of psychoactive drugs and alcohol have notable effects on consciousness . These range from a simple dulling of awareness produced by sedatives , to increases in the intensity of sensory qualities produced by stimulants , cannabis , empathogens – entactogens such as MDMA ( " Ecstasy " ) , or most notably by the class of drugs known as psychedelics . LSD , mescaline , psilocybin , Dimethyltryptamine , and others in this group can produce major distortions of perception , including hallucinations ; some users even describe their drug @-@ induced experiences as mystical or spiritual in quality . The brain mechanisms underlying these effects are not as well understood as those induced by use of alcohol , but there is substantial evidence that alterations in the brain system that uses the chemical neurotransmitter serotonin play an essential role .
There has been some research into physiological changes in yogis and people who practise various techniques of meditation . Some research with brain waves during meditation has reported differences between those corresponding to ordinary relaxation and those corresponding to meditation . It has been disputed , however , whether there is enough evidence to count these as physiologically distinct states of consciousness .
The most extensive study of the characteristics of altered states of consciousness was made by psychologist Charles Tart in the 1960s and 1970s . Tart analyzed a state of consciousness as made up of a number of component processes , including exteroception ( sensing the external world ) ; interoception ( sensing the body ) ; input @-@ processing ( seeing meaning ) ; emotions ; memory ; time sense ; sense of identity ; evaluation and cognitive processing ; motor output ; and interaction with the environment . Each of these , in his view , could be altered in multiple ways by drugs or other manipulations . The components that Tart identified have not , however , been validated by empirical studies . Research in this area has not yet reached firm conclusions , but a recent questionnaire @-@ based study identified eleven significant factors contributing to drug @-@ induced states of consciousness : experience of unity ; spiritual experience ; blissful state ; insightfulness ; disembodiment ; impaired control and cognition ; anxiety ; complex imagery ; elementary imagery ; audio @-@ visual synesthesia ; and changed meaning of percepts .
= = = Phenomenology = = =
Phenomenology is a method of inquiry that attempts to examine the structure of consciousness in its own right , putting aside problems regarding the relationship of consciousness to the physical world . This approach was first proposed by the philosopher Edmund Husserl , and later elaborated by other philosophers and scientists . Husserl 's original concept gave rise to two distinct lines of inquiry , in philosophy and psychology . In philosophy , phenomenology has largely been devoted to fundamental metaphysical questions , such as the nature of intentionality ( " aboutness " ) . In psychology , phenomenology largely has meant attempting to investigate consciousness using the method of introspection , which means looking into one 's own mind and reporting what one observes . This method fell into disrepute in the early twentieth century because of grave doubts about its reliability , but has been rehabilitated to some degree , especially when used in combination with techniques for examining brain activity .
Introspectively , the world of conscious experience seems to have considerable structure . Immanuel Kant asserted that the world as we perceive it is organized according to a set of fundamental " intuitions " , which include object ( we perceive the world as a set of distinct things ) ; shape ; quality ( color , warmth , etc . ) ; space ( distance , direction , and location ) ; and time . Some of these constructs , such as space and time , correspond to the way the world is structured by the laws of physics ; for others the correspondence is not as clear . Understanding the physical basis of qualities , such as redness or pain , has been particularly challenging . David Chalmers has called this the hard problem of consciousness . Some philosophers have argued that it is intrinsically unsolvable , because qualities ( " qualia " ) are ineffable ; that is , they are " raw feels " , incapable of being analyzed into component processes . Most psychologists and neuroscientists reject these arguments . For example , research on ideasthesia shows that qualia are organised into a semantic @-@ like network . Nevertheless , it is clear that the relationship between a physical entity such as light and a perceptual quality such as color is extraordinarily complex and indirect , as demonstrated by a variety of optical illusions such as neon color spreading .
In neuroscience , a great deal of effort has gone into investigating how the perceived world of conscious awareness is constructed inside the brain . The process is generally thought to involve two primary mechanisms : ( 1 ) hierarchical processing of sensory inputs , and ( 2 ) memory . Signals arising from sensory organs are transmitted to the brain and then processed in a series of stages , which extract multiple types of information from the raw input . In the visual system , for example , sensory signals from the eyes are transmitted to the thalamus and then to the primary visual cortex ; inside the cerebral cortex they are sent to areas that extract features such as three @-@ dimensional structure , shape , color , and motion . Memory comes into play in at least two ways . First , it allows sensory information to be evaluated in the context of previous experience . Second , and even more importantly , working memory allows information to be integrated over time so that it can generate a stable representation of the world — Gerald Edelman expressed this point vividly by titling one of his books about consciousness The Remembered Present . In computational neuroscience , Bayesian approaches to brain function have been used to understand both the evaluation of sensory information in light of previous experience , and the integration of information over time . Bayesian models of the brain are probabilistic inference models , in which the brain takes advantage of prior knowledge to interpret uncertain sensory inputs in order to formulate a conscious percept ; Bayesian models have successfully predicted many perceptual phenomena in vision and the nonvisual senses .
Despite the large amount of information available , many important aspects of perception remain mysterious . A great deal is known about low @-@ level signal processing in sensory systems , but the ways by which sensory systems interact with each other , with " executive " systems in the frontal cortex , and with the language system are very incompletely understood . At a deeper level , there are still basic conceptual issues that remain unresolved . Many scientists have found it difficult to reconcile the fact that information is distributed across multiple brain areas with the apparent unity of consciousness : this is one aspect of the so @-@ called binding problem . There are also some scientists who have expressed grave reservations about the idea that the brain forms representations of the outside world at all : influential members of this group include psychologist J. J. Gibson and roboticist Rodney Brooks , who both argued in favor of " intelligence without representation " .
= = Medical aspects = =
The medical approach to consciousness is practically oriented . It derives from a need to treat people whose brain function has been impaired as a result of disease , brain damage , toxins , or drugs . In medicine , conceptual distinctions are considered useful to the degree that they can help to guide treatments . Whereas the philosophical approach to consciousness focuses on its fundamental nature and its contents , the medical approach focuses on the amount of consciousness a person has : in medicine , consciousness is assessed as a " level " ranging from coma and brain death at the low end , to full alertness and purposeful responsiveness at the high end .
Consciousness is of concern to patients and physicians , especially neurologists and anesthesiologists . Patients may suffer from disorders of consciousness , or may need to be anesthetized for a surgical procedure . Physicians may perform consciousness @-@ related interventions such as instructing the patient to sleep , administering general anesthesia , or inducing medical coma . Also , bioethicists may be concerned with the ethical implications of consciousness in medical cases of patients such as Karen Ann Quinlan , while neuroscientists may study patients with impaired consciousness in hopes of gaining information about how the brain works .
= = = Assessment = = =
In medicine , consciousness is examined using a set of procedures known as neuropsychological assessment . There are two commonly used methods for assessing the level of consciousness of a patient : a simple procedure that requires minimal training , and a more complex procedure that requires substantial expertise . The simple procedure begins by asking whether the patient is able to move and react to physical stimuli . If so , the next question is whether the patient can respond in a meaningful way to questions and commands . If so , the patient is asked for name , current location , and current day and time . A patient who can answer all of these questions is said to be " alert and oriented times four " ( sometimes denoted " A & Ox4 " on a medical chart ) , and is usually considered fully conscious .
The more complex procedure is known as a neurological examination , and is usually carried out by a neurologist in a hospital setting . A formal neurological examination runs through a precisely delineated series of tests , beginning with tests for basic sensorimotor reflexes , and culminating with tests for sophisticated use of language . The outcome may be summarized using the Glasgow Coma Scale , which yields a number in the range 3 — 15 , with a score of 3 indicating brain death ( the lowest defined level of consciousness ) , and 15 indicating full consciousness . The Glasgow Coma Scale has three subscales , measuring the best motor response ( ranging from " no motor response " to " obeys commands " ) , the best eye response ( ranging from " no eye opening " to " eyes opening spontaneously " ) and the best verbal response ( ranging from " no verbal response " to " fully oriented " ) . There is also a simpler pediatric version of the scale , for children too young to be able to use language .
In 2013 , an experimental procedure was developed to measure degrees of consciousness , the procedure involving stimulating the brain with a magnetic pulse , measuring resulting waves of electrical activity , and developing a consciousness score based on the complexity of the brain activity .
= = = Disorders of consciousness = = =
Medical conditions that inhibit consciousness are considered disorders of consciousness . This category generally includes minimally conscious state and persistent vegetative state , but sometimes also includes the less severe locked @-@ in syndrome and more severe chronic coma . Differential diagnosis of these disorders is an active area of biomedical research . Finally , brain death results in an irreversible disruption of consciousness . While other conditions may cause a moderate deterioration ( e.g. , dementia and delirium ) or transient interruption ( e.g. , grand mal and petit mal seizures ) of consciousness , they are not included in this category .
= = = Anosognosia = = =
One of the most striking disorders of consciousness goes by the name anosognosia , a Greek @-@ derived term meaning unawareness of disease . This is a condition in which patients are disabled in some way , most commonly as a result of a stroke , but either misunderstand the nature of the problem or deny that there is anything wrong with them . The most frequently occurring form is seen in people who have experienced a stroke damaging the parietal lobe in the right hemisphere of the brain , giving rise to a syndrome known as hemispatial neglect , characterized by an inability to direct action or attention toward objects located to the right with respect to their bodies . Patients with hemispatial neglect are often paralyzed on the right side of the body , but sometimes deny being unable to move . When questioned about the obvious problem , the patient may avoid giving a direct answer , or may give an explanation that doesn 't make sense . Patients with hemispatial neglect may also fail to recognize paralyzed parts of their bodies : one frequently mentioned case is of a man who repeatedly tried to throw his own paralyzed right leg out of the bed he was lying in , and when asked what he was doing , complained that somebody had put a dead leg into the bed with him . An even more striking type of anosognosia is Anton – Babinski syndrome , a rarely occurring condition in which patients become blind but claim to be able to see normally , and persist in this claim in spite of all evidence to the contrary .
= = Stream of consciousness = =
William James is usually credited with popularizing the idea that human consciousness flows like a stream , in his Principles of Psychology of 1890 . According to James , the " stream of thought " is governed by five characteristics : " ( 1 ) Every thought tends to be part of a personal consciousness . ( 2 ) Within each personal consciousness thought is always changing . ( 3 ) Within each personal consciousness thought is sensibly continuous . ( 4 ) It always appears to deal with objects independent of itself . ( 5 ) It is interested in some parts of these objects to the exclusion of others " . A similar concept appears in Buddhist philosophy , expressed by the Sanskrit term Citta @-@ saṃtāna , which is usually translated as mindstream or " mental continuum " . In the Buddhist view , though , the " mindstream " is viewed primarily as a source of noise that distracts attention from a changeless underlying reality .
= = = Narrative form = = =
In the west , the primary impact of the idea has been on literature rather than science : stream of consciousness as a narrative mode means writing in a way that attempts to portray the moment @-@ to @-@ moment thoughts and experiences of a character . This technique perhaps had its beginnings in the monologues of Shakespeare 's plays , and reached its fullest development in the novels of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf , although it has also been used by many other noted writers .
Here for example is a passage from Joyce 's Ulysses about the thoughts of Molly Bloom :
Yes because he never did a thing like that before as ask to get his breakfast in bed with a couple of eggs since the City Arms hotel when he used to be pretending to be laid up with a sick voice doing his highness to make himself interesting for that old faggot Mrs Riordan that he thought he had a great leg of and she never left us a farthing all for masses for herself and her soul greatest miser ever was actually afraid to lay out 4d for her methylated spirit telling me all her ailments she had too much old chat in her about politics and earthquakes and the end of the world let us have a bit of fun first God help the world if all the women were her sort down on bathingsuits and lownecks of course nobody wanted her to wear them I suppose she was pious because no man would look at her twice I hope Ill never be like her a wonder she didnt want us to cover our faces but she was a welleducated woman certainly and her gabby talk about Mr Riordan here and Mr Riordan there I suppose he was glad to get shut of her .
= = Spiritual approaches = =
To most philosophers , the word " consciousness " connotes the relationship between the mind and the world . To writers on spiritual or religious topics , it frequently connotes the relationship between the mind and God , or the relationship between the mind and deeper truths that are thought to be more fundamental than the physical world . Krishna consciousness , for example , is a term used to mean an intimate linkage between the mind of a worshipper and the god Krishna . The mystical psychiatrist Richard Maurice Bucke distinguished between three types of consciousness : Simple Consciousness , awareness of the body , possessed by many animals ; Self Consciousness , awareness of being aware , possessed only by humans ; and Cosmic Consciousness , awareness of the life and order of the universe , possessed only by humans who are enlightened . Many more examples could be given . The most thorough account of the spiritual approach may be Ken Wilber 's book The Spectrum of Consciousness , a comparison of western and eastern ways of thinking about the mind . Wilber described consciousness as a spectrum with ordinary awareness at one end , and more profound types of awareness at higher levels .
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= Cyclone Dina =
Intense Tropical Cyclone Dina was a cyclone that caused record flooding across parts of Réunion . Originating from a tropical disturbance on 15 January 2002 near the Chagos Archipelago , the precursor to Dina quickly developed within a region favoring tropical cyclogenesis . By January 17 , the system had developed enough organized convection as it moved southwestward to be declared a tropical depression . Rapid intensification occurred shortly thereafter , with the system attaining winds in excess of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) on January 18 . Dina achieved its peak intensity on January 20 as an intense tropical cyclone winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Hours after reaching hits strength , the storm bypassed Rodrigues Island about 150 km ( 93 mi ) to its north . On January 21 , the storm brushed Mauritius and Réunion as an intense tropical cyclone before turning southward . Once on a southward course , steady weakening ensued and the system eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on January 25 . The remnants of the storm accelerated southeastward and were last noted on January 28 before being absorbed into a polar trough .
Across Mauritius and Réunion , torrential rains and destructive winds from the cyclone resulted in extensive to " catastrophic " damage . The entire island of Mauritius lost power during the storm and widespread structural damage took place . Agricultural and property damage amounted to US $ 47 million and US $ 50 million respectively in the republic . Nine fatalities were attribute to the storm in Mauritius : five off the coast of Rodrigues Island and four on the main island . More extensive damage was seen on Réunion where up to 2 @,@ 102 mm ( 82 @.@ 8 in ) of rain fell over three days . Record to near @-@ record flooding destroyed many homes , washed out roads , and caused catastrophic agricultural damage . Destructive winds , measured up to 280 km / h ( 170 mph ) also crippled communications . In all , six people died on the island and losses were estimated at € 200 million ( US $ 190 million ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On January 15 , a tropical disturbance began organizing near the Chagos Archipelago in the South Indian Ocean convergence zone , which is an extended area of convection connected to the monsoon . The thunderstorms gradually organized , associated with a weak circulation and located within an area of moderate wind shear . A distinct low pressure area developed on January 16 , about 750 km ( 470 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . The thunderstorms were primarily located along the western periphery due to continued shear , and ordinarily would prevent significant development . The system moved to the southwest along the north side of a ridge , and despite the shear it developed into a tropical disturbance late on January 16 . Subsequently , the system rapidly organized , developing rainbands as the convection increased .
At 0000 UTC on January 17 , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression , and six hours later upgraded the system further to Tropical Storm Dina . Shortly thereafter , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , and later that day initiated advisories about 425 km ( 265 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . Dina quickly intensified , and its T @-@ numbers using the Dvorak technique increased by 0 @.@ 5 every six hours during the storm 's development phase . An eye began developing late on January 17 , and at 1200 UTC on January 18 , MFR upgraded Dina to a tropical cyclone , or the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . This was only 36 hours after it was first classified as a tropical disturbance , which is much less than the five days most tropical cyclones take . About three hours earlier , the JTWC had also upgraded the storm to tropical cyclone status .
The small eye of Dina , only 20 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter , quickly became well @-@ defined , although it became obscured by the central dense overcast on visible satellite imagery . On January 19 , the cyclone slowed as it turned to the west @-@ southwest , after the ridge to its south intensified . The intensification rate briefly slowed , before Dina rapidly intensified late on January 19 , becoming an intense tropical cyclone early the next day . Surrounded by an eyewall of deep convection , Dina intensified to reach its peak intensity on January 20 . Based on satellite intensity estimates between 235 and 259 km / h ( 146 and 161 mph ) , the JTWC estimated peak one @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , about 205 km ( 127 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Rodrigues Island . At around the same time , MFR estimated peak ten @-@ minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . While at its peak , Dina had a very symmetrical structure , and gusts were estimated to have reached 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) .
On January 20 while near peak intensity , Dina slowed its movement further and moved more toward the west . After previously being in the projected track of the cyclone , Rodrigues Island was bypassed by the cyclone passing about 150 km ( 93 mi ) to its north . After passing by the island , Dina underwent an eyewall replacement cycle , which resulted in an outer eyewall forming and replacing the previous , smaller one . This resulted in the cyclone weakening slightly , although it retained much of its intensity while tracking toward Mauritius and Réunion . Late on January 21 , Dina passed about 65 km ( 40 mi ) north of Cape Malheureux in Mauritius , with 10 @-@ minute winds estimated at 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) ; however , the strongest winds remained offshore . At the time , the storm 's eye became asymmetric with a diameter of 85 km ( 53 mi ) . Late the next day , Dina also passed about 65 km ( 40 mi ) off the north coast of Réunion , and although the island was in the forecast track , the cyclone accelerated to the west in the final hours and spared the island from the strongest winds . This abrupt shift in tract took place as the cyclone interacted with the high terrain of Réunion . Additionally , Doppler weather radar showed the highest reflectivity values to be 40 to 60 km ( 25 to 37 mi ) from the center . On January 23 , Dina weakened below intense tropical cyclone status while it accelerated to the southwest ; the change in movement was due to the ridge moving further to the southeast . Increased wind shear due to an approaching trough contributed to the weakening , and by late on January 23 the eye dissipated . The next day , Dina weakened into a tropical storm , after the convection diminished around the center . Late on January 24 , the JTWC discontinued advisories , and about 24 hours later , MFR classified Dina as an extratropical cyclone . The system accelerated to the southeast and was absorbed by a polar trough on January 28 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
= = = Mauritius = = =
Less than a day prior to Cyclone Dina 's arrival in Mauritius , officials in the nation closed schools , government offices , businesses , and ports . A state of alert was issued for the entire country , meaning that those at greatest risk should seek shelter . All flights to and from the nation were canceled " until further notice . " Across the island , 259 people sought refuge in shelters . According to NASA , there was potential for a 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) storm surge as the cyclone moved over the region .
The first island to be affected by the storm was Rodrigues . There gusts reached 122 km / h ( 76 mph ) . Rainfall was light on the island , reaching 94 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) at Roche Bon Dieu . The cyclone killed five fishermen offshore Rodrigues . Numerous areas across Mauritius recorded hurricane @-@ force winds . On the republic 's main island , gusts reached 230 km / h ( 140 mph ) at Le Morne Brabant . A station near the capital city of Port Louis reported a gust of 206 km / h ( 128 mph ) . Torrential rainfall affected much of Mauritius during Dina 's passage , with a maximum of 745 @.@ 2 mm ( 29 @.@ 34 in ) falling in Pierrefonds . This was more than the average monthly rainfall , and most of the precipitation fell in about 24 hours . A barometric pressure of 935 @.@ 9 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 64 inHg ) was recorded in Vacoas @-@ Phoenix . Flooding and mudslides greatly disrupted the public water system , with most people losing running water .
Power and communications across Rodrigues and the island of Mauritius were crippled by the storm , with the entirety of the former and 90 percent of the latter losing electricity . For approximately ten hours , the country was cut off from the outside world , with all communications disrupted . About 50 @,@ 000 of the nation 's 280 @,@ 000 telecommunication lines sustained serious damage , resulting in prolonged power outages . Repair crews estimated that it would take until January 27 , nearly a week after the storm 's passage , for power to be fully restored . Widespread areas also lost water on Mauritius . Schools across the region sustained significant damage and as a precautionary measure , all classes were canceled until January 29 . Agriculture sustained considerable losses as a result of the storm . Approximately 15 metric tons of flour and 20 metric tons of rice were damaged and preliminary estimates for sugarcane losses across the island reached US $ 47 million . Property damage from the storm amounted to US $ 50 million , and there were four deaths on the island ; three were caused by traffic accidents , and the other was a man who died while making storm preparations .
In the wake of the storm , a special mobile force was dispatched by officials to assist in relief operations . Red Cross distribution centers were set up on Mauritius and served food and clothing to more than 500 by January 25 . Despite the severity of damage , government officials declined to appeal for international aid . Although no requests for aid were made , the Government of Norway provided US $ 10 @,@ 000 worth of funds to the nation . Owing to the effects of Cyclone Dina and several other meteorological factors , the economy of Mauritius suffered significantly in 2002 as a whole . Annual growth dropped to about 1 @.@ 9 percent from approximately 5 percent in 2001 . The sugarcane industry suffered greatly from the storm , experiencing a 19 @.@ 3 percent decrease .
= = = Réunion = = =
Due to the storm 's close passage to the island , much of Réunion experienced hurricane @-@ force winds . The strongest observed gust was 280 km / h ( 170 mph ) on Maïdo ; however , based on the destruction of Meteo @-@ France 's Doppler weather radar , winds could have exceeded 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) . Plaine des Cafres reported gusts of over 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) for at least 15 hours . These winds caused extensive damage , crippling communications , devastating infrastructure , and left more than 160 @,@ 000 families , about 70 percent of the island 's population , without power . Some areas were without power for nine days . Additionally , about 25 percent of the island was left without running water . Damaged transmitters interrupted radio and television broadcasts for several days . In Saint @-@ Denis , two people were seriously injured after a wall collapsed on them . Although winds were strong , the majority of damage was limited to broken windows , removed sheet metal , broken gutters , and removed siding . The most severe damage took place in exposed areas at higher elevations or where tunneling of the wind occurred .
Heavy rains produced by Dina triggered flash flooding and many landslides , further crippling travel and forcing at least 2 @,@ 500 people to seek refuge in public shelters . Some areas recorded more than 400 mm ( 16 in ) in a 24 ‑ hour span , notably the Bellecombe resting place ( a volcano lodge ) which measured 953 mm ( 37 @.@ 5 in ) in 24 hours as well as a two @-@ day total of 1 @,@ 360 mm ( 54 in ) . The heaviest rainfall was measured in La Plaine des Chicots at 2 @,@ 102 mm ( 82 @.@ 8 in ) . With the ground already saturated from previous rain events , the torrential rains caused numerous rivers across the island to burst their banks . The Ravine des Cabris reached an all @-@ time record flood while three other rivers reached their second @-@ highest levels , behind the flood event caused by Cyclone Firinga in 1989 . Heavy rains occurred in the typically dry western portion of the island , which resulted in significant flooding . Many ecosystems suffered from these floods with water quality greatly degraded and flow disrupted . However , in post @-@ storm surveys in July 2002 , it was found that the impact was not catastrophic and the ecosystems would eventually recover . Significant runoff also prompted fears of algae blooms that would damage coral reefs . Numerous roads were damaged or washed out by the floods , leaving approximately € 42 @.@ 9 million ( US $ 37 @.@ 6 million ) in losses . In Lengevin village within the Saint @-@ Joseph department , 35 families were forced to evacuate . Many landslides took place in addition to flooding , further hampering travel and isolating hundreds of residents .
Catastrophic agricultural damage occurred across the island , with losses reaching an estimated € 76 million ( US $ 66 @.@ 7 million ) . The entire fruit and vegetable crop was lost during the storm while the vanilla and geranium crops sustained heavy damage . Additionally , about 15 – 20 percent of the sugarcane crop was destroyed . Horticulture sustained about 50 percent losses ; however , much of this resulted from lost work hours . Poultry farms suffered about 70 percent losses , from lost animals and destroyed buildings . Along the coast , large waves measured up to 12 @.@ 47 m ( 40 @.@ 9 ft ) caused moderate damage . Additionally , an estimated storm surge of 6 to 9 m ( 20 to 30 ft ) impacted the island . Some buildings were flooded , roads washed out , and other roads were left covered in debris .
In all , about 15 @,@ 000 damage claims were filed across Réunion , with a total of 3 @,@ 251 homes damaged and about 850 condemned or destroyed . Property damage from the storm amounted to € 95 million ( US $ 83 @.@ 4 million ) . Collectively , losses on the island were estimated at € 200 million ( US $ 190 million ) . Although there were no fatalities directly related to the storm , six people died in various events indirectly caused by Dina .
In the wake of Cyclone Dina 's devastation on January 23 , then French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin ordered a relief team of 200 personnel to be dispatched to the island . He also expressed " deep personal sympathy " to the residents of Réunion . The following day , the Catholic Relief Services released immediate funds of € 16 @,@ 000 ( US $ 14 @,@ 000 ) . An estimated 50 @,@ 000 tonnes of debris was cleaned up across the island , the majority of which was in the Northwest Department , and cost waste management crews approximately € 4 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 4 million ) to process . Initially , the national disaster program was slow to react , with funding first being available on February 5 . The first payments were made starting a month later . In the five months following the storm , the Government of France provided about € 10 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 12 million ) in aid to farmers , accounting for an overestimation of about 20 percent in needs . Based on meteorological statistics regarding wind speed and rainfall , Cyclone Dina was regarded as a 1 @-@ in @-@ 30 – 50 year event in Réunion .
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= Royal Albion Hotel =
The Royal Albion Hotel ( originally the Albion Hotel ) is a 3 @-@ star hotel in the seaside resort of Brighton , part of the English city of Brighton and Hove . Built on the site of a house belonging to Richard Russell , a local doctor whose advocacy of sea @-@ bathing and seawater drinking helped to make Brighton fashionable in the 18th century , it has been extended several times , although it experienced a period of rundown and closure in the early 20th century . A fire in 1998 caused serious damage , but the hotel was restored .
The Classical @-@ style building is in three parts of different sizes and dates but similar appearances . Large pilasters and columns of various orders feature prominently . Amon Henry Wilds , an important and prolific local architect , took the original commission on behalf of promoter John Colbatch . Another local entrepreneur , Harry Preston , restored the hotel to its former high status after buying it in poor condition . The building took on its present three @-@ wing form in 1963 . The original part of the building was listed at Grade II * by English Heritage for its architectural and historical importance , and its western extension is listed separately at the lower Grade II .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
The site itself is connected with the life and career of Richard Russell , a doctor who advocated sea water as a cure of ailments . After Russell 's death in 1759 , Old Steine developed as the centre of fashionable life in Brighton . Russell House , as it became known , was used as lodgings for visitors such as the Duke of Cumberland , and later became an entertainment venue with activities such as a puppet theatre , a camera obscura and resident jugglers .
In the 1820s , it passed to entrepreneur John Colbatch , who demolished it in 1823 . The local authorities tried to arrange for the land to be kept as open space , but negotiations collapsed and Colbatch began planning the construction of a hotel .
= = = Construction , success , disrepair = = =
Colbatch commissioned young architect Amon Henry Wilds , who began planning the hotel in 1822 . Wilds , the son of Amon Wilds and an associate of Charles Busby , had been responsible for many building schemes in Brighton from about 1815 , when he and his father moved their architectural practice to Brighton . Schemes already completed by 1822 included King 's Road and Brighton Unitarian Church . The hotel was built on a corner site at the point where Old Steine met King 's Road , and like Russell House the main façade faced away from the sea , towards Old Steine . The four @-@ storey structure opened on 5 August 1826 .
The venture was immediately successful , and a stylistically similar five @-@ storey extension was added to the west in about 1847 . At the same time , the name was changed from the Albion Hotel . Six years earlier , one of Brighton 's most important cultural establishments was established in a ground @-@ floor room : the Albion Rooms Literary and Scientific Institution combined the functions of library , lecture theatre and museum . The venture eventually became unsustainable , and the institution 's members presented the accumulated books , artefacts and pictures to Brighton Corporation , the local authority . This led to the establishment of the Brighton Museum and Art Gallery and Brighton Library in the grounds of the Royal Pavilion .
The hotel fell into disrepair in the late 19th century , and was closed in 1900 . Harry Preston , owner of the nearby Royal York Hotel , bought it in 1913 for £ 13 @,@ 500 ( £ 1 @,@ 198 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , and quickly restored its fashionable reputation . The building was completely refurbished , additions were made , and well @-@ known literary figures , artists and entertainers regularly stayed . The extensions carried out around this time , in the Edwardian style typical of the period , included a sea @-@ facing lounge at the rear of the hotel , and were carried out by Brighton architectural firm Clayton & Black . Started in the 1870s by Charles Clayton and Ernest Black and continued by their sons , this firm was one of Brighton 's most prolific designers of public buildings and churches over the next 60 years .
In 1856 , another hotel had been built west of the Royal Albion on land previously occupied by Williams 's Royal Hot and Cold Baths , an indoor bath @-@ house . The Lion Mansion Hotel was architecturally similar to the Royal Albion , and rose to four storeys . It was later known as the Adelphi Hotel . In 1963 , it was taken over by the Royal Albion , and became physically linked to it as a west wing .
= = = Fire = = =
On the morning of 24 November 1998 , the hotel was devastated by a fire which started in the kitchen . A chef was frying eggs and sausages in a pan ; hot fat spilt and caught light , and flames were immediately sucked up a vent to the top floor . The fire spread quickly , assisted by strong winds , and all 160 people in the building were evacuated . The Public and Commercial Services Union had to cancel their annual conference , due to be held that day , because of the disruption caused to its delegates , most of whom were staying at the hotel . About 160 firefighters from all parts of East and West Sussex attended the fire from about 8.20am until late in the evening , in what was later described as Brighton 's " biggest firefighting operation for nearly 30 years " . All parts of the hotel were affected by smoke , water and structural damage , but the original corner building was particularly badly affected .
= = Architecture = =
In its present form , the Royal Albion Hotel is in three linked sections , all stylistically similar . The original ( eastern ) wing is four storeys tall and has five extremely large Corinthian and Composite columns on the north face . These are flanked on both sides by large pilasters , which also run all round the east face . The top floor is an attic storey displaying Wilds 's characteristic motif : shell designs set in blank rounded tympana . Above this is a mansard roof , now mostly obscured . The centre section , dating from about 1847 , has three full storeys and two attic floors above , and is therefore taller . The façade has three bays . The theme of large pilasters and columns continues , but different styles are used : the left and right bays project slightly and have paired Tuscan pilasters , and a pair of tapering Ionic columns in the centre bay form a distyle in antis composition . The centre section also has a mansard roof — apparently a later addition . The western wing ( the former Lion Mansions ) has a Tuscan @-@ columned porch on the south ( seafront ) side and a Doric @-@ style equivalent facing north to Old Steine , four Composite pilasters extending for three of the four storeys , small cast @-@ iron balconies and some aedicula @-@ style window surrounds .
= = Present day = =
The Royal Albion Hotel was listed at Grade II * on 13 October 1952 . Such buildings are defined as being " particularly important ... [ and ] of more than special interest " . In February 2001 , it was one of 70 Grade II * -listed buildings and structures , and 1 @,@ 218 listed buildings of all grades , in the city of Brighton and Hove . The west wing ( the former Lion Mansions ) was listed at Grade II on 5 August 1999 . In February 2001 , it was one of 1 @,@ 124 buildings listed at that grade in Brighton and Hove ; the status indicates that the building is considered " nationally important and of special interest " .
The hotel is operated by Britannia Hotels . There are 208 guest rooms , one restaurant , two bars and five rooms for conferences and meetings . Bedrooms are classified in four grades , from standard to deluxe . It has a 3 @-@ star rating .
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= Lazarus Aaronson =
Lazarus Leonard Aaronson ( 18 February 1895 – 9 December 1966 ) , often published as L. Aaronson , was a British poet and a lecturer in economics . As a young man , he belonged to a group of Jewish friends who are today known as the Whitechapel Boys , many who later achieved fame as writers and artists .
In his twenties , Aaronson converted to Christianity and a large part of his poetry focused on his conversion and spiritual identity as a Jew and an Englishman . In total , he published three collections of poetry : Christ in the Synagogue ( 1930 ) , Poems ( 1933 ) , and The Homeward Journey and Other Poems ( 1946 ) . Although he never achieved widespread recognition , Aaronson gained a cult following of dedicated readers .
Though less radical in his use of language , he has been compared to his more renowned Whitechapel friend , Isaac Rosenberg , in terms of diction and verbal energy . Aaronson 's poetry is characterised as more post @-@ Georgian than modernistic , and reviewers have traced influences from both the English poet John Keats , and Hebrew poets such as Shaul Tchernichovsky and Zalman Shneur in his writings .
Aaronson lived most of his life in London and spent much of his working life as a lecturer in economics at the City of London College . Upon retiring , he moved to Harpenden , Hertfordshire , where he died from heart failure and coronary heart disease on 9 December 1966 . His poetry was not widely publicised , and he left many unpublished poems at his death .
= = Life = =
Aaronson was born on 18 February 1895 at 34 Great Pearl Street , Spitalfields in the East End of London to impoverished Orthodox Jewish parents who had immigrated from Vilna in the Pale of Settlement in Eastern Europe . His father was Louis Aaronson , a master bootmaker , and his mother was Sarah Aaronson , née Kowalski . The young Aaronson attended Whitechapel City Boys ' School and later received a scholarship to attend Hackney Downs grammar school .
His father emigrated to New York in 1905 , and in 1912 , the rest of his family followed except for 17 @-@ year old Lazarus who remained in London . From then on , he lived with the family of Joseph Posener at 292 Commercial Road in the East End of London . At the time , the area was a hub of the Jewish diaspora and at the turn of the 20th century , a quarter of its population were Jews from Central and Eastern Europe . Growing up in the East End , Aaronson was part of a group of friends who are today referred to as the Whitechapel Boys , all of whom were children of Jewish immigrants and shared literary and artistic ambitions . Others in the group who , like Aaronson , later achieved distinction included John Rodker , Isaac Rosenberg , Joseph Leftwich , Samuel Winsten , Clara Birnberg , David Bomberg , and the brothers Abraham and Joseph Fineberg . Aaronson was also involved in the Young Socialist League , where he and other Whitechapel Boys helped organise educational meetings on modern art and radical politics . Aaronson remained a committed socialist throughout adulthood .
Having been diagnosed with tuberculosis and diabetes , Aaronson did not serve in the military during the First World War . Between 1913 and 1915 , and again between 1926 and 1928 , he studied economics at the London School of Economics , but never completed his degree .
Aaronson was married three times . His first wife was the actress Lydia Sherwood , ( 1906 – 1989 ) whom he was married to between 1924 and 1931 . He filed for divorce on grounds of her adultery with the theatre producer Theodore Komisarjevsky , and the suit was undefended . His second marriage , which took place on 9 July 1938 , to Dorothy Beatrice Lewer ( 1915 – 2005 ) , also ended in divorce . On 14 January 1950 , Aaronson married Margaret Olive Ireson ( 1920 – 1981 ) , with whom he had one son , David , who was born in 1953 .
To friends and family , Lazarus Aaronson was known as Laz . He was friends with novelist Stephen Hudson , sculptor Jacob Epstein , media mogul Sidney Bernstein , artists Mark Gertler and Matthew Smith and poets Harold Monro and Samuel Beckett .
Around 1934 , he began working as a lecturer in economics at the City of London College . Upon his retirement from the university in 1958 , Aaronson was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire in the 1959 New Year Honours , in recognition of his more than twenty @-@ five years of service . He then moved with his family from London to Harpenden , Hertfordshire , where he later died from heart failure and coronary heart disease on 9 December 1966 , at the age of 71 . He was buried in the Westfield Road Cemetery in Harpenden .
= = Poetry = =
Aaronson had literary ambitions from an early age and by 1914 , he was a contributing writer for the influential left @-@ leaning weekly The New Age . He was often published under the name L. Aaronson . In the 1920s , he converted to Christianity . His first collection of poems , Christ in the Synagogue , published by V. Gollancz in 1930 , dealt to a large extent with his conversion and spiritual identity as both a Jew and an Englishman . This subject would become a recurring theme in his numerous mystical poems . Christ in the Synagogue reached only a small audience and received less than a dozen reviews , but The Manchester Guardian , The Nation and Athenaeum , The Times Literary Supplement , and The New Age wrote favourably of it .
Notwithstanding Aaronson 's small readership , V. Gollancz published a second verse collection in 1933 , titled Poems . Despite being little known to the general public , Aaronson gained a cult following of dedicated readers . His third collection , The Homeward Journey and Other Poems , was published by Christophers in 1946 . Some of his works also appeared in journals and anthologies such as the 1953 Faber Book of Twentieth Century Verse .
Since Aaronson 's poetry does not display formal innovation , literature professor William Baker , characterises him as " A post @-@ Georgian rather than a modernist [ poet ] " . Baker further notes that Aaronson 's poetry deals with several issues of his time , such as the rise of fascism and the Second World War , but points out that Aaronson did not directly write about the Holocaust . Upon Aaronson 's death , the poet Arthur Chaim Jacobs , compared him with Isaac Rosenberg , the more celebrated poet of the same Anglo @-@ Jewish generation . According to Jacobs , Aaronson was " clearly influenced by him in terms of diction , and in a kind of verbal energy which runs through a lot of his poetry . But he was less radical than Rosenberg in his use of language , and tended towards Keatsian luxuriance and sweetness . " Although much of Aaronson 's writings centred on his conversion to Christianity , Jacobs traces a continuing Hebraic mood in his poetry , writing that " His Christianity was hardly familiarly Anglican , and there is in his work an avowed sensuality which could in some ways be compared to that of modern Hebrew poets like Tchernikowsky or Shneur , or later , Avraham Shlonsky . "
Aaronson 's poetry was not widely publicised , and he left many unpublished poems at his death . Little scholarly attention has been paid to his life and poetry . In 1967 , Jacobs stated that " Further assessment of his work awaits more substantial publication " and about 40 years later Baker , who has written most extensively on Aaronson , named him among the Whitechapel intellectual writers and artists " today consigned to oblivion " .
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= Benjamin Harrison =
Benjamin Harrison ( August 20 , 1833 – March 13 , 1901 ) was the 23rd President of the United States ( 1889 – 93 ) ; he was the grandson of the ninth president , William Henry Harrison . Before ascending to the presidency , Harrison established himself as a prominent local attorney , Presbyterian church leader and politician in Indianapolis , Indiana . During the American Civil War , he served the Union as a colonel and on February 14 , 1865 was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as a brevet brigadier general of volunteers to rank from January 23 , 1865 . After the war , he unsuccessfully ran for the governorship of Indiana . He was later elected to the U.S. Senate by the Indiana legislature .
A Republican , Harrison was elected to the presidency in 1888 , defeating the Democratic incumbent Grover Cleveland . Hallmarks of his administration included unprecedented economic legislation , including the McKinley Tariff , which imposed historic protective trade rates , and the Sherman Antitrust Act ; Harrison facilitated the creation of the National Forests through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891 . He also substantially strengthened and modernized the Navy , and conducted an active foreign policy . He proposed , in vain , federal education funding as well as voting rights enforcement for African Americans during his administration .
Due in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs , federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term . The spending issue in part led to the defeat of the Republicans in the 1890 mid @-@ term elections . Harrison was defeated by Cleveland in his bid for re @-@ election in 1892 , due to the growing unpopularity of the high tariff and high federal spending . He then returned to private life in Indianapolis but later represented the Republic of Venezuela in an international case against the United Kingdom . In 1900 , he traveled to Europe as part of the case and , after a brief stay , returned to Indianapolis . He died the following year of complications from influenza . Although many have praised Harrison 's commitment to African Americans ' voting rights , scholars and historians generally regard his administration as below @-@ average , and rank him in the bottom half among U.S. presidents . Historians , however , have not questioned Harrison 's commitment to personal and official integrity .
= = Family and education = =
Harrison 's paternal ancestors were the Virginia Harrisons . Their immigrant ancestor was Benjamin Harrison , who arrived in Jamestown , Virginia , in 1630 . The future president Benjamin was born on August 20 , 1833 , in North Bend , Ohio , as the second of eight children to John Scott Harrison and Elizabeth Ramsey ( Irwin ) . Benjamin was a grandson of President William Henry Harrison and the great @-@ grandson of Benjamin Harrison V , a Virginia governor and signer of the Declaration of Independence . Harrison was seven years old when his grandfather was elected President , but he did not attend the inauguration . Although Harrison 's family was distinguished , his parents were not wealthy . John Scott Harrison spent much of his farm income on his children 's education . Despite the family 's meager resources , Harrison 's boyhood was enjoyable , much of it spent outdoors fishing or hunting .
Benjamin Harrison 's early schooling took place in a one @-@ room schoolhouse near his home , but his parents later arranged for a tutor to help him with college preparatory studies . Harrison and his brother Irwin enrolled in Farmer 's College near Cincinnati , Ohio in 1847 . He attended the college for two years and while there met his future wife , Caroline Lavinia Scott , one of the daughters of the science professor , John Witherspoon Scott .
In 1850 , Harrison transferred to Miami University in Oxford , Ohio and graduated in 1852 . He joined the fraternity Phi Delta Theta , which he used as a network for much of his life . He was also a member of Delta Chi , a law fraternity which permitted dual membership . Classmates included John Alexander Anderson , who became a six @-@ term congressman , and Whitelaw Reid who ran as Harrison 's vice presidential candidate in his presidential reelection campaign . At Miami , Harrison was strongly influenced by history and political economy professor Robert Hamilton Bishop . Harrison joined a Presbyterian church at college and , like his mother , became a lifelong member .
After completing college , Harrison took up the study of law as a legal apprentice in the Cincinnati law office of Storer & Gwynne .
= = Marriage and early career = =
Before completing his law studies , Harrison returned to Oxford to marry Caroline Scott . On October 20 , 1853 , Caroline 's father , also a Presbyterian minister , performed the ceremony .
The Harrisons had two children , Russell Benjamin Harrison ( August 12 , 1854 – December 13 , 1936 ) , and Mary " Mamie " Scott Harrison ( April 3 , 1858 – October 28 , 1930 ) .
Harrison returned to live on his father 's farm while finishing his law studies . That same year , he inherited $ 800 after the death of an aunt , and used the funds to move with Caroline to Indianapolis , Indiana , in 1854 . He was admitted to the bar and began practicing law in the office of John H. Ray . The same year he became a crier for the Federal Court in Indianapolis , for which he was paid $ 2 @.@ 50 per day . Harrison became a founding member and first president of both the University Club , a private gentlemen 's club and the Phi Delta Theta Alumni Club . Harrison and his wife joined and assumed leadership positions at the First Presbyterian Church .
Having grown up in a Whig household , he favored that party 's politics while young . He joined the Republican Party shortly after its formation in 1856 , and that year campaigned on behalf of the Republican presidential candidate John C. Frémont . Harrison was elected as the Indianapolis City Attorney that year , a position that paid an annual salary of $ 400 .
In 1858 , Harrison entered into a law partnership with William Wallace and they opened their office called Wallace & Harrison . Two years later , Harrison successfully ran as the Republican candidate for reporter of the Indiana Supreme Court . He was an active supporter of his party 's platform , and served as Republican State Committee Secretary . His law partner Wallace was elected as county clerk in 1860 ; Harrison established a new firm with William Fishback , named Fishback & Harrison . They worked together until he entered the Army after the start of the American Civil War .
= = Civil War = =
In 1862 , President Abraham Lincoln issued a call for more recruits for the Union Army ; Harrison wanted to enlist , but worried about how to support his young family . While visiting Governor Oliver Morton , Harrison found him distressed over the shortage of men answering the latest call . Harrison told the governor , " If I can be of any service , I will go " .
Morton asked Harrison if he could help recruit a regiment , although he would not ask him to serve . Harrison recruited throughout northern Indiana to raise a regiment . Morton offered him the command , but Harrison declined , as he had no military experience . He was initially commissioned as a captain and company commander on July 22 , 1862 . Governor Morton commissioned Harrison as a colonel on August 7 , 1862 , and the newly formed 70th Indiana was mustered into Federal service on August 12 , 1862 . Once mustered , the regiment left Indiana to join the Union Army at Louisville , Kentucky .
For much of its first two years , the 70th Indiana performed reconnaissance duty and guarded railroads in Kentucky and Tennessee . In 1864 , Harrison and his regiment joined William T. Sherman 's Atlanta Campaign and moved to the front lines . On January 2 , 1864 , Harrison was promoted to command the 1st Brigade of the 1st Division of the XX Corps . He commanded the brigade at the battles of Resaca , Cassville , New Hope Church , Lost Mountain , Kennesaw Mountain , Marietta , Peachtree Creek and Atlanta . When Sherman 's main force began its March to the Sea , Harrison 's brigade was transferred to the District of Etowah and participated in the Battle of Nashville .
On January 23 , 1865 , President Lincoln nominated Harrison to the grade of brevet brigadier general of volunteers , to rank from that date , and the Senate confirmed the nomination on February 14 , 1865 . He rode in the Grand Review in Washington , D.C. before mustering out on June 8 , 1865 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Indiana politics = = =
While serving in the army in October 1864 , Harrison was reelected reporter of the Supreme Court of Indiana and served four more years . Although not politically powerful , the position provided Harrison a steady income . President Grant appointed him to represent the federal government in a civil claim brought by Lambdin P. Milligan , whose wartime conviction for treason had been reversed by the Supreme Court . Due to Harrison 's advocacy , the damages awarded against the government were minimal .
With his increasing reputation , local Republicans urged Harrison to run for Congress . He initially confined his political activities to speaking on behalf of other Republican candidates , a task for which he received high praises from his colleagues .
In 1872 , Harrison campaigned for the Republican nomination for governor of Indiana . Former governor Oliver Morton favored his opponent , Thomas M. Browne , and Harrison lost his bid for statewide office . He returned to his law practice and , despite the Panic of 1873 , he was financially successful enough to build a grand new home in Indianapolis in 1874 . He continued to make speeches on behalf of Republican candidates and policies .
In 1876 , the original Republican nominee for governor dropped out of the race and Harrison accepted the Republicans ' invitation to take his place on the ticket . He centered his campaign on economic policy and favored deflating the national currency . He was ultimately defeated in a plurality by James D. Williams , losing by 5 @,@ 084 votes out of a total 434 @,@ 457 cast . Following his defeat , Harrison was able to build on his new prominence in the state . When the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 reached Indianapolis , he helped to mediate between the workers and management and to preserve public order .
When United States Senator Morton died in 1878 , the Republicans nominated Harrison to run for the seat , but the party failed to gain a majority in the state legislature , which at that time elected senators ; the Democratic majority elected Daniel W. Voorhees instead . In 1879 President Hayes appointed Harrison to the Mississippi River Commission , which worked to develop internal improvements on the river . As a delegate to the 1880 Republican National Convention the following year , he was instrumental in breaking a deadlock on candidates , and James A. Garfield won the nomination .
= = = United States Senator = = =
After Harrison led the Republican delegation at the National Convention , he was considered a presumptive Senate candidate . He gave speeches in favor of Garfield in Indiana and New York , further raising his profile in the party . When the Republicans retook the state legislature , Harrison 's election to the Senate was threatened by his intra @-@ party rival Judge Walter Q. Gresham , but Harrison was ultimately chosen . After Garfield 's election as president in 1880 , his administration offered Harrison a cabinet position which he declined in favor of continued service as senator .
Harrison served in the Senate from March 4 , 1881 , to March 4 , 1887 and chaired the U.S. Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard ( 47th Congress ) and the U.S. Senate Committee on Territories ( 48th and 49th Congresses ) .
In 1881 , the major issue confronting Senator Harrison was the budget surplus . Democrats wished to reduce the tariff and limit the amount of money the government took in ; Republicans instead wished to spend the money on internal improvements and pensions for Civil War veterans . Harrison took his party 's side and advocated for generous pensions for veterans and their widows . He also supported , unsuccessfully , aid for education of Southerners , especially the children of the freedmen ; he believed that education was necessary to help the black population rise to political and economic equality with whites . Harrison opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 , which his party supported , as he thought it violated existing treaties with China .
In 1884 , Harrison and Gresham competed for influence at the 1884 Republican National Convention . ; the delegation ended up supporting James G. Blaine , the eventual nominee . In the Senate , Harrison achieved passage of his Dependent Pension Bill , only to see it vetoed by President Grover Cleveland . His efforts to further the admission of new western states were stymied by Democrats , who feared that the new states would elect Republicans to Congress .
In 1885 , the Democrats redistricted the Indiana state legislature , which resulted in an increased Democratic majority in 1886 , despite an overall Republican majority statewide . Harrison was thereby defeated in his bid for reelection ; this resulted after a deadlock in the state senate , with the legislature eventually choosing Democrat David Turpie . Harrison then returned to Indianapolis and his law practice , but stayed active in state and national politics .
= = Election of 1888 = =
= = = Nomination = = =
The initial favorite for the Republican nomination was the previous nominee , James G. Blaine of Maine . After Blaine wrote several letters denying any interest in the nomination , his supporters divided among other candidates , with John Sherman of Ohio as the leader among them . Others , including Chauncey Depew of New York , Russell Alger of Michigan , and Harrison 's old nemesis Walter Q. Gresham , now a federal appellate court judge in Chicago , also sought the delegates ' support at the 1888 Republican National Convention . Blaine did not publicly endorse any of the candidates as a successor ; however , on March 1 , 1888 he privately wrote that " the one man remaining who in my judgment can make the best one is Benjamin Harrison . "
Harrison placed fourth on the first ballot , with Sherman in the lead , and the next few ballots showed little change . The Blaine supporters shifted their support among candidates they found acceptable , and when they shifted to Harrison , they found a candidate who could attract the votes of many other delegations . He was nominated as the party 's presidential candidate on the eighth ballot , by a count of 544 to 108 votes . Levi P. Morton of New York was chosen as his running mate .
= = = Election over Cleveland = = =
Harrison 's opponent in the general election was incumbent President Grover Cleveland . He reprised a more traditional front @-@ porch campaign , abandoned by his immediate predecessors ; he received visiting delegations to Indianapolis and made ninety plus pronouncements from his home town . The Republicans campaigned heavily in favor of protective tariffs , turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North . The election focused on the swing states of New York , New Jersey , Connecticut , and Harrison 's home state of Indiana . Harrison and Cleveland split these four states , with Harrison winning in New York and Indiana . Voter turnout was 79 @.@ 3 % , reflecting a large interest in the campaign ; nearly eleven million votes were cast . Although Harrison received 90 @,@ 000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland , he carried the Electoral College 233 to 168 . Allegations were made against Republicans for engaging in irregular ballot practices ; an example was described as Blocks of Five . On October 31 the Indiana Sentinel published a letter allegedly written by Harrison 's friend and supporter , William Wade Dudley , to bribe voters in " blocks of five " to ensure Harrison 's election . Harrison neither defended nor repudiated Dudley , but allowed him to remain on the campaign for the remaining few days . After the election Harrison never spoke to Dudley again .
Although he had made no political bargains , his supporters had given many pledges upon his behalf . When Boss Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania , who rebuffed for a Cabinet position for his political support during the convention , heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to Providence , Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know " how close a number of men were compelled to approach ... the penitentiary to make him President . " Harrison was known as the Centennial President because his inauguration celebrated the centenary of the first inauguration of George Washington in 1789 . In congressional elections , the Republicans increased their membership in the House of Representatives by nineteen seats .
= = Presidency 1889 – 1893 = =
= = = Inauguration and cabinet = = =
Harrison was sworn into office on Monday , March 4 , 1889 by Chief Justice Melville Fuller . At 5 ' 6 " tall , he was only slightly taller than Madison , the shortest president , but much heavier ; he was the fourth ( and last ) president to sport a full beard Harrison 's Inauguration ceremony took place during a rainstorm in Washington D.C .. Outgoing U.S. President Grover Cleveland attended the ceremony and held an umbrella over Harrison 's head as he took the oath of office .
His speech was brief – half as long as that of his grandfather , William Henry Harrison , whose speech holds the record for the longest inaugural address of a U.S. president . In his speech , Benjamin Harrison credited the nation 's growth to the influences of education and religion , urged the cotton states and mining territories to attain the industrial proportions of the eastern states and promised a protective tariff . Concerning commerce , he said , " If our great corporations would more scrupulously observe their legal obligations and duties , they would have less call to complain of the limitations of their rights or of interference with their operations . " Harrison also urged early statehood for the territories and advocated pensions for veterans , a statement that was met with enthusiastic applause . In foreign affairs , Harrison reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine as a mainstay of foreign policy , while urging modernization of the Navy and a merchant marine force . He gave his commitment to international peace through noninterference in the affairs of foreign governments .
John Philip Sousa 's Marine Corps band played at the Inaugural Ball inside the Pension Building with a large crowd attending . After moving into the White House , Harrison noted , quite prophetically , " There is only a door – one that is never locked – between the president 's office and what are not very accurately called his private apartments . There should be an executive office building , not too far away , but wholly distinct from the dwelling house . For everyone else in the public service there is an unroofed space between the bedroom and the desk . "
Harrison acted quite independently in selecting his cabinet , much to the dismay of the Republican bosses . He began by delaying the presumed nomination of James G. Blaine as Secretary of State so as to preclude Blaine 's involvement in the formation of the administration , as had occurred in President Garfield 's term . In fact , other than Blaine , the only Republican boss initially nominated was Redfield Proctor , as Secretary of War . Senator Shelby Cullom 's comment symbolizes Harrison 's steadfast aversion to use federal positions for patronage : " I suppose Harrison treated me as well as he did any other Senator ; but whenever he did anything for me , it was done so ungraciously that the concession tended to anger rather than please . " Harrison 's selections shared particular alliances – such as their service in the Civil War , Indiana citizenship and membership in the Presbyterian Church . Nevertheless , Harrison with these choices had alienated pivotal Republican operatives from New York to Pennsylvania to Iowa and prematurely compromised his political power and future . Harrison 's normal schedule provided for two full cabinet meetings per week , as well as separate weekly one @-@ on @-@ one meetings with each cabinet member .
In June 1890 , Harrison 's Postmaster General John Wanamaker and several Philadelphia friends , purchased a large new cottage at Cape May Point , for Harrison 's wife Caroline . Many believed the cottage gift appeared to be improper and amounted to a bribe for a cabinet position . Harrison made no comment on the matter until after two weeks when he said he had always intended to purchase the cottage once Caroline gave approval . On July 2 , perhaps a little tardily to avoid suspicion , Harrison gave Wanamaker a check for $ 10 @,@ 000 to pay for the cottage .
= = = Civil service reform and pensions = = =
Civil service reform was a prominent issue following Harrison 's election . Harrison had campaigned as a supporter of the merit system , as opposed to the spoils system . Although some of the civil service had been classified under the Pendleton Act by previous administrations , Harrison spent much of his first months in office deciding on political appointments . Congress was widely divided on the issue and Harrison was reluctant to address the issue in hope of preventing the alienation of either side . The issue became a political football of the time and was immortalized in a cartoon captioned " What can I do when both parties insist on kicking ? " Harrison appointed Theodore Roosevelt and Hugh Smith Thompson , both reformers , to the Civil Service Commission , but otherwise did little to further the reform cause .
Harrison quickly saw the enactment of the Dependent and Disability Pension Act in 1890 , a cause he had championed while in Congress . In addition to providing pensions to disabled Civil War veterans ( regardless of the cause of their disability ) , the Act depleted some of the troublesome federal budget surplus . Pension expenditures reached $ 135 million under Harrison , the largest expenditure of its kind to that point in American history , a problem exacerbated by Pension Bureau commissioner James R. Tanner 's expansive interpretation of the pension laws . An investigation into the Pension Bureau by Harrison 's Secretary of Interior John W. Noble found evidence of lavish and illegal handouts under Tanner . Harrison , who privately believed that appointing Tanner had been a mistake , due to his apparent loose management style and tongue , asked Tanner to resign and replaced him with Green B. Raum . Raum was also accused of accepting loan payments in return for expediting pension cases . Harrison , having accepted a dissenting Congressional Republican investigation report that exonerated Raum , kept him in office for the rest of his administration .
One of the first appointments Harrison was forced to reverse was that of James S. Clarkson as an assistant postmaster . Clarkson , who had expected a full cabinet position , began sabotaging the appointment from the outset , gaining the reputation for " decapitating a fourth class postmaster every three minutes " . Clarkson himself stated , " I am simply on detail from the Republican Committee ... I am most anxious to get through this task and leave . " He resigned in September 1890 .
= = = Tariff = = =
The tariff levels had been a major political issue since before the Civil War , and they became the most dominant matter of the 1888 election . The high tariff rates had created a surplus of money in the Treasury , which led many Democrats ( as well as the growing Populist movement ) to call for lowering them . Most Republicans preferred to maintain the rates , spend the surplus on internal improvements and eliminate some internal taxes .
Representative William McKinley and Senator Nelson W. Aldrich framed the McKinley Tariff that would raise the tariff even higher , including making some rates intentionally prohibitive . At Secretary of State James Blaine 's urging , Harrison attempted to make the tariff more acceptable by urging Congress to add reciprocity provisions , which would allow the President to reduce rates when other countries reduced their rates on American exports . The tariff was removed from imported raw sugar , and sugar growers in the United States were given a two cent per pound subsidy on their production . Even with the reductions and reciprocity , the McKinley Tariff enacted the highest average rate in American history , and the spending associated with it contributed to the reputation of the Billion @-@ Dollar Congress .
= = = Antitrust laws and the currency = = =
Members of both parties were concerned with the growth of the power of trusts and monopolies , and one of the first acts of the 51st Congress was to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act , sponsored by Senator John Sherman of Ohio . The Act passed by wide margins in both houses , and Harrison signed it into law . The Sherman Act was the first Federal act of its kind , and marked a new use of federal government power . While Harrison approved of the law and its intent , his administration was not particularly vigorous in enforcing it . However , the government successfully concluded a case during Harrison 's time in office ( against a Tennessee coal company ) , and had initiated several other cases against trusts .
One of the most volatile questions of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver , or by gold alone . The issue cut across party lines , with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining together in the call for the free coinage of silver , and both parties ' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard . Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold , taxpayers paid their government bills in silver , while international creditors demanded payment in gold , resulting in a depletion of the nation 's gold supply . Owing to worldwide deflation in the late 19th century , however , a strict gold standard had resulted in reduction of incomes without the equivalent reduction in debts , pushing debtors and the poor to call for silver coinage as an inflationary measure .
The silver coinage issue had not been much discussed in the 1888 campaign and Harrison is said to have favored a bimetallist position . However , his appointment of a silverite Treasury Secretary , William Windom , encouraged the free silver supporters . Harrison attempted to steer a middle course between the two positions , advocating a free coinage of silver , but at its own value , not at a fixed ratio to gold . This failed to facilitate a compromise between the factions . In July 1890 , Senator Sherman achieved passage of a bill , the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , in both houses . Harrison thought that the bill would end the controversy , and he signed it into law . The effect of the bill , however , was the increased depletion of the nation 's gold supply , a problem that would persist until the second Cleveland administration resolved it .
= = = Civil rights = = =
After regaining the majority in both Houses of Congress , some Republicans , led by Harrison , attempted to pass legislation to protect black Americans ' civil rights . Harrison 's Attorney General , William H. H. Miller , through the Justice Department , ordered the prosecutions for violation of voting rights in the South ; however , white juries often failed to convict or indict violators . This prompted Harrison to urge Congress to pass legislation that would " secure all our people a free exercise of the right of suffrage and every other civil right under the Constitution and laws . " Harrison endorsed the proposed Federal Elections Bill written by Representative Henry Cabot Lodge and Senator George Frisbie Hoar in 1890 , but the bill was defeated in the Senate . Following the failure to pass the bill , Harrison continued to speak in favor of African American civil rights in addresses to Congress . Most notably , on December 3 , 1889 , Harrison had gone before Congress and stated :
The colored people did not intrude themselves upon us ; they were brought here in chains and held in communities where they are now chiefly bound by a cruel slave code ... when and under what conditions is the black man to have a free ballot ? When is he in fact to have those full civil rights which have so long been his in law ? When is that quality of influence which our form of government was intended to secure to the electors to be restored ? ... in many parts of our country where the colored population is large the people of that race are by various devices deprived of any effective exercise of their political rights and of many of their civil rights . The wrong does not expend itself upon those whose votes are suppressed . Every constituency in the Union is wronged .
He severely questioned the states ' civil rights records , arguing that if states have the authority over civil rights , then " we have a right to ask whether they are at work upon it . " Harrison also supported a bill proposed by Senator Henry W. Blair , which would have granted federal funding to schools regardless of the students ' races . He also endorsed a proposed constitutional amendment to overturn the Supreme Court ruling in the Civil Rights Cases ( 1883 ) that declared much of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional . None of these measures gained congressional approval .
= = = National forests = = =
In March 1891 Congress enacted and Harrison signed the Land Revision Act of 1891 . This legislation resulted from a bipartisan desire to initiate reclamation of surplus lands that had been , up to that point , granted from the public domain , for potential settlement or use by railroad syndicates . As the law 's drafting was finalized , Section 24 was added at the behest of Harrison by his Secretary of the Interior John Noble , which read as follows :
That the President of the United States may , from time to time , set apart and reserve , in any State or Territory having public land bearing forests , in any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth , whether of commercial value or not , as public reservations , and the President shall , by public proclamation , declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof .
Within a month of the enactment of this law Harrison authorized the first forest reserve , to be located on public domain adjacent to Yellowstone Park , in Wyoming . Other areas were so designated by Harrison , bringing the first forest reservations total to 22 million acres in his term .
= = = Native American policy = = =
During Harrison 's administration , the Lakota Sioux , previously confined to reservations in South Dakota , grew restive under the influence of Wovoka , a medicine man , who encouraged them to participate in a spiritual movement called the Ghost Dance . Many in Washington did not understand the predominantly religious nature of the Ghost Dance , and thought it was a militant movement being used to rally Native Americans against the government . On December 29 , 1890 , troops from the Seventh Cavalry clashed with the Sioux at Wounded Knee . The result was a massacre of at least 146 Sioux , including many women and children ; the dead Sioux were buried in a mass grave . In reaction Harrison directed Major General Nelson A. Miles to investigate and ordered 3500 federal troops to South Dakota ; the uprising was brought to an end . Wounded Knee is considered the last major American Indian battle in the 19th century . Harrison 's general policy on American Indians was to encourage assimilation into white society and , despite the massacre , he believed the policy to have been generally successful . This policy , known as the allotment system and embodied in the Dawes Act , was favored by liberal reformers at the time , but eventually proved detrimental to American Indians as they sold most of their land at low prices to white speculators .
= = = Technology and naval modernization = = =
During Harrison 's time in office , the United States was continuing to experience advances in science and technology . Harrison was the earliest President whose voice is known to be preserved . That thirty @-@ six @-@ second recording was originally made on a wax phonograph cylinder in 1889 by Gianni Bettini . Harrison also had electricity installed in the White House for the first time by Edison General Electric Company , but he and his wife would not touch the light switches for fear of electrocution and would often go to sleep with the lights on .
Over the course of his administration Harrison marshaled the country 's technology to clothe the nation with a credible naval power . When he took office there were only two commissioned warships in the Navy . In his inaugural address he said , " construction of a sufficient number of warships and their necessary armaments should progress as rapidly as is consistent with care and perfection . " Harrison 's Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F. Tracy spearheaded the rapid construction of vessels , and within a year congressional approval was obtained for building of the warships Indiana , Texas , Oregon and Columbia . By 1898 , with the help of the Carnegie Corporation , no less than ten modern warships , including steel hulls and greater displacements and armaments , had transformed the United States into a legitimate naval power . Seven of these had begun during the Harrison term .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = Latin America and Samoa = = = =
Harrison and Secretary of State Blaine were often not the most cordial of friends , but harmonized in an aggressive foreign policy and commercial reciprocity with other nations . Blaine 's persistent medical problems warranted more of a hands @-@ on effort by Harrison in the conduct of foreign policy . In San Francisco , while on tour of the United States in 1891 , Harrison proclaimed that the United States was in a " new epoch " of trade and that the expanding navy would protect oceanic shipping and increase American influence and prestige abroad . The First International Conference of American States met in Washington in 1889 ; Harrison set an aggressive agenda including customs and currency integration and named a bipartisan delegation to the conference , led by John B. Henderson and Andrew Carnegie . The conference failed to achieve any diplomatic breakthrough , due in large part to an atmosphere of suspicion fostered by the Argentinian delegation . It did succeed in establishing an information center that became the Pan American Union . In response to the diplomatic bust , Harrison and Blaine pivoted diplomatically and initiated a crusade for tariff reciprocity with Latin American nations ; the Harrison administration concluded eight reciprocity treaties among these countries . On another front , Harrison sent Frederick Douglass as ambassador to Haiti , but failed in his attempts to establish a naval base there .
In 1889 , the United States , the United Kingdom and Germany were locked in a dispute over control of the Samoan Islands . Historian George H. Ryden 's research indicates Harrison played a key role in determining the status of this Pacific outpost by taking a firm stand on every aspect of Samoa conference negotiations ; this included selection of the local ruler , refusal to allow an indemnity for Germany , as well as the establishment of a three power protectorate , a first for the U.S .. These arrangements facilitated the future dominant power of the U.S. in the Pacific ; Secretary of State Blaine was absent due to complication of lumbago .
= = = = European embargo of U.S. pork = = = =
Throughout the 1880s various European countries had imposed a ban on importation of United States pork out of an unconfirmed concern of trichinosis ; at issue was over one billion pounds of pork products with a value of $ 80 million ( annually ) . Harrison engaged Whitelaw Reid , minister to France , and William Walter Phelps , minister to Germany , to restore these exports for the country without delay . Harrison also successfully asked the congress to enact the Meat Inspection Act to eliminate the accusations of product compromise . The president also partnered with Agriculture Secretary Rusk to threaten Germany with retaliation – by initiating an embargo in the U.S. against Germany 's highly demanded beet sugar . By September 1891 Germany relented , and was soon followed by Denmark , France and Austria @-@ Hungary .
= = = = Crises in Aleutian Islands and Chile = = = =
The first international crisis Harrison faced arose from disputed fishing rights on the Alaskan coast . Canada claimed fishing and sealing rights around many of the Aleutian Islands , in violation of U.S. law . As a result , the United States Navy seized several Canadian ships . In 1891 , the administration began negotiations with the British that would eventually lead to a compromise over fishing rights after international arbitration , with the British government paying compensation in 1898
In 1891 , a diplomatic crisis emerged in Chile , otherwise known as the Baltimore Crisis . The American minister to Chile , Patrick Egan , granted asylum to Chileans who were seeking refuge during the 1891 Chilean Civil War . Egan , previously a militant Irish immigrant to the U.S. , was motivated by a personal desire to thwart Great Britain 's influence in Chile ; his action increased tensions between Chile and the United States , which began in the early 1880s when Secretary Blaine had alienated the Chileans in the War of the Pacific .
The crisis began in earnest when sailors from the USS Baltimore took shore leave in Valparaiso and a fight ensued , resulting in the deaths of two American sailors and the arrest of three dozen others . The Baltimore 's captain , Winfield Schley , based on the nature of the sailors ' wounds , insisted the sailors had been bayonet @-@ attacked by Chilean police without provocation . With Blaine incapacitated , Harrison drafted a demand for reparations . The Chilean Minister of Foreign Affairs Manuel Matta replied that Harrison 's message was " erroneous or deliberately incorrect , " and said that the Chilean government was treating the affair the same as any other criminal matter .
Tensions increased to the brink of war – Harrison threatened to break off diplomatic relations unless the United States received a suitable apology , and said the situation required , " grave and patriotic consideration " . The president also remarked , " If the dignity as well as the prestige and influence of the United States are not to be wholly sacrificed , we must protect those who in foreign ports display the flag or wear the colors . " The Navy was also placed on a high level of preparedness . A recuperated Blaine made brief conciliatory overtures to the Chilean government which had no support in the administration ; he then reversed course , joined the chorus for unconditional concessions and apology by the Chileans , who ultimately obliged , and war was averted . Theodore Roosevelt later applauded Harrison for his use of the " big stick " in the matter .
= = = = Annexation of Hawaii = = = =
In the last days of his administration , Harrison dealt with the issue of Hawaiian annexation . Following a coup d 'état against Queen Liliuokalani , the new government of Hawaii led by Sanford Dole petitioned for annexation by the United States . Harrison was interested in expanding American influence in Hawaii and in establishing a naval base at Pearl Harbor but had not previously expressed an opinion on annexing the islands . The United States consul in Hawaii John L. Stevens recognized the new government on February 1 , 1893 and forwarded their proposals to Washington . With just one month left before leaving office , the administration signed a treaty on February 14 and submitted it to the Senate the next day with Harrison 's recommendation . The Senate failed to act , and President Cleveland withdrew the treaty shortly after taking office .
= = = Cabinet = = =
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court = = = =
Harrison appointed four justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . The first was David Josiah Brewer , a judge on the Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit . Brewer , the nephew of Justice Field , had previously been considered for a cabinet position . Shortly after Brewer 's nomination , Justice Matthews died , creating another vacancy . Harrison had considered Henry Billings Brown , a Michigan judge and admiralty law expert , for the first vacancy and now nominated him for the second . For the third vacancy , which arose in 1892 , Harrison nominated George Shiras . Shiras 's appointment was somewhat controversial because his age — sixty — was older than usual for a newly appointed Justice . Shiras also drew the opposition of Senator Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania because they were in different factions of the Pennsylvania Republican party , but his nomination was nonetheless approved . Finally , at the end of his term , Harrison nominated Howell Edmunds Jackson to replace Justice Lamar , who died in January 1893 . Harrison knew the incoming Senate would be controlled by Democrats , so he selected Jackson , a respected Tennessee Democrat with whom he was friendly to ensure his nominee would not be rejected . Jackson 's nomination was indeed successful , but he died after only two years on the Court .
= = = = Other courts = = = =
In addition to his Supreme Court appointments , Harrison appointed ten judges to the courts of appeals , two judges to the circuit courts , and 26 judges to the district courts . Because Harrison was in office when Congress eliminated the circuit courts in favor of the courts of appeals , he and Grover Cleveland were the only two Presidents to have appointed judges to both bodies .
= = = States admitted to the Union = = =
When Harrison took office , no new states had been admitted in more than a decade , owing to Congressional Democrats ' reluctance to admit states that they believed would send Republican members . Early in Harrison 's term , however , the lame duck Congress passed bills that admitted four states to the union : North Dakota and South Dakota on November 2 , 1889 , Montana on November 8 , and Washington on November 11 . The following year two more states held constitutional conventions and were admitted – Idaho on July 3 and Wyoming on July 10 , 1890 . The initial Congressional delegations from all six states were solidly Republican . More states were admitted under Harrison 's presidency than any other since George Washington 's .
= = = Vacations and travel = = =
Harrison attended the three @-@ day grand Centennial Celebration of the country in New York City on April 30 , 1889 . He made the following remarks " We have come into the serious but always inspiring presence of Washington . He was the incarnation of duty and he teaches us today this great lesson : that those who would associate their names with events that shall outlive a century can only do so by high consecration to duty . Self @-@ seeking has no public observance or anniversary . "
The Harrisons made many trips out of the capital , which included speeches at most stops – including Philadelphia , New England , Indianapolis and Chicago . The President typically made his best impression speaking before large audiences , as opposed to more intimate settings . The most notable of his presidential trips , theretofore unequaled , was a five @-@ week tour of the west in the spring of 1891 , aboard a lavishly outfitted train . Harrison enjoyed a number of short trips out of the capital — usually for hunting — to nearby Virginia or Maryland .
During the hot Washington summers , the Harrisons took refuge in Deer Park , Maryland and Cape May Point , New Jersey . In 1890 , John Wanamaker joined with other Philadelphia devotees of the Harrisons and made a gift to them of a summer cottage at Cape May . Harrison , though appreciative , was uncomfortable with the appearance of impropriety ; a month later , he paid Wanamaker $ 10 @,@ 000 as reimbursement to the donors . Nevertheless , Harrison 's opponents made the gift the subject of national ridicule , and Mrs. Harrison and the president were vigorously criticized .
= = = Reelection campaign in 1892 = = =
The treasury surplus had evaporated and the nation 's economic health was worsening – precursors to the eventual Panic of 1893 . Congressional elections in 1890 had gone against the Republicans ; and although Harrison had cooperated with Congressional Republicans on legislation , several party leaders withdrew their support for him because of his adamant refusal to give party members the nod in the course of his executive appointments . Specifically , Thomas C. Platt , Mathew S. Quay , Thomas B. Reed and James Clarkson quietly organized the Grievance Committee , the ambition of which was to initiate a dump @-@ Harrison offensive . They solicited the support of Blaine , without effect however , and Harrison in reaction resolved to run for re @-@ election – seemingly forced to choose one of two options – " become a candidate or forever wear the name of a political coward " .
It was clear that Harrison would not be re @-@ nominated unanimously . Many of Harrison 's detractors persisted in pushing for an incapacitated Blaine , though he announced that he was not a candidate in February 1892 . Some party leaders still hoped to draft Blaine into running , and speculation increased when he resigned at the 11th hour as Secretary of State in June . At the convention in Minneapolis , Harrison prevailed on the first ballot , but encountered significant opposition .
The Democrats renominated former President Cleveland , making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier . The tariff revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that now many voters shifted to the reform position . Many westerners , traditionally Republican voters , defected to the new Populist Party candidate , James Weaver , who promised free silver , generous veterans ' pensions , and an eight @-@ hour work day . The effects of the suppression of the Homestead Strike rebounded against the Republicans as well , although the federal government did not take action .
Harrison 's wife Caroline began a critical struggle with tuberculosis earlier in 1892 and two weeks before the election , on October 25 , it took her life . Their daughter Mary Harrison McKee assumed the role of First Lady after her mother 's death . Mrs. Harrison 's terminal illness and the fact that both candidates had served in the White House called for a low key campaign , and resulted in neither of the candidates actively campaigning personally .
Cleveland ultimately won the election by 277 electoral votes to Harrison 's 145 , and also won the popular vote by 5 @,@ 556 @,@ 918 to 5 @,@ 176 @,@ 108 ; this was the most decisive presidential election in 20 years .
= = Post @-@ presidency and death = =
After he left office , Harrison visited the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in June 1893 . After the Expo , Harrison returned to his home in Indianapolis . Harrison had been elected a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in 1882 , and was elected as commander ( president ) of the Ohio Commandery on May 3 , 1893 .
For a few months in 1894 , Harrison lived in San Francisco , California , where he gave law lectures at Stanford University . In 1896 some of Harrison 's friends in the Republican party tried to convince him to seek the presidency again , but he declined . He traveled around the nation making appearances and speeches in support of William McKinley 's candidacy for president .
From July 1895 to March 1901 Harrison served on the Board of Trustees of Purdue University , where Harrison Hall , a dormitory , was named in his honor . He wrote a series of articles about the Federal government and the presidency which were republished in 1897 as a book titled This Country of Ours . In 1899 Harrison attended the First Peace Conference at The Hague .
In 1896 , Harrison at age 62 remarried , to Mary Scott Lord Dimmick , the widowed 37 @-@ year @-@ old niece and former secretary of his deceased wife . Harrison 's two adult children , Russell , 41 years old at the time , and Mary ( Mamie ) McKee , 38 , disapproved of the marriage and did not attend the wedding . Benjamin and Mary had one child together , Elizabeth ( February 21 , 1897 – December 26 , 1955 ) .
In 1900 , Harrison served as an attorney for the Republic of Venezuela in their British Guiana boundary dispute with the United Kingdom . An international trial was agreed upon ; he filed an 800 @-@ page brief and traveled to Paris where he spent more than 25 hours in court on their behalf . Although he lost the case , his legal arguments won him international renown .
Harrison developed what was thought to be influenza ( then referred to as grippe ) in February 1901 . He was treated with steam vapor inhalation and oxygen , but his condition worsened . He died from pneumonia at his home on Wednesday , March 13 , 1901 , at the age of 67 . Harrison is interred in Indianapolis 's Crown Hill Cemetery , next to Caroline . After her death , Mary Dimmick Harrison was buried next to him .
= = Historical reputation and memorials = =
According to historian R. Hal Williams , Harrison had a " widespread reputation for personal and official integrity " . Closely scrutinized by Democrats , Harrision 's reputation was largely intact when he left the White House . Having an advantage few 19th Century Presidents had , Harrison 's own party , the Republicans , controlled Congress , while his administration actively advanced a Republican program of a higher tariff , moderate control of corporations , protecting African American voting rights , a generous Civil War pension , and compromising over the controversial silver issue . Historians have not raised " serious questions about Harrison 's own integrity or the integrity of his administration . "
Following the Panic of 1893 , Harrison became more popular in retirement . His legacy among historians is scant , and " general accounts of his period inaccurately treat Harrison as a cipher " . More recently ,
historians have recognized the importance of the Harrison administration — and Harrison himself — in the new foreign policy of the late nineteenth century . The administration faced challenges throughout the hemisphere , in the Pacific , and in relations with the European powers , involvements that would be taken for granted in the twentieth century .
Harrison 's presidency belongs properly to the 19th century , but he " clearly pointed the way " to the modern presidency that would emerge under William McKinley . The bi @-@ partisan Sherman Anti @-@ Trust Act signed into law by Harrison remains in effect over 120 years later and was the most important legislation passed by the Fifty @-@ first Congress . Harrison 's support for African American voting rights and education would be the last significant attempts to protect civil rights until the 1930s . Harrison 's tenacity at foreign policy was emulated by politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt .
Harrison was memorialized on several postage stamps . The first was a 13 @-@ cent stamp issued on November 18 , 1902 . The engraved likeness of Harrison was modeled after a photo provided by Harrison 's widow . In all Harrison has been honored on six U.S. Postage stamps , more than most other U.S. Presidents . Harrison also was featured on the five @-@ dollar National Bank Notes from the third charter period , beginning in 1902 .
In 1908 , the people of Indianapolis erected the Benjamin Harrison memorial statue , created by Charles Niehaus and Henry Bacon , in honor of Harrison 's lifetime achievements as military leader , U.S. Senator , and President of the United States . The statue occupies a site in University Park overlooking the Birch Bayh Federal Building and United States Courthouse across New York Avenue .
In 1942 , a Liberty Ship , the SS Benjamin Harrison , was named in his honor . In 1951 , Harrison 's home was opened to the public as a library and museum . It had been used as a dormitory for a music school from 1937 to 1950 . The house was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1964 . In 2012 , a dollar coin with his image , part of the Presidential $ 1 Coin Program , was issued .
Fort Benjamin Harrison , located in Lawrence , Indiana , a northeastern suburb of Indianapolis , was constructed in 1903 to 1908 and named in his honor . The base was closed in 1991 and the site has been redeveloped to include residential neighborhoods , a golf course , and Fort Harrison State Park .
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= Pseudoplectania nigrella =
Pseudoplectania nigrella , commonly known as the ebony cup , the black false plectania , or the hairy black cup , is a species of fungi in the family Sarcosomataceae . The fruit bodies of this saprobic fungus are small blackish cups , typically up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) broad , that grow in groups on soil , often amongst pine needles and short grass near coniferous trees . Pseudoplectania nigrella has a worldwide distribution , and has been found in North America , the Caribbean , Britain , Europe , India , Madagascar , New Zealand , and Japan . The fungus produces a unique chemical compound , plectasin , that has attracted research interest for its ability to inhibit the growth of the common human pathogenic bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Christian Hendrik Persoon named the species Peziza nigrella in his Systema Mycologia in 1801 , and it was sanctioned under this name in Elias Magnus Fries ' Systema Mycologicum in 1821 . In 1870 , German mycologist Fuckel transferred it to his newly described genus Pseudoplectania , and made it the type species . The species was ulteriorly placed in Crouania by Friedrich August Hazslinszky von Hazslin , and in Plectania by Petter Karsten ( 1885 ) , but neither placement is considered correct .
The fungus is commonly known as the " ebony cup " , the " black false plectania " , or the " hairy black cup " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies ( technically called apothecia ) typically grow in groups , or sometimes crowded closely together , with small stems or missing them entirely . Initially , the fruit bodies are closed and roughly spherical , but as they develop they expand to become cup @-@ shaped , or almost flat . The inner surface of the cups bear the reproductive spore @-@ bearing layer , or hymenium ; it is brownish @-@ black , with an edge that is often wavy and curved slightly inwards , and covered with fine hairs . The cups may reach up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . The hairs are long but usually closely coiled and twisted , which gives to the exterior of the cup a slightly tomentose appearance of nearly uniform thickness throughout their entire length . They are pale brown and 4 – 6 µm in diameter .
The asci are roughly cylindrical with a long stem @-@ like base ; the entire ascus is often as long as 300 – 325 µm and about 15 µm in diameter at the thickest point . The spores are round , smooth , translucent ( hyaline ) , and have diameters of about 12 – 14 µm . They are filled with many small oil droplets . The paraphyses ( sterile filamentous hyphae in the hymenium ) are enlarged at their tips and filled with brown colored matter , about 4 µm thick .
= = = Similar species = = =
Pseudoplectania sphagnophila resembles P. nigrella , but has a more deeply and persistently cup @-@ shaped fruit body , a short but distinct stem , and only grows amongst sphagnum moss . Plectania melastoma has elliptical to spindle @-@ shaped spores measuring 20 – 28 by 8 – 12 µm , while P. milleri has elliptical spores , and the margin of its cups have star @-@ shaped points .
= = = Edibility = = =
Pseudoplectania nigrella is considered inedible . It has no distinctive taste or odor .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
This species is saprobic , and is found growing in groups on the ground or on moss @-@ covered decaying wood , especially amongst fallen pine needles . In North America , fruit bodies appear in the spring and summer , and are fairly common ; in Britain , the fungus fruits from winter to spring , and is rare . Its small size and dark color makes it easy to overlook .
Pseudoplectania nigrella has a worldwide distribution , and has been found in North America , the Caribbean , Europe , India , Madagascar , New Zealand , Israel , and Japan .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Defensins are antibiotics made from peptides and are typically found in animals and higher plants . Plectasin , found in Pseudoplectania nigrella , is the first defensin to be isolated from a fungus . Plectasin has a chemical structure resembling defensins found in spiders , scorpions , dragonflies and mussels . In general , defensins have commonalities in their molecular structure , such as cysteines in the peptide stabilized with disulfide bonds . In particular , defensins from P. nigrella , invertebrates , and plants and share a conformation that has been named the CSαβ motif . In laboratory tests , plectasin was especially active in inhibiting the growth of the common human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae , including strains resistant to conventional antibiotics . Plectasin has a low toxicity in mice , and cured them of peritonitis and pneumonia caused by S. pneumoniae as efficiently as vancomycin and penicillin , suggesting that it may have therapeutic potential . In 2010 , Chinese scientists announced a method for high @-@ level production of plectasin using an E. coli protein expression system .
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= New York Dolls ( album ) =
New York Dolls is the debut studio album by American hard rock band the New York Dolls . It was released on July 27 , 1973 , by Mercury Records . The band formed in 1971 and developed a following while playing regularly in lower Manhattan . However , they were unappealing to record companies because of their onstage cross @-@ dressing and vulgarity , while most record producers were reluctant to work with them . For shock value , the band was photographed in exaggerated drag on the album cover .
After signing a two @-@ record deal with Mercury , the New York Dolls recorded their self @-@ titled first album at The Record Plant in New York City with producer Todd Rundgren , who was known for his sophisticated pop sound and held a lukewarm opinion of the band . They incorporated carefree rock and roll and Brill Building pop influences in the album 's hard rock songs , while the lyrics were written mostly by lead singer David Johansen and touched on themes such as urban youth , teen alienation , adolescent romance , and authenticity .
New York Dolls received widespread acclaim from critics when it was first released but sold poorly and had a divisive effect on listeners . The band toured the United States to promote the record , but they were difficult to market and developed a reputation for rock @-@ star excesses . Despite its commercial failure , the album was an influential precursor to the 1970s punk rock movement and has since been named in various publications as one of the greatest debut records in rock music and one of the greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
In 1971 , vocalist David Johansen formed the New York Dolls with guitarists Johnny Thunders and Rick Rivets , bassist Arthur Kane , and drummer Billy Murcia ; Rivets was replaced by Sylvain Sylvain in 1972 . The band was meant to be a temporary project for the members , who were club @-@ going youths that had gone to New York City with different career pursuits . As Sylvain recalled , " We just said ' Hey , maybe this will get us some chicks . ' That seemed like a good enough reason . " He and Murcia originally planned to work in the clothing business and opened a boutique on Lexington Avenue that was across the street from a toy repair shop called the New York Dolls Hospital , which gave them the idea for their name . The group soon began playing regularly in lower Manhattan and earned a cult following within a few months with their reckless style of rock music . Nonetheless , record companies were hesitant to sign them because of their onstage cross @-@ dressing and blatant vulgarity . In October 1972 , they garnered the interest of critics when they opened for English rock band the Faces at the Empire Pool in Wembley . However , on the New York Dolls ' first tour of England that year , Murcia died after consuming a lethal combination of alcohol and methaqualone . They enlisted Jerry Nolan as his replacement , while managers Marty Thau , Steve Leber , and David Krebs still struggled to find the band a record deal .
After returning to New York , the New York Dolls played to capacity crowds at venues such as Max 's Kansas City and the Mercer Arts Center in what Sylvain called a determined effort to " fake it until they could make it " : " We had to make ourselves feel famous before we could actually become famous . We acted like we were already rock stars . Arthur even called his bass ' Excalibur ' after King Arthur . It was crazy . " Their performance at the Mercer Arts Center was attended by journalist and Mercury Records publicity director Bud Scoppa , and Paul Nelson , an A & R executive for the label . Scoppa initially viewed them as an amusing but inferior version of the Rolling Stones : " I split after the first set . Paul stuck around for the second set , though , and after show he called me and said , ' You should have stayed . I think they 're really special . ' Then , after that , I fell in love with them anyway . " In March 1973 , the group signed a two @-@ album deal with a US $ 25 @,@ 000 advance from Mercury . According to Sylvain , some of the members ' parents had to sign for them because they were not old enough to sign themselves .
For the New York Dolls ' debut album , Mercury wanted to find a record producer who could make the most out of the group 's sound and the hype they had received from critics and fans in New York . At the band 's first board meeting in Chicago , Johansen fell asleep in Mercury 's conference room while record executives discussed potential producers . He awoke when they mentioned Todd Rundgren , a musician and producer who by 1972 had achieved unexpected rock stardom with his double album Something / Anything ? and its hit singles " I Saw the Light " and " Hello It 's Me " . Rundgren had socialized at venues such as Max 's Kansas City and first saw the New York Dolls when his girlfriend at the time , model Bebe Buell , brought him there to see them play .
Known for having refined pop tastes and technologically savvy productions , Rundgren had become increasingly interested in progressive rock sounds by the time he was enlisted to produce the New York Dolls ' debut album . Consequently , his initial impression of the group was that of a humorous live act who were technically competent only by the standards of other unsophisticated New York bands . " The Dolls weren 't out to expand any musical horizons " , said Rundgren , although he enjoyed Thunders ' " attitude " and Johansen 's charismatic antics onstage . Johansen referred to Rundgren as " an expert on second rate rock ' n ' roll " , but also said the band was " kind of persona non grata , at the time , with most producers . They were afraid of us , I don 't know why , but Todd wasn 't . We all liked him from Max 's ... Todd was cool and he was a producer . " Sylvain , on the other hand , felt the decision to enlist him was based on availability , time , and money : " It wasn 't a long list . Todd was in New York and seemed like he could handle the pace . " Upon being hired , Rundgren declared that " the only person who can produce a New York record is someone who lives in New York " .
= = Recording and production = =
Mercury booked the New York Dolls at The Record Plant in New York City , where they recorded their self @-@ titled debut album in April 1973 . Rundgren was originally concerned that they had taken " the worst sounding studio in the city at that time " because it was the only one available to them with the short time given to record and release the album . He later said that expectations for the band and the festive atmosphere of the recording sessions proved to be more of a problem : " The Dolls were critics ' darlings and the press had kind of adopted them . Plus , there were lots of extra people around , socializing , which made it hard to concentrate . " New York Dolls was recorded in eight days on a budget of only $ 17 @,@ 000 . With a short amount of studio time and no concept in mind for the album , the band chose which songs to record based on how well they had been received at their live shows . In Johansen 's own words , " we went into a room and just recorded . It wasn 't like these people who conceptualize things . It was just a document of what was going on at the time . "
In the studio , the New York Dolls dressed in their usual flashy clothes . Rundgren , who did not approve of their raucous sound , at one point yelled at them during the sessions to " get the glitter out of your asses and play " . Sylvain recalled Rundgren inviting Buell and their Chihuahua to the studio and putting the latter atop an expensive mixing console , while Johansen acknowledged that his recollections of the sessions have since been distorted by what he has read about them : " It was like the 1920s , with palm tree décor and stuff . Well , that 's how I remember it , anyway . " He also said Rundgren directed the band from the control room with engineer Jack Douglas and hardly spoke to them while they recorded the album . According to Scopa , the group 's carefree lifestyle probably conflicted with Rundgren 's professional work ethic and schedule : " He doesn 't put up with bullshit . I mean , [ the band ] rarely started their live sets before midnight , so who knows ? Todd was very much in charge in the studio , however , and I got the impression that everybody was looking to him . "
Although Sylvain said Rundgren was not an interfering producer , he occasionally involved himself to improve a take . Sylvain recalled moments when Rundgren went into the isolation booth with Murcia when he struggled keeping a beat and drummed out beats on a cowbell for him to use as a click track . During another session , he stopped a take and walked out of the control room to plug in Kane 's bass cabinet . Scoppa , who paid afternoon visits to the studio , overheard Rundgren say , " Yeah , that 's all you needed . Okay , let 's try it again ! " , and ultimately found the exchange funny and indicative of Rundgren 's opinion of the band : " Todd was such a ' musician ' while they were just getting by on attitude and energy . But as disdainful as he appeared to be at some points he got the job done really well . " Rundgren felt Johansen 's wild singing often sounded screamed or drunken but were eloquent in the sense that Johansen demonstrated a " propensity to incorporate certain cultural references into the music " , particularly on " Personality Crisis " . While recording the song , Johansen walked back into the control room and asked Rundgren if his vocals sounded " ludicrous enough " .
Because the New York Dolls had little money , Sylvain and Thunders played the austerely designed and affordable Gibson Les Paul Junior guitars on the record . They jokingly referred to them as " automatic guitars " due to their limited sound shaping features . To amplify their guitars , they ran a Marshall Plexi standalone amplifier through the speaker cabinets of a Fender Dual Showman , and occasionally used a Fender Twin Reverb . Some songs were embellished with additional instruments , including Buddy Bowser 's brassy saxophone on " Lonely Planet Boy " . Johansen sang into distorted guitar pickups for additional vocals and overdubbed them into the song . He also played an Asian gong for " Vietnamese Baby " and harmonica on " Pills " . For " Personality Crisis " , Sylvain originally played on The Record Plant 's Yamaha grand piano before Rundgren added his own piano flourishes to both that song and " Private World " . Rundgren also contributed to the background vocals heard on " Trash " and played synthesizers on " Vietnamese Baby " and " Frankenstein ( Orig . ) " , which Sylvain recalled : " I remember him getting those weird sounds from this beautiful old Moog synthesizer he brought in . He said it was a model that only he and The Beatles had . "
New York Dolls was mixed in less than half a day . Rundgren felt the band seemed distracted and disinterested at that point , so he tried unsuccessfully to ban them from the mixing session . For the final mix , he minimized the sound of Nolan 's drumming . In retrospect , Rundgren said the quality of the mix was poor because the band had hurried and questioned him while mixing the record : " It 's too easy for it to become a free @-@ for @-@ all , with every musician only hearing their own part and not the whole . They all had other places to be , so rather than split , they rushed the thing and if that wasn 't enough they took it to the crappy mastering lab that Mercury had put them in . " Thunders famously complained to a journalist that Rundgren " fucked up the mix " on New York Dolls , adding to stories that the two had clashed during the album 's recording . Both Johansen and Scoppa later said they did not see any conflict between the two and that Thunders ' typically foolish behavior was misinterpreted . Johansen later praised Rundgren for how he enhanced and equalized each instrument , giving listeners the impression that " [ they 're ] in a room and there 's a band playing " , while Sylvain said his mix accurately captured how the band sounded live .
= = Music and lyrics = =
New York Dolls features 10 original songs and 1 cover — the 1963 Bo Diddley song " Pills " . Johansen described the album as " a little jewel of urban folk art " . Rundgren , on the other hand , said the band 's sensibilities were different from " the urban New York thing " because they had been raised outside Manhattan and drew on carefree rock and roll and Brill Building pop influences such as the Shangri @-@ Las : " Their songs , as punky as they were , usually had a lot to do with the same old boy @-@ girl thing but in a much more inebriated way . " Johansen quoted the lyric " you 'd best believe I 'm in love L @-@ U @-@ V " from the Shangri @-@ Las ' " Give Him a Great Big Kiss " ( 1964 ) when he opened " Looking for a Kiss " , which tells a story of adolescent romantic desire hampered by peers who use drugs . On " Subway Train " , he used lyrics from the American folk standard " Someone 's in the Kitchen with Dinah " . In the opinion of critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine , the album 's rowdy hard rock songs also revamped riffs from Chuck Berry and the Rolling Stones , resulting in music that sounded edgy and threatening in spite of the New York Dolls ' wittingly kitsch and camp sensibilities . " Personality Crisis " featured raunchy dual guitars , boogie @-@ woogie piano , and a histrionic pause , while " Trash " was a punky pop rock song with brassy singing .
Several songs on New York Dolls function as what Robert Hilburn deemed " colorful , if exaggerated , expressions of teen alienation " . Robert Christgau remarked that because many of Manhattan 's white youths were wealthy and somewhat artsy , only ill @-@ behaved young people from the outer boroughs such as the band members could " capture the oppressive excitement Manhattan holds for a half @-@ formed human being " . " Private World " , an escapist plea for stability , was co @-@ written by Kane , who rarely contributed as a songwriter and felt overwhelmed as a young adult in the music business . Johansen , the band 's main lyricist , said " Frankenstein ( Orig . ) " was about " how kids come to Manhattan from all over , they 're kind of like whipped dogs , they 're very repressed . Their bodies and brains are disoriented from each other ... it 's a love song . " According to critic Frank Kogan , the titular monster in the song was the personification of New York City and its ethos — " the ostentation and the terror , the dreams and the fear " — while Johansen asking listeners if they " could make it with Frankenstein " involved more than sexual slang : " David was asking if you — if I — could make it with the monster of life , whether I could embrace life in all its pain and dreams and disaster . " Sylvain jokingly said " Frankenstein ( Orig . ) " was titled with a qualifier because rock musician Edgar Winter had released his 1973 song of the same name before the band could record their own : " Our song ' Frankenstein ' was a big hit in our live show ... Now , his thing didn 't sound at all like ours , but I 'm sure he stole our title . "
Although the New York Dolls exhibited tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek qualities , Gary Graff observed a streetwise realism in the album 's songs . In Christgau 's opinion , Johansen 's colloquial and morally superior lyrics were imbued with humor and a sense of human limits in songs whose fundamental theme was authenticity . This theme was explored in stories about lost youths , as on " Subway Train " , or in a study of a specific subject , such as the " schizy imagemonger " on " Personality Crisis " . He argued that beneath the band 's decadent and campy surface were lyrics about " the modern world ... one nuclear bomb could blow it all away . Pills and personality crises weren 't evils — easy , necessary , or whatever . They were strategies and tropisms and positive pleasures " . According to journalist Steve Taylor , " Vietnamese Baby " dealt with the impact of the Vietnam War at the time on everyday activities for people , whose fun was undermined by thoughts of collective guilt .
On songs such as " Subway Train " and " Trash " , Johansen used ambiguity as a lyrical mode . In Kogan 's opinion , Johansen sang in an occasionally unintelligible manner and wrote in a perplexing , fictional style that was lazy yet ingenious , as it provided his lyrics an abundance of " emotional meaning " and interpretation : " David never provides an objective framework , he 's always jumping from voice to voice , so you 're hearing a character addressing another character , or the narrator addressing the character , or the character or the narrator addressing us , all jammed up together so you 're hearing bits of conversation and bits of subjective description in no kind of chronological order . But as someone says in ' Vietnamese Baby ' : ' Everything connects . ' " In " Trash " , Johansen undercut his vaguely pansexual beliefs with the possibility of going to " fairyland " if he took a " lover 's leap " with the song 's subject .
= = Release and reception = =
New York Dolls was released on July 27 , 1973 , in the United States and on October 19 in the United Kingdom . Its controversial cover featured the band dressed in exaggerated drag , including high wigs , messy make @-@ up , high heels , and garters . The photo was used for shock value , and on the back of the album , the band is photographed in their usual stage wear . To announce the album 's release , Mercury published an advertisement slogan that read " Introducing The New York Dolls : A Band You 're Gonna Like , Whether You Like It Or Not " , while other ads called them " The Band You Love to Hate " . Two double A @-@ sided , 7 " singles were released — " Trash " / " Personality Crisis " in July and " Jet Boy " / " Vietnamese Baby " in November 1973 — neither of which charted .
New York Dolls was not a success with consumers and only reached number 116 on the American Top LPs , while in the UK , it failed to chart altogether . The record sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies at the time and fell well short of expectations in the press . According to Rolling Stone in 2003 , it ultimately sold fewer than 500 @,@ 000 copies . Music journalist Phil Strongman said that its commercial failure could be attributed to the New York Dolls ' divisive effect on listeners , including writers from the same magazine . In a feature story on the band for Melody Maker , Mark Plummer dismissed their playing as the poorest he had ever seen , while the magazine 's reporter Michael Watts viewed them as an encouraging , albeit momentary , presence in what he felt was a lifeless rock and roll scene at the time . In Creem magazine 's readers poll , the album earned the band awards in the categories of " Best New Group of the Year " and " Worst New Group of the Year " .
New York Dolls nonetheless received widespread acclaim from contemporary critics . In a rave review for NME , Nick Kent said the band 's raunchy style of rock and roll was vividly recorded by Rundgren on an album that , besides Iggy and the Stooges ' Raw Power ( 1973 ) , served as the only one " so far to fully define just exactly where 1970s rock should be coming from " . Trouser Press founder and editor Ira Robbins viewed New York Dolls as an innovative record and found the band 's music brilliantly chaotic and well produced by Rundgren . Ellen Willis , writing for The New Yorker , said it was by far the year 's most compelling hard rock album and that at least half of its songs were immediate classics , particularly " Personality Crisis " and " Trash " , which she called " transcendent " . In Newsday , Christgau hailed the New York Dolls as " the best hard rock band in the country and maybe the world right now " , writing that their " special genius " was combining the shrewd songwriting savvy of early @-@ 1960s popular music with the anarchic sound of late @-@ 1960s heavy metal . He believed the record 's frenzied approach , various emotions , and wild noise conveyed Manhattan 's harsh , deviant thrill better than the Velvet Underground . In a less enthusiastic review , Rolling Stone critic Tony Glover believed the band 's impressive live sound was mostly preserved on the album , but he was slightly critical of production flourishes and overdubs , feeling they made some lyrics incomprehensible and some choruses too sonorous . Although he was surprised Rundgren 's production worked well with the group 's raunchy sound on most of the songs , Glover ultimately asked whether or not " the record alone will impress as much as seeing them live ( they 're a highly watchable group ) . "
After the album 's release , the New York Dolls toured the US as a supporting act for English rock band Mott the Hoople . Reviews complimented their songwriting , Thunders and Sylvain 's guitar interplay , and noted their campy fashion and the resemblance of Johansen and Thunders to Mick Jagger and Keith Richards . However , some critics panned them as an unserious group of amateurs who could not play or sing . During their appearance on The Old Grey Whistle Test in England , the show 's host Bob Harris dismissed their music as " mock rock " in his on @-@ air comments . They also developed a reputation for rock @-@ star excesses , including drugs , groupies , trashed hotel rooms , and public disturbances , and according to Ben Edmonds of Creem , became " the most walked @-@ out @-@ on band in the history of show business " . Strongman wrote that the band and the album were difficult to market because of their kitschy style and how Murcia 's death had exacerbated their association with hard drugs , which " wasn 't altogether true in the early days " . Nonetheless , they remained the most popular band in New York City , where their Halloween night concert at the Waldorf Astoria in 1973 drew hundreds of young fans and local television coverage .
= = Legacy and influence = =
New York Dolls has since been often cited as one of the greatest debut albums in rock music , one of the genre 's most popular cult records , and a foundational work for the late 1970s punk rock movement . It was a pivotal influence on many of the rock and roll , punk , and glam rock groups that followed , including the Ramones , Kiss , the Sex Pistols , The Damned , and Guns N ' Roses . According to The Mojo Collection ( 2007 ) , the record ignited punk rock and could still inspire more movements because of the music 's abundant attitude and passion , while Encyclopedia of Popular Music writer Colin Larkin deemed it " a major landmark in rock history , oozing attitude , vitality and controversy from every note " . Chuck Eddy named it one of the records crucial to the evolution of rock music . In 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music ( 2009 ) , Chris Smith wrote that the New York Dolls pioneered punk 's aesthetic of amateurish musicianship on the album , which undermined the musical sophistication that had developed over the past decade in popular music and had been perfected months earlier on Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) . In The Guardian 's list of " 1000 albums to hear before you die " , the newspaper credited the record for serving as " an efficacious antidote to the excesses of prog rock " .
In a retrospective review for AllMusic , Erlewine — the website 's senior editor — claimed that New York Dolls was a more quintessential proto @-@ punk album than any of the Stooges ' releases because of how it " plunders history while celebrating it , creating a sleazy urban mythology along the way " . David Fricke argued that it was a more definitive glam rock album than David Bowie 's Ziggy Stardust ( 1972 ) or anything by Marc Bolan because of how the band " captured both the glory and sorrow of glam , the high jinx and wasted youth , with electric photorealism " . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Joe Gross called it an " absolutely essential " record and " epic sleaze , the sound of five young men shaping the big city in their own scuzzy image " . Sylvain attributed its influence on punk rock to how Rundgren recorded his guitar through the left speaker and Thunders ' guitar on the right side , an orientation which he said younger bands such as the Ramones and the Sex Pistols adopted . Rundgren was amused by how the record became considered a precursor to the punk movement : " The irony is that I wound up producing the seminal punk album , but I was never really thought of as a punk producer , and I never got called by punk acts . They probably thought I was too expensive for what they were going for . But the Dolls didn 't really consider themselves punk . "
New York Dolls has frequently been named one of the greatest albums of all @-@ time ; according to Acclaimed Music , it is the 155th most ranked record on critics ' all @-@ time lists . In 1978 , it was ranked as the 199th greatest record ever in Paul Gambaccini 's book Rock Critics ' Choice : The Top 200 Albums , which polled a number of leading music journalists and record collectors . Christgau , one of the critics polled , named it the 15th best album of the 1970s in The Village Voice the following year . New York Dolls was included in Neil Strauss 's 1996 list of the 100 most influential alternative records , and the Spin Alternative Record Guide ( 1995 ) named it the 70th best alternative album . In 2002 , it was included on a list published by Q of the 100 best punk records , while Mojo named it both the 13th greatest punk album and the 49th greatest album of all time . In 2003 , Rolling Stone placed the record at number 213 on its 500 greatest albums list and " Personality Crisis " at number 271 on its 500 greatest songs list . In 2007 , Mojo polled a panel of prominent recording artists and songwriters for the magazine 's list of " 100 Records That Changed the World " , in which New York Dolls was voted the 39th most influential and inspirational record ever . English singer Morrissey named it his favorite album in a list for The Quietus in 2010 . According to Paul Myers , the record " struck such a chord with Morrissey that he was not only moved to form his own influential group , The Smiths ... but would eventually convince the surviving Dolls to reunite [ in 2004 ] " . In 2013 , New York Dolls was placed at number 355 on NME 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = New York Dolls = = =
David Johansen – gong , harmonica , vocals
Arthur " Killer " Kane – bass guitar
Jerry Nolan – drums
Sylvain Sylvain – piano , rhythm guitar , vocals
Johnny Thunders – lead guitar , vocals
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Buddy Bowser – saxophone
Jack Douglas – engineering
David Krebs – executive production
Steve Leber – executive production
Paul Nelson – executive production
Dave O 'Grady – makeup
Todd Rundgren – additional piano , Moog synthesizer , production
Ed Sprigg – engineer
Alex Spyropoulos – piano
Marty Thau – executive production
Toshi – photography
= = Release history = =
Information is adapted from Nina Antonia 's Too Much Too Soon : The New York Dolls ( 2006 ) .
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= Harold Davidson =
Harold Francis Davidson ( 14 July 1875 – 30 July 1937 ) , generally known as the Rector of Stiffkey , was a Church of England priest who in 1932 , after a public scandal , was convicted of immorality by a church court and defrocked . Davidson strongly protested his innocence and to raise funds for his reinstatement campaign he exhibited himself in a barrel on the Blackpool seafront . He performed in other sideshows of a similar nature , and died after being attacked by a lion in whose cage he was appearing in a seaside spectacular .
Before his ordination in 1903 , Davidson had a brief career on the London stage as an entertainer . As a young curate he became actively involved with charitable activity among London 's poor , an interest he maintained following his appointment in 1906 as rector of the rural Norfolk parish of Stiffkey . After the First World War , in which he served as a naval chaplain , he devoted himself primarily to his London work . Styling himself the " Prostitutes ' Padre " , his declared mission was the rescue of young girls he considered in danger of falling into vice . In this role he approached and befriended hundreds of girls and , although there was little direct evidence of improper behaviour , Davidson was frequently found in compromising situations . His neglect of his local duties over many years strained relations with his parishioners in Stiffkey ; after a formal complaint , the Bishop of Norwich instituted disciplinary proceedings through a consistory court . Davidson 's defence was severely compromised by his eccentric conduct , and was damaged beyond repair when the prosecution produced a photograph of him with a near @-@ naked teenage girl .
Davidson 's later career as a showman earned him much notoriety but little money . His attempts at legal redress were unsuccessful , despite recognition even in church circles that he had not been fairly treated by the consistory court . After his death the case continued to attract public interest for decades , through fictional , stage and screen versions of the story . His descendants have continued to assert his innocence of any wrongdoing , and later commentators have generally accepted that however unwise and inappropriate his behaviour , his basic motives were genuine and that he did not deserve the humiliations he endured .
= = Family background and childhood = =
Harold Davidson was born on 14 July 1875 in Sholing , near the south coast port of Southampton , to the Reverend Francis Davidson and his wife Alice . Francis Davidson was the vicar of St Mary 's , Sholing , a post he had held since 1866 ; as many as 27 members of the Davidson family were or had been Anglican clergy . Alice Davidson , née Hodgskin , was a great @-@ niece of the educationist and Rugby School headmaster Thomas Arnold . Sholing was a poor parish , with a mixed population of dock labourers and itinerant workers many of whom had little interest in churchgoing . Francis Davidson , described by Harold Davidson 's earliest biographer , Tom Cullen , as " a tiny man ... with a luxuriant beard that gave him the appearance of a gnome " , served the parish for 48 years . Although he could be pugnacious when necessary , according to a former parishioner he was a true pastor , willing to offer help whatever the circumstances .
Davidson 's family assumed that he would follow his father in becoming a priest and he was brought up strictly . When he was six he began attending Banister Court School in Southampton , an establishment founded initially for the sons of Merchant Navy officers . In 1890 Harold was sent to live with two maiden aunts in Croydon while he attended the Whitgift School . Here he became an enthusiastic amateur actor , encouraged by his friendship with a fellow @-@ pupil , Leon Quartermaine , who later won recognition on the stage and in films . In February 1894 the pair appeared together in a school production of the farce Sent to the Tower . Under his aunts ' influence , Davidson became a part @-@ time worker at Toynbee Hall , an East End charity founded by Samuel and Henrietta Barnett which attracted many volunteers from schools and universities . Because of these distractions he neglected his school work and failed to win a scholarship that would enable him to attend Oxford University and study for holy orders . In the face of his father 's disapproval , he decided to pursue a career as a stage comedian .
= = Theatre , Oxford and ordination = =
Davidson 's principal theatrical genre was that of the " drawing @-@ room entertainer " ; Cullen describes this kind of performance as " [ a ] n answer to the demand of a rising middle class which was neither cultured nor resourceful , but which wanted desperately to be diverted " . Within a few months of leaving Whitgift in 1894 , Davidson appeared on the London stage , at Steinway Hall in Lower Seymour Street , performing a comic routine . He was reasonably successful and in the next few years found provincial engagements with Masonic lodges , literary societies and similar social organisations . Cullen suggests that his greatest triumph was as a comic actor in a touring production of Brandon Thomas 's popular farce Charley 's Aunt . Davidson played the part of Lord Fancourt Babberley , who masquerades as the rich aunt of a fellow @-@ Oxford undergraduate — a frenetic role for which Cullen believes Davidson was eminently suitable .
During his theatrical days , Davidson maintained high standards of personal morality , observed strict teetotalism and gave regular Bible readings to the elderly in the towns in which he performed on tour . He later gave an account of an incident from November 1894 when he was performing in London . While walking along the Thames Embankment in a thick fog , he said , he encountered a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl who was about to throw herself into the Thames . After preventing her suicide attempt , Davidson learned that she had run away from home near Cambridge , was penniless and without shelter . He paid her fare home : " Her pitiful story made a tremendous impression on me ... I have ever since ... kept my eyes open for opportunities to help that kind of girl . "
In 1898 Davidson finally bowed to his father 's wish that he should study for holy orders , after the intervention of the Reverend Basil Wilberforce , grandson of the abolitionist William Wilberforce and a friend of the Davidson family . Wilberforce was an alumnus of Exeter College , Oxford , and used his influence to secure Davidson a place there despite the latter 's lack of qualifications . At Oxford , Davidson 's behaviour was notably eccentric ; he displayed considerable energy but disregarded rules , was persistently unpunctual and regularly failed his examinations . He continued to appear on the stage when he could , and decorated the walls of his rooms with autographed pictures of actresses . By 1901 his academic inadequacies were such that he was required to leave Exeter College , although he was allowed to continue studying for his degree at Grindle 's Hall , a cramming establishment . He finally passed his examinations in 1903 , at the age of 28 , and that year was ordained by the Bishop of Oxford — after some reluctance on the part of the bishop to accept so unpromising a candidate .
In 1901 , when Annie Horniman 's travelling theatrical company visited Oxford , Davidson fell in love with one of the company 's leading actresses , Moyra ( " Molly " ) Cassandra Saurin , an attractive blonde and blue @-@ eyed woman from County Meath in Ireland . The couple were quickly engaged , but the relationship was stormy and was several times broken off . There was no question of marriage until Davidson was fully established in his new profession . His first church appointment was a curacy at Holy Trinity Church , Windsor , Berkshire , with an additional role as assistant chaplain to the Household Cavalry at Combermere Barracks . In 1905 he was transferred to London as curate at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , where his enthusiasm and industry drew approving comments .
= = Rector of Stiffkey = =
= = = Early years = = =
Davidson 's appointment in 1906 as rector of the Norfolk parish of Stiffkey with Morston came through the patronage of the 6th Marquess Townshend , whose family had a long history of public and political service in the county .. The appointment was probably given in recognition of Davidson 's role in reconciling the fierce opposition of the Townshend family to the marquess 's proposed marriage to Gladys Sutherst , the daughter of a bankrupt Yorkshire businessman ; as curate of St Martin 's , Davidson had officiated at the wedding on 8 August 1905 . The Stiffkey living was highly desirable , with 60 acres ( 24 ha ) of glebe land , a large Georgian rectory , and an income in 1906 of £ 503 per annum , rising during Davidson 's incumbency to £ 800 .
Stiffkey , close to the northern Norfolk coast , lies on both sides of the River Stiffkey , with extensive salt marshes on its seaward side . At the time of Davidson 's arrival in 1906 the village , with a population of around 350 , was generally impoverished although , according to Davidson 's 2007 biographer Jonathan Tucker , it was well supplied with shops and public houses . Davidson was quickly on good terms with most of the villagers , who referred to him with affection as " Little Jimmy " — he was only 5 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 60 metres ) tall . He was less well regarded by the local gentry , including the main landowner , Colonel Groom , who fell out with Davidson after the priest rebuked him for keeping a mistress .
On 9 October 1906 , now settled into a prosperous living , Davidson married Molly Saurin . The Stiffkey rectory became a family home , as children were born at regular intervals . Notwithstanding his parochial and domestic responsibilities , Davidson quickly adopted the habit of spending much of the week in London , engaged in various kinds of social work . Through his friendship with Reginald Kennedy @-@ Cox , whom he had met at Oxford , Davidson became involved with the Malvern Mission , forerunner of the Dockland Settlements , of which he later became a trustee . He also became chaplain to the Actors ' Church Union , based at St Paul 's , Covent Garden , and was frequently to be found backstage in London 's theatres , ministering to the needs of showgirls — sometimes with an unwelcomed degree of persistence . Between 1910 and 1913 he expanded this work to Paris , to which he made regular visits , sometimes acting as a chaperone for dancers recruited by the Folies Bergère . Many out @-@ of @-@ work and would @-@ be actresses were invited to stay at the Stiffkey rectory , sometimes as many as 20 at a time , to the consternation of Molly Davidson and of some of the local establishment who feared for the morals of local farmhands . Among those most disapproving of Davidson 's conduct was Major Philip Hamond , a churchwarden at Morston , who later became Davidson 's principal adversary .
= = = First World War = = =
Davidson was 39 years old at the outbreak of war in 1914 . In October 1915 , possibly to escape the increasingly turbulent atmosphere in the Stiffkey rectory , he joined the Royal Navy as a chaplain . He began his service on HMS Gibraltar , a depot ship based in the Shetland Islands , where he irritated his shipmates by calling church parades every time another ship visited the anchorage ; he had the full approval of the base commander , Vice Admiral Sir Reginald Tupper , who was known as " Holy Reggie " . Davidson 's service report from Gibraltar 's captain records that " he performs his duties in a perfunctory manner . Not on good terms with messmates , disregards mess rules and regulations " . In October 1916 Davidson joined HMS Fox in the Middle East , and shortly afterwards was arrested by the naval police during a raid on a Cairo brothel . He explained that he was looking for a diseased prostitute who had been infecting his men . Again his commanding officer 's reports were negative ; however , Davidson remained with the Fox until August 1918 when he was posted to HMS Leviathan in the northern Atlantic . Here , his commander was slightly more complimentary ; he found Davidson " a clever writer and entertainer [ who ] pays attention to duty " . Davidson left the Navy in March 1919 .
= = = " Prostitutes ' Padre " = = =
When Davidson returned home he found that Molly was six months ' pregnant . The dates of his service leave during 1918 made it apparent that he was not the father . A daughter was born on 21 June 1919 ; the likely father was a Canadian army colonel , Ernest Doudemain , a friend from Davidson 's schooldays who had lodged at the rectory in the latter part of 1918 . Although deeply upset by his wife 's infidelity , Davidson accepted the child — who bore some resemblance to him — as his own . To escape the poisoned atmosphere in Stiffkey he applied for a year 's posting as chaplain to a hill station at Simla in India , but the opportunity fell through . Instead , Davidson resumed his pre @-@ war routine of spending his weeks in London , departing early on Monday morning and returning late on Saturday . Sometimes , through a missed rail connection or other mishap , he was barely in time for the Sunday morning service at Stiffkey , and sometimes he would fail to arrive at all .
Davidson , perhaps on the basis of his youthful Thames @-@ side rescue , had convinced himself that nearly all young girls alone in London were in need of rescue from a life of vice . Typical of these was Rose Ellis , whom he met in Leicester Square in September 1920 . Twenty years old and living precariously from part @-@ time prostitution , she was homeless and had no money . Davidson gave her cash for a room , and arranged to meet her the following week . Thus began a friendship that endured for more than a decade . Davidson brought her to the rectory , where she worked for a time in the gardens . He also tried to get her a job with a touring theatre company , took her to Paris to find employment as an au pair , kept her supplied with small sums of money , and paid her medical bills when she was suffering from venereal disease .
According to his own estimate , Davidson approached around 150 to 200 girls a year over a period of 12 years ( he later modified these figures to an overall total of between 500 and 1000 ) . His activities usually centred on the innumerable Lyons , ABC and Express Dairies teashops and their staffs of waitresses . Davidson was mesmerised , says Blythe , by " the ineffable harmonies created by starched linen crackling over young breasts and black @-@ stockinged calves in chubby conference just below the hem of the parlourmaid 's frock " . Many rejected his advances ; a number of teashops considered him a pest and barred him . Landladies took exception to his habit of visiting their female tenants at all hours of the night . Commentators have found little evidence that he behaved indecently , or molested the girls ; he bought them tea , found them rooms , listened to their problems and sometimes found them work on the stage or in domestic service . He styled himself the " Prostitutes ' Padre " , and asserted to his bishop that this was " the proudest title that a true priest of Christ can hold " .
= = = Financial problems = = =
To meet the costs of his lifestyle , Davidson needed more money than his Stiffkey living could provide . He sought to improve his financial position when , in about 1920 , he met Arthur John Gordon , supposedly a wealthy American company promoter but in reality an undischarged bankrupt and confidence trickster . Gordon not only persuaded Davidson to invest his savings in a range of dubious schemes , but also got him to solicit funds from other investors . Davidson borrowed heavily to increase his investment and by 1925 was in serious financial difficulties . In February that year he failed to pay his local rates and was threatened with imprisonment . He avoided this by borrowing from moneylenders at exorbitant interest rates , but in October was forced to file a petition of bankruptcy with debts totalling £ 2 @,@ 924 . Eventually a settlement was reached , whereby around half of his Stiffkey stipend was applied to the reduction of his debts . Somehow , however , Davidson managed to continue his London life . He never stopped believing in Gordon 's essential honesty , and was certain that one day his investments would pay off . Much of his time in London was spent , not in pursuit of girls , but looking for Gordon .
= = Downfall and deposition = =
= = = Complaints and investigations = = =
Although many of Davidson 's parishioners accepted that his London rescue mission was entirely honourable , some , including Major Hamond , were less convinced . Hamond was suspicious of the stream of visitors that Davidson brought to the Stiffkey rectory and thought he was neglecting his parochial duties . In 1927 relations between the two men worsened when Davidson , in a letter which Tucker describes as " breathless in its rudeness and insensitivity " , upbraided the major for clearing the ground in the Morston churchyard alongside his recently deceased wife 's grave : " Morston Churchyard is the private freehold property of the Rector of Morston ... you have no possible right to interfere with it in any way without my permission any more than I have the right to come and annex a part of your garden . " On one occasion , Davidson arrived late at Morston to officiate at a communion service , having forgotten the bread and wine ; enraged , Hamond ordered him back to the rectory to collect it . An even greater lapse , in Hamond 's eyes , was Davidson 's failure to return to Stiffkey in time to officiate at the 1930 Armistice Day ceremony at the local war memorial .
Early in 1931 , advised by a cousin who was a priest , Hamond made a formal complaint against Davidson to the Bishop of Norwich , the Right Reverend Bertram Pollock , citing the rector 's supposed behaviour with women in London . Under the provisions of the Clergy Discipline Act of 1892 , members of the clergy could be prosecuted in a consistory court for " immoral acts " and , if convicted , face punishments ranging from temporary suspension to full deposition — " defrocking " — from holy orders . Pollock was initially reluctant to prosecute Davidson , but was advised by his legal counsel Henry Dashwood that the case should proceed . In search of evidence , Dashwood hired a private enquiry agent , who soon found Rose Ellis and persuaded her to sign a statement detailing her ten @-@ year association with Davidson . The statement — which was immediately retracted by Ellis and never presented in court — contained little indication of any intimate relationship other than that she had once lanced a boil on Davidson 's bottom .
Enquiries continued for many months . The bishop was initially reluctant to pursue the case — Davidson thought he might be prepared to replace the charges with a lesser one of indiscipline . In February 1932 Dashwood advised Pollock that the matter could not be suppressed in this way ; allegations had been printed in the Evening News on 1 February , and the story had been picked up by other papers whose lurid headlines had created much public interest . On 7 February the bishop received a letter from a 17 @-@ year @-@ old girl , Barbara Harris , which contained specific allegations of immoral conduct against Davidson and promised more : " I know lots of things against him that might help you ... He has the keys of a lot of girls ' flats and front doors . " This letter is described by Matthew Parris in his account of the case as " a masterpiece of vituperation " ; Davidson 's lawyers failed to identify some obvious differences between the handwriting in the letter and other examples of Harris 's writing , a factor which might have affected the impact of her subsequent testimony to the court .
= = = Consistory court hearing = = =
A consistory court was convened for 29 March 1932 , under the presidency of the Norwich diocesan chancellor , F. Keppel North . Davidson was accused of associating with " women of loose character " , and " accosting , molesting , and importuning young females for immoral purposes " . The prosecution 's case was in the hands of a high @-@ profile legal team , headed by Roland Oliver KC and including the future cabinet minister Walter Monckton . Davidson , meanwhile , engaged experienced lawyers to defend him , funding this partly through the sale of newspaper stories . Because of the level of press interest , and the number of London @-@ based witnesses involved , the court sat in Church House , Westminster , rather than in Norwich .
After Oliver provided a summary account of Davidson 's life in London , Barbara Harris gave evidence . Cullen likens her evidence to " a whip of scorpions " that Davidson took full in the face . Davidson had first met Harris in September 1930 , when she was 16 . He had used a favoured ploy — affecting to confuse her with a well @-@ known film actress — to persuade her to take a meal with him . He then began regular visits to her lodgings , gave her small sums of money and promised to find her work . From time to time he shared rooms with her : " At first he kept to the chair " , Harris wrote , " but after the first few nights he did not " . In her evidence to the court she said she had not had intercourse with Davidson , though he had attempted this on several occasions ; when she had repulsed his advances , she claimed that he had " relieved himself " .
Other aspects of the odd relationship were revealed during Harris ' lengthy examination and cross @-@ examination : her visit to the Stiffkey rectory where she had been made to work as an unpaid kitchenmaid and given only a chair to sleep in ; Davidson 's repeated promises to divorce his wife and marry Harris ; an incident when she and another girl , the latter in a nightgown , had danced in front of Davidson , supposedly so that he could judge their dancing abilities . The picture that Harris ' letter and evidence presented , if true , Tucker says , was that of " a man who is out of control ... running around London entertaining teenage girls ... adopting the guise of a kindly priest to ingratiate himself " .
Harris was followed into the witness @-@ box by a succession of landladies , waitresses and other women , all of whom confirmed Davidson 's habitual pestering without making any serious accusation of misconduct . When Davidson himself took to the stand , on 25 May , his light @-@ hearted , even flippant , manner created , says Tucker , " the flavour of a comedy routine with the rector 's counsel as straight man " . Davidson 's disastrous finances were aired — he took great offence when his association with Gordon was presented as a " partnership in crime " . He caused disbelief and amusement in the court when , questioned about the boil @-@ lancing incident with Rose Ellis , he professed not to know what a " buttock " was , claiming : " It is a phrase I have honestly never heard . So far as I remember it is a little below the waist . " At this stage , only Harris 's largely uncorroborated testimony had provided specific allegations of immorality ; the rest of the evidence was inconclusive and it seemed that the prosecution might fail . Davidson 's cause was severely damaged , however , when Oliver produced a photograph of him , taken on 28 March 1932 , with a nearly naked girl . She was Estelle Douglas , the 15 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of one of Davidson ' oldest friends . Davidson explained that the picture had been intended as a publicity shot to help the girl find work as an actress . He protested that he had been set up , and did not know she was naked under her shawl ; he thought she was wearing a bathing suit , as she had been in an earlier photograph . On 6 June , after closing speeches from both sides , the court adjourned until 8 July to allow the chancellor , who alone would determine the outcome , to consider the evidence .
= = = Verdict , sentence , defrocking = = =
During the court proceedings Davidson continued to officiate at Stiffkey and Morston , although his erratic attendance meant that substitutes often had to be arranged . On 12 June 1932 the Reverend R.H. Cattell arrived to officiate at the evening service in Stiffkey . He had just begun when Davidson entered the church and attempted to seize the Bible . The two priests wrestled with the book for some seconds before Cattell yielded , telling the congregation : " As nothing short of force will prevent Mr Davidson from taking part , I can see nothing left to do but to withdraw . " The crowds of reporters and sightseers at weekends led the Archdeacon of Lynn to issue a statement deploring the " media circus " and asking that " the full spirit of worship " be restored to Sunday services .
On 8 July 1932 Keppel North announced his verdict ; Davidson was guilty on five counts of immorality . The sentence would be determined by the bishop ; in the meantime , Davidson was entitled to seek leave to appeal to the Privy Council . Sorely in need of funds to meet his continuing legal expenses , Davidson reverted to his early career as a stage entertainer . On 18 July he made his debut with a variety act at the Prince 's Cinema in Wimbledon and later toured in the provinces until , possibly dissuaded by pressure from church authorities , theatres declined to book him . He then continued his public performances by appearing in a barrel on the Blackpool sea front , or " Golden Mile " , where thousands paid to observe him through a small window . Not everyone was impressed ; one customer , recalling the event years later , said : " He was very tatty and the place stank . " He shared his seafront billing with , among other attractions , " Mariana the Gorilla Girl " , the " Bearded Lady from Russia " and Dick Harrow , " the world 's fattest man " .
To the consternation of Hamond and some other parishioners , the bishop delayed issuing an instruction forbidding Davidson to preach . When Hamond locked the Morston church against him , the rector preached to a large congregation on the grass outside the church . In August , Davidson 's licence to minister as a priest was revoked ; his last service was morning worship at Stiffkey on 21 August 1932 , when around 1 @,@ 000 people congregated outside the church . That afternoon he demanded the Morston church keys from Hamond , who sent him away by turning him round and administering a substantial kick . Hamond was later fined for this assault .
In July and again in October , Davidson was refused leave to appeal to the Privy Council on grounds of either fact or law . The consistory court reconvened for sentencing in Norwich Cathedral on 21 October . Davidson was allowed briefly to address the court ; he admitted that his behaviour had been indiscreet , but regretted none of his actions and proclaimed his innocence " of any of the graver charges that have been made against me " . Then , in what Blythe describes as a " horrible little ceremony " , Bishop Pollock delivered the most severe sentence available — that of deposition : " Now therefore we , Bertram ... do thereby pronounce decree and declare that the said Reverend Harold Francis Davidson being a priest and deacon ought to be entirely removed , deposed and degraded from the said offices . " Davidson was thus defrocked . As the ceremony ended he made a furious impromptu speech , denouncing the sentence and declaring his intention to appeal to the Archbishop of Canterbury .
= = Campaigning for reinstatement = =
= = = Blackpool showman = = =
The consistory court had awarded the prosecution 's costs against Davidson , who now faced enormous legal bills and had no regular source of income . His only recourse was to return to Blackpool and resume his career as a showman ; this became his milieu for the next four years , interrupted by occasional prosecutions for obstruction and a nine @-@ day spell in prison in 1933 , for non @-@ payment of rent owing to one of his former London landladies . He informed the press : " While I am in the barrel I shall be occupied in preparing my case " . Although the barrel act remained his staple performance , he introduced variations over the years : freezing in a refrigerated chamber , or being roasted in a glass @-@ fronted oven while a mechanised devil prodded him with a pitchfork . In August 1935 the freezing routine led to Davidson 's arrest and prosecution for attempted suicide ; he won the case and was awarded £ 382 damages for false imprisonment . How much money Davidson made from his various acts is uncertain ; Tucker believes that the main financial beneficiary was his agent , Luke Gannon .
Molly Davidson had managed to acquire a small house in South Harrow , where Davidson spent his winters . Off @-@ season he worked sporadically , at one time as a door @-@ to @-@ door book salesman and on other as a porter at St Pancras railway station . He could not avoid press attention ; in November 1936 he was arrested and fined for pestering two 16 @-@ year @-@ old girls at Victoria station — he had approached them offering auditions for a leading role in a West End show . That same month he interrupted a Church Assembly at Central Hall , Westminster , at which the Archbishop of Canterbury was present . Davidson was prevented from addressing the meeting , at which he dropped numerous copies of a mimeographed pamphlet titled " I Accuse " , in which he listed his grievances and castigated the Church 's hierarchy .
= = = Death in Skegness = = =
By 1937 interest in Davidson 's Blackpool sideshows was waning and , for that summer , he accepted an invitation to join the self @-@ styled " Captain " Fred Rye 's animal @-@ themed show in the east coast resort of Skegness . He considered this a step upwards from what he termed " the blatant vulgarities of Blackpool " . Davidson 's act consisted of a 10 @-@ minute address delivered outside a cage containing two lions , after which he would enter the cage and spend a few minutes with the lions . This required courage on Davidson 's part , because he was fearful of animals . A 16 @-@ year @-@ old tamer , Irene Somner , supervised proceedings . The act was billed as " Daniel in a modern lion 's den " , and attracted large audiences , including a significant number of clergy .
On 28 July 1937 , at the evening performance , Davidson gave his usual speech before entering the cage in which two lions , Freddie and Toto , were sitting quietly . Then , according to Blythe : " in scarcely credible terms , the little clergyman from Norfolk and the lion acted out the classical Christian martyrdom to the full " . Eyewitnesses later reported that after Davidson had cracked his whip and shouted , Freddie became agitated and knocked Davidson over , before seizing him by the neck and running with him around the cage . Somner struggled to pacify the snarling Freddie , who eventually dropped the unconscious Davidson , enabling her to drag him to safety ; he was badly gashed , and had suffered a broken bone in his neck . An uncorroborated story circulated that while waiting for the ambulance , Davidson asked that the London newspapers be alerted in time for next day 's first editions . According to some press reports he sat up in hospital and asked visitors for their impressions of his ordeal in the cage . Most historians of the affair , however , believe that Davidson never recovered consciousness . He died on 30 July , his death possibly hastened by an insulin injection administered by a doctor who believed that Davidson was a diabetic . The coroner 's verdict was death by misadventure .
Friends and well @-@ wishers covered the expenses of the funeral , which took place on 3 August in Stiffkey churchyard . A large crowd — around 3 @,@ 000 according to Tucker — was in attendance including , from Davidson 's distant past , the Marchioness Townshend . Onlookers unable to get into the churchyard found vantage points on nearby walls , roofs and in trees . When the headstone was put in place it contained a line from Robert Louis Stevenson : " For on faith in man and genuine love of man all searching after truth must be founded . "
= = Aftermath and appraisal = =
In Skegness , Rye saw Davidson 's death as a business opportunity ; crowds flocked to see " The Actual Lion that Mauled and Caused the Death of the Ex @-@ Rector of Stiffkey " . By contrast , Molly Davidson 's financial situation was desperate . When her family applied to the church authorities for help , Archbishop Lang acted on her behalf behind the scenes and eventually she received grants from two church charities . She died in a Dulwich nursing home in 1955 . Of the other major participants in the legal case , Pollock remained as Bishop of Norwich until his resignation in 1942 , a year before his death . Davidson 's girls — Rose Ellis , Barbara Harris , Estelle Douglas and the rest — disappeared from public view after the 1932 trial , although a 1934 letter from Davidson indicates that Harris was then working at the London store Selfridges , under the name " Babs Simpson " . When announcing a 2010 book about the war artist Leslie Cole , The Fleece Press revealed that Harris had married Cole after changing her name and had thereafter successfully concealed her true identity from all enquirers . Even her husband may not have known of her past .
After Davidson 's death and burial , press attention withered as newspapers concentrated on more significant events in the years before the Second World War . In the decades after the war interest in the affair was periodically revived . In 1963 Blythe , deemed by Parris to be the affair 's " best historian " , published his account . Later in the 1960s , two stage musical versions were produced : The Stiffkey Scandals of 1932 , which appeared in Edinburgh in 1967 and London in 1968 , and God Made the Little Red Apple , staged in Manchester in 1969 . Neither of these productions was commercially successful ; when the former was adapted for television , The Daily Telegraph 's critic questioned the artistic justification for a musical about " so sad and peculiar a person " . In the 1970s Davidson 's case was the subject of a radio documentary , A Proper Little Gent , and in 1994 an episode of BBC Television 's Matter of Fact series examined the affair . Cullen 's full @-@ length biography of Davidson in 1975 posits a theory that multiple personalities led him to behave in different ways in differing circumstances . Robert Brown , in a biographical sketch for the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , suggests that what really motivated Davidson will never be known . In 2007 John Walsh published a fictionalised account of Davidson 's life , Sunday at the Cross Bones ( Fourth Estate ) , in which , according to a review in The Guardian , Davidson is depicted as " well @-@ meaning but ineffectual , bewildered by the world 's wickedness and his own barely acknowledged desires " .
The question of Davidson 's treatment by the consistory court was first raised by the Church Times immediately after the trial . A leading article argued that , although Davidson 's conduct had been " foolish and eccentric " , his intentions at least at the start of his ministry had been guided by idealism . Chancellor North was criticised both for lacking compassion and for the general conduct of the proceedings : " No experienced criminal solicitor could conceivably have blundered so badly and consistently . " In 2006 Davidson 's granddaughter , Karylin Collier , privately published a brief biography , The Rector of Stiffkey : His Life and Trial , in which she maintains the innocence of all the charges against him . Tucker argues that " Harold Davidson probably deserved to be quietly defrocked for his shortcomings as a priest " , but nevertheless believes that he was not an immoral man . He also highlights the incompetent presentation of Davidson 's case by his legal team , particularly their failure to question the provenance of the Barbara Harris letter . Tucker concludes that since the proceedings were flawed and the evidence of immorality flimsy , the Church of England owes it to the Davidson family to re @-@ examine the original findings .
The writer @-@ historian A. N. Wilson summarises Davidson as a " Tragic buffoon cum Christian Martyr " . In his history of Britain in the inter @-@ war years , A. J. P. Taylor writes that " Davidson offered a parable of the age . He attracted more attention than , say , Cosmo Gordon Lang , archbishop of Canterbury . Which man deserves a greater place in the history books ? "
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= Skylon ( spacecraft ) =
Skylon is a design for a single @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit spaceplane by the British company Reaction Engines Limited ( REL ) , using SABRE , a combined @-@ cycle , air @-@ breathing rocket propulsion system , potentially reusable for 200 flights . In paper studies , the cost per kilogram of payload carried to low Earth orbit in this way is hoped to be reduced from the current £ 1 @,@ 108 / kg ( as of December 2015 ) , including research and development , to around £ 650 / kg , with costs expected to fall much more over time after initial expenditures have amortised . In 2004 , the developer estimated the total lifetime cost of the programme to be about $ 12 billion .
The vehicle design is for a hydrogen @-@ fuelled aircraft that would take off from a purpose @-@ built runway , and accelerate to Mach 5 @.@ 4 at 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) altitude using the atmosphere 's oxygen before switching the engines to use the internal liquid oxygen ( LOX ) supply to take it into orbit . Once in orbit it would release its payload ( of up to 15 tonnes ) . The vehicle will be unpiloted , but also be certified to carry passengers . All payloads could be carried in a standardised container compartment . The relatively light vehicle would then re @-@ enter the atmosphere and land on a runway , being protected from the conditions of re @-@ entry by a ceramic composite skin . When on the ground , it would undergo inspection and necessary maintenance . If the design goal is achieved , it should be ready to fly again within two days .
As of 2012 , only a small portion of the funding required to develop and build Skylon had been secured . The research and development work on the SABRE engine design is proceeding under a small European Space Agency ( ESA ) grant . In January 2011 , REL submitted a proposal to the British government to request additional funding for the project and in April REL announced that they had secured $ 350 million of further funding contingent on a test of the engine 's precooler technology being successful . Testing of the key technologies was successfully completed in November 2012 , allowing Skylon 's design to advance to its final phase . On 16 July 2013 the British government pledged £ 60M to the project : this investment will provide support at a " crucial stage " to allow a full @-@ scale prototype of the SABRE engine to be built .
If all goes to plan , the first ground @-@ based engine tests could happen in 2019 , and Skylon could be performing unmanned test flights by 2025 . It could carry 15 tonnes of cargo to a 300 km equatorial orbit on each trip , and up to 11 tonnes to the International Space Station , almost 45 % more than the capacity of the European Space Agency 's ATV vehicle .
= = Research and development programme = =
= = = Background and early work = = =
Skylon is based on a previous project of Alan Bond , known as HOTOL . The development of HOTOL began in 1982 , at a time when space technology was moving towards reusable launch systems such as the Space Shuttle . In conjunction with British Aerospace and Rolls @-@ Royce , a promising design emerged to which the British government contributed £ 2 million . However , in 1988 , the government withdrew further funding , and development was terminated . Following this setback , Bond decided to set up his own company , Reaction Engines Limited , with the hope of continuing development with private funding .
After securing more funding in the 1990s , the initial design underwent radical revision and , since 2000 , Reaction Engines has been working with the University of Bristol to develop an engine design vital to the success of Skylon . The STRICT / STERN designs resulting from this programme were deemed a great success . The next stage of development will be to construct a full @-@ sized working prototype of the SABRE Engine .
There are several differences compared with HOTOL . Whereas HOTOL would have launched from a rocket sled , to save weight , Skylon uses a conventional retractable undercarriage . Skylon 's revised engine design , the SABRE engine , is expected to offer higher performance . HOTOL 's rear mounted engine gave the vehicle intrinsically poor in @-@ flight stability . Early attempts to fix this problem had ended up sacrificing much of HOTOL 's payload potential , and contributed to the failure of the project . Skylon solves this by placing engines at the end of its wings , but further forward and much closer to the vehicle 's centre of mass longitudinally .
= = = Project brief = = =
REL intends ultimately to operate as a for @-@ profit commercial enterprise , manufacturing Skylon vehicles for multiple international customers ; these customers will operate their fleets directly , with support from REL . While REL intends to manufacture some components directly , such as the engine precooler , other components have been designed by partner companies and a consortium of various aerospace firms is expected to handle full production of Skylon . According to Management Today , Skylon has been discussed as a possible replacement for NASA 's Space Shuttle .
In service , Skylon could potentially lower satellite launch costs from the current £ 15 @,@ 000 / kg to £ 650 / kg , according to evidence submitted to the UK parliament by Reaction Engines Ltd . Funding for the project from the British government has often been difficult to obtain . Speaking on the topic of Skylon in 2011 , David Willetts , the UK Minister of State for Universities and Science , stated :
The European Space Agency is funding proof of concept work for Skylon from UK contributions . This work is focusing on demonstrating the viability of the advanced British engine technology that would underpin the project . Initial work will be completed in mid 2011 and if the trial is successful , we will work with industry to consider next steps .
= = = Funding and engine development = = =
An unsuccessful request for funding from the British government was issued in 2000 . This involved a proposal offering a potentially large return on investment . Subsequent discussions with the British National Space Centre ( which later became the UK Space Agency ) led to a major funding agreement in February 2009 between the British National Space Centre , European Space Agency ( ESA ) and REL for € 1 million ( $ 1 @.@ 28 million ) to produce a demonstration engine for Skylon by 2011 .
The Technology Demonstration Programme will last approximately 2 @.@ 5 years and will benefit from another € 1 million from ESA . This programme will take Reaction Engines Ltd from a Technology Readiness Level ( TRL ) of 2 / 3 up to 4 / 5 . The former UK Minister for Science and Innovation in 2009 , Lord Drayson , commented on Skylon in a speech : " This is an example of a British company developing world @-@ beating technology with exciting consequences for the future of space . "
As of 2012 , the funding required to develop and build the entire craft has not yet been secured , and so current research and development work is focused on the engines , under an ESA grant of € 1 million . In January 2011 , REL submitted a proposal to the British Government requesting additional funding for the Skylon project . On 13 April 2011 , REL announced that the Skylon design had passed several rigorous independent reviews . On 24 May 2011 , ESA publicly declared the design to be feasible , having found " no impediments or critical items " in the proposal .
The major milestone of the commencement of static testing of the engine precooler and the SABRE engine was achieved in June 2011 , marking the start of Phase 3 in the Skylon development programme . An REL spokesperson announced that they had secured $ 350 million of further funding , contingent on successful completion of the full @-@ sized precooled jet engine test in June 2011 . Engine testing was initiated in June 2011 , and was expected to continue to the end of that year . However , testing was delayed until April 2012 .
On 9 May 2011 , REL stated that a preproduction prototype of the Skylon could be flying by 2016 , and the proposed route would be a suborbital flight between the Guiana Space Centre near Kourou in French Guiana and the North European Aerospace Test Range , located in northern Sweden . Pre @-@ orders are expected in the 2011 – 2013 time frame coinciding with the formation of the manufacturing consortium . On 8 December 2011 , Alan Bond , speaking at the 7th Appleton Space Conference , stated that Skylon would enter into service by 2021 @-@ 2022 instead of 2020 as previously envisaged .
In April 2012 , REL announced that the first phase of the precooler test programme had been successfully completed . On 10 July 2012 , REL announced that the second of three series of tests has been completed successfully . The test facilities underwent upgrades to allow the third and final phase of testing to proceed . On 13 July 2012 , ESA Director @-@ General Jean @-@ Jacques Dordain told Space News that ESA would hold talks with REL to develop a further " technical understanding " .
Following a successful propulsion system test that was audited by ESA 's propulsion division in mid @-@ 2012 , the company announced that it would begin a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year project to develop and build a test rig of the Sabre engine to prove the engine 's performance across its air @-@ breathing and rocket modes . In November 2012 , it was announced that a key test of the engine precooler had been successfully completed , and that ESA had verified the precooler 's design . The project 's development is now allowed to advance to its next phase , which involves the construction and testing of a full @-@ scale prototype engine . In June 2013 , George Osborne , The Chancellor of the Exchequer stated on his Twitter account that the British government would be giving £ 60 million towards the further development of the SABRE engine . Osborne 's tweet stated : " Just seen SABRE -a rocket engine that cools air from 1000 degrees to -150 in fraction of a second . We 're backing the future with £ 60m funding " . The first grant of £ 50 million was approved by the European Commission in August 2015 . The second grant of £ 10 million was approved by the European Space Agency in July 2016 .
In October 2015 , BAE Systems entered into an agreement with Reaction Engines where it would invest £ 20 @.@ 6 million in Reaction Engines to acquire 20 % of its share capital and help develop the SABRE engine .
= = Technology and design = =
= = = Overview = = =
Skylon is a fully reusable single stage to orbit ( SSTO ) vehicle , able to achieve orbit without staging . Proponents of SSTO claim that staging causes a number of problems due to its complexity that includes being difficult or impossible to recover and reuse many parts , leading to great expense , and therefore believe that SSTO designs hold the promise of reducing the cost of space @-@ flight . It is intended for Skylon to take off from a specially strengthened runway , fly to low earth orbit , re @-@ enter the atmosphere , and land upon a runway like a conventional aeroplane .
The design of the Skylon C2 features a large cylindrical payload bay , 13 m ( 42 ft 8 in ) long and 4 @.@ 8 m ( 15 ft 9 in ) in diameter . It is designed to be comparable with current payload dimensions , and able to support the containerisation of payloads that Reaction Engines hopes for in the future . To an equatorial orbit , Skylon could deliver 15 t ( 33 @,@ 000 lb ) to a 300 km ( 190 mi ) altitude or 11 t ( 24 @,@ 000 lb ) to an 800 km ( 500 mi ) altitude . Using interchangeable payload containers , Skylon could be fitted to carry satellites or fluid cargo into orbit , or , in a specialised habitation module , up to 30 astronauts in one launch .
Because the engine uses the atmosphere as reaction mass at low altitude , it will have a high specific impulse ( around 2 @,@ 800 seconds ) , and burn about one fifth of the propellant that would have been required by a conventional rocket . Therefore , it would be able to take off with much less total propellant than conventional systems . This , in turn , means that it does not need as much lift or thrust , which permits smaller engines , and allows conventional wings to be used . While in the atmosphere , using wings to counteract gravity drag is more fuel @-@ efficient than simply expelling propellant ( as in a rocket ) , again reducing the total amount of propellant needed .
The payload fraction would be significantly greater than normal rockets and the vehicle should be fully reusable ( 200 times or more ) .
= = = SABRE engines = = =
One of the most significant features of the Skylon design is the engine , called SABRE . The engines are designed to operate much like a conventional jet engine to around Mach 5 @.@ 5 ( 1 @,@ 700 m / s ) , 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) altitude , beyond which the air inlet closes and the engine operates as a highly efficient rocket to orbital speed . The proposed SABRE engine is not a scramjet , but a jet engine running combined cycles of a precooled jet engine , rocket engine and ramjet . Originally the key technology for this type of precooled jet engine did not exist , as it required a heat exchanger that was ten times lighter than the state of the art . Research conducted since then has achieved the necessary performance .
Operating an air @-@ breathing jet engine at velocities of up to Mach 5 @.@ 5 poses numerous engineering problems . Several previous engines proposed by other designers worked well as jet engines but performed poorly as rockets . This engine design aims to be a good jet engine within the atmosphere , as well as being an excellent rocket engine outside . The problem with operating at Mach 5 @.@ 5 has been that the air coming into the engine rapidly heats up as it is compressed into the engine ; due to certain thermodynamic effects , this greatly reduces the thrust that can be produced by burning fuel . Attempts to avoid these issues typically make the engine much heavier ( scramjets / ramjets ) or greatly reduce the thrust ( conventional turbojets / ramjets ) . In either case the end result is an engine that has a poor thrust to weight ratio at high speeds , resulting in an engine that is too heavy to assist much in reaching orbit .
The SABRE engine design aims to avoid this by using some of the liquid hydrogen fuel to cool helium in a closed @-@ cycle precooler , which quickly reduces the temperature of the air at the inlet . The air is then used for combustion much like in a conventional jet , and once the helium has left the pre @-@ cooler it is further heated by the products of the pre @-@ burner , giving it enough energy to drive the turbine and the liquid hydrogen pump . Because the air is cooled at all speeds , the jet can be built of light alloys and the weight is roughly halved . Additionally , more fuel can be burnt at high speed . Beyond Mach 5 @.@ 5 , the air would become unusably hot despite the cooling , so the air inlet closes and the engine relies solely on on @-@ board liquid oxygen and hydrogen fuel as in a normal rocket .
= = = Fuselage and structure = = =
The fuselage of Skylon is expected to be a carbon @-@ fiber @-@ reinforced polymer space frame ; a light and strong structure that supports the weight of the aluminium fuel tanks and to which the ceramic skin is attached . Multiple layers of reflective foil thermal insulation fill the spaces of the frame .
The currently proposed Skylon model C2 will be a large vehicle , with a length of 82 metres ( 269 ft ) and a diameter of 6 @.@ 3 metres ( 21 ft ) . Because it will use a low @-@ density fuel , liquid hydrogen , a great volume is needed to contain enough energy to reach orbit . The propellant is intended to be kept at low pressure to minimise stress ; a vehicle that is both large and light has an advantage during atmospheric reentry compared to other vehicles due to a low ballistic coefficient . Because of the low ballistic coefficient , Skylon would be slowed at higher altitudes where the air is thinner . As a result , the skin of the vehicle would reach only 1 @,@ 100 K ( 830 ° C ) . In contrast , the smaller Space Shuttle was heated to 2 @,@ 000 K on its leading edge , and so employed an extremely heat @-@ resistant but fragile silica thermal protection system . The Skylon design does not require such a system , instead opting for using a far thinner yet durable reinforced ceramic skin . However , due to turbulent flow around the wings during re @-@ entry , some parts of Skylon would need to be actively cooled .
= = = = Wheels and runway = = = =
At a gross takeoff weight of 275 tonnes , of which 220 tonnes is propellant , the vehicle is capable of placing 12 tonnes into an equatorial low Earth orbit . A reinforced runway will be needed to tolerate the high equivalent single wheel load . It will possess a retractable undercarriage with high pressure tyres and water @-@ cooled brakes . If problems were to occur just before a take @-@ off the brakes would be applied to stop the vehicle , the water boiling away to dissipate the heat . Upon a successful take @-@ off , the water would be jettisoned , thus reducing the weight of the undercarriage , in the C1 design 1200 kg of water allows the weight of the brakes alone to be reduced from over 3000 kg to around 415 kg . During landing , the empty vehicle would be far lighter , and hence the water would not be needed .
= = Specifications ( Skylon D1 ) = =
Data from the Skylon User Manual
General characteristics
Crew : None , remote controlled from ground
The proposed Skylon Personnel / Logistics Module ( SPLM ) has provision for a Captain .
Capacity : 0
up to 24 passengers in the SPLM
Potential for up to 30 passengers ( in a special passenger module )
Payload : 15 @,@ 000 kg nominal ( 33 @,@ 000 lb nominal ) 17 @,@ 000 kg ( 37 @,@ 000 lb ) to equatorial 160 km ( 99 mi ) orbit from equatorial launch site
approx 2 @,@ 800 kg ( 6 @,@ 200 lb ) to 98 ° ( sun @-@ synchronous ) 600 km ( 373 mi ) orbit from equatorial launch site
Length : 83 @.@ 133 m ( 272 @.@ 75 ft )
Wingspan : 26 @.@ 818 m ( 87 @.@ 99 ft )
Height : approx 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft )
Empty weight : 53 @,@ 400 kg ( 117 @,@ 000 lb )
Loaded weight : 325 @,@ 000 kg ( 717 @,@ 000 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × SABRE 4 synergistic combined cycle rocket engine , 2 @,@ 000 kN ( 450 @,@ 000 lbf ) each
Fuselage diameter : 6 @.@ 3 m ( 20 @.@ 67 ft )
Performance
Maximum speed : Orbital ( air @-@ breathing Mach 5 @.@ 14 , rocket Mach 27 @.@ 8 )
Service ceiling : 28 @,@ 500 m air @-@ breathing , 90 km SABRE ascent , 600 km exoatmospheric ( 93 @,@ 500 ft air breathing , 56 mi rocket ascent , 373 mi exoatmospheric )
Specific impulse : 4 @,@ 100 seconds ( 40 @,@ 000 N @-@ s / kg ) -9,200 seconds ( 90 @,@ 000 N @-@ s / kg ) air @-@ breathing , 460 seconds ( 4 @,@ 500 N @-@ s / kg ) rocket , 465 @.@ 2 seconds ( 4 @,@ 562 N @-@ s / kg ) orbital
SABRE engine thrust / weight ratio : up to 14 atmospheric
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= Janet ( album ) =
Janet ( stylized as janet . ) is the fifth studio album by American recording artist Janet Jackson , released on May 18 , 1993 , by Virgin Records America . Prior to its release , Jackson was at the center of a high @-@ profile bidding war over her recording contract . In 1991 , her original label A & M sought to renew her contract , while others , such as Atlantic , Capitol , and Virgin all vied to sign her . After meeting with Virgin owner Richard Branson , she signed with the label for a $ 40 million contract , making her the world 's then @-@ highest paid musical act .
Criticism that her success in the music industry was attributed to being a member of the Jackson family and a producer @-@ dependent artist led her to write all lyrics for the album , in addition to co @-@ producing every song and co @-@ writing each of their arrangements with the songwriting / production duo Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . Its title , read " Janet , period . " , is meant to disassociate her public image from her family , dropping her surname . While pop and R & B had been standard components in her music , she broadened her compositions by incorporating hip hop , opera , house and jazz , eliminating the rigid , industrial sound of her previous records . Although she earned a reputation as an advocate for sexual abstinence with her 1986 single " Let 's Wait Awhile " , the theme of Janet is sexual intimacy — an abrupt departure from her conservative image . Much of the acclaim for the album focused on her lyrics that emphasized the female perspective on sexuality and the demand for practicing safe sex . Academics have argued the erotic imagery in her music videos released to promote the album 's singles have contributed to a higher degree of sexual freedom among women .
The album topped the record charts in the United States , Australia , New Zealand and the UK . In the US , it became the singer 's third consecutive album to top the Billboard 200 and her first to debut at number one . Selling 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , it set a record for the highest first week sales for a female artist at that time . Certified sixfold platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , it has sold over seven million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan and an estimated 20 million copies worldwide . It cemented her as an international icon and sex symbol , and is listed by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of the 200 Definitive Albums of All Time .
Producing six top ten hits on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart , Janet remains one of only seven albums in the chart 's history to achieve that feat , and being the third consecutive album to produce five or more singles on top 10 , making her the only artist in history to have three albums with 5 or more singles in the top 10 . " That 's the Way Love Goes " became Jackson 's most successful single in the US , staying atop the Hot 100 for eight weeks , as well as topping the singles charts in Australia , Canada , and New Zealand . It received two Grammy Award nominations in 1994 , winning Best R & B Song . Her ballad " Again " — written for the 1993 feature film Poetic Justice — also topped the Hot 100 and garnered nominations for the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song . The MTV @-@ sponsored Janet World Tour supporting the album received critical acclaim for Jackson 's elaborate stage performances , reinforcing her reputation as one of the preeminent artists of the MTV generation .
= = Background = =
Rumors of a multimillion @-@ dollar bidding war over Jackson 's recording contract began to circulate in spring 1991 . Jet magazine reported : " A recording company has offered in excess of $ 50 million to sign superstar Janet Jackson to a recording contract , making the 24 @-@ year @-@ old singer / songwriter / dancer / actress the key player in one of the hottest bidding wars among today 's major record companies . " Reports indicated that Capitol , Virgin and Atlantic were all bidding for Jackson 's contract , as her ties to A & M would soon expire ; by March , she had signed with Virgin . The New York Times declared " Janet Jackson has signed what is believed to be the most lucrative contract in the history of recording . The 24 @-@ year @-@ old singer , songwriter and actress signed an exclusive contract with Virgin Records it was announced yesterday . " Her new contract guaranteed a twenty @-@ two percent royalty payment , in addition to her then @-@ historic signing bonus . Chuck Philips of the Los Angeles Times reported that it had been the largest bidding war in recent memory and that " [ o ] ne reason the bidding was so heavy , various industry observers have noted , was that Jackson @-@ at just 24 @-@ is still a relatively fresh face on the pop scene and that her dance @-@ pop style is ideal for today 's pop / video climate . " In addition , her potential as an international superstar proved to be the primary motivation for the label 's investment . Jeff Ayeroff , co @-@ managing director of Virgin in the US stated : " Janet is a world @-@ class artist and we expect her growth to be enormous . " Chairman Richard Branson spoke with Jackson privately to seal the deal . He commented : " A Rembrandt rarely becomes available ... When it does , there are many people who are determined to get it . I was determined . "
Stephen Holden of The New York Times criticized the contract amount , considering it a gamble for Virgin . He stated that Jackson " is a producer @-@ dependent artist — i.e. , someone who relies on others to make her sound interesting and trendy . She also lacks a sharply defined personality , both as an artist and celebrity . Where singers like Ms. Houston and Mariah Carey have commanding vocal power , Ms. Jackson 's is a relatively indistinguishable studio voice . " Richard Branson rebutted this argument stating " Ms. Jackson has met with great success working with the production team of Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , just as her brother Michael Jackson has experienced his greatest successes with the producer Quincy Jones . It is interesting that Mr. Holden doesn 't mention this similar ' liability ' when discussing Michael Jackson . To say that Ms. Jackson is ' dependent ' on her producer is a shortsighted observation . She is a formidable talent who stands on her own . " Michael Jackson would break his sister 's record only days later , when he signed a $ 60 million contract with Sony Music Entertainment . Both sibling 's contracts garnered considerable criticism . Los Angeles Times reported that " A & M Records President Al Cafaro , whose company lost the fierce bidding battle over Janet Jackson to Virgin Records , said record companies may be vesting too much importance in individual performers " as the funds used as advances to the Jacksons could have launched recording careers for numerous unknown talents . Cliff Burnstein of Q @-@ Prime management commented that recording artists demands for advances upon signing would begin to escalate from that point forward .
Prior to her first release with Virgin , Jackson was asked by Jam and Lewis to record a song for the sound track to the feature film Mo ' Money , released in 1992 by their label Perspective Records . Jon Bream of the Star Tribune reported : " For most movie soundtracks , producers negotiate with record companies , managers and lawyers for the services of big @-@ name singers . Like the Hollywood outsiders that they are , Edina @-@ based Jam and Lewis went directly to such stars as Janet Jackson , Michael Jackson , Luther Vandross , Bell Biv Devoe , Color Me Badd and Johnny Gill . " Jackson , Jackson and Vandross recorded the duet or trio " The Best Things in Life Are Free " , which peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the Hot R & B Singles chart . Shortly afterward , Jackson began filming for her first feature length role in John Singleton 's Poetic Justice . Although she was encouraged by a major studio executive to take on a film in which she could portray a singer , she insisted on finding a different role . She explained : " About that same time John Singleton asked me to read his new script . John and I became buddies — I loved Boyz N the Hood — so I thought he was just asking my advice . I was shocked and honored to learn the screenplay had been written with me in mind . ' Would you play Justice ? ' he wanted to know . Yes ! I 'd finally found a role — a dramatic nonsinging role — that was right . " Released in July 1993 , Poetic Justice debuted at number one at the box office , grossing $ 11 @,@ 728 @,@ 455 ; it grossed a grand total of $ 27 @,@ 515 @,@ 786 .
= = Conception = =
After writing songs with themes of independence for Control and social injustice for Rhythm Nation 1814 , Jackson desired to devote her new album to love and relationships , describing the theme of her new album as " intimacy " and that " [ s ] exual communication is the name of the game . " She stated in an interview with David Wild for Rolling Stone that " [ w ] hile I was doing Rhythm Nation , I was thinking about how things were so hard , so regimented and so black and white ... I thought I 'd do something on the sexy side — which is hard for me since I grew up as a tomboy and don 't really think of myself that way . But I think this album is more on the feminine tip . " She also commented on how her experience acting in Poetic Justice played a role in taking a new direction with her music . Speaking with biographer David Ritz , she stated that " Rhythm Nation was a heavy record , and Poetic Justice was a heavy movie . I wanted to do something lighter but also daring ... When I wrote the album , I was still in a poetic frame of mind , inspired by Maya 's beautiful language . You can hear that inspiration or the interludes and especially on the song ' New Agenda . ' This time I felt much freer expressing myself . "
= = Titling = =
Despite the critical and commercial success of her two previous albums , Jackson continued to receive numerous comparisons to her brother Michael , often with doubts that she held staying power in the music industry . When Edna Gundersen of USA Today questioned her about the subject , she responded : " Certain people feel I 'm just riding on my last name ... That 's why I just put my first name on janet. and why I never asked my brothers to write or produce music for me . " Virgin Records expressed the album title " punctuates the declaration of strength the singer , songwriter and producer boldly expresses on this moving collection of songs which explore love , sensuality , the power of sisterhood and her own evolving self @-@ identity . " Thomas Harrison , author of Music of the 1990s ( 2011 ) wrote that " [ t ] he conscious decision was made , by the company and / or Jackson , to put her into the same league as other one @-@ named artists , such as Madonna , Bono , and Prince , or at least to put her on the same standing as others in the industry who are often called by one name , such as Whitney , Mariah , Diana , Dolly , and Garth among others . Jackson could now , in a sense , stand on her own and not be seen as a product of the family entertainment machine . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant magazine recounted the title of the album ultimately " announced the singer as completely independent of her male @-@ dominated family [ and ] it positioned her as the person in charge of her sound . "
= = Production = =
The album was produced at Flyte Tyme studios in Edina , Minnesota . Songs on the album , with the exception of " What 'll I Do " , were written by Janet Jackson , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , and mixed by Steve Hodge and Dave Rideau ; " What 'll I Do " was written and produced by Jackson and Jellybean Johnson . Jackson took a larger role in songwriting and production than she did on her previous albums . She explained that " [ a ] ll my records are personal , and janet , is the most personal of them all . That 's why this time around it was important for me to write all the lyrics and half of the melodies . " Jam described the record as being " a more mature album musically . " David Ritz noted that Jackson and her producers took risks by experimenting with musical influences that had not appeared in their previous work . He explained : " She asked Kathleen Battle and Public Enemy 's Chuck D to contribute — an opera diva and a hardcore rapper , two artists one would not associate with Janet — and somehow pulled if off . Beyond Jam and Lewis , there 's now a recognizable Janet Jackson production style that 's gutsy and , in some cases , even eccentric . "
" That 's The Way Love Goes " contains a sample loop of " Papa Don 't Take No Mess " written by James Brown , Fred Wesley , Charles Bobbit , and John Starks . The song " Again " , was originally just an experimental sound the production duo was considering . While Jackson found its melody compelling , the trio did not give the song serious contemplation until the film producers from Poetic Justice requested a ballad for the film 's soundtrack . Jackson subsequently wrote the lyrics for " Again " and shaped them around Jam 's melody . The song was arranged by Lee Blaskey and accompanied by members of the Minnesota Orchestra and the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra .
= = Release and promotion = =
= = = Rolling Stone cover = = =
In September 1993 , Jackson appeared topless on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine with the hands of her then @-@ husband René Elizondo , Jr. covering her breasts . The photograph is the original full @-@ length version of the cropped image used on the cover of the Janet album , shot by Patrick Demarchelier . In the cover story , " Sexual Healing " by David Ritz , Jackson explained , " sex has been an important part of me for several years . But it just hasn 't blossomed publicly until now . I 've had to go through some changes and shed some old attitudes before feeling completely comfortable with my body . Listening to my new record , people intuitively understand the change in me " . Ritz likened Jackson 's transformation to Marvin Gaye as he stated , " just as Gaye moved from What 's Going On to Let 's Get It On , from the austere to the ecstatic , Janet , every bit as serious @-@ minded as Marvin , moved from Rhythm Nation to Janet , her statement of sexual liberation " .
The image was cropped to show only Jackson 's face on the album cover , and midriff in the interior booklet . The full version appears as the cover of the limited edition double disc edition of the album , as well as the video compilation Janet released later that year . Sonia Murray of The Vancouver Sun later reported , " Jackson , 27 , remains clearly established as both role model and sex symbol ; the Rolling Stone photo of Jackson ... became one of the most recognizable , and most lampooned , magazine covers of the year " .
= = = Singles = = =
" That 's the Way Love Goes " , the album 's lead single entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number fourteen and peaked at number one . The single was certified gold by the RIAA on November 12 , 1993 . Virgin records intended for " If " to be the lead single for the album , but Jackson , Jam and Lewis disagreed . " That 's the Way Love Goes " remained at number one for eight weeks — the most successful chart performance of any member of the Jackson family . The single earned a Grammy Award for Best R & B Song . " If " was released as the album 's second single and peaked at number four on the Hot 100 , receiving gold certification on September 28 , 1993 . " Again " , peaked at number one on the Hot 100 on December 11 , 1993 and topped the chart for two weeks . The single was certified gold and then doubled to platinum by the RIAA on December 17 , 1993 . The single earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Song . " Because of Love " reached number ten , but was not certified by the RIAA . " Any Time , Any Place " peaked at number two on the Hot 100 and was certified gold on July 11 , 1994 . " You Want This " , the album 's final commercial single for the United States , peaked at number eight on the Hot 100 and was awarded gold certification on December 6 , 1994 . The album has a hidden track , " Whoops Now " , which was released as a single in selected territories in 1995 .
= = = Videography = = =
Jackson 's music video for " If " was staged as a futuristic Asian nightclub , with spy cameras monitoring the intimate interactions of patrons within their private boudoirs . The video is an elaborate metaphor for the single 's message of sexual fantasy , desire and voyeurism . The video was directed by Dominic Sena , who previously worked with Jackson on music videos for Rhythm Nation 1814 . René Elizondo , Jr. directed the videos for " That 's The Way Love Goes " , and " Again " . Videos for " Any Time , Any Place " and " You Want This " were directed by Keir McFarlane .
= = = Janet World Tour = = =
Jackson embarked on her second world tour in support of her debut album with the Virgin Records label . Costumes and wardrobe for the tour were designed by stylist Tanya Gill , with outfits " rang [ ing ] from pipebone vests with high @-@ heeled moccasin boots to zoot suits top @-@ hats to circus @-@ ringmaster bustiers . " With a show encompassing over 100 costumes , a team of over 50 costume makers was led by wardrobe supervisor , Helen Hiatt . The tour 's debut concert was held on November 24 , 1993 in Cincinnati , Ohio . Jackson held a four show engagement at Madison Square Garden which began on December 17 , 1993 , with the final performance held on New Year 's Eve . Michael Snyder of the San Francisco Chronicle described Jackson 's stage performance at the San Jose Arena in February 1994 , as what erased the line between " stadium @-@ size pop music concerts and full @-@ scale theatrical extravaganzas " .
The one @-@ hour @-@ and @-@ 45 @-@ minute performance was so tightly choreographed — down to two built @-@ in pauses for " tears " at overwhelming waves of crowd adoration and a contrived bit of seductive repartee with a handsome , buffed hunk plucked from the front row for the ode to lust , " Any Time , Any Place " — that it breezed by like a glitzy Vegas revue or a television variety show .
Her performances also garnered criticism . Renee Graham of The Boston Globe commented that her stage show at Great Woods Center for the Performing Arts on June 20 , 1994 , proved her limited vocal range as " [ t ] he numerous costume changes , pyrotechnics and the dancing all but overshadowed her razor @-@ sharp seven @-@ piece band and three back @-@ up singers " , asserting Jackson was a better performer and entertainer than she was a vocalist . However , the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch 's Steve Pick observed Jackson 's stage show at the Riverport Amphitheatre on July 12 , 1994 , made the Janet album 's numerous hit singles more effective with her " larger @-@ than @-@ life stage persona " .
= = = Formats = = =
A limited 2 disc edition of the album was released shortly after the album 's release , the limited edition is in the form of a hard @-@ covered book . The book 's cover is an unedited version of the album 's cover art , the book contains pictures of Jackson and lyrics of the songs from the album . The end of the book contains 2 CD 's , the second CD is a compilation of rare remixes of songs from the album
= = Commercial reception = =
Janet debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums charts , it was the first time in history a female artist debuted at number one of the SoundScan era ; with the largest first week sales in history for a female artist at the time with 350 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week . The album also gained much success worldwide , debuting at number one in the United Kingdom , New Zealand , and Australia . It also debuted in the top 10 in Sweden , The Netherlands , Canada ( with 65 @,@ 000 copies sold at the first week ) and Switzerland .
Janet was first certified gold by the RIAA on August 8 , 1993 denoting 500 @,@ 000 units shipped within the United States . The same day , the album 's certification was raised to 3 × platinum , denoting 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units shipped . On November 17 , 1993 , Janet received 4 × platinum certification and was later awarded 5 × platinum on December 17 , 1993 . The following year on April 12 , 1994 , the album was certified 6 × platinum . Other certifications include a Double Gold certification in Finland , a 2 × Platinum certification in the UK And Australia , a Platinum in New Zealand and a Gold certification in Norway .
According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album has sold 7 @,@ 035 @,@ 000 million copies in the United States since its release , and has achieved worldwide sales of 20 million copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Rolling Stone magazine declared " [ a ] s princess of America 's black royal family , everything Janet Jackson does is important . Whether proclaiming herself in charge of her life , as she did on Control ( 1986 ) , or commander in chief of a rhythm army dancing to fight society 's problems ( Rhythm Nation 1814 , from 1989 ) , she 's influential . And when she announces her sexual maturity , as she does on her new album , Janet . , it 's a cultural moment . " Claiming the album should bring her critical praise , the magazine concludes its review with the statement " [ t ] he princess of America 's black royal family has announced herself sexually mature and surrendered none of her crown 's luster in the process . Black women and their friends , lovers and children have a victory in Janet . " Robert Christgau originally gave the album an " honorable mention " in consumer guide for The Village Voice , wherein he complimented its erotic songs and cited " Funky Big Band " , " Throb " , and " Be a Good Boy " as highlights . Billboard magazine gave a positive review , stating " [ d ] estined to be an instant smash , Ms. Jackson 's latest is a glamorous assortment of styles — pop , dance , R & B , rock , jazz , rap — each delivered with consummate skill and passion . Janet is described as " a career @-@ defining record earning Janet the right to operate on a first @-@ name basis . "
Michael Snyder of the San Francisco Chronicle lauded the album 's content , stating " [ t ] his 75 @-@ minute opus , her first effort under a megabuck contract with the Virgin label , could be the make @-@ out album of the ' 90s ... a silken soul odyssey , charting one woman 's journey to emotional and sexual fulfillment through 10 songs and a series of spoken @-@ word and ambient snippets . " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian declared the album 's " luxuriant collection of house , soul and pop is her best yet . Cod @-@ Madonna throwaways like Throb aside , there are surprises all over the place . Public Enemy 's Chuck D counterweights Jackson 's sugared vocal to stunning effect on a black @-@ pride anthem , New Agenda ; soprano Kathleen Battle turns the heavyweight funk of This Time into something eerie and beautiful . "
Robert Johnson of San Antonio Express @-@ News praised Jackson and her producers for taking a chance on a new sound . He wrote : " Under the enormous pressure of her $ 40 million deal with Virgin Records , Jackson had to deliver something big enough to put her on a first @-@ name basis with the world ... ' janet . ' isn 't perfect , but it should be enough to make her the Queen of Pop . " " Dammit , Janet ! , " marveled Melody Maker . " The last Jackson hero ( ine ) has carried peacock feathers to the dance . Holier than Mahalia . " " janet. will please most people , " remarked The Daily Telegraph , " because it is crammed with the sort of tender , joyous pop music that lingers long after smarter records have been forgotten . "
Steve Pick of St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch stated that although Jackson may not be the greatest singer or songwriter , but she has nonetheless " created and projected a persona that is irresistible . Part of it is a sexual allure , but more of it is the way she demands and receives attention . " John Mackie with The Vancouver Sun reported the album gives Jackson an " incredible style " , proclaiming Janet as " the best commercial album so far this year , an album that could well vault her past the stumbling Madonna as Queen of the charts . Heck , she might even outsell Michael with this one . " " While her brother loops the loop on Planet Pepsi , it 's hard to imagine the spotlight ever shifting to his sassy sis , " remarked NME , " but this modern hunk of an album should redress some of the balance . "
Jay Cocks of TIME magazine offered a mixed review , stating " [ f ] or all its sass , there is something a little too careful about this album : the rhythms are too studied and studiobound , the sexiness slightly forced . It 's as if Jackson , aware that this was her premier effort under a new , $ 40 million record deal , felt weighed down by the burden of proving herself . When , however , she kicks loose on What 'll I Do , a nifty , ' 60s @-@ style soul stirrer , it 's clear that Jackson 's got nothing to prove to anyone , including herself . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times compares Jackson to her brother Michael and Madonna , stating " Jackson 's real strength , abetted by Jam and Lewis , is the way she tops dance @-@ club rhythms with pop melodies . Less up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ second than Madonna but still effective , the Jackson team has obviously been listening to the competition . Madonna 's ' Justify My Love ' echoes in ' That 's the Way Love Goes , ' and ' If ' resembles Michael Jackson 's ' Why You Wanna Trip on Me , ' starting with screaming guitar and a chanted verse , rising to a sweet melody . " He also comments that despite its shortcomings , " [ t ] he album 's not about being real ; it 's about seamlessness and ingenuity , about giving the public something it can use . For a superstar , Jackson is downright selfless , but she gets the job done . "
Chris Willman of the Los Angeles Times gave an unfavorable review . Although sex in popular music is considered a standard concept , Willman states the only reason the album would cause a reaction is because of Jackson 's well @-@ known conservative nature . He comments : " So be it . Jackson 's first album in four years is destined for a long ride at No. 1 , not because it 's any great piece of work , but largely for its aphrodisiacal aspirations . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that " [ i ] f musical variety and daring lyrics were all that mattered , janet. would make the grade . But the album has a lot to prove . It is the first delivery under her $ 40 million contract with Virgin , and its title — which translates as ' Janet , period ' — is meant as a declaration of independence from her oddball siblings ... She still sounds like a young woman from a male @-@ dominated family who is searching for her identity and voice . Mostly , though , janet. sounds like a mess — period . " David Sinclair of The Times wrote : " In the steamy , post @-@ Madonna climate of the 1990s , Jackson is not about to let thoughts of love get in the way of the mechanics of lust , and like many of her superstar contemporaries she tends to confuse sex with soul . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Jackson received five nominations for the 1994 American Music Awards : Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist , Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist , Favorite Pop / Rock Album and Favorite Soul / R & B Album for Janet , and Favorite Soul / R & B Single for " That 's the Way Love Goes " . The same year she received two Grammy Award nominations — Best R & B Vocal Performance , Female and Best R & B Song for " That 's The Way Love Goes " — winning Best R & B Song . Several critics asserted she was unjustly overlooked in the Grammy 's three major categories : Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Album of the Year . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune stated , " Jackson again was denied a nomination for album of the year , even though ' janet ' ( Virgin ) has remained in the Top 10 since its release last summer and has been critically acclaimed . " He adds that " the oversight is doubly vexing , because [ Jackson ] — in a songwriting and production partnership with Jimmy Jam ( aka James Harris III ) and Terry Lewis — is not just a multiplatinum pop act but an artist who has reshaped the sound and image of rhythm and blues over the last decade . " Kot laid blame to the oversight on the fact that many believed her to be a producer @-@ dependent artist — an opinion he found to be in error . Similarly , producer Jimmy Jam stated : " It 's easy to say that the two albums she did before she met us weren 't successful and when she got with us she became successful ... ' Control ' was the first album she actually had input . I think that 's just as significant as the fact we ( Jam and Lewis ) did the record . "
= = = Retrospective reviews = = =
Later reviews were generally positive . In a retrospective review , Christgau gave Janet an " A – " and said that although the costly production by Jam & Lewis makes the music sound " more pornographic than obscene " , " this achievement is Janet 's , period ... Better nose than Michael , better navel than Madonna , better sex than either . " Laura Sinagra wrote in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) that with janet , Jackson " took more risks " lyrically than on her previous albums . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine notes that the album " was at the forefront of the increasingly popular sampling trend in the ' 90s , with one song even employing three different samples as its foundation . Some make perfect sense on a thematic as well as sonic level , like Kool & the Gang 's " Kool It ( Here Comes the Fuzz ) " and Stevie Wonder 's " Superwoman , Where Were You When I Needed You " on " New Agenda , " or the orchestral flourish from Diana Ross & the Supremes ' " Someday We 'll Be Together " on " If , " which seems to exist for the sole purpose of providing the impetus behind one of the greatest dance @-@ break routines in music video history . " Commenting on the album 's broad range , he states : " The mother of eclectic , genre @-@ hopping records by Christina Aguilera , Gwen Stefani , and Fergie , janet. incorporates new jack swing , house , pop , rock , hip @-@ hop , jazz , and even opera , but the album 's range of styles isn 't jarring in the least ... Janet has never been one thing and janet. is a feminist statement , to be sure . " Alex Henderson of Allmusic offered a positive review , saying " [ a ] nyone who expected Jackson to top Rhythm Nation — her crowning achievement and an incredibly tough act to follow — was being unrealistic . But with janet . , she delivered a respectable offering that , although not as strong as either Control or Nation , has many strong points . "
= = Legacy = =
Although Jackson has reached superstar status in the United States , she has yet to achieve the same level of response internationally . According to Nacy Berry , vice chairman of Virgin Records , Janet marked the first time the label " had centrally coordinated and strategized a campaign on a worldwide basis " which ultimately brought her to a plateau of global recognition . Her historic multimillion @-@ dollar contract made her the highest @-@ paid artist in history , until brother Michael renegotiated his contract with Sony Music Entertainment only days later . Sonia Murry noted that she remained " the highest @-@ paid female in pop ... a whirlwind of fashion , personality and slick musical packaging rivaled only by Madonna and Whitney Houston in today 's pop pantheon . " James Robert Parish , author of Today 's Black Hollywood ( 1995 ) wrote : " She confirmed her status as today 's Queen of Pop when , not long ago , she signed a $ 35- $ 40 million recording contract with Virgin Records . " Music critic Nelson George noted that while surpassing Michael would be next to impossible , Janet had assuredly reached iconic status . He explained : " What worked for Michael 10 years ago is working for her now ... Michael was clearly the voice of the ' 80s , those that grew up with him since Motown . And with the themes ( independence , social consciousness and up @-@ front yet responsible sexuality ) that she 's addressing in her albums and the popularity she 's enjoying , she could very well be the voice of the ' 90s . "
Rolling Stone 's The ' 90s : The Inside Stories from the Decade That Rocked ( 2010 ) documented that she had achieved some level of growth with each of her records , and that with Janet , " [ u ] sing soul , rock and dance elements , as well as opera diva Kathleen Battle , [ she ] unleashed her most musically ambitious record , guided as always , by producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . " Richard J. Ripani author of The New Blue Music : Changes in Rhythm & Blues , 1950 @-@ 1999 ( 2006 ) noted that she had led the incorporation of rap into mainstream R & B with a select group of artists , in that " rap music no longer sounded so musically distant to many R & B listeners because many of its traits were commonly heard in songs by mainstream artists such as Janet Jackson , Mary J. Blige , Keith Sweat , and others . " Vibe magazine observed that " R & B was omnipresent in 1993 . It was a year in which Janet Jackson , at 27 , topped the Billboard pop album charts for six straight summer weeks , with her critically lauded , six @-@ times @-@ platinum janet . " It became one of only five albums in the history of the Billboard 200 — along with Whitney Houston 's Whitney ( 1987 ) , Norah Jones 's Feels Like Home ( 2004 ) , Taylor Swift 's Fearless ( 2008 ) , and Susan Boyle 's I Dreamed a Dream ( 2009 ) — to debut at number one and remain at the top of the chart for a minimum of six consecutive weeks . It is also only one of seven albums — including Michael Jackson 's Thriller ( 1982 ) and Bad ( 1987 ) , Bruce Springsteen , Born in the U.S.A. ( 1984 ) , George Michael 's , Faith ( 1987 ) , Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 ( 1989 ) and Katy Perry 's , Teenage Dream ( 2010 ) to yield a minimum of six top ten hit singles on the Hot 100 .
The release of Janet signaled the singer 's transformation from conservative teen role model to adult sex symbol . In You 've Come A Long Way , Baby : Women , Politics , and Popular Culture ( 1996 ) , Lilly J. Goren observed that " [ Her ] 1993 album Janet moved away from politically driven lyrics to songs about love and sex @-@ lyrics that could capitalize on her new sexy , more scantily clad image in MTV music videos . Jackson 's evolution from politically aware musician to sexy diva marked the direction that society and the music industry were encouraging the dance @-@ rock divas to pursue . " Reporter Edna Gunderson commented : " The woman whose hourglass torso and sensual gyrating have made her MTV 's reigning sex kitten is today a vision of wholesome beauty . " Professor and social critic Camille Paglia expressed : " Janet 's unique persona combines bold , brash power with quiet sensitively and womanly mystery . Her latest music is lightning and moonglow . "
Her music videos contributed to a higher degree of sexual freedom among young women , as Jean M. Twenge , author of Generation Me : Why Today 's Young Americans are More Confident , Assertive , Entitled — and More Miserable Than Ever Before ( 2007 ) wrote : " In Alfred Kinsey 's studies in the 1950s , only 3 % of the young women had received oral sex from a man . By the mid @-@ 1990s , however , 75 % of women aged 18 @-@ 24 had experienced cunnilingus . Music videos by female artists have contributed to the trend , with both Mary J. Blige and Janet Jackson heavily implying male @-@ on @-@ female oral sex in music videos by pushing down on a man 's head until he 's in exactly the right position . " Similarly , Paula Kamen in Her Way : Young Women Remake the Sexual Revolution ( 2000 ) states that " [ i ] n the early to mid @-@ 1990s , oral sex even reached mainstream music as politically charged demand of truly liberated women , " citing TLC , Mary J. Blige and Janet Jackson as examples of female artists simulating cunnilingus in their videos . Rolling Stone wrote that " she celebrated becoming an erotic being ... [ showing ] young women a way to have their sexual freedom and their dignity , to have their cake and eat it too . " She was named Best Female Singer and Female Sex Symbol by Rolling Stone for the year 1993 in pop music . Goren adds that later pop stars such as Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera and Pink would rely on image , sex appeal and choreography as much as musical talent .
= = Accolades = =
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" That 's the Way Love Goes " contains samples from " Papa Don 't Take No Mess " , written by James Brown , Fred Wesley , Charles Bobbit and John Starks and performed by J. Brown .
" You Want This " contains samples from :
" Love Child " , written by R. Dean Taylor , Frank Wilson , Pam Sawyer , Deke Richards and performed by Diana Ross & the Supremes .
" Jungle Boogie " , written by Robert Bell , Ronald Bell , Claydes Smith , Robert Mickens , Donald Boyce , Richard Allen Westfield , Dennis Thomas and George Brown and performed by Kool & the Gang .
" If " contains samples from " Someday We 'll Be Together " , written by Johnny Bristol , Harvey Fuqua and Jackey Beavers and performed by Diana Ross & the Supremes .
" New Agenda " contains samples from :
" School Boy Crush " , written by Hamish Stuart , Onnie McIntyre , Alan Gorrie , Steve Ferrone , Molly Duncan and Roger Bell and performed by Average White Band .
" Kool It ( Here Comes the Fuzz ) " , written by Gene Redd , Woodrow Sparrow , Robert Bell , Ronald Bell , Westfield , Mickens , G. Brown , Thomas and Smith and performed by Kool & the Gang .
" Superwoman ( Where Were You When I Needed You ) " , written and performed by Stevie Wonder .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = End of decade charts = = =
= = = Chart procession = = =
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= Calvin Johnson =
Calvin Johnson Jr . ( born September 29 , 1985 ) is a retired American football wide receiver who played his entire career for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was drafted by the Lions second overall in the 2007 NFL Draft . He played college football at Georgia Tech , where he was recognized as an All @-@ American twice .
On March 14 , 2012 , Johnson signed an eight @-@ year , US $ 132 million contract extension with the Lions , one of the largest sports contracts ever . Johnson has a rare combination of size ( 6 ft 5 in and 239 lb ) , hands , speed ( 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 35 seconds ) , strength , leaping ability , body control and hand @-@ eye coordination . His nickname " Megatron , " a Transformers character , was given to him by former Lions wide receiver Roy Williams , and the name caught on with fans .
On December 22 , 2012 , Johnson broke Jerry Rice 's single @-@ season record for receiving yards , which had previously been 1 @,@ 848 , and Johnson finished the 2012 season with 1 @,@ 964 yards , an average of almost 123 yards per game . In that same game versus the Atlanta Falcons , Johnson also set the NFL records for consecutive 100 @-@ yard games ( 8 ) and consecutive games with 10 or more receptions ( 4 ) . He also tied Hall of Famer Michael Irvin 's record for most 100 @-@ yard games in a season with 11 .
= = Early years = =
Johnson was born to Calvin and Arica Johnson on September 29 , 1985 in Newnan , Georgia . Johnson was 6 feet tall in middle school , and 6 feet 4 inches in 10th grade . He attended Sandy Creek High School in Tyrone , Georgia and was a student , a letterman in football , and a baseball standout . In football , he was a three @-@ year starter as a wide receiver . As a sophomore , he made 34 receptions for 646 yards and 10 touchdowns . As a junior , Johnson caught 40 passes for 736 yards and eight touchdowns . His number , 81 , was retired on October 22 , 2010 .
Johnson was rated among the nation 's top 10 wide receivers and top 100 players by virtually every recruiting analyst . He was tabbed the No. 4 wide receiver and No. 15 player in the nation by TheInsiders.com , and named to the Super Southern 100 by the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , the Rivals 100 by Rivals.com , TheInsiders.com Hot 100 , the SuperPrep All @-@ America 275 and the Prep Star Top 100 Dream Team .
He was also rated the No. 1 player in Georgia , No. 12 in the Southeast and No. 37 in the nation by Rivals.com , the No. 7 wide receiver in the nation by SuperPrep , and first @-@ team all @-@ state selection ( Class AAAA ) by the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution . Finally , he was tabbed to the AJC 's preseason Super 11 . By the time he was a junior , he was ranked as within the top 10 wide receivers and the top 100 players in the nation by almost every writer .
= = College career = =
Johnson attended the Georgia Institute of Technology , where he played for coach Chan Gailey 's Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team from 2004 to 2006 . Despite Georgia Tech being interested in his playing both football and baseball , Johnson 's mother refused to allow Johnson to play both sports after determining that the year @-@ round athletic schedule would be too demanding . In his career at Georgia Tech wearing number 21 , Johnson made a case for being the greatest Georgia Tech player of all time . Johnson had 178 receptions in his career , good for 2 @,@ 927 yards and 28 touchdowns . He ranks first in school history in career receiving yards , second in receptions , first in touchdown receptions , and first in career 100 @-@ yard receiving games with 13 .
As a freshman in 2004 , Johnson was a first @-@ team All @-@ Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) selection . Johnson was the Jackets ' leading receiver with 48 catches for 837 yards and seven scores , which were Georgia Tech freshman records . Johnson ended his freshman campaign against Syracuse University in the Champs Sports Bowl , where he recorded a touchdown . 2005 was Johnson 's sophomore year , when he earned first @-@ team All @-@ American honors . He also earned All @-@ ACC honors for the second straight year and was semifinalist for the Fred Biletnikoff Award . He led Tech with 54 catches for 888 yards and six scores .
Johnson entered his 2006 junior season in the running for the Biletnikoff Award and Heisman Trophy . Although Johnson finished tenth in the Heisman voting , he won the Biletnikoff as the best college wide receiver . Johnson was honored as the ACC Player of the Year , was a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection for the third consecutive year , and was recognized as a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ American . Johnson tallied 1 @,@ 202 yards on 76 catches . Johnson 's 15 touchdowns in 2006 was a new Georgia Tech single @-@ season record . Against the West Virginia Mountaineers in the Toyota Gator Bowl , Johnson had nine catches for 186 yards and two touchdowns , albeit in a losing effort .
= = = College record = = =
Georgia Tech career receiving yards – 2 @,@ 927
= = = College awards and honors = = =
First @-@ team Freshman All @-@ American 2004
All @-@ American 2005 and 2006
First @-@ Team All @-@ Atlantic Coast Conference , 2004 , 2005 and 2006
ACC Rookie of the Year , 2004
ACC Player of the Year , 2006
Four @-@ time ACC Rookie of the Week
Biletnikoff Award , 2006
Paul Warfield Trophy , 2006
10th 2006 Heisman Vote - 43 total votes ( 76 rec , 1202 yds , 15 @.@ 8 avg , 15 TD )
= = = Academic activities = = =
During the 2006 summer , Johnson , who majored in management with a background in building construction , was given the option of working on either constructing environmentally friendly luxury condos , or a project building solar latrines to improve sanitation in Bolivia . Johnson chose the latter , as he wanted to help the less fortunate . The " solar latrines " use the sun ’ s rays to safely transform bacteria @-@ laden waste into fertilizer .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2007 NFL Draft = = =
Johnson was SI.com 's Midseason NFL Draft Projection # 1 pick , though Johnson had stated that he intended to earn his degree from Georgia Tech . On January 8 , 2007 , Johnson declared himself eligible for the NFL Draft , bypassing his senior season at Georgia Tech . He was regarded as the best athlete to come out of the draft and was the # 1 player on most draft boards . Johnson was said by ESPN to be able to be productive as a rookie , much like receiver Randy Moss was as a rookie . In a mid @-@ February workout with speed and conditioning coach Mark Pearsall , Johnson clocked a 4 @.@ 33 @-@ second 40 @-@ yard dash , recorded an 11 @-@ foot standing broad jump , and had a vertical leap of 43 inches .
Johnson surprised many when he weighed in at 239 pounds at the combine , 12 pounds more than expected , although he claims that this season he played " at about 235 and I got up to 238 " and that his weight was not a problem . Johnson had told the media that he would not run the 40 @-@ yard dash at the combine but would wait until his March 15 workout at Georgia Tech . Johnson ran a 4 @.@ 35 and wowed scouts with his jump drill results , his receiving skills , and his 11 ft 7 in ( 3 @.@ 53 m ) broad jump , which is " best broad jump I can ever remember an NFL prospect having , " according to Gil Brandt . Johnson is the only player 6 @-@ foot @-@ 5 or taller , regardless of position , to run a 40 @-@ yard dash in under 4 @.@ 40 seconds at the combine since 2006 .
Johnson was selected by the Detroit Lions as the second pick overall in the 2007 NFL Draft . This is the highest a Georgia Tech Yellow Jacket has ever been drafted . The Lions were expected to trade Johnson , most likely to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , but the team announced that they were keeping him . The next day , the Detroit Tigers invited him to throw out the first pitch .
= = = Detroit Lions = = =
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
Johnson attended Reebok 's NFL Rookie Premiere in Los Angeles . The Lions , being told by the league that Johnson would have to skip the minicamp to attend , rescheduled the camp to accommodate Johnson . On August 3 , 2007 , Johnson signed a six @-@ year deal with the Detroit Lions after holding out for eight days , and passed his physical in time to be on the field for the start of that morning 's practice . He was represented by agent James " Bus " Cook . The contract is worth up to US $ 64 million , with $ in guaranteed money , making Johnson the third highest @-@ paid player in Lions history ( the highest at the time , since passed by Matthew Stafford and Ndamukong Suh ) and the highest @-@ paid receiver ( in guaranteed money ) in the NFL .
Although he did not start the game , Johnson had an impressive NFL debut on Sunday , September 9 , 2007 , catching 4 passes for 70 yards and his first career touchdown in Detroit 's 36 – 21 win over the Oakland Raiders . He sustained a lower back injury after making a catch over two Philadelphia Eagles defenders on September 23 , 2007 . He scored his first NFL rushing touchdown against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on October 21 , 2007 on a 32 @-@ yard reverse play . Fellow teammate Roy Williams nicknamed Johnson " Megatron " , due to his large hands being similar to that of the towering Decepticon . The nickname caught on well with fans . Williams later changed the nickname to " Bolt " after Jamaican sprinting phenom Usain Bolt , comparing the two athletes ' similar height and running abilities . Johnson finished the 2007 season with 756 yards and 5 total touchdowns .
In 2008 , Johnson said he could " still feel " the lower @-@ back injury that bothered him throughout his rookie season . Johnson took five weeks off after the 2007 season and was taking part in the Lions ' offseason program . " I know it 's there but it doesn 't hurt , " he said . Johnson revealed that he needed Vicodin to play through the final three months of the 2007 season . He needed the medication to help him play with a bone bruise in his back . " I was on meds the rest of the season , " he said . " I was taking Vicodin twice a game just to get through the game . I stayed hurt the whole season , probably because I was trying to come back too soon . " Johnson averaged 15 @.@ 8 yards on 48 catches in the 2007 season .
= = = = 2008 season = = = =
Johnson and the Lions faced the Atlanta Falcons on the road on September 7 , 2008 , to begin the season . As the official starting wide receiver behind Roy Williams , Johnson led the team in receptions and yards , collecting 7 catches for 107 yards , which included one 38 @-@ yard catch @-@ and @-@ run in the Lions ' 34 – 21 loss . During week 2 versus the Green Bay Packers , he had two key touchdowns late in the game , which sparked a large comeback , though the Lions eventually lost the game , 48 – 25 . Both touchdowns catches included a run after the catch ( the first catch going for 38 yards and the second going for 47 yards , both over the middle ) displaying Johnson 's speed and breakaway ability . He ended the game with 6 receptions for 129 yards and 2 touchdowns . In the following two games , losses to San Francisco and Chicago , Johnson failed to score a touchdown or gain over 50 yards receiving . However , against the Minnesota Vikings , Johnson had 4 receptions for 85 yards and his third touchdown of the season .
On October 14 before the week 6 trade deadline , Roy Williams was traded to the Dallas Cowboys for a first , a 3rd and a 7th @-@ round pick in the 2009 NFL Draft , making Johnson the Lions ' starting wide receiver and the last big threat on the offense . In his first game without Roy Williams alongside him in the week 7 game against the Houston Texans , Johnson caught only 2 passes , totaling 154 yards receiving ; the first pass didn 't come until Dan Orlovsky threw a pass up for grabs at the end of the first half which Johnson caught for 58 yards and the second pass came on a 96 @-@ yard touchdown catch @-@ and @-@ run . With Williams gone and starting quarterback Jon Kitna lost to injury for the season , the Texans defense had little to do to stop the Lions ' offense but shut down Johnson , winning the game 28 – 21 .
Johnson set a career high for receptions in a game during the week @-@ 9 match @-@ up against their division rivals , the Chicago Bears , with 8 receptions that garnered 94 yards and one touchdown , although still losing the game 27 – 23 . During week 10 , formerly retired All @-@ Pro quarterback Daunte Culpepper was signed to a one @-@ year contract with the Lions in hopes to spur the offense and earned the starting job for the next two games . Johnson ended his first game with Culpepper at quarterback with 2 receptions for 92 yards in a 38 – 14 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars . In Johnson 's 4th game with Culpepper , he had 5 catches for 66 yards . During the week 14 match @-@ up against the division rival Minnesota Vikings , Johnson passed the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard receiving mark for the first time in his career after collecting 3 catches for 84 yards and one touchdown , ending the week with 1 @,@ 055 yards receiving and 9 touchdowns on the season .
Johnson and the 2008 Detroit Lions finished the first ever 0 – 16 season in NFL history after a 31 – 21 loss to the Green Bay Packers in week 17 . Despite the Lions ' failures and the fact that five different quarterbacks played during the year , Johnson finished as one of the strongest wide receivers statistically for the season , finishing fifth in receiving yards ( 1 @,@ 331 ) and 7th in receiving yards per game ( 83 @.@ 2 ) , and leading the league in receiving touchdowns ( 12 ) , despite the fact that the entire Lions team only passed for 18 touchdowns . However , Johnson missed the Pro Bowl , with most experts attributing the snub to the Lions ' dismal winless season ( he was named an alternate instead ) .
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
After 2008 , Detroit 's front office and coaching personnel were essentially overhauled by the team ownership . Matt Millen , the team 's incumbent general manager and CEO since 2001 , was terminated on September 28 , 2008 . His replacement , Martin Mayhew , ultimately terminated head coach Rod Marinelli in the off @-@ season . Marinelli was replaced by Jim Schwartz , then defensive coordinator of the Tennessee Titans . Schwartz ultimately revamped the entire Detroit offensive ( and defensive ) philosophies — hiring Scott Linehan and Gunther Cunningham , respectively . Detroit held the first pick in the 2009 NFL Draft , and selected Matthew Stafford out of the University of Georgia . Stafford was named the team 's starting quarterback out of training camp , but he battled various injuries throughout the season . Much of the 2008 Detroit roster was released by the new regime , and the 2009 team was viewed as somewhat of a work @-@ in @-@ progress , but Johnson still finished the 2009 season with 67 receptions 984 yards and five TDs , while completely missing two games .
= = = = 2010 season = = = =
In a week 1 game against the Chicago Bears , Johnson caught a pass with 31 seconds left in regulation in the end zone for what looked like a game @-@ winning touchdown . However , referee Gene Steratore ruled the catch incomplete , saying that Johnson had not maintained possession of the ball through the entire process of the catch . The Lions lost the game , 19 – 14 .
Johnson amassed 77 receptions for 1 @,@ 120 yards and 12 TDs during 2010 . He was also selected to the first Pro Bowl of his career . Following the 2010 season , Johnson was the recipient of the Lions / Detroit Sports Broadcasters Association / Pro Football Writers Association ( Detroit Chapter ) Media @-@ Friendly Good Guy Award .
= = = = 2011 season = = = =
In 2011 , Johnson had his second best statistical season of his NFL career , reaching a career @-@ high 1 @,@ 681 receiving yards and 16 touchdowns . In a week @-@ 4 game against the Dallas Cowboys , Johnson helped rally the Lions from a 24 @-@ point deficit to a 34 – 30 victory by catching two touchdown passes in the fourth quarter , including a famous catch in which Johnson beat the Cowboys ' triple coverage in the end zone . This performance gave Johnson 8 touchdown receptions through the first four games of the season and tied Cris Carter for most consecutive games with multiple touchdown receptions at 4 . In a Week 17 game against the Green Bay Packers , Johnson had a career @-@ best 244 receiving yards in a 45 – 41 loss . Johnson and the Lions clinched a playoff spot for the first time since 1999 , and the first time in Johnson 's career , after a 38 – 10 beating of the San Diego Chargers on Christmas Eve .
However , Detroit would ultimately lose on the road against the Packers the following week ( New Year 's Day ) and would find themselves on the road again in a 2012 NFC Wild Card game against the heavily favored New Orleans Saints in the playoff bracket . Always tough to play against at the Superdome , the Saints wore down the Detroit defense and New Orleans would go on to a win 45 – 28 . In the game , Johnson caught 12 passes for 211 receiving yards and two touchdowns — breaking Detroit 's playoff record of 150 receiving yards in a playoff game previously held by Brett Perriman and Leonard Thompson .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
On March 14 , 2012 , Johnson signed an 8 @-@ year extension worth US $ 132 million with the Detroit Lions , with US $ 60 million guaranteed , making Johnson the highest @-@ paid receiver in the league . Johnson beat out 42 other players and eliminated Cam Newton to win the Madden NFL 13 cover athlete on April 25 , 2012 , on SportsNation . From week 9 – 16 , he recorded consecutive games with 125 receiving yards or more , which broke the NFL record previously held by Pat Studstill . On December 22 , 2012 against the Atlanta Falcons , Johnson broke Jerry Rice 's single @-@ season receiving yards record of 1 @,@ 848 yards . Johnson was also named a starter for the NFC in the Pro Bowl played in Honolulu , Hawaii . Johnson finished with 72 yards against Chicago in week 17 , missing out on 2000 by just 36 yards . Johnson finished the season leading the league in receptions ( 122 ) and receiving yards ( 1 @,@ 964 ) . Johnson is the only player in the Super Bowl era ( since 1967 ) to average 120 yards per game in a season when he averaged 122 @.@ 8 yards per game in 2012 .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On October 27 , 2013 , in a 31 – 30 win over the Dallas Cowboys , Johnson caught 14 of 16 passes thrown in his direction ; he finished the game with 329 receiving yards and one touchdown . In addition to breaking the Lions ' franchise record of 302 receiving yards set by Cloyce Box on Dec. 3 , 1950 , it was the highest receiving yardage ever in a regulation @-@ length game and the second @-@ highest overall single @-@ game yardage in NFL history , behind Flipper Anderson 's 336 @-@ yard performance in a 1989 overtime win ( Anderson accumulated 40 of those yards in overtime ) . In this same game , Calvin also tied Lance Alworth for the most career games with at least 200 yards receiving ( 5 ) .
In a Week 10 game against the Chicago Bears , Johnson had two TD receptions . The second one gave him the Lions all @-@ time record for touchdown catches ( 63 ) , breaking the old mark previously held by Herman Moore . Johnson was named to the 2014 Pro Bowl , but an injury forced him to withdraw .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
In the Thanksgiving Day game against the Chicago Bears ( November 27 ) , Johnson became the fastest player to reach 10 @,@ 000 receiving yards in NFL history , eclipsing the mark in the second quarter of his 115th game . He was named to his fifth Pro Bowl in a row , the most by any Lion since Barry Sanders was named to 10 straight pro bowls .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
Much like Week 1 in Chicago five years back , in Week 4 at Seattle , Johnson was involved in another controversial play . This time , late in the fourth quarter , Seahawks safety Kam Chancellor punched the ball out of Johnson 's hands while he was trying to score . K.J. Wright then batted the ball out of the end zone for a touchback . The NFL later admitted the referees should have penalized Wright for illegal batting . The Seahawks won 13 – 10 .
In Week 5 against Arizona , Johnson caught his 671st pass , breaking Herman Moore 's franchise record . However , the Lions were the victims of a 42 – 17 loss to the Cardinals .
In Week 6 , Johnson caught 6 passes for 166 yards in an overtime victory over Chicago . This gave the Lions their first victory of the season after an 0 – 5 start . In Week 12 , against Philadelphia , Johnson caught eight passes for 93 yards and three touchdowns to help lead the Lions to their third straight victory and lift their record to 4 – 7 .
In Week 8 against the Kansas City Chiefs in the NFL International Series on November 1 , 2015 , Johnson became the fastest player to reach 11 @,@ 000 receiving yards in NFL history , in his 127th game .
Johnson finished the season with 88 receptions for 1 @,@ 214 yards ( 13 @.@ 8 average ) , and nine touchdowns , reaching 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yards receiving for the sixth consecutive year , and seventh time in nine @-@ years . Johnson was named to the Pro Bowl for the sixth consecutive year , however declined to attend . His 1 @,@ 214 yards in 2015 are the most ever in a player 's final season in the NFL , while his 88 receptions are the second most in a player 's final season , trailing Sterling Sharpe 's 94 in 1994 .
= = = Retirement = = =
On March 8 , 2016 , Johnson announced his retirement from the NFL after nine seasons . His 11 @,@ 619 receiving yards rank third in a player 's first nine seasons , trailing only Torry Holt ( 11 @,@ 864 ) and Jerry Rice ( 11 @,@ 776 ) . Since Johnson was drafted by the Lions with the second overall pick in the 2007 NFL draft , no player has more receiving yards , receiving touchdowns or 100 @-@ yard games ( 46 ) than Johnson through the 2015 season . Among those who have played in 100 career games in NFL history , no player has averaged more receiving yards per game than Johnson . Johnson 's average of 86 @.@ 1 receiving yards per game is 8 @.@ 7 yards better than the next @-@ closest player on that list : Holt . From 2011 to 2013 , Johnson caught 302 passes for 33 touchdowns . His 5 @,@ 137 receiving yards over that time are the most by any player over a three @-@ year stretch in NFL history .
= = = NFL records = = =
Most receiving yards in a single season : 1 @,@ 964 yards ( 2012 )
Seasons with 1 @,@ 600 yards receiving ( 2 , tied with Marvin Harrison , Torry Holt , and Antonio Brown )
Most consecutive games with at least 100 receiving yards ( 8 )
Most consecutive games with at least 10 receptions ( 4 )
Most 100 receiving yard games in a single season ( 11 , tied with Michael Irvin )
Most receiving yards in a five @-@ game span ( 861 yards )
Most receiving yards in a six @-@ game span ( 962 yards )
Fastest to 10 @,@ 000 NFL receiving yards ( 115 games )
Fastest to 11 @,@ 000 NFL receiving yards ( 127 games )
= = = Lions franchise records = = =
Most receiving touchdowns in a single season : 16 ( 2011 )
Most receiving touchdowns , career : 83
Most receiving yards , career : 11 @,@ 619
Most receptions in a single game : ( 14 , 10 / 27 / 2013 vs. Dallas , tied with Herman Moore )
Most receptions , career : 731
Most seasons with 10 + receiving touchdowns : 4
Most career 70 + yard receptions : 8
Most games with multiple touchdowns in one half : 12
Most receiving yards in a single game in regulation ( 329 ) . This is the 2nd most overall in NFL history behind Flipper Anderson ( 336 ) .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) = = =
= = = National Football League ( NFL ) = = =
= = Personal life = =
Johnson is a Christian . Johnson has a tattoo of the crucifixion of Jesus on his left arm and a Christian cross on his right arm . Johnson is part of a weekly Bible study group with other Lions players .
Johnson is funding a film called Real Love . The film is " a coming @-@ of @-@ age story about a girl trying to stay true to her virginity and her religion " and " ... a message [ Johnson ] wants to get out there . "
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= Miami Showband killings =
The Miami Showband killings ( also called the Miami Showband Massacre ) was an attack by the Ulster Volunteer Force ( UVF ) , a loyalist paramilitary group , on 31 July 1975 . It took place on the A1 road at Buskhill in County Down , Northern Ireland . Five people were killed , including three members of The Miami Showband , who were then one of Ireland 's most popular cabaret bands .
The band was travelling home to Dublin late at night after a performance in Banbridge . Halfway to Newry , their minibus was stopped at what appeared to be a military checkpoint , where gunmen in British Army uniforms ordered them to line up by the roadside . At least four of the gunmen were serving soldiers from the British Army 's Ulster Defence Regiment ( UDR ) but , unbeknownst to the band , all were members of the UVF . While two of the gunmen ( both soldiers ) were hiding a time bomb on the minibus , it exploded prematurely and killed them . The other gunmen then opened fire on the dazed band members , killing three and wounding two . It is believed the bomb was meant to explode en route , killing the band and framing them as IRA bomb @-@ smugglers , and possibly leading to stricter security measures at the border .
Two serving British soldiers and one former British soldier were found guilty of the murders and received life sentences ; they were released in 1998 . Those responsible for the attack belonged to the Glenanne gang ; a secret alliance of loyalist militants , rogue police officers and British soldiers . There are also allegations that British military intelligence agents were involved . According to former Intelligence Corps agent Captain Fred Holroyd , the killings were organised by British intelligence officer Robert Nairac , together with the UVF 's Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade and its commander Robin " The Jackal " Jackson . The Historical Enquiries Team , which investigated the killings , released their report to the victims ' families in December 2011 . It confirmed that Jackson was linked to the attack by fingerprints .
The massacre dealt a blow to Northern Ireland 's live music scene , which had brought young Catholics and Protestants together . In a report published in the Sunday Mirror in 1999 , Colin Wills called the Miami Showband attack " one of the worst atrocities in the 30 @-@ year history of the Troubles " . Irish Times diarist Frank McNally summed up the massacre as " an incident that encapsulated all the madness of the time " .
= = Background = =
= = = Political situation in Northern Ireland = = =
The conflict in Northern Ireland , known as " the Troubles " , began in the late 1960s . The year 1975 was marked by an escalation in sectarian attacks and a vicious feud between the two main loyalist paramilitary groups , the Ulster Volunteer Force ( UVF ) and the Ulster Defence Association ( UDA ) . On 4 April 1974 the proscription against the UVF had been lifted by Merlyn Rees , Secretary of State for Northern Ireland . This meant that both it and the UDA were legal organisations . The UVF would be once more banned by the British government on 3 October 1975 .
In May 1974 unionists called a general strike to protest against the Sunningdale Agreement – an attempt at power @-@ sharing , setting up a Northern Ireland Executive and a cross @-@ border Council of Ireland , which would have given the Government of Ireland a voice in running Northern Ireland . During that strike on 17 May , the UVF carried out the Dublin and Monaghan car bombings , which killed 33 civilians . The Provisional IRA were suspected by British police of bombing two pubs in the English city of Birmingham the following November , resulting in 21 deaths .
UK Home Secretary Roy Jenkins introduced the Prevention of Terrorism Act , which gave the government unprecedented powers against the liberty of individuals in the United Kingdom in peacetime . At Christmas 1974 the IRA declared a ceasefire , which theoretically lasted throughout most of 1975 . This move made loyalists apprehensive and suspicious that a secret accord was being conducted between the British government and the IRA , and that Northern Ireland 's Protestants would be " sold out " . Their fears were slightly grounded in fact , as the MI6 officer Michael Oatley was involved in negotiations with a member of the IRA Army Council , during which " structures of disengagement " from Ireland were discussed . This had meant the possible withdrawal of British troops from Northern Ireland . The existence of these talks led unionists to believe that they were about to be abandoned by the British government and forced into a united Ireland ; as a result , the loyalist paramilitary groups reacted with a violence that , combined with the tit @-@ for @-@ tat retaliations from the IRA ( despite their ceasefire ) , made 1975 one of the " bloodiest years of the conflict " .
In early 1975 Merlyn Rees set up elections for the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention at which all of Northern Ireland 's politicians would plan their way forward . These were held on 1 May 1975 and the United Ulster Unionist Council ( UUUC ) , which had won 11 out of 12 Northern Irish seats in the February 1974 general election , won a majority again . As the UUUC would not abide any form of power @-@ sharing with the Dublin government , no agreement could be reached and the convention failed , again marginalising Northern Ireland 's politicians and the communities they represented .
= = = Robin Jackson and the Mid @-@ Ulster UVF = = =
The UVF Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade operated mainly around the Portadown and Lurgan areas . It had been set up in Lurgan in 1972 by part @-@ time Ulster Defence Regiment ( UDR ) sergeant and permanent staff instructor Billy Hanna , who made himself commander of the brigade . His leadership was endorsed by the UVF 's leader Gusty Spence . The brigade was described by author Don Mullan as one of the most ruthless units operating in the 1970s . At the time of the attack the Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade was commanded by Robin Jackson , also known as " The Jackal " . Jackson had assumed command of the Mid @-@ Ulster UVF just a few days before the Miami Showband attack , after allegedly shooting Hanna dead outside his home in Lurgan on 27 July 1975 . According to authors Paul Larkin and Martin Dillon , Jackson was accompanied by Harris Boyle when he killed Hanna . Hanna was named by former British Intelligence Corps operative Colin Wallace as having organised and led the 1974 Dublin and Monaghan bombings , along with Jackson . Journalist Joe Tiernan suggested that Hanna was shot for refusing to participate in the Miami Showband attack and that he had become an informer for the Gardaí in exchange for immunity from prosecution for the Dublin bombings . Dillon suggested that because a large number of joint UDR / UVF members were to be used for the planned Miami Showband ambush , Hanna was considered to have been a " security risk " , and the UVF decided he had to be killed before he could alert the authorities .
Jackson was an alleged RUC Special Branch agent who was said by Yorkshire Television 's The Hidden Hand : The Forgotten Massacre programme to have had links to both the Intelligence Corps and Captain Robert Nairac . A report in the Irish Times implicated Jackson in the Dublin bombings . More than 100 killings have been attributed to him by the Pat Finucane Centre , the Derry @-@ based civil rights group .
= = = The Miami Showband = = =
The Miami Showband was a popular Dublin @-@ based cabaret band , enjoying fame and , according to journalist Peter Taylor , " Beatle @-@ like devotion " from fans on both sides of the Irish border . A typical Irish showband was based on the popular six- or seven @-@ member dance band . Its basic repertoire included cover versions of pop songs that were currently in the charts and standard dance numbers . The music ranged from rock and country and western to Dixieland jazz . Sometimes the showbands played traditional Irish music at their performances .
Originally called the Downbeats Quartet , the Miami Showband was reformed in 1962 by rock promoter Tom Doherty , who gave them their new name . With Dublin @-@ born singer Dickie Rock as frontman , the Miami Showband underwent many personnel changes over the years . In December 1972 , Rock left the band to be briefly replaced by two brothers , Frankie and Johnny Simon . That same year keyboardist Francis " Fran " O 'Toole ( from Bray , County Wicklow ) had won the Gold Star Award on RTÉ 's Reach For the Stars television programme . In early 1973 , Billy MacDonald ( aka " Billy Mac " ) took over as the group 's frontman when the Simon brothers quit the band . The following year , Fran O 'Toole became the band 's lead vocalist after Mick Roche ( Billy Mac 's replacement ) was sacked . O 'Toole was noted for his good looks and popularity with female fans. was described by the Miami Showband 's former bass guitarist , Paul Ashford , as having been the " greatest soul singer " in Ireland . Ashford had been asked to leave the band in 1973 , for complaining that performing in Northern Ireland put their lives at risk . He was replaced by Johnny Brown , who in turn was replaced by Dave Monks until Stephen Travers eventually became the band 's permanent bass player . In late 1974 , the Miami Showband 's song Clap Your Hands and Stomp Your Feet ( featuring O 'Toole on lead vocals ) reached number eight in the Irish charts .
The 1975 line @-@ up comprised four Catholics and two Protestants . They were : lead vocalist and keyboard player Fran O 'Toole ( 28 , Catholic ) , guitarist Anthony " Tony " Geraghty ( 24 , Catholic ) from Dublin , trumpeter Brian McCoy ( 32 , Protestant ) from Caledon , County Tyrone , saxophonist Des McAlea ( aka " Des Lee " ) , 24 , a Catholic from Belfast , bassist Stephen Travers ( 24 , Catholic ) from Carrick @-@ on @-@ Suir , County Tipperary and drummer Ray Millar ( Protestant ) from Antrim . O 'Toole and McCoy were both married ; each had two children . Geraghty was engaged to be married .
Their music was described as " contemporary and trans @-@ Atlantic " , with no reference to the Northern Ireland conflict . By 1975 they had gained a large following , playing to crowds of people in dance halls and ballrooms across the island . The band had no overt interest in politics nor in the religious beliefs of the people who made up their audience . They were prepared to travel anywhere in Ireland to perform for their fans .
According to the Irish Times , at the height of the Irish showband 's popularity ( from the 1950s to the 1970s ) , up to as many as 700 bands travelled to venues all over Ireland on a nightly basis .
= = Ambush = =
= = = Bogus checkpoint = = =
Five members of the Dublin @-@ based band were travelling home after a performance at the Castle Ballroom in Banbridge , County Down on Thursday 31 July 1975 . Ray Millar , the band 's drummer , was not with them as he had chosen to go to his home town of Antrim to spend the night with his parents . The band 's road manager , Brian Maguire , had already gone ahead a few minutes earlier in the equipment van . At about 2 : 30am , when the band was seven miles ( 11 km ) north of Newry on the main A1 road , their Volkswagen minibus ( driven by trumpeter Brian McCoy with Stephen Travers in the front seat beside him ) reached the townland of Buskhill . Near the junction with Buskhill Road they were flagged down by armed men dressed in British Army uniforms waving a red torch in a circular motion . During " The Troubles " it was normal for the British Army to set up checkpoints at any time .
Assuming it was a legitimate checkpoint , McCoy informed the others inside the minibus of a military checkpoint up ahead and pulled in at the lay @-@ by as directed by the armed men . As McCoy rolled down the window and produced his driving licence , gunmen came up to the minibus and one of them said in a Northern Irish accent , " Goodnight , fellas . How are things ? Can you step out of the van for a few minutes and we 'll just do a check " . The unsuspecting band members got out and were politely told to line up facing the ditch at the rear of the minibus with their hands on their heads . More uniformed men appeared from out of the darkness , their guns pointed at the minibus . About 10 gunmen were at the checkpoint , according to author and journalist Martin Dillon .
After McCoy told them they were the Miami Showband , Thomas Crozier ( who had a notebook ) asked the band members for their names and addresses , while the others bantered with them about the success of their performance that night . As Crozier took down the information , a car pulled up and another uniformed man appeared on the scene . He wore a uniform and beret noticeably different from the others . He spoke with an educated English accent and immediately took charge , ordering a man who appeared to have been the leader of the patrol , to tell Crozier to obtain their names and dates of birth instead of addresses .
The jocular mood of the gunmen abruptly ceased . At no time did this new soldier speak to any of the band members nor did he directly address Crozier . He relayed all his instructions to the gunman in command . Travers , the band 's new bass player , assumed he was a British Army officer , an opinion shared by McCoy . Just after the arrival of this mysterious soldier , McCoy nudged Travers , who was standing beside him , and reassured him by saying " Don 't worry Stephen , this is British Army " . Travers thought that McCoy , a Protestant from Northern Ireland , was familiar with security checkpoints and had reckoned the regular British Army would be more efficient than the Ulster Defence Regiment ( UDR ) , who had a reputation for unprofessional and unpredictable behaviour , especially towards people from the Republic .
McCoy , son of the Orange Order 's Grand Master for County Tyrone , had close relatives in the security forces ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law was a former member of the B Specials which had been disbanded in 1970 . Travers described McCoy as a " sophisticated , father @-@ type figure . Everybody was respectful to Brian " . McCoy 's words , therefore , were taken seriously by the other band members , and anything he said was considered to be accurate .
= = = Explosion = = =
At least four of the gunmen were soldiers from the UDR , the locally recruited infantry regiment of the British Army in Northern Ireland . Martin Dillon suggested in The Dirty War , that at least five serving UDR soldiers were present at the checkpoint . All the gunmen were members of the UVF 's Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade , and had been lying in wait to ambush the band , having set up the checkpoint just minutes before .
Out of sight of the band members , two of the gunmen placed a ten @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) time bomb in the rear of the minibus . The UVF 's plan was that the bomb would explode once the minibus had reached Newry , killing all on board . However , Martin Dillon alleged that the bomb was meant to go off in the Irish Republic . He suggested that had all gone according to plan , the loyalist extremists would have been able to clandestinely bomb the Republic of Ireland , yet claim that the band were republican bomb @-@ smugglers carrying explosives on behalf of the IRA . They had hoped to embarrass the Government of Ireland , as well as to draw attention to its level of control of the border . This may have resulted in the Irish authorities enforcing tighter controls over the border , thus restricting IRA operations . Dillon opined that another reason the UVF decided to target the Miami Showband was because Irish nationalists held them in high regard ; to attack the band was to strike the nationalists indirectly .
Stephen Travers heard the gunmen rummaging in the back of the minibus , where he kept his guitar . Concerned it might be damaged , he approached the two gunmen and told them to be careful . Asked whether he had anything valuable inside the case , Travers replied no . The gunman turned him round , punched him in the back and pushed him on the shoulder back into the line @-@ up .
When the two gunmen closed the rear door , clumsy soldering on the clock used as a timer caused the device to explode prematurely , blowing the minibus apart and killing soldiers Harris Boyle ( aged 22 , a telephone wireman from Portadown ) and Wesley Somerville ( aged 34 , a textile worker from Moygashel ) instantly . Hurled in opposite directions , they were both decapitated and their bodies dismembered . What little that remained intact of their bodies was burnt beyond recognition ; one of the limbless torsos was completely charred . →
= = = Shootings = = =
Following the explosion , the remaining gunmen opened fire on the dazed band members , who had all been knocked down into the field below the level of the road from the force of the blast . The order to shoot was given by the patrol 's apparent leader , James McDowell , to eliminate witnesses to the bogus checkpoint and subsequent bombing . Three of the musicians were killed : lead singer Fran O 'Toole , trumpeter Brian McCoy , and guitarist Tony Geraghty .
Brian McCoy was the first to die , having been hit in the back by nine rounds from a 9mm Luger pistol in the initial volley of gunfire . Fran O 'Toole attempted to run away , but was quickly chased down by the gunmen who had immediately jumped down into the field in pursuit . He was then machine @-@ gunned 22 times , mostly in the face , as he lay supine on the ground . Tony Geraghty also attempted to escape ; but he was caught by the gunmen and shot at least four times in the back of the head and back . Both men had pleaded for their lives before they were shot ; one had cried out , " Please don 't shoot me , don 't kill me " .
Bassist Stephen Travers was seriously wounded by a dum @-@ dum bullet which had struck him when the gunmen had first begun shooting . He survived by pretending he was dead , as he lay beside the body of McCoy . Saxophone player Des McAlea was hit by the minibus 's door when it was blown off in the explosion , but was not badly wounded . He lay hidden in thick undergrowth , undetected by the gunmen . He also survived . However , the flames from the burning hedge ( which had been set on fire by the explosion ) soon came dangerously close to where he lay ; he was forced to leave his hiding spot . By this time the gunmen had left the scene , assuming everyone else had been killed . Travers later recalled hearing one of the departing gunmen tell his comrade who had kicked McCoy 's body to make sure he was not alive : " Come on , those bastards are dead . I got them with dum @-@ dums " . McAlea made his way up the embankment to the main road where he hitched a lift to alert the RUC at their barracks in Newry .
= = = Forensic and ballistic evidence = = =
When the RUC arrived at the site they found five dead bodies , a seriously injured Stephen Travers , body parts , the smouldering remains of the destroyed minibus , debris from the bomb blast , bullets , spent cartridges , and the band members ' personal possessions , including clothing , shoes , and a photograph of the group , strewn across the area . They also discovered a stolen white Ford Escort registration number 4933 LZ , which had been left behind by the gunmen , along with two guns , ammunition , green UDR berets and a pair of glasses later traced to James McDowell , the gunman who had ordered the shootings .
One of the first RUC men who arrived at Buskhill in the wake of the killings was scenes of crime officer James O 'Neill . He described the scene as having " just the smell of utterly death about the place ... burning blood , burning tyres " . He also added that " that bomb was definitely placed there with a view to killing all in that band " .
The only identifiable body part from the bombers to survive the blast ( which had been heard up to four miles away ) was a severed arm belonging to Wesley Somerville . It was found 100 yards from the site with a " UVF Portadown " tattoo on it .
The RUC 's investigative unit , the Assassination or " A " Squad of detectives , was set up to investigate the crime and to discover the identities of the UVF gunmen who perpetrated the killings . Afterwards , as Travers recovered in hospital , the second survivor Des McAlea gave the police a description of McDowell as the gunman with a moustache and wearing dark glasses who appeared to have been the leader of the patrol . Some time after the attack , RUC officers questioned Stephen Travers at Dublin Castle . He subsequently stated they refused to accept his description of the different @-@ coloured beret worn by the soldier with the English accent . The UVF gunmen had worn green UDR berets , whereas the other man 's had been lighter in colour .
The dead bombers were named by the UVF , in a statement issued within 12 hours of the attack . Harris Boyle and Wesley Somerville were UDR soldiers as well as holding the rank of major and lieutenant , respectively , in the UVF . In 1993 Boyle was named by The Hidden Hand programme as one of the Dublin car bombers .
The stolen Ford Escort belonged to a man from Portadown , who according to Captain Fred Holroyd , had links with one of the UVF bombers and the driver of the bomb car which had been left to explode in Parnell Street , Dublin on 17 May 1974 . He was also one of the prime suspects in the sectarian killing of Dorothy Traynor on 1 April 1975 in Portadown .
Ballistic evidence indicates that the 10 @-@ member gang took at least six guns with them on the attack . An independent panel of inquiry commissioned by the Pat Finucane Centre has established that among the weapons actually used in the killings were two Sterling 9mm submachine guns and a 9mm Luger pistol serial no . U 4 . The submachine guns , which had been stolen years earlier from a former member of the B Specials , were linked to prior and later sectarian killings , whereas the Luger had been used to kill leading IRA member , John Francis Green , the previous January . In a letter to the Independent Commission of Inquiry into the Bombing of Kay 's Tavern dated 22 February 2004 , the Northern Ireland Office stated that : " The PSNI [ The Police Service of Northern Ireland ] have confirmed that a 9mm Luger pistol was ballistically traced both to the murder of John Francis Green and to the Miami Showband murders . " In May 1976 , Robin Jackson 's fingerprints were discovered on the metal barrel of a home @-@ made silencer constructed for a Luger . Both the silencer and pistol – which was later established to have been the same one used in the Miami Showband killings – were found by the security forces at the home of Edward Sinclair . Jackson was charged with possession of the silencer but not convicted , the trial judge having reportedly said : " At the end of the day I find that the accused somehow touched the silencer , but the Crown evidence has left me completely in the dark as to whether he did that wittingly or unwittingly , willingly or unwillingly " . The Luger was destroyed by the RUC on 28 August 1978 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Reactions = = =
Within 12 hours of the attack the UVF 's Brigade Staff ( Belfast leadership ) issued a statement . It was released under the heading Ulster Central Intelligence Agency – Miami Showband Incident Report :
A UVF patrol led by Major Boyle was suspicious of two vehicles , a minibus and a car parked near the border . Major Boyle ordered his patrol to apprehend the occupants for questioning . As they were being questioned , Major Boyle and Lieutenant Somerville began to search the minibus . As they began to enter the vehicle , a bomb was detonated and both men were killed outright . At the precise moment of the explosion , the patrol came under intense automatic fire from the occupants of the other vehicle . The patrol sergeant immediately ordered fire to be returned . Using self @-@ loading rifles and sub @-@ machine guns , the patrol returned fire , killing three of their attackers and wounding another . The patrol later recovered two Armalite rifles and a pistol . The UVF maintains regular border patrols due to the continued activity of the Provisional IRA . The Mid @-@ Ulster Battalion has been assisting the South Down @-@ South Armagh units since the IRA Forkhill boobytrap which killed four British soldiers . Three UVF members are being treated for gunshot wounds after last night but not in hospital .
It would appear that the UVF patrol surprised members of a terrorist organisation transferring weapons to the Miami Showband minibus and that an explosive device of some description was being carried by the Showband for an unlawful purpose . It is obvious , therefore , that the UVF patrol was justified in taking the action it did and that the killing of the three Showband members should be regarded as justifiable homicide . The Officers and Agents of the Ulster Central Intelligence Agency commend the UVF on their actions and tender their deepest sympathy to the relatives of the two Officers who died while attempting to remove the bomb from the minibus .
Harris Boyle and Wesley Somerville were given UVF paramilitary funerals conducted by Free Presbyterian minister William McCrea , a Democratic Unionist Party ( DUP ) politician .
The killings shocked both Northern Ireland and Ireland and put a serious strain on Anglo @-@ Irish relations . The Irish Times reported that on the night following the attack , the British ambassador Sir Arthur Galsworthy was summoned to hear the Government of Ireland 's strong feelings regarding the murder of the three band members . The government held the view that the British Government had not done enough to stop sectarian assassinations in Northern Ireland .
Following the post @-@ mortems , funerals were held for the three slain musicians ; they received televised news coverage by RTÉ , Ireland 's public service broadcaster . According to RTÉ , " Their families were in deep mourning and Ireland mourned with them " .
According to Peter Taylor , the Provisional IRA 's gun and bomb attack on the loyalist Bayardo Bar in Belfast 's Shankill Road on 13 August was in retaliation for the Miami Showband ambush . Four Protestant civilians ( two men and two women ) and UVF member Hugh Harris were killed in the attack . Two days later , Portadown disc jockey Norman " Mooch " Kerr , aged 28 , was shot dead by the IRA as he packed up his equipment after a show at the Camrick Bar in Armagh . Although not a member of any loyalist paramilitary group , he was a close friend of Harris Boyle and the two were often seen together . The IRA said it killed him because of an alleged association with British Army officer and member of 14th Intelligence Company , Captain Robert Nairac , and claimed it was in possession of his diary , which had been stolen in Portadown .
= = = Gilford and Altnamachin attacks = = =
Over the following month , there were two similar attacks in the area .
The night after the Miami Showband massacre , gunmen opened fire on a minibus near Gilford . It had been travelling from Banbridge to Bleary with nine people on board ; all were Catholics and most had been returning from a regular bingo session . One report says it was stopped at a fake British Army checkpoint . Five Catholic civilians were shot ; passenger Joseph Toland was killed outright and driver James Marks died of his wounds in January 1976 . The attack was blamed on loyalists and Lost Lives — an account of every death in the conflict — states that reliable loyalist sources have confirmed the UVF was responsible . However , police have blamed the IRA . The RUC suggested the IRA had meant to attack a police minibus in revenge for the Miami killings , but had mistakenly attacked a civilian minibus instead . A report by the police 's Historical Enquiries Team ( HET ) also suggests this . The IRA has denied responsibility .
On 24 August 1975 , Catholic civilians Colm McCartney and Sean Farmer were stopped in their car at another fake British Army checkpoint at Altnamachin ( near Newtownhamilton ) . They were driving home from a Gaelic football match in Dublin . The two men were found shot dead nearby . Earlier that night , three RUC officers in an unmarked car had been stopped at the same checkpoint but allowed through . However , the officers suspected that the checkpoint was fake . After receiving radio confirmation that there were no authorised checkpoints in the area that night , they reported the incident and requested help from the British Army to investigate it , but no action was taken . RUC officer John Weir claims that UDR corporal Robert McConnell was involved in the attack .
= = = Convictions = = =
A number of suspects were arrested by the RUC in early August 1975 . One of these men , Lance @-@ Corporal Thomas Raymond Crozier ( aged 25 , a painting contractor from Lurgan ) of C Company , 11th Battalion UDR was charged with the Miami killings . It was believed he had been betrayed to the RUC by a member of the gang .
Thomas Crozier recounted that on the night of the killings , he had driven to the grounds of a school in Lurgan where he had picked up two men . He then drove to a lay @-@ by on the Newry @-@ Banbridge dual carriageway and met up with another five men , who were all wearing British Army uniforms . They subsequently set up a roadblock with " all the trappings of a regular military checkpoint " . Crozier told police , and later a court , that he had not played a large part in the attack . He refused to name his accomplices , as he felt that to do so would put the lives of his family in danger .
On 22 January 1976 , a second UDR soldier , Sergeant James Roderick Shane McDowell ( aged 29 , an optical worker , also from Lurgan ) was arrested and charged with the Miami killings . He served in C Company , 11th Battalion UDR . The RUC were led to him through his glasses which had been found at the murder scene . Tests done on the glasses , which were eventually traced back to McDowell , revealed that the lenses were of a prescription worn by just 1 in 500 @,@ 000 of the population .
McDowell 's statement of admission was published in David McKittrick 's book Lost Lives :
" There was very little planning . I only came into it because of my UDR connection and the fact that I had a uniform . I was given a sub @-@ machine gun but I had never fired it . I passed out when the explosion happened and that was when I lost the gun , the glasses , and a UDR beret " .
On 15 October 1976 , Crozier and McDowell both received life sentences for the Miami Showband murders . McDowell had pleaded guilty . Crozier had pleaded not guilty . The judge , by sentencing McDowell and Crozier to 35 years imprisonment each , had handed down the longest life sentences in the history of Northern Ireland ; he commented that " killings like the Miami Showband must be stopped " . He added that had the death penalty not been abolished , it would have been imposed in this case . During the trial Des McAlea had received death threats which made him fear for the safety of his family ; this caused him to eventually leave Northern Ireland .
A third person , former UDR soldier John James Somerville ( aged 37 , a lorry @-@ helper and the brother of Wesley ) , was arrested following an RUC raid in Dungannon on 26 September 1980 . He was charged with the Miami Showband murders , the attempted murder of Stephen Travers , and the murder of Patrick Falls in 1974 . He was given a total of four life sentences ( three for the murders of the Miami Showband members and one for the Falls murder ) on 9 November 1981 ; he had pleaded not guilty . The three convicted UVF men , although admitting to having been at the scene , denied having shot anyone . None of the men ever named their accomplices , and the other UVF gunmen were never caught . The three men were sent to serve their sentence in the Maze Prison , on the outskirts of Lisburn . Fortnight Magazine reported that on 1 June 1982 , John James Somerville began a hunger strike at the Maze to obtain special category status . Crozier , McDowell , and Somerville were released after 1998 under the terms of the Belfast Agreement .
= = = Allegations = = =
A continued allegation in the case has been the presence of Captain Robert Nairac at the scene . Former serving Secret Intelligence Service agent Captain Fred Holroyd , and others , suggested that Nairac had organised the attack in co @-@ operation with Robin Jackson and the Mid @-@ Ulster UVF . In his maiden parliamentary speech on 7 July 1987 , Ken Livingstone MP told the House of Commons , " it was likely " that Nairac had organised the attack . Surviving band members Stephen Travers and Des McAlea told police and later testified in court that a British Army officer with a " crisp , clipped English accent " oversaw the Buskhill attack , the implication being that this was Nairac . In his book The Dirty War , Martin Dillon adamantly dismissed the allegation that Nairac had been present . He believed it was based on the erroneous linkage of Nairac to the earlier murder of IRA man John Francis Green in County Monaghan – the same pistol was used in both attacks . Regarding the soldier with the English accent , Dillon wrote :
it is to say the least highly dubious , if not absurd to conclude from such superficial factors that Nairac was present at the Miami murders . I was told by a source close to " Mr. A " and another loyalist hitman that Nairac was not present at either murder [ Miami Showband and John Francis Green ] .
Travers had described the English @-@ accented man as having been of normal height and thought he had fair hair , but was not certain . Travers was not able to positively identify Nairac , from his photograph , as having been the man at Buskhill . The RTÉ programme Today Tonight aired a documentary in 1987 in which it claimed that former UVF associates of Harris Boyle revealed to the programme 's researchers that Nairac had deliberately detonated the bomb to eliminate Boyle , with whom he had carried out the Green killing . Journalist Emily O 'Reilly noted in the Sunday Tribune that none of the three men convicted of the massacre ever implicated Nairac in the attack or accused him of causing Boyle 's death .
The band 's road manager , Brian Maguire stated that when he drove away from Banbridge in the lead , a few minutes ahead of the band 's minibus , he passed through security barriers manned by the RUC . As Maguire continued ahead , up the by @-@ pass towards Newry , he noticed a blue Triumph 2000 pulling @-@ out from where it had been parked in a lay @-@ by . Maguire recalled that the car first slowed down , then it accelerated , flashing its lights . Two men had been observed acting suspiciously inside the Castle Ballroom during the band 's performance that night , suggesting that the Miami Showband 's movements were being carefully monitored .
Another persistent allegation is the direct involvement of Mid @-@ Ulster UVF leader Robin Jackson . He was one of the men taken in by the RUC in August 1975 and questioned as a suspect in the killings , but was released without charge . The independent panel of inquiry commissioned by the Pat Finucane Centre concluded that there was " credible evidence that the principal perpetrator [ of the Miami Showband attack ] was a man who was not prosecuted – alleged RUC Special Branch agent Robin Jackson " . The same panel revealed that about six weeks before the attack , Thomas Crozier , Jackson , and the latter 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Samuel Fulton Neill , were arrested for the possession of four shotguns . Neill 's car was one of those allegedly used in the Buskhill attack . He was later shot dead in Portadown on 25 January 1976 , allegedly by Jackson for having informed the RUC about Thomas Crozier 's participation in the attack . The panel stated that it was unclear why Crozier , Jackson , and Neill were not in police custody at the time the Miami Showband killings took place . Martin Dillon maintained in The Dirty War that the Miami Showband attack was planned weeks before at a house in Portadown , and the person in charge of the overall operation was a former UDR man , whom Dillon referred to for legal reasons as " Mr. A " . Dillon also opined in God and the Gun : the Church and Irish Terrorism that the dead bombers , Harris Boyle and Wesley Somerville , had actually led the UVF gang at Buskhill . Journalists Kevin Dowling and Liam Collins in the Irish Independent however , suggested in their respective articles that Jackson had been the leader of the unit .
Former British soldier and writer Ken Wharton published in his book Wasted Years , Wasted Lives , Volume 1 , an alternative theory that was suggested to him by loyalist paramilitarism researcher Jeanne Griffin ; this was that the ambush was planned by Robin Jackson as an elaborate means of eliminating trumpet player Brian McCoy . Griffin suggests that McCoy , who originally came from Caledon , County Tyrone and had strong UDR and Orange Order family connections , was possibly approached at some stage by Jackson with a view of securing his help in carrying out UVF attacks in the Irish Republic . When McCoy refused , Jackson then hatched his plan to murder McCoy and his band mates in retaliation , even macabrely choosing Buskhill as the ambush site due to its similarity to Bus @-@ kill . Griffin goes on to add that the bogus checkpoint was set up not only to plant the bomb on board the van but to ensure the presence of McCoy which would have been confirmed when he handed over his driver 's license to the gunmen . She also thinks that had everything gone to plan once the bomb was planted in the van McCoy would have been instructed to drive through Newry where the bomb would have gone off and the UVF could then afterwards portray the Miami Showband as IRA members on a mission to blow up the local RUC barracks . Griffin based her theory on the nine bullets that were fired from a Luger into McCoy 's body and that Jackson 's fingerprints were found on the silencer used for a Luger . She furthermore opined that Jackson was the man Travers saw kicking McCoy 's body to make sure he was dead .
The Pat Finucane Centre has named the Miami Showband killings as one of the 87 violent attacks perpetrated by the Glenanne gang against the Irish nationalist community in the 1970s . The Glenanne gang was a loose alliance of loyalist extremists allegedly operating under the command of British Military Intelligence and / or RUC Special Branch . It comprised rogue elements of the British security forces who , together with the UVF , carried out sectarian killings in the Mid @-@ Ulster / County Armagh area . Their name comes from a farm in Glenanne , County Armagh , which was owned by RUC reservist James Mitchell ; according to RUC Special Patrol Group officer John Weir , it was used as a UVF arms dump and bomb @-@ making site . Weir alleged the bomb used in the Miami Showband attack came from Mitchell 's farm . Weir 's affidavit implicating Robin Jackson in a number of attacks including the 1974 Dublin bombings was published in the 2003 Barron Report ; the findings of an official investigation into the Dublin and Monaghan bombings commissioned by Irish Supreme Court Judge Henry Barron .
= = Later years = =
During the six years from the onset of " The Troubles " until the July 1975 attack , there had never been an incident involving any of the showbands . The incident had an adverse effect on the Irish showband scene , with many of the bands afraid to play in Northern Ireland . The emergence of discos later in the decade meant that ballrooms were converted into nightclubs , leaving the showbands with few venues available in which to perform . By the mid @-@ 1980s , the showbands had lost their appeal for the Irish public ; although The Miami Showband , albeit with a series of different line @-@ ups , did not disband until 1986 . The Miami Showband reformed in 2008 , with Travers , Des McAlea , Ray Millar and other new members . It is fronted by McAlea , who returned to Northern Ireland the same year after living in South Africa since about 1982 .
In 1994 , Eric Smyth , a former UDR member and the husband of Brian McCoy 's sister , Sheila , was killed by the IRA .
Travers travelled to Belfast in 2006 for a secret meeting with the second @-@ in @-@ command of the UVF 's Brigade Staff , in an attempt to come to terms with the killing of his former colleagues and friends . The meeting was arranged by Rev. Chris Hudson , a former intermediary between the government of Ireland and the UVF , whose role was crucial to the Northern Ireland peace process . Hudson , a Unitarian minister , had been a close friend of Fran O 'Toole . The encounter took place inside Hudson 's church , All Souls Belfast . The UVF man , who identified himself only as " the Craftsman " , apologised to Travers for the attack , and explained that the UVF gunmen had opened fire on the band because they " had panicked " that night . It was revealed in Peter Taylor 's book Loyalists that " the Craftsman " had been instrumental in bringing about the 1994 Combined Loyalist Military Command ( CLMC ) ceasefire .
Travers also visited the home of Thomas Crozier , hoping to meet with him , but the latter did not come to the door . He presently resides near Craigavon . James McDowell lives in Lurgan , and John James Somerville became an evangelical minister in Belfast . The UVF had cut all ties with Somerville after he had opposed the 1994 ceasefire . In January 2015 he was found dead in his Shankill Road flat . Aged 70 , he died of cancer of the kidney .
= = Memorials = =
A monument dedicated to the dead Miami Showband members was unveiled at a ceremony at Parnell Square North , Dublin , on 10 December 2007 . Survivors Stephen Travers and Des McAlea were both present at the unveiling , as was the Taoiseach , Bertie Ahern , who made a tribute . The monument , made of limestone , bronze and granite , by County Donegal sculptor Redmond Herrity , is at the site of the old National Ballroom , where the band often played .
A mural and memorial plaque to Harris Boyle and Wesley Somerville is in the Killycomain Estate in Portadown , where Boyle had lived . The plaque describes them as having been " killed in action " .
In a report on Nairac 's alleged involvement in the massacre , published in the Sunday Mirror newspaper on 16 May 1999 , Colin Wills called the ambush " one of the worst atrocities in the 30 @-@ year history of the Troubles " . Irish Times diarist , Frank McNally , summed up the massacre as " an incident that encapsulated all the madness of the time " . In 2011 , Journalist Kevin Myers denounced the attack with the following statement : " in its diabolical inventiveness against such a group of harmless and naïve young men , it is easily one of the most depraved [ of the Troubles ] " .
A stamp was issued in Ireland on 22 September 2010 commemorating the Miami Showband . The 55 @-@ cent stamp , designed with a 1967 publicity photograph of the band , included two of the slain members Fran O 'Toole and Brian McCoy as part of the line @-@ up when Dickie Rock was the frontman . It was one of a series of four stamps issued by An Post , celebrating the " golden age of the Irish showband era from the 1950s to the 1970s " .
= = The HET Report = =
The Historical Enquiries Team ( HET ) , which was set up to investigate the more controversial Troubles @-@ related deaths , released its report on the Miami Showband killings to the victims ' families in December 2011 . The findings noted in the report confirmed Mid @-@ Ulster UVF leader Robin Jackson 's involvement and identified him as an RUC Special Branch agent . According to the report , Jackson had claimed during police interrogations that after the shootings , a senior RUC officer had advised him to " lie low " . Although this information was passed on to RUC headquarters , nothing was done about it . In a police statement made following his arrest for possession of the silencer and Luger on 31 May 1976 , Jackson maintained that a week before he was taken into custody , two RUC officers had tipped him off about the discovery of his fingerprints on the silencer ; he also claimed they had forewarned him : " I should clear as there was a wee job up the country that I would be done for and there was no way out of it for me " . Although ballistic testing had linked the Luger ( for which the silencer had been specifically made ) to the Miami Showband attack , Jackson was never questioned about the killings after his fingerprints had been discovered on the silencer , and the Miami inquiry team were never informed about these developments .
Robin Jackson died of cancer on 30 May 1998 , aged 49 .
The families held a press conference in Dublin after the report was released . When asked to comment about the report , Des McAlea replied , " It 's been a long time but we 've got justice at last " . He did , however , express his concern over the fact that nobody was ever charged with his attempted murder. and that none of the perpetrators ever offered him an apology . Stephen Travers offered , " We believe the only conclusion possible arising from the HET report is that one of the most prolific loyalist murderers of the conflict was an RUC Special Branch agent and was involved in the Miami Showband attack " .
The HET said the killings raised " disturbing questions about collusive and corrupt behaviour " .
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= Madman 's Drum =
Madman 's Drum is a 1930 wordless novel by American artist Lynd Ward ( 1905 – 1985 ) . Its 118 images tell the story of a slave trader who steals a demon @-@ faced drum from an African he murders , and the consequences for him and his family .
The book was executed in wood engravings . It is the second of Ward 's six wordless novels , after Gods ' Man of 1929 . Ward was more ambitious with this second work in the medium : the characters are more nuanced , the plot more developed and complicated , and his outrage at social injustice more explicit . He used a finer degree of detail in the artwork , through a wider variety of carving tools , and was expressive in his use of symbolism and exaggerated emotional facial expressions .
The book was well received upon release , and the success of Ward 's first two wordless novels encouraged publishers to publish more books in the genre . In 1943 psychologist Henry Murray used two images from the work in his Thematic Apperception Test of personality traits . Madman 's Drum is considered less successfully executed than Gods ' Man , and Ward streamlined his work in his next wordless novel , Wild Pilgrimage ( 1932 ) .
= = Synopsis = =
A slave trader steals from an African he murders a drum bearing the face of a demon , condemning his family to its curse . The slave trader becomes rich and buys a mansion for his family , in which he displays the drum and the sword he used to kill the drum 's original owner . He catches his son playing on the drum , beats the boy , and insists he read and study . The slave trader is lost at sea when he tries to return to Africa .
The boy devotes himself to study , while distancing himself from the vices of his peers . He embraces and then rejects religion , and a cross he tosses to the floor trips and kills his mother . He becomes a successful scientist , and in middle age marries and has two daughters , but is cold and indifferent to his family . One by one he loses them : his wife dies after having an affair with a musician , one daughter falls into depression when her labor @-@ organizer lover is hanged for his communist sympathies , and the other daughter falls in love with a man who pimps her to others . Driven insane by the loss of all who were close to him , he equips himself with the forbidden drum to play music with his wife 's musician lover .
= = Background = =
Born in Chicago , Lynd Ward ( 1905 – 1985 ) was a son of Methodist minister Harry F. Ward , a social activist and the first chairman of the American Civil Liberties Union . Throughout his career , the younger Ward displayed in his work the influence of his father 's interest in social injustice . He was drawn to art from an early age , and contributed images and text to high school and college newspapers .
After getting a university degree in fine arts in 1926 , Ward married writer May McNeer and the couple left for an extended honeymoon in Europe . Ward spent a year studying wood engraving in Leipzig , Germany , where he encountered German Expressionist art and read the wordless novel The Sun ( 1919 ) by Flemish woodcut artist Frans Masereel ( 1889 – 1972 ) . Ward returned to the United States and freelanced his illustrations . In New York City in 1929 , he came across the wordless novel Destiny ( 1926 ) by German artist Otto Nückel ( 1888 – 1955 ) . Nückel 's only work in the genre , Destiny told of the life and death of a prostitute in a style inspired by Masereel 's , but with a greater cinematic flow . The work inspired Ward to create a wordless novel of his own : Gods ' Man ( 1929 ) . In his second such work , Madman 's Drum , he hoped to explore more deeply the potential of the narrative medium , and to overcome what he saw as a lack of individuality in the characters in Gods ' Man .
= = Production and publishing history = =
Ward made 118 woodcuts for Madman 's Drum . The black @-@ and @-@ white images are not uniform in size — they measure from 4 by 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 cm × 7 @.@ 6 cm ) to 5 by 4 inches ( 13 cm × 10 cm ) . Cape & Smith published the book in October 1930 in trade and deluxe editions ; the latter was available in a signed edition limited to 309 copies . The original woodblocks are in the Lynd Ward Collection in the Joseph Mark Lauinger Memorial Library at Georgetown University in Washington , DC .
Jonathon Cape published the book in the UK in 1930 . It appeared in the collected volume Storyteller Without Words : The Wood Engravings of Lynd Ward in 1974 , and again in 2010 in a Library of America collection , Lynd Ward : Six Novels in Woodcuts , edited by cartoonist Art Spiegelman . It had a Japanese publication in 2002 by Kokusho Kankōkai , and was brought back into print in the US as a standalone edition by Dover Publications in 2005 .
= = Style and analysis = =
Madman 's Drum is a more ambitious work than Gods ' Man , with a larger cast of characters and more complicated plot . The book is more explicit in its radical leftist politics , and includes a subplot in which the main character 's sister 's communist lover is executed for his political beliefs . Late in life Ward described it as " set a hundred years or more ago ... in an obviously foreign land " , but that the story 's situation and characters could be encountered " almost anywhere at any time " .
The art has a variety of line qualities and textures , and more detail than in Gods ' Man . Ward availed himself of a larger variety of engraving tools , such as the multiple @-@ tint tool for making groups of parallel lines , and rounded engraving tools for organic textures . The large cast of characters is distinguished by visual details in faces and clothing , such as the main character 's sharp nose and receding hairline and his wife 's checked dress .
A wide range of emotions such as resentment and terror is expressed through exaggerated facial expressions . Ward broadens his use of visual symbolism , as with a young woman 's purity represented by a flower she wears — she is deflowered by a young man whose vest is adorned with flowers . His house also displays a floral stucco pattern and is adorned with phallic spears and an exultant rooster as a weathervane . To French comics scripter Jérôme LeGlatin , the " madman " in the title could be interpreted as any of a number of its characters : the laughing image adorning the drum , the subdued African , the slave trader , and even Ward himself .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The book 's release in 1930 was well @-@ received , though it did not achieve the earlier book 's sales . A reviewer for The Burlington Magazine in 1931 judged the book a failed experiment , finding the artwork uneven and the narrative hard to follow without even the chapter titles as textual guidance that Gods ' Man had .
The success of Ward 's first two wordless novels led American publishers to put out a number of such books , including Nückel 's Destiny in 1930 , as well as books by Americans and other Europeans . Interest in wordless novels was short @-@ lived , and few besides Masereel and Ward produced more than a single work . Each of Ward 's sold fewer copies than the last , and he abandoned the genre in 1940 after a failed attempt at a seventh . In 1943 psychologist Henry Murray used two images from Madman 's Drum in his Thematic Apperception Test of personality traits .
Cartoonist Art Spiegelman considered Ward 's second wordless novel a " sophomore slump " , whose story was bogged down by Ward 's attempt to flesh out the characters and produce a more complicated plot . He believed the artwork was a mix of strengths and weaknesses : it had stronger compositions , but the more finely engraved images were " harder to read " , and the death of the wife and other plot points were unclear and difficult to interpret . Spiegelman considered Ward to have broken free from this slump by streamlining his work in his next wordless novel , Wild Pilgrimage ( 1932 ) . Jérôme LeGlatin declared Madman 's Drum Ward 's first masterpiece , " [ triumphing ] at every fault , [ succeeding ] in each failure " as Ward freed himself from the restraint displayed in Gods ' Man .
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= Glee : The Music , Volume 1 =
Glee : The Music , Volume 1 is the debut soundtrack album by the cast of the musical television series Glee , which aired on Fox in the United States . It features cover versions from the first nine episodes of the first season and was released on November 2 , 2009 by Columbia Records and 20th Century Fox Television Records . The album received mixed reviews from critics , with many praising large ensemble numbers , but comparing it to karaoke tracks . It went to number one on album charts in Ireland and the United Kingdom , and peaked at number three in Australia and number four in both Canada and the United States . Volume 1 has been certified platinum in these five countries .
All non @-@ bonus tracks from the album have been released as digital singles . The cast 's debut single , a cover of Journey 's " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , charted within the top five in many countries and has sold over one million copies in the US . Other high @-@ charting and best @-@ selling singles include the covers of Queen 's " Somebody to Love " , Neil Diamond 's " Sweet Caroline " , and " Defying Gravity " from the musical Wicked . Glee Live ! In Concert ! saw the cast tour the US in promotion of the series ' first season and its musical releases . The album earned a nomination for Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media for the 2011 ceremony .
= = Development = =
Glee debuted in America on the Fox network on May 19 , 2009 . Series creator Ryan Murphy planned to include five to eight musical numbers per episode , and to release accompanying soundtrack albums every few months . In the week prior to the broadcast of the pilot episode , Murphy stated that seven different companies had bid on the rights to the series ' first soundtrack . The contenders were narrowed down to four labels , with Fox ultimately signing a deal with Columbia Records as a result of chairman Rob Stringer 's belief that Glee would be a success . Stringer appreciated the series ' use of both classic and contemporary pop music . He suggested that other record labels underestimated the potential of Glee 's musical releases as they are all cover versions .
Murphy was responsible for selecting all of the songs covered on the album , and strove to maintain a balance between show tunes and chart hits . He was surprised at the ease with which use of songs was approved by the record labels approached , and explained , " I think the key to it is they loved the tone of it . They loved that this show was about optimism and young kids , for the most part , reinterpreting their classics for a new audience . " Music supervisor P.J. Bloom cleared the song rights with their respective publishers , and music producer Adam Anders rearranged the tracks for the Glee cast . " Take a Bow " was offered for use at a reduced licensing rate , which surprised Murphy , who had believed he would not be able to afford the rights given that it had been a number one hit for Rihanna . Neil Diamond had some reluctance over licensing " Sweet Caroline " to the show , and retracted clearance after it had already been recorded . Bloom was able to convince him to reverse his decision , and Diamond went on to also license his song " Hello Again " for use on the show at a later date .
Stringer did not expect the success of Glee Cast single releases , and estimated that four million copies would be sold by Christmas 2009 . He was unsure whether the high sales figures would help or hinder the release of Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , and as such , was eager for its release in order to gauge the physical and digital market response . The 17 tracks selected for the album were considered amongst the series ' most popular , with Columbia and Fox aiming to attract casual buyers as well as Glee fans . Geoff Bywater , head of Fox 's music department , anticipated considerable sales from impulse buyers in retail stores . Instrumental versions of some songs were included as bonus tracks , based on a trend of fans recreating the musical numbers in tribute to the show .
In May 2010 , the Glee Cast undertook a US tour entitled Glee Live ! In Concert ! , performing tracks from the first season 's musical releases . From Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , " Push It " , " Sweet Caroline " , " Defying Gravity " , " Bust Your Windows " and " Dancing with Myself " were included on the setlist , with " Somebody to Love " as an encore performance .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Metacritic gave the album a Metascore — a weighted average based on the impression of eight critical reviews — of 60 percent , signifying mixed or average reviews . Both Emma Wall of The Daily Telegraph and Christopher John Farley of The Wall Street Journal expressed approval of the choral arrangements , though Wall review observed that some of the ballads lack potency without their episodic context . Farley appreciated the " emotional backstory " given to the album by the television series , writing that it would " evoke fond memories of favorite episodes " for Glee fans . He found the better songs to be the ones which do not seem " too polished " , giving them a karaoke appeal . Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt wrote that the soundtrack is essentially a karaoke album , describing the songs as " unapologetically sincere " — lacking the series ' subversive wit , but with " a giddy sort of ' let 's put on a show ' charm " . Billboard 's Mikael Wood deemed the most successful tracks those which seem least suited to the series , such as the rock ballads " Don 't Stop Believin ' " and " Can 't Fight This Feeling " . Wood commented that " Take a Bow " and " Bust Your Windows " are also enjoyable , but " lack a certain revenge @-@ of @-@ the @-@ nerds triumph . "
The Independent 's Andy Gill was apathetic towards the album , which he too deemed " karaoke @-@ pop " . He praised Riley 's rendition of " Bust Your Windows " , calling it the album 's " most compelling moment " , but criticized Morrison 's rapping as " the least convincing [ ... ] in recording history . " Gill found Agron 's cover of " You Keep Me Hanging On " to be " irritatingly anonymous " , but otherwise felt the album contained little of note , either positive or negative . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone shared Gill 's sentiments with regards to Morrison 's rapping and Riley 's " Bust Your Windows " , also deeming " Don 't Stop Believin ' " " a triumphal moment against which resistance is futile . " Dan Cairns of The Times described the album as " music of catch @-@ in @-@ the @-@ throat , quick @-@ fix , talent @-@ show emotion " variety , calling it " undeniably effective " but " utterly nauseating . "
Andrew Leahey of allmusic opined that some of the cast members are better actors than vocalists , but gave particular praise to Michele 's songs , suggesting that the soundtrack is largely a showcase for her talent , and that she outperforms most of the original artists . IGN 's Brian Linder described the album as having " an appealing irreverent spirit that tamps down the earnestness just as it begins to overwhelm . " Linder agreed that Morrison does not excel as an emcee , but still found his attempts at rapping enjoyable . He generally approved of the track list , but found the older songs such as " Sweet Caroline " and " Say a Little Prayer " lacking in resonance , and named " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " as the weakest performance . Linder commended Riley and Michele 's vocals , and most enjoyed the covers of " Somebody to Love " and " Keep Holding On " , suggesting that the latter surpasses the original version . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian commented that the album requires a suspension of disbelief , attributing some negative reviews from US critics to their inability to accept the fantasy of the series . Petridis reviewed " Dancing With Myself " , " Sweet Caroline " , " Gold Digger " , " Somebody to Love " and " Alone " favorably , but as with Gill and Linder disliked " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " , which she deemed bland and boring . Petridis wrote that the album does not entirely work in its own right , separate from the television series , but concluded that for listeners prepared to accept the conceit , " Glee : the Soundtrack almost lives up to its title . "
Glee : The Music , Volume 1 received a nomination in the category of Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media at the 53rd Grammy Awards .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Glee : The Music , Volume 1 debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 , selling 113 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . The same week , the album also debuted at number two on the Billboard Soundtracks chart , going on to reach the top position on May 1 , 2010 . On September 9 , 2010 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales or shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 or more . As of May 2011 , 1 @.@ 169 million copies have been sold in the US , and it has remained on the Billboard 200 for seventy @-@ three weeks . In the United Kingdom , the album entered the top 75 three weeks before its official release , on import sales alone . Following its official release , it debuted at number one with sales of 62 @,@ 000 according to The Official Charts Company . It was certified platinum for 300 @,@ 000 copies sold by the British Phonographic Industry on May 21 , 2010 . In Australia , the album peaked at number three , and was certified platinum for 70 @,@ 000 copies sold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) in 2009 , and received a 2x platinum certification from ARIA in 2011 . It peaked at number four in Canada , and has been certified platinum with 80 @,@ 000 units sold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . The album also peaked at number one in Ireland , eight in New Zealand , nine in the Netherlands , thirty @-@ four in both Austria and Wallonia , thirty @-@ seven in Mexico , forty @-@ eight in Switzerland , sixty @-@ nine in Spain , seventy @-@ four in Flanders , and eighty in Japan .
= = Singles = =
Each of the songs included on Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , except for the bonus tracks , were released as singles , available for download . The releases made the Glee Cast the tenth cast to have entries chart on the Billboard Hot 100 in its 51 @-@ year history . Their debut single " Don 't Stop Believin ' " charted at number five in Australia , number four in the US and Ireland , and number two in the United Kingdom . In the US , 177 @,@ 000 copies of the song were sold in its first week of release . Its number four debut surpassed the Journey original , which peaked at number nine in 1981 . The original rendition sold 42 @,@ 000 copies in the week of the Glee Cast release , up 48 % on the previous week . " Don 't Stop Believin ' " was also the cast 's best @-@ selling single , and has sold 1 @,@ 005 @,@ 000 copies in the US , a combination of sales from the original release ( 921 @,@ 000 ) and the rerecording for the season finale ( 84 @,@ 000 ) . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on October 13 , 2009 , and platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association the following year .
On October 22 , 2010 , Yahoo ! Music published a list of the twenty most popular Glee songs , based on download data from Nielsen SoundScan . Of the twenty best @-@ selling singles , eight are included on Glee : The Music , Volume 1 : " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , " Defying Gravity " ( 335 @,@ 000 copies ) , " Somebody to Love " ( 315 @,@ 000 ) , " Sweet Caroline " ( 187 @,@ 000 ) , " Take a Bow " ( 181 @,@ 000 ) , " Keep Holding On " ( 166 @,@ 000 ) , " Taking Chances " ( 163 @,@ 000 ) , and " Alone " ( 159 @,@ 000 ) . " Take a Bow " charted at number 46 in the US , with 53 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . Sales of the original Rihanna version increased by 189 percent after the song was covered in the Glee episode " Showmance " . Sales of the Queen version of " Somebody to Love " rose from 2 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 downloads following the release of the Glee Cast cover version .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = = Chart precession and succession = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Orkney =
Orkney / ˈɔːrkni / ( Scottish Gaelic : Arcaibh ) , also known as the Orkney Islands , is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland , United Kingdom , situated off the north coast of Great Britain . Orkney is 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) north of the coast of Caithness and comprises approximately 70 islands , of which 20 are inhabited . The largest island Mainland is often referred to as " the Mainland " . It has an area of 523 square kilometres ( 202 sq mi ) , making it the sixth @-@ largest Scottish island and the tenth @-@ largest island in the British Isles . The largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall .
A form of the name dates to the pre @-@ Roman era and the islands have been inhabited for at least 8500 years , originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes and then by the Picts . Orkney was invaded and forcibly annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse . The Scottish Parliament then re @-@ annexed the earldom to the Scottish Crown in 1472 , following the failed payment of a dowry for James III 's bride Margaret of Denmark . Orkney contains some of the oldest and best @-@ preserved Neolithic sites in Europe , and the " Heart of Neolithic Orkney " is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Orkney is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland , a constituency of the Scottish Parliament , a lieutenancy area , and a former county . The local council is Orkney Islands Council , one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents .
In addition to the Mainland , most of the islands are in two groups , the North and South Isles , all of which have an underlying geological base of Old Red Sandstone . The climate is mild and the soils are extremely fertile , most of the land being farmed . Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy . The significant wind and marine energy resources are of growing importance , and the island generates more than its total yearly electricity demand using renewables . The local people are known as Orcadians and have a distinctive Orcadian dialect of Scots and a rich inheritance of folklore . There is an abundance of marine and avian wildlife .
= = Origin of the name = =
Pytheas of Massilia visited Britain – probably sometime between 322 and 285 BC – and described it as triangular in shape , with a northern tip called Orcas . This may have referred to Dunnet Head , from which Orkney is visible . Writing in the 1st century AD , the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela called the islands Orcades , as did Tacitus in AD 98 , claiming that his father @-@ in @-@ law Agricola had " discovered and subjugated the Orcades hitherto unknown " ( although both Mela and Pliny had previously referred to the islands . ) Etymologists usually interpret the element orc- as a Pictish tribal name meaning " young pig " or " young boar " .
Speakers of Old Irish referred to the islands as Insi Orc " island of the pigs " . The archipelago is known as Ynysoedd Erch in modern Welsh and Arcaibh in modern Scottish Gaelic , the -aibh representing a fossilized prepositional case ending .
Bede refers to the islands as " Orcades insulae " in his seminal work Ecclesiastical History of the English People .
Norwegian settlers arriving from the late ninth century reinterpreted orc as Old Norse orkn " seal " and added ey " island " to the end so the name became Orkneyjar " Seal Islands " , later shortened to " Orkney " in English . According to the Historia Norwegiæ , Orkney was named after an earl called Orkan .
The Norse knew Mainland Orkney as Megenland " Mainland " or as Hrossey " Horse Island " . The island is sometimes referred to as Pomona ( or Pomonia ) , a name that stems from a sixteenth @-@ century mistranslation by George Buchanan , which has rarely been used locally .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
A charred hazelnut shell , recovered in 2007 during excavations in Tankerness on the Mainland has been dated to 6820 – 6660 BC indicating the presence of Mesolithic nomadic tribes . The earliest known permanent settlement is at Knap of Howar , a Neolithic farmstead on the island of Papa Westray , which dates from 3500 BC . The village of Skara Brae , Europe 's best @-@ preserved Neolithic settlement , is believed to have been inhabited from around 3100 BC . Other remains from that era include the Standing Stones of Stenness , the Maeshowe passage grave , the Ring of Brodgar and other standing stones . Many of the Neolithic settlements were abandoned around 2500 BC , possibly due to changes in the climate .
During the Bronze Age fewer large stone structures were built although the great ceremonial circles continued in use as metalworking was slowly introduced to Scotland from Europe over a lengthy period . There are relatively few Orcadian sites dating from this era although there is the impressive Plumcake Mound near the Ring of Brodgar and various islands sites such as Tofts Ness on Sanday and the remains of two houses on Holm of Faray .
= = = Iron Age = = =
Excavations at Quanterness on the Mainland have revealed an Atlantic roundhouse built about 700 BC and similar finds have been made at Bu on the Mainland and Pierowall Quarry on Westray . The most impressive Iron Age structures of Orkney are the ruins of later round towers called " brochs " and their associated settlements such as the Broch of Burroughston and Broch of Gurness . The nature and origin of these buildings is a subject of ongoing debate . Other structures from this period include underground storehouses , and aisled roundhouses , the latter usually in association with earlier broch sites .
During the Roman invasion of Britain the " King of Orkney " was one of 11 British leaders who is said to have submitted to the Emperor Claudius in AD 43 at Colchester . After the Agricolan fleet had come and gone , possibly anchoring at Shapinsay , direct Roman influence seems to have been limited to trade rather than conquest .
By the late Iron Age , Orkney was part of the Pictish kingdom , and although the archaeological remains from this period are less impressive there is every reason to suppose the fertile soils and rich seas of Orkney provided the Picts with a comfortable living . The Dalriadic Gaels began to influence the islands towards the close of the Pictish era , perhaps principally through the role of Celtic missionaries , as evidenced by several islands bearing the epithet " Papa " in commemoration of these preachers . However , before the Gaelic presence could establish itself the Picts were gradually dispossessed by the Norsemen from the late 8th century onwards . The nature of this transition is controversial , and theories range from peaceful integration to enslavement and genocide .
= = = Norwegian rule = = =
Both Orkney and Shetland saw a significant influx of Norwegian settlers during the late 8th and early 9th centuries . Vikings made the islands the headquarters of their pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland . In response , Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ( " Harald Fair Hair " ) annexed the Northern Isles , comprising Orkney and Shetland , in 875 . ( It is clear that this story , which appears in the Orkneyinga Saga , is based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs and some scholars believe it to be apocryphal . ) Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland , and then passed the earldom on to his brother Sigurd the Mighty .
However , Sigurd 's line barely survived him and it was Torf @-@ Einarr , Rognvald 's son by a slave , who founded a dynasty that controlled the islands for centuries after his death . He was succeeded by his son Thorfinn Skull @-@ splitter and during this time the deposed Norwegian King Eric Bloodaxe often used Orkney as a raiding base before being killed in 954 . Thorfinn 's death and presumed burial at the broch of Hoxa , on South Ronaldsay , led to a long period of dynastic strife .
Initially a pagan culture , detailed information about the return of the Christian religion to the islands of Scotland during the Norse @-@ era is elusive . The Orkneyinga Saga suggests the islands were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway . The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said , " I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel . " Unsurprisingly , Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke , receiving their own bishop in the early 11th century .
Thorfinn the Mighty was a son of Sigurd and a grandson of King Máel Coluim mac Cináeda ( Malcolm II of Scotland ) . Along with Sigurd 's other sons he ruled Orkney during the first half of the 11th century and extended his authority over a small maritime empire stretching from Dublin to Shetland . Thorfinn died around 1065 and his sons Paul and Erlend succeeded him , fighting at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 . Paul and Erlend quarreled as adults and this dispute carried on to the next generation . The martyrdom of Magnus Erlendsson , who was killed in April 1116 by his cousin Haakon Paulsson , resulted in the building of St. Magnus Cathedral , still today a dominating feature of Kirkwall .
Unusually , from c . 1100 onwards the Norse jarls owed allegiance both to Norway for Orkney and to the Scottish crown through their holdings as Earls of Caithness . In 1231 the line of Norse earls , unbroken since Rognvald , ended with Jon Haraldsson 's murder in Thurso . The Earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus , second son of the Earl of Angus , whom Haakon IV of Norway confirmed as Earl of Orkney in 1236 . In 1290 , the death of the child princess Margaret , Maid of Norway in Orkney , en route to mainland Scotland , created a disputed succession that led to the Wars of Scottish Independence . In 1379 the earldom passed to the Sinclair family , who were also barons of Roslin near Edinburgh .
Evidence of the Viking presence is widespread , and includes the settlement at the Brough of Birsay , the vast majority of place names , and the runic inscriptions at Maeshowe .
= = = Scottish rule = = =
In 1468 Orkney was pledged by Christian I , in his capacity as king of Norway , as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret , betrothed to James III of Scotland . As the money was never paid , the connection with the crown of Scotland has become perpetual .
The history of Orkney prior to this time is largely the history of the ruling aristocracy . From now on the ordinary people emerge with greater clarity . An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers , fishermen and merchants that called themselves comunitas Orcadie and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords .
From at least the 16th century , boats from mainland Scotland and the Netherlands dominated the local herring fishery . There is little evidence of an Orcadian fleet until the 19th century but it grew rapidly and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and then later Stromness becoming leading centres of development . White fish never became as dominant as in other Scottish ports .
In the 17th century , Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson 's Bay Company in Canada . The harsh climate of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat handling skills made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north . During this period , burning kelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands ' economy . For example on Shapinsay over 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 048 t ) of burned seaweed were produced per annum to make soda ash , bringing in £ 20 @,@ 000 to the local economy . The industry collapsed suddenly in 1830 after the removal of tariffs on imported alkali .
Agricultural improvements beginning in the 17th century resulted in the enclosure of the commons and ultimately in the Victoria era the emergence of large and well @-@ managed farms using a five @-@ shift rotation system and producing high quality beef cattle .
In the 18th century Jacobite Risings Orkney was largely Jacobite in its sympathies . At the end of the 1715 rebellion , a large number of Jacobites who had fled north from mainland Scotland sought refuge on Orkney and were helped on to safety in Sweden . In 1745 , the Jacobite lairds on the islands ensured that Orkney remained pro @-@ Jacobite in outlook , and was a safe place to land supplies from Spain to aid their cause . Orkney was the last place in the British Isles that held out for the Jacobites and was not retaken by the British Government until 24 May 1746 , over a month after the defeat of the main Jacobite army at Culloden .
= = = 20th century = = =
Orkney was the site of a Royal Navy base at Scapa Flow , which played a major role in World War I and II . After the Armistice in 1918 , the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow to await a decision on its future . The German sailors opened the sea @-@ cocks and scuttled all the ships . Most ships were salvaged , but the remaining wrecks are now a favoured haunt of recreational divers . One month into World War II , a German U @-@ boat sank the Royal Navy battleship HMS Royal Oak in Scapa Flow . As a result , barriers were built to close most of the access channels ; these had the additional advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries . The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war , who also constructed the ornate Italian Chapel .
During World War II , the politicians of German @-@ occupied Norway asked German authorities to take over Orkney as Norway sought new opportunities for expansion .
The navy base became run down after the war , eventually closing in 1957 . The problem of a declining population was significant in the post @-@ war years , though in the last decades of the 20th century there was a recovery and life in Orkney focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society . Orkney was rated as the best place to live in Scotland in both 2013 and 2014 according to the Halifax Quality of Life survey .
= = = Overview of population trends = = =
In the modern era , population peaked in the mid 19th century at just over 26 @,@ 000 and declined for a century thereafter to a low of fewer than 17 @,@ 000 in the 1970s . Declines were particularly significant in the outlying islands , some of which remain vulnerable to ongoing losses . Although Orkney is in many ways very distinct from the other islands and archipelagos of Scotland these trends are very similar to those experienced elsewhere . The archipelago 's population grew by 11 % in the decade to 2011 as recorded by the census . During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 .
= = Geography = =
Orkney is separated from the mainland of Scotland by the Pentland Firth , a 10 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) wide seaway between Brough Ness on the island of South Ronaldsay and Duncansby Head in Caithness . Orkney lies between 58 ° 41 ′ and 59 ° 24 ′ North , and 2 ° 22 ′ and 3 ° 26 ′ West , measuring 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) from northeast to southwest and 47 kilometres ( 29 mi ) from east to west , and covers 975 square kilometres ( 376 sq mi ) .
The islands are mainly low @-@ lying except for some sharply rising sandstone hills on Hoy , Mainland and Rousay and rugged cliffs on some western coasts . Nearly all of the islands have lochs , but the watercourses are merely streams draining the high land . The coastlines are indented , and the islands themselves are divided from each other by straits generally called " sounds " or " firths " .
The tidal currents , or " roosts " as some of them are called locally , off many of the isles are swift , with frequent whirlpools . The islands are notable for the absence of trees , which is partly accounted for by the amount of wind .
= = Islands = =
= = = The Mainland = = =
The Mainland is the largest island of Orkney . Both of Orkney 's burghs , Kirkwall and Stromness , are on this island , which is also the heart of Orkney 's transportation system , with ferry and air connections to the other islands and to the outside world . The island is more densely populated ( 75 % of Orkney 's population ) than the other islands and has much fertile farmland . The Mainland is split into areas called East and West Mainland . These areas are determined by whether they lie East or West of Kirkwall . The bulk of the mainland lies West of Kirkwall , with comparatively little land lying East of Kirkwall . West Mainland parishes are : Stromness , Sandwick , Birsay , Harray , Stenness , Orphir , Evie , Rendall and Firth . East Mainland Parishes are : St Ola , Tankerness , St Andrews , Holm and Deerness .
The island is mostly low @-@ lying ( especially East Mainland ) but with coastal cliffs to the north and west and two sizeable lochs : the Loch of Harray and the Loch of Stenness . The Mainland contains the remnants of numerous Neolithic , Pictish and Viking constructions . Four of the main Neolithic sites are included in the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site , inscribed in 1999 .
The other islands in the group are classified as north or south of the Mainland . Exceptions are the remote islets of Sule Skerry and Sule Stack , which lie 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) west of the archipelago , but form part of Orkney for local government purposes . In island names , the suffix " a " or " ay " represents the Norse ey , meaning " island " . Those described as " holms " are very small .
= = = The North Isles = = =
The northern group of islands is the most extensive and consists of a large number of moderately sized islands , linked to the Mainland by ferries and by air services . Farming , fishing and tourism are the main sources of income for most of the islands .
The most northerly is North Ronaldsay , which lies 4 kilometres ( 2 mi ) beyond its nearest neighbour , Sanday . To the west is Westray has a population of 550 . It is connected by ferry and air to Papa Westray , also known as " Papay " . Eday is at the centre of the North Isles . The centre of the island is moorland and the island 's main industries have been peat extraction and limestone quarrying .
Rousay , Egilsay and Gairsay lie north of the west Mainland across the Eynhallow Sound . Rousay is well known for its ancient monuments , including the Quoyness chambered cairn and Egilsay has the ruins of the only round @-@ towered church in Orkney . Wyre to the south east contains the site of Cubbie Roo 's castle . Stronsay and Papa Stronsay lie much further to the east across the Stronsay Firth . Auskerry is south of Stronsay and has a population of only five . Shapinsay and its Balfour Castle are a short distance north of Kirkwall .
Other small uninhabited islands in the North Isles group include : Calf of Eday , Damsay , Eynhallow , Faray , Helliar Holm , Holm of Faray , Holm of Huip , Holm of Papa , Holm of Scockness , Kili Holm , Linga Holm , Muckle Green Holm , Rusk Holm and Sweyn Holm .
= = = The South Isles = = =
The southern group of islands surrounds Scapa Flow . Hoy is the second largest of the Orkney Isles and Ward Hill at its northern end is the highest elevation in the archipelago . The Old Man of Hoy is a well @-@ known seastack . Burray lies to the east of Scapa Flow and is linked by causeway to South Ronaldsay , which hosts the cultural events , the Festival of the Horse and the Boys ' Ploughing Match on the third Saturday in August . It is also the location of the Neolithic Tomb of the Eagles . Graemsay and Flotta are both linked by ferry to the Mainland and Hoy , and the latter is known for its large oil terminal . South Walls has a 19th @-@ century Martello tower and is connected to Hoy by the Ayre . South Ronaldsay , Burray , Glims Holm , and Lamb Holm are connected by road to the Mainland by the Churchill Barriers .
Uninhabited South Islands include : Calf of Flotta , Cava , Copinsay , Corn Holm , Fara , Glims Holm , Hunda , Lamb Holm , Rysa Little , Switha and Swona . The Pentland Skerries lie further south , closer to the Scottish mainland .
= = Geology = =
The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone , mostly of Middle Devonian age . As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness , this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic rocks of the Moine series , as may be seen on the Mainland , where a narrow strip is exposed between Stromness and Inganess , and again in the small island of Graemsay ; they are represented by grey gneiss and granite .
The Middle Devonian is divided into three main groups . The lower part of the sequence , mostly Eifelian in age , is dominated by lacustrine beds of the lower and upper Stromness Flagstones that were deposited in Lake Orcadie . The later Rousay flagstone formation is found throughout much of the North and South Isles and East Mainland .
The Old Man of Hoy is formed from sandstone of the uppermost Eday group that is up to 800 metres ( 870 yd ) thick in places . It lies unconformably upon steeply inclined flagstones , the interpretation of which is a matter of continuing debate .
The Devonian and older rocks of Orkney are cut by a series of WSW @-@ ENE to N @-@ S trending faults , many of which were active during deposition of the Devonian sequences . A strong synclinal fold traverses Eday and Shapinsay , the axis trending north @-@ south .
Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy , on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay . Correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed , but differences in chemistry means this remains uncertain . Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney .
Glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands . Boulder clay is also abundant and moraines cover substantial areas .
= = Climate = =
Orkney has a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude , due to the influence of the Gulf Stream . The average temperature for the year is 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) ; for winter 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) and for summer 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) .
The average annual rainfall varies from 850 millimetres ( 33 in ) to 940 millimetres ( 37 in ) . Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes . In winter , there are frequent strong winds , with an average of 52 hours of gales being recorded annually .
To tourists , one of the fascinations of the islands is their " nightless " summers . On the longest day , the sun rises at 03 : 00 and sets at 21 : 29 GMT and complete darkness is unknown . This long twilight is known in the Northern Isles as the " simmer dim " . Winter nights are long . On the shortest day the sun rises at 09 : 05 and sets at 15 : 16 . At this time of year the aurora borealis can occasionally be seen on the northern horizon during moderate auroral activity .
The averages table below is for largest settlement Kirkwall 's weather station .
= = Politics = =
Orkney is represented in the House of Commons as part of the Orkney and Shetland constituency , which elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) , the current incumbent being Alistair Carmichael . This seat has been held by the Liberal Democrats or their predecessors the Liberal Party since 1950 , longer than any other they represent in Great Britain .
In the Scottish Parliament the Orkney constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) by the first past the post system . The current MSP is Liam McArthur of the Liberal Democrats . Before McArthur the MSP was Jim Wallace , who was previously Deputy First Minister . Orkney is within the Highlands and Islands electoral region .
Orkney Islands Council consists of 21 members , all of whom are independent , that is they do not stand as representatives of a political party .
The Orkney Movement , a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland , contested the 1987 general election as the Orkney and Shetland Movement ( a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland ) . The Scottish National Party chose not to contest the seat to give the movement a " free run " . Their candidate , John Goodlad , came 4th with 3 @,@ 095 votes , 14 @.@ 5 % of those cast , but the experiment has not been repeated .
In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum 67 @.@ 2 % of voters in Orkney voted No to the question " Should Scotland be an independent country ? " This was the highest % No vote in any council area in Scotland . Turnout for the referendum was at 83 @.@ 7 % in Orkney with 10 @,@ 004 votes cast in the area against independence by comparison to 4 @,@ 883 votes for independence .
= = Economy = =
The soil of Orkney is generally very fertile and most of the land is taken up by farms , agriculture being by far the most important sector of the economy and providing employment for a quarter of the workforce . More than 90 % of agricultural land is used for grazing for sheep and cattle , with cereal production utilising about 4 % ( 4 @,@ 200 hectares ( 10 @,@ 000 acres ) ) and woodland occupying only 134 hectares ( 330 acres ) .
Fishing has declined in importance , but still employed 345 individuals in 2001 , about 3 @.@ 5 % of the islands ' economically active population , the modern industry concentrating on herring , white fish , lobsters , crabs and other shellfish , and salmon fish farming .
Today , the traditional sectors of the economy export beef , cheese , whisky , beer , fish and other seafood . In recent years there has been growth in other areas including tourism , food and beverage manufacture , jewellery , knitwear , and other crafts production , construction and oil transportation through the Flotta oil terminal . Retailing accounts for 17 @.@ 5 % of total employment , and public services also play a significant role , employing a third of the islands ' workforce .
In 2007 , of the 1 @,@ 420 VAT registered enterprises 55 % were in agriculture , forestry and fishing , 12 % in manufacturing and construction , 12 % in wholesale , retail and repairs , and 5 % in hotels and restaurants . A further 5 % were public service related . 55 % of these businesses employ between 5 and 49 people .
= = = Power = = =
Orkney has significant wind and marine energy resources , and renewable energy has recently come into prominence . Although Orkney is connected to the mainland , it generates over 100 % of its net power from renewables . This comes mainly from wind turbines situated right across Orkney .
The European Marine Energy Centre ( EMEC ) is a Scottish Government @-@ backed research facility that has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney Mainland and a tidal power testing station on the island of Eday . At the official opening of the Eday project the site was described as " the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose @-@ built performance testing facility . " Funding for the UK 's first wave farm was announced by the Scottish Government in 2007 . It will be the world 's largest , with a capacity of 3 MW generated by four Pelamis machines at a cost of over £ 4 million . During 2007 Scottish and Southern Energy plc in conjunction with the University of Strathclyde began the implementation of a Regional Power Zone in the Orkney archipelago . This scheme ( that may be the first of its kind in the world ) involves " active network management " that will make better use of existing infrastructure and allow a further 15MW of new " non @-@ firm generation " output from renewables onto the network .
= = = Transport = = =
= = = = Air = = = =
Highland and Islands Airports operates the main airport in Orkney , Kirkwall Airport . Loganair , a franchise of Flybe , provides services to the Scottish mainland ( Aberdeen , Edinburgh , Glasgow and Inverness ) , as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland .
Within Orkney , the council operates airfields on most of the larger islands including Stronsay , Eday , North Ronaldsay , Westray , Papa Westray , and Sanday . The shortest scheduled air service in the world , between the islands of Westray and Papa Westray , is scheduled at two minutes duration but can take less than one minute if the wind is in the right direction .
= = = = Ferry = = = =
Ferries serve both to link Orkney to the rest of Scotland , and also to link together the various islands of the Orkney archipelago . Ferry services operate between Orkney and the Scottish mainland and Shetland on the following routes :
Gills Bay to St Margaret 's Hope ( operated by Pentland Ferries )
John o ' Groats to Burwick on South Ronaldsay ( seasonal passenger only service , operated by John o ' Groats Ferries )
Lerwick to Kirkwall ( operated by NorthLink Ferries )
Aberdeen to Kirkwall ( operated by NorthLink Ferries )
Scrabster Harbour , Thurso to Stromness ( operated by NorthLink Ferries )
Inter @-@ island ferry services connect all the inhabited islands to Orkney Mainland , and are operated by Orkney Ferries , a company owned by Orkney Islands Council .
= = = Media = = =
Orkney is served by a weekly local newspaper , The Orcadian .
A local BBC radio station , BBC Radio Orkney , the local opt @-@ out of BBC Radio Scotland , broadcasts twice daily , with local news and entertainment . Orkney also had a commercial radio station , The Superstation Orkney , which broadcast to Kirkwall and parts of the mainland and also to most of Caithness until its closure in November 2014 . Moray Firth Radio broadcasts throughout Orkney on AM and from an FM transmitter just outside Thurso . The community radio station Caithness FM also broadcasts to Orkney .
= = = Festivals = = =
The islands are the home of several international festivals , including the Orkney International Science Festival in September , a folk festival in May and the St Magnus International Arts Festival in June .
= = Language , literature and folklore = =
At the beginning of recorded history , the islands were inhabited by the Picts , whose language was Brythonic . The Ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle @-@ whorl is cited as evidence for the pre @-@ Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney .
After the Norse occupation , the toponymy of Orkney became almost wholly West Norse . The Norse language changed into the local Norn , which lingered until the end of the 18th century , when it finally died out . Norn was replaced by the Orcadian dialect of Insular Scots . This dialect is at a low ebb due to the pervasive influences of television , education , and the large number of incomers . However , attempts are being made by some writers and radio presenters to revitalise its use and the distinctive sing @-@ song accent and many dialect words of Norse origin remain in use . The Orcadian word most frequently encountered by visitors is peedie , meaning small , which may be derived from the French petit .
Orkney has a rich folklore , and many of the former tales concern trows , an Orcadian form of troll that draws on the islands ' Scandinavian connections . Local customs in the past included marriage ceremonies at the Odin Stone that formed part of the Stones of Stenness .
King Lot in certain versions of the Arthurian legend ( e.g. , Malory ) is ruler of Orkney . His sons Gawaine , Agravaine , Gareth , and Gaheris are major characters in the Matter of Britain .
The best known literary figures from modern Orkney are the poet Edwin Muir , the poet and novelist George Mackay Brown , and the novelist Eric Linklater .
= = Orcadians = =
An Orcadian is a native of Orkney , a term that reflects a strongly held identity with a tradition of understatement . Although the annexation of the earldom by Scotland took place over five centuries ago in 1472 , most Orcadians regard themselves as Orcadians first and Scots second .
When an Orcadian speaks of " Scotland " , they are talking about the land to the immediate south of the Pentland Firth . When an Orcadian speaks of " the mainland " , they mean Mainland , Orkney . Tartan , clans , bagpipes and the like are traditions of the Scottish Highlands and are not a part of the islands ' indigenous culture . However , at least two tartans with Orkney connections have been registered and a tartan has been designed for Sanday by one of the island 's residents , and there are pipe bands in Orkney .
Native Orcadians refer to the non @-@ native residents of the islands as " ferry loupers " , a term that has been in use for nearly two centuries at least .
= = Natural history = =
Orkney has an abundance of wildlife , especially of grey and common seals and seabirds such as puffins , kittiwakes , tysties , ravens , and bonxies . Whales , dolphins , and otters are also seen around the coasts . Inland the Orkney vole , a distinct subspecies of the common vole introduced by Neolithic humans , is an endemic . There are five distinct varieties , found on the islands of Sanday , Westray , Rousay , South Ronaldsay , and the Mainland , all the more remarkable as the species is absent on mainland Britain .
The coastline is well known for its colourful flowers including sea aster , sea squill , sea thrift , common sea @-@ lavender , bell and common heather . The Scottish primrose is found only on the coasts of Orkney and nearby Caithness and Sutherland . Although stands of trees are generally rare , a small forest named Happy Valley with 700 trees and lush gardens was created from a boggy hillside near Stenness during the second half of the 20th century .
The North Ronaldsay sheep is an unusual breed of domesticated animal , subsisting largely on a diet of seaweed , since they are confined to the foreshore for most of the year to conserve the limited grazing inland . The island was also a habitat for the Atlantic walrus until the mid @-@ 16th century .
The Orkney char ( Salvelinus inframundus ) used to live in Heldale Water on Hoy . It has been considered locally extinct since 1908 .
The introduction of alien stoats just prior to 2015 , a natural predator of the common vole and thus of the Orkney vole , may be harming native bird populations .
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= Guilty Gear X =
Guilty Gear X ( Japanese : ギルティギア ゼクス , Hepburn : Giruti Gia Zekusu ) , subtitled By Your Side in Japan , is a fighting game developed by Arc System Works and published by Sammy Studios . The second installment of the Guilty Gear series , Guilty Gear X was developed over a period of about two years after the first game 's success . It was released in July 2000 for Japanese arcades , re @-@ released on Dreamcast in December 2000 , and later ported to PlayStation 2 in November 2001 and Game Boy Advance in January 2002 .
Guilty Gear X continues its predecessor 's timeline with new characters and gameplay features . Still a four @-@ button game , its instant @-@ kill techniques were weakened and a survival mode was added to the previous game 's three modes . The Dreamcast and PS2 versions have sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in Japan ; they have been praised for their graphics , controls and characters but criticized for their lack of replay value . The GBA version was the poorest @-@ received , with the main complaints concerning ease and graphics .
= = Gameplay = =
The fight system has a four @-@ main @-@ attack @-@ button configuration : punch , kick , slash and heavy slash . Players may also launch taunt attacks , with their main objective to reduce the opponent 's health to zero in a predetermined time . To win a fight a player must accumulate two points , with each round won earning a point . Guilty Gear X has features common in fighting games : combos , aerial attacks and counterattacks . A new feature is the Roman Cancel , which allows a player to cancel their move and its aftereffects to make other attacks .
The game has a tension gauge , increasing when a character causes damage or moves toward an adversary and decreasing when a character moves backwards or is stopped for a long time . When the gauge is half @-@ charged a player can use specials called Overdrive Attacks , which cause more damage than regular moves . A full gauge allows a player to make an Instant Kill , defeating an opponent regardless of health ; if an Instant Kill is unsuccessful , the tension gauge will not charge for the remainder of that round .
Guilty Gear X 's Dreamcast version includes four modes of play : Arcade , the game 's primary narrative mode ; Survival , in which the player fights through infinite levels until they are defeated ; Training , which allows a player to practice moves with the help of an in @-@ game move list and Versus , in which a player can fight another player . Guilty Gear X Plus also has art @-@ gallery and story modes ; according to the Sega website , the latter explains " misteries " which the Dreamcast version does not . The Advance Edition includes tag @-@ team and three @-@ on @-@ three modes ; each player chooses two or three characters , respectively , and can switch characters during a fight .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Plot = = =
Guilty Gear X continues the first game 's plot , in which the world has just recovered from a 100 @-@ year war against man @-@ made bio @-@ organic weapons known as Gears . When Testament planned to resurrect Gear leader Justice , all Gears were annihilated in a tournament . In Guilty Gear X , set less than a year later , a new Gear commander named Dizzy is discovered . Amid concern about a second war , another Holy Knights Tournament begins ; whoever captures and kills Dizzy will receive 500 @,@ 000 World Dollars . Dizzy proves to be inoffensive ; she joins the Jellyfish Air Pirates , and peace is established again .
= = = Characters = = =
Guilty Gear X has sixteen playable characters : Sol Badguy , Ky Kiske , May , Baiken , Faust , Potemkin , Chipp Zanuff , Millia Rage , Zato @-@ 1 , Jam Kuradoberi , Johnny , Anji Mito , Venom , Axl Low , Testament and Dizzy . Fourteen are available from the outset , with Testament and Dizzy unlockable characters . Guilty Gear X Plus adds three unlockable characters : Justice and Kliff Undersn , who return from the first game , and Robo @-@ Ky , an alternate version of Ky Kiske . The Plus edition allows a player to unlock gold versions of each character , who possesses a special advantage over the regular version .
= = Development and release = =
After the success of the first Guilty Gear released on May 14 , 1998 for PlayStation , Sammy Studios commissioned an arcade sequel in February 1999 . Developed by Team Neo Blood , an Arc System Works production group led by Daisuke Ishiwatari , the sequel was about two years in development . Unveiled at the Amusement Expo in February 2000 , Guilty Gear X was released for Japanese arcades on the Sega NAOMI system in July 2000 . After the game 's release , it was speculated that it would be ported to home consoles . Although the developers initially indicated that Guilty Gear X would debut for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) , it was first released for Dreamcast on December 14 , 2000 and re @-@ released as part of a Dreamcast collection on May 23 , 2003 .
A PS2 version was announced by Sammy in June 2001 for release that fall , and Guilty Gear X was released in North America on October 2 , 2001 . Since it was released before the Japanese version , the North American edition did not have the additional features of the Japanese counterpart . Sammy released the PS2 version in Japan on November 29 , 2001 and in Europe on March 1 , 2002 . In Japan , it was known as Guilty Gear X Plus ( ギルティギア ゼクス Plus , Giruti Gia Zekusu Purasu ) and was released in two versions : regular and deluxe , with the latter containing Guilty Gear @-@ related special products . On February 13 , 2003 , the game was re @-@ released in Japan as part of PlayStation2 the Best .
CyberFront released a PC version for Windows on November 30 , 2001 in Japan . Announced during an August 2001 convention at Space World , Game Boy Advance version Guilty Gear X : Advance Edition ( ギルティギア ゼクス アドバンスエディション , Giruti Gia Zekusu Adobansu Edishon ) was released on January 5 , 2002 . It was released in North America on August 13 , 2002 and in Europe on September 27 . Guilty Gear X ver . 1 @.@ 5 , an Atomiswave arcade @-@ system version , was released in 2003 after its February 2003 introduction at the Amusement Expo .
= = Reception = =
In June 2001 , Sammy reported a profit of ¥ 284 million for Guilty Gear X 's Japanese arcade version . Its Dreamcast version was the 128th @-@ bestselling title in Japan in 2000 , with 97 @,@ 934 copies sold from December 14 to December 31 . In 2001 the game sold 33 @,@ 822 more copies , for a total of 131 @,@ 756 . Guilty Gear X Plus sold over 128 @,@ 000 copies in Japan .
Critical reception for Guilty Gear X on Dreamcast and PS2 was positive ; they have average scores of 89 @.@ 33 percent and 79 @.@ 70 percent , respectively , on GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PS2 version 79 out of 100 . Anoop Gantayat of IGN called the Dreamcast version " possibly the finest @-@ looking 2D game ever , thanks to the high @-@ res graphics , mega @-@ ultra special effects and smooth animation . " According to T.J. Deci of AllGame , the PS2 is " notable for smooth , refined graphics , with richly detailed characters and backgrounds uncommon in 2D fighters . " Although Guilty Gear X 's overall graphics were praised , its sometimes @-@ confusing backgrounds were heavily criticized .
The Dreamcast version 's control responsiveness was praised by Gantayat . Guilty Gear X 's PS2 version was also generally praised , with Greg Kasavin of GameSpot writing that it " controls smoothly and precisely " . Major Mike of GamePro included the caveat that " some moves are difficult to execute and require patience to master fully . " According to James Fudge for GameSpy , " The gameplay manages to be easy to pick up but isn 't dumbed down enough to annoy expert fight fans . " Guilty Gear X 's limited replay value was heavily criticised ; Jay Fitzloff of Game Informer said , " Since it 's especially weak in the singles game , consider purchasing Guilty Gear X only if you and a friend want to go at it . "
The Game Boy Advance version was less well received , with aggregate scores of 64 @.@ 97 percent and 67 out of 100 from GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . A common criticism was that the game 's artificial intelligence was inefficient in combat , making it too easy . Although Chet of Game Informer said , " The new modes such as Tag Match and 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 add variety , but still cannot compensate for this fundamental problem " , according to Michael Knutson of GameZone its balance " gives the game a better replay value . "
GamesRadar criticized Guilty Gear X 's " overblown aesthetics " , giving it the game 's worst score ( three out of ten ) : " While it 's not completely hellish , it definitely deserves purgatory . " According to Star Dingo of GamePro , " Most backgrounds seem like pale , watercolor imitations of the originals ( you can count the colors on two hands ) " . Justin of Game Informer and Kaiser Hwang of IGN criticized the game 's sprites , which they considered small compared with those of Street Fighter .
Its characters were praised as " original " by Justin and " cool " by Kasavin . Gantayat wrote , " It 's the characters that stand out the most " , calling them " marvelously designed , " " unmatched in terms of fine details " and " very distinct . " According to Fudge , " There 's a character of choice for just about everyone . " The characters ' balance was praised by Tom Bramwell and Knutson . Guilty Gear X 's audio had a lukewarm response ; according to Chet and Hwang it was " weak " , and Dingo called it " atrocious " . Mike and Kasavin found the fight announcer 's voice " unintelligible " , with Mike also criticizing the game 's " oppressive " music . Knutson praised Guilty Gear X 's sound effects and music , and Kasavin considered its music appropriate for " the game 's fast @-@ paced action , as well as its anime theme . "
= = Other media = =
= = = Music = = =
Guilty Gear X 's musical albums were published by First Smile Entertainment . Its arcade music was released on September 20 , 2000 as Guilty Gear X Original Soundtrack ( ギルティギア ゼクス オリジナルサウンドトラック , Giruti Gia Zekusu Orijinaru Saundotorakku ) , composed by Daisuke Ishiwatari and arranged by Kazuhito Tomizuka and Yasuharu Takanashi . The album received mixed reviews . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online gave it an eight out of ten : " The improved sound quality is a plus , as are the addition of new character themes , but some people may be put off by the fact that some of the new themes aren 't as good as some of the older ones . " Another reviewer , GoldfishX , gave it a five , calling it " possibly the most ear @-@ grating , hideous sound I have ever encountered in game music " but not giving it a worse score because " Ishiwatari deserves a ton of credit for putting together such brilliant compositions on such pathetic @-@ sounding hardware . "
A second album , Guilty Gear X Heavy Rock Tracks : The Original Soundtrack of Dreamcast , composed by Ishiwatari and arranged by Koichi Seiyama , was released on January 17 , 2001 . It was well received by critics , with perfect scores from GoldfishX and Z @-@ Freak of Square Enix Music Online . According to Goldfishx , " Even if you 're skeptical about hard rock , this is something that everyone should experience in their lifetime . It 's rare to have this type of heart @-@ pounding sound without some form of vocals , but it 's even rarer that the compositions reach this overall level of greatness . " Z @-@ Freak wrote , " Unless you totally hate hard rock , you MUST [ sic ] have this CD " and David Smith of IGN said that its music would either be loved or hated .
Three albums by the rock band Lapis Lazuli were released on May 6 , 2001 . Known collectively as Rising Force of Gear Image Vocal Tracks , the individual albums were entitled " Rock You ! ! " , " Slash ! ! " , and " Destroy ! ! "
= = = Other = = =
Enterbrain published several Guilty Gear X tie @-@ in books . An encyclopedic strategy guide was published on July 26 , 2000 , followed by Drafting Artworks , which is about the game 's universe , on December 13 . Two novelizations , written by Norimitsu Kaihō and illustrated by Ishiwatari — Lightning the Argent ( 白銀の迅雷 , Shirogane no Jinrai ) and The Butterfly and Her ( 胡蝶と疾風 , Kochō to Hayate ) — , were published on January 20 , 2001 and August 24 , 2002 .
A Guilty Gear X comic anthology was also published by Enterbrain on April 25 , 2001 . It inspired two yonkoma manga and an anthology , which were published by Ichijinsha on March 25 , October 25 , and September 25 , 2001 . A manga , Guilty Gear Xtra ( ギルティギアXTRA ) with a collaboration by Ishiwatari , Norimitsu Kaihō and Akihito Sumii , appeared in Kodansha 's Monthly Magazine Z on September 22 , 2003 . Based on Guilty Gear X Plus , a two @-@ part anthology was published on February 25 and April 25 , 2002 by Enterbrain . Ichijinsha published a yonkoma manga and an anthology based on Plus on April 8 and 25 , 2002 .
Battle for Saint , a compilation DVD with highlights of a Guilty Gear X arcade national championship , was released by Enterbrain on August 22 , 2001 . Two audio drama CDs with original storylines — Guilty Gear X Vol . 1 and Vol . 2 — were released by Scitron on October 24 and November 24 , 2001 . On October 25 , 2002 , Terranetz released a collectible card game series based on Guilty Gear X.
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= Supernatural ( season 2 ) =
The second season of Supernatural , an American paranormal drama television series created by Eric Kripke , premiered on September 28 , 2006 , and concluded on May 17 , 2007 , airing 22 episodes . The season focuses on protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they track down Azazel , the demon responsible for the deaths of their mother Mary and father John . They attempt to discover the demon 's plan for Sam and other psychic children — young adults who were visited by Azazel as infants and given abilities , and whose mothers often then died in a fire . During their travels , they use their father 's journal to help them carry on the family business — saving people and hunting supernatural creatures .
The season aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 pm ET in the United States , and was the first season to air on The CW television network , a joint venture of The WB and UPN . The previous season was broadcast on The WB . It averaged only about 3 @.@ 14 million American viewers , and was in danger of not being renewed . The cast and crew garnered many award nominations , but the episodes received mixed reviews from critics . While both the brotherly chemistry between the lead actors and the decision to finish the main storyline were praised , the formulaic structure of the episodes was criticized .
The season was internationally syndicated , airing in the United Kingdom on ITV , in Canada on Citytv and SPACE , and in Australia on Network Ten . It was released on DVD as a six @-@ disc box set September 11 , 2007 , by Warner Home Video in Region 1 . Although the season was split into two separate releases in Region 2 , the complete set was released October 29 , 2007 , and in Region 4 October 3 , 2007 . The episodes are also available through digital retailers such as Apple 's iTunes Store , Microsoft 's Xbox Live Marketplace , and Amazon.com 's on @-@ demand TV service .
= = Episodes = =
In this table , the number in the first column refers to the episode 's number within the entire series , whereas the number in the second column indicates the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to how many Americans watched the episode live or on the day of broadcast .
= = Cast = =
= = = Starring = = =
Jared Padalecki as Sam Winchester
Jensen Ackles as Dean Winchester
= = = Guest stars = = =
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
The writers used the second season to expand upon the concept of hunters , resulting in the introduction of many recurring characters through the hunter @-@ frequented saloon — Harvelle 's Roadhouse . Samantha Ferris portrayed Ellen Harvelle , proprietor of the Roadhouse and an old friend of John Winchester , while Alona Tal played Ellen 's daughter Jo . This pair complemented the father @-@ son relationship of the Winchesters in the first year . Ferris believes she was exactly what the producers were looking for : a " tough , strong , yet a little maternal actor " . Tal 's character , on the other hand , was an intended love interest for Dean , and was eventually phased out because she came off as more of a sister figure . Chad Lindberg portrayed the genius Ash , who uses his vast computer skills to track the paranormal . Because the writers felt the character 's " comical " and " wacky " personality was too unrealistic for the show , he was also removed by the finale .
Other characters returned from the first year . Actor Jim Beaver made multiple appearances as hunter Bobby Singer , an old family friend of the Winchesters . Beaver had expected his first @-@ season guest appearance in " Devil 's Trap " to be a " one @-@ shot deal " , and was surprised when he was asked to return . Adrianne Palicki reprised her role as Sam 's deceased girlfriend Jessica in the alternate @-@ reality episode " What Is and What Should Never Be " , as did Samantha Smith as Mary Winchester . Smith also made an appearance in a flashback in the penultimate episode , " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part One " . And though at first reluctant because of his role on Grey 's Anatomy , Jeffrey Dean Morgan returned as John Winchester in the season premiere and finale . However , the character dies in the premiere because the writers worried that having him separated from his sons again — Sam and Dean spend much of the first season tracking him down — would " split the show " by having him away " doing more interesting things than the boys are doing " . As a demon , the villain Azazel periodically switches hosts , and was first fully portrayed by Morgan in the first @-@ season finale . The reins passed to Fredric Lehne for the second @-@ season premiere , and the show 's producers enjoyed his performance so much they brought him back for the two @-@ part finale .
Many factors went into the casting decisions of the season 's guest stars . Linda Blair , famous for her role in the horror film The Exorcist , appeared in the episode " The Usual Suspects " . Though a fan of the show , Blair had turned down a guest appearance in the first season because she did not want to return to horror , having spent years getting a " clean slate " . This changed after the television series Extra aired a three @-@ part profile on her acting career and work with animals . It attempted to find a series that would write a role for her as " an actor 's piece " , rather than a cameo . Kripke , a fan of The Exorcist , offered to write an episode specifically for her , and she was " really touched " when he listened to her request to leave out demons in the storyline . During automated dialogue replacement , Jensen Ackles added in a reference to The Exorcist with the statement , " I could really go for some pea soup . "
The casting of Battlestar Galactica 's Tricia Helfer in " Roadkill " stemmed from the producers ' preference to hire actors important to Supernatural 's fanbase . This was the first episode to have the Winchesters as supporting characters , and Kripke felt " Tricia had the charisma to perform the leading role " . Kripke enjoyed Emmanuelle Vaugier 's work in television series such as Smallville , and believed she was an " easy choice " for the large role of the soon @-@ to @-@ be werewolf Madison in " Heart " . Director Kim Manners felt Vaugier brought to the character a vulnerability like that of Lon Chaney , Jr. in The Wolf Man , which made viewers sympathetic . Conspiracy @-@ theorist Ronald of " Nightshifters " was envisioned by writer and consulting producer Ben Edlund as the unsympathetic " semi @-@ drunk Randy Quaid from Independence Day " . However , this changed with Chris Gauthier 's casting , and Edlund felt that Ronald turned out to be a " really cool " character fans would enjoy . The producers considered Summer Glau for the role of the zombie Angela for " Children Shouldn 't Play with Dead Things " , but she could not accept due to scheduling conflicts .
= = = Writing = = =
When production of the second season started , Kripke wanted to avoid the monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week formula used in the first year . The writers attempted this by including more " human themes , " mainly " the things Sam and Dean are truly afraid of : death , grief , betrayal , etc . " This change brought the series ' focus onto situations such as the brothers dealing with their father 's death and giving them the task of hunting down Azazel , the demon who killed him . Morgan feels that the brothers ' " inner turmoil " created by the death of his character made them more three @-@ dimensional . While Dean has trouble dealing with his father 's death , Kripke wishes they had focused more on Sam 's reaction . Instead , the episodes dealt more with Sam 's fear of becoming evil , which Kripke regretted since the writers never depicted the character committing malevolent acts . Another main storyline of the season followed Sam and Dean as they track down the various psychic children — young adults like Sam who were visited by Azazel as infants and given abilities . However , the psychic children storyline made the mythology of the second season " dense " and " confusing " for Kripke .
Kripke instead favored the " unique and structurally interesting " self @-@ enclosed episodes , which sometimes arose from the writers ' unused ideas . From the series ' beginning , Kripke desired to feature an evil clown because he felt that " clowns in a context where they 're not supposed to be are friggin ' terrifying " . To fit with the series , the clown became a shapeshifting Rakshasa of Hindu mythology . This decision made the clown " less satisfying " , to Kripke 's chagrin , because it limited the clown @-@ related scenes . Another element of folklore favored by Kripke was the story of Robert Johnson , which he focused on in his first screenplay as a writer . He found the legend similar to Supernatural , noting , " It 's a piece of real life American history and folklore , it 's an American horror story , it takes place on the dusty back roads of rural America , and it 's got great music . " However , the lore takes place in the early 20th century , and prevented the inclusion of Sam and Dean . To circumvent this , writer Sera Gamble suggested Johnson 's story be made into a subplot detailed in flashbacks , with the Crossroads Demon returning in the present to make more deals . Although Gamble envisioned the demon 's hellhound as being similar in appearance to a Rottweiler , Kripke felt it would " look stupid " . The creature was instead made invisible , which Gamble believes gave it a more terrifying presence .
Before he entered the television industry , writer and consulting producer Ben Edlund had wanted to pen a metafictional script dealing with television production , but decided against it because he did not have production knowledge . He later returned to it for the episode " Hollywood Babylon " . Edlund decided to have the production staff look like " goofballs " , and made fun of Supernatural 's production staff , the network , and the studio . For example , comments made by Gary Cole 's " studio suit " character were based on notes from the network and studio for Supernatural during both seasons of production . Other metafictional references include a character commenting on the " terrible script " of Boogeyman , a film written by Kripke ; Sam becoming uncomfortable as the studio tour passes the set of Gilmore Girls , a television series in which Padalecki had a recurring role ; and Sam proclaiming Hollywood 's weather to be " positively Canadian " .
Other stories were developed from simple concepts . For example , the reformed @-@ vampire episode " Bloodlust " was developed to suggest that all monsters should not be killed indiscriminately . The plot alluded to " racial issues " , but not blatantly ; rather , as Padalecki noted , they explored it in a " fun way " . The episode " The Usual Suspects " emerged from the writers ' desire to keep the audience guessing . Cathryn Humphris pitched a story with a ghost serving as a death omen — warning people of future tragedy , rather than trying to kill them , unlike previous ghosts on the series . However , Humphris had trouble developing the script 's outline . Kripke noted a part of the episode in which brothers are arrested and have to explain to police what had happened ; this scenario ultimately became the framework of the episode , which begins with Sam and Dean being taken into custody . The concept for " Tall Tales " originated as a " he said , he said " episode , in which the brothers would recount conflicting versions of the same storyline . The writers deliberated over the use of five or six monsters in trying to find one appropriate for the episode , but eventually settled on a trickster because it " can do everything [ they ] want it to " . Although the writers typically prefer to put their own spin on folklore , they decided in this case to remain faithful to the archetypal trickster mythos . Because the season alluded to the possibility of Sam becoming bad , the writers wanted to portray how an evil Sam would behave and what Dean 's reaction would be . One of the writers ' first creative ideas of the season was depicted in the teaser of " Born Under a Bad Sign " , in which a blood @-@ covered Sam wakes up not remembering the past week of his life . The plot , which " fell into place " during the writing process , included demonic possession to explain Sam 's actions — an event that resulted in the return of the vengeful Meg Masters demon .
After the plotlines were developed , major deviations sometimes occurred in the writing process . Like in the final version of the script , twins with mind @-@ control abilities were the focus of Edlund 's original pitch for the episode " Simon Said " . However , the more powerful twin — kept secluded due to deformities — forced his brother to perceive himself as retarded . At the end of the episode , his brother ate him in retaliation . The story was eventually changed , and instead focused on questions such as " What do you do with power ? " . Kripke felt that this fit greatly with the series ' storyline , because Sam was uncomfortable with his developing abilities ; the writers wanted to explore one of the psychic children who took his ability as a gift . " Folsom Prison Blues " stemmed from Kripke 's desire to feature prison ghosts , and the initial plot had FBI Agent Henriksen finally capturing the brothers and sending them to prison . However , this caused a major complication : the writers would have to devise a way for Sam and Dean to escape in the end . Writer John Shiban suggested that the brothers be arrested on purpose in order to work a job , with the prison 's head guard being revealed as a family friend .
The two @-@ part finale " All Hell Breaks Loose " brought many storylines to a close . The psychic children were killed off because the writers felt the characters were not as interesting as demons and monsters . The Roadhouse was destroyed due to Kripke 's disliking of the concept ; he felt it gave a home to the road show . Fearing that he would disappoint fans by creating too much anticipation , Kripke also decided to answer many questions regarding Azazel 's plans in " Part One " . The second part ended the brothers ' quest to kill Azazel , but also opened more storylines for the third season , such as Dean 's demonic pact to resurrect Sam and the question of whether what returned was " one hundred percent pure Sam " . Additionally , the " war of demons against humanity " — hinted at throughout the first two seasons — finally started at the finale 's end .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place in Vancouver , British Columbia . The crew used two cameras simultaneously for each scene , which allowed for two different angles to be filmed of the same sequence . The series usually has a dark atmosphere , though production purposefully created a contrasting appearance for certain episodes . " Hollywood Babylon " details the filming of a fake horror movie , and the use of two filming styles helped make a distinction ; scenes of the fake film used more saturated colors , while scenes for the actual episode were " down to reality " . To depict the perfect world of " What Is and What Should Never Be " , the usual shadows and " moody lighting " more made colorful and warm .
Problems during production sometimes arose . For his scenes as the yellow @-@ eyed demon Azazel throughout the season , Fredric Lehne wore hard , colored contact lenses that greatly obscured his vision . The production crew placed sandbags on the floor to help him locate his marks . Lindsey McKeon , who portrayed a Reaper briefly possessed by Azazel in " In My Time of Dying " , also experienced the same problem . Her scene — she touches Ackles ' forehead — took nine takes to film because she kept missing . Filming for " What Is and What Should Never Be " was interrupted in order to accommodate the busy Adrianne Palicki . Production shifted to the following episode after five days of filming , and resumed when Palicki became available for the final three days .
Because the series uses few standing sets , set designer Jerry Wanek often had to construct entirely new sets for each episode . Outside elements had an influence on some designs , with the bar in the hotel of " Playthings " being an homage to The Shining . A Wisconsin native , Wanek was able to incorporate personal items into the motel set for the Wisconsin @-@ based episode " Nightshifter " ; because polka is part of the state 's culture , he used posters from his father 's old polka band , as well as photos of his nephews and Wisconsin landmarks . Due to " Tall Tales " ' s atmosphere , that episode 's motel was designed to be " over the top " . Wanek noted , " They were in this really odd @-@ looking motel that had crystal chandeliers and carved beds , turquoise stove and refrigerator , and this wonderful period linoleum on the floor . I thought it really matched the tempo and emotion of the show . " At times , however , Wanek was able to reuse old sets . The loft set from " No Exit " was redesigned into an apartment for " Crossroad Blues " , and the bar in " Born Under a Bad Sign " was a refurbished Roadhouse set .
Not all scenes could take place in the studio , and some were instead shot on location . The vault scenes in " Nightshifter " were filmed in an actual bank safe , as production would not have been able to construct one on set . Outside shots were filmed in downtown Vancouver , forcing streets to be closed off . The crypt of " Houses of the Holy " was built underneath St. Andrew 's @-@ Wesley United Church , with plastic used to imitate sculpted stone . Riverview Hospital — used as a filming location in previous episodes — was used for the premiere " In My Time of Dying " . It also functioned as a jail in " Folsom Prison Blues " due to , as Wanek describes , " the texture on the walls , the lack of any humanity in the design , and the materials used to build it ... " However , the prison block was built on a sound stage . The final scenes of " Simon Said " were filmed at Cleveland Dam , and " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part One " made use of a pre @-@ existing set built for the Western television series Bordertown . The climax of " Part Two " was originally to take place in an actual cemetery , but numerous issues forced production to film the scene in the studio .
= = = Music = = =
The mostly synthesized orchestral score of the season was composed by Christopher Lennertz and Jay Gruska . The pair try to base the music on the visuals of each episode , with about a third of each episode 's score being newly written for the supernatural legend . For example , when the werewolf 's point of view is depicted in " Heart " , Gruska tried to make the score predatorial . For " Roadkill " ' s emotional ending , Lennertz used cello and piano to " [ tug ] at the heart strings " and " push the tears " . The music was supposed to " become part of the sinister wallpaper " in " In My Time of Dying " . Thus , in the scene involving John Winchester selling his soul to Azazel , Gruska wrote the music as " dark and dank " , but feels the viewer would only notice the music if it was removed from the scene .
Other musical elements were based on aspects of the episode , and often used less conventional instruments . For " Simon Said " — featuring characters with the ability of mind @-@ control — Gruska tried to make the score more " mind @-@ trippy " , opting to mainly use " synthy , spacey electronica pads " to give it a science @-@ fiction sound . Toy @-@ piano sounds were included in " Playthings " by Gruska to make the score more childlike . Because of the Robert Johnson theme of " Crossroad Blues " , Lennertz made sure to be specific to Johnson 's style when writing the music for the opening scene . A blues guitarist was brought in , and played on a " beat @-@ up old acoustic guitar " . However , they added in dissonant notes to foreshadow the " grittiness to come " . Lennertz used organ , drums , bass , and guitar to have a " retro bluesy approach " for " Folsom Prison Blues " , mimicking the style of film composer David Holmes . Likewise , he wanted the episode " Nightshifter " to have a " feature film feel " , with the score ending up similar to The Bourne Identity . With Linda Blair of The Exorcist guest starring in " The Usual Suspects " , Gruska used tubular bells as an homage to the film 's score .
In addition to the score , the series makes use of rock songs , with most being selected from Kripke 's private collection . Among the many bands featured in the second season are AC / DC , Lynyrd Skynyrd , and Boston . Rock songs are also usually featured in " The Road So Far " montages at the beginning of select episodes that recap previous events . The premiere used Ted Nugent 's " Stranglehold " , and a " coming soon " sequence midway through the season was set to Nazareth 's " Hair of the Dog " . The finale recapped the entire season to Kansas ' " Carry On Wayward Son " . The second season also began the tradition of naming many episodes after classic rock songs , with Kripke preferring Led Zeppelin songs .
= = = Effects = = =
The series makes use of visual , special , and make @-@ up effects , as well as stuntwork . Beginning with the second season , visual effects became an in @-@ house department . Visual effects supervisor Ivan Hayden feels this improved the series because a fixed budget allowed them to compensate for other scenes that lacked effects , such as in " Nightshifter " . Wide shots of the bank 's exterior — featuring closed @-@ off streets , police , and SWAT helicopters — were accomplished with visual effects . The series ' catchphrase — " Scary just got sexy " — was added to a billboard in the background . For the episode " Houses of the Holy " , production did not want viewers to be able to determine that the " angel " was in actuality a priest . Thus , the shape engulfed in light was a girl wearing a skintight white leotard . At times , the visual effects used were subtle . Cockroaches were digitally inserted into the sewer scenes of " No Exit " ; director Kim Manners did not ask for it , but thought the addition " made it really creepy " . The episode " Playthings " featured a scene of a man dying after falling down stairs . The department added blood flowing from underneath him , and also made his fingers twitch and his mouth open and close to create a more lifelike appearance .
The special effects and makeup departments are also important assets to production . Dean has an out @-@ of @-@ body experience in " In My Time of Dying " , and some scenes feature him looking at his own body in a hospital bed . To forgo the use of visual effects , the special effects department sculpted a full gelatin face from Ackles , and applied it to a body double . To depict a woman burning to death in the episode " Simon Said " , the actress was sealed inside a full body silicone designed to look like her , and was doused with fire accelerant . She was required to breathe through a straw , as well as don underwear soaked in ice @-@ cold fire @-@ retardant gel . Prior to " Heart " , Kripke had not wanted to include werewolves in the series , as he felt that the budget would only allow for " a guy with fur glued to his face " . As he prefers to have monsters be able to walk among humans , production made the transformation subtle — the character 's eyes change , and her canine teeth and fingernails grow . However , writer Sera Gamble believes that they " dropped the ball " in the design , feeling that the creature looked too similar to a vampire .
= = Reception = =
Supernatural had low ratings during its second season . Viewers consisted mainly of teenage girls , with the CW trying to attract more males . It ranked No. 216 relative to the position of other prime time network shows . With an average viewership of 3 @.@ 14 million Americans , the show 's future was in doubt at the season 's end . Despite this , the series was renewed for a third season . According to Special Forces Soldier Master Sergeant Kevin Wise at a 2007 Supernatural convention , the DVDs most requested by armed forces personnel in Iraq and Afghanistan were the first two seasons of the series .
The second season of the series received mixed reviews from critics . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 based on 5 reviews . Jim Kaz of IGN gave the season a similar score at 8 / 10 . While at first hesitant of the series , believing it to be " another horror / sci @-@ fi / occult hybrid currently igniting ratings " , he found the " eerie and intricate storylines " to overcome the " initial impressions of Clearasil ads and Paris Hilton in House of Wax " . Praising the cliffhangers and the brotherly chemistry between the lead actors , Kaz deemed Supernatural " one @-@ helluva edge @-@ of @-@ your @-@ seat , ball @-@ burner of a series with a forceful script , excellent acting ( said pretty boys included ) and some fine special effects " . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune thoroughly enjoyed the season , and " really , really liked " the Roadhouse . Not understanding why the Roadhouse was not used more throughout the season , she was " pretty annoyed " when it was destroyed . Ryan also favored the new hunter characters , especially Ash , and was " not thrilled " when Ash was killed . Regarding Sam and Dean , she noted the series ' " ability to hone in on [ sic ] the brotherly conflicts and emotions threaded through a well @-@ plotted monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week story " . While she enjoyed Tricia Helfer 's guest appearance , she did not enjoy the stunt casting of Linda Blair and would have preferred a " more skilled actress " . The season received a grade of a B- from Brian Tallerico of UGO , who found it " frustrating " due to the use of the " same predictable formula " that did not meet the standards of the first season . Other problems he found included " the brothers [ turning ] whiny and mopey and [ taking ] everything too seriously " . However , he believed that the season ended " strong " — he liked how the main storyline was wrapped up , opening new storylines — and noted that there were some " excellent " episodes . Tallerico praised the " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek Winchester adventure " " The Usual Suspects " , feeling that it had " enough pop culture references to make Tarantino jealous " and the " pitch @-@ perfect mix of tones that make the show so great " . He also found " Nightshifter " to be the " best action hour of Supernatural 's second year " , deeming it " riveting from beginning to end " . Also applauding the season 's cliffhanger was Peter Brown of iFMagazine , who gave the season a B + . He enjoyed the expansion of the series ' mythology , as well as the new characters introduced . He also praised the " haunting music and sounds that really give a chilling feel to each and every episode " , feeling them to be Emmy @-@ worthy .
The season 's cast and crew received the attention of multiple award programs . Writer Raelle Tucker won the Constellation Award for " Best Overall 2007 Science Fiction Film or Television Script " for the episode " What Is and What Should Never Be " , and work on " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " garnered a Golden Reel nomination for " Best Sound Editing in Television : Short Form – Sound Effects and Foley " . Conchita Campbell gained a Young Artist Award nomination for " Best Performance in a TV Series – Guest Starring Young Actress " for her performance in " Playthings " , and Jessica Harmon was nominated in 2008 for a Leo Award in the category of " Best Guest Performance by a Female in a Dramatic Series " for the episode " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part One " .
= = Home media release = =
The second season of Supernatural was released as a six @-@ disc Region 1 DVD box set in the US on September 11 , 2007 , two weeks before the premiere of the third season . Including all 22 episodes of the second season , the set also featured DVD extras such as episode commentaries , deleted scenes , bloopers , Jared Padalecki 's original screen test , and a featurette on the making of the season finale . The season was ranked No. 13 in DVD sales for its week of release , selling 67 @,@ 735 sets for $ 2 @,@ 573 @,@ 253 . However , it slipped out of the top @-@ 30 list the following week . For Region 2 , the season was divided into two parts , being released on May 14 , 2007 , and September 10 , 2007 ; the complete set was released on October 29 , 2007 . The season was also released in Region 4 on October 3 , 2007 . The second season was released on Region A Blu @-@ ray Disc on June 14 , 2011 , including a new special feature – " The Devil 's Road Map " , an interactive guide featuring interviews about every episode .
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= Emotions ( Mariah Carey album ) =
Emotions is the second studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on September 17 , 1991 by Columbia Records . The album deviated from the formula of Carey 's 1990 self @-@ titled debut album , as she had more creative control over the material she produced and recorded . Additionally , Emotions features influences from a range of genres such as gospel , R & B , soul , pop and 1950s , 1960s and 1970s balladry infusion . On the record , Carey worked with a variety of producers and writers , including Walter Afanasieff , the only hold over from her previous effort . Additionally , Carey wrote and produced the album 's material with Robert Clivillés and David Cole from C + C Music Factory and Carole King , with whom she wrote one song .
Upon release , Emotions received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 , surprising many critics following the success of Carey 's debut , which spent eleven weeks atop the chart . While selling far less than Mariah Carey , Emotions was eventually certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of four million copies throughout the country , with estimated sales standing at 3 @,@ 595 @,@ 000 copies . Emotions achieved moderate success outside the United States , peaking within the top ten in Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway and the United Kingdom . Its success in Japan was strong , shipping one million copies there . The album has sold 8 million copies worldwide .
Three commercial singles were released from the album . The title track , the album 's lead song , became Carey 's fifth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 , making her the only artist in history to have their first five singles reach the chart 's summit . Additionally , it became Carey 's third chart topper in Canada , and reached the top ten in France , the Netherlands and New Zealand . " Can 't Let Go " was released as the second single from Emotions on October 23 , 1991 . Due to Columbia 's removal of the single from stores in an attempt to boost the album 's sales , " Can 't Let Go " failed to become her sixth chart topper in the US , peaking at number two . European and worldwide success was very limited , reaching the top 20 in only Canada and the UK . Similarly , " Make It Happen " peaked at number five in the US , and achieved relatively weak international charting , prompting Columbia to halt promotion of the album .
= = Background = =
Following the success of Carey 's self @-@ titled debut album , critics wondered whether or not she would tour in order to promote the album in the major worldwide music markets . However , Carey expressed in several interviews that due to the strenuous nature and the sheer difficulty of her songs , she feared a tour with back @-@ to @-@ back shows would not be possible , aside from the long travel times and constant travel . With the extra time , Carey began writing and producing material for Emotions around the same time that her debut 's third single , " Someday " , was released in December 1990 . During this time period in music , it was traditional for an artist to release a studio album every two years in their prime , allowing the singles to fully promote the album through airwaves , as well as television appearances . Additionally , after a tour that would usually follow , as the next album would be released and would gain new fans , they would search the artist 's catalog , and purchase the previous album in hopes of learning of their older work . Sony , however , chose to market Carey in a different fashion , leaning towards the traditional form in the 1960s , where acts would release an LP every year . They felt that Carey 's reputation of being a " studio worm " and a songwriter from a young age would be captivating enough to deliver a new album more often than most .
As writing for the album came under way , Carey had a falling out with Ben Margulies , the man whom Carey had written seven of the eleven songs on Carey 's debut with . Together , the duo had written and produced seven songs for Carey 's demo tape which she handed to Tommy Mottola . Their parting of ways was due to a contract Carey had signed prior to her signing with Columbia . Carey had agreed to split not only the songwriting royalties from the songs , but half of her earnings as well , something she never thought twice about while writing songs in his father 's basement . However , when the time came to write music for Emotions , Sony officials made it clear he would only be paid the fair amount given to co @-@ writers on an album . Following the discussion , Margulies filed a lawsuit against Sony , claiming that under contract , he would be entitled to work with Carey , as well as reap extra benefits . After an almost one year lawsuit , the judge settled that Margulies was to earn ten percent of Carey 's direct earnings from her record sales , not including an income from any other ventures . While settled , their relationship remained ruined , damaged by what Carey considered treachery . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Carey said the following regarding the contract : " I signed blindly . Later , I tried to make it right so we could continue ... but he wouldn 't accept it . " After the settlement , Margulies spoke of his feelings on the matter , claiming he would hope to one day write again with Carey , placing most of the blame on the record label and concluding " Hopefully one day , art will prevail over business . "
= = Recording = =
Mariah Carey had originally been recorded in Margulies ' father 's basement , with old and minimal equipment . After being signed to Columbia , the songs that would be used for the album were re @-@ mastered and re @-@ recorded in professional studios . However , due to Sony 's involvement in the project , they did not allow Carey to produce most of the album , hoping the aid of several famed record producers would be able to ensure Carey 's already deemed " exquisite " songs would become popular . After the album 's success however , Carey was allowed more freedom on Emotions than on her debut . Since she no longer had a working or personal relationship with Margulies , she chose to work with mostly different musicians than those of her previous effort , with the exception of Walter Afanasieff , the only hold over from Mariah Carey . Even though he had only co @-@ written " Love Takes Time " , and had only produced part of the album , Carey felt a strong working chemistry with him , soon developing a unique form of songwriting alongside him . Aside from Afanasieff , Carey worked with Robert Clivillés and David Cole from the dance @-@ music influenced production duo , C + C Music Factory . Working with the duo was originally Mottola 's suggestion , but after meeting the pair , Carey agreed and wrote four songs together with them .
Additionally , aside from the three men , Carey worked with Carole King , a female singer @-@ songwriter who had been predominantly popular in the 1970s . However , unlike with C + C Music Factory , King approached Carey , hoping to work with her after hearing her perform live on The Arsenio Hall Show . During a conversation with Carey , King suggested that she cover " ( You Make Me Feel Like ) A Natural Woman " , a song she had written with Gerry Goffin for Aretha Franklin . After giving it some thought , Carey declined the offer , feeling uncomfortable about recording a song she felt one of her musical influences performed so perfectly . Still determined on working with Carey , King flew to New York for one day , to try to create a ballad of some sort . The two ladies sat together by a piano over the course of the day , and by nightfall , had written and arranged a song titled " If It 's Over " . After working with Carey , King said in an interview " I love her voice . She 's very expressive . She gives a lot of meaning to what she sings . " After recording " If It 's Over " , Carey expressed the musical connection she shared with Afanasieff , as well as the creative format in which she wrote and produced her music when with him , or working with C + C Music Factory . When working with Afanasieff , the duo would sit by a piano , and lead each other vocally and musically , until they would reach the right note and arrangement . During an interview in 1992 , Afanasieff described how Carey would stand next to him , and begin singing different notes and tunes she was thinking of , while he would follow her with the piano . In doing so , he would help lead her to the right note and vice versa . Carey described their working relationship as " very unique , " and felt it to be very similar to the form in which she had worked with Margulies . While similar , Carey 's creative process with Cole and Clivillés proved different ; they would bring her several different tapes and tunes , of which she would choose from . Afterwards , they would work on building the already created melody , and have Carey add and build onto it , as well as writing the lyrics and key .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Unlike Carey 's debut album , which featured a more contemporary pop and R & B background , Emotions proved to be far different . It borrowed from several genres ranging from gospel , R & B , soul , pop and 1960s and 1970s influences . The album 's lead single " Emotions " borrowed heavily from 1970s disco , and flaunted Carey 's upper range and extensive use of the whistle register . The song 's lyrics were described as " joyful " by author Chris Nickson , and told of a strong and deep emotion felt by the protagonist when with their lover . One of the album 's more gospel infused songs , " And You Don 't Remember " , featured organ chord changes and held minimal production in order to give the vocals a more " raw and sixties feel . " It and the former song were part of a trio of tracks from the album that were meant to pay homage to Motown ballads , with the inclusion of soft church choir vocals , and sole musical arrangement by Carey . Its lyrics reflected the song 's raw chorus , telling of girl that is promised the world by her boyfriend , and quickly forget about her and moves to the next one . After the heartbreak , the protagonist asks him " Don 't You Remember " all those things he had promised her , and the things they had spoken and dreamed about doing together . " Can 't Let Go " , the album 's second single , is a slow ballad , featuring sad and yearning lyrical content . The song 's introduction featured minor chord changes , and drew influence from fifties balladry . For the duration of the first half of the song , Carey sings in her lower and huskier registers , eventually leading to the belted crescendo and falsetto and whistle finish . Of the ten tracks on the album , Carey felt her most autobiographical lyrics were featured on " Make It Happen " , which told of Carey 's poor and difficult teen life prior to being signed by Columbia . It continues telling of the importance of faith and prayer to God . Nickson described its instrumentation as " restrained " and " very Motownish , " as well as noting its soft gospel infusion . Critically , the most anticipated song on the album was Carey 's collaboration with King . It was influenced by sixties and seventies gospel and other soulful genres . According to Nickson , the song 's instrumentation and basis was crucial to Carey 's performance throughout the song . Additionally , he described its content and instrumentation :
As a song full of gospel and soulful influences , it allowed Mariah to really tear loose and show what she could do – which in reality was far more than the vocal gymnastics that seemed to comprise her reputation so far . From a deep rumble to a high wail , she covered five octaves wonderfully , as the power of the tune built . The backing vocals – which once again had those churchy harmonies – filled out the spare melody , as did the stately horns , which entered towards the end . The song was truly a vocal showcase for Mariah .
The next song on the album 's track list , " You 're So Cold " , was originally intended to be the lead single from Emotions , eventually being switched for the title track . The song 's introduction features a piano and a capella vocal , working into its chorus . Chris Nickson wrote " The song sailed into the chorus , driven by the house @-@ y piano work , the bubbly , snacking rhythm belying the angry lyrics , the upbeat tone of voice . " As Nickson hinted at , its lyrics featured an angry message , calling out an unfaithful lover and asking how he could be " So Cold . " " So Blessed " was a song Carey wrote with Afanasieff , infusing fifties style pop balladry into it . Carey 's voice in the song is very restrained , as she stays within her lower registers throughout the duration of the track . " To Be Around You " was described by Nickson as " far more staccato . " Its production and melody was intended to pay tribute to " Got to Be Real " by Cheryl Lynn , as well as featuring spoken voices towards the end of the song . Nickson described " Till the End of Time " as a " gentle , almost lullaby melody . " It was a love ballad , preparing the listener for the song 's final track , " The Wind " . The latter song featured the album 's strongest jazz influence , and sampled a piano melody from Russell Freeman during the 1950s . After Afanasieff presented Carey with the melody he had discovered , it inspired her to write the melody and lyrics , which told of a friend that perished in a drunk @-@ driving accident . Musically , the album fulfilled its greatest challenge , according to critics . It had helped master Carey 's usage and infusion of several genres which she had not tapped into during the recording of her debut .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Emotions garnered generally mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics , many of whom both praised and criticized the album 's content alongside Carey 's vocal acrobatics . Bill Lamb from About.com gave Emotions three and a half out of five stars , complimenting the album as a whole , claiming it to be " tightened " when in comparison to the original . He described the album 's lead single as " bone chilling , " however criticizing some of the Carey 's high notes as " vocal range overkill . " Allmusic editor , Ashley Battel , gave the album four out of five stars , calling it a " musical journey . " Additionally , Erlewine picked " Emotions " and " Make It Happen " as the album 's standout tracks and wrote " The one emotion that prevails upon completion of the album is definitely a positive one : satisfaction . " Parry Gettelman , editor from the Orlando Sentinel , was critical on Carey 's vocal acrobatics , writing " Carey has become so enamored of the ultra @-@ high @-@ frequency part of her range that I 'm starting to suspect she may be an intergalactic spy trying to re- establish communications with the far @-@ off Planet of Dogs . " Jonathan Kurant from the Sun @-@ Sentinel gave Emotions a mixed review , writing " Oddly , the album gets more original at the end , where not all people will bother getting to . " Further in the review , he outed " The Wind " and " Till the End of Time " as the album 's stand out tracks , but felt most of the album was unoriginal and not an improvement over her debut .
Steve Morse from The Boston Globe gave the album a positive review , calling it " a quantum leap in maturity and confidence . " Morse felt Emotions was superior to Carey 's debut , calling its lyrics " remarkable , " its ballads " unspeakably beautiful , " and Carey 's vocal and songwriting ability " unlimited . " Rob Tannenbaum from Rolling Stone was critical on the album , expressing how Carey 's extensive use of her range made it difficult to truly feel and connect to the lyrics within the songs . Tannenbaum concluded his review on Emotions with " Carey has a remarkable vocal gift , but to date , unfortunately , her singing has been far more impressive than expressive . " Arion Berger from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a C , calling it " colder and more calculated " than Carey 's debut . Additionally , Berger mirrored similar sentiments written by Tannenbaum , writing " [ Emotions ] is the hybrid progeny of a venerable tradition — the tradition of the R & B diva — and crass commercial instincts. it 's gospel without soul , love songs without passion , pop without buoyancy . " Robert Christgau said nothing on the album , but gave it a " dud " score . Deborah Wilker , editor of the Sun @-@ Sentinel , complimented Carey 's vocal and singing abilities , however criticizing some of the album 's content as a whole . Wilker wrote " With her elite industry connections and top @-@ notch voice , Carey can do better . Sure this set is enjoyable and provides pop fans with a new diva to idolize , but Carey and company don`t come close to exploiting the full range of her musical potential . " Dennis Hunt from the Los Angeles Times gave the album two out of a possible four stars . After comparing calling Carey 's voice to that of Whitney Houston 's , he called it " spectacular and impressive , " but criticized the album 's songs and production for " playing high on the angst scale . " Editor of the Chicago Tribune , Jan DeKnock , gave the album three stars , indicating a " Good " review . She called some of the album 's ballads " boring , " but described Carey 's voice as " breathtaking . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Emotions debuted at the number four position on the Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 129 @,@ 000 copies , surprising critics following the success of Mariah Carey ( 1990 ) . In total , the album spent twenty @-@ seven weeks in the top twenty and a total of fifty @-@ five on the albums chart , becoming Carey 's lowest @-@ peaking album until Glitter ( 2001 ) . Emotions was certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of four million copies within the United States . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album 's stateside sales are estimated at 3 @,@ 595 @,@ 000 . On the Canadian RPM Albums Chart , Emotions debuted at number fourteen , on the issue dated October 5 , 1991 . Four weeks later , on the issue date November 2 , 1991 , the album reached its peak position of number six , staying there for one week . At the end of the year , Emotions finished number 35 on the Year @-@ End Albums Chart of 1991 . To date , the album has been certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , denoting shipments of 400 @,@ 000 units . In Japan , Emotions debuted at number three on the official Oricon chart , and according to Sony Music , has shipped 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies throughout the country . In Australia , the album debuted at number ninety @-@ six on the ARIA Albums Chart during the week ending October 6 , 1991 , attaining its peak position of number eight four weeks later . The album spent thirty weeks in the top 100 , being certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
In France , Emotions received a gold certifications from the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The album made its debut on the Dutch Top 40 at number seventy @-@ nine . The following week , it moved up to number fifty @-@ nine , which became its peak charting position . In total , Emotions spent six weeks within the Dutch charts , being certified platinum by the Nederlandse Vereniging van Producenten en Importeurs van beeld- en geluidsdragers ( NVPI ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . During the week of October 17 , 1991 , Emotions debuted at its peak position of number six , spending a total of sixteen weeks on the New Zealand Albums Chart . The Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified the album platinum , denoting shipments of 15 @,@ 000 units within the country . In Sweden , Emotions debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Swedish Albums Chart , peaking at number thirteen and spending a total of five weeks fluctuating in the chart . Following its exit from the chart , the album was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . On October 13 , 1991 , Emotions debuted at number sixteen on the Swiss Albums Chart , attaining its peak position of fifteen the succeeding week . Following a run of nine weeks in the albums chart , the album was certified gold by the IFPI , denoting shipments of 50 @,@ 000 units throughout the country . On the UK Albums Chart , dated October 26 , 1991 , the album debuted at number ten . In its seventeenth week , Emotions attained its peak position of number four , placing higher than Carey 's debut reach of six . After charting in the United Kingdom for forty weeks , the album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 units . Emotions has sold 12 million copies worldwide , short of the 20 million sold by her debut in 1990 .
= = Singles = =
Three commercial singles were released from Emotions . The album 's lead single of the same name became Carey 's fifth chart topper in the United States , making her the only act in history to have their first five singles reach the charts summit in the country . Additionally , " Emotions " topped the singles chart in Canada , reached the top five in New Zealand , and peaked within the top twenty in Australia , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . The song garnered positive critical response , with Bill Lamb from About.com rating it " among her best . " Steve Morse from The Boston Globe called Carey 's high registers in the song a " feeling of pure joy , " whereas Jan DeKnock from the Chicago Tribune described Carey 's voice as " breathtaking . " The song 's music video features different scenes of Carey singing and enjoying herself throughout a car ride by the countryside , as well as a small celebration with several dancers .
The album 's second release , " Can 't Let Go " , only reached the number two position on the Billboard Hot 100 , failing to top the chart due to Columbia 's retraction of the single in order to boost sales of the album . Aside from Canada , where it attained a peak of number three , " Can 't Let Go " performed weakly across continental Europe , reaching the top twenty in only the UK . The song 's corresponding video was filmed in black and white , and featured Carey 's hair in a straightened style for the first time in her career . The video predominantly features close @-@ up scenes of Carey by a small outdoor fountain , as well as blooming white roses . " Make It Happen " was released as the third and final single from Emotions on April 4 , 1992 . It peaked at number five in the United States , and as " Can 't Let Go " , charted weakly throughout Europe , coming in at number seven in Canada , seventeen in the UK , and thirty @-@ five and forty @-@ seven in Australia and the Netherlands , respectively . The song was praised by critics ; Morse called it " a clear slice of spiritual autobiography , " and called the last chorus " glorious . " Similarly , DeKnock called the song " upbeat and inspirational . " The video filmed for " Make It Happen " featured Carey performing in front of an audience in a large cathedral @-@ like church , alongside back @-@ up singers and child dancers .
= = Promotion = =
As with Mariah Carey the previous year , Carey did not embark on a tour to promote the album , due to the long travel times and strenuous schedules on her voice . However , while not touring the world , Carey promoted Emotions through an array of television and award show appearances , stateside and across Europe . Carey performed " Emotions " live for the first time at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards , backed by several male and female back up vocalists . Following the award show appearance , she sang " Emotions " on The Arsenio Hall Show , airing on September 23 , 1991 . Additionally , Carey performed the song at the 1992 Soul Train Music Awards , and on British music program and talk show Top of the Pops and Des O 'Connor . Additional European stops included Sondagstoppet and Kulan in Sweden during mid @-@ September 1991 . All of the above mentioned performances included " Can 't Let Go " as a secondary performance in the night . " Can 't Let Go " was sung on additional programs such as Saturday Night Live , a pre @-@ filmed studio clip on The Today Show . While the album 's final single " Make It Happen " was released only months after Emotions release , the song was not performed during the album 's original chart run , however making its way onto the set @-@ list of several of Carey following tours . On February 26 , 1992 , Carey performed " If It 's Over " at the 34th annual Grammy Award , with a full orchestra and several back up singers .
= = Awards and accolades = =
Throughout 1992 , Carey , the album and its accompanying singles received recognition by the music industry in the form of several awards . At the 19th annual American Music Awards , Carey took home the award for Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . At the 3rd annual Billboard Music Awards , Carey took home two trophies for the album and " Emotions " , Top Female Album Artist and Top Female Single . Additionally , Carey was nominated for two Grammy Award at the 34th annual ceremony , for Producer of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , losing in both categories . All three of the album 's singles were awarded BMI Pop Awards in 1993 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Emotions adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Black Cat Bar =
The Black Cat Bar or Black Cat Café was a bar in San Francisco , California . It originally opened in 1906 and closed in 1921 . The Black Cat re @-@ opened in 1933 and operated for another 30 years . During its second run of operation , it was a hangout for Beats and bohemians but over time began attracting more and more of a gay clientele .
Because it catered to gay people , the bar became a flashpoint for the nascent homophile movement . The Black Cat was at the center of a legal fight that was one of the earliest court cases to establish legal protections for gay people in the United States . Despite this victory , continued pressure from law enforcement agencies eventually forced the bar 's closure in 1964 .
= = The original Black Cat = =
The Black Cat opened in 1906 , shortly after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . In the early years , the bar was located in the basement of the Athens Hotel at 56 Mason Street in San Francisco 's Tenderloin neighborhood . This building still stands today and is now the Bristol Hotel . When entrepreneur Charles Ridley acquired the bar in 1911 , he turned it into a showplace for vaudeville @-@ style acts . Over the next several years , Ridley and the Black Cat came under increased police scrutiny as a possible center of prostitution . In 1921 , the bar lost its dance permit and closed down .
= = Beats and bohemians = =
With the repeal of Prohibition , the Black Cat re @-@ opened in 1933 at 710 Montgomery Street , again under Ridley 's proprietorship . Sol Stoumen bought the bar in the 1940s . In the early years of Stoumen 's ownership , the Black Cat was a center for the bohemian and Beat crowd . William Saroyan and John Steinbeck were known to frequent the establishment , and part of Jack Kerouac 's seminal Beat novel On the Road is set in the bar .
= = Growing gay clientele = =
While the Beats continued to congregate at the Black Cat into the 1950s , in the years following World War II , more and more gay people began patronizing it . The varied crowds mixed and gay Beat poet Allen Ginsberg described the Black Cat as " the best gay bar in America . It was totally open , bohemian , San Francisco ... and everybody went there , heterosexual and homosexual .... All the gay screaming queens would come , the heterosexual gray flannel suit types , longshoremen . All the poets went there . " By 1951 , the bar was placed on the Armed Forces Disciplinary Control Board 's list of establishments which military personnel were forbidden to enter .
The bar featured live entertainers , the best known of whom was José Sarria . Sarria , who began as a waiter , wore drag and entertained the crowd by singing parodies of popular torch songs . Eventually he performed three to four shows a night , along with a regular Sunday afternoon show , with Sarria performing full arias . His specialty was a re @-@ working of Bizet 's opera Carmen , set in modern @-@ day San Francisco . Sarria as Carmen would prowl through popular cruising area Union Square . The audience cheered " Carmen " on as she dodged the vice squad and made her escape .
Sarria encouraged patrons to be as open and honest as possible , exhorting the clientele , " There 's nothing wrong with being gay – the crime is getting caught , " and " United we stand , divided they catch us one by one . " At closing time , he would lead patrons in singing " God Save Us Nelly Queens " to the tune of " God Save the Queen " . Sometimes he would take the crowd outside to sing the final verse to the men across the street in jail , who had been arrested in raids earlier in the night . Speaking of this ritual in the film Word is Out ( 1977 ) , gay journalist George Mendenhall said :
" It sounds silly , but if you lived at that time and had the oppression coming down from the police department and from society , there was nowhere to turn ... and to be able to put your arms around other gay men and to be able to stand up and sing ' God Save Us Nelly Queens ' ... we were really not saying ' God Save Us Nelly Queens . ' We were saying ' We have our rights , too . ' "
Sarria became the first openly gay candidate in the United States to run for public office , running in 1961 for a seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors . Sarria almost won by default . On the last day for candidates to file petitions , city officials realized that there were fewer than five candidates running for the five open seats , which would have assured Sarria a seat . By the end of the day , 34 candidates had filed . Sarria garnered some 6 @,@ 000 votes , shocking political pundits and setting in motion the idea that a gay voting bloc could wield real power in city politics . As Sarria put it , " From that day on , nobody ran for anything in San Francisco without knocking on the door of the gay community . "
= = Police harassment = =
In 1948 , the San Francisco Police Department and the Alcohol Beverage Control Commission , in response to the Black Cat 's increasing homosexual clientele , began a campaign of harassment against the bar and its patrons . Bar owner Stoumen was charged with such crimes as " keeping a disorderly house " and the State Board of Equalization suspended the bar 's liquor license indefinitely . In response and on principle , Stoumen , who was heterosexual , took the state to court . In 1951 , the California Supreme Court , in Stoumen v. Reilly ( 37 Cal.2d 713 ) ruled that " [ i ] n order to establish ' good cause ' for suspension of plaintiff 's license , something more must be shown than that many of his patrons were homosexuals and that they used his restaurant and bar as a meeting place . " This was one of the earliest legal affirmations of the rights of gay people in the United States . The court qualified its opinion , however , by stating that ABC might still close gay bars with " proof of the commission of illegal or immoral acts on the premises . "
In response to this legal victory and based on the " illegal or immoral acts " language of the opinion , the state passed a constitutional amendment creating the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control ( ABC ) . The California State Assembly in 1955 passed a law authorizing broad powers for the ABC to shut down any " resort [ for ] sexual perverts . " The Black Cat was shut down under this authority , along with a number of other establishments . In a test case involving an Oakland bar , Vallerga v. Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control , the California Supreme Court struck down this new law as unconstitutional . This decision was not a complete victory , as the court noted that had the ABC 's revocation been based on " reports of women dancing with other women and women kissing other women " it might have upheld the law . Homosexuals , therefore , had won the right to assemble but only if they agreed not to touch .
Police and city officials responded to the increasing visibility of the Black Cat and other gay bars in the city , and the Black Cat 's success in court , by increasingly cracking down , staging more frequent raids and mass arrests . One favorite tactic was to arrest drag queens , since impersonating a member of the opposite sex was , at the time , a crime . Sarria responded by passing out labels for the drag queens to wear reading " I am a boy " so it could not be claimed they were impersonating women .
= = Closure = =
By 1963 , following some 15 years of unrelenting pressure from the police and the ABC , Stoumen decided he was no longer able financially to sustain the fight . The cost of his long legal battle was more than $ 38 @,@ 000 . Sarria tried to enlist the owners of the city 's other gay bars to help Stoumen pay his legal bills , but none offered any assistance . The ABC lifted the bar 's liquor license in 1963 , the night before its annual Halloween party . After a final defiant Halloween celebration at which only non @-@ alcoholic beverages were served and an attempt to survive on food and soft drink sales , the Black Cat closed down for good in February 1964 .
The site is now the location of Bocadillos , a tapas @-@ style restaurant . On December 15 , 2007 , a plaque commemorating the Black Cat and its place in San Francisco history was placed at the site .
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= New York State Route 37B =
New York State Route 37B ( NY 37B ) is an east – west state highway located in St. Lawrence County , New York , in the United States . It serves as a business route of NY 37 through the village of Massena . While NY 37B enters the village , NY 37 bypasses it to the south . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 37 in the town of Louisville . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 37 just east of the village limits in the town of Massena . NY 37B intersects North Main Street , a state @-@ maintained northward extension of NY 420 , in Massena 's central district .
The origins of NY 37B date back to the early 20th century when the New York State Legislature created Route 32 , an unsigned legislative route extending from North Lawrence to Ogdensburg via Massena . From Waddington to Massena , Route 32 followed River Road and Town Line Road . This portion of the route became part of NY 3 in 1924 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the Waddington – Massena segment of NY 3 became NY 37B . The route was extended east into Massena in the 1950s after NY 37 was realigned to follow a new bypass around the village .
Most of NY 37B west of Massena ran through a low @-@ lying area along the St. Lawrence River . In 1958 , this area was permanently indundated as part of the St. Lawrence Seaway 's construction . As a result , NY 37B was rerouted to follow a new roadway along the fringe of Lake St. Lawrence to meet NY 37 in Louisville Corner . A connector between NY 37 and NY 37B in Louisville was designated as NY 131 by 1960 . The alignments of NY 37B and NY 131 west of Massena were swapped c . 1962 , placing NY 37B on its modern alignment .
= = Route description = =
NY 37B begins at an intersection with its parent route , NY 37 , in the town of Louisville . The route heads to the northeast , paralleling the Grasse River as it passes a small number of homes and businesses located in the otherwise rural town . There are small patches of forested areas along the way to the Massena village line ( and the town 's line of the same name ) , where it intersects with Town Line Road ( County Route 43 ) . Once in Massena , the amount of development along the highway begins to increase . NY 37B , now known as Maple Street , continues northeast through Massena for three blocks before veering eastward upon passing Massena Memorial Hospital .
In the center of Massena , NY 37B intersects North Main Street , which connects to NY 420 south of the village . The portion of Main Street between NY 420 and NY 37B is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation as NY 970B , an unsigned reference route . Past North Main Street , NY 37B follows Maple Street southeast to Center Street . The route merges with Center Street and becomes a divided highway as it connects to Willow Street by way of an interchange and intersects an eastward extension of Center Street .
NY 37B turns south at the interchange , becoming Parker Avenue and crossing over the Grasse River to meet East Orvis Street on the southern riverbank . Here , the route turns east to follow East Orvis Street northeastward through the residential and commercial areas that comprise southeastern Massena . At the Massena village line , East Orvis Street becomes Highland Road , a name NY 37B retains for a short distance eastward to a junction with NY 37 ( St. Regis Boulevard ) . Although Highland Road continues through the intersection , NY 37B ends at the junction .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 32 , an unsigned legislative route extending from North Lawrence to Ogdensburg via Winthrop and Massena . It entered Massena on what is now NY 420 and followed Main Street and Maple Street through the village . West of Massena , the highway was routed on Town Line Road and River Road to a junction east of Waddington , where Route 32 continued west on modern NY 37 to Waddington . When state highways in New York were first posted in 1924 , the portion of Route 32 between Waddington and Massena became part of NY 3 , a highway extending across the width of the state .
The segment of NY 3 east of Watertown was rerouted as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to largely follow its modern alignment between Watertown and Plattsburgh . Most of NY 3 's former alignment along the St. Lawrence River from Alexandria Bay to Hogansburg became part of the new NY 37 ; however , from Waddington to Massena , NY 37 used a more inland routing . As a result , the former routing of NY 3 between the two villages became NY 37B instead . In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1950s , NY 37 was rerouted to follow a new bypass around the southern edge of Massena . Following its completion , NY 37B was extended eastward along NY 37 's former routing on Maple Street , Parker Avenue , and Orvis Street to meet the bypass east of the village .
In the 1950s , construction began on the St. Lawrence Seaway , a system of canals and locks that would make the St. Lawrence River suitable for shipping . As part of the seaway 's construction , a low @-@ lying area in Ontario and New York between Waddington , New York , and Cornwall , Ontario , would be inundated with water in order to create a navigable channel through the Long Sault rapids and to allow hydroelectric stations to be established immediately upriver from Massena and Cornwall . Much of NY 37B was located within the flood @-@ prone region due to its proximity to the river . On July 1 , 1958 , the intentional flooding was carried out via the destruction of a cofferdam upstream , creating what is now known as Lake St. Lawrence and inundating the majority of NY 37B west of Massena .
Following the destruction of the majority of NY 37B , the route was realigned west of Massena to follow a new riverside roadway to the hamlet of Louisville Corner , where it came to an end at NY 37 . The remainder of NY 37B along the Massena – Louisville town line road and in Massena was unchanged . By 1960 , a connector between NY 37 in Louisville and NY 37B and Massena utilizing NY 37 's former routing west of the village was designated as NY 131 . The alignments of NY 37B and NY 131 west of the Maple Street / Town Line Road intersection were flipped c . 1962 , placing NY 131 on the riverside and town line roads and NY 37B on NY 37 's former routing into Massena .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in St. Lawrence County .
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= Carolina wren =
The Carolina wren ( Thryothorus ludovicianus ) is a common species of wren that is a resident in the eastern half of the United States of America , the extreme south of Ontario , Canada , and the extreme northeast of Mexico . Severe winters restrict the northern limits of their range while favorable weather conditions lead to a northward extension of their breeding range . Their preferred habitat is in dense cover in forests , farm edges and suburban areas . This wren is the state bird of South Carolina .
There are seven recognized subspecies across the range of these wrens and they differ slightly in song and appearance . The birds are generally inconspicuous , avoiding the open for extended periods of time . When out in the open , they investigate their surroundings and are rarely stationary . After finding a mate , pairs maintain a territory and stay together for several years . Both sexes give out alarm calls , but only males sing to advertize territory . Carolina wrens raise multiple broods during the summer breeding season , but can fall victim to brood parasitism by brown @-@ headed cowbirds , among other species . Some populations have been affected by mercury contamination .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Carolina wren was first described under the name of Sylvia ludoviciana by John Latham in 1790 . Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot considered all wrens under the genus Troglodytes and called the Carolina wren Troglodytes arundinaceus but placed it subsequently in a separate genus Thryothorus ( initially misspelled Thriothorus ) that he created in 1816 . Thryothorus is of Greek origin from the combination of thryon ( rush , reed ) and thouros ( derivative of verb throskein to leap up , spring , jump at ) which means ' reed jumper ' ; its specific name ludovicianus is a post @-@ classical Latin term for Ludovicus ( derivative from Louis XIV ) that means ' of Louisiana ' that identifies the locality of the specimen collected near New Orleans .
There are seven recognized subspecies of the Carolina wren :
T. l. ludovicianus ( Latham , 1790 ) – Southeast Canada ( Southern Ontario , irregularly in Eastern and Southern Quebec ) and the eastern United States ( Southern Wisconsin and New England southward to Texas and northern Florida ) .
T. l. miamensis Florida wren ( Ridgway , 1875 ) – Florida from approximately 30 degrees ( Gainesville ) region southward through the rest of the state .
T. l. nesophilus ( Stevenson , 1973 ) – Dog Island in Northwestern Florida .
T. l. burleighi – Burleigh 's Carolina wren ( Lowery , 1940 ) Offshore islands off of the Mississippi coast : Cat Island , Ship Island ( Mississippi ) , and Horn Island .
T. l. lomitensis – Lomita wren ( Sennett , 1890 ) southern Texas to the extreme northeast of Mexico ( Tamaulipas ) .
T. l. berlandieri – Berlandier 's wren ( S. F. Baird , 1858 ) Northeastern Mexico ( eastern Coahuila , Nuevo Leon , and southwestern Tamaulipas )
T. l. tropicalis – Northeastern Mexico ( eastern San Luis Potosi and southern Tamaulipas ) .
T. ludovicianus is traditionally placed within its own genus as its only representative of North America , but recent DNA work suggests it is closely allied with the Bewick 's wren . A distinct population in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico , Belize , Nicaragua , and in Guatemala is treated as a separate species , either known as Cabot 's wren or white @-@ browed wren ( Thryothorus albinucha ) . It is considered a subspecies of T. ludovicianus by some authors , however .
= = Description = =
At 12 @.@ 5 to 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) long , with a 29 cm ( 11 in ) wingspan and a weight of about 18 to 23 g ( 0 @.@ 63 to 0 @.@ 81 oz ) , the Carolina wren is a fairly large wren ; the second largest in the United States species after the cactus wren . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 5 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 4 cm ( 2 @.@ 1 to 2 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail is 4 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 2 in ) , the culmen is 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 71 in ) and the tarsus is 2 to 2 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 91 in ) . Sexual dimorphism is slight with males being larger than their mates . A study indicated that out of 42 mated pairs , all but one of male was larger than the female of the pair . The males were on average 11 percent heavier along with having longer wing chords .
There are several differences among the subspecies . For T. l. ludovicianus , the crown is rich brown that appears more chestnut @-@ colored on its rump and uppertail @-@ coverts . Shoulders and greater coverts are a rich brown , with a series of small white dots on the lesser primary coverts . The secondary coverts are rich brown with a darker brown barring on both webs ; the bars on the primaries are on the outerwebs only , but darker and more noticeable . The retrices are brown with 18 to 20 bars that span across the tail . The white supercilious streak borders thinly with a black above and below , and extends above and beyond its shoulders . The ear coverts are speckled gray and grayish @-@ black . Its chin and throat are grey that becomes buff on its chest , flank and belly , though the latter two are of a warmer color . The underwing coverts sport a grayish buff color . Its iris is reddish @-@ brown , the upper mandible is lemon @-@ colored and paler at the base and lower mandible . The legs are flesh @-@ colored .
As for the other subspecies in contrast to T. l. ludovicianus , T. l. berlandieri is of a slightly smaller build , but possesses a larger bill , the upperparts are duller brown with deeper colored underparts , T. l. lomitensis is of a duller color ( than either ludovicianus or berlandieri ) with its underparts either pale or almost white , T. l. miamensis contains darker rusty chestnut upperparts and deeper colored below . T. l. burleighi is duller and sootier with less distinct tail markings , T. l. mesophilus has paler underparts and a whiter supercilium , and T. l. tropicalis is darker than all races , and contains heavier bars than T. l. berlandieri .
= = = Plumage = = =
The juvenile T.l. ludovicianus is similar in appearance , but the plumage is generally paler with a softer texture with buff @-@ tipped wing coverts , a superciliary streak is less white , a fluffy vent and crissum ( flanks ) without bars . In August and September , the partial plumage molt for the post @-@ juvenile wrens is darker in color and affects the contour plumage , wing coverts , tail and develops a whiter superciliary stripe . The post @-@ nuptial molt for adults in the same time period is more pronounced in color than the spring molt , with both sexes similar in appearance .
= = = Life span = = =
Survival rates differ by region . A male captured in Arkansas lived to be at least 73 months old , and in Alabama , the oldest female and male captured were six and ten years old , respectively . A mark @-@ and @-@ recapture analysis of the wrens analyzing survival probability within the Southeastern United States captured was monitored from 1992 to 2003 . Roughly 90 percent of the banded wrens died within 10 years .
= = = Similar species = = =
The easiest species to confuse with the Carolina wren is Bewick 's wren , which differs in being smaller but with a longer tail , grayer @-@ brown above and whiter below . The Carolina and white @-@ browed wrens differ from the house wren in being larger , with a decidedly longer bill and hind toe ; their culmen has a notch behind the tip .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
These birds are largely resident , and will only disperse beyond their range after mild winters . Carolina wrens sporadically breed as far north as Maine and Quebec after mild winters . In certain parts of their range , such as most of Iowa , prolonged periods of snow can curtail potential expansion . Permanent breeding locations range from eastern Nebraska , southern Michigan , southeast Ontario and the New England states to Mexican states such as Coahuila , Nuevo León , San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas and the Gulf Coast of the United States . Local occurrences with infrequent and likely breeding locations include southeast South Dakota , central Kansas , eastern Colorado , western Oklahoma and Texas as far as Maine and New Brunswick . There have been occasional vagrants spotted in Colorado , New Mexico , and Arizona , Wyoming , South Dakota , Manitoba , Nova Scotia , and the Gulf of St. Lawrence .
The range of the wrens increased northward and westward in several regions over the past few centuries . In Massachusetts , the wrens had expanded westward and northeastward from its former southeastern location in approximately 35 years , in New York the population increased three @-@ fold in roughly 25 years , while in midwest states such as Ohio and Michigan have seen numbers of the birds increase since the mid @-@ 1800s and early 1900s , respectively . Expansion around Ontario occurred since early reports in 1890 and 1905 . Explanations given include infrequent winter storms in the 20th century , expanded forest habitats , and the wrens taking advantage of urban areas containing feeders , especially in winter .
Carolina wrens adapt to various habitats . Natural habitats include various types of woodland such as oak hardwoods and mixed oak @-@ pine woodlands , ash and elmwoods , hickory @-@ oak woodlands with a healthy amount of tangled undergrowth . The preferred habitats are riparian forests , brushy edges , swamps , overgrown farmlands , and suburban yards with abundant thick shrubs and trees , and parks . It has an affinity for dilapidated buildings and unkempt yards in man @-@ made areas . Subspecies burleighi and neophilus inhabit slash pine and palmettos .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Song and calls = = =
Carolina wrens sing year round and at any point during the daytime , with the exception of performing during the most harsh weather conditions . The birds are also the only species in the Certhiidae family that neither sings in duet nor has their song control regions affect repertoire size . Males alone sing , and have a repertoire of at least twenty different phrase patterns and on average , thirty two . One of these patterns is repeated for several minutes , and although the male 's song can be repeated up to twelve times , the general amount of songs range from three to five times in repetition . While singing , the tail of the birds is pointed downward . Some general vocalizations have been transcribed as teakettle @-@ teakettle @-@ teakettle and cheery @-@ cheery @-@ cheery . Various descriptions of the teakettle song include whee @-@ udel , whee @-@ udel , whee @-@ udel , che @-@ wortel , che @-@ wortel and túrtee @-@ túrtee @-@ túrtee and familiar names and phrases such as sweet heart , sweet heart , come to me , come to me , sweet William , and Richelieu , Richelieu .
Males are capable of increasing their repertoire through song learning , but due to their sedentary nature and territorial defense habits , the song learning must occur within the first three months of life . Geographic barriers affect song repertoire size from male wrens , as one study indicated that distances separated as close as 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) by water barriers can have the same effect as that of a distance of 145 kilometres ( 90 mi ) in the mainland with no barriers .
Female Carolina wrens possess song control regions that would appear to make them capable of singing with repertoires like the male . Due to vocalizations that they occasionally make with the male , it has been suggested that song perception plays a role and is of behavioral relevance .
Different subspecies have variations in songs and calls , such as miamensis having a more rapid song that contains more notes than the races that are further north .
Their songs can be confused with the Kentucky warbler . The song patterns are similar , but is of a different quality , as the warbler 's songs is described as richer , with more ringing and a hurried pace . Other bird species that have their songs described as akin to the wrens are the flicker , Baltimore oriole , gray catbird , and more specifically the peto , peto , peto calls of the tufted titmouse , and whistles of the northern cardinal . Occasionally , the wrens mimic other species , and in Pennsylvania it has led for it to be also known as the ' mocking wren ' .
= = = Sexual selection = = =
A 2006 study suggested that the correlation of tail length and body size in males , wing length in females , and lifespan for both sexes were signs of individual quality , and the wrens of high quality tend to mate with like individuals . The courting and antagonistic encounters that involve the tail fanning and wing drooping was suggested to be a possible signaling use . Age and life experience are not thought of as significant for potential mates due to their relatively short lifespan and sedentary lifestyle . Due to the large size of male wrens and the male 's vigor in defending its territory , intrasexual selection was given as a possible explanation for the sexual dimorphism .
= = = Territorial and predator defense = = =
Both sexes are involved in defending the territory . One aspect of territorial defense involves identifying the proximity of the threat based on the loudness of bird song as well as the level of degradation of the calls . In experiments involving playback , the wrens are capable of discriminating between degraded and undegraded songs , as well as degraded songs in the same acoustic conditions , and can detect changes of acoustic properties within their territories , such as songs under foliage . Song degradation can also be used to determine the proximity of potential intruders . If the song of a bird appears to be degraded , the wrens will assume that the threat is distant not respond ; if the song is not degraded , they respond by attacking . Not all birds within their territory are potential enemies . Some species of birds that are neighbors are designated as ' dear @-@ enemies ' by the wrens , and the responses to neighbors and intruders in their territories differ by the season . In spring , the wrens respond more aggressively toward neighbors , though in the fall , no major discrepancy in responses is shown . When protecting their nest , alarm calls are the general response . The wrens judge the size of the potential threat , such as a blue jay and avoid the risk of injury when attacking . Countersinging produced by intruder birds is more likely to be taken as an aggressive threat to male Carolina wrens .
Both males and females utilize calls in alarm situations , especially in territorial disputes and encounters with predators . Males alone produce the cheer call , which can sound indistinct . In southern regions of their range , the sound males use in alarm disputes is a ringing pink or p 'dink sound . Females are the only ones that can perform the paired dit @-@ dit or chatter sounds . The former can be used in territorial disputes with predators , and with at least northern populations the songs are used in alternation with the males cheer chant . The chatter is used exclusively with territorial encounters with male song , and the song can either follow or overlap her mate 's song .
= = = Feeding = = =
Carolina wrens spend the majority of their time on or near the ground searching for food , or in tangles of vegetation and vines . They also probe bark crevices on lower tree levels , or pick up leaf @-@ litter in order to search for prey . Their diet consists of invertebrates , such as beetles , true bugs , grasshoppers , katydids , spiders , ants , bees , and wasps . Small lizards and tree frogs also make up the carnivorous portion of their diet . Vegetable matter makes up a small percentage of their diets , such as fruit pulp and various seeds . In the northern portion of their range , they frequent bird feeders .
= = = Movement = = =
Carolina wrens are wary , and are more often heard than seen . When on the ground , they move in jerky hops pillaging through various objects , whether man @-@ made or natural . While moving abruptly , they pause momentarily for chattering or singing . When stationary , they move in twitched motions , jerking their breast around . They also sun- or sand @-@ bathe . The wrens also displays a skittish behavior when encountered by humans , as they can be seen thrusting off into cover slowly if approaching is detected . However , they occasionally seek out humans that are near , so long as there is no movement from them . Other movements involve being capable of crawling like a creeper and hanging upside @-@ down like a nuthatch .
Flights are generally of short duration , rapid , low @-@ leveled , and wavelike . The wings during flight are flapped rapidly , and are frequently used during foraging . They are also capable of flying vertically from the base of a tree to the top in a single wing assisted bound .
= = = Breeding = = =
Carolina wrens are both genetically and socially monogamous and will usually mate for life . Mate changing is rare , and there has been one possible instance of polygamy . During the winter season , males are more responsible for guarding the territory . Females vary in succeeding to maintain winter territories without a mate . It has been suggested that the possibility of desertion and decline in care @-@ taking from males along with the need for security in resources year @-@ round prevent extra pair copulations from females , as the mortality rate for Carolina wrens peaks during the winter . Along with thermoregulatory benefits , roosting is thought to reinforce pair @-@ bonding and prevent divorce between mates .
The nests are arch @-@ shaped structures with a side entrance and built of dried plants or strips of bark , as well as horsehair , string , wool and snake sloughs . Males obtain nesting materials while the females remains at the site to construct the nest . Nests are located in fragmented or complete cavities in trees , or in man @-@ made structures such as bird @-@ boxes , buildings , tin cans , mailboxes or unorthodox places such as pockets of hanging jackets in sheds or in a tractor in everyday use . Nests are from 1 – 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) from the ground and are rarely higher . They occasionally can be built in sloping locations or at ground level .
Egg laying dates and clutch size vary by region ; in Texas the time period is from late February to late August , in Iowa it ranges from late April to June . The clutch size is generally 3 to 6 eggs , but can reach as high as seven in Texas . The eggs are creamy white with brown or reddish @-@ brown spots , and are more heavily marked at the broad end . The eggs are incubated by the female for 12 – 16 days . After the young hatch , they are fed exclusively on invertebrates and they fledge in 12 – 14 days . As many as three broods may be raised by a pair in a single breeding season . In one study , three of the 70 fledglings remained or defended territory adjacent to the natal area .
Male and females are involved in the process of provisioning at similar rates throughout most nest stages , with the males providing slightly more in the nestling stages . Both sexes increase their provision rates as the nestlings grow in age .
= = Predation and threats = =
Brood parasitism by brown @-@ headed cowbirds is common , with up to 25 % of Carolina wren nests being affected in certain regions such as Oklahoma and Alabama . Cowbird parasitism peaks in April at 41 % , and is as low as 8 % and 0 % in July and August , respectively . Female cowbirds sometimes eject Carolina wren eggs before laying their own , and even if host eggs are retained , the size of cowbird eggs negatively affect the hatching success of wren eggs . As a result , cowbirds may have a significant impact on the reproductive success of wrens . The feeding rate for cowbird nestlings is higher than wren feeding rates , and some have been raised to independence . This also can be detrimental to the survival of wren nestlings . A rare instance of brood @-@ parasitism by a house finch has been recorded . The rate of brood parasitism is thought to be lower in more natural and concealed nesting locations . Body parasites such as the larvae of blowflies feed on nestlings and the blood loss weakens nestlings . Fellow species of wren such as Bewick 's wren and the winter wren compete for nesting locations and food , respectively .
In Virginia , some Carolina wrens populations show high levels of mercury in their blood and this is acquired from feeding all @-@ year @-@ round on spiders . Spiders being at a higher trophic levels contain a higher concentrations of mercury ( through biomagnification ) than herbivorous invertebrates . As these wrens are year @-@ round residents , they are at a higher risk than other species to acquire mercury in its blood . Nest abandonment and failure to raise young were more common with higher mercury content . Exposure , and prolonged periods of cold , ice , and snow is thought to affect the wren nestling and adult populations , respectively . Wrens that outlast those winters reside in sheltered areas during the season .
Among the top predators of adult Carolina wrens are domestic cats , and snakes such as the canebrake rattlesnake . Raccoons and black rat snakes also feed on wren eggs and nestlings .
= = In culture = =
In 1930 , the South Carolina Federated Women 's club adopted the Carolina wren as the unofficial state bird over the eastern mourning dove and pushed for its official state adoption until 1939 , when the South Carolina Legislature named the northern mockingbird as the state bird . In 1948 , the legislature repealed their previous decision , and the wren became the official state bird .
In 2000 , the Carolina wren was featured on the back of the South Carolina edition of the 50 State Quarters .
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= Insect =
Insects ( from Latin insectum , a calque of Greek ἔντομον [ éntomon ] , " cut into sections " ) are a class of invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton , a three @-@ part body ( head , thorax and abdomen ) , three pairs of jointed legs , compound eyes and one pair of antennae . They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet , including more than a million described species and representing more than half of all known living organisms . The number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million , and potentially represent over 90 % of the differing animal life forms on Earth . Insects may be found in nearly all environments , although only a small number of species reside in the oceans , a habitat dominated by another arthropod group , crustaceans .
The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs . Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts . The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure , habit and habitat , and can include a passive pupal stage in those groups that undergo 4 @-@ stage metamorphosis ( see holometabolism ) . Insects that undergo 3 @-@ stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages . The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear . Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era , including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm ( 22 – 28 in ) . The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants .
Adult insects typically move about by walking , flying or sometimes swimming ( see below , Locomotion ) . As it allows for rapid yet stable movement , many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles . Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight . Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water , with larval adaptations that include gills , and some adult insects are aquatic and have adaptations for swimming . Some species , such as water striders , are capable of walking on the surface of water . Insects are mostly solitary , but some , such as certain bees , ants and termites , are social and live in large , well @-@ organized colonies . Some insects , such as earwigs , show maternal care , guarding their eggs and young . Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways . Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances . Other species communicate with sounds : crickets stridulate , or rub their wings together , to attract a mate and repel other males . Lampyridae in the beetle order Coleoptera communicate with light .
Humans regard certain insects as pests , and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques . Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap , leaves or fruits . A few parasitic species are pathogenic . Some insects perform complex ecological roles ; blow @-@ flies , for example , help consume carrion but also spread diseases . Insect pollinators are essential to the life @-@ cycle of many flowering plant species on which most organisms , including humans , are at least partly dependent ; without them , the terrestrial portion of the biosphere ( including humans ) would be devastated . Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit . Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey , respectively . In some cultures , people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects .
= = Etymology = =
The word " insect " comes from the Latin word insectum , meaning " with a notched or divided body " , or literally " cut into " , from the neuter singular perfect passive participle of insectare , " to cut into , to cut up " , from in- " into " and secare " to cut " ; because insects appear " cut into " three sections . Pliny the Elder introduced the Latin designation as a loan @-@ translation of the Greek word ἔντομος ( éntomos ) or " insect " ( as in entomology ) , which was Aristotle 's term for this class of life , also in reference to their " notched " bodies . " Insect " first appears documented in English in 1601 in Holland 's translation of Pliny . Translations of Aristotle 's term also form the usual word for " insect " in Welsh ( trychfil , from trychu " to cut " and mil , " animal " ) , Serbo @-@ Croatian ( zareznik , from rezati , " to cut " ) , Russian ( насекомое nasekomoje , from seč ' / -sekat ' , " to cut " ) , etc .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear .
Although traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes — possibly on the basis of convergent adaptations to terrestrialisation — evidence has emerged favoring closer evolutionary ties with crustaceans . In the Pancrustacea theory , insects , together with Entognatha , Remipedia , and Cephalocarida , make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea .
A report in November 2014 unambiguously places the insects in one clade , with the crustaceans and myriapods , as the nearest sister clades . This study resolved insect phylogeny of all extant insect orders , and provides " a robust phylogenetic backbone tree and reliable time estimates of insect evolution . "
Other terrestrial arthropods , such as centipedes , millipedes , scorpions , and spiders , are sometimes confused with insects since their body plans can appear similar , sharing ( as do all arthropods ) a jointed exoskeleton . However , upon closer examination , their features differ significantly ; most noticeably , they do not have the six @-@ legged characteristic of adult insects .
The higher @-@ level phylogeny of the arthropods continues to be a matter of debate and research . In 2008 , researchers at Tufts University uncovered what they believe is the world 's oldest known full @-@ body impression of a primitive flying insect , a 300 million @-@ year @-@ old specimen from the Carboniferous period . The oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti , from the 396 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Rhynie chert . It may have superficially resembled a modern @-@ day silverfish insect . This species already possessed dicondylic mandibles ( two articulations in the mandible ) , a feature associated with winged insects , suggesting that wings may already have evolved at this time . Thus , the first insects probably appeared earlier , in the Silurian period .
Four super radiations of insects have occurred : beetles ( evolved about 300 million years ago ) , flies ( evolved about 250 million years ago ) , and moths and wasps ( evolved about 150 million years ago ) . These four groups account for the majority of described species . The flies and moths along with the fleas evolved from the Mecoptera .
The origins of insect flight remain obscure , since the earliest winged insects currently known appear to have been capable fliers . Some extinct insects had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax , for a total of three pairs . As of 2009 , no evidence suggests the insects were a particularly successful group of animals before they evolved to have wings .
Late Carboniferous and Early Permian insect orders include both extant groups , their stem groups , and a number of Paleozoic groups , now extinct . During this era , some giant dragonfly @-@ like forms reached wingspans of 55 to 70 cm ( 22 to 28 in ) , making them far larger than any living insect . This gigantism may have been due to higher atmospheric oxygen levels that allowed increased respiratory efficiency relative to today . The lack of flying vertebrates could have been another factor . Most extinct orders of insects developed during the Permian period that began around 270 million years ago . Many of the early groups became extinct during the Permian @-@ Triassic extinction event , the largest mass extinction in the history of the Earth , around 252 million years ago .
The remarkably successful Hymenoptera appeared as long as 146 million years ago in the Cretaceous period , but achieved their wide diversity more recently in the Cenozoic era , which began 66 million years ago . A number of highly successful insect groups evolved in conjunction with flowering plants , a powerful illustration of coevolution .
Many modern insect genera developed during the Cenozoic . Insects from this period on are often found preserved in amber , often in perfect condition . The body plan , or morphology , of such specimens is thus easily compared with modern species . The study of fossilized insects is called paleoentomology .
= = = Evolutionary relationships = = =
Insects are prey for a variety of organisms , including terrestrial vertebrates . The earliest vertebrates on land existed 400 million years ago and were large amphibious piscivores . Through gradual evolutionary change , insectivory was the next diet type to evolve .
Insects were among the earliest terrestrial herbivores and acted as major selection agents on plants . Plants evolved chemical defenses against this herbivory and the insects , in turn , evolved mechanisms to deal with plant toxins . Many insects make use of these toxins to protect themselves from their predators . Such insects often advertise their toxicity using warning colors . This successful evolutionary pattern has also been used by mimics . Over time , this has led to complex groups of coevolved species . Conversely , some interactions between plants and insects , like pollination , are beneficial to both organisms . Coevolution has led to the development of very specific mutualisms in such systems .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Traditional morphology @-@ based or appearance @-@ based systematics have usually given the Hexapoda the rank of superclass , and identified four groups within it : insects ( Ectognatha ) , springtails ( Collembola ) , Protura , and Diplura , the latter three being grouped together as the Entognatha on the basis of internalized mouth parts . Supraordinal relationships have undergone numerous changes with the advent of methods based on evolutionary history and genetic data . A recent theory is that the Hexapoda are polyphyletic ( where the last common ancestor was not a member of the group ) , with the entognath classes having separate evolutionary histories from the Insecta . Many of the traditional appearance @-@ based taxa have been shown to be paraphyletic , so rather than using ranks like subclass , superorder , and infraorder , it has proved better to use monophyletic groupings ( in which the last common ancestor is a member of the group ) . The following represents the best @-@ supported monophyletic groupings for the Insecta .
Insects can be divided into two groups historically treated as subclasses : wingless insects , known as Apterygota , and winged insects , known as Pterygota . The Apterygota consist of the primitively wingless order of the silverfish ( Thysanura ) . Archaeognatha make up the Monocondylia based on the shape of their mandibles , while Thysanura and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia . The Thysanura themselves possibly are not monophyletic , with the family Lepidotrichidae being a sister group to the Dicondylia ( Pterygota and the remaining Thysanura ) .
Paleoptera and Neoptera are the winged orders of insects differentiated by the presence of hardened body parts called sclerites , and in the Neoptera , muscles that allow their wings to fold flatly over the abdomen . Neoptera can further be divided into incomplete metamorphosis @-@ based ( Polyneoptera and Paraneoptera ) and complete metamorphosis @-@ based groups . It has proved difficult to clarify the relationships between the orders in Polyneoptera because of constant new findings calling for revision of the taxa . For example , the Paraneoptera have turned out to be more closely related to the Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota . The recent molecular finding that the traditional louse orders Mallophaga and Anoplura are derived from within Psocoptera has led to the new taxon Psocodea . Phasmatodea and Embiidina have been suggested to form the Eukinolabia . Mantodea , Blattodea , and Isoptera are thought to form a monophyletic group termed Dictyoptera .
The Exopterygota likely are paraphyletic in regard to the Endopterygota . Matters that have incurred controversy include Strepsiptera and Diptera grouped together as Halteria based on a reduction of one of the wing pairs – a position not well @-@ supported in the entomological community . The Neuropterida are often lumped or split on the whims of the taxonomist . Fleas are now thought to be closely related to boreid mecopterans . Many questions remain in the basal relationships amongst endopterygote orders , particularly the Hymenoptera .
The study of the classification or taxonomy of any insect is called systematic entomology . If one works with a more specific order or even a family , the term may also be made specific to that order or family , for example systematic dipterology .
= = Diversity = =
Though the true dimensions of species diversity remain uncertain , estimates range from 2 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 8 million species with a mean of 5 @.@ 5 million . This probably represents less than 20 % of all species on Earth , and with only about 20 @,@ 000 new species of all organisms being described each year , most species likely will remain undescribed for many years unless species descriptions increase in rate . About 850 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of all described species are insects . Of the 24 orders of insects , four dominate in terms of numbers of described species , with at least 3 million species included in Coleoptera , Diptera , Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera . A recent study estimated the number of beetles at 0 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 1 million with a mean of 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = Morphology and physiology = =
= = = External = = =
Insects have segmented bodies supported by exoskeletons , the hard outer covering made mostly of chitin . The segments of the body are organized into three distinctive but interconnected units , or tagmata : a head , a thorax and an abdomen . The head supports a pair of sensory antennae , a pair of compound eyes , and , if present , one to three simple eyes ( or ocelli ) and three sets of variously modified appendages that form the mouthparts . The thorax has six segmented legs — one pair each for the prothorax , mesothorax and the metathorax segments making up the thorax — and , none , two or four wings . The abdomen consists of eleven segments , though in a few species of insects , these segments may be fused together or reduced in size . The abdomen also contains most of the digestive , respiratory , excretory and reproductive internal structures . Considerable variation and many adaptations in the body parts of insects occur , especially wings , legs , antenna and mouthparts .
= = = Segmentation = = =
The head is enclosed in a hard , heavily sclerotized , unsegmented , exoskeletal head capsule , or epicranium , which contains most of the sensing organs , including the antennae , ocellus or eyes , and the mouthparts . Of all the insect orders , Orthoptera displays the most features found in other insects , including the sutures and sclerites . Here , the vertex , or the apex ( dorsal region ) , is situated between the compound eyes for insects with a hypognathous and opisthognathous head . In prognathous insects , the vertex is not found between the compound eyes , but rather , where the ocelli are normally . This is because the primary axis of the head is rotated 90 ° to become parallel to the primary axis of the body . In some species , this region is modified and assumes a different name .
The thorax is a tagma composed of three sections , the prothorax , mesothorax and the metathorax . The anterior segment , closest to the head , is the prothorax , with the major features being the first pair of legs and the pronotum . The middle segment is the mesothorax , with the major features being the second pair of legs and the anterior wings . The third and most posterior segment , abutting the abdomen , is the metathorax , which features the third pair of legs and the posterior wings . Each segment is dilineated by an intersegmental suture . Each segment has four basic regions . The dorsal surface is called the tergum ( or notum ) to distinguish it from the abdominal terga . The two lateral regions are called the pleura ( singular : pleuron ) and the ventral aspect is called the sternum . In turn , the notum of the prothorax is called the pronotum , the notum for the mesothorax is called the mesonotum and the notum for the metathorax is called the metanotum . Continuing with this logic , the mesopleura and metapleura , as well as the mesosternum and metasternum , are used .
The abdomen is the largest tagma of the insect , which typically consists of 11 – 12 segments and is less strongly sclerotized than the head or thorax . Each segment of the abdomen is represented by a sclerotized tergum and sternum . Terga are separated from each other and from the adjacent sterna or pleura by membranes . Spiracles are located in the pleural area . Variation of this ground plan includes the fusion of terga or terga and sterna to form continuous dorsal or ventral shields or a conical tube . Some insects bear a sclerite in the pleural area called a laterotergite . Ventral sclerites are sometimes called laterosternites . During the embryonic stage of many insects and the postembryonic stage of primitive insects , 11 abdominal segments are present . In modern insects there is a tendency toward reduction in the number of the abdominal segments , but the primitive number of 11 is maintained during embryogenesis . Variation in abdominal segment number is considerable . If the Apterygota are considered to be indicative of the ground plan for pterygotes , confusion reigns : adult Protura have 12 segments , Collembola have 6 . The orthopteran family Acrididae has 11 segments , and a fossil specimen of Zoraptera has a 10 @-@ segmented abdomen .
= = = = Exoskeleton = = = =
The insect outer skeleton , the cuticle , is made up of two layers : the epicuticle , which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin , and a lower layer called the procuticle . The procuticle is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers : an outer layer known as the exocuticle and an inner layer known as the endocuticle . The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins , criss @-@ crossing each other in a sandwich pattern , while the exocuticle is rigid and hardened . The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft @-@ bodied insects ( e.g. , caterpillars ) , especially during their larval stages .
Insects are the only invertebrates to have developed active flight capability , and this has played an important role in their success . Their muscles are able to contract multiple times for each single nerve impulse , allowing the wings to beat faster than would ordinarily be possible . Having their muscles attached to their exoskeletons is more efficient and allows more muscle connections ; crustaceans also use the same method , though all spiders use hydraulic pressure to extend their legs , a system inherited from their pre @-@ arthropod ancestors . Unlike insects , though , most aquatic crustaceans are biomineralized with calcium carbonate extracted from the water .
= = = Internal = = =
= = = = Nervous system = = = =
The nervous system of an insect can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord . The head capsule is made up of six fused segments , each with either a pair of ganglia , or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain . The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain , while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect 's esophagus , called the subesophageal ganglion .
The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side , which are connected into a pair , one pair per segment . This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments . Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction . Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen , whereas the wasp Vespa crabro has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen . Some insects , like the house fly Musca domestica , have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion .
At least a few insects have nociceptors , cells that detect and transmit signals responsible for the sensation of pain . This was discovered in 2003 by studying the variation in reactions of larvae of the common fruitfly Drosophila to the touch of a heated probe and an unheated one . The larvae reacted to the touch of the heated probe with a stereotypical rolling behavior that was not exhibited when the larvae were touched by the unheated probe . Although nociception has been demonstrated in insects , there is no consensus that insects feel pain consciously
Insects are capable of learning .
= = = = Digestive system = = = =
An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes . Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins , polysaccharides , fats and nucleic acids . These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy , growth , or reproduction . This break @-@ down process is known as digestion .
The main structure of an insect 's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the alimentary canal , which runs lengthwise through the body . The alimentary canal directs food unidirectionally from the mouth to the anus . It has three sections , each of which performs a different process of digestion . In addition to the alimentary canal , insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs . These structures usually reside in the thorax , adjacent to the foregut .
The salivary glands ( element 30 in numbered diagram ) in an insect 's mouth produce saliva . The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium , located behind the hypopharynx . By moving its mouthparts ( element 32 in numbered diagram ) the insect can mix its food with saliva . The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth , where it begins to break down . Some insects , like flies , have extra @-@ oral digestion . Insects using extra @-@ oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down . This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source . The gut is where almost all of insects ' digestion takes place . It can be divided into the foregut , midgut and hindgut .
= = = = = Foregut = = = = =
The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut ( element 27 in numbered diagram ) , or stomodaeum . The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food . The foregut includes the buccal cavity ( mouth ) , pharynx , esophagus and crop and proventriculus ( any part may be highly modified ) which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut .
Digestion starts in buccal cavity ( mouth ) as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands . As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate @-@ digesting enzymes ( mostly amylases ) , strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity , lubricating the food like the salivarium does , and helping blood feeders , and xylem and phloem feeders .
From there , the pharynx passes food to the esophagus , which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus , and then onward to the midgut , as in most insects . Alternately , the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus , or the crop could just be a diverticulum , or fluid @-@ filled structure , as in some Diptera species .
= = = = = Midgut = = = = =
Once food leaves the crop , it passes to the midgut ( element 13 in numbered diagram ) , also known as the mesenteron , where the majority of digestion takes place . Microscopic projections from the midgut wall , called microvilli , increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed ; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut . In some insects , the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary . For example , specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut , and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut .
= = = = = Hindgut = = = = =
In the hindgut ( element 16 in numbered diagram ) , or proctodaeum , undigested food particles are joined by uric acid to form fecal pellets . The rectum absorbs 90 % of the water in these fecal pellets , and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus ( element 17 ) , completing the process of digestion . The uric acid is formed using hemolymph waste products diffused from the Malpighian tubules ( element 20 ) . It is then emptied directly into the alimentary canal , at the junction between the midgut and hindgut . The number of Malpighian tubules possessed by a given insect varies between species , ranging from only two tubules in some insects to over 100 tubules in others .
= = = = Reproductive system = = = =
The reproductive system of female insects consist of a pair of ovaries , accessory glands , one or more spermathecae , and ducts connecting these parts . The ovaries are made up of a number of egg tubes , called ovarioles , which vary in size and number by species . The number of eggs that the insect is able to make vary by the number of ovarioles with the rate that eggs can be develop being also influenced by ovariole design . Female insects are able make eggs , receive and store sperm , manipulate sperm from different males , and lay eggs . Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance , transport and fertilization , as well as for protection of eggs . They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called oothecae . Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized .
For males , the reproductive system is the testis , suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body . Most male insects have a pair of testes , inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous sac . The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens , and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside . A portion of the vas deferens is often enlarged to form the seminal vesicle , which stores the sperm before they are discharged into the female . The seminal vesicles have glandular linings that secrete nutrients for nourishment and maintenance of the sperm . The ejaculatory duct is derived from an invagination of the epidermal cells during development and , as a result , has a cuticular lining . The terminal portion of the ejaculatory duct may be sclerotized to form the intromittent organ , the aedeagus . The remainder of the male reproductive system is derived from embryonic mesoderm , except for the germ cells , or spermatogonia , which descend from the primordial pole cells very early during embryogenesis .
= = = = Respiratory system = = = =
Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs . Instead , the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped , delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their trachea ( element 8 in numbered diagram ) . Since oxygen is delivered directly , the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen , and is therefore greatly reduced . The insect circulatory system has no veins or arteries , and instead consists of little more than a single , perforated dorsal tube which pulses peristaltically . Toward the thorax , the dorsal tube ( element 14 ) divides into chambers and acts like the insect 's heart . The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the hemolymph , arthropods ' fluid analog of blood , inside the body cavity . Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called spiracles .
The respiratory system is an important factor that limits the size of insects . As insects get bigger , this type of oxygen transport gets less efficient and thus the heaviest insect currently weighs less than 100 g . However , with increased atmospheric oxygen levels , as happened in the late Paleozoic , larger insects were possible , such as dragonflies with wingspans of more than two feet .
There are many different patterns of gas exchange demonstrated by different groups of insects . Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous and diffusive ventilation , to discontinuous gas exchange . During continuous gas exchange , oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released in a continuous cycle . In discontinuous gas exchange , however , the insect takes in oxygen while it is active and small amounts of carbon dioxide are released when the insect is at rest . Diffusive ventilation is simply a form of continuous gas exchange that occurs by diffusion rather than physically taking in the oxygen . Some species of insect that are submerged also have adaptations to aid in respiration . As larvae , many insects have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water , while others need to rise to the water surface to replenish air supplies which may be held or trapped in special structures .
= = = = Circulatory system = = = =
The insect circulatory system utilizes hemolymph , a tissue analogous to blood that circulates in the interior of the insect body , while remaining in direct contact with the animal 's tissues . It is composed of plasma in which hemocytes are suspended . In addition to hemocytes , the plasma also contains many chemicals . It is also the major tissue type of the open circulatory system of arthropods , characteristic of spiders , crustaceans and insects .
= = Reproduction and development = =
The majority of insects hatch from eggs . The fertilization and development takes place inside the egg , enclosed by a shell ( chorion ) that consists of maternal tissue . In contrast to eggs of other arthropods , most insect eggs are drought resistant . This is because inside the chorion two additional membranes develop from embryonic tissue , the amnion and the serosa . This serosa secretes a cuticle rich in chitin that protects the embryo against desiccation . In Schizophora however the serosa does not develop , but these flies lay their eggs in damp places , such as rotting matter . Some species of insects , like the cockroach Blaptica dubia , as well as juvenile aphids and tsetse flies , are ovoviviparous . The eggs of ovoviviparous animals develop entirely inside the female , and then hatch immediately upon being laid . Some other species , such as those in the genus of cockroaches known as Diploptera , are viviparous , and thus gestate inside the mother and are born alive . Some insects , like parasitic wasps , show polyembryony , where a single fertilized egg divides into many and in some cases thousands of separate embryos . Insects may be univoltine , bivoltine or multivoltine , i.e. they may have one , two or many broods ( generations ) in a year .
Other developmental and reproductive variations include haplodiploidy , polymorphism , paedomorphosis or peramorphosis , sexual dimorphism , parthenogenesis and more rarely hermaphroditism . In haplodiploidy , which is a type of sex @-@ determination system , the offspring 's sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives . This system is typical in bees and wasps . Polymorphism is where a species may have different morphs or forms , as in the oblong winged katydid , which has four different varieties : green , pink and yellow or tan . Some insects may retain phenotypes that are normally only seen in juveniles ; this is called paedomorphosis . In peramorphosis , an opposite sort of phenomenon , insects take on previously unseen traits after they have matured into adults . Many insects display sexual dimorphism , in which males and females have notably different appearances , such as the moth Orgyia recens as an exemplar of sexual dimorphism in insects .
Some insects use parthenogenesis , a process in which the female can reproduce and give birth without having the eggs fertilized by a male . Many aphids undergo a form of parthenogenesis , called cyclical parthenogenesis , in which they alternate between one or many generations of asexual and sexual reproduction . In summer , aphids are generally female and parthenogenetic ; in the autumn , males may be produced for sexual reproduction . Other insects produced by parthenogenesis are bees , wasps and ants , in which they spawn males . However , overall , most individuals are female , which are produced by fertilization . The males are haploid and the females are diploid . More rarely , some insects display hermaphroditism , in which a given individual has both male and female reproductive organs .
Insect life @-@ histories show adaptations to withstand cold and dry conditions . Some temperate region insects are capable of activity during winter , while some others migrate to a warmer climate or go into a state of torpor . Still other insects have evolved mechanisms of diapause that allow eggs or pupae to survive these conditions .
= = = Metamorphosis = = =
Metamorphosis in insects is the biological process of development all insects must undergo . There are two forms of metamorphosis : incomplete metamorphosis and complete metamorphosis .
= = = = Incomplete metamorphosis = = = =
Hemimetabolous insects , those with incomplete metamorphosis , change gradually by undergoing a series of molts . An insect molts when it outgrows its exoskeleton , which does not stretch and would otherwise restrict the insect 's growth . The molting process begins as the insect 's epidermis secretes a new epicuticle inside the old one . After this new epicuticle is secreted , the epidermis releases a mixture of enzymes that digests the endocuticle and thus detaches the old cuticle . When this stage is complete , the insect makes its body swell by taking in a large quantity of water or air , which makes the old cuticle split along predefined weaknesses where the old exocuticle was thinnest .
Immature insects that go through incomplete metamorphosis are called nymphs or in the case of dragonflies and damselflies , also naiads . Nymphs are similar in form to the adult except for the presence of wings , which are not developed until adulthood . With each molt , nymphs grow larger and become more similar in appearance to adult insects .
= = = = Complete metamorphosis = = = =
Holometabolism , or complete metamorphosis , is where the insect changes in four stages , an egg or embryo , a larva , a pupa and the adult or imago . In these species , an egg hatches to produce a larva , which is generally worm @-@ like in form . This worm @-@ like form can be one of several varieties : eruciform ( caterpillar @-@ like ) , scarabaeiform ( grub @-@ like ) , campodeiform ( elongated , flattened and active ) , elateriform ( wireworm @-@ like ) or vermiform ( maggot @-@ like ) . The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa , a stage marked by reduced movement and often sealed within a cocoon . There are three types of pupae : obtect , exarate or coarctate . Obtect pupae are compact , with the legs and other appendages enclosed . Exarate pupae have their legs and other appendages free and extended . Coarctate pupae develop inside the larval skin . Insects undergo considerable change in form during the pupal stage , and emerge as adults . Butterflies are a well @-@ known example of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis , although most insects use this life cycle . Some insects have evolved this system to hypermetamorphosis .
Some of the oldest and most successful insect groups , such Endopterygota , use a system of complete metamorphosis . Complete metamorphosis is unique to a group of certain insect orders including Diptera , Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera . This form of development is exclusive and not seen in any other arthropods .
= = Senses and communication = =
Many insects possess very sensitive and , or specialized organs of perception . Some insects such as bees can perceive ultraviolet wavelengths , or detect polarized light , while the antennae of male moths can detect the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers . The yellow paper wasp ( Polistes versicolor ) is known for its wagging movements as a form of communication within the colony ; it can waggle with a frequency of 10 @.@ 6 ± 2 @.@ 1 Hz ( n = 190 ) . These wagging movements can signal the arrival of new material into the nest and aggression between workers can be used to stimulate others to increase foraging expeditions . There is a pronounced tendency for there to be a trade @-@ off between visual acuity and chemical or tactile acuity , such that most insects with well @-@ developed eyes have reduced or simple antennae , and vice versa . There are a variety of different mechanisms by which insects perceive sound , while the patterns are not universal , insects can generally hear sound if they can produce it . Different insect species can have varying hearing , though most insects can hear only a narrow range of frequencies related to the frequency of the sounds they can produce . Mosquitoes have been found to hear up to 2 kHz . , and some grasshoppers can hear up to 50 kHz . Certain predatory and parasitic insects can detect the characteristic sounds made by their prey or hosts , respectively . For instance , some nocturnal moths can perceive the ultrasonic emissions of bats , which helps them avoid predation . Insects that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions , and use them to home in on their hosts .
Some insects display a rudimentary sense of numbers , such as the solitary wasps that prey upon a single species . The mother wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on which the young feed when hatched . Some species of wasp always provide five , others twelve , and others as high as twenty @-@ four caterpillars per cell . The number of caterpillars is different among species , but always the same for each sex of larva . The male solitary wasp in the genus Eumenes is smaller than the female , so the mother of one species supplies him with only five caterpillars ; the larger female receives ten caterpillars in her cell .
= = = Light production and vision = = =
A few insects , such as members of the families Poduridae and Onychiuridae ( Collembola ) , Mycetophilidae ( Diptera ) and the beetle families Lampyridae , Phengodidae , Elateridae and Staphylinidae are bioluminescent . The most familiar group are the fireflies , beetles of the family Lampyridae . Some species are able to control this light generation to produce flashes . The function varies with some species using them to attract mates , while others use them to lure prey . Cave dwelling larvae of Arachnocampa ( Mycetophilidae , Fungus gnats ) glow to lure small flying insects into sticky strands of silk . Some fireflies of the genus Photuris mimic the flashing of female Photinus species to attract males of that species , which are then captured and devoured . The colors of emitted light vary from dull blue ( Orfelia fultoni , Mycetophilidae ) to the familiar greens and the rare reds ( Phrixothrix tiemanni , Phengodidae ) .
Most insects , except some species of cave crickets , are able to perceive light and dark . Many species have acute vision capable of detecting minute movements . The eyes may include simple eyes or ocelli as well as compound eyes of varying sizes . Many species are able to detect light in the infrared , ultraviolet and the visible light wavelengths . Color vision has been demonstrated in many species and phylogenetic analysis suggests that UV @-@ green @-@ blue trichromacy existed from at least the Devonian period between 416 and 359 million years ago .
= = = Sound production and hearing = = =
Insects were the earliest organisms to produce and sense sounds . Insects make sounds mostly by mechanical action of appendages . In grasshoppers and crickets , this is achieved by stridulation . Cicadas make the loudest sounds among the insects by producing and amplifying sounds with special modifications to their body and musculature . The African cicada Brevisana brevis has been measured at 106 @.@ 7 decibels at a distance of 50 cm ( 20 in ) . Some insects , such as the Helicoverpa zeamoths , hawk moths and Hedylid butterflies , can hear ultrasound and take evasive action when they sense that they have been detected by bats . Some moths produce ultrasonic clicks that were once thought to have a role in jamming bat echolocation . The ultrasonic clicks were subsequently found to be produced mostly by unpalatable moths to warn bats , just as warning colorations are used against predators that hunt by sight . Some otherwise palatable moths have evolved to mimic these calls . More recently , the claim that some moths can jam bat sonar has been revisited . Ultrasonic recording and high @-@ speed infrared videography of bat @-@ moth interactions suggest the palatable tiger moth really does defend against attacking big brown bats using ultrasonic clicks that jam bat sonar .
Very low sounds are also produced in various species of Coleoptera , Hymenoptera , Lepidoptera , Mantodea and Neuroptera . These low sounds are simply the sounds made by the insect 's movement . Through microscopic stridulatory structures located on the insect 's muscles and joints , the normal sounds of the insect moving are amplified and can be used to warn or communicate with other insects . Most sound @-@ making insects also have tympanal organs that can perceive airborne sounds . Some species in Hemiptera , such as the corixids ( water boatmen ) , are known to communicate via underwater sounds . Most insects are also able to sense vibrations transmitted through surfaces .
Communication using surface @-@ borne vibrational signals is more widespread among insects because of size constraints in producing air @-@ borne sounds . Insects cannot effectively produce low @-@ frequency sounds , and high @-@ frequency sounds tend to disperse more in a dense environment ( such as foliage ) , so insects living in such environments communicate primarily using substrate @-@ borne vibrations . The mechanisms of production of vibrational signals are just as diverse as those for producing sound in insects .
Some species use vibrations for communicating within members of the same species , such as to attract mates as in the songs of the shield bug Nezara viridula . Vibrations can also be used to communicate between entirely different species ; lycaenid ( gossamer @-@ winged butterfly ) caterpillars which are myrmecophilous ( living in a mutualistic association with ants ) communicate with ants in this way . The Madagascar hissing cockroach has the ability to press air through its spiracles to make a hissing noise as a sign of aggression ; the Death 's @-@ head Hawkmoth makes a squeaking noise by forcing air out of their pharynx when agitated , which may also reduce aggressive worker honey bee behavior when the two are in close proximity .
= = = Chemical communication = = =
Chemical communications in animals rely on a variety of aspects including taste and smell . Chemoreception is the physiological response of a sense organ ( i.e. taste or smell ) to a chemical stimulus where the chemicals act as signals to regulate the state or activity of a cell . A semiochemical is a message @-@ carrying chemical that is meant to attract , repel , and convey information . Types of semiochemicals include pheromones and kairomones . One example is the butterfly Phengaris arion which uses chemical signals as a form of mimicry to aid in predation .
In addition to the use of sound for communication , a wide range of insects have evolved chemical means for communication . These chemicals , termed semiochemicals , are often derived from plant metabolites include those meant to attract , repel and provide other kinds of information . Pheromones , a type of semiochemical , are used for attracting mates of the opposite sex , for aggregating conspecific individuals of both sexes , for deterring other individuals from approaching , to mark a trail , and to trigger aggression in nearby individuals . Allomonea benefit their producer by the effect they have upon the receiver . Kairomones benefit their receiver instead of their producer . Synomones benefit the producer and the receiver . While some chemicals are targeted at individuals of the same species , others are used for communication across species . The use of scents is especially well known to have developed in social insects .
= = Social behavior = =
Social insects , such as termites , ants and many bees and wasps , are the most familiar species of eusocial animal . They live together in large well @-@ organized colonies that may be so tightly integrated and genetically similar that the colonies of some species are sometimes considered superorganisms . It is sometimes argued that the various species of honey bee are the only invertebrates ( and indeed one of the few non @-@ human groups ) to have evolved a system of abstract symbolic communication where a behavior is used to represent and convey specific information about something in the environment . In this communication system , called dance language , the angle at which a bee dances represents a direction relative to the sun , and the length of the dance represents the distance to be flown . Though perhaps not as advanced as honey bees , bumblebees also potentially have some social communication behaviors . Bombus terrestris , for example , exhibit a faster learning curve for visiting unfamiliar , yet rewarding flowers , when they can see a conspecific foraging on the same species .
Only insects which live in nests or colonies demonstrate any true capacity for fine @-@ scale spatial orientation or homing . This can allow an insect to return unerringly to a single hole a few millimeters in diameter among thousands of apparently identical holes clustered together , after a trip of up to several kilometers ' distance . In a phenomenon known as philopatry , insects that hibernate have shown the ability to recall a specific location up to a year after last viewing the area of interest . A few insects seasonally migrate large distances between different geographic regions ( e.g. , the overwintering areas of the Monarch butterfly ) .
= = = Care of young = = =
The eusocial insects build nest , guard eggs , and provide food for offspring full @-@ time ( see Eusociality ) . Most insects , however , lead short lives as adults , and rarely interact with one another except to mate or compete for mates . A small number exhibit some form of parental care , where they will at least guard their eggs , and sometimes continue guarding their offspring until adulthood , and possibly even feeding them . Another simple form of parental care is to construct a nest ( a burrow or an actual construction , either of which may be simple or complex ) , store provisions in it , and lay an egg upon those provisions . The adult does not contact the growing offspring , but it nonetheless does provide food . This sort of care is typical for most species of bees and various types of wasps .
= = Locomotion = =
= = = Flight = = =
Insects are the only group of invertebrates to have developed flight . The evolution of insect wings has been a subject of debate . Some entomologists suggest that the wings are from paranotal lobes , or extensions from the insect 's exoskeleton called the nota , called the paranotal theory . Other theories are based on a pleural origin . These theories include suggestions that wings originated from modified gills , spiracular flaps or as from an appendage of the epicoxa . The epicoxal theory suggests the insect wings are modified epicoxal exites , a modified appendage at the base of the legs or coxa . In the Carboniferous age , some of the Meganeura dragonflies had as much as a 50 cm ( 20 in ) wide wingspan . The appearance of gigantic insects has been found to be consistent with high atmospheric oxygen . The respiratory system of insects constrains their size , however the high oxygen in the atmosphere allowed larger sizes . The largest flying insects today are much smaller and include several moth species such as the Atlas moth and the White Witch ( Thysania agrippina ) .
Insect flight has been a topic of great interest in aerodynamics due partly to the inability of steady @-@ state theories to explain the lift generated by the tiny wings of insects . But insect wings are in motion , with flapping and vibrations , resulting in churning and eddies , and the misconception that physics says " bumblebees can 't fly " persisted throughout most of the twentieth century .
Unlike birds , many small insects are swept along by the prevailing winds although many of the larger insects are known to make migrations . Aphids are known to be transported long distances by low @-@ level jet streams . As such , fine line patterns associated with converging winds within weather radar imagery , like the WSR @-@ 88D radar network , often represent large groups of insects .
= = = Walking = = =
Many adult insects use six legs for walking and have adopted a tripedal gait . The tripedal gait allows for rapid walking while always having a stable stance and has been studied extensively in cockroaches . The legs are used in alternate triangles touching the ground . For the first step , the middle right leg and the front and rear left legs are in contact with the ground and move the insect forward , while the front and rear right leg and the middle left leg are lifted and moved forward to a new position . When they touch the ground to form a new stable triangle the other legs can be lifted and brought forward in turn and so on . The purest form of the tripedal gait is seen in insects moving at high speeds . However , this type of locomotion is not rigid and insects can adapt a variety of gaits . For example , when moving slowly , turning , or avoiding obstacles , four or more feet may be touching the ground . Insects can also adapt their gait to cope with the loss of one or more limbs .
Cockroaches are among the fastest insect runners and , at full speed , adopt a bipedal run to reach a high velocity in proportion to their body size . As cockroaches move very quickly , they need to be video recorded at several hundred frames per second to reveal their gait . More sedate locomotion is seen in the stick insects or walking sticks ( Phasmatodea ) . A few insects have evolved to walk on the surface of the water , especially members of the Gerridae family , commonly known as water striders . A few species of ocean @-@ skaters in the genus Halobates even live on the surface of open oceans , a habitat that has few insect species .
= = = = Use in robotics = = = =
Insect walking is of particular interest as an alternative form of locomotion in robots . The study of insects and bipeds has a significant impact on possible robotic methods of transport . This may allow new robots to be designed that can traverse terrain that robots with wheels may be unable to handle .
= = = Swimming = = =
A large number of insects live either part or the whole of their lives underwater . In many of the more primitive orders of insect , the immature stages are spent in an aquatic environment . Some groups of insects , like certain water beetles , have aquatic adults as well .
Many of these species have adaptations to help in under @-@ water locomotion . Water beetles and water bugs have legs adapted into paddle @-@ like structures . Dragonfly naiads use jet propulsion , forcibly expelling water out of their rectal chamber . Some species like the water striders are capable of walking on the surface of water . They can do this because their claws are not at the tips of the legs as in most insects , but recessed in a special groove further up the leg ; this prevents the claws from piercing the water 's surface film . Other insects such as the Rove beetle Stenus are known to emit pygidial gland secretions that reduce surface tension making it possible for them to move on the surface of water by Marangoni propulsion ( also known by the German term Entspannungsschwimmen ) .
= = Ecology = =
Insect ecology is the scientific study of how insects , individually or as a community , interact with the surrounding environment or ecosystem . Insects play one of the most important roles in their ecosystems , which includes many roles , such as soil turning and aeration , dung burial , pest control , pollination and wildlife nutrition . An example is the beetles , which are scavengers that feed on dead animals and fallen trees and thereby recycle biological materials into forms found useful by other organisms . These insects , and others , are responsible for much of the process by which topsoil is created .
= = = Defense and predation = = =
Insects are mostly soft bodied , fragile and almost defenseless compared to other , larger lifeforms . The immature stages are small , move slowly or are immobile , and so all stages are exposed to predation and parasitism . Insects then have a variety of defense strategies to avoid being attacked by predators or parasitoids . These include camouflage , mimicry , toxicity and active defense .
Camouflage is an important defense strategy , which involves the use of coloration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment . This sort of protective coloration is common and widespread among beetle families , especially those that feed on wood or vegetation , such as many of the leaf beetles ( family Chrysomelidae ) or weevils . In some of these species , sculpturing or various colored scales or hairs cause the beetle to resemble bird dung or other inedible objects . Many of those that live in sandy environments blend in with the coloration of the substrate . Most phasmids are known for effectively replicating the forms of sticks and leaves , and the bodies of some species ( such as O. macklotti and Palophus centaurus ) are covered in mossy or lichenous outgrowths that supplement their disguise . Some species have the ability to change color as their surroundings shift ( B. scabrinota , T. californica ) . In a further behavioral adaptation to supplement crypsis , a number of species have been noted to perform a rocking motion where the body is swayed from side to side that is thought to reflect the movement of leaves or twigs swaying in the breeze . Another method by which stick insects avoid predation and resemble twigs is by feigning death ( catalepsy ) , where the insect enters a motionless state that can be maintained for a long period . The nocturnal feeding habits of adults also aids Phasmatodea in remaining concealed from predators .
Another defense that often uses color or shape to deceive potential enemies is mimicry . A number of longhorn beetles ( family Cerambycidae ) bear a striking resemblance to wasps , which helps them avoid predation even though the beetles are in fact harmless . Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera . Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species ( the mimic ) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species ( the model ) . Such a mimicry complex is referred to as Batesian and is most commonly known by the mimicry by the limenitidine Viceroy butterfly of the inedible danaine Monarch . Later research has discovered that the Viceroy is , in fact more toxic than the Monarch and this resemblance should be considered as a case of Müllerian mimicry . In Müllerian mimicry , inedible species , usually within a taxonomic order , find it advantageous to resemble each other so as to reduce the sampling rate by predators who need to learn about the insects ' inedibility . Taxa from the toxic genus Heliconius form one of the most well known Müllerian complexes .
Chemical defense is another important defense found amongst species of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera , usually being advertised by bright colors , such as the Monarch butterfly . They obtain their toxicity by sequestering the chemicals from the plants they eat into their own tissues . Some Lepidoptera manufacture their own toxins . Predators that eat poisonous butterflies and moths may become sick and vomit violently , learning not to eat those types of species ; this is actually the basis of Müllerian mimicry . A predator who has previously eaten a poisonous lepidopteran may avoid other species with similar markings in the future , thus saving many other species as well . Some ground beetles of the Carabidae family can spray chemicals from their abdomen with great accuracy , to repel predators .
= = = Pollination = = =
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in the reproduction of plants , thereby enabling fertilisation and sexual reproduction . Most flowering plants require an animal to do the transportation . While other animals are included as pollinators , the majority of pollination is done by insects . Because insects usually receive benefit for the pollination in the form of energy rich nectar it is a grand example of mutualism . The various flower traits ( and combinations thereof ) that differentially attract one type of pollinator or another are known as pollination syndromes . These arose through complex plant @-@ animal adaptations . Pollinators find flowers through bright colorations , including ultraviolet , and attractant pheromones . The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology .
= = = Parasitism = = =
Many insect are parasites of other insects such as the parasitoid wasps . These insects are known as entomophagous parasites . They can be beneficial due to their devastation of pests that can destroy crops and other resources . Many insects have a parasitic relationship with humans such as the mosquito . These insects are known to spread diseases such as malaria and yellow fever and because of such , mosquitoes indirectly cause more deaths of humans than any other animal .
= = Relationship to humans = =
= = = As pests = = =
Many insects are considered pests by humans . Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic ( e.g. lice , bed bugs ) , transmit diseases ( mosquitoes , flies ) , damage structures ( termites ) , or destroy agricultural goods ( locusts , weevils ) . Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control , as in research for companies to produce insecticides , but increasingly rely on methods of biological pest control , or biocontrol . Biocontrol uses one organism to reduce the population density of another organism — the pest — and is considered a key element of integrated pest management .
Despite the large amount of effort focused at controlling insects , human attempts to kill pests with insecticides can backfire . If used carelessly , the poison can kill all kinds of organisms in the area , including insects ' natural predators , such as birds , mice and other insectivores . The effects of DDT 's use exemplifies how some insecticides can threaten wildlife beyond intended populations of pest insects .
= = = In beneficial roles = = =
Although pest insects attract the most attention , many insects are beneficial to the environment and to humans . Some insects , like wasps , bees , butterflies and ants , pollinate flowering plants . Pollination is a mutualistic relationship between plants and insects . As insects gather nectar from different plants of the same species , they also spread pollen from plants on which they have previously fed . This greatly increases plants ' ability to cross @-@ pollinate , which maintains and possibly even improves their evolutionary fitness . This ultimately affects humans since ensuring healthy crops is critical to agriculture . As well as pollination ants help with seed distribution of plants . This helps to spread the plants which increases plant diversity . This leads to an overall better environment . A serious environmental problem is the decline of populations of pollinator insects , and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for pollination management in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field , orchard or greenhouse at bloom time . Another solution , as shown in Delaware , has been to raise native plants to help support native pollinators like L. vierecki . Insects also produce useful substances such as honey , wax , lacquer and silk . Honey bees have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey , although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for beekeepers . The silkworm has greatly affected human history , as silk @-@ driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the world .
Insectivorous insects , or insects which feed on other insects , are beneficial to humans because they eat insects that could cause damage to agriculture and human structures . For example , aphids feed on crops and cause problems for farmers , but ladybugs feed on aphids , and can be used as a means to get significantly reduce pest aphid populations . While birds are perhaps more visible predators of insects , insects themselves account for the vast majority of insect consumption . Ants also help control animal populations by consuming small vertebrates . Without predators to keep them in check , insects can undergo almost unstoppable population explosions .
Insects are also used in medicine , for example fly larvae ( maggots ) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene , as they would only consume dead flesh . This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals . Recently insects have also gained attention as potential sources of drugs and other medicinal substances . Adult insects , such as crickets and insect larvae of various kinds , are also commonly used as fishing bait .
= = = In research = = =
Insects play important roles in biological research . For example , because of its small size , short generation time and high fecundity , the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism for studies in the genetics of higher eukaryotes . D. melanogaster has been an essential part of studies into principles like genetic linkage , interactions between genes , chromosomal genetics , development , behavior and evolution . Because genetic systems are well conserved among eukaryotes , understanding basic cellular processes like DNA replication or transcription in fruit flies can help to understand those processes in other eukaryotes , including humans . The genome of D. melanogaster was sequenced in 2000 , reflecting the organism 's important role in biological research . It was found that 70 % of the fly genome is similar to the human genome , supporting the evolution theory .
= = = As food = = =
In some cultures , insects , especially deep @-@ fried cicadas , are considered to be delicacies , whereas in other places they form part of the normal diet . Insects have a high protein content for their mass , and some authors suggest their potential as a major source of protein in human nutrition . In most first @-@ world countries , however , entomophagy ( the eating of insects ) , is taboo . Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain , insects are inadvertently present in many foods , especially grains . Food safety laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food , but rather limit their quantity . According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris , the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources such as fish or livestock .
Due to the abundance of insects and a worldwide concern of food shortages , the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations considers that the world may have to , in the future , regard the prospects of eating insects as a food staple . Insects are noted for their nutrients , having a high content of protein , minerals and fats and are eaten by one @-@ third of the global population .
= = = In culture = = =
Scarab beetles held religious and cultural symbolism in Old Egypt , Greece and some shamanistic Old World cultures . The ancient Chinese regarded cicadas as symbols of rebirth or immortality . In Mesopotamian literature , the epic poem of Gilgamesh has allusions to Odonata which signify the impossibility of immortality . Amongst the Aborigines of Australia of the Arrernte language groups , honey ants and witchety grubs served as personal clan totems . In the case of the ' San ' bush @-@ men of the Kalahari , it is the praying mantis which holds much cultural significance including creation and zen @-@ like patience in waiting .
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= SS Samuel Huntington =
SS Samuel Huntington was an American liberty ship during World War II . She was the 248th liberty ship authorized by the United States Maritime Commission and was named in honor of Samuel Huntington , a signer of the American Declaration of Independence . SS Samuel Huntington was launched in 1942 and sailed to ports in the Pacific , South America , Africa , and the United Kingdom . She was one of a select group of liberty ships that were outfitted to carry a limited number of either troops or prisoners of war . As part of a convoy to resupply the Allied troops at Anzio , she sank after a successful German bomb attack in January 1944 .
= = Construction = =
Samuel Huntington was laid down on 20 January 1942 by Permanente Metals Corp. on ship way number four at their No. 2 Yard in Richmond , California . She was the 248th liberty ship authorized by the United States Maritime Commission and the 48th ship begun at the ship yard . The Huntington — a type EC2 @-@ S @-@ C1 , or standard , liberty ship — was launched on 26 April , and delivered on 18 May . She was completed in 118 days , spending 96 on the ways and 22 on the water before delivery . She was one of about 220 liberty ships , about one out of every 10 made , that were outfitted to carry a limited number of either troops or prisoners of war . Sources are not clear when the passenger capability was added to Samuel Huntington , but modifications of this sort were made after November 1942 .
= = Service history = =
Ten days after her delivery , Samuel Huntington departed San Francisco for Los Angeles . Sailing from that port on 31 May 1942 , she arrived at Suva in the Fiji Islands on 19 June . After the Huntington made her way to Lautoka , she departed there on 6 July for Chile . After arriving at Antofagasta on 29 July , the cargo ship worked her way up and down the South American coast , calling at Iquique on 30 July , Valparaiso on 7 August , and Punta Arenas on 13 August . Sailing from Punta Arenas the next day , she navigated the Straits of Magellan , crossed the South Atlantic , and arrived at Cape Town , South Africa , on 2 September .
Sailing from Cape Town on 6 September , Samuel Huntington sailed around the African continent , calling at Durban on 10 September , and arriving at Aden , on the Arabian peninsula , in mid September . Departing there on 24 September , the Huntington sailed up the Red Sea , calling at Massaua on the Eritrean coast on 26 September and Suez on 1 October . Departing Suez on 12 October , she retraced her track around Africa , calling at Port Sudan on 18 October , Durban on 2 November , Cape Town on 7 November . Leaving the same day , she crossed the South Atlantic and headed for Paramaribo , Suriname .
Samuel Huntington arrived at Paramaribo on 27 November , and sailed three days later for Trinidad . After arriving at that Caribbean port on 1 December , the Huntington waited for a week before sailing in convoy TAG @-@ 27 to Guantanamo Bay with 12 other ships . After arriving at Guantanamo Bay on 12 December , the convoy , dropping four ships , reformed as convoy GN.27 headed for New York City and departed the same day . The Huntington , calling at a U.S. port for the first time in seven months , arrived at New York on 19 December .
The Huntington departed New York as a part of Convoy SC @-@ 118 headed for Liverpool via Halifax on 24 January . As the convoy , which consisted of 60 ships and 26 escorts , sailed near Iceland , a wolf pack of Kriegsmarine U @-@ Boats attacked the convoy repeatedly over a four @-@ day period . Some 20 U @-@ boats participated , sinking 12 Allied ships , including Henry R. Mallory , a troop transport that went down with 272 men — more than half of her passengers and crew ; three U @-@ boats were lost . Samuel Huntington departed the convoy and arrived at Clyde on 11 February .
After calling at Belfast Lough in early April , Samuel Huntington made her way to Liverpool to join Convoy ON 181 to New York . Departing on 30 April as one of 48 merchant ships in the convoy , the liberty ship made port at New York on 17 May . The convoy reported no submarine activity , and about two @-@ thirds of the convoy were able to take target practice on icebergs during the voyage .
Samuel Huntington next departed New York on 13 June for Oran as a part of Convoy UGS @-@ 10 . Joining 74 other merchant ships and their 28 escorts , the Huntington made it safely to Oran on 5 July ; another ship in the convoy was sunk by a U @-@ boat . During her participation in Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily , the Huntington and fellow liberty ships William W. Gerhard and William Mulholland all suffered casualties from an air attack on 1 August at Palermo . Damage to the ship was apparently minor enough that she was ready to sail nine days later , when she joined Convoy GUS @-@ 12 — which had originated in Alexandria and was destined for Hampton Roads , Virginia — to return to the United States . Samuel Huntington left the convoy as it neared the U.S. east coast , and headed for New York , arriving there on 5 September .
After making her way to Hampton Roads , Samuel Huntington departed for Casablanca on 5 October as part of Convoy UGS @-@ 20 , where she arrived on 21 October . Eight days later , she joined Convoy GUS @-@ 19 — a 110 @-@ ship Alexandria – Hampton Roads convoy — and headed for home . She arrived in Baltimore on 16 November . Shifting to Hampton Roads in early December , Samuel Huntington prepared to depart on what would be her last sailing from the United States .
The Huntington — in Convoy UGS @-@ 27 , a 115 @-@ ship convoy — sailed from Hampton Roads on 15 December for Oran , arriving there on 3 January 1944 . She departed from Oran on 16 January and arrived at Naples five days later . One week later , Samuel Huntington sailed to Anzio where she anchored one @-@ quarter mile ( 400 m ) off the beach on 29 January with 7 @,@ 181 long tons ( 7 @,@ 296 t ) of cargo , including ammunition , canned gasoline and TNT .
= = = Sinking = = =
At sunset on 29 January , Luftwaffe bombers planes armed with Henschel Hs 293 anti @-@ shipping guided missiles attacked the ships at anchor off Anzio . British cruiser Spartan was hit amidships and rolled over on her port side and sank with a loss of 65 men . Soon after Spartan was hit , another Hs 293 slammed into Samuel Huntington , penetrating to her boiler room before exploding and killing four men . The force of the explosion blew out two of her cargo hatches , launching a jeep into the stricken ship 's flying bridge in the process . With no power , and , hence , no way of fighting the fire , Samuel Huntington 's master ordered the ship abandoned , and the crew lowered her lifeboats and headed away from the ship . Fifteen minutes after the bomb 's blast , another explosion rocked the ship , throwing a cloud of debris over 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) in the air , and raining shrapnel on ships as far as 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) away .
After the second explosion , Samuel Huntington settled to the bottom , but because the bottom had been only 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) below her keel , most of the ship remained above the water . U.S. Navy salvage ship Weight came alongside the Huntington and trained two deck water guns and a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 4 cm ) water hose to douse the fires . When the task seemed accomplished , Weight pulled away . The fires flared up again four hours later and Weight returned to fight the conflagration again . After tending to other ships damaged during the raid , Weight returned a third time . By the early morning hours on 30 January , any hope of salvaging Samuel Huntington or her cargo ended when the fires reached her load of canned gasoline . The resulting explosion completely destroyed the ship and again rained shrapnel on nearby ships . When the smoke cleared , no trace of the Huntington remained .
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= Gail Kim =
Gail Kim @-@ Irvine ( née Kim ; born February 20 , 1977 ) is a Canadian professional wrestler , professional wrestling valet , model and actress of Korean descent currently working for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . She is also known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , where she won the WWE Women 's Championship in her first match .
She began her career wrestling as La Felina on the Canadian independent circuit , before joining WWE in 2002 as Gail Kim . In her WWE debut match , she won the Women 's Championship , becoming the first WWE Diva in history to win a championship in her first match . After being released by WWE in 2004 , Kim joined TNA in September 2005 . There , she joined the tag team America 's Most Wanted as their valet . After the dissolution of the group , Kim performed as a singles wrestler , eventually becoming the inaugural TNA Knockouts Champion in October 2007 . She later left TNA in August 2008 , to return to WWE three months later , where she remained until 2011 . The following October she returned to TNA . In 2012 , Pro Wrestling Illustrated named Kim the number one female wrestler in the world and in 2016 she was announced as the first female inductee into the TNA Hall of Fame . She is regarded by wrestling fans and wrestlers themselves as one of the greatest female wrestlers of all time .
= = Early life = =
Kim was born in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , on February 20 , 1977 . Kim attended York Memorial Collegiate Institute and majored in kinesiology at the University of Toronto before transferring to Ryerson University and changing her major to nutrition .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Canadian independent circuit ( 2000 – 2002 ) = = =
After obtaining her degree from Ryerson University , Kim decided to become a professional wrestler and joined Ron Hutchinson 's School of Pro Wrestling in Toronto . She received supplementary training from Rob Etchevarria at the Squared Circle Pro Wrestling Gym . She debuted in December 2000 , wearing a mask and wrestling as " The Queen of the Cats " La Felina in the Southern Ontario @-@ based Apocalypse Wrestling Federation . She , however , was eventually unmasked by Tracy Brooks in a " Mask versus Hair " match . Kim worked on the Canadian independent circuit for two years , wrestling for promotions such as Border City Wrestling .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
Kim was introduced to World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) employee Nora Greenwald ( known on @-@ screen as Molly Holly ) by Jason Sensation in 2001 ; Greenwald encouraged Kim to send her videos and tapes to WWF officials . In October 2002 , she was hired by the WWF , now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . She spent eight months training in their then @-@ developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) and wrestled house shows and dark matches before being called up to their main roster . After several weeks of vignettes showcasing Matrix @-@ like effects aired on Raw , Kim debuted on June 30 as a fan favorite , with a Matrix @-@ inspired outfit .
Her first televised WWE match was a seven @-@ woman battle royal on the June 30 , 2003 episode of Raw with the WWE Women 's Championship , then held by an injured Jazz , on the line . Kim won the match by lastly eliminating Victoria . Kim held the title for four weeks , successfully defending it once against Molly Holly , before losing it to Holly on the July 28 episode of Raw . The following week , Kim turned heel on Trish Stratus , which stemmed from a previous Raw episode where Stratus cost Kim and herself a tag match against Victoria and Holly ; Kim subsequently formed an alliance with Holly to take on Stratus , defeating her and various partners on several occasions , until Stratus was later assisted by Lita . At WWE 's Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view event on September 21 , Stratus and Lita defeated Kim and Holly in a tag team match . The four women continued to feud until November , when Kim was sidelined with a broken right collarbone .
Kim returned to Raw in April 2004 and immediately reforged her alliance with Holly . In May 2004 , Kim submitted then @-@ Women 's Champion Victoria twice , in singles match and a six @-@ woman tag match , earning herself a title shot at Bad Blood . However , Lita pinned Kim on the June 7 episode of Raw , and Lita and Trish Stratus were added to the championship match . At Bad Blood on June 13 , she faced Lita , Stratus , and Victoria in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Women 's Championship , which was won by Stratus .
Kim participated in a battle royal on October 19 at Taboo Tuesday , which was won by Stratus . Kim , however , was released by WWE on November 3 , 2004 as a result of cost cutting . Kim was caught off guard by her release and was told that management wanted to take the women 's division in a new direction .
= = = International circuit ( 2005 ) = = =
After her release from WWE , Kim would make an appearance for Mid @-@ Atlantic Championship Wrestling on January 22 , 2005 in South Korea , teaming with Lollipop in a tag team match , where they defeated Malia Hosaka and Nidia . On June 26 , Kim made her debut for World Series Wrestling ( WSW ) in Melbourne , Australia , losing to Nidia in a singles match . Two days later at another WSW event in Sydney , Kim defeated Nidia in a rematch . The following night , Kim teamed up with A.J. Styles to defeat Nidia and Christopher Daniels in a mixed tag team match .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling = = =
= = = = America 's Most Wanted ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
Following her release from WWE and the expiration of her 90 @-@ day no @-@ compete clause , Kim made sporadic appearances on the independent circuit , including at Michigan 's All World Wrestling League and in Japan . She also competed in Korea and Mexico before being signed by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on September 6 , 2005 . She made her TNA debut on the October 8 , 2005 episode of TNA Impact ! , aligning herself with Jeff Jarrett and America 's Most Wanted ( AMW ) ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and taking on the role of AMW 's and Jarrett 's manager , and regularly got physically involved in the wrestlers ' matches . Kim made her in @-@ ring debut on July 16 , 2006 at TNA 's Victory Road pay @-@ per @-@ view in a Six Man Mixed Tag Team match with AMW against A.J. Styles , Christopher Daniels , and Sirelda . However , her team ended up on the losing end of the contest . At Hard Justice on August 13 , Kim defeated Sirelda in a singles match .
In early 2007 , after the dissolution of AMW , Kim began a more active role as an in @-@ ring competitor in TNA . This began with an on @-@ screen feud with her former alliance , James Storm , and his new manager Jacqueline . The first encounter between the group was on February 11 at Against All Odds in a mixed tag team match , which Kim and her partner , Petey Williams , lost . On March 11 at Destination X , Storm and Jacqueline won a rematch against Kim and Williams in a Double Bullrope match . Kim went on to defeat Jacqueline in a Six Sides of Steel cage match on April 15 at Lockdown . Their feud came to an end on the May 3 episode of TNA Impact ! , when Kim defeated Jacqueline under street fight rules .
= = = = Singles competition ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
After the conclusion to her feud with Jacqueline , Kim made two minor pay @-@ per @-@ view appearances in a short feud against Robert Roode , before outlasting nine other competitors in a ten @-@ woman gauntlet match to become the inaugural TNA Women 's Knockout Champion on October 14 , 2007 at Bound for Glory . She made her first title defense on November 11 at Genesis , where she retained the renamed TNA Women 's Knockout Championship by defeating Roxxi Laveaux , ODB , and Angel Williams . Kim then began a feud with Awesome Kong over the championship . Their first encounter occurred on December 2 at Turning Point , which resulted in Kim retaining the title due to a disqualification by Kong . On January 6 , 2008 at Final Resolution , Kim defeated Kong in an acclaimed second encounter to retain the championship under no disqualification rules . In their third and final encounter in the main event of the January 10 episode of TNA Impact ! , Kong defeated Kim to win the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship .
During the January 24 episode of TNA Impact ! , Kim was awarded the 2007 TNA Knockout of the Year award . Kim competed in a three way match on March 9 at Destination X against Kong and ODB , which Kong won . On April 13 at Lockdown , she teamed with ODB to defeat the team of Raisha Saeed and Kong in a tag team match . On May 11 at Sacrifice , Kim won a TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal , which involved a battle royal and then a ladder match with the two remaining competitors , to become new one contender TNA Women 's Knockout Championship . Kim competed for the championship on the May 15 episode of TNA Impact ! , however failed to win the title . At Slammiversary on June 8 , Kim teamed with ODB and Roxxi to defeat The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) and Moose in a six woman tag team match . Kim then went on to defeat Love on July 13 at Victory Road . Kim then teamed with ODB and Taylor Wilde to defeat the team of Kong and The Beautiful People on August 10 at Hard Justice , in her last TNA pay @-@ per @-@ view match . Kim 's final match with TNA aired on the August 21 episode of TNA Impact ! in a losing effort to Kong under street fight rules . Kim left TNA in mid @-@ August 2008 after her contract expired .
= = = Return to WWE ( 2008 – 2011 ) = = =
After leaving TNA , Kim re @-@ signed with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in late @-@ 2008 . She made her return as a fan favorite on the March 27 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , interrupting a WWE Divas Championship match between villainous Divas Maryse and Michelle McCool by attacking both competitors . Kim made her in @-@ ring return on the March 30 episode of Raw on the winning team of an 18 @-@ Diva tag team match . She made her first WrestleMania appearance in the 25 @-@ Diva Miss WrestleMania battle royal on April 5 , 2009 at WrestleMania XXV . On the April 17 episode of SmackDown , Kim defeated then @-@ Divas Champion Maryse . This earned her a championship match the following week , which she failed to win .
On the June 29 episode of Raw , Kim was traded to the Raw brand as part of a 15 wrestler tri @-@ branded trade between Raw , SmackDown , and ECW . A few weeks later on the August 10 episode of Raw , she gained another Divas title shot by winning a Fatal 4 @-@ Way match that also involved Beth Phoenix , Kelly Kelly , and Alicia Fox , to become number one contender . She was unsuccessful in winning the championship on the August 17 episode of Raw , when she faced then @-@ champion Mickie James . At Bragging Rights on October 25 , Kim , with Melina and Kelly Kelly , represented Raw in a losing effort to Michelle McCool , Beth Phoenix , and Natalya , representing SmackDown . Kim was on the winning side of a five @-@ on @-@ five Survivor Series Elimination match on November 22 at Survivor Series .
In early 2010 , a tournament was held for the newly vacated Divas Championship , and Kim defeated Jillian Hall and Alicia Fox en route to the finals . The finals were held on the February 22 episode of Raw , which Maryse won to become the new champion . The finals were originally to be held on February 21 at Elimination Chamber , but the match was changed to the team of Maryse and Kim versus Team LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) , which was won by LayCool as a result of Maryse abandoning Kim during the match . Kim was a part of the losing side of a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match , against Team LayCool , Alicia Fox , Vickie Guerrero , and Maryse , at WrestleMania XXVI on March 28 . At Fatal 4 @-@ Way on June 20 , Kim challenged for the Divas Championship in a Fatal 4 @-@ Way match that also involved then @-@ champion Eve , Maryse , and Alicia Fox , which Fox would win to become the champion .
In early 2011 , Kim participated in fewer matches on television , as she became the on @-@ screen girlfriend of Daniel Bryan . She also began accompanying him to the ring during his matches . At that time , Bryan was managed by Nikki and Brie Bella , and after they discovered Daniel Bryan kissing Kim backstage , they assaulted Kim , starting a feud with her . On January 30 at the Royal Rumble , the Bella Twins once again assaulted Kim . The following night on Raw , Kim was at ringside during Bryan 's match against Tyson Kidd . After the match , the Bellas entered the ring , Nikki slapped Bryan and Kim attacked her .
For the first half of 2011 , Kim feuded with Melina , due to Melina 's claims that Kim was a " horrible friend . " The matches between the two mainly took place on Superstars , and saw Kim emerging victorious in two singles matches on May 30 and June 23 . On the August 1 episode of Raw , Kim participated in a battle royal to determine the number one contender for the Divas Championship , however , shortly after the match began , she eliminated herself . Kim later explained that WWE had instructed her to get eliminated from the match within the first minute , so she decided to just eliminate herself . On August 5 , Kim announced on her Twitter account that she had quit WWE following the incident . Kim later indicated that WWE did not grant her release , but would instead force her to stay with the promotion for the remainder of her contract . Kim 's WWE.com profile was removed on September 30 , indicating that she had officially left the company , and that her contract expired . Kim later stated in an interview with The Sun that she was not happy with her time in WWE due to feeling that the female talent were being held back , while also vowing never to re @-@ sign with the promotion .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = Championship reigns ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
Kim returned to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on the October 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , attacking TNA Knockouts Champion Velvet Sky and aligning herself with Karen Jarrett and Madison Rayne , thus establishing herself as a villainess . On the October 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , Jarrett named Kim the # 1 Contender to Sky 's title , before she went on to defeat Tara in her first match back with the promotion . On the November 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne defeated TnT ( Brooke Tessmacher and Tara ) to win the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship . The following week they made their first title defense , defeating Mickie James and Velvet Sky . On November 13 at Turning Point , Kim defeated Sky to win the TNA Knockouts Championship for the second time , making her a double champion and only the second woman in TNA history to hold both the Knockouts and the Knockouts Tag Team titles simultaneously . She made her first title defense on December 11 at Final Resolution , defeating Mickie James following interference from Madison Rayne . On the December 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim retained her title against James following another interference from Rayne .
On the January 5 , 2012 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne retained their tag team titles against James and Traci Brooks . Three days later at Genesis , Kim defeated James by disqualification to retain the Knockouts Championship . On February 12 at Against All Odds , Kim successfully defended the Knockouts Championship against Tara , during which Madison Rayne walked out on her Knockouts Tag Team Championship partner . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne won a battle royal to become the number one contender to Kim 's Knockouts Championship . In the following weeks , tension between Kim and Rayne began to be teased with the two negatively interfering in each other 's matches . On the March 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne lost the Knockouts Tag Team Championship to Eric Young and ODB . On March 18 at Victory Road , Kim successfully defended the Knockouts Championship against Rayne . On the March 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne reconciled and remained together as a team . On April 15 at Lockdown , Kim defeated Velvet Sky in a steel cage match , following a distraction from Rayne , to retain her title . Afterwards , Kim went on a losing streak against Brooke Tessmacher , which led to TNA naming Tessmacher the number one contender to her title . On May 13 at Sacrifice , Kim defeated Tessmacher , pinning her with her feet on the ropes , for another successful title defense . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim successfully defended her title against Tessmacher and Velvet Sky in a three @-@ way match . On May 20 , Kim became the longest reigning TNA Knockouts Champion in history by breaking Madison Rayne 's previous record of 188 days . On June 10 at Slammiversary , Kim lost the title to Miss Tessmacher , ending her reign at 210 days . Kim received her rematch for the title on the July 12 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was again defeated by Tessmacher .
= = = = Various feuds and alliance with Lei 'D Tapa ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
On January 13 , 2013 , at the Genesis pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kim competed in a five @-@ woman gauntlet match to determine the number one contender to the TNA Knockouts Championship . Kim eliminated Miss Tessmacher , ODB and Mickie James but was eventually eliminated by Velvet Sky after referee Taryn Terrell failed to notice Kim 's foot under the ropes . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim received a rematch for Sky 's number one contendership , but was again defeated . Kim was defeated on the February 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , in a fatal four – way elimination match for the Knockouts Championship against champion Tara , Miss Tessmacher , and Velvet Sky after physical involvement from referee Taryn Terrell .
On March 10 at Lockdown , Kim unsuccessfully challenged Sky for her Knockouts Championship , after being assaulted by referee Taryn Terrell , who Kim slapped during the match . Afterwards , Kim attacked Terrell backstage during an interview . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Terrell was placed on probation due to her actions . Later that night , Kim and Tara were defeated by Mickie James and Velvet Sky in a match officiated by Terrell , after Terrell violated her probation by slapping Kim . On the March 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , Terrell was terminated as Knockouts referee by Brooke Hogan , who then immediately signed Terrell to the Knockouts roster , after which Terrell attacked Kim . On the April 4 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Tara defeated Terrell and Sky , with Kim pinning Terrell for the win due to a fast count by special guest referee Joey Ryan . Terrell defeated Kim in singles competition on the April 11 episode of Impact Wrestling . The rivalry between Kim and Terrell culminated in a Last Knockout Standing match on June 2 at Slammiversary XI , which Terrell won .
On the July 11 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim defeated Terrell in a ladder match to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship . Kim received her title opportunity on the July 25 episode of Impact Wrestling , against champion Mickie James ; Kim lost the match and afterwards , confronted referee ODB after she failed to see a dirty pin , beginning a feud between the two . The following week , Kim fought ODB to double count @-@ out . On August 15 at Impact Wrestling : Hardcore Justice , ODB pinned Kim in a three @-@ way hardcore match , which also included James . Kim and ODB faced off once again in a number one contender two out of three falls match on the August 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , which ODB won after making Kim submit for the first time ever in her career , to score the last fall . On October 20 at Bound for Glory , Kim defeated ODB and Brooke a three @-@ way match , following interference from her new ally Lei 'D Tapa , to win her third TNA Knockouts Championship .
Kim made her first televised defense on the October 31 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating ODB in a rematch . Kim defeated three challengers through November and December . When Kim and Tapa attacked ODB on the December 12 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim 's former tag team partner Madison Rayne returned to help ODB . Kim was defeated by Rayne on the January 2 , 2014 episode of Impact Wrestling .
Rayne received her championship match on January 16 at Impact Wrestling : Genesis , which she won , ending Kim 's reign at 88 days . The rivalry between Kim and Rayne continued as the two competed in a street fight on the February 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , which Kim won after a distraction by Tapa . On March 2 , both Kim defeated Rayne in a non @-@ title match for Wrestle @-@ 1 's Kaisen : Outbreak event in Tokyo , Japan . A week later at Lockdown , Kim was unsuccessful in regaining the TNA Knockouts Championship in a steel cage match . On the March 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , tension between Kim and Tapa began to show when Kim lost to the debuting Brittany after Tapa accidentally attacked Kim . After the match , a brawl between Kim and Tapa ensued , disbanding their alliance . Subsequently , Kim defeated Tapa twice , on Impact Wrestling and TNA Xplosion , ending Tapa 's TNA career .
= = = = Championship reigns ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the April 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim competed in a four – way match to determine the next # 1 contender to Madison Rayne 's TNA Knockouts Championship , which would be won by Angelina Love . Kim turned face , for the first time since her return to the company , when she saved Rayne from an attack from The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) on the April 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , but later lost a tag team match against The Beautiful People with Rayne as her partner . Kim and Love would continue their feud , attacking each other on different occasions . On the June 12 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim defeated Brittany and Madison Rayne to become the number one contender to Love 's championship . Kim faced Love for the championship on June 15 at Slammiversary , but she was unsuccessful in winning the title .
On the June 26 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim teamed with her former rival Taryn Terrell in a tag team match against Love and Sky in a winning effort , when Kim pinned Love . Because of the win , Kim received a rematch against Love for the Knockouts Championship on the July 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , where Kim would win the championship for a fourth time . In her first title defense , Kim successfully retained her championship against Love , Madison Rayne and Brittany in a four @-@ way match on the July 10 episode of Impact Wrestling . Kim successfully defended her title against Velvet Sky on the July 24 episode of TNA Xplosion . On the July 31 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim successfully defended her championship against Taryn Terrell after the match went to a no @-@ contest due to interference from The Beautiful People . After choosing them as her opponents the previous week , Kim successfully retained her title against Terrell , Love and Sky in a four @-@ way match on the August 14 episode of Impact Wrestling . Following a backstage attack by Love , on a special Hardcore Justice edition of Impact Wrestling , Kim ended her feud with The Beautiful People when she defeated Love in a Last Knockout Standing match with her Knockouts Championship on the line .
Kim successfully defended her title against Taryn Terrell on the September 3 episode of Impact Wrestling . After the match , Kim and Terrell were both attacked by the debuting Havok . Kim and Havok brawled on the following edition of Impact Wrestling . In September , Kim injured her shoulder during a pre @-@ match brawl with Havok . Going against doctors advice , Kim defended her title later that night and lost her championship to Havok . Soon after , it was announced that Kim had suffered a separated shoulder and torn ligaments at the hands of Havok , and would be out of action indefinitely . Kim returned to Impact Wrestling in November , however her shoulder was not fully healed . Despite this , she demanded her rematch for the Knockouts title against Havok , which Kim would ultimately lose .
On the January 30 , 2015 episode of Impact Wrestling , in a three – way match for the Knockouts Championship , Kim and Madison Rayne lost to the defending champion , Taryn Terrell . On the May 1 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim started an alliance with Awesome Kong to feud with Terrell , Jade and Marti Bell , collectively known as The Dollhouse . The following week , Kim and Kong were defeated by The Dollhouse in a three – on – two handicap match . Kim sustained an arm injury on the May 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , after unsuccessfully challenging Terrell for the Knockouts Championship in a steel cage match , and was attacked by The Dollhouse afterwards .
After some hiatus , Kim returned on the July 15 episode of Impact Wrestling , portraying a superhero @-@ like character and attacking Jade , which allowed Brooke to win the Knockouts Championship . On the September 16 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim won her fifth Knockouts Championship by winning a four @-@ way match also involving Brooke , Lei 'D Tapa and Awesome Kong . Kim went on to defend and successfully retain the championship against Kong at Bound for Glory on October 4 . During October and November ( taped in July ) , she participated in the TNA World Title Series , where she ended first of her block , tied with Awesome Kong , advancing to the finals. on the December 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim lost to the then current TNA X Division Championship Tigre Uno and was eliminated from the TNA World Title Series . On January 19 , 2016 , Kim defended her title against Awesome Kong . She then lost her title to Jade in a three way match also involving Madison Rayne after Maria hit Kim with her title belt on the April 5 .
Two weeks later , Kim was kidnapped by Decay while participating in a Knockouts control Ladder Match ( won by Maria ) and was released for a tag team title match . On the following week , Kim was forced by Maria to fight Rosemary and was defeated by her after Maria distracted Earl Hebner . On the May 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim faced Jade for the Knockouts championship , which she lost by DQ after Sienna attacked them . On the May 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim defeated Sienna to keep her job , only to be attacked by Sienna and Maria . A week after , with EC3 as a manager for the night , Gail received a match against Maria at Slammiversary and immediately after went on to win a tag team match , teaming up with Jade against Sienna and Allie . At Slammiversary , her match with an injured Maria turned into a Triple Threat match for the TNA Knockouts Championship between her , Jade and Sienna ( who eventually won the match ) .
= = = = TNA Hall of Fame ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
On June 14th , she was announced as the first female inductee into the TNA Hall of Fame .
= = Personal life = =
Prior to signing with WWE , Kim underwent breast augmentation surgery . After signing , she had her implants enlarged . While performing for WWE , one of her implants ruptured , which resulted in her being sidelined for two weeks .
Kim married celebrity chef Robert Irvine on May 10 , 2012 . The couple met on the set of Dinner : Impossible .
= = Other media = =
Kim posed topless for a cell phone ad campaign in South Korea . In 2007 , Kim was listed on Forbes ' top 40 list of " America 's Most Eligible Bachelorettes " . In 2009 , Kim was a part of the cast of the independent psychological thriller entitled Royal Kill . On October 13 , 2011 , Gail Kim , along with The Miz , John Morrison , Kofi Kingston , Heath Slater and Eve Torres appeared on a special WWE edition of Family BrainSurge . On August 18 , 2012 , Kim 's and Robert Irvine 's wedding ceremony was documented on an episode of Irvine 's Restaurant : Impossible program .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Air Raid Crash ( Over the shoulder back @-@ to @-@ belly piledriver ) – TNA
Christo / Flying Dragon ( Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl headscissors armbar ) – 2002 – present
Eat Defeat ( Inverted stomp facebreaker ) – 2009 – present
Happy Ending ( Straight jacket neckbreaker slam ) – TNA ; used as a signature move in WWE
Hurricanrana pin – WWE ; 2002 – 2004
Signature moves
Multiple clothesline variations
Corner
Leaping
Running
Mutiple crossbody variationsReverse
Running
Springboard
Multiple diving maneuvers Hurricanrana
Neckbreaker – TNA ; 2006 – 2008
Splash – TNA ; 2007 – 2008
Senton splash
Double knee facebreaker
Dragon sleeper
Front missile dropkick
Headscissors takedown
Horizontal body avalanche
Over @-@ the @-@ shoulder single leg Boston crab
Running neckbreaker drop
Ringpost figure @-@ four leglock – adopted from Bret Hart
Roundhouse kick
Spear – TNA ; 2008
Springboard arm drag
Still Life ( Arm @-@ trap Argentine leglock / neckscissors combination ) – WWE ; 2003 – 2004
Toronto Slam ( Double leg slam )
Managers
America 's Most Wanted
Karen Jarrett
Madison Rayne
Lei 'D Tapa
Wrestlers managed
America 's Most Wanted
Molly Holly
Petey Williams
Jeff Jarrett
Eve Torres
Daniel Bryan
Lei 'D Tapa
Entrance themes
" International Woman " by Dara Shindler ( WWE ; 2002 – 2004 )
" Unstoppable " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; 2005 – 2008 , 2011 )
" Strong and Sexy " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; 2009 – 2011 )
" Puppet ( s ) on a String " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; 2011 – 2012 [ Instrumental ] , 2012 – 2013 [ With Lyrics ] , 2013 – present [ Sword Intro ] )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Apocalypse Wrestling Federation
Diva of the Year ( 2001 )
Association Biterroise de Catch
ABC Women 's Championship ( 1 time , current )
Funkin ' Conservatory
FC Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Imperial Wrestling Revolution
IWR Diamonds Division Championship ( 1 time , current )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 1 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2012
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA Knockouts Championship ( 5 times )
TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Madison Rayne
Knockout of the Year ( 2007 )
Gauntlet for the Gold ( 2007 – Knockouts )
Queen of the Knockouts ( 2013 )
TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2015 ) – with Jeff Hardy , Gunner , Rockstar Spud , Davey Richards & Crazzy Steve
TNA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2016 )
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
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= Cuthbert of Canterbury =
Cuthbert ( died 26 October 760 ) was a medieval Anglo @-@ Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury in England . Prior to his elevation to Canterbury , he was abbot of a monastic house , and perhaps may have been Bishop of Hereford also , but evidence for his holding Hereford mainly dates from after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 . While Archbishop , he held church councils and built a new church in Canterbury . It was during Cuthbert 's archbishopric that the Diocese of York was raised to an archbishopric . Cuthbert died in 760 and was later regarded as a saint .
= = Early life and Hereford = =
Of noble birth , Cuthbert is first recorded as the Abbot of Lyminge , from where he was elevated to the See of Hereford in 736 . The identification of the Cuthbert who was Bishop of Hereford with the Cuthbert who became archbishop , however , comes from Florence of Worcester and other post @-@ Conquest sources . The contemporary record in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle says that Cuthbert was consecrated archbishop , where if he had been Bishop of Hereford , he would have been translated . No consecration is needed when a bishop is translated from one see to another . Given the nature of the sources , the identification of the bishop of Hereford with the archbishop of Canterbury , while likely , must not be regarded as proven .
If Cuthbert was at Hereford , he served in that capacity for four years before his elevation to the See of Canterbury in 740 . He is credited with the composition of an epitaph for the tomb of his three predecessors at Hereford . The cathedral church of the see may not even have been located at Hereford by Cuthbert 's time .
Whoever Cuthbert was prior to his election to Canterbury , he probably owed his selection as archbishop to the influence of Æthelbald , King of Mercia . A number of Mercians were appointed to Canterbury during the 730s and 740s , which suggests that Mercian authority was expanding into Kent .
= = Canterbury = =
Cuthbert was the recipient of a long letter from Boniface who complained about the lax morals of the clergy in the British Isles , and too much drinking of alcohol by the Anglo @-@ Saxon bishops . Cuthbert also sent letters to Lull who was Archbishop of Mainz and a native of England . During Cuthbert 's time as archbishop he no longer claimed authority over all of Britain , like his predecessor Theodore . Pope Gregory III in 735 had sent a pallium to the bishop of York , raising the see of York to the status of an archbishopric . As a sign of the enhanced status of York , Cuthbert only consecrated bishops south of the Humber and his synods were attended only by bishops from the south of England .
Cuthbert presided over the Council of Clovesho in 747 along with Æthelbald of Mercia . This gathering mandated that all clergy should explain the basic tenets of Christianity to the laity , as well as legislating on clerical dress , control of monasteries , and the behavior of the clergy . It also mandated that each diocese hold a synod to proclaim the decisions of the council . Cuthbert sent his deacon Cynebert to Pope Gregory III after the council with a report on the council and its resolutions . This action may have been taken in response to Boniface 's complaints about Cuthbert and Æthelbald to the papacy . The actions of the council were also gathered into a collection at Cuthbert 's command .
After the council , Cuthbert continued to correspond with Boniface up until Boniface 's martyrdom in 754 , and then sent condolences to Boniface 's successor . Cuthbert held a second synod in 758 , but nothing is known of any enactments it made . He also built the church of St. John the Baptist in Canterbury , which was destroyed by fire in 1067 . He was buried in his new church . The new church was located on the west side of the cathedral , and was used as a baptistery . The church also became a burial site for many of the archbishops , and later was used for trials by ordeal . There is no explicit contemporary reference that states that these uses were intended by Cuthbert , but the fact that the church was dedicated to St. John the Baptist argues strongly that Cuthbert at least intended the new building as a baptistery .
The burial practices of the archbishops did change after Cuthbert , but it is not clear whether this was intended by Cuthbert , as a Post @-@ Conquest Canterbury cartulary has it , or due to other reasons , unconnected with Cuthbert . Although Sonia Hawkes argues that the change in burial customs , which extended over most of Britain , resulted from Cuthbert 's mandating burial in church yards , instead of outside the city limits as had been the custom previously . However , the main evidence for this theory is a 16th @-@ century tradition at Canterbury and the archaeological evidence of a change in burial patterns . Although a change did occur , the archaeological evidence does not give a reason why this change happened , and given the late date of the Canterbury tradition , the theory cannot be considered proven .
= = Death and legacy = =
Cuthbert died on 26 October 760 , and was later considered a saint with a feast day of 26 October . He was buried in his church of St. John , and was the first Archbishop of Canterbury that was not buried in St Augustine 's Abbey . His letters to the Anglo @-@ Saxon missionaries on the European continent show him to have been highly educated .
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= Gerðr =
In Norse mythology , Gerðr ( Old Norse " fenced @-@ in " ) is a jötunn , goddess , and the wife of the god Freyr . Gerðr is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; the Prose Edda and Heimskringla , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; and in the poetry of skalds . Gerðr is sometimes modernly anglicized as Gerd or Gerth .
In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda , Freyr sees Gerðr from a distance , becomes deeply lovesick at the sight of her shimmering beauty , and has his servant Skírnir go to Jötunheimr ( where Gerðr and her father Gymir reside ) to gain her love . In the Poetic Edda Gerðr initially refuses , yet after a series of threats by Skírnir she finally agrees . In the Prose Edda , no mention of threats are made . In both sources , Gerðr agrees to meet Freyr at a fixed time at the location of Barri and , after Skírnir returns with Gerðr 's response , Freyr laments that the meeting could not occur sooner . In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda , Gerðr is described as the daughter of Gymir and the mountain jötunn Aurboða .
In Heimskringla , Gerðr is recorded as the wife of Freyr , euhemerized as having been a beloved king of Sweden . In the same source , the couple are the founders of the Yngling dynasty and produced a son , Fjölnir , who rose to kinghood after Freyr 's passing and continued their line . Gerðr is commonly theorized to be a goddess associated with the earth . Gerðr inspired works of art and literature .
= = Attestations = =
Gerðr is attested in two poems in the Poetic Edda , in two books of the Prose Edda , and in two books in Heimskringla .
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Skírnismál , the god Freyr sat on the high seat Hlidskjalf and looked into all worlds . Freyr saw a beautiful girl walking from the hall of her father to a storehouse . Freyr became heartsick for the girl . Freyr has a page named Skírnir . Freyr 's father Njörðr and , in verse , the goddess Skaði tells Skírnir to find out what troubles Freyr . An exchange occurs between Freyr and Skírnir in verse , where Freyr tells Skírnir that he has seen a wondrous girl with shining arms at the home of ( her father ) Gymir , yet that the gods and elves do not wish for the two to be together :
Skírnir requests that Freyr give him a horse and Freyr 's sword ; a sword which fights jötnar by itself . Under the cover of darkness , Skírnir rides the horse over nations and dew @-@ covered mountains until he reaches Jötunheimr , the home of the jötnar , and proceeds to Gymir 's courts . Ferocious dogs are tied before the wooden fence that surrounds Gerðr 's hall . Skírnir rides out to a herdsman ( unnamed ) sitting on a mound , greets him , and asks the herdsman how he may speak to the maiden beyond Gymir 's dogs . An exchange occurs between the herdsman and Skírnir , during which the herdsman tells Skírnir that he will never speak to the girl .
Hearing a terrible noise in her dwellings , Gerðr asks where it is coming from , noting that the earth trembles and that all of Gymir 's courts shake . A serving maid ( unnamed ) notes that outside a man has dismounted his horse and has let it graze . Gerðr tells the serving maid to invite the man to come into their hall and to partake of some of their " famous mead , " yet Gerðr expresses fear that the man outside may be her " brother 's slayer " .
Gerðr asks the stranger if he is of the elves , Æsir , or the Vanir , and why he comes alone " over the wild fire " to seek their company . Skírnir responds that he is of none of these groups , yet that he has indeed sought her out . Skírnir offers Gerðr 11 golden apples ( or apples of eternal life , in a common emendation ) to gain her favor . Gerðr rejects the apples — no matter who offers them — and adds that neither will she and Freyr be together as long as they live . Skírnir offers Gerðr a ring , here unnamed , that produces eight more gold rings every ninth night and " was burned with Odin 's young son " . Gerðr responds that she is not interested in the ring , for she shares her father 's property , and Gymir has no lack of gold .
= = = = Threats = = = =
Skírnir turns to threats ; he points out to Gerðr that he holds a sword in his hand and he threatens to cut her head from her neck unless she agrees . Gerðr refuses ; she says that she will not endure the coercion of any man , and says that if Gymir encounters Skírnir then a battle can be expected . Skírnir again reminds Gerðr of his blade and predicts that Gerðr 's jötunn father will meet his doom with it . Skírnir warns Gerðr that he will strike her with his Gambanteinn , a wand , that it will tame her to his desires , and says that she will never again be seen by " the sons of men " . From early morning , Gerðr will sit on an eagle 's mound , looking outward to the world , facing Hel , and that " food shall be more hateful to you than to every man is the shining serpent among men " .
Skírnir declares that when Gerðr comes out she will be a spectacle ; Hrímgrímnir will " glare " at her , " everything " will stare at her , she will become more famous than the watchman of the gods , and that she will " gape through the bars " . Gerðr will experience " madness and howling , tearing affliction and unbearable desire " and that , in grief , tears will flow from her . Skírnir tells Gerðr to sit down , for her fate will be even worse yet . She will be harassed by fiends all her weary days . From the court of jötnar to the halls of the hrimthurs , Gerðr shall everyday crawl without choice , nor hope of choice . Gerðr will weep rather than feel joy , suffering tearfully . She will live the rest of her life in misery with a three @-@ headed thurs or otherwise be without a man altogether . Skírnir commands for Gerðr 's mind to be seized , that she may waste away with pining , and that she be as the thistle at the end of the harvest ; crushed .
Skírnir says that he has been to a wood to get a " potent branch " , which he found . He declares that the gods Odin and Thor are angry with Gerðr , and that Freyr will hate her ; she has " brought down the potent wrath of the gods " . Skírnir declares to the hrimthursar , thursar , the sons of Suttungr , and the " troops of the Æsir " that he has denied both pleasure and benefit from men to Gerðr . Skírnir details that the thurs 's name who will own her below the gates of Nágrind is Hrímgrímnir and that there , at the roots of the world , the finest thing Gerðr will be given to drink is the urine of goats . He carves " thurs " ( the runic character * thurisaz ) on Gerðr and three runes ( unnamed ) symbolizing lewdness , frenzy , and unbearable desire , and comments that he can rub them off just as he has carved them — if he wishes .
Gerðr responds with a welcome to Skírnir and tells him to take a crystal cup containing ancient mead , noting that she thought she would never love one of the Vanir . Skírnir asks her when she will meet with Freyr . Gerðr says that they shall meet at a tranquil location called Barri , and that after nine nights she will there grant Freyr her love :
Skírnir rides home . Standing outside , Freyr immediately greets Skírnir and asks for news . Skírnir tells him that Gerðr says she will meet with him at Barri . Freyr , impatient , comments that one night is long , as is two nights , and questions how he will bear three , noting that frequently a month seemed shorter than half a night before being with Gerðr .
A stanza in the poem Lokasenna refers to Gerðr . In the poem , Loki accuses the god Freyr of having purchased Gymir 's daughter ( Gerðr ) with gold and comments that , in the process , Freyr gave away his sword . Referring to Freyr as a " wretch " , Loki then posits how Freyr intends to fight when the Sons of Muspell ride over the wood Myrkviðr ( an event during Ragnarök ) . Freyr 's servant , Byggvir , interjects and the poem continues .
In the poem Hyndluljóð , Óttar 's ancestry is recounted and information is provided about the gods . One stanza that actually belongs to Völuspá hin skamma relates that Freyr and Gerðr were married , that Gerðr is the daughter of the jötunn Gymir , that Gerðr 's mother is Aurboða , and that they are related to Þjazi ( the nature of the kinship is not specified ) — father of the goddess and jötunn Skaði .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In chapter 37 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , Gerðr is introduced by the enthroned figure of High as the daughter of Gymir and the mountain jötunn Aurboða , and is described as " the most beautiful of all women " . High reports that Freyr went into Hlidskjalf and looked over all worlds . When Freyr looked to the north he saw a distant homestead with a large and magnificent building . A woman went to the building , and when she lifted her arms and opened the door to the building " light was shed from her arms over both sky and sea , and all worlds were made bright by her " . In punishment for " his great presumption " in having sat in the holy seat , Freyr went away filled with grief .
Freyr arrives home and neither sleeps nor drinks , remaining in silence . No one dares speak to him . The god Njörðr sends Freyr 's servant Skírnir to speak to Freyr . Freyr tells Skírnir that he saw a beautiful woman , so beautiful that he was filled with grief and that he would soon die if he could not have her . Freyr tells Skírnir that he must go gain her hand on his behalf — whether the woman 's father agrees or not — and he will be rewarded . Skírnir replies that he accepts the mission but only in exchange for Freyr 's sword , which can fight on its own . Freyr gives him the sword and Skírnir sets off . Skírnir asks for the woman 's hand for Freyr and receives her promise . Nine nights later she is to meet with Freyr at a location called Barey . Skírnir delivers the news to Freyr and Freyr responds with the final stanza from the Poetic Edda poem Skírnismál , lamenting that he must wait .
At the beginning of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , eight goddesses are listed as attending a feast held by Ægir on the island of Hlesy ( modernly Læsø , Denmark ) , including Gerðr . In chapter 19 , different ways of referring to the goddess Frigg are provided . One of these names is " rival of Gerðr " ; however , this is probably a scribal error ( see " Theories " section below ) . In chapter 57 , various goddesses are listed , including Gerðr ( between Snotra and Gefjon ) .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
In chapter 12 of Ynglinga saga ( as collected in Heimskringla ) , an euhemerized prose account relates that Freyr was a much loved king in what is now Sweden . Freyr 's wife was Gerðr and their son was Fjölnir . Gerðr 's fate is not provided , but after Freyr 's death their son goes on to become king and their family line , the Ynglings , continues . In a verse stanza found in chapter 16 of Haralds saga Gráfeldar , Gerðr is mentioned in a kenning for " woman " ( " Gerðr @-@ of @-@ gold @-@ rings " ) .
= = Archaeological record = =
Small pieces of gold foil featuring engravings dating from the Migration Period into the early Viking Age ( known as gullgubber ) have been discovered in various locations in Scandinavia , almost 2 @,@ 500 at one location . The foil pieces have been found largely at sites of buildings , only rarely in graves . The figures are sometimes single , occasionally an animal , sometimes a man and a woman with a leafy bough between them , facing or embracing one another . The human figures are almost always clothed and are sometimes depicted with their knees bent . Scholar Hilda Ellis Davidson says that it has been suggested that the figures are partaking in a dance , and that they may have been connected with weddings , as well as linked to the Vanir group of gods , representing the notion of a divine marriage , such as in the Poetic Edda poem Skírnismál ; the coming together of Gerðr and Freyr .
= = Theories = =
= = = " Rival of Frigg " = = =
In chapter 19 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Gerðr is listed among " rivals " of the goddess Frigg , a list of sexual partners of Frigg 's husband , Odin . Instead of Gerðr , the jötunn Gríðr , mother of Odin 's son Víðarr according to the Prose Edda , was probably intended . One manuscript has Gríðr corrected to Gerðr . Andy Orchard notes that it may nonetheless be an intentional inclusion in view of " Odin 's notorious appetites " .
= = = Earth and fertility = = =
Scholar John Lindow comments that Gerðr 's name has been etymologically associated with the earth and enclosures and that the wedding of Gerðr and Freyr is commonly seen as " the divine coupling of sky and earth or at least fertility god and representative of the soil . " Lindow adds that , at the same time , the situation can be read as simply the gods getting what they want from the jötnar .
Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that Gerðr 's role in Skírnismál has parallels with the goddess Persephone from Greek mythology , " since it is made clear that if [ Gerðr ] remains below in the dark kingdom of the underworld there will be nothing to hope for but sterility and famine . She does not become the bride of the underworld , however ; her bridal is to be in the upper world when she consents to meet Freyr at Barri . "
= = Modern influence = =
Gerðr has inspired works of art and literature . The Danish poet Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger wrote a series of poems referencing Gerðr as collected in ( 1819 ) Nordens Guder . Esaias Tegnér 's ( 1782 – 1846 ) unfinished epic poem Gerda also references the goddess . K. Ehrenberg depicted the goddess in his illustration ( 1883 ) Freyr und Gerda , Skade und Niurd .
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= New York State Route 9M =
New York State Route 9M ( NY 9M ) was a state highway in Warren County , New York , in the United States . It was a spur route of U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) that largely followed the eastern bank of the Schroon River . The southern terminus of the route was at NY 8 in the town of Horicon near the hamlet of Starbuckville . Its northern terminus was at US 9 in the Chester hamlet of Pottersville . NY 9M was known as East Schroon River Road and Glendale Road and crossed over the southern tip of Schroon Lake .
NY 9M was assigned c . 1931 to what had been designated as legislative Route 22 @-@ c from 1913 to 1921 . It lasted for less than a decade as it was removed c . 1939 . Its former routing is now maintained by Warren County as part of three county routes , namely County Route 55 ( CR 55 ) , CR 62 , and County Route 64 .
= = Route description = =
NY 9M began at an intersection with NY 8 ( now CR 53 ) north of the hamlet of Starbuckville in the town of Horicon . The route followed Valentine Pond Road north for a negligible distance , then progressed westward along the eastern bank of the Schroon River on East Schroon River Road . Across the river , Carl Turner Road , a locally maintained highway , followed a routing parallel to that of NY 9M on the other shore . Both roads gradually curved northward , mirroring a similar turn in the river 's course . Carl Turner Road came to an end here ; however , NY 9M continued on . Near a junction with modern @-@ day Short Street , NY 9M began to deviate from the river .
North of Short Street , NY 9M curved back to the northwest , passing Smith Pond and traveling through woodlands as it approached Schroon Lake . It then crossed over the southern tip of the lake and entered the town of Chester on the opposite bank . The route came to an end shortly afterward at a junction with US 9 in the hamlet of Pottersville .
= = History = =
In 1913 , the New York State Legislature created Route 22 @-@ c , an unsigned legislative route extending 4 @.@ 80 miles ( 7 @.@ 72 km ) from State Highway 1023 ( later NY 8 and now CR 53 ) near Starbuckville to legislative Route 22 ( modern US 9 ) in Pottersville . The Route 22 @-@ c designation was eliminated on March 1 , 1921 , as part of a partial renumbering of New York 's legislative route system . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways that did not have a signed designation were assigned one . The former routing of legislative Route 22 @-@ c was designated as NY 9M by the following year . NY 9M was short @-@ lived , however , as it ceased to exist c . 1939 . Its former routing is now maintained by Warren County as CR 55 from former NY 8 ( CR 53 ) to East Schroon River Road , CR 64 from Valentine Pond Road to East Shore Road , and CR 62 from East Shore Road to US 9 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Warren County .
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= Japanese ironclad Kongō =
Kongō ( 金剛 , Kongō ) was the lead ship of the Kongō @-@ class ironclad corvettes built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1870s . The class was built in the United Kingdom because such ships could not yet be constructed in Japan . Completed in 1878 , Kongō briefly served with the Small Standing Fleet before becoming a training ship in 1887 , thereafter making training cruises to the Mediterranean and to countries on the edge of the Pacific Ocean . The ship returned to active duty during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where she participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei . Kongō resumed her training duties after the war , though she also played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . The ship was reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 and was sold for scrap in 1910 .
= = Design and description = =
During the brief Japanese occupation of Taiwan in 1874 , tensions heightened between China and Japan , and the possibility of war impressed on the Japanese government the need to reinforce its navy . The following year the government placed an order for the armored frigate Fusō and the Kongō @-@ class corvettes Kongō and Hiei — with British shipyards as no Japanese shipyard was able to build ships of this size . All three ships were designed by British naval architect Sir Edward Reed ,
The contract for Kongō was awarded to Earle 's Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. in Hull , England on 24 September 1875 for the price of £ 120 @,@ 750 , exclusive of armament . The vessel was named for Mount Kongō .
Kongō was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . She had a forward draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and drew 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) aft . The ship displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 22 officers and 212 enlisted men . Her hull was of composite construction with an iron framework planked with wood .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Kongō had a single two @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine , driving a single propeller using steam from six cylindrical boilers . The engine was designed to produce 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) to give the Kongō @-@ class ironclads a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . During her sea trials on 7 December 1877 , the ship reached a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 73 knots ( 25 @.@ 43 km / h ; 15 @.@ 80 mph ) from 2 @,@ 450 ihp ( 1 @,@ 830 kW ) , enough to earn the builder a bonus of £ 300 . She carried enough coal to steam 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ironclad was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 14 @,@ 036 square feet ( 1 @,@ 304 m2 ) . The ship was reboilered at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1889 ; the new boilers proved to be less powerful during sea trials , with Kongō reaching a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 46 knots ( 23 @.@ 08 km / h ; 14 @.@ 34 mph ) from 2 @,@ 028 ihp ( 1 @,@ 512 kW ) . Her topmasts were removed in 1895 .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Kongō was fitted with three 172 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and six RBL 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) Krupp guns . All of the 172 @-@ millimeter guns were positioned as chase guns , two forward and one aft . The 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the broadside . The ship also carried two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns for use ashore or mounted on the ships ' boats .
During the 1880s , the armament of the ship was reinforced with the addition of four quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt and two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfelt machine guns for defense against torpedo boats . Around the same time she also received two 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes . The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was again reinforced in 1897 by the addition of a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Kongō 's armament was reduced to six ex @-@ Russian 12 @-@ pounder guns and six 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounders .
The Kongō @-@ class corvettes had a wrought @-@ iron armor waterline belt 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = History = =
Japanese sources universally give the date for Kongō 's keel @-@ laying as 24 September 1875 — the same as that for the awarding of the contract — but historian Hans Langerer describes this as improbable , arguing that no shipyard would order enough material to begin construction without cash in hand . Kongō was launched on 17 April 1877 ; the wife of a secretary in the Japanese Legation cut the retaining rope with a hammer and chisel . Completed in January 1878 , Kongō sailed for Japan on 18 February under the command of a British captain and with a British crew because the IJN was not yet ready for such a long voyage . She arrived in Yokohama on 26 April and was classified as a Third Class Warship on 4 May . On 10 July a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama for the receipt of the ship that was attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ship was opened for tours by the nobility , their families and invited guests for three days after the ceremony . On 14 July , the general public was allowed to tour the ship for a week .
Kongō hosted the Duke of Genoa when he visited Japan in late 1879 . The ship was assigned to the Small Standing Fleet in 1885 and made port visits to Port Arthur and Chefoo in China and Jinsen in Korea the following year . She became a training ship in 1887 for the Kure Naval District . Together with her sister ship Hiei , Kongō sailed from Shinagawa , Tokyo on 13 August 1889 on a training cruise to the Mediterranean with cadets from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy , returning on 2 February 1890 . On 5 October , the sister ships departed Shinagawa for Kobe to pick up the 69 survivors of the wrecked Ottoman frigate Ertuğrul , transporting them to their homeland at Constantinople , Turkey , on 2 January 1891 , after which the ships ' officers were received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The ships also carried a class of naval cadets on this mission . On the return voyage , the two corvettes made port at Piraeus where they were visited by King George I of Greece and his son , Crown Prince Constantine . Making stops at Alexandria , Port Said , Aden , Colombo , Singapore and Hong Kong , the sister ships arrived at Shinagawa on 10 May where Kongō resumed her training duties .
Kongō began another cadet cruise on 24 September 1892 and visited Vancouver and San Francisco . On her return voyage she stopped at Honolulu and was present during the Hawaiian Revolution of 1893 . Though playing no part in the affair , she remained there to protect Japanese interests until relieved by the cruiser Naniwa and reached home on 22 April . Kongō began another cadet cruise on 19 April 1894 , but on arrival at Honolulu , transferred her cadets to the cruiser Takachiho on 16 June and relieved Takachiho as the patrol ship . Kongō 's tenure there was brief as she was recalled home on 5 July due to rising tensions ahead of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War . She did not participate in the Battle of the Yalu River in September , but was present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in January – February 1895 .
After the war , Kongō and Hiei alternated annual cadet training cruises , with Kongō making the 1896 cruise to China and Southeast Asia from 11 April to 16 September and the 1898 cruise to Australia from 17 March to 16 September . During the latter cruise , on 21 March 1898 , she was re @-@ designated as a 3rd @-@ class coast defense ship , although she retained her training duties . Kongō made the 1900 cruise to Manila , Hong Kong and Australia from 21 February to 30 July and both ships made the 1902 cruise , their last , to Manila and Australia from 19 February to 25 August . Kongō played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War before being reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 . She was stricken from the Navy List on 20 July 1909 and sold on 20 May 1910 for scrap .
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= Leges Henrici Primi =
The Leges Henrici Primi or Laws of Henry I is a legal treatise , written in about 1115 , that records the legal customs of medieval England in the reign of King Henry I of England . Although it is not an official document , it was written by someone apparently associated with the royal administration . It lists and explains the laws , and includes explanations of how to conduct legal proceedings . Although its title implies that these laws were issued by King Henry , it lists laws issued by earlier monarchs that were still in force in Henry 's reign ; the only law of Henry that is included is the coronation charter he issued at the start of his reign . It covers a diverse range of subjects , including ecclesiastical cases , treason , murder , theft , feuds , assessment of danegeld , and the amounts of judicial fines .
The work survives in six manuscripts that range in date from about 1200 to around 1330 , belonging to two different manuscript traditions . Besides the six surviving manuscripts , three others were known to scholars in the 17th and 18th centuries , but have not survived to the present day . Two other separate copies may also have existed . The complete work itself was first printed in 1644 , but an earlier partial edition appeared in 1628 . The Leges is the first legal treatise in English history , and has been credited with having the greatest effect on the views of English law before the reign of King Henry II than any other work of its kind .
= = Background and similar works = =
The Leges Henrici Primi or Laws of Henry I is not merely a compilation of laws but an integrated legal treatise , the first such in the history of England , written in the Latin language about 1115 . It records the legal customs of medieval England . It was part of a small group of similar writings devoted to legal procedures that were written for royal administrators . Besides the Leges , other works of this type produced at this time were the Quadripartitus , parts of the Leges Edwardi Regis , the Instituta Cnuti , and the Consiliatio Cnuti . It is possible the Leges Willhelmi was also written during this time period . It is the longest of the legal tracts from its time , and made some effort to be comprehensive .
= = Authorship and title = =
The Leges was written between 1114 and 1118 by an unknown Norman , who is very likely to be the author of another legal work , the Quadripartitus , although some historians , including H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles , argue that the two works were by different authors . The Leges was probably part of a project including the Quadripartitus , the two works being part of a planned work in four volumes to cover not only the laws of the writer 's own time , but previous laws of the Anglo @-@ Saxon monarchs , as well as how to handle legal cases . As part of both works , the author has included the Charter of Liberties , which was King Henry 's coronation charter promising not to follow the administrative and legal policies of his predecessor , King William II . About a third of the material in the Leges is also in the Quadripartitus . There is evidence that the author of the two works had been a member of the household of Gerard , who had been chancellor under Kings William I and William II before becoming Archbishop of York under Henry I. The work was likely composed at Winchester .
Usually the work has been known as the Leges Henrici Primi , or Laws of Henry the First . It gained that name from the inscription " De libertate ecclesie et totius Anglie obseruanda leges Henrici primi " which occurs on five of the six extant manuscripts . The sixth manuscript adds " filii conquestoris " at the end of the inscription . The historian Felix Libermann called the work Leges Henrici , but the fuller title of Leges Henrici Primi is generally used to help differentiate which Henry is being referred to .
= = Contents = =
The work is not a law code issued by King Henry , but a compilation of already extant legislation that was still current during his reign . It is not a comprehensive listing of all laws that were in force during the early 11th century . It begins with Henry 's Charter of Liberties , which he issued after his coronation , and this is the only actual legal document reproduced in the Leges . Some discussions of juridical matters then follow , then a long treatment of ecclesiastical issues . The rest of the treatise is concerned with non @-@ ecclesiastical subjects , including cases of injury , theft , murder , and feuds . Procedural topics are included , such as how summonses to court should be formed , what notices need to be made before judicial procedures , how adjournments should be handled , and other such concerns . There is no strong organizational framework to the entirety of the Leges , which leads the author to repeat subjects as well as treating some subjects less than adequately .
The law code recognised the difference between the laws of the Danelaw , the old Kingdom of Mercia , and the lands of the Kingdom of Wessex . It also set out a list of legal proceedings that could only be tried before the king or his officials , the cases of which were known as " royal pleas " or " pleas of the crown " ; they included serious crimes such as treason , murder , rape , robbery , arson , and some types of theft . Treasure trove and salvage from wrecks were also matters of interest to the crown . Other royal cases involved counterfeiters or false judgement , or violent acts against the king himself or his household and servants . The king also reserved the right to hear appeals from other courts conducted by local authorities or by his nobles . The tract also set out who should attend the shire court , ruling that the local bishop and earl , as well as the sheriff and local barons , among others , should attend .
The work assumes that the royal legal system would still address some issues that later would have been dealt with by ecclesiastical courts . Clergy are not only to take part in the shire court , but could be summoned to answer charges in the court . It also sets out the various courts that were established and their jurisdiction . It takes for granted that the Anglo @-@ Saxon laws of England are still in effect . It also addresses the administration of forest law under Henry I. Another new concern in the Leges is law covering the roadways and highways .
Another area covered by the work is royal finance , with the Leges setting out the rate of Danegeld , at a rate of one shilling per hide . It also covers judicial fines , setting forth a fine of 46 marks as the penalty for committing murder . The author of the work criticised the royal justices , calling them greedy . It sets out elaborate procedures for the conduct of murder cases , or murdum .
The Leges also devoted some effort to the theory of the law , and attempted to make generalisations about legal procedures and practices . It also contains a number of dicta which became cliches , such as " who unknowingly offends will knowingly amend " and " witness is not needed as to what did not occur , but as to what an accused claims did occur " .
= = Manuscripts = =
The work comes down to the present day in two manuscript traditions , neither one of which contains many manuscripts . There are six surviving manuscripts between the two traditions – that of the manuscript Sc and its copies , and the " London group " . The Sc group is composed of the Sc manuscript itself , which probably dates from about 1225 , and its copy , Hg , which was written about 1250 . Sc is currently part of the Red Book of the Exchequer held by the Public Record Office . Hg is held by the British Library and is catalogued as Hargrave 313 . It consists of folios 5 through 14a of the manuscript .
Four other extant manuscripts belong to the " London " tradition , and three other now @-@ lost manuscripts are also known to have belonged to this grouping . The surviving manuscripts are known as K , Co , Or , and Rs . The three lost manuscripts have been assigned the names of Gi , Sl , and Tw . K is a manuscript currently in the British Library , and was part of the Cotton Library before becoming part of the British Museum then the British Library . Given the catalogue name of Cotton Claudius D II , it is the only illuminated manuscript of the Leges and dates to around 1310 . Co is currently in the Corpus Christi College , Cambridge Library and was part of the Parker Library in the 16th century before being bequeathed to Corpus Christi on Parker 's death . This manuscript dates to around 1320 and is catalogued as Corpus Christi College 70 . The Leges occupies folios 108 through 170 . The manuscript Or was originally part of the Oriel College , Oxford Library but is now part of the Bodleian Library . It dates from around 1330 and is catalogued as Oriel College 46 . The last extant manuscript is Rs , which is currently in the John Rylands Library in Manchester . It was written about 1201 and is catalogued as Rylands lat.155.
The three known but now @-@ lost manuscripts included Gi , which was known in 1721 and was owned by the London Guildhall . It was used by David Wilkins to compile his 1721 work Leges Anglo @-@ Saxonicae as well by Henry Spelman to correct manuscripts used in the Epistola Eleutherii . The Sl manuscript belonged to John Selden in the 17th century , but it is unclear when it was created . It was used by Roger Twysden in his edition of the Leges Henrici Primi . The last securely known lost manuscript is the Tw manuscript , and was used by Twysden in his edition of the Leges , and was perhaps owned by him also .
Possibly two other manuscripts existed but little is known about them . One is often designated Sp , and was used by Spelman for his 1625 Glossarium Archaiollogicum , for which he used three manuscripts of the Leges – Sc , K and one that he does not name but has subsequently been designated as Sp . It appears to have belonged to the London grouping , and may have been Gi rather than a separate manuscript , although Spelman 's description and usage is unclear as to which possibility is most likely . The other possible manuscript was one that Wilkins referred to as " quod iudetur fuisse Archiepiscopi aut Monachorum Cantuar . " but it has not been found in searches of the Lambeth Library and the various Canterbury repositories .
Besides the medieval manuscripts , there are three early modern transcriptions of the work – one from the 16th century now at the Cambridge University Library as manuscript Dd.VI 38 , the second at Trinity College , Cambridge from the 17th century , catlogued as Cambridge O.10,20 , and the last in the British Library as Harley 785 , also dating from the 17th century .
= = Publishing history = =
The first complete printed edition of the Leges was in 1644 , as an appendix to a new edition of the Arcaionomia prepared by Abraham Wheelock . The actual text of the Leges was edited by Twysden . Prior to this , two other scholars , William Lambarde and Spelman , had intended to produce printed editions of the Leges , but were unable to follow through on the project . A portion of the Leges had earlier appeared in Edward Coke 's Institutes of the Laws of England in 1628 . Another edition appeared in 1721 , with Wilkins ' publication of the Leges Anglo @-@ Saxonicae , which built on the work of William Somner between 1645 and 1652 . In 1776 , David Hoüard reprinted Wilkins ' text of the Leges in the Traites sur les coutumes anglo @-@ normandes , and in 1789 another reproduction of Wilkins ' text appeared in Paulus Canciani 's Barbarorum Legs Antiquae .
What is considered the first scholarly discussion of the Leges appeared in 1827 by George Philips , who did not reproduce the entire text in his Englische Reichsund Rechtsgeschichte , but did provide a couple of extracts along with a discussion of the sources of the work and a description of the work . In 1840 , the Record Commission published an edition of the text that had been edited by Richard Price and Benjamin Thorpe . The next major production of the Leges was Felix Liebermann who produced three volumes of Gesetze der Angelsachsen between 1903 and 1916 , with the Leges being one of the legal treatises being reproduced in the Gesetze . A modern translation , with the original Latin text on pages facing the translation , was published in 1972 by the Clarendon Press and edited by L. J. Downer , and includes updated commentary and manuscript information .
= = Legacy and influence = =
The work is an important historical source for the study of the Middle Ages . An edition was published along with other 12th @-@ century legal treatises , in the Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen , and more recently it has been studied by the historian L. J. Downer . The historian Patrick Wormald says of the Leges that it " has had more effect on views of English law before Henry II than any other " .
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= 2001 FA Charity Shield =
The 2001 FA Charity Shield was the 79th FA Charity Shield , an annual football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup . The match was contested between Liverpool , winners of the 2000 – 01 FA Cup and Manchester United , who won the 2000 – 01 Premier League on 12 August 2001 . It was the first Shield match to be held at the Millennium Stadium following the closure of Wembley Stadium for reconstruction .
This was Liverpool 's 19th appearance and Manchester United 's 21st and the 5th time they had met in the competition . The anticipated meeting of Liverpool midfielder Steven Gerrard and new Manchester United signing Juan Sebastián Verón did not occur . Another omission from the Liverpool team was striker Robbie Fowler , who was left out of the matchday squad . New signings for both teams made an appearance , with defender John Arne Riise making his first appearance in English football for Liverpool , while striker Ruud van Nistelrooy made his debut for Manchester United .
Watched by a crowd of 70 @,@ 027 spectators , Liverpool took the lead in the second minute when Gary McAllister scored from a free kick after a foul on Danny Murphy by Roy Keane . Liverpool extended their lead in the 16th minute when striker Michael Owen scored . Manchester United scored in the second half through Van Nistelrooy but were unable to find the equalising goal in the remaining minutes . Thus , Liverpool won the match 2 – 1 to win the Shield for the 14th time . Despite the victory , Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier was realistic about his team 's prospects in the upcoming 2001 – 02 FA Premier League . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson was critical of referee Andy D 'Urso 's performance after he turned down two penalty appeals from his side during the match . Liverpool 's victory marked their 14th success , while the match was United 's fourth consecutive loss in the competition .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Community Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 . Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium was hosting the Shield for the first time ; it took over as the venue for the event while the new Wembley Stadium underwent a six @-@ year renovation between 2001 and 2006 .
Liverpool qualified for the Charity Shield by winning the 2000 – 01 FA Cup . They beat Arsenal 2 – 1 in the final , courtesy of two goals from Michael Owen after Fredrik Ljungberg had given Arsenal the lead . Manchester United qualified by way of winning the 2000 – 01 FA Premier League , their third successive league championship . They finished 10 points clear of second placed Arsenal .
Liverpool were appearing in their 19th match in the competition . They had won seven outright ( 1966 , 1976 , 1979 , 1980 , 1982 , 1988 , 1989 ) , shared five ( 1964 , 1965 , 1974 , 1977 , 1986 , 1990 ) and lost five ( 1922 , 1971 , 1983 , 1984 , 1992 ) . This was Manchester United 's 21st appearance in the competition , they had won 10 ( 1908 , 1911 , 1952 , 1956 , 1957 , 1983 , 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1997 ) , shared four ( 1965 , 1967 , 1977 , 1990 ) and lost six ( 1948 , 1963 , 1985 , 1998 , 1999 , 2000 ) . Liverpool and United had previously contested the Shield four times , with United winning in 1983 and the Shield being shared on the other three occasions in 1965 , 1977 and 1990 .
Before the match , the decision was taken to close the roof on the Millennium Stadium , the first time this had happened in the United Kingdom . Liverpool lined up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation , with new signing John Arne Riise included in the team , while midfielder Steven Gerrard was absent with an ankle injury . There was also no place for striker Robbie Fowler , who was expected to captain the side . Manchester United lined up in a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation , with Paul Scholes playing just off the main striker , Ruud van Nistelrooy , who made his debut for the club . Van Nistelrooy 's fellow new signing , Juan Sebastián Verón , was on international duty with the Argentina national team ; his place in midfield was taken by Nicky Butt .
= = Match = =
= = = First half = = =
Manchester United kicked off the match , but within the first two minutes they had conceded a goal . A foul on Liverpool midfielder Danny Murphy by United captain Roy Keane resulted in a Liverpool penalty , which Gary McAllister subsequently scored to give Liverpool a 1 – 0 lead . Minutes later , Liverpool were awarded a free kick , but McAllister was unable to score , hitting Manchester United 's defensive wall . United had their first chance two minutes later , but Van Nistelrooy miscued his shot in front of goal . In the 11th minute , Liverpool 's lead was almost extended as United midfielder Nicky Butt almost diverted a cross from Riise into his own goal . Five minutes later , Liverpool did extend their lead ; United defender Jaap Stam slipped after Liverpool striker Emile Heskey headed the ball down to Michael Owen , allowing Owen to sidestep Gary Neville and place his shot into the United goal to make the score 2 – 0 . The frustration of the United players was beginning to show and immediately after the goal , Paul Scholes was shown a yellow card for a challenge on Dietmar Hamann .
United 's best chance of the half so far came in the 25th minute . Keane met a free kick from David Beckham with a header , which was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Sander Westerveld . Three minutes later , United felt they should have had a penalty when Mikaël Silvestre 's shot hit the arm of Liverpool defender Stéphane Henchoz , but referee Andy D 'Urso did not award a penalty . Liverpool continued to be dangerous on the attack and came close to extending their lead in the 34th minute ; United goalkeeper Fabien Barthez failed to claim a cross from McAllister and the ball fell to Nick Barmby , but his shot was cleared off the line by Denis Irwin . United came closest to scoring in the 36th minute , but Keane 's shot from 25 yards ( 23 m ) hit the crossbar with Westerveld beaten . United continued to enjoy the majority of the possession , but were unable to make it count as they could not find a way past Liverpool 's defence .
= = = Second half = = =
Manchester United started the second half in attacking fashion , as they had chances immediately . A Silvestre run down the pitch resulted in a pass that found Van Nistelrooy on the edge of the Liverpool penalty area , but his shot went high and wide of the goal . He had another chance a minute later , but despite beating the offside trap set by the Liverpool defence , he could not beat Westerveld , who saved his shot . United 's attacking start to the half was underlined by a third chance in as many minutes , but Scholes ' shot went wide of the Liverpool goal . However , two minutes later , United 's pressure told and they scored . A move that involved Beckham , Keane and Ryan Giggs resulted in the ball being played to Van Nistelrooy , who went around Westerveld and subsequently scored to reduce Liverpool 's lead to 2 – 1 . Beckham came close to levelling the match in the 62nd minute when he had two chances to score ; he was unable to get his shot on target after Liverpool failed to clear a cross from Giggs and he was unable to score with a long @-@ range shot .
In an effort to find the equalising goal , United manager Alex Ferguson moved Giggs from the centre of midfield to the left in order to restore the width of his team and brought on striker Dwight Yorke for Butt . Yorke would spearhead the attack with Van Nistelrooy , a partnership that worked on the club 's pre @-@ season tour of Asia . United had another chance in the 68th minute , but Scholes was unable to beat Westerveld , who saved his shot . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier made his first substitutions of the match soon after ; in an attempt to regain control of possession , he brought on Igor Bišćan and Patrik Berger to replace Barmby and Murphy . Liverpool 's first chance of the half came in the 81st minute , Bišćan and Owen exchanged passes , before Bišćan shot wide of the goal . United went straight on the attack and a goal @-@ bound shot by Keane was saved by Westerveld . Liverpool replaced Riise with defender Jamie Carragher minutes later in order to see out the game . A minute later , referee D 'Urso declined to award United a penalty for the second time when Van Nistelrooy 's shot appeared to be blocked by the arm of Henchoz . United continued to push forward for an equaliser , but a long @-@ range shot by Irwin , which went wide , was their only notable chance before the match ended . Liverpool won 2 – 1 to win the Shield for the 14th time .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The win marked Liverpool 's third consecutive victory against Manchester United , but despite this , manager Houllier refused to get carried away : " At the moment I am worried because the team which has won the Charity Shield in recent years has not won the title , I don 't think you can draw conclusions from this match . " Man of the match Sander Westerveld echoed similar sentiments : " It doesn 't say too much about the season . Last year Chelsea beat them 2 @-@ 0 and had high expectations . We played well and it 's a good result but it doesn 't say anything about the Championship . " Questions were asked about the exclusion of striker Robbie Fowler from the match @-@ day squad , with Houllier confirming the striker had been left out after a training ground bust @-@ up with assistant manager Phil Thompson : " It is a regrettable moment for the team and the club but I 'm sure at some stage common sense will prevail . I am leaving it to him . I brokered a get @-@ together between Phil and Robbie , which I attended at the beginning . Then I left the two Scousers together . But so far it has been unsuccessful . " Houllier added that he had tried to resolve the issue before the start of the match : " I waited until the Sunday lunchtime before the Charity Shield game . I again insisted yesterday . I took them together again . I think at some stage it will be solved . I am a patient man . "
Manchester United manager Ferguson was critical of the performance of referee D 'Urso : " I felt sorry for the referee today , it doesn 't matter how much training you have in any job . It 's about temperament , and I just think the lad was too nervous for that today . " Despite losing their fourth consecutive Charity Shield match , Ferguson did not believe it would affect his team heading into the start of the season : " We certainly hope we can go on to win the title again like we have in previous years . We just need to keep the standards up and show the desire we did in the second half . " He was also unsure whether Liverpool would be able to challenge for the Premier League : " It 's difficult to assess Liverpool at the moment . They started with confidence , but then you would expect that from a team that won three trophies a few months ago . You would also expect us to be sluggish at the start , because we are bloody good at it . "
The match was marred by a series of hooligan incidents occurring near the stadium . It was being played the day before a Cardiff City game ; a group of Cardiff City fans entered the Prince of Wales public house in the city to find it occupied by Manchester United fans staying in the city overnight . A series of running battles between fans of the two clubs followed , resulting in 22 arrests ( including two boys aged just 11 and 13 ) as well as a man suffering stab wounds and a police officer suffering a broken arm . On the day of the game , an army of around 50 Cardiff and Liverpool hooligans were seen attacking United supporters in the Wood Street area .
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= Pearl Jam =
Pearl Jam is an American rock band formed in Seattle , Washington in 1990 . Since its inception , the band 's line @-@ up has comprised Eddie Vedder ( lead vocals ) , Mike McCready ( lead guitar ) , Stone Gossard ( rhythm guitar ) and Jeff Ament ( bass ) . The band 's fifth member is drummer Matt Cameron ( also of Soundgarden ) , who has been with the band since 1998 . Boom Gaspar ( piano ) has also been a session / touring member with the band since 2002 . Drummers Dave Krusen , Matt Chamberlain , Dave Abbruzzese and Jack Irons are former members of the band .
Formed after the demise of Gossard and Ament 's previous band , Mother Love Bone , Pearl Jam broke into the mainstream with its debut album , Ten , in 1991 . One of the key bands in the grunge movement of the early 1990s , over the course of the band 's career , its members became noted for their refusal to adhere to traditional music industry practices , including refusing to make proper music videos or give interviews , and engaging in a much @-@ publicized boycott of Ticketmaster . In 2006 , Rolling Stone described the band as having " spent much of the past decade deliberately tearing apart their own fame . "
To date , the band has sold nearly 32 million records in the United States and an estimated 60 million worldwide . Pearl Jam has outlasted and outsold many of its contemporaries from the alternative rock breakthrough of the early 1990s , and is considered one of the most influential bands of that decade . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic referred to Pearl Jam as " the most popular American rock & roll band of the ' 90s " .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1984 – 90 ) = = =
Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament were members of pioneering grunge band Green River during the mid @-@ 1980s . Green River toured and recorded to moderate success but disbanded in 1987 due to a stylistic division between the pair and bandmates Mark Arm and Steve Turner . In late 1987 , Gossard and Ament began playing with Malfunkshun vocalist Andrew Wood , eventually organizing the band Mother Love Bone . In 1988 and 1989 , the band recorded and toured to increasing interest and found the support of the PolyGram record label , which signed the band in early 1989 . Mother Love Bone 's debut album , Apple , was released in July 1990 , four months after Wood died of a heroin overdose .
Ament and Gossard were devastated by the death of Wood and the resulting demise of Mother Love Bone . Gossard spent his time afterwards writing material that was harder @-@ edged than what he had been doing previously . After a few months , Gossard started practicing with fellow Seattle guitarist Mike McCready , whose band , Shadow , had broken up ; McCready in turn encouraged Gossard to reconnect with Ament . After practicing for a while , the trio sent out a five @-@ song demo tape in order to find a singer and a drummer . They gave former Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons the demo to see if he would be interested in joining the band and to distribute the demo to anyone he felt might fit the lead vocal position .
Irons passed on the invitation but gave the demo to his basketball buddy , San Diego , California singer Eddie Vedder . Vedder was the lead vocalist for a San Diego band , Bad Radio , and worked part @-@ time at a gas station . He listened to the tape shortly before going surfing , where lyrics came to him . He then recorded the vocals to three of the songs ( " Alive " , " Once " , and " Footsteps " ) in what he later described as a " mini @-@ opera " entitled Momma @-@ Son . Vedder sent the tape with his vocals back to the three Seattle musicians , who were impressed enough to fly Vedder up to Seattle for an audition . Within a week , Vedder had joined the band .
With the addition of Dave Krusen on drums , the band took the name Mookie Blaylock , in reference to the then @-@ active All @-@ Star basketball player . The band played its first official show at the Off Ramp Café in Seattle on October 22 , 1990 , and soon signed to Epic Records and renamed themselves Pearl Jam . In an early promotional interview , Vedder said that the name " Pearl Jam " was a reference to his great @-@ grandmother Pearl , who was married to a Native American and had a special recipe for peyote @-@ laced jam . In a 2006 Rolling Stone cover story however , Vedder admitted that this story was " total bullshit " , even though he indeed had a great @-@ grandma named Pearl . Ament and McCready explained that Ament came up with " pearl " , and that the band later settled on " Pearl Jam " after attending a concert by Neil Young , in which he extended his songs as improvisations of 15 – 20 minutes in length .
= = = Ten and the grunge explosion ( 1991 – 92 ) = = =
Pearl Jam entered Seattle 's London Bridge Studios in March 1991 to record its debut album , Ten . McCready said that " Ten was mostly Stone and Jeff ; me and Eddie were along for the ride at that time . " Krusen left the band in May 1991 after checking himself into rehabilitation ; he was replaced by Matt Chamberlain , who had previously played with Edie Brickell & New Bohemians . After playing only a handful of shows , one of which was filmed for the " Alive " video , Chamberlain left to join the Saturday Night Live band . Chamberlain suggested Dave Abbruzzese as his replacement . Abbruzzese joined the group and played the rest of Pearl Jam 's live shows supporting Ten .
Released on August 27 , 1991 , Ten ( named after Mookie Blaylock 's jersey number ) contained eleven tracks dealing with dark subjects like depression , suicide , loneliness , and murder . Ten 's musical style , influenced by classic rock , combined an " expansive harmonic vocabulary " with an anthemic sound . The album was slow to sell , but by the second half of 1992 it became a breakthrough success , being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard charts . Ten produced the hit singles " Alive " , " Even Flow " , and " Jeremy " . Originally interpreted as an anthem by many , Vedder later revealed that " Alive " tells the semi @-@ biographical tale of a son discovering that his father is actually his stepfather , while his mother ’ s grief turns her to sexually embrace her son , who strongly resembles the biological father . The song " Jeremy " ( sample ) and its accompanying video were inspired by a true story in which a high school student shot himself in front of his classmates . Ten stayed on the Billboard charts for nearly five years , and has gone on to become one of the highest @-@ selling rock records ever , going 13x platinum .
With the success of Ten , Pearl Jam became a key member of the Seattle grunge explosion , along with Alice in Chains , Nirvana , and Soundgarden . The band was criticized in the music press ; British music magazine NME said that Pearl Jam was " trying to steal money from young alternative kids ' pockets . " Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain angrily attacked Pearl Jam , claiming the band were commercial sellouts , and argued Ten was not a true alternative album because it had so many prominent guitar leads . Cobain later reconciled with Vedder , and they reportedly were on amicable terms before Cobain 's death in 1994 .
Pearl Jam toured relentlessly in support of Ten . Ament stated that " essentially Ten was just an excuse to tour , " adding , " We told the record company , ' We know we can be a great band , so let 's just get the opportunity to get out and play . ' " The band 's manager , Kelly Curtis , stated , " Once people came and saw them live , this lightbulb would go on . Doing their first tour , you kind of knew it was happening and there was no stopping it . " Early on in Pearl Jam 's career , the band became known for its intense live performances . Looking back at this time , Vedder said that " playing music and then getting a shot at making a record and at having an audience and stuff , it 's just like an untamed force ... But it didn 't come from jock mentality . It came from just being let out of the gates . " In 1992 , Pearl Jam made television appearances on Saturday Night Live and MTV Unplugged and took a slot on that summer 's Lollapalooza tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Soundgarden , and Ministry , among others . The band contributed two songs to the soundtrack of the 1992 Cameron Crowe film Singles : " State of Love and Trust " and " Breath " . Ament , Gossard and Vedder appeared in Singles under the name " Citizen Dick " ; their parts were filmed when Pearl Jam was known as Mookie Blaylock .
= = = Vs . , Vitalogy and dealing with success ( 1993 – 95 ) = = =
The band members grew uncomfortable with their success , with much of the burden of Pearl Jam 's popularity falling on frontman Vedder . While Pearl Jam received four awards at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards for its video for " Jeremy " , including Video of the Year and Best Group Video , the band refused to make a video for " Black " in spite of pressure from the label . This action began a trend of the band refusing to make videos for its songs . Vedder felt that the concept of music videos robbed listeners from creating their own interpretations of the song , stating that " Before music videos first came out , you ’ d listen to a song with headphones on , sitting in a beanbag chair with your eyes closed , and you ’ d come up with your own visions , these things that came from within . Then all of a sudden , sometimes even the very first time you heard a song , it was with these visual images attached , and it robbed you of any form of self @-@ expression . " " Ten years from now , " Ament said , " I don 't want people to remember our songs as videos . "
Pearl Jam headed into the studio in early 1993 facing the challenge of following up the commercial success of its debut . McCready said , " The band was blown up pretty big and everything was pretty crazy . " Released on October 19 , 1993 , Pearl Jam 's second album , Vs . , sold 950 @,@ 378 copies in its first week of release and outperformed all other entries in the Billboard top ten that week combined . The album set the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week of release , which it held until broken by Garth Brooks ' 1998 album , Double Live . Vs. included the singles " Go " , " Daughter " , " Animal " , and " Dissident " . Paul Evans of Rolling Stone said , " Few American bands have arrived more clearly talented than this one did with Ten ; and Vs. tops even that debut . " He added , " Like Jim Morrison and Pete Townshend , Vedder makes a forte of his psychological @-@ mythic explorations ... As guitarists Stone Gossard and Mike McCready paint dense and slashing backdrops , he invites us into a drama of experiment and strife . " The band decided , beginning with the release of Vs . , to scale back its commercial efforts . The members declined to produce any more music videos after the massive success of " Jeremy " and opted for fewer interviews and television appearances . Industry insiders compared Pearl Jam 's tour that year to the touring habits of Led Zeppelin , in that the band " ignored the press and took its music directly to the fans . " During the Vs . Tour , the band set a cap on ticket prices in an attempt to thwart scalpers .
By 1994 , Pearl Jam was " fighting on all fronts " , as its manager described the band at the time . Reporter Chuck Philips broke a series of stories showing that Ticketmaster was gouging Pearl Jam 's customers . Pearl Jam was outraged when , after it played a pair of shows in Chicago , Illinois , it discovered that ticket vendor Ticketmaster had added a service charge to the tickets . Pearl Jam was committed to keeping their concert ticket prices down but Fred Rosen of Ticketmaster , refused to waive the service charge . Since Ticketmaster controlled most major venues , the band was forced to create from scratch its own outdoor stadiums in rural areas in order to perform . Pearl Jam ’ s efforts to organize a tour without the ticket giant collapsed which Pearl Jam said was evidence of Ticketmaster 's monopoly . An analysis of journalist Chuck Philips investigative series in a well known legal monograph concluded that it was hard to imagine a legitimate reason for Ticketmaster ’ s exclusive contracts with venues and contracts which covered such a lengthy period of time . The authors said , “ The pervasiveness of Ticketmaster 's exclusive agreements , coupled with their excessive duration and the manner in which they are procured , supported a finding that Ticketmaster had engaged in anticompetitive conduct under section 2 of the Sherman Act . ”
The United States Department of Justice was investigating the company 's practices at the time and asked the band to create a memorandum of its experiences with the company . Band members Gossard and Ament testified at a subcommittee investigation on June 30 , 1994 in Washington , D.C. Pearl Jam alleged that Ticketmaster used anti @-@ competitive and monopolistic practices to gouge fans . After Pearl Jam ’ s testimony before Congress , Congressman Dingell ( D @-@ Mich . ) wrote a bill requiring full disclosure to prevent Ticketmaster from burying escalating service fees . Pearl Jam ’ s manager said he was gratified that Congress recognized the problem as a national issue . The band eventually canceled its 1994 summer tour in protest . After the Justice Department dropped the case , Pearl Jam continued to boycott Ticketmaster , refusing to play venues that had contracts with the company . The band tried to work around Ticketmaster 's exclusive contracts by hosting charities and benefits at major venues , because the exclusive contracts often contained a clause allowing charity event promoters to sell their own tickets . Music critic Jim DeRogatis noted that along with the Ticketmaster debacle , " the band has refused to release singles or make videos ; it has demanded that its albums be released on vinyl ; and it wants to be more like its ' 60s heroes , The Who , releasing two or three albums a year . " He also stated that sources said that most of the band 's third album Vitalogy was completed by early 1994 , but that either a forced delay by Epic or the battle with Ticketmaster were to blame for the delay .
Pearl Jam wrote and recorded while touring behind Vs. and the majority of the tracks for its next album , Vitalogy , were recorded during breaks on the tour . Tensions within the band had dramatically increased by this time . Producer Brendan O 'Brien said , " Vitalogy was a little strained . I 'm being polite — there was some imploding going on . " After Pearl Jam finished the recording of Vitalogy , drummer Dave Abbruzzese was fired . The band cited political differences between Abbruzzese and the other members ; for example , Abbruzzese disagreed with the Ticketmaster boycott . He was replaced by Jack Irons , a close friend of Vedder and the former and original drummer of the Red Hot Chili Peppers . Irons made his debut with the band at Neil Young 's 1994 Bridge School Benefit , but he was not officially announced as the band 's new drummer until its 1995 Self @-@ Pollution satellite radio broadcast , a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour @-@ long pirate broadcast out of Seattle which was available to any radio stations that wanted to carry it .
Vitalogy was released first on November 22 , 1994 on vinyl and then two weeks later on December 6 , 1994 on CD and cassette . The CD became the second @-@ fastest @-@ selling in history , with more than 877 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that " thanks to its stripped @-@ down , lean production , Vitalogy stands as Pearl Jam 's most original and uncompromising album . " Many of the songs on the album appear to be inspired by the pressures of fame . The song " Spin the Black Circle " , an homage to vinyl records , won a Grammy Award in 1996 for Best Hard Rock Performance . Vitalogy also included the songs " Not for You " , " Corduroy " , " Better Man " , and " Immortality " . " Better Man " ( sample ) , a song originally written and performed by Vedder while in Bad Radio , reached number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart , spending a total of eight weeks there . Considered a " blatantly great pop song " by producer Brendan O 'Brien , Pearl Jam was reluctant to record it and had initially rejected it from Vs. due to its accessibility .
The band continued its boycott against Ticketmaster during its 1995 tour for Vitalogy , but was surprised that virtually no other bands joined in . Pearl Jam 's initiative to play only at non @-@ Ticketmaster venues effectively , with a few exceptions , prevented it from playing shows in the United States for the next three years . Ament later said , " We were so hardheaded about the 1995 tour . Had to prove we could tour on our own , and it pretty much killed us , killed our career . " In the same year Pearl Jam backed Neil Young , whom the band had noted as an influence , on his album Mirror Ball . Contractual obligations prevented the use of the band 's name anywhere on the album , but the members were all credited individually in the album 's liner notes . Two songs from the sessions were left off Mirror Ball : " I Got Id " and " Long Road " . These two tracks were released separately by Pearl Jam in the form of the 1995 EP , Merkin Ball .
= = = No Code and Yield ( 1996 – 99 ) = = =
Following the round of touring for Vitalogy , the band went into the studio to record its follow @-@ up , No Code . Vedder said , " Making No Code was all about gaining perspective . " Released in 1996 , No Code was seen as a deliberate break from the band 's sound since Ten , favoring experimental ballads and noisy garage rockers . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that " No Code displays a wider range of moods and instrumentation than on any previous Pearl Jam album . " The lyrical themes on the album deal with issues of self @-@ examination , with Ament stating , " In some ways , it 's like the band 's story . It 's about growing up . " Although the album debuted at number one on the Billboard charts , it quickly fell down the charts . No Code included the singles " Who You Are " ( sample ) , " Hail , Hail " , and " Off He Goes " . As with Vitalogy , very little touring was done to promote No Code because of the band 's refusal to play in Ticketmaster 's venue areas . A European tour took place in the fall of 1996 . Gossard stated that there was " a lot of stress associated with trying to tour at that time " and that " it was growing more and more difficult to be excited about being part of the band . "
Following the short tour for No Code , the band went into the studio in 1997 to record its follow @-@ up . The sessions for the band 's fifth album represented more of a team effort between all members of the group , with Ament stating that " everybody really got a little bit of their say on the record ... because of that , everybody feels like they 're an integral part of the band . " On February 3 , 1998 , Pearl Jam released its fifth album , Yield . The album was cited as a return to the band 's early , straightforward rock sound . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly stated that the band has " turned in an intermittently affecting album that veers between fiery garage rock and rootsy , acoustic @-@ based ruminations . Perhaps mindful of their position as the last alt @-@ rock ambassadors with any degree of clout , they 've come up with their most cohesive album since their 1991 debut , Ten . " Lyrically , Yield continued with the more contemplative type of writing found on No Code , with Vedder saying , " What was rage in the past has become reflection . " Yield debuted at number two on the Billboard charts , but like No Code soon began dropping down the charts . It included the singles " Given to Fly " and " Wishlist " . The band hired comic book artist Todd McFarlane to create an animated video for the song " Do the Evolution " from the album , its first music video since 1992 . A documentary detailing the making of Yield , Single Video Theory , was released on VHS and DVD later that year .
In April 1998 , Pearl Jam once again changed drummers . Jack Irons left the band due to dissatisfaction with touring and was replaced with former Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron on an initially temporary basis , but he soon became a permanent replacement for Irons . Pearl Jam 's 1998 Yield Tour in North America marked the band ’ s return to full @-@ scale touring . The band 's anti @-@ trust lawsuit against Ticketmaster had proven to be unsuccessful and hindered live tours . Many fans had complained about the difficulty in obtaining tickets and the use of non @-@ Ticketmaster venues , which were judged to be out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way and impersonal . For this tour and future tours , Pearl Jam once again began using Ticketmaster in order to " better accommodate concertgoers . " The 1998 summer tour was a big success , and after it was completed the band released Live on Two Legs , a live album which featured select performances from the tour .
In 1998 , Pearl Jam recorded " Last Kiss " , a cover of a 1960s ballad made famous by J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers . It was recorded during a soundcheck and released on the band 's 1998 fan club Christmas single . The following year , the cover was put into heavy rotation across the country . By popular demand , the cover was released to the public as a single in 1999 , with all of the proceeds going to the aid of refugees of the Kosovo War . The band also decided to include the song on the 1999 charity compilation album , No Boundaries : A Benefit for the Kosovar Refugees . " Last Kiss " peaked at number two on the Billboard charts and became the band 's highest @-@ charting single .
= = = Binaural and the Roskilde tragedy ( 2000 – 01 ) = = =
Following its full @-@ scale tour in support of Yield , the band took a short break , but then reconvened toward the end of 1999 and commenced work on a new album . On May 16 , 2000 , Pearl Jam released its sixth studio album , Binaural . It was drummer Matt Cameron 's studio recording debut with the band . The title is a reference to the binaural recording techniques that were utilized on several tracks by producer Tchad Blake , known for his use of the technique . Binaural was the first album since the band 's debut not produced by Brendan O 'Brien , although O 'Brien was called in later to remix several tracks . Gossard stated that the band members " were ready for a change . " Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone said , " Apparently as tired of grunge as everyone except Creed fans , Pearl Jam delve elsewhere . " He added , " The album reflects both Pearl Jam 's longstanding curse of self @-@ importance and a renewed willingness to be experimental or just plain odd . " The album is lyrically darker than the band 's previous album Yield , with Gossard describing the lyrics as " pretty sombre . " Binaural included the singles " Nothing as It Seems " ( sample ) , one of the songs featuring binaural recording , and " Light Years " . The album sold just over 700 @,@ 000 copies and became the first Pearl Jam studio album to fail to reach platinum status .
Pearl Jam decided to record every show on its 2000 Binaural Tour professionally , after noting the desire of fans to own a copy of the shows they attended and the popularity of bootleg recordings . The band had been open in the past about allowing fans to make amateur recordings , and these " official bootlegs " were an attempt to provide a more affordable and better quality product for fans . Pearl Jam originally intended to release them to only fan club members , but the band 's record contract prevented it from doing so . Pearl Jam released all of the albums in record stores as well as through its fan club . The band released 72 live albums in 2000 and 2001 , and twice set a record for most albums to debut in the Billboard 200 at the same time .
Pearl Jam 's 2000 European tour ended in tragedy on June 30 , with an accident at the Roskilde Festival in Denmark . Nine fans were crushed underfoot and suffocated to death as the crowd rushed to the front . After numerous requests for the crowd to step back , the band stopped playing and tried to calm the crowd when the musicians realized what was happening , but it was already too late . The two remaining dates of the tour were canceled and members of the band contemplated retiring after this event . Pearl Jam was initially blamed for the accident , but was later cleared of responsibility .
A month after the European tour concluded , the band embarked on its two @-@ leg 2000 North American tour . On performing after the Roskilde tragedy , Vedder said that " playing , facing crowds , being together — it enabled us to start processing it . " On October 22 , 2000 , the band played the MGM Grand in Las Vegas , celebrating the tenth anniversary of its first live performance as a band . Vedder took the opportunity to thank the many people who had helped the band come together and make it to ten years . He noted that " I would never do this accepting a Grammy or something . " After concluding the Binaural Tour , the band released Touring Band 2000 the following year . The DVD featured select performances from the North American legs of the tour .
Following the events of the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks , Vedder and McCready were joined by Neil Young to perform the song " Long Road " from the Merkin Ball EP at the America : A Tribute to Heroes benefit concert . The concert , which aired on September 21 , 2001 , raised money for the victims and their families .
= = = Riot Act ( 2002 – 05 ) = = =
Pearl Jam commenced work on a new album following a year @-@ long break after its full @-@ scale tour in support of Binaural . McCready described the recording environment as " a pretty positive one " and " very intense and spiritual . " Regarding the time period when the lyrics were being written , Vedder said , " There 's been a lot of mortality ... It 's a weird time to be writing . Roskilde changed the shape of us as people , and our filter for seeing the world changed . " Pearl Jam released its seventh album , Riot Act , on November 12 , 2002 . It included the singles " I Am Mine " and " Save You " . The album featured a much more folk @-@ based and experimental sound , evident in the presence of B3 organist Boom Gaspar on songs such as " Love Boat Captain " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said " Riot Act is the album that Pearl Jam has been wanting to make since Vitalogy — a muscular art rock record , one that still hits hard but that is filled with ragged edges and odd detours . " The track entitled " Arc " was recorded as a vocal tribute to the nine people who died at the Roskilde Festival in June 2000 . Vedder only performed this song nine times on the 2003 tour , and the band left the track off all released bootlegs .
In 2003 , the band embarked on its Riot Act Tour , which included tours in Australia and North America . The band continued its official bootleg program , making every concert from the tour available in CD form through its official website . A total of six bootlegs were made available in record stores : Perth , Tokyo , State College , Pennsylvania , two shows from Madison Square Garden , and Mansfield , Massachusetts . At many shows during the 2003 North American tour , Vedder performed Riot Act 's " Bu $ hleaguer " , a commentary on President George W. Bush , with a rubber mask of Bush , wearing it at the beginning of the song and then hanging it on a mic stand to allow him to sing . The band made news when it was reported that several fans left after Vedder had " impaled " the Bush mask on his mic stand at the band 's Denver , Colorado show .
In June 2003 , Pearl Jam announced it was officially leaving Epic Records following the end of its contract with the label . The band stated it had " no interest " in signing with another label . The band 's first release without a label was the single for " Man of the Hour " , in partnership with Amazon.com. Director Tim Burton approached Pearl Jam to request an original song for the soundtrack of his new film , Big Fish . After screening an early print of the film , Pearl Jam recorded the song for him . " Man of the Hour " , which was later nominated for a Golden Globe Award , can be heard in the closing credits of Big Fish .
The band released Lost Dogs , a two @-@ disc collection of rarities and B @-@ sides , and Live at the Garden , a DVD featuring the band 's July 8 , 2003 concert at Madison Square Garden through Epic Records in November 2003 . In 2004 , Pearl Jam released the live album , Live at Benaroya Hall , through a one @-@ album deal with BMG . 2004 marked the first time that Pearl Jam licensed a song for usage in a television show ; a snippet of the song " Yellow Ledbetter " was used in the final episode of the television series Friends . Later that year , Epic released rearviewmirror ( Greatest Hits 1991 – 2003 ) , a Pearl Jam greatest hits collection spanning 1991 to 2003 . This release marked the end of Pearl Jam 's contractual agreement with Epic Records .
Pearl Jam played a show at Easy Street Records in Seattle in April 2005 ; recordings from the show were compiled for the Live at Easy Street album and released exclusively to independent record stores in June 2006 . The band embarked on a Canadian cross @-@ country tour in September 2005 , kicking off the tour with a fundraising concert in Missoula , Montana for Democratic politician Jon Tester , then playing the Gorge Amphitheater before crossing into Canada . After touring Canada , Pearl Jam proceeded to open a Rolling Stones concert in Pittsburgh , then played two shows at the Borgata casino in Atlantic City , New Jersey , before closing the tour with a concert in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The official bootlegs for the band 's 2005 shows were distributed via Pearl Jam 's official website in MP3 form . Pearl Jam also played a benefit concert to raise money for Hurricane Katrina relief on October 5 , 2005 , at the House of Blues in Chicago , Illinois . On November 22 , 2005 , Pearl Jam began its first Latin American tour .
= = = Move to J Records and Pearl Jam ( 2006 – 08 ) = = =
The work for Pearl Jam 's follow @-@ up to Riot Act began after its appearance on the 2004 Vote for Change tour . The time period between the two albums was the longest gap between Pearl Jam 's studio albums to date and the new album was its first release for a new label . Clive Davis announced in February 2006 that Pearl Jam had signed with his label , J Records , which like Epic , is part of Sony Music Entertainment ( then known as Sony BMG ) , though J has since folded into RCA Records . The band 's eighth studio album , Pearl Jam , was released on May 2 , 2006 . A number of critics cited Pearl Jam as a return to the band 's early sound , and McCready compared the new material to Vs. in a 2005 interview . Ament said , " The band playing in a room — that came across . There ’ s a kind of immediacy to the record , and that ’ s what we were going for . " Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly said that " in a world full of boys sent to do a man 's job of rocking , Pearl Jam can still pull off gravitas . " Current socio @-@ political issues in the United States are addressed on the album . " World Wide Suicide " , a song criticizing the Iraq War and U.S. foreign policy , was released as a single and topped the Billboard Modern Rock chart ; it was Pearl Jam 's first number one on that chart since " Who You Are " in 1996 , and first number one on any chart in the United States since 1998 when " Given to Fly " reached number one on the Mainstream Rock chart . Pearl Jam also included the singles " Life Wasted " and " Gone " .
To support Pearl Jam , the band embarked on its 2006 world tour . It toured North America , Australia and notably Europe ; Pearl Jam had not toured the continent for six years . The North American tour included three two @-@ night stands opening for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers . The band served as the headliners for the Leeds and Reading festivals , despite having vowed to never play at a festival again after Roskilde . Vedder started both concerts with an emotional plea to the crowd to look after each other . He commented during the Leeds set that the band 's decision to play a festival for the first time after Roskilde had nothing to do with " guts " but with trust in the audience .
In 2007 , Pearl Jam recorded a cover of The Who 's " Love , Reign o 'er Me " for the Mike Binder film , Reign Over Me ; it was later made available as a music download on the iTunes Music Store . The band embarked on a 13 @-@ date European tour , and headlined Lollapalooza in Grant Park , on August 5 , 2007 . The band released a CD box set in June 2007 , entitled Live at the Gorge 05 / 06 , that documents its shows at The Gorge Amphitheatre , and in September 2007 a concert DVD , entitled Immagine in Cornice , which documents the band 's Italian shows from its 2006 tour was released .
In June 2008 , Pearl Jam performed as the headline act at the Bonnaroo Music Festival . The Bonnaroo appearance took place amidst a twelve @-@ date tour in the Eastern United States . In July 2008 , the band performed at the VH1 tribute to The Who alongside Foo Fighters , Incubus and The Flaming Lips . In the days prior to Election Day 2008 , Pearl Jam digitally released through its official website a free documentary film , entitled Vote for Change ? 2004 , which follows the band 's time spent on the 2004 Vote for Change tour .
= = = Reissues and Backspacer ( 2009 – 12 ) = = =
In March 2009 , Ten was reissued in four editions , featuring such extras as a remastering and remix of the entire album by Brendan O 'Brien , a DVD of the band 's 1992 appearance on MTV Unplugged , and an LP of its September 20 , 1992 concert at Magnuson Park in Seattle . It was the first reissue in a planned re @-@ release of Pearl Jam 's entire catalog that led up to the band 's 20th anniversary in 2011 . A Pearl Jam retrospective film directed by Cameron Crowe titled Pearl Jam Twenty was also planned to coincide with the anniversary . In 2011 , Vs. and Vitalogy were reissued in the spring time in deluxe form .
Pearl Jam began work for the follow @-@ up to Pearl Jam in early 2008 . In 2009 , the band began to build on instrumental and demo tracks written during 2008 . The band 's ninth studio album , Backspacer , was its first to be produced by Brendan O 'Brien since Yield . Backspacer debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard music charts , the band 's first album to do so since No Code in 1996 , and has sold 635 @,@ 000 copies as of July 2013 , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The music on the record features a sound influenced by pop and new wave . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that " prior to Backspacer , Pearl Jam wouldn 't or couldn 't have made music this unfettered , unapologetically assured , casual , and , yes , fun . " Regarding the lyrics , Vedder said , " I 've tried , over the years , to be hopeful in the lyrics , and I think that 's going to be easier now . " " The Fixer " was chosen as the album 's first single . Pearl Jam did not re @-@ sign its record deal with J Records , and the band released the album through its own label Monkeywrench Records in the United States and through Universal Music Group internationally . Pearl Jam reached a deal with Target to be the exclusive big @-@ box store retailer for the album in the United States . The album also saw release through the band 's official website , independent record stores , online retailers , and iTunes . In an interview in September 2009 McCready revealed that Pearl Jam was scheduled to finish the Backspacer outtakes within six months , and told San Diego radio station KBZT that the band may release an EP in 2010 consisting of those songs , while Vedder instead suggested that the songs may be used for the band 's next studio album .
In August 2009 , Pearl Jam headlined the Virgin Festival , the Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival , and played five shows in Europe and three in North America . In October 2009 , Pearl Jam headlined the Austin City Limits Music Festival . Later in October on Halloween night , the band played in what was the last performance at the Philadelphia Spectrum . An additional leg consisting of a tour of Oceania took place afterwards . In May 2010 , the band embarked on a month @-@ long tour starting with the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival . The tour headed to the East Coast and ended May 21 , 2010 at Madison Square Garden in New York . A European tour took place in June and July 2010 , where the band performed in Northern Ireland for the first time at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast . In late October 2010 , Pearl Jam performed at the 24th Annual Bridge School Benefit Concert at the Shoreline Amphitheater in Mountain View , California . A live album , titled Live on Ten Legs , was released on January 17 , 2011 . It is a compilation of live tracks from their 2003 to 2010 world tours , and is a follow @-@ up to Live on Two Legs , which consisted of songs recorded during their 1998 North American tour .
In March 2011 , bassist Jeff Ament told Billboard that the band had 25 songs and they 'd be heading into the studio in April to begin recording the follow @-@ up to Backspacer . On May 16 , 2011 , the band confirmed that they would play the Labor Day weekend at the Alpine Valley Music Theatre , East Troy , Wisconsin , followed by ten shows in Canada .
On September 8 , 2011 , the band released a new song titled " Olé " . On November 18 , the band released Toronto 9 @.@ 11 @.@ 11 — a free live album available through the launch of Google Music .
On November 21 , 2011 , as part of their PJ20 World Tour , Pearl Jam visited Costa Rica for the first time to a 30 @,@ 000 crowd of fans at the National Stadium . The following month , the band announced a tour of Europe , which started in June 2012 .
= = = Lightning Bolt ( 2013 – present ) = = =
On July 11 , 2013 , the band announced that their tenth studio album Lightning Bolt would be released internationally on October 14 , 2013 and on the next day in the United States , along with releasing the first single " Mind Your Manners " . The band played a two @-@ leg tour in North America during October and November , followed by headlining the Big Day Out festival in Australia and New Zealand in 2014 . The second single , " Sirens " , was released on September 18 , 2013 . After selling 166 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , Lightning Bolt became Pearl Jam 's fifth album to reach number one on the Billboard 200 . At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015 , the album won the award for Best Recording Package . In November 2015 the band played a nine @-@ date tour of Latin America . In January 2016 , the band announced a tour of the United States and Canada , including appearances at the New Orleans Jazz Festival and Bonnaroo .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Compared with the other grunge bands of the early 1990s , Pearl Jam ’ s style is noticeably less heavy and harkens back to the classic rock music of the 1970s . Pearl Jam has cited many punk rock and classic rock bands as influences , including The Who , Led Zeppelin , Neil Young , Kiss and the Ramones . Pearl Jam ’ s success has been attributed to its sound , which fuses " the riff @-@ heavy stadium rock of the ' 70s with the grit and anger of ' 80s post @-@ punk , without ever neglecting hooks and choruses . " Gossard 's rhythm guitar style is known for its sense of beat and groove , while McCready 's lead guitar style , influenced by artists such as Jimi Hendrix , has been described as " feel @-@ oriented " and " rootsy . "
Pearl Jam has broadened its musical range with subsequent releases . As he had more influence on the band 's sound , Vedder sought to make the band 's musical output less catchy . He said , " I felt that with more popularity , we were going to be crushed , our heads were going to pop like grapes . " By 1994 ’ s Vitalogy , the band began to incorporate more punk influences into its music . The band ’ s 1996 album , No Code , was a deliberate break from the musical style of Ten . The songs on the album featured elements of garage rock , worldbeat , and experimentalism . After 1998 ’ s Yield , which was somewhat of a return to the straightforward rock approach of the band 's early work , the band dabbled with experimental art rock on 2000 's Binaural and folk rock elements on 2002 ’ s Riot Act . The band ’ s 2006 album , Pearl Jam , was cited as a return to the band ’ s early sound . The band 's 2009 album , Backspacer , contains elements of pop and new wave .
Critic Jim DeRogatis describes Vedder 's vocals as a " Jim Morrison @-@ like vocal growl . " Greg Prato of AllMusic said , " With his hard @-@ hitting and often confessional lyrical style and Jim Morrison @-@ esque baritone , Vedder also became one of the most copied lead singers in all of rock . " Vedder 's lyrical topics range from personal ( " Alive " , " Better Man " ) to social and political concerns ( " Even Flow " , " World Wide Suicide " ) . His lyrics have often invoked the use of storytelling and have included themes of freedom , individualism , and sympathy for troubled individuals . When the band started , Gossard and McCready were clearly designated as rhythm and lead guitarists , respectively . The dynamic began to change when Vedder started to play more rhythm guitar during the Vitalogy era . McCready said in 2006 , " Even though there are three guitars , I think there 's maybe more room now . Stone will pull back and play a two @-@ note line and Ed will do a power chord thing , and I fit into all that . "
= = Legacy = =
While Nirvana had brought grunge to the mainstream in the early 1990s with Nevermind , Pearl Jam 's debut Ten outsold it in the United States , and the band became " the most popular American rock & roll band of the ' 90s " according to AllMusic . Pearl Jam has been described as " modern rock radio 's most influential stylists – the workmanlike midtempo chug of songs like " Alive " and " Even Flow " just melodic enough to get moshers singing along . " The band inspired and influenced a number of bands , ranging from Silverchair to Puddle of Mudd and The Strokes . The band has also been credited for inspiring the indie rock scene of 90s @-@ era urban Pakistan , that has since evolved into a rich rock music culture in the country .
Pearl Jam has been praised for its rejection of rock star excess and its insistence on backing causes it believes in . Music critic Jim DeRogatis said in the aftermath of the band 's battle with Ticketmaster that it " proved that a rock band which isn 't comprised of greed heads can play stadiums and not milk the audience for every last dime ... it indicated that idealism in rock ' n ' roll is not the sole province of those ' 60s bands enshrined in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . " Eric Weisbard of Spin said in 2001 , " The group that was once accused of being synthetic grunge now seem as organic and principled a rock band as exists . " In a 2005 USA Today reader 's poll , Pearl Jam was voted the greatest American rock band of all time . In April 2006 , Pearl Jam was awarded the prize for " Best Live Act " in Esquire 's Esky Music Awards . The blurb called Pearl Jam " the rare superstars who still play as though each show could be their last . " Pearl Jam 's fanbase following has been compared to that of the Grateful Dead 's , with Rolling Stone magazine stating that Pearl Jam " toured incessantly and became one of rock 's great arena acts , attracting a fanatical , Grateful Dead @-@ like cult following with marathon , true @-@ believer shows in the vanishing spirit of Bruce Springsteen , the Who and U2 . "
When asked about Pearl Jam 's legacy in a 2000 interview , Vedder said , " I think at some point along the way we began feeling we wanted to give people something to believe in because we all had bands that gave that to us when we needed something to believe in . That was the big challenge for us after the first record and the response to it . The goal immediately became how do we continue to be musicians and grow and survive in view of all this ... The answers weren ’ t always easy , but I think we found a way . "
= = Campaigning and activism = =
Throughout its career , Pearl Jam has promoted wider social and political issues , from pro @-@ choice sentiments to opposition to George W. Bush 's presidency . Vedder acts as the band 's spokesman on these issues . The band has promoted an array of causes , including awareness of Crohn 's disease , which Mike McCready suffers from , Ticketmaster venue monopolization and the environment and wildlife protection , among others . Guitarist Stone Gossard has been active in environmental pursuits , and has been an advocate of Pearl Jam 's carbon neutral policy , offsetting the band 's environmental impact . Vedder has advocated for the release of the West Memphis 3 for years and Damien Echols , a member of the three , shares a writing credit for the song " Army Reserve " ( from Pearl Jam ) .
The band , and especially frontman Eddie Vedder , have been vocal supporters of the pro @-@ choice movement . In 1992 , Spin printed an article by Vedder , entitled " Reclamation " , which detailed his views on abortion . In an MTV Unplugged concert the same year , Vedder stood on a stool and wrote " PRO @-@ CHOICE ! " on his arm in protest when the band performed the song " Porch " . The band are members of a number of pro @-@ choice organizations , including Choice USA and Voters for Choice .
As members of Rock the Vote and Vote for Change , the band has encouraged voter registration and participation in United States elections . Vedder was outspoken in support of Green Party presidential candidate Ralph Nader in 2000 , and Pearl Jam played a series of concerts on the Vote for Change tour in October 2004 , supporting the candidacy of John Kerry for U.S. President . In a Rolling Stone feature showcasing the Vote for Change tour 's performers , Vedder told the magazine , " I supported Ralph Nader in 2000 , but it 's a time of crisis . We have to get a new administration in . "
Vedder sometimes comments on politics between songs , often to criticize U.S. foreign policy , and a number of his songs , including " Bu $ hleaguer " and " World Wide Suicide " , are openly critical of the Bush administration . At Lollapalooza 2007 , Vedder spoke out against BP Amoco dumping effluent in Lake Michigan , and at the end of " Daughter " , he sang the lyrics " George Bush leave this world alone / George Bush find yourself another home " . In the beginning of the second encore Vedder invited Iraq war veteran Tomas Young , the subject of the documentary Body of War , onto the stage to urge an end to the war . Young in turn introduced Ben Harper , who contributed vocals to " No More " and " Rockin ' in the Free World " . The band later discovered that some of the Bush @-@ related lyrics were excised from the AT & T webcast of the event , and questioned whether that constitutes censorship . AT & T later apologized and blamed the censorship on contractor Davie Brown Entertainment .
Pearl Jam has performed numerous benefit concerts in aid of charities . For example , the band headlined a Seattle concert in 2001 to support the United Nations ' efforts to combat world hunger . The band added a date at the Chicago House of Blues to its 2005 tour to help the victims of Hurricane Katrina ; the concert proceeds were donated to Habitat for Humanity , the American Red Cross and the Jazz Foundation of America .
In 2011 , Pearl Jam was named 2011 Planet Defenders by Rock The Earth for their environmental activism and their large @-@ scale efforts to decrease their own carbon emissions .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Ten ( 1991 )
Vs . ( 1993 )
Vitalogy ( 1994 )
No Code ( 1996 )
Yield ( 1998 )
Binaural ( 2000 )
Riot Act ( 2002 )
Pearl Jam ( 2006 )
Backspacer ( 2009 )
Lightning Bolt ( 2013 )
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= Solomon ( Byzantine general ) =
Solomon ( Greek : Σολόμων ) was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) general from northern Mesopotamia , who distinguished himself as a commander in the Vandalic War and the reconquest of North Africa in 533 – 534 . He spent most of the next decade in Africa as its governor general , combining the military post of magister militum with the civil position of praetorian prefect . Solomon successfully confronted the large @-@ scale Moorish rebellion , but was forced to flee following an army mutiny in spring of 536 . His second tenure in Africa began in 539 and it was marked by victories over the Moors , which led to the consolidation of the Byzantine position . A few years of prosperity followed , but were cut short by the rekindled Moorish revolt and Solomon 's defeat and death at the Battle of Cillium in 544 .
= = Biography = =
Solomon was born , probably circa 480 / 490 , in the fortress of Idriphthon in the district of Solachon , near Dara in the province of Mesopotamia . He was a eunuch as a result of an accident during his infancy , not from deliberate castration . Solomon had a brother , Bacchus , who became a priest . Bacchus fathered three sons , Cyrus , Sergius and Solomon , who later became military officers in Africa under their uncle ; Sergius also succeeded Solomon as governor of Africa after the latter 's death . Little is known of Solomon 's early career , except that he served under the dux Mesopotamiae Felicissimus , perhaps as early as the latter 's installment to the post in 505 / 506 . Certainly by 527 , when he came to the service of General Belisarius , Solomon was considered an experienced officer . It is perhaps at this time that he was named Belisarius 's domesticus , or chief @-@ of @-@ staff , the post with which he is mentioned by the historian Procopius in 533 , before the onset of the campaign against the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa .
= = = First tenure in Africa = = =
Before the expedition sailed from Constantinople , Solomon was named as one of the nine commanders of the foederati regiments . He is not mentioned in Procopius 's narrative during the subsequent campaign , but he probably participated in the decisive Battle of Ad Decimum on 13 September 533 , which opened the road for the Vandal capital of Carthage . Following the capture of Carthage , Belisarius sent Solomon back to Constantinople to inform Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) of the campaign 's progress . Solomon remained in the capital until the spring of 534 , when Justinian sent him back to Africa to recall Belisarius and replace him as military commander of the new praetorian prefecture of Africa ( magister militum Africae ) . Belisarius 's departure coincided with a general uprising of the Moorish tribes of the interior , before the Byzantines had time to strengthen their hold on the province . As a result , Belisarius left most of his privately raised bucellarii behind , and Emperor Justinian sent additional reinforcements . Soon ( sometime in autumn of 534 ) Emperor Justinian also invested Solomon with the civil office of praetorian prefect as well , replacing the aged Archelaus .
In the meantime , the Moors had invaded Byzacena and defeated the local Byzantine garrison , killing its commanders , Gainas and Rufinus . After diplomatic entreaties over the winter failed , and with his forces bolstered to some 18 @,@ 000 men ( as estimated by Charles Diehl ) following the arrival of reinforcements , in spring 535 Solomon led his troops into Byzacena . The Moors , under their chiefs Cutzinas , Esdilasas , Iourphouthes and Mesidinissas had encamped at a location called Mammes . Solomon attacked them there and defeated them . The Byzantine army returned to Carthage , but there news came that the Moors , reinforced , had again attacked and overrun Byzacena . Solomon immediately marched out and met them at Mount Bourgaon , where the Moors had erected a fortified camp and awaited his attack . Solomon divided his forces and sent 1 @,@ 000 men to attack the Moors from behind , scoring a decisive victory : the Moors broke and scattered , suffering great casualties . Those who survived fled to Numidia , where they joined the forces of Iaudas , the leader of the tribes of Mount Aurasium . With Byzacena secured , and urged by his own Moorish allies Massonas and Ortaias , Solomon now turned to Numidia . He cautiously advanced to Aurasium and challenged Iaudas to battle , but after three days , distrusting the loyalty of his allies , Solomon returned his army to the plains . He left part of the army to keep watch on the Moors and established a series of fortified posts along the roads linking Byzacena with Numidia . Solomon then spent the winter preparing a new expedition against Aurasium and also against the Moors of Sardinia , but his designs were interrupted by a major army mutiny in spring 536 .
The revolt was caused by dissatisfaction of some of the soldiers , who had taken Vandal wives , with Solomon : the soldiers demanded the property once owned by their wives as their own , but Solomon refused , since this land had been confiscated by imperial decree . A first plot to assassinate Solomon in Easter failed and the conspirators fled into the countryside , but soon open rebellion broke out among the army in Carthage as well . The soldiers acclaimed one of Solomon 's subalterns , Theodore , as its leader , and began looting the city . Solomon managed to find refuge in a church , and under the cover of night , with the aid of Theodore , he departed the city by boat for Missua , accompanied among others by the historian Procopius . From there , Solomon and Procopius sailed to Sicily , which had just been conquered by Belisarius , while Solomon 's lieutenant Martin was dispatched to try and reach the troops at Numidia , and Theodore instructed to hold Carthage . Upon hearing about the mutiny , Belisarius , with Solomon and 100 picked men , set sail for Africa . Carthage was being besieged by 9 @,@ 000 rebels , including many Vandals , under a certain Stotzas . Theodore was contemplating capitulation when Belisarius appeared . The news of the famous general 's arrival were sufficient for the rebels to abandon the siege and withdraw westwards . Belisarius immediately gave pursuit and caught up and defeated the rebel forces at Membresa . The bulk of the rebels , however , was able to flee , and continued to march towards Numidia , where the local troops decided to join them . Belisarius himself was forced to return to Italy due to trouble there , and Emperor Justinian appointed his cousin Germanus as magister militum to deal with the crisis . Solomon returned to Constantinople .
= = = Second tenure in Africa = = =
Germanus was successful in winning the confidence of many soldiers , re @-@ establishing discipline and defeating the mutineers at the Battle of Scalas Veteres in 537 . With imperial control over the army restored , Solomon was sent back to Africa to replace Germanus in 539 , again combining in his person the posts of magister militum and praetorian prefect ( in the meantime , he had also been raised to the rank of patricius and named an honorary consul ) . Solomon further reinforced his control of the army by weeding out unreliable soldiers , sending them to Belisarius in Italy and to the East ; by expelling all remaining Vandals from the province ; and by initiating a massive programme of fortification across the region .
In 539 AD Solomon [ ... ] devoted the energies of the state to an enormous building programme that fortified the Byzantine province of Africa . The open cities and villa @-@ dotted countryside of the past was transformed into a medieval landscape of small walled towns surrounded by fortified manor houses [ ... ] at the same time sewer systems were overhauled , aqueducts reconnected , harbours cleared and grandiose churches erected to dominate the new urban centres [ ... ] The three great rectangular military fortresses , which were constructed on the south @-@ western frontier zone of Tebessa , Thelepte and Ammaedara , would have required over a million laboring days in their construction .
In 540 , Solomon led his army again against the Moors of Mount Aurasium . Initially , the Moors attacked and besieged the Byzantine advance guard , under Guntharis , at their camp in Bagai , but Solomon with the main army came to the rescue . The Moors had to abandon the attack and retreated to Babosis on the foothills of Aurasium , where they pitched camp . Solomon attacked them there and defeated them . The surviving Moors fled south to Aurasium or west into Mauretania , but their leader Iaudas sought refuge in the fortress of Zerboule . Solomon and his troops plundered the fertile plains around Thamugad , gathering the rich harvest for themselves , before moving onto Zerboule . Once there , they found Iaudas gone , having fled to the remote fortress of Toumar . The Byzantines moved up to besiege Toumar , but the siege proved problematic because of the barren terrain , and in particular the lack of water . While Solomon was considering how best to attack the inaccessible fortress , a minor skirmish between the two forces gradually escalated into a full @-@ scale and confused battle , as more and more soldiers from both sides joined in . The Byzantines emerged victorious , while the Moors fled from the field . Shortly after , the Byzantines also captured the fort at the so @-@ called " Rock of Geminianus " , where Iaudas had sent his wives and treasure . This victory left Solomon in control of Aurasium , where he built a number of fortresses . With Aurasium secured , effective Byzantine control was established in the provinces of Numidia and Mauretania Sitifensis . Aided by the captured treasure of Iaudas , Solomon extended his fortification programme in these two provinces : some two @-@ dozen inscriptions testifying to his building activity survive from the area . The Moorish rebellion seemed beaten for good , and contemporary chroniclers are unanimous in declaring the next few years as a golden era of peace and prosperity . In the words of Procopius , " all the Libyans who were subjects of the Romans , coming to enjoy secure peace and finding the rule of Solomon wise and very moderate , and having no longer any thought of hostility in their minds , seemed the most fortunate of all men " .
This tranquility lasted until 542 / 543 when the great plague arrived in Africa and caused many casualties , especially among members of the army . In addition , in early 543 the Moors in Byzacena became restive . Solomon executed the brother of the chieftain Antalas , whom he held responsible for the disturbances , and ceased the subsidies granted to Antalas , alienating the powerful and hitherto loyal chieftain . At the same time , Solomon 's nephew Sergius , newly named governor of Tripolitania as a token of Emperor Justinian 's gratitude ( along with his brother Cyrus in the Pentapolis ) , caused the outbreak of hostilities with the tribal confederation of the Leuathae when his men killed 80 of their leaders at a banquet . Although in a subsequent battle near Leptis Magna he was victorious , in early 544 Sergius was forced to travel to Carthage and seek his uncle 's aid . The rebellion spread quickly from Tripolitania to Byzacena , where Antalas joined it . Joined by his three nephews , Solomon marched against the Moors as they assembled , meeting them near Theveste . Last @-@ minute diplomatic overtures to the Leuathae failed , and the two armies clashed at Cillium , on the border of Numidia and Byzacena . The Byzantine army was riven by disunity , with many soldiers refusing to fight or doing so only reluctantly . The contemporary poet Flavius Cresconius Corippus even accused Guntharis of treason , alleging that he withdrew from the line with his troops , causing a general and disorderly Byzantine retreat . Solomon and his bodyguard stood their ground and resisted but at last they were forced to retreat . Solomon 's horse stumbled and fell in a ravine , wounding its rider . With the aid of his guards , Solomon remounted , but they were quickly overcome and slain .
Solomon was succeeded by his nephew Sergius , who proved completely inadequate in dealing with the situation . The Moors launched a general revolt and inflicted a severe defeat on the Byzantines in Thacia in 545 . Sergius was recalled , while the army mutinied again , this time under Guntharis , who captured Carthage and installed himself there as an independent ruler . His usurpation did not last long as he was assassinated by Artabanes , but it was not until the arrival of John Troglita in late 546 and his subsequent campaigns that the province was to be pacified and brought again securely under Byzantine imperial control .
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= Sycorax =
Sycorax / ˈsɪkəræks / is an unseen character in William Shakespeare 's play The Tempest ( 1611 ) . She is a vicious and powerful witch and the mother of Caliban , one of the few native inhabitants of the island on which Prospero , the hero of the play , is stranded .
According to the backstory provided by the play , Sycorax , while pregnant with Caliban , was banished from her home in Algiers to the island on which the play takes place . Memories of Sycorax , who dies several years before the main action of the play begins , define several of the relationships in the play . Relying on his filial connection to Sycorax , Caliban claims ownership of the island . Prospero constantly reminds Ariel of Sycorax 's cruel treatment in order to maintain the sprite 's service .
Scholars generally agree that Sycorax , a foil for Prospero , is closely related to the Medea of Ovid 's Metamorphoses . Postcolonialist writers and critics see Sycorax as giving voice to peoples , particularly women , recovering from the effects of colonization . Later versions of The Tempest , beginning with William Davenant 's eighteenth @-@ century adaptation , have given Sycorax a vocal role in the play , but maintained her image as a malevolent antagonist to Prospero .
= = Role in the play = =
In The Tempest , Prospero describes Sycorax as an ancient and foul witch native to Algiers , and banished to the island for practicing sorcery " so strong / That [ she ] could control the Moon " . Prospero further relates that many years earlier , sailors had brought her to the island , while she was pregnant with her bestial son , Caliban , and abandoned her there , as by some ambiguous reason , she was spared being put to death . She proceeded to enslave the spirits there , chief among them Ariel , whom she eventually imprisoned in a pine tree for disobedience . Sycorax birthed Caliban and taught him to worship the demonic god Setebos . She dies long before the arrival of Prospero and his daughter , Miranda . Caliban grows to hate Prospero 's presence and power on the island , claiming that the land belongs to him since it was his mother 's before Prospero appeared .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Silent Sycorax = = =
Sycorax 's silent role plays an important part in postcolonial interpretations of The Tempest . Because she is native to Algiers and her story is only heard through others ( Prospero , Ariel , and Caliban ) , she is championed by some scholars as a representation of the silenced African woman . Postcolonial authors have also claimed her ; for example , Kamau Brathwaite , in his 1994 work Barabajan Poems , includes " Sycorax 's book " as a counterpart to " Prospero 's book " ( mentioned in Act 5 of Shakespeare 's play ) . In an attempt to give voice to unspoken indigenous cultures , Brathwaite 's poems outline the history of the Caribbean through Sycorax 's eyes . Sycorax is presented as Brathwaite 's muse , possessing him and his computer in order to give full voice to the history of the silenced , who in Brathwaite 's philosophy are not only Caribbean natives , but any culture underrepresented during the colonial period .
Other postcolonial scholars have argued that Shakespeare 's audiences would have connected Sycorax with the threat of Islamic expansionism . Islam had successfully conquered and colonized much of the Middle East and some of southern Europe during the Middle Ages . The Algerian Sycorax may represent Christian Europe 's fear of Islam and its growing political power . This interpretation inverts the traditional postcolonial interpretations of The Tempest , however . If Sycorax is viewed as an Islamic expansionist , then she herself is the colonizer , not Prospero ( who becomes merely a re @-@ colonizer of the island ) . However , Sycorax 's portrayal as an absent , silent woman still allows the play to solidify the idea of European over Islamic power .
Interpretations of Sycorax as silenced focus not only on her race but her gender as well . Most of what is said about her in the play is said by Prospero . However , as scholars point out , Prospero has never met Sycorax — all he learned about her he learned from Ariel — and his suspicion of women makes him an unreliable source of information . Skeptical of female virtue in general , he refuses to accept Caliban 's prior claim to the island , accusing him of being a bastard " got by the devil himself / Upon thy wicked dam . "
= = = Sycorax and Prospero = = =
In The Tempest , Shakespeare presents two powerful sorcerers , Sycorax and Prospero , who have both controlled the island . Initially it appears that the two characters are a contrasting pair : the benevolent Prospero and the rapacious Sycorax . However , upon closer analysis , the differences between the two characters disappear and the similarities grow . For example , Prospero , like Sycorax , coerces Ariel into doing his bidding , using the sprite to regain his inheritance as a Duke , and tortures Caliban with magic the way Sycorax tortured Ariel . Also , both Prospero and Sycorax were exiled from their respective homelands and both have children , which was possibly the reason why they were both spared being executed . The fine line between Sycorax 's black magic and Prospero 's white blurs even further during his renunciation of magic in Act V , a speech which has strong parallels to one given by the dark witch Medea in the Metamorphoses . In comparing himself to Medea , Prospero is implicitly comparing himself to Sycorax . Emphasizing the relationship between Prospero and Sycorax demonstrates the ambiguity of Prospero 's supposedly benevolent character .
= = = Sycorax as mother = = =
Sycorax has been described as the matriarchal figure of The Tempest . Modernist authors such as Sylvia Plath and Ted Hughes have alluded to Sycorax in their writing in order to illustrate destructive feminine power . As Hughes writes , " ... the difficult task of any poet in English [ is ] to locate the force which Shakespeare called Venus in his first poems and Sycorax in his last . " By emphasizing the female power found in characters such as Sycorax , Plath and Hughes hoped to counteract what they saw as the patriarchal nature of canonical Western literature . Feminist critics , however , have maintained that matriarchal readings of Sycorax are shallow , as they often find importance only in Sycorax 's motherhood rather than her thoughts , feelings , and past life .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
Some critics have seen both Caliban and Sycorax as instances of indeterminate racial or ethnic identity . Leah Marcus argues that the phrase " ... blue @-@ eyed hag " , suggests racial uncertainty because " as a blue @-@ eyed Algerian Sycorax would have failed to fit our racial stereotypes in a number of interesting ways . We tend not to think of Africans as blue eyed , even though North Africans of ' Argier ' and elsewhere sometimes are . " Most critics have interpreted the phrase " blue eyed " to be a reference to blueish rings around the eyes , indicating tiredness or pregnancy , on the grounds that this was the most common meaning of the term at the time . However both Marcus and Diane Purkiss suggest that a reference to race might be implied , suggesting that Sycorax 's ethnicity cannot be clearly defined , as although she was born in Algiers , her parentage is not known .
= = = Avoiding execution = = =
Scholars have wondered what it was that Sycorax did to avoid execution , as described in Act one , Scene two by Prospero : " for one thing she did / They [ the Algerians ] would not take her life . " Charles Lamb , a Romantic writer fascinated by Shakespeare and his works , and particularly intrigued by this question , found in John Ogilby 's " Accurate Description of Africa " ( 1670 ) two versions of a story about Emperor Charles V 's invasion of Algiers in 1541 , relating that a witch ( not named in the source text ) had advised the commander of the city not to surrender , predicting the destruction of the besieging fleet , which was accomplished nine days later by a " dreadful tempest " . The principal version given claims that she was " richly remunerated " but the alternative version , " to palliate the shame and the reproaches that are thrown upon them for making use of a witch , " attributes the storm to the prayers of a holy man named Cidy Utica .
Later scholars , however , have argued that Sycorax was saved from execution because she was pregnant . This was not uncommon , as many female criminals in Shakespeare 's day got pregnant in order to avoid execution .
= = Sycorax in later versions of the play = =
Sycorax has been conceptualized in a variety ways by adapters and directors of The Tempest . In John Dryden and William Davenant 's version of The Tempest ( 1670 ) , Sycorax is survived by two children , Caliban and a daughter also named Sycorax . This second Sycorax makes sexual advances toward Trinculo , the drunken sailor , and ( according to Trinculo ) also has incestuous relations with her brother Caliban . Die Geisterinsel , a 1778 version of the play in German , includes a living Sycorax , a witch who has full power during the night , while Prospero rules the day . In this play , she is the one who causes the tempest and shipwreck , not Prospero ; Prospero is extremely wary of her actions as each night approaches , as she has power over those who sleep . Several times he struggles to keep Miranda awake to protect her from Sycorax 's power . In Eugène Scribe 's French 1846 version , Sycorax is alive but imprisoned behind some rocks out of sight . She spends most of the play trying to convince her son , Caliban , to free her . Peter Brook 's 1968 British version of the play portrayed Sycorax as an ugly witch , including her in a birth scene in which the equally ugly Caliban is born .
Film versions of The Tempest have portrayed Sycorax in flashbacks of the island 's history . In Derek Jarman 's 1979 version , Sycorax is shown leading Ariel around by a chain and breast feeding an adult Caliban . Peter Greenaway 's Prospero 's Books ( 1991 ) depicts Sycorax as a bald , naked woman covered in peacock feathers ; Steven Dillon suggests that Greenaway 's vision of Sycorax was inspired by Jarman 's .
= = Sycorax in later literature = =
In Ernest Renan 's play Caliban the anti @-@ hero states that Sycorax went to " all the devils " but left him as rightful ruler of the island . Marina Warner reimagined the witch in her 1992 book Indigo , in which Sycorax is a healer and dyer of indigo who uses her magic to help slaves . Her attempts to give up sorcery fail , because " she cannot abjure , give up , control the force by which she is possessed " .
J.B. Aspinall 's novel Sycorax ( 2006 ) places the origin of the story with a 14th @-@ century peasant woman from Yorkshire . The Indian poet Suniti Namjoshi in Sycorax : New Fables and Poems imagines Sycorax returning to the island after Prospero and the others have left ( including Caliban ) . Namjoshi has stated , " The Sycorax in my poem is still alive . . . She is still defiant , still fierce , but she is old and knows that death is no longer so far away that it need not be thought of ... I wanted to follow Sycorax , keep her company , as it were , up to the final moment " .
Sycorax is also revived in the " Baroque pastiche " opera The Enchanted Island , devised by Jeremy Sams , in the first production of which she was played by Joyce DiDonato .
= = Sycorax in music = =
The Decemberists ' 2006 album The Crane Wife features the song " The Island / Come and See " which references " Sycorax and Patagon / watching in parralax " .
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= Okęcie Airport incident =
The Okęcie Airport incident ( Polish : Afera na Okęciu ) was a dispute between players and technical staff of the Poland national football team on 29 November 1980 , starting at the team hotel in Warsaw and climaxing at Okęcie Airport . An incident of footballing insubordination at a time when strike action and other forms of civil resistance were intensifying in communist Poland , it caused a domestic press storm , which led first to the suspension of several prominent players , then the resignation of the team manager , Ryszard Kulesza .
Józef Młynarczyk , the team 's goalkeeper , was hungover when the time came to leave the hotel for the airport , having not been to sleep following a night on the town with a friend . Kulesza and one of his assistants , Bernard Blaut , decided to leave Młynarczyk behind , much to the indignation of some players , including Stanisław Terlecki , Zbigniew Boniek , Włodzimierz Smolarek and Władysław Żmuda . Terlecki , a stridently pro @-@ Western intellectual with a reputation for mocking the communist establishment , was particularly angered , and himself drove Młynarczyk to the airport , where the players continued their protests . Kulesza eventually relented and allowed Młynarczyk to travel with the team .
The Polish media took hold of the story and vociferously attacked the rebellious players over the following days . Meanwhile , Terlecki again defied the communist authorities by arranging for the players to meet Pope John Paul II . The Polish Football Association sent Terlecki , Młynarczyk , Boniek and Żmuda home and imposed various bans preventing them from playing at the international and club level over the next year . Terlecki and Boniek in particular were condemned by the association as insubordinate " rabble @-@ rousers " . Smolarek received a more modest , suspended ban . Kulesza resigned in protest at the sanctions imposed on the players , saying they were too harsh . Most of the banned players were reinstated during 1981 , but Terlecki was not — he emigrated to the United States in June that year and although he returned home five years later , he never played for Poland again .
= = Background = =
In June 1976 , a series of protests took place across communist Poland soon after the government announced plans to increase sharply the fixed prices charged nationwide for many basic commodities . Violent incidents occurred in Płock , Radom and Ursus as the protests were forcibly put down , and the planned price hikes were cancelled . These demonstrations and the events surrounding them brought the Polish workforce and intellectual political opposition together , and by 1980 , a campaign of civil resistance for political change was intensifying strongly . Industrial strike action in Lublin in July 1980 — the so @-@ called Lublin July — preceded the formation of Solidarity ( Solidarność ) in the port city of Gdańsk during the following months . This was the first non @-@ communist trade union in an Eastern bloc country . The government took several steps to obstruct Solidarity 's emergence , enforcing press censorship and cutting off telephone connections between the coast and the hinterland , but despite these efforts four out of every five Polish workers were members of the union by late 1980 .
Poland 's national football team , managed by Ryszard Kulesza , was then regarded as one of the world 's best , having finished third at the 1974 World Cup . In November 1980 it was ranked sixth in the world by the Elo rating system . Late that month , the team was preparing for a 1982 World Cup qualifying match away against Malta on 7 December . The squad 's departure was scheduled for 29 November , 10 days before the game , so the players could attend a training camp in Italy , then contest a warm @-@ up match against a team representing the Italian league .
One of Poland 's key players at the time was Stanisław Terlecki , a forward whose club was ŁKS Łódź . The son of university lecturers , Terlecki held a degree in history from the University of Łódź , as well as fervent anti @-@ communist political views and a strident attitude regarding their display . He was known for openly mocking the establishment with subversive abandon , and regularly made jokes in public about communist authority figures and organisations , prompting the ire of the Polish Football Association ( PZPN ) and the Warsaw police force . The first Polish international player with a university degree in anything other than physical education , he eschewed the Polish sports magazines read by many of his team @-@ mates on road trips in favour of Western news journals such as Newsweek and Time . Like many Polish intellectuals , he sympathised with movements such as Solidarity ; following their example , he twice attempted to unionise Polish footballers during the late 1970s . The PZPN blocked both attempts , banning Terlecki from all organised football each time ; first for six months , then for a year .
= = Incident = =
= = = Main incident = = =
Late on 28 November 1980 , the night before the team 's departure for Italy , goalkeeper Józef Młynarczyk and forward Włodzimierz Smolarek , both of Widzew Łódź , left the team hotel in Warsaw , the Hotel Vera , without permission . According to Smolarek they did this to get some dinner because they did not like the food at the hotel . They met a friend of Młynarczyk 's , sports journalist Wojciech Zieliński , at the Adria nightclub . According to Andrzej Iwan , another member of the team , the main topic of conversation was Zieliński 's estranged wife , who had been caught prostituting herself around Warsaw , and had since moved to Italy . Several Poland players knew her , and Młynarczyk had just been to Italy to play for Widzew Łódź against Juventus . According to Iwan , the journalist encouraged Młynarczyk to drink as they talked , hoping the goalkeeper might have news of her . Smolarek left the club around 02 : 00 , but Młynarczyk and Zieliński stayed until about three hours later .
A senior national team official , Colonel Roman Lisiewicz of the Polish Army , said he saw the goalkeeper and the journalist reach the hotel in a taxi soon after 05 : 00 — but rather than going to his room , Młynarczyk then left again with Zieliński before returning again around 07 : 00 . Tired and hungover , Młynarczyk joined the rest of the players for breakfast , and according to Terlecki spent most of the meal getting worked up about possible managerial retribution . Młynarczyk was in such bad shape that he was unable to carry his own bags ; Smolarek took them for him . Next to the team bus , one of Kulesza 's assistants , Bernard Blaut , confronted Smolarek and told him that Młynarczyk was to stay behind .
Smolarek , Terlecki and two other Polish players — Zbigniew Boniek and Władysław Żmuda , both of Widzew Łódź — angrily objected and nearly came to blows with Blaut . Grzegorz Lato , one of the team 's forwards , did not join the protest but later said that he had not thought Młynarczyk drunk enough to warrant exclusion . The team eventually left without Terlecki or Młynarczyk . Terlecki , whose own car was to hand , drove himself and Młynarczyk to the airport , where the confrontation continued .
Terlecki tried to stop the many pressmen at the airport from photographing Młynarczyk by running around , yelling , and snatching cameras and microphones from their hands . Meanwhile , the other players attempted to talk Kulesza around , telling him that Młynarczyk had serious personal problems . Kulesza eventually relented and allowed the goalkeeper to travel with the team .
= = = Press storm ; players meet the Pope = = =
Among the journalists at the airport were Jacek Gucwa of Polish Television , Bogdan Chruścicki of Polish Radio , and Remigiusz Hetman of the weekly football journal Piłka Nożna . News about the incident quickly spread across the country , partly because of Terlecki 's outlandish actions in the reporters ' presence — Iwan later reflected that Terlecki had " made so much commotion it was impossible to sweep everything under the carpet " . Boniek corroborates this version of events : " Terlecki was massively to blame . He brought Młynarczyk to the airport in his own car , then pulled the plug powering a TV camera out of the wall . " Grzegorz Majchrzak , a historian of the Polish Institute of National Remembrance , questions Boniek 's words , positing that he might have distorted events in an attempt to distance himself from Terlecki .
The government attempted to use the scandal as a popular distraction , aiming to deflect attention from the strikes and other industrial action . A number of journalists attacked the players who had supported Młynarczyk ; the Przegląd Sportowy sports magazine ran the headline " No Mercy for Those Guilty of the Scandal at the Airport " while Tempo , another journal , was similarly severe , proclaiming " This Cannot Be Tolerated " . Piłka Nożna condemned the " magnificent men ... who think they can do what they want " , but at the same time questioned the conduct of the team 's non @-@ playing staff .
In the Italian capital , Terlecki continued to defy the establishment . The players were under strict instructions not to associate with the Vatican while in Rome , but Terlecki arranged for them to meet Pope John Paul II , who was himself Polish . Seeing this as a second act of defiance , the PZPN promptly sent Terlecki , Młynarczyk , Boniek and Żmuda home , escorted by General Marian Ryba of the Polish Army , who was also the football association president . Lech Poznań 's Piotr Mowlik replaced Młynarczyk for the match against Malta , which Poland won 2 – 0 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Hearings and suspensions = = =
Ryba announced on 1 December 1980 that he intended to bar the dissenting players from the Poland squad . When the rest of the team returned to Poland , Terlecki once again attempted to form a footballers ' union . Securing the support of 16 other Poland international players , he wrote a letter to the PZPN declaring their intention to do so , leading the authorities to order them to face a tribunal . Only Terlecki , Boniek , Żmuda and Młynarczyk continued to endorse the letter when challenged in court .
On 15 December , PZPN officials attempted to reconstruct the night 's events , asking various players and staff to give accounts of what had happened . Several journalists were present . The stories told contradicted each other in several places , notably regarding how much Młynarczyk had had to drink . The team 's technical staff said that he had been obviously intoxicated when they had seen him , while the goalkeeper insisted he had taken only " three glasses of champagne and a sip of beer " with his friend . Another point of contention regarded the conversation at the airport , which had caused Kulesza to yield . It was generally agreed that the players had talked the manager around by telling him that Młynarczyk had personal problems , but the non @-@ playing staff now accused them of emotional blackmail . The players said their intention had been to explain the goalkeeper 's off @-@ field issues to help the manager make a more informed decision .
Terlecki 's answers at this meeting under the questioning of General Ryba , a former military prosecutor , were typically provocative ; when the general asked what time Terlecki had left the hotel on 29 November , the ŁKS forward said 08 : 00 . " Are you sure it was 08 : 00 ? " Ryba pressed — " Are you sure it wasn 't 08 : 02 ? " The player replied that he wasn 't : " No . Maybe it was even 08 : 03 . I don 't know this time exactly , because I have one of your Russian watches . "
A week later , the PZPN announced its final verdict . The only versions of events accepted for consideration were those recounted by Kulesza and Blaut ; those of all the players and of the team physiotherapist and sport psychologist were dismissed . Żmuda and Młynarczyk were barred from playing for either Poland or their clubs for eight months , and Terlecki and Boniek for twelve . Smolarek received a two @-@ month ban , which was suspended for six months . Citing their previous records of insubordination and misconduct , the PZPN called Terlecki and Boniek " rabble @-@ rousers " .
= = = Reactions = = =
Kulesza left his job soon afterwards ; according to Majchrzak , he resigned in protest at the players ' punishments , which he thought were too harsh . Officials at Widzew Łódź accused the PZPN of bias , saying the association had not supervised the players properly and should shoulder some of the blame . Directors at Widzew and ŁKS Łódź briefly considered resigning their PZPN memberships and organising their own league championship , but did not . The national team players ' council , at that time comprising Marek Dziuba , Paweł Janas and Wojciech Rudy , wrote an open letter expressing surprise at what they saw as excessive sanctions against Terlecki , Boniek , Żmuda and Młynarczyk . They admitted the goalkeeper 's conduct had been far from exemplary , but contended that the incident was only minor , and had been exacerbated by disproportionately prominent and negative press coverage .
Despite being without some of their top players , Widzew Łódź were crowned champions of Poland at the end of the 1980 – 81 season . Ryba left his post in April 1981 , along with a number of his contemporaries , described by Stefan Szczepłek , a sports journalist and football historian , as " honest officials , together with some football @-@ friendly Polish Army officers " . In their place came a number of communist officials , most prominently Włodzimierz Reczek , an erstwhile Politburo member , who took over as head of the football association despite a reputation for not liking the sport .
Młynarczyk , Boniek and Żmuda had their bans cancelled early . Żmuda and Młynarczyk returned in the 1 – 0 home win over East Germany on 2 May 1981 , and Boniek was reinstated four months later . The players ' recall was partly due to the efforts of Kulesza 's replacement , Antoni Piechniczek , to secure their return . According to Majchrzak , Boniek and Żmuda apologised for their actions before the General Committee for Physical Culture and Sport of the Polish People 's Republic , the PZPN 's governing body , but kept this from Terlecki , who appealed to have his ban lifted several times , but to no avail .
= = Legacy = =
Terlecki openly participated in students ' strikes at his old university in Łódź and across Poland over the next few months , providing food to the students by the car @-@ load . ŁKS cancelled his registration in early 1981 . Majchrzak stresses that Terlecki was the only player involved in the incident not to regain his place in the Poland team , and claims that this was down to an intense grudge held against him by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Secret Police ( SB ) . Terlecki developed his own theory that the media circus following the airport incident had been deliberately engineered by the SB to head the players off forming their own trade union . There were several other incidents of drunkenness involving Młynarczyk , Majchrzak writes , but this was the only occasion when any player was punished for it . In October 1981 , when the team travelled to Argentina , Młynarczyk arrived at Okęcie " completely drunk " , according to Iwan , but far from reprimanding him , team staff gave him even more alcohol during the flight to help ease the pain of his broken finger .
Poland qualified for the 1982 World Cup with a perfect record , and performed strongly in the competition , losing to Italy in the semi @-@ finals but beating France in a play @-@ off to claim third place . Kulesza became the manager of Tunisia , and later founded a coaching school in Warsaw .
Saying he was " being treated like a leper " , Terlecki emigrated to the United States in June 1981 , and joined the Pittsburgh Spirit of the Major Indoor Soccer League . He pursued a new life in America with great vigour . Terlecki 's on @-@ field displays in the U.S. were widely praised — in three seasons with Pittsburgh he became the club 's all @-@ time top goalscorer — but managers reportedly had trouble " harness [ ing ] Terlecki 's fiery temper " , and his wife Ewa became intensely homesick . Terlecki announced his intention to move back to Poland in 1985 , saying that he believed the political situation had improved and that he wished to reunite his family . He returned home the following year , and resumed his career in Polish club football . He expressed a desire to play for the national team again , but was never selected .
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= New York State Route 333 =
New York State Route 333 ( NY 333 ) was an east – west state highway located in southeastern Steuben County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route was at an intersection with County Route 11 ( CR 11 ) and CR 24 in Risingville , a hamlet within the town of Thurston . Its eastern terminus was at a junction with NY 415 in the town of Campbell . In between , NY 333 passed through the hamlet of Thurston . The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and remained unchanged until April 1 , 1997 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Steuben County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . NY 333 was subsequently redesignated as County Route 333 .
= = Route description = =
NY 333 began at an intersection with CR 11 and CR 24 in Risingville , an isolated hamlet within the Steuben County town of Thurston . It headed eastward , following Michigan Creek along the base of a valley surrounding the waterway . Due to the terrain of the area , NY 333 intersected only a handful of roads , one of which was Cranberry Lake Road ( CR 2 ) , a north – south highway that met NY 333 midway between the hamlets of Risingville and Thurston . The route continued onward , turning northeastward toward Thurston Pond and the small hamlet of Thurston at the eastern edge of the small lake . Here , NY 333 curved back to the east as it met Savona – Thurston Road ( CR 12 ) in the western half of the community .
East of Thurston hamlet , NY 333 continued to run along the base of the Michigan Creek valley into the town of Campbell , where the valley met a larger valley surrounding the Cohocton River . The route proceeded eastward across the width of the latter valley , crossing over the river on its way into the riverside hamlet of Campbell , the largest community along NY 333 . It proceeded eastward through the hamlet along Main Street to an interchange with the Southern Tier Expressway ( then @-@ NY 15 and NY 17 ) just east of the community . NY 333 ended just east of the Southern Tier at a junction with NY 415 . The right @-@ of @-@ way also terminated at the junction .
= = History = =
NY 333 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York as a spur connecting U.S. Route 15 ( US 15 , now NY 415 ) in Campbell to the hamlet of Risingville in the town of Thurston . It remained unchanged until April 1 , 1997 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Steuben County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In the switch , NY 333 and nearby NY 432 , both maintained by the state , were given to Steuben County in exchange for maintenance of NY 415 from Meads Creek Road in Coopers Plains ( northwest of Painted Post ) to Babcock Hollow Road in Bath as well as for maintenance of Hamilton Street ( the original routing of NY 17 ) between US 15 and Gang Mills . NY 333 was redesignated as CR 333 as a result .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Steuben County .
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= Bacliff , Texas =
Bacliff is a census @-@ designated place ( CDP ) in north @-@ central Galveston County , Texas , United States , 16 miles ( 26 km ) northwest of Galveston . The population was 8 @,@ 619 at the 2010 census . Bacliff , originally called Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , began as a seaside resort town . Located on the western shore of Galveston Bay , Bacliff , along with San Leon and Bayview , are the largest unincorporated communities on the Galveston County mainland .
The Bacliff CDP is home to the Kenneth E. Little Elementary school and Bayshore Park , created from land donated by Texas Genco .
= = History = =
Bacliff was established in 1910 by local landowners G.C. Perkins and W.Y. Fuqua as Clifton @-@ by @-@ the Sea . The area was developed as a seaside weekend resort , and included parks , hotels , summer homes , and a bathhouse and open air pavilion built on a pier over the water . Telephone service came to Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea in 1913 , and Grand Avenue ( FM 646 ) became the main street . Hurricanes , Galveston 's recovery after the Hurricane of 1900 , and rapid transportation diminished Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea 's popularity .
The hurricane of 1915 destroyed many of the improvements to the area , but by 1924 the bathhouse and pavilion had been restored and summer residents returned to the community . A fire destroyed the pavilion in 1929 and it was rebuilt and hosted numerous summer concerts by both the Galveston and Houston orchestras . The hurricane of 1943 caused major damage to the area and the bathhouse and pavilion were not rebuilt .
In 1933 , Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea was home to 50 residents and 2 businesses , and from 1940 @-@ 1949 it was home to 100 residents and 4 businesses . After World War II the area expanded as it became home for workers of the nearby petrochemical plants . The expansion of the area required the establishment of a post office in 1948 . The U.S. Postal Service refused to allow the name Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea to be used due to its length , and the name Clifton was already in use by another Texas town , so the residents chose the same name as the subdivision at the center of business , Bay Cliff , as a replacement . However , the name was misspelled on the postal paperwork as Bacliff . The new name had only seven letters so it was admissible .
" Gator " Miller , publisher of small newspapers such as the monthly magazine Seabreeze and the entertainment magazine Night Moves , said that in the 1950s the Galveston Daily News bought a large parcel of land and awarded free lots to subscribers ; people who canceled subscriptions lost their homesites , which were given to other subscribers . Miller said that this resulted in confused titles and a lack of large business ; Miller said that a retailer would not wish to buy land in Bacliff and then discover that an individual claimed title to the land .
In 1964 , Houston Lighting and Power began construction on two 450 MW electric generating units in Bacliff as part of the company 's Project Enterprise expansion . The units were of supercritical boiler design , which was then a new technology . The power plant , originally known as the Bacliff Plant , was renamed the P. H. Robinson plant , in honor of company president Perk H. Robinson . The plant eventually grew to four units with a total electrical generating capacity of 2 @,@ 211 MWh .
In the 1970s and 1980s there was a dispute over the valuation of the power plant between HL & P and the Dickinson Independent School District ( DISD ) . In 1979 HL & P said the plant was worth $ 238 million but DISD 's board of equalization said it was worth over $ 242 million . A legal dispute ensued between the two agencies .
During the 1980s , three ( 3 ) measures to incorporate the Bacliff area failed by wide margins . In April 1985 , residents of Bacliff , Bayview , and San Leon considered an incorporation proposal to become the City of Bayshore . Judge Ray Holbrook signed an order for the election to take place on April 6 , 1985 , freeing the area , which had a population of 11 @,@ 000 , from the extraterritorial jurisdiction of League City and Texas City . Residents rejected the incorporation proposal . The vote was tallied with 1 @,@ 268 against and 399 in favor . Proponents wanted a local police force and the ability to pass ordinances . Opponents said that the tax base was too small to support municipal services including police and road and drainage improvements .
By 1986 , the community became a bedroom community for workers commuting to jobs in the area ; during that year the Bacliff community had 4 @,@ 851 residents and 19 businesses .
In 1986 , residents in Bacliff and Bayview considered incorporating into a general law city . Supporters said that incorporation would establish more local control over affairs , an area police department , and the ability to pass ordinances . Opponents said that the area 's tax base could not sufficiently support municipal service , including police protection and road and drainage improvements . At the time the area of 3 @.@ 6 square miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) considering incorporation had 7 @,@ 000 people . Galveston County Judge Ray Holbrook signed an order setting the date of the election as Saturday , August 9 , 1986 and releasing the area from the extraterritorial jurisdiction of Kemah , League City , and Texas City . In 1986 , the Bacliff and Bayview area received water and sewer services from two municipal utility districts ; if the incorporation measure had passed the districts would have likely remained . Donna Maples , vice president of the Bacliff @-@ Bayview Community Association , supported the incorporation measure . The officials overseeing the election described turnout as " heavy . " Officials announced that the incorporation proposal failed on a 770 to 163 count . In 2000 Bacliff and San Leon formed a nine member board to prepare the communities for incorporation . At that time Bacliff and San Leon had a combined population of 10 @,@ 000 . The board was to have three members from the Bacliff area , three members from the San Leon area , and three at large members . It was prompted after the City of Texas City suddenly annexed several commercial parcels along Texas State Highway 146 between Kemah and Dickinson Bayou in the year 2000 . The board hoped to convince Texas City to reverse the annexation .
In 2003 , the P. H. Robinson power plant was mothballed by Texas Genco . The plant was mothballed due to the proliferation of newer gas @-@ fired merchant plants in Texas . Robinson Units 1 @-@ 4 had 2 @,@ 213 MW . The plant was decommissioned in 2009 and demolished in 2012 . In 2013 , NRG began construction on a 6 unit electrical generation " peaking plant " . This plant was scheduled to be in service by June 1 , 2014
After Hurricane Ike hit Texas in September 2008 , Galveston County officials offered a debris removal program to residents in unincorporated areas , including Bacliff . Flooding from hurricane Ike was minimized due in part to Bacliff 's relatively high elevation of 16 feet .
= = Geography and climate = =
Bacliff is a Census class code U5 , populated area located at 29 ° 30 ' 24 " N , 94 ° 59 ' 31 " W.
According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 2 @.@ 7 square miles ( 7 @.@ 0 km2 ) , of which 2 @.@ 5 square miles ( 6 @.@ 6 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 15 square miles ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ) , or 5 @.@ 85 % , is water . Bacliff is east of League City , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Kemah , 16 miles ( 26 km ) northeast of Galveston , and 36 miles ( 58 km ) southeast of Downtown Houston . Most of the area is along the Galveston Bay , east of Texas State Highway 146 .
The Bacliff , San Leon , and Bayview communities form the " Bayshore " area .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 8 @,@ 619 people , 3 @,@ 022 households , and 2 @,@ 095 families residing in the CDP . This represented a growth of approximately 23 @.@ 8 % since the 2000 census . The population density was 3 @,@ 405 @.@ 4 people per square mile . The racial makeup of the CDP was 74 @.@ 3 % White , 3 @.@ 5 % African American , 0 @.@ 7 % Native American , 2 @.@ 8 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 15 @.@ 9 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 7 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 37 @.@ 1 % of the population .
There were 3 @,@ 022 households , out of which 34 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 47 @.@ 9 % were married couples living together , 14 @.@ 2 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 30 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 24 @.@ 1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 87 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 41 .
In the CDP the population was spread out with 18 @.@ 7 % under the age of 18 years , 7 @.@ 5 % from 18 to 24 years , 31 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 years , 22 @.@ 5 % from 45 to 64 , and 8 @.@ 8 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 32 @.@ 6 years . For every 100 females there were 100 @.@ 3 males .
As of 2012 most residents of Bacliff are commuters . As of 2012 Bacliff , Bayview , and San Leon together make up the largest unincorporated community in the mainland portion of Galveston County by population .
In 2008 Phale Cassady Le , an outreach coordinator of Boat People SOS Houston , said that in Bacliff and San Leon there were between 150 and 200 Vietnamese families with origins in crab , oyster , and shrimp fishing operations . According to Le , most of the Vietnamese have no house or boat insurance , and even if they did have this insurance , their English is not well developed enough to read the terms of the policies . Many families had hand @-@ made boats that were constructed over several years as the owner made more and more money . Nick Cenegy of The Galveston County Daily News said that the Vietnamese community in Bacliff and San Leon had a " tradition of self @-@ reliance and wariness of outsiders . "
The Vietnamese first moved into the Galveston Bay Area in the 1970s and established shrimping businesses with borrowed money . By the early 1980s , many native residents in the area became angered and a conflict started between the groups . Because media groups portrayed White residents as , in the words of Bob Burtman of the Houston Press , " bigoted rednecks , " many residents had a suspicion of the media ; Burtman said that the media had exaggerated the importance of Ku Klux Klan involvement in that conflict . Due to the conflict , local residents had also gained anti @-@ government feelings that were present in 1997 . That year , Burtman said " For the most part , the Vietnamese and Texan shrimpers have ironed out their differences , though mistrust remains . "
= = Crime = =
As of 2008 ( Originally started in 1995 ) Bacliff had the 4th Street Bloods ( 4SB ) , a street gang consisting of mostly White Americans . The name of the gang originates from its headquarters in Bacliff . Documents filed in federal court stated that the gang was formed by six people in the mid @-@ 1990s . Cindy George of the Houston Chronicle said " The gang purportedly makes money by selling powdered and crack cocaine as well as methamphetamine . " To identify themselves , members wore red and had tattoos that read " 4th Street Playa " and " Kliff Side " .
In 2008 the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) Texas City Safe Street Task Force , the Galveston County Sheriff 's Office , and other agencies started an investigation into the gang . That year , 10 people were arrested , accused of drug charges . In 2011 the Federal Government of the United States arrested four men from Bacliff , accusing to be a part of the gang and charging them crimes related to crack cocaine distribution . In 2011 12 people accused of being members faced drug charges . In 2012 a federal judge in Houston sentenced four 4SB men to prison . They had pleaded guilty to their crimes .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Utilities = = =
Two municipal utility districts serve the Bacliff CDP . Some sections of the Bacliff CDP are served by the Bacliff Municipal Utility District ( MUD ) , while other sections are served by the Bayview MUD . In November 2011 the Bacliff MUD requested and received an 8 @.@ 95 million dollar bond issue for the expansion of water services which are currently provided to about 2 @,@ 700 water taps . This bond issue will be funded by Bacliff residents through increased property taxes . In addition to water / sewer service , the Bacliff MUD became responsible for administering trash collection as of February 2016 . The Bacliff Volunteer Fire Department provides fire protection services . In 2010 , under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act , the fire department got a $ 356 @,@ 320 loan and a $ 191 @,@ 854 grant from the United States Department of Agriculture Rural Development . The department used it to buy a newly built pumper fire truck .
As of January 2014 Bacliff resident James Wistinghausen was the General Manager of the Bacliff MUD and the Fire Chief for the Bacliff Volunteer Fire Department .
= = = County , state , and federal representation = = =
The community is within the boundaries of Galveston County Commissioners ' Court Precinct 1 . As of 2014 , Ryan Dennard is the Commissioner of the precinct . The Galveston County Sheriff 's Office is the primary provider of law enforcement for Bacliff . In November 2012 , Rick Sharp was elected constable of Precinct 1 , replacing Pam Matranga . The Galveston County Precinct 1 Justice of the Peace court is located in Bacliff , as of April , 2015 the Justice of the Peace was Alison Cox On January 26 , 2016 a new Law Enforcement Center , located on Grand Avenue at 12th St , was opened . This building was a former illegal gambling hall and was confiscated by Galveston County , it now serves as a local base of operations for the Galveston County Sheriff 's Department and Galveston County Precinct 1 Constable 's office .
Bacliff is located in District 23 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2016 , Wayne Faircloth represents the district . Bacliff is within District 11 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2016 Larry Taylor represents that district .
Bacliff is in Texas 's 14th Congressional district . As of 2016 , Randy Weber represents the district . The United States Postal Service Bacliff Post Office is located at 415 Grand Avenue .
In 1994 Republican Party strength grew in Bacliff .
= = = Media = = =
Bacliff has one local newspaper which has been published weekly in Bacliff and distributed free of charge since 1986 , The Eagle Point Press Also circulated in Bacliff on a monthly basis is The Seabreeze News , which is published in San Leon
= = Economy = =
Bacliff , like San Leon , and Bayview , originated as a fishing community . In 2012 T.J. Aulds of the Galveston County Daily News stated that much of the area 's economic influence moved to the corridor along Texas State Highway 146 , and that the economy adjusted with the growth of retail food service outlets and bars . Like San Leon and Bayview , many residents in Bacliff commute to work in Houston .
Bacliff CDP had 3 @,@ 147 employed civilians as of the 2000 Census , including 1 @,@ 360 females . Of the civilian workers , 2 @,@ 435 ( 77 @.@ 4 % ) were private for profit wage and salary workers . Of them 56 ( 1 @.@ 8 % of the total Bacliff CDP civilian workforce ) were employees of their own corporations , 82 ( 2 @.@ 6 % ) were private non @-@ profit wage and salary workers , 151 ( 4 @.@ 8 % ) worked for local governments , 144 ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) were state government workers , 53 ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) were federal workers , 268 ( 9 @.@ 3 % ) were self @-@ employed , and 14 of them ( less than 1 % of the total Bacliff CDP workforce ) worked in agriculture , forestry , fishing , or hunting . 14 ( Less than 1 % ) were unpaid family workers .
= = Education = =
Some of the areas within the Bacliff CDP fall under the boundary of Dickinson Independent School District ( DISD ) , while northern areas are zoned to Clear Creek Independent School District ( CCISD ) . The CCISD part of the community north of Bay Avenue is within the Board of Trustee District 5 , represented by Dee Scott as of 2014 .
The DISD portion is zoned to Kenneth E. Little Elementary School in the Bacliff community in unincorporated Galveston County .
The current 92 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 8 @,@ 500 m2 ) facility , on a 20 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) campus , has 33 classrooms and capacity for about 750 students . The architect of the building was Bay Architects and the construction company was Falcon Group Construction . Construction began in the year 2000 and completion was scheduled for June 2001 . The cost was $ 7 @.@ 5 million . Classrooms are arranged in pods organized by grade level . Each pod has a commons area . The school has a lighthouse motif reflecting its proximity to the Galveston Bay . The school entrance has a frosted dome , pyramidal skylight . The previous school building was located on the same site . Portions of the original building were to be demolished after students moved into the new school facility .
Residents of the DISD portion are also zoned to Barber Middle School in Dickinson , McAdams Junior High School in Dickinson , and Dickinson High School in Dickinson . CCISD pupils are zoned to Stewart Elementary School ( formerly Kemah Elementary School ) in unincorporated Galveston County , League City Intermediate School in League City , and Clear Falls High School in League City . Previously residents were zoned to Clear Creek High School in League City .
Residents are zoned to the College of the Mainland , a community college in Texas City .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Along the Galveston Bay Bacliff has several boat ramps .
The Galveston County Department of Parks and Senior Services operates several recreational facilities in Bacliff . The Bacliff Community Center is at 4503 11th Street . The 28 @-@ acre ( 110 @,@ 000 m2 ) Bayshore Park at 5437 East Farm to Market Road 646 ( FM 646 ) has five baseball fields , one boat ramp , one historic site , ten picnic areas , one pier , one playground , and five practice backstops . The 25 @-@ acre ( 10 ha ) park was originally owned by Texas Genco for 35 years ; the county operated the park according to an agreement . In 2005 Texas Genco donated the park to the county . Many anglers and their families use Bayshore Park as a place of recreation . In 2014 Galveston County purchased and cleared a new 64 acre tract in Bacliff which will become a new park for the Bayshore area .
The Bacliff Boat Ramp is located behind Clifton 's Seaside Diner , while the Bayshore Park Boat Ramp is located on Farm to Market Road 646 , aka Bayshore Drive . The nearest full service marina is the Eagle Point fishing camp , located off East Bayshore Drive in San Leon . In March 2012 the Galveston County Commissioners Court voted unanimously to approve a $ 25 @,@ 000 earnest money contract associated with the purchase of approximately 64 @.@ 06 acres of vacant land in Bacliff for $ 1 @.@ 285 million for a new County park .
As of 2012 the most popular restaurant in Bacliff is Clifton ’ s Seaside Diner , which refers to Bacliff 's original name . T.J. Aulds of The Galveston County Daily News said that Bacliff , San Leon , and Bayview " are known for great spots to eat seafood . "
As of 1991 Bacliff , along with Kemah and Seabrook , houses pleasure boats from NASA employees due to its proximity to the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center .
= = Notable residents = =
Floyd Tillman
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= Hurricane Darby ( 2004 ) =
Hurricane Darby was the first Eastern Pacific major hurricane since Hurricane Kenna in 2002 . The sixth tropical cyclone , fourth named storm , and second hurricane of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season , Darby developed from a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on July 12 . After crossing into the Eastern Pacific , the storm became a tropical depression on June 26 . The system steadily intensified , and became a hurricane on 000 UTC July 28 . Darby peaked as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , though it quickly deteriorated due to cooler waters and increasing wind shear . While Darby dissipated on August 1 , the remnants of the tropical cyclone affected the Hawaiian Islands . The system produced high waves and heavy rainfall that led to extensive flash flooding . Numerous roads were closed , while minor landslides and rockslides were reported . Despite the effects , no fatalities or severe damages occurred .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged from the west coast of Africa on July 12 and entered the Atlantic Ocean . The wave progressed westward , crossing the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea before crossing into the Eastern Pacific on July 20 . The west began to exhibit signs of development on July 23 . The next day , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted an associated area of showers and thunderstorms , indicating that gradual development was possible . The system had become better organized and on July 25 , the NHC continued to remark upon the potential for the weak low pressure area — accompanied by disorganized convective activity — to develop . On July 26 , the system became better @-@ organized , and under favorable conditions it was upgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC , while located about 760 miles ( 1 @,@ 220 km ) to the south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . Under the steering currents of a subtropical ridge of high pressure , the depression continued moving westward .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression contained a somewhat well @-@ defined low @-@ level center of circulation , as well as convective banding . Based on Dvorak classifications , the storm was upgraded to a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on July 27 ; as the fourth tropical storm of the 2004 season , it was named Darby by the NHC . Darby continued to intensify , with established outflow and a well @-@ defined banding feature . Later that day , forecasters predicted the storm to peak as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Darby was upgraded to a hurricane at 0000 UTC on July 28 , at which time it began to turn towards the northwest . An eye , embedded within the deep convection , developed later in the day . Darby attained Category 2 intensity at around 1800 UTC , and it rapidly strengthened to Category 3 , becoming the first Eastern Pacific major hurricane since Hurricane Kenna of the 2002 season .
Shortly after peaking in intensity , Darby moved over coolers waters and began to deteriorate . The eye became less well @-@ defined and the associated convection started weakening . Increasingly colder waters and growing wind shear continued to affect Darby , and the cyclone weakened to a tropical storm on July 30 . The low @-@ level center of circulation became exposed from the thunderstorm activity , and the storm quickly degenerated into a swirl of clouds , although it maintained tropical storm strength . On July 31 , it weakened to a tropical depression . Darby soon crossed into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , and it dissipated as a tropical cyclone on August 1 . However , its remnants continued westward under the low @-@ level trade winds , and dropped heavy rainfall on Hawaii several days after the cyclone dissipated .
= = Impact = =
Upon reaching the Hawaiian Islands , the remnants of Darby contributed to heavy rainfall and high winds , prompting the issuance of flash flood watch . Along the eastern shores of Kauai , Oahu , Molokai , Maui , and the Island of Hawaii , the system generated 4 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) swells . The Honolulu Airport reported a daily record of 2 @.@ 92 inches ( 74 mm ) of rainfall , breaking the previous record of 0 @.@ 96 inches ( 24 mm ) set in 1948 . Elsewhere , parts of Maui reported in excess of 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of precipitation , while 4 @.@ 6 inches ( 120 mm ) fell on Oahu . The rainfall was beneficial in some areas , where dry conditions had persisted . Although crop damage from the storm system was limited , some farming operations were postponed and some coffee and not trees were damaged . Along the eastern shores of several Hawaiian Islands , the storm system triggered surf of 4 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) .
The heavy rainfall resulted in flash flooding throughout several areas . On Oahu , roads and some structures were flooded , and minor landslides were reported . On the island , telephone and electrical service were disrupted . At one location , a large boulder rolled down a hillside and struck a fire hydrant ; firefighters were called to shut it off . On Kauai , the Wailua River exceeded flood stage on August 4 . Small stream and drainage ditch flooding was reported in the Kau District of Hawaii . Excessive runoff around Kailua @-@ Kona resulted in extensive flooding that forced the closure of five schools , submerged several roads , and triggered rockslides . Due to high water , several roads , including part of the Piilani Highway on Maui , were temporarily shut down . A portion of the Kamehameha Highway was also closed after being submerged under waters of up to 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) deep . Despite the flooding , neither Darby nor its remnant moisture caused any casualties or severe property damage .
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= The Testament of Dr. Mabuse =
The Testament of Dr. Mabuse ( German : Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse ) is a 1933 German crime film directed by Fritz Lang . The movie is a sequel to Lang 's silent film Dr. Mabuse the Gambler ( 1922 ) and features many cast and crew members from Lang 's previous films . The film features Rudolf Klein @-@ Rogge as Dr. Mabuse who is in an insane asylum where he is found frantically writing his crime plans . When Mabuse 's criminal plans begin to be implemented , Inspector Lohmann ( played by Otto Wernicke ) tries to find the solution with clues from gangster Thomas Kent ( Gustav Diessl ) , the institutionalized Hofmeister ( Karl Meixner ) and Professor Baum ( Oscar Beregi Sr. ) who becomes obsessed with Dr. Mabuse .
The Testament of Dr. Mabuse was based on elements of author Norbert Jacques ' novel Mabuse 's Colony . It was Lang 's second sound film for Nero @-@ Film and was his final collaboration with his wife and screenwriter Thea von Harbou . To promote the film to a foreign market , a French @-@ language version of the film was made by Lang with the same sets but different actors with the title Le Testament du Dr. Mabuse .
When Adolf Hitler rose to power , Joseph Goebbels became Minister of Propaganda and banned the film in Germany , suggesting that the film would decrease the audience 's confidence in its statesmen . The French @-@ language and German @-@ language versions of the film were released in Europe while several versions of the film were released in the United States to mixed reception with each re @-@ release . The sequel The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse ( 1960 ) was also directed by Lang . Modern reception of the film is favorable with critics , while the film has influenced filmmakers including Claude Chabrol and Artur Brauner .
= = Plot = =
In a noisy print shop , a disgraced police detective named Hofmeister ( Karl Meixner ) escapes from pursuing criminals ' attacks . Hofmeister telephones his former superior Inspector Karl Lohmann ( Otto Wernicke ) and explains frantically that he has discovered a huge criminal conspiracy . Before he can disclose the identity of responsible criminal , the lights go out , shots are fired , and Hofmeister becomes mad . Hofmeister vanishes only to be found later singing every time he feels watched , and he is institutionalized at Professor Baum 's asylum .
Professor Baum ( Oscar Beregi , Sr. ) introduces the case of Dr. Mabuse ( Rudolf Klein @-@ Rogge ) , the criminal mastermind and hypnotist who ten years earlier went mad . Mabuse spends his days frantically writing detailed plans for crimes while a criminal gang is committing them according to " the plans of the Doctor " , with whom they confer only from behind a curtain . When Baum 's colleague Dr. Kramm ( Theodor Loos ) by chance discovers that recent crimes implement Mabuse 's writings , Kramm is shot by the gang 's execution squad , Hardy and Bredow . A clue scratched in a glass window pane at Hofmeister 's crime scene causes Lohmann to suspect Mabuse . On arrival at the asylum , Baum reveals that Mabuse has died . When Lohmann disparagingly talks about " Mabuse the criminal " , Baum emphatically speaks about " Mabuse the genius " .
Baum continues to study Mabuse 's writings and seems to confer with the ghostly Dr. Mabuse . The spirit of Mabuse speaks about an " unlimited reign of crime " and merges with the Professor 's silhouette . During the same night , a hidden figure confers with sections of his organisation , preparing various crimes such as an attack on a chemical plant , robbing a bank , counterfeiting , poisoning water and destroying harvests . One of the gang members , Thomas Kent ( Gustav Diesel ) , is conflicted between his criminal work , which he needs to do for money , and his affection for a young woman named Lilli ( Wera Liessem ) . Lilli , devoted to Kent , begs him to confide in her . Kent confesses his past and his current situation to her . The two decide to inform the police but are abducted and locked in the strange meeting room with the curtain . The hidden figure announces their death when they discover that the curtained alcove contains only a loudspeaker and that there is a time @-@ bomb . After several escape attempts have failed , they flood the place to lessen the impact of the explosion and break free when the time @-@ bomb goes off .
Meanwhile the police are besieging a flat where several gangsters , including Hardy and Bredow , are staying . After a shootout , Hardy commits suicide while the other gangsters surrender . As Bredow testifies that they assassinated Dr. Kramm in the vicinity of the asylum , Lohmann arranges a confrontation between the gangsters and the Professor , which proves inconclusive . On Kent and Lilli 's arrival , Baum 's shocked reaction to Kent makes Lohmann suspicious . Lohmann and Kent visit the asylum , where they discover that Baum is the mastermind and has planned an attack on a chemical plant that night . Lohmann and Kent go to the exploding plant where they discover Baum watching from afar . Baum flees to the asylum with Lohmann and Kent pursuing . Mabuse 's spirit leads Baum to Hofmeister in his cell where he introduces himself as Dr. Mabuse , ending Hofmeister 's shock . Baum tries to kill Hofmeister but is stopped by guards , just as Lohmann and Kent arrive . The final scene shows the insane Baum in the cell , tearing Mabuse 's writings to shreds .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Norbert Jacques wrote the original Dr. Mabuse books in the style of other popular thrillers in Europe at the time , such as Nick Carter , Fantomas , and Fu Manchu . Jacques expanded the traits of these books to include critiques on Weimar Germany . During 1930 , Jacques was approached by a film producer to develop a story for a new Dr. Mabuse film with a female villain . This caused Jacques to start writing a new novel called Mabuse 's Colony . In the novel , a character named Frau Kristine obtains a copy of Mabuse 's testament which outlines plans for a future world of terrorism and crime that she uses .
At this time , Lang and his wife Thea von Harbou were developing the film M. Von Harbou and Lang were friends with Jacques since creating the first Mabuse film Dr. Mabuse the Gambler and went on vacation with each other . Lang asked Jacques for help with the screenplay for M and asked for suggestions for a new Mabuse project . Jacques sent Lang his unfinished work for Mabuse 's Colony . Lang used the idea of Mabuse 's will from the story and began working on an outline to what would become The Testament of Dr. Mabuse .
Using the outline that Lang proposed , Jacques signed a contract during July 1931 for the movie to be written by von Harbou and directed by Lang based on Lang 's own outline . The film was released in tandem with Jacques 's book . Jacques ' contributions are not mentioned in the film . The Testament of Dr. Mabuse is a direct sequel to Dr. Mabuse the Gambler and is related to the film M which features the Inspector Lohmann character .
= = = Preproduction = = =
Many members of the cast and crew had worked with Lang on his earlier films . Rudolf Klein @-@ Rogge returned to play Dr. Mabuse as he did in Dr. Mabuse the Gambler . Klein @-@ Rogge acted in Lang 's earlier films including Destiny , Die Nibelungen , Metropolis and Spies . Otto Wernicke reprises his role as Inspector Lohmann from Lang 's M. Klaus Pohl plays Lohmann 's assistant Muller . Pohl acted in Lang 's Woman in the Moon and in an uncredited role in M.
The Testament of Dr. Mabuse was Lang 's second film for the company Nero @-@ Film and producer Seymour Nebenzal . The film would be the last film collaboration between Lang and his wife Thea von Harbou , who had worked with Lang on all his directorial efforts since Destiny . Lang 's relationship with von Harbou was ending and the two would file divorce papers during 1933 . Cinematographer Fritz Arno Wagner returned to work with Lang . Their film credits together include M , Spies and Destiny .
= = = Filming = = =
Lang filmed The Testament of Dr. Mabuse at the end of 1932 and the beginning of 1933 , desiring to have the film viewed worldwide . In his film , where gun @-@ play , fires , or explosions are needed , Lang often used real weapons . In the opening scene during a power outage , a stunt actor did the gun play . Cinematographer Fritz Arno Wagner stated that he spent most of the production in a state of panic due to the way Lang would endanger his crew . The film is generally filmed in a realistic style with the exception of Mabuse 's ghostly appearances throughout the film . Lang admitted later in interviews that if he could re @-@ do the film , he would not have included these supernatural scenes .
Wagner filmed the explosion scenes at the factory on location during nighttime . These explosion scenes were the first scenes of the film to be filmed before returning to the studio to film the rest of the film . The film crew had three weeks to prepare for the factory scene by clearing trees and bringing in some artificial trees to match Lang 's idea for the scene . The explosion was triggered by Lang himself .
During the early years of sound films before dubbing and subtitling , one way to present a film to a foreign audience was to record the film with a translated screenplay with foreign @-@ language cast . As this was a time consuming and expensive procedure , most filmmakers who did this tended to only make one alternative language feature . Producer Seymour Nebenzal felt that creating this alternative version would enhance international sales for The Testament of Dr. Mabuse . The French @-@ language screenplay was adapted by René Sti . Lang was fluent in French and directed The Testament of Dr. Mabuse in both French and German . Actor Karl Meixner played Hofmeister in both versions of the film as he was bilingual . Rudolf Klein @-@ Rogge also features as Mabuse in the French version with his lines being dubbed . The French version , titled Le Testament du Dr. Mabuse , was edited by Lothar Wolff in France while the film was still in production .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
For the film , Lang commissioned a composer for the first time . Hans Erdmann created the opening theme and the music played during Professor Baum 's madness . The soundtrack in the film is deceptive . As in Lang 's M , the film 's music and sound are a subtle mix of actual silence with accompanying music and more or less realistic sound effects . Lang worked with his German editor Conrad von Molo directly on the post @-@ production process . Lang was known for making very long films and to suit foreign fashions , editor Lothar Wolff was contracted to shorten the French @-@ language version . This version deletes parts from the romantic sub @-@ plot between Lilli and Kent .
= = Release = =
The film was scheduled for release on March 24 , 1933 at the UFA @-@ Palast am Zoo , the same theater that hosted the original premiere of Dr. Mabuse the Gambler during 1922 . Adolf Hitler came to power at the end of January 1933 and on March 14 , Hitler established the new Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda headed by Joseph Goebbels . Lang had not finished editing the film , and would not have a print for Goebbels to view until March 23 . After a screening for Goebbels , he declared that the premiere would be delayed for technical reasons . Goebbels hosted a meeting at his home between himself , Lang and several other German filmmakers on discussions on what films would be permitted by Nazi censorship . Goebbels referred to Lang 's films as the style that Hitler wanted for Nazi Germany . By March 30 , the Ministry of Propaganda banned The Testament of Dr. Mabuse as a menace to public health and safety . Goebbels stated that he would not accept the film as it " showed that an extremely dedicated group of people are perfectly capable of overthrowing any state with violence " . During the 1940s , Lang stated that a meeting occurred between Goebbels and himself with Goebbels wanting Lang to work for him to create films for the Nazis . This offer caused Lang to leave Germany to France that very night . Goebbels ' diary makes no mention of such a meeting and Lang 's passport also shows that he did not leave until June and made repeated trips between France and Germany throughout 1933 .
The German version of The Testament of Dr. Mabuse premiered on April 21 , 1933 in Budapest , Hungary with a playing time of 124 minutes . The French @-@ language version was distributed through Europe . A subtitled version of the French version was released during 1943 with the title The Last Will of Dr. Mabuse in the United States . During 1951 , the German version was released in a 75 minute version with the title The Crimes of Dr.Mabuse which featured an English dub . The English subtitles for the 1943 release and the 1952 dub added allusions to Adolf Hitler that were not part of the original script . The Testament of Dr. Mabuse was first shown publicly in Germany on August 24 , 1961 with a 111 @-@ minute running time . During 1973 , the unedited German version of the film was released in the United States with the title The Testament of Dr. Mabuse with English subtitles .
= = = Reception = = =
During 1938 , Goebbels wrote that on looking at the film that he was " struck by the dullness of its portrayal , the coarseness of its construction , and the inadequacy of its acting . " Despite Goebbels statement , he would present the film uncensored from time to time in private screening rooms for close personal friends . On the French release , The New York Times wrote that " It is the French version of Fritz Lang 's production , " Le Testament du Dr. Mabuse " ( " Dr. Mabuse 's Will " ) . It is a hallucinating and horrifying story , depicted with great power and the extraordinary beauty of photography that Lang has led his admirers to expect . " At the Hungarian premiere of the German @-@ language print in 1933 , Variety wrote that the film " ... certainly shows the influence of American mystery pictures . The story is very long @-@ winded and even an ingenious director like Fritz Lang could not prevent its being rather slow @-@ moving in places . "
Bosley Crowther wrote a negative review in The New York Times on the film 's 1943 release , stating " it is a good , old film , well played and beautifully directed – but a battered antique , none the less . " On the 1973 re @-@ release , the same newspaper wrote a positive review of the film , stating that it " yields a sensational torrent of images that almost make the early nineteen @-@ seventies seem tame . " and " While this " Mabuse " lacks most of the surrealistic effects and the dazzling hallucinations that gave its predecessor such magic , it 's rich in the images and the shocks at which Lang excelled . " Modern critical reception of the film has been generally positive . Channel 4 gave the film a four stars out of five rating describing the film as a " Sensational crime drama " and " some of the dialogue is clunky , much of the acting ... is alien to modern audiences ... The final sequence involving the destruction of a huge chemical works and a car chase through eerily lit woods , round hairpin bends and over a closing level crossing is one of the triumphs of early cinema . " TV Guide gave the film a five out of five star rating terming it " a haunting , suspenseful sequel " . Critic Leonard Maltin gave the film three and a half stars out of four and compared it to Dr. Mabuse The Gambler stating that it is " less stylized but no less entertaining " . The online film database Allmovie rated the film four stars out five , stating that by " mixing several genres including cop drama , mystery , and horror , Lang created a rare hybrid picture full of striking characters and images . "
= = = Legacy = = =
After the film 's initial release , producer Seymour Nebenzal used scenes from the car chase in The Testament of Dr. Mabuse for his own production of Le roi des Champs @-@ Élysées ( 1934 ) featuring Buster Keaton . Producer Artur Brauner cited the Dr. Mabuse films as the reason he went into the film industry , noting that he left his parents out in the middle of the night and returned after seeing what he described as " the most exciting film I 've ever seen " . Brauner later bought the rights to the Dr. Mabuse films and hired Fritz Lang to film a sequel titled The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse . The film was released during 1960 and was Lang 's final film as a director . During 1962 , a remake of The Testament of Dr.Mabuse was released by director Werner Klingler .
Brauner produced several other Mabuse films after the release of The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse . Director Claude Chabrol identified The Testament of Dr. Mabuse as his primary inspiration to become a filmmaker . Chabrol made his own Mabuse inspired film that was released during 1990 titled Dr. M.
The 2008 film The Dark Knight features a version of The Joker inspired by Mabuse . Throughout the film , the character recites monologues promoting chaos & disorder which borrow heavily from Mabuse 's own in 1933 's The Testament of Dr. Mabuse . Director Christopher Nolan has stated : " I think I made Jonah ( Nolan 's brother ) watch Fritz Lang ’ s Dr. Mabuse prior to writing the Joker . "
= = = Home media = = =
A Region 1 DVD of The Testament of Dr. Mabuse was released by The Criterion Collection on May 18 , 2004 . This DVD release consists of two discs and contains both the German @-@ language and French @-@ language versions of the film. film critic Dave Kehr wrote the German print is " the definite version " . The German print of the film on the DVD is missing small parts of the film and runs at 121 minutes . A Region 2 DVD of the film was released by Eureka ! in a box set titled The Complete Fritz Lang Box Set . This set included the two other Mabuse films directed by Lang , Dr. Mabuse the Gambler and The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse .
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= Atlantic puffin =
The Atlantic puffin ( Fratercula arctica ) , also known as the common puffin , is a species of seabird in the auk family . It is the only puffin native to the Atlantic Ocean ; two related species , the tufted puffin and the horned puffin , are found in the northeastern Pacific . The Atlantic puffin breeds in Iceland , Norway , Greenland , Newfoundland and many North Atlantic islands , and as far south as Maine in the west and the British Isles in the east . With a large population and a wide range , the species is not considered to be endangered , although there may be local declines in numbers . On land , it has the typical upright stance of an auk . At sea , it swims on the surface and feeds mainly on small fish , which it catches by diving underwater , using its wings for propulsion .
This puffin has a black crown and back , pale grey cheek patches and white underparts . Its broad , boldly marked red and black beak and orange legs contrast with its plumage . It moults while at sea in the winter and some of the bright @-@ coloured facial characteristics are lost . The external appearance of the adult male and female are identical except that the male is usually slightly larger . The juvenile has similar plumage but its cheek patches are dark grey . The juvenile does not have brightly coloured head ornamentation , its bill is less broad and is dark @-@ grey with a yellowish @-@ brown tip , and its legs and feet are also dark . Puffins from northern populations are typically larger than their counterparts in southern parts of the range . It is generally considered that these populations are different subspecies .
Spending the autumn and winter in the open ocean of the cold northern seas , the Atlantic puffin returns to coastal areas at the start of the breeding season in late spring . It nests in clifftop colonies , digging a burrow in which a single white egg is laid . The chick mostly feeds on whole fish and grows rapidly . After about six weeks it is fully fledged and makes its way at night to the sea . It swims away from the shore and does not return to land for several years .
Colonies are mostly on islands where there are no terrestrial predators but adult birds and newly fledged chicks are at risk of attacks from the air by gulls and skuas . Sometimes a bird such as an Arctic skua will harass a puffin arriving with a beakful of fish , causing it to drop its catch . The striking appearance , large colourful bill , waddling gait and behaviour of this bird have given rise to nicknames such as " clown of the sea " and " sea parrot " . It is the official bird symbol for the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The Atlantic puffin is a species of seabird in the order Charadriiformes . It is in the auk family , Alcidae , which includes the guillemots , typical auks , murrelets , auklets , puffins and the razorbill . The rhinoceros auklet ( Cerorhinca monocerata ) and the puffins are closely related , together composing the tribe Fraterculini . The Atlantic puffin is the only species in the genus Fratercula to occur in the Atlantic Ocean . Two other species are known from the northeast Pacific , the tufted puffin ( Fratercula cirrhata ) and the horned puffin ( Fratercula corniculata ) , the latter being the closest relative of the Atlantic puffin .
The scientific name Fratercula comes from the Medieval Latin fratercula , friar , a reference to the black and white plumage which resembles monastic robes . The specific name arctica refers to the northerly distribution of the bird , being derived from the Greek άρκτος ( " arktos " ) , the bear , referring to the northerly constellation , the Great Bear . The vernacular name puffin – puffed in the sense of swollen – was originally applied to the fatty , salted meat of young birds of the unrelated species Manx shearwater ( Puffinus puffinus ) , which in 1652 was known as the " Manks puffin " . It is an Anglo @-@ Norman word ( Middle English pophyn or poffin ) used for the cured carcasses . The Atlantic puffin acquired the name at a much later stage , possibly because of its similar nesting habits , and it was formally applied to Fratercula arctica by Pennant in 1768 . While the species is also known as the common puffin , " Atlantic Puffin " is the English name recommended by the International Ornithological Congress .
There are considered to be three subspecies :
Fratercula arctica arctica
Fratercula arctica grabae
Fratercula arctica naumanni
The only morphological difference between the three is their size . Body length , wing length and size of beak all increase at higher latitudes . For example , a puffin from northern Iceland ( subspecies naumanii ) weighs about 650 grams ( 23 oz ) and has a wing length of 186 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 3 in ) while one from the Faroes ( subspecies grabae ) weighs 400 grams ( 14 oz ) and has a wing length of 158 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 2 in ) . Individuals from southern Iceland ( subspecies arctica ) are intermediate between the other two in size . Ernst Mayr has argued that the differences in size are clinal and are typical of variations found in peripheral population and that no subspecies should be recognised .
= = Description = =
The Atlantic puffin is sturdily built with a thick @-@ set neck and short wings and tail . It is 28 to 30 centimetres ( 11 to 12 in ) in length from the tip of its stout bill to its blunt @-@ ended tail . Its wingspan is 47 to 63 centimetres ( 19 to 25 in ) and on land it stands about 20 cm ( 8 in ) high . The male is generally slightly larger than the female , but they are coloured alike . The forehead , crown and nape are glossy black , as are the back , wings and tail . A broad black collar extends around the neck and throat . On each side of the head is a large , lozenge @-@ shaped area of very pale grey . These face patches taper to a point and nearly meet at the back of the neck . The shape of the head creates a crease extending from the eye to the hindmost point of each patch giving the appearance of a grey streak . The eye looks almost triangular in shape because of a small , peaked area of horny blue @-@ grey skin above it and a rectangular patch below . The irises are brown or very dark blue and each has red orbital ring . The underparts of the bird , the breast , belly and undertail coverts , are white . By the end of the breeding season , the black plumage may have lost its shine or even taken on a slightly brownish tinge . The legs are short and set well back on the body giving the bird its upright stance on land . Both legs and large webbed feet are bright orange , contrasting with the sharp black claws .
The beak is very distinctive . From the side the beak is broad and triangular but viewed from above it is narrow . The half nearest the tip is orange @-@ red and the half nearest to the head is slate grey . There is a yellow chevron @-@ shaped ridge separating the two parts and a yellow , fleshy strip at the base of the bill . At the joint of the two mandibles there is a yellow , wrinkled rosette . The exact proportions of the beak vary with the age of the bird . In an immature individual , the beak has reached its full length but it is not as broad as that of an adult . With time the bill deepens , the upper edge curves and a kink develops at its base . As the bird ages , one or more grooves may form on the red portion . The bird has a powerful bite .
The characteristic bright orange bill plates and other facial characteristics develop in the spring . At the close of the breeding season , these special coatings and appendages are shed in a partial moult . This makes the beak appear less broad , the tip less bright and the base darker grey . The eye ornaments are shed and the eyes appear round . At the same time , the feathers of the head and neck are replaced and the face becomes darker . This winter plumage is seldom seen by humans because when they have left their chicks , the birds head out to sea and do not return to land until the next breeding season . The juvenile bird is similar to the adult in plumage but altogether duller with a much darker grey face and yellowish @-@ brown beak tip and legs . After fledging , it will make its way to the water and will head out to sea and not return to land for several years . In the interim , each year it will have a broader bill , paler face patches and brighter legs and beak .
The Atlantic puffin has a direct flight , typically 10 metres ( 33 ft ) above the sea surface and higher over the water than most other auks . It mostly moves by paddling along efficiently with its webbed feet and seldom takes to the air . It is typically silent at sea , except for the soft purring sounds it sometimes makes in flight . At the breeding colony it is quiet above ground but in its burrow makes a growling sound somewhat resembling a chainsaw being revved up .
= = Distribution = =
The Atlantic puffin is a bird of the colder waters of the North Atlantic Ocean . It breeds on the coasts of north west Europe , the Arctic fringes and eastern North America . The largest colony is on Iceland where 60 % of the world 's Atlantic puffins nest . The largest colony in the western Atlantic ( estimated at more than 260 @,@ 000 pairs ) can be found at the Witless Bay Ecological Reserve , south of St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador . Other major breeding locations include the north and west coasts of Norway , the Faroe Islands , the Shetland and Orkney islands , the west coast of Greenland and the coasts of Newfoundland . Smaller sized colonies are also found elsewhere in the British Isles , the Murmansk area of Russia , Novaya Zemlya , Spitzbergen , Labrador , Nova Scotia and Maine . Islands seem particularly attractive to the birds for breeding as compared to mainland sites .
While at sea , the bird ranges widely across the North Atlantic Ocean , including the North Sea , and may enter the Arctic Circle . In the summer , its southern limit stretches from northern France to Maine and in the winter the bird may range as far south as the Mediterranean Sea and North Carolina . These oceanic waters have such a vast extent of 15 to 30 million square kilometres ( 6 to 12 million square miles ) that each bird has more than a square kilometre at its disposal and it is unsurprising that they are seldom seen out at sea . In Maine , light level geolocators have been attached to the legs of puffins which store information on their whereabouts . The birds need to be re @-@ captured in order to access the information , a difficult task . One bird was found to have covered 4 @,@ 800 miles ( 7 @,@ 700 km ) of ocean in eight months , traveling northwards to the northern Labrador Sea then southeastward to the mid @-@ Atlantic before returning to land .
In a long @-@ lived bird with a small clutch size such as the Atlantic puffin , the survival rate of adults is an important factor influencing the success of the species . Only 5 % of the ringed puffins that failed to reappear at the colony did so during the breeding season . The rest were lost some time between departing from land in the summer and reappearing the following spring . The birds spend the winter widely spread out in the open ocean , though there is a tendency for individuals from different colonies to overwinter in different areas . Little is known of their behaviour and diet at sea but no correlation was found between environmental factors , such as temperature variations , and their mortality rate . A combination of the availability of food in winter and summer probably influences the survival of the birds , since individuals starting the winter in poor condition are less likely to survive than those in good condition .
= = Behaviour = =
Like many seabirds , the Atlantic puffin spends most of the year far from land in the open ocean and only visits coastal areas to breed . It is a sociable bird and it usually breeds in large colonies .
= = = At sea = = =
Atlantic puffins lead solitary existences when out at sea and this part of their life has been little studied as the task of finding even one bird on the vast ocean is formidable . When at sea , the Atlantic puffin bobs about like a cork , propelling itself through the water with powerful thrusts of its feet and keeping itself turned into the wind , even when resting and apparently asleep . It spends much time each day preening to keep its plumage in order and spread oil from the preen gland . Its downy under @-@ plumage remains dry and provides thermal insulation . In common with other seabirds , its upper surface is black and underside white . This provides camouflage , with aerial predators unable to observe the bird against the dark watery background and underwater attackers failing to notice it as it blends in with the bright sky above the waves .
When it takes off , the Atlantic puffin patters across the surface of the water while vigorously flapping its wings , before launching itself into the air . The size of the wing is a compromise between its uses above and below water and its surface area is small relative to the bird 's weight . To maintain flight , the wings need to beat very rapidly at a rate of several times each second . The bird 's flight is direct and low over the surface of the water and it can travel at 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) per hour . Landing is awkward ; it either crashes into a wave crest or , in calmer water , does a belly flop . While at sea , the Atlantic puffin has its annual moult . Land birds mostly lose their primaries one pair at a time to enable them still to be able to fly , but the puffin sheds all its primaries at one time and dispenses with flight entirely for a month or two . The moult usually takes place between January and March but young birds may lose their feathers a little later in the year .
= = = Food and feeding = = =
The Atlantic puffin diet consists almost entirely of fish , though examination of its stomach contents shows that it occasionally eats shrimps , other crustaceans , molluscs and polychaete worms , especially in more coastal waters . When fishing , it swims underwater using its semi @-@ extended wings as paddles to " fly " through the water and its feet as a rudder . It swims fast and can reach considerable depths and stay submerged for up to a minute . It can eat shallow @-@ bodied fish as long as 18 cm ( 7 in ) but its prey is commonly smaller fish , around 7 cm ( 3 in ) long . It has been estimated that an adult bird needs to eat about forty of these per day — sand eels , herring , sprats and capelin being the most often consumed . It fishes by sight and can swallow small fish while submerged , but larger specimens are brought to the surface . It can catch several small fish in one dive , holding the first ones in place in its beak with its muscular , grooved tongue while it catches others . The two mandibles are hinged in such a way that they can be held parallel to hold a row of fish in place and these are also retained by inward @-@ facing serrations on the edges of the beak . It copes with the excess salt that it swallows partly through its kidneys and partly by excretion through specialised salt glands in its nostrils .
= = = On land = = =
In the spring , mature birds return to land , usually to the colony at which they were hatched . Birds that were removed as chicks and released elsewhere were found to show fidelity to their point of liberation . They congregate for a few days on the sea in small groups offshore before returning to the cliff top nesting sites . Each large puffin colony is subdivided into sub @-@ colonies by physical boundaries such as stands of bracken or gorse . Early arrivals take control of the best locations , the most desirable nesting sites being the densely packed burrows on grassy slopes just above the cliff edge where take @-@ off is most easily accomplished . The birds are usually monogamous , but this is the result of their fidelity to their nesting sites rather than to their mates and they often return to the same burrows year after year . Later arrivals at the colony may find that all the best nesting sites have already been taken and be pushed towards the periphery where they are in greater danger of predation . Younger birds may come ashore a month or more after the mature birds and find no remaining nesting sites . They will not breed till the following year although it has been found that if the ground cover surrounding the colony is cut back before these sub @-@ adults arrive , the number of successfully nesting pairs may be increased .
Atlantic puffins are cautious when approaching the colony and no bird likes to land in a location where other puffins are not already present . They make several circuits of the colony before alighting . On the ground they spend much time preening , spreading oil from their preen gland and setting each feather in its correct position with beak or claw . They also spend time standing by their burrow entrances and interacting with passing birds . Dominance is shown by an upright stance , with fluffed chest feathers and cocked tail , an exaggerated slow walk , head jerking and gaping . Submissive birds lower their head and hold their body horizontal and scurry past dominant individuals . Birds normally signal their intention to take off by briefly lowering their body before running down the slope to gain momentum . If a bird is startled and takes off unexpectedly , a panic can spread through the colony with all the birds launching themselves into the air and wheeling around in a great circle . The colony is at its most active in the evening , with birds standing outside their burrows , resting on the turf or strolling around . Then the slopes empty for the night as the birds fly out to sea to roost , often choosing to do so at fishing grounds ready for early morning provisioning .
The puffins are energetic burrow @-@ engineers and repairers and the grassy slopes may be undermined by a network of tunnels . This causes the turf to dry out in summer , vegetation to die and dry soil be whirled away by the wind . Burrows sometimes collapse , and humans may cause this to happen by walking incautiously across nesting slopes . A colony on Grassholm was lost through erosion when there was so little soil left that burrows could not be made . New colonies are very unlikely to start up spontaneously because this gregarious bird will only nest where others are already present . Nevertheless , the Audubon Society had success on Eastern Egg Rock Island in Maine , where , after a gap of ninety years , puffins were reintroduced and started breeding again . By 2011 there were over 120 pairs nesting on the small islet . On the Isle of May on the other side of the Atlantic , only five pairs of puffins were breeding in 1958 while twenty years later there were 10 @,@ 000 pairs .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Having spent the winter alone on the ocean , it is unclear whether the Atlantic puffin meets its previous partner offshore or whether they encounter each other when they return to their nest of the previous year . On land , they soon set about improving and clearing out the burrow . Often , one stands outside the entrance while the other excavates , kicking out quantities of soil and grit that showers the partner standing outside . Some birds collect stems and fragments of dry grasses as nesting materials but others do not bother . Sometimes a beakful of materials is taken underground , only to be brought out again and discarded . Apart from nest @-@ building , the other way in which the birds restore their bond is by billing . This is a practice in which the pair approach each other , each wagging its head from side to side , and then rattle their beaks together . This seems to be an important element of their courtship behaviour because it happens repeatedly , and the birds continue to bill , to a lesser extent , throughout the breeding season .
The Atlantic puffin is sexually mature at the age of four to five years . The birds are colonial nesters , excavating burrows on grassy clifftops or reusing existing holes , and may also nest in crevices and amongst rocks and scree on occasion . It is in competition with other birds and animals for burrows . It can excavate its own hole or move into a pre @-@ existing system dug by a rabbit and has been known to peck and drive off the original occupant . Manx shearwaters also nest underground and often live in their own burrows alongside puffins , and their burrowing activities may break through into the puffin 's living quarters resulting in the loss of the egg . They are monogamous ( they mate for life ) and give biparental care to their young . The male spends more time guarding and maintaining the nest while the female is more involved in incubation and feeding the chick .
Egg @-@ laying starts in April in more southerly colonies but seldom occurs before June in Greenland . The female lays a single white egg each year but if this is lost early in the breeding season , another might be produced . Synchronous laying of eggs is found in Atlantic puffins in adjacent burrows . The egg is large compared to the size of the bird , averaging 61 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long by 42 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) wide and weighing about 62 grams ( 2 @.@ 2 oz ) . The white shell is usually devoid of markings but soon becomes soiled with mud . The incubation responsibilities are shared by both parents . They each have two feather @-@ free brood patches on their undersides where an enhanced blood supply provides heat for the egg . The parent on incubation duty in the dark nest chamber spends much of its time asleep with its head tucked under its wing , occasionally emerging from the tunnel to flap dust out of its feathers or take a short flight down to the sea .
Total incubation time is around 39 – 45 days . From above ground level , the first evidence that hatching has taken place is the arrival of an adult with a beak @-@ load of fish . For the first few days the chick may be fed with these beak @-@ to @-@ beak but later the fish are simply dropped on the floor of the nest beside the chick which swallows them whole . The chick is covered in fluffy black down and its eyes are open and it can stand as soon as it is hatched . Initially weighing about 42 grams ( 1 @.@ 5 oz ) , it grows at the rate of 10 grams ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) per day . Initially , one or other parents brood it , but as its appetite increases it is left alone for longer periods . Observations of a nest chamber have been made from an underground hide with peephole . It was found that the chick sleeps much of the time between its parents ' visits and also involves itself in bouts of exercise . It rearranges its nesting material , picks up and drops small stones , flaps its immature wings , pulls at protruding root ends and pushes and strains against the unyielding wall of the burrow . It makes its way towards the entrance or along a side tunnel to defecate . The growing chick seems to anticipate the arrival of an adult , advancing along the burrow just before it arrives but not emerging into the open air . It retreats to the nest chamber as the adult bird brings in its load of fish .
Hunting areas are often located 100 km ( 60 mi ) or more , offshore from the nest sites , although when feeding their young , the birds venture out only half that distance . It has been found that adults bringing fish to their chicks tend to arrive in groups . This is thought to benefit the bird by reducing kleptoparasitism by the Arctic skua which harasses puffins until they drop their fish loads . Predation by the great skua ( Catharacta skua ) is also reduced by several birds arriving simultaneously .
In the Shetland Islands , sand eels ( Ammodytes marinus ) normally form at least 90 % of the food fed to chicks . It was found that , in years where the availability of sand eels was low , breeding success rates fell , with many chicks starving to death . In Norway it is the herring ( Clupea harengus ) that is the mainstay of the diet . When herring numbers dwindled , so did puffin numbers . In Labrador the puffins seemed more flexible and when the staple forage fish capelin ( Mallotus villosus ) declined in availability , they were able to adapt and feed the chicks on other prey species .
The chicks take from 34 to 50 days to fledge , the period depending on the abundance of their food supply . In years of fish shortage , the whole colony may experience a longer fledgling period but the normal range is 38 to 44 days , by which time chicks will have reached about 75 % of their mature body weight . The chick may come to the burrow entrance to defecate but does not usually emerge into the open and seems to have an aversion to light until it is nearly fully fledged . Although the supply of fish by the adults reduces over the last few days spent in the nest , the chick is not abandoned as happens in the Manx shearwater . On occasions , an adult has been observed provisioning a nest even after the chick has departed . During the last few days underground , the chick sheds its down and the juvenile plumage is revealed . Its relatively small beak and its legs and feet are a dark colour and it lacks the white facial patches of the adult . The chick finally leaves its nest at night , when the risk of predation is at its lowest . When the moment arrives , it emerges from the burrow , usually for the first time , and walks , runs and flaps its way to the sea . It cannot fly properly yet so descending a cliff is perilous ; when it reaches the water it paddles out to sea , and may be three kilometres ( two miles ) away from the shore by daybreak . It does not congregate with others of its kind and will not return to land for two or three years .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Atlantic puffins are probably safest when out at sea . Here , the dangers are often from below the water rather than above , and puffins can sometimes be seen putting their heads underwater to peer around for predators . Seals have been known to kill puffins and large fish may also do so . Most puffin colonies are on small islands , and this is no coincidence as it avoids predation by ground @-@ based mammals such as foxes , rats , stoats and weasels , cats and dogs . When they come ashore , the birds are still at risk and the main threats come from the sky .
Aerial predators of the Atlantic puffin include the great black @-@ backed gull ( Larus marinus ) , the great skua ( Stercorarius skua ) , and similar @-@ sized species , which can catch a bird in flight , or attack one that is unable to escape fast enough on the ground . On detecting danger , puffins take off and fly down to the safety of the sea or retreat into their burrows , but if caught they defend themselves vigorously with beak and sharp claws . When the puffins are wheeling round beside the cliffs it becomes very difficult for a predator to concentrate on a single bird while any individual isolated on the ground is at greater risk . Smaller gull species like the herring gull ( L. argentatus ) and the lesser black @-@ backed gull are hardly able to bring down a healthy adult puffin . They stride through the colony taking any eggs that have rolled towards burrow entrances or recently hatched chicks that have ventured too far towards the daylight . They will also steal fish from puffins returning to feed their young . Where it nests on the tundra in the far north , the Arctic skua ( Stercorarius parasiticus ) is a terrestrial predator , but at lower latitudes it is a specialised kleptoparasite , concentrating on auks and other seabirds . It harasses puffins while they are airborne forcing them to drop their catch which it then snatches up .
Both the guillemot tick Ixodes uriae and the flea Ornithopsylla laetitiae ( probably originally a rabbit flea ) have been recorded from the nests of puffins . Other fleas which have been found on the birds include Ceratophyllus borealis , Ceratophyllus gallinae , Ceratophyllus garei , Ceratophyllus vagabunda and the common rabbit flea Spilopsyllus cuniculi .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Status and conservation = = =
In its Red List of Threatened Species , the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the Atlantic puffin as vulnerable . It has a very large total population and an extensive range which covers over 1 @,@ 620 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 630 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Although the number of birds seems to be decreasing , the decline does not reach the threshold for " vulnerable " status . Some of the causes of population decline may be increased predation by gulls and skuas , the introduction of rats , cats , dogs and foxes onto some islands used for nesting , contamination by toxic residues , drowning in fishing nets , declining food supplies and climate change . On the island of Lundy the number of puffins decreased from 3 @,@ 500 pairs in 1939 to 10 pairs in 2000 . This was mainly due to the rats that had proliferated on the island and were eating eggs and young chicks . Following the elimination of the rats , it is hoped that populations will recover , and in 2005 , a juvenile was seen , believed to be the first chick raised on the island for thirty years .
On the other hand , puffin numbers increased considerably in the late twentieth century in the North Sea , including on the Isle of May and the Farne Islands where numbers have been increasing by about 10 % per year . In the 2013 breeding season , nearly 40 @,@ 000 pairs were recorded on the Farne Islands , a slight increase on the 2008 census and on the previous year 's poor season when some of the burrows flooded . This number is dwarfed by the Icelandic colonies with five million pairs breeding , the Atlantic puffin being the most populous bird on the island . In the Westman Islands , where about half Iceland 's puffins breed , the birds were almost driven to extinction by overharvesting around 1900 and a thirty @-@ year ban on hunting was put in place . When stocks recovered , a different method of harvesting was used and now hunting is maintained at a sustainable level . Nevertheless , a further hunting ban covering the whole of Iceland was called for in 2011 , although the puffin 's lack of recent breeding success was being blamed on a diminution in food supply rather than overharvesting .
SOS Puffin is a conservation project at the Scottish Seabird Centre at North Berwick to save the puffins on islands in the Firth of Forth . Puffin numbers on the island of Craigleith , once one of the largest colonies in Scotland with 28 @,@ 000 pairs , have declined dramatically to just a few thousand due to the invasion of a large introduced plant , the tree mallow ( Lavatera arborea ) . This has spread across the island in dense thickets and prevents the puffins from finding suitable sites for burrowing and breeding . The project has the support of over 700 volunteers and progress has been made in cutting back the plants , with puffins returning in greater numbers to breed . Another conservation measure undertaken by the Centre is to encourage motorists to check under their cars in late summer before driving off as young puffins , disorientated by the street lights , may land in the town and take shelter underneath the vehicles .
Project Puffin is an effort initiated in 1973 by Dr. Stephen W. Kress of the National Audubon Society to restore Atlantic puffins to nesting islands in the Gulf of Maine . Eastern Egg Rock Island in Muscongus Bay , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away from Pemaquid Point , had been occupied by nesting puffins until 1885 , when the birds disappeared because of overhunting . Counting on the fact young puffins usually return to breed on the same island where they fledged , a team of biologists and volunteers translocated 10 – 14 days old nestlings from Great Island in Newfoundland to Eastern Egg Rock . The young were placed into artificial sod burrows , and fed with vitamin @-@ fortified fish daily for about one month . Such yearly translocations took place until 1986 , with 954 young puffins being moved in total . Each year before fledging , the young were individually tagged . The first adults returned to the island by 1977 . Puffin decoys had been installed on the island to fool the puffins into thinking they were part of an established colony . This did not catch on at first , but in 1981 four pairs nested on the island . In 2014 , 148 nesting pairs were counted on the island . In addition to demonstrating the feasibility of re @-@ establishing a seabird colony , the project showed the usefulness of using decoys , and eventually call recordings and mirrors , to facilitate such reestablishment .
= = = Pollution = = =
Since the Atlantic puffin spends its winters on the open ocean , it is susceptible to human actions and catastrophes such as oil spills . Oiled plumage has a reduced ability to insulate and makes the bird more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and less buoyant in the water . Many birds die , and others , while attempting to remove the oil by preening , ingest and inhale toxins . This leads to inflammation of the airways and gut and in the longer term , damage to liver and kidneys . This trauma can contribute to a loss of reproductive success and harm to developing embryos . An oil spill occurring in winter , when the puffins are far out at sea , may affect them less than inshore birds as the crude oil slicks soon get broken up and dispersed by the churning of the waves . When oiled birds get washed up on beaches around Atlantic coasts , only about 1 @.@ 5 % of the dead auks are puffins , but many others may have died far from land and sunk . After the oil tanker Torrey Canyon shipwreck and oil spill in 1967 , few dead puffins were recovered , but the number of puffins breeding in France the following year was reduced to 16 % of its previous level .
The Atlantic puffin and other pelagic birds are excellent bioindicators of the environment as they occupy a high trophic level . Heavy metals and other pollutants are concentrated through the food chain and , as fish are the primary food source for Atlantic puffins , there is great potential for them to bioaccumulate heavy metals such as mercury and arsenic . Measurements can be made on eggs , feathers or internal organs and beached bird surveys , accompanied by chemical analysis of feathers , can be effective indicators of marine pollution by lipophilic substances as well as metals . In fact these surveys can be used to provide evidence of the adverse effects of a particular pollutant , using fingerprinting techniques to provide evidence suitable for the prosecution of offenders .
= = = Climate change = = =
Climate change may well affect populations of seabirds in the northern Atlantic . The most important demographic may be an increase in the sea surface temperature which may have benefits for some northerly Atlantic puffin colonies . Breeding success depends on there being ample supplies of food at the time of maximum demand , as the chick grows . In northern Norway the main food item fed to the chick is the young herring . The success of the newly hatched fish larvae during the previous year was governed by the water temperature , which controlled plankton abundance and this in turn influenced the growth and survival of the first @-@ year herring . The breeding success of Atlantic puffin colonies has been found to correlate in this way with the water surface temperatures of the previous year .
In Maine , on the other side of the Atlantic , shifting fish populations due to changes in sea temperature are being blamed for the lack of availability of the herring which is the staple diet of the puffins in the area . Some adult birds have become emaciated and died . Others have been provisioning the nest with butterfish ( Peprilus triacanthus ) but these are often too large and deep @-@ bodied for the chick to swallow , causing it to die from starvation . Maine is on the southerly edge of the bird 's breeding range and with changing weather patterns , this may be set to contract northwards .
= = = Tourism = = =
Breeding colonies of Atlantic puffins provide an interesting spectacle for both bird watchers and tourists . For example , four thousand puffins nest each year on islands off the coast of Maine and visitors can view them from tour boats which operate during the summer months . There is a Project Puffin Visitor Centre in Rockland providing information on the birds and their lives , and on the other conservation projects being undertaken by the National Audubon Society who run the centre . Similar tours operate in Iceland , the Hebrides , and Newfoundland .
= = = Hunting = = =
Puffins have been hunted by man since time immemorial . Coastal communities and island dwellers with few natural resources at their disposal , made good use of the seafoods that they found on their cliffs and shores . Puffins were caught and eaten fresh , salted in brine or smoked and dried . Their feathers were used in bedding and their eggs were eaten , but not to the same extent as those of some other seabirds , being more difficult to extract from the nest . In most countries , Atlantic puffins are now protected by legislation , and in the countries where hunting is still permitted , strict laws prevent over @-@ exploitation . They are still caught and eaten in Iceland and the Faroe Islands , but there have been calls for an outright ban on hunting them in Iceland because of concern over the dwindling number of birds successfully raising chicks .
Traditional means of capture varied across the birds ' range and nets and rods were used in various ingenious ways . A typical device used in the Faroes was a " fleyg " . This was a long pole with a net on the end laid flat on the ground . A few dead puffins were strewn around to entice incoming birds to land , and the net was flicked upwards to scoop a bird from the air as it slowed before alighting . Most of the birds caught were sub @-@ adults , and a skilled hunter could gather two or three hundred in a day . Another method of capture , used in St Kilda , involved the use of a flexible pole with a noose on the end . This was pushed along the ground towards the intended target , which advanced to inspect the noose as its curiosity overcame its caution . A flick of the wrist would flip the noose over the victim 's head and it was promptly killed , before its struggles could alarm other birds nearby .
= = = In culture = = =
The Atlantic puffin is the official bird symbol of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador , Canada . In August 2007 , the Atlantic puffin was proposed as the official symbol of the Liberal Party of Canada by its deputy leader Michael Ignatieff , after he observed a colony of these birds and became fascinated by their behaviour . The Norwegian municipality of Værøy has an Atlantic puffin as its civic emblem . Puffins are viewed with affection because they are colourful and full of character . They have been given a number of endearing names including " clowns of the sea " and " sea parrots " , and juvenile puffins may be called " pufflings " .
A number of islands have been named after the bird . The island of Lundy in the United Kingdom is reputed to derive its name from the Norse lund @-@ ey or " puffin island " . An alternative explanation has been suggested connected with another meaning of the word lund referring to a copse or wooded area . The Vikings might have found the island a useful refuge and restocking point after their depredations on the mainland . The island issued its own coins and , in 1929 , its own stamps with denominations in " puffins " . Other countries and dependencies which have depicted Atlantic puffins on their stamps include Alderney , Canada , the Faroe Islands , France , Gibraltar , Guernsey , Iceland , Ireland , the Isle of Man , Jersey , Norway , Portugal , Russia , Slovenia , St Pierre et Miquelon and the United Kingdom . The LPO , a French biodiversity charity focussing on the protection of birds , uses a pair of Atlantic puffins as its emblem .
The publisher of paperbacks , Penguin Books , introduced a range of books for children under the Puffin Books brand in 1939 . At first these were non @-@ fiction titles but these were soon followed by a fiction list of well @-@ known authors . The demand was so great that Puffin Book Clubs were introduced in schools to encourage reading , and a children 's magazine Puffin Post was established . There is a tradition on the Icelandic island of Heimaey for the children to rescue young puffins , a fact recorded in Bruce McMillan 's photo @-@ illustrated children 's book Nights of the Pufflings ( 1995 ) . The fledglings emerge from the nest and try to make their way to the sea but sometimes get confused , perhaps by the street lighting , ending up by landing in the village . The children collect them and liberate them to the safety of the sea .
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= Ohio State Route 249 =
State Route 249 ( SR 249 ) is an Ohio State Route that runs between the Indiana state line and Ney in the US state of Ohio . The 14 @.@ 45 miles ( 23 @.@ 26 km ) of SR 249 that lie within the state serve as a minor highway . None of the highway is listed on the National Highway System . The whole route is a rural two @-@ lane highway and passes through farmland . The highway was first signed in 1925 and was a north – south route , a route that later became U.S. Route 127 ( US 127 ) . SR 249 was given its current route in 1927 , as a replacement for SR 22 . The route was completely paved by 1942 .
= = Route description = =
SR 249 heads southeast from the Indiana – Ohio state line , as a two @-@ lane highway passing through farmland , with some houses . The route passes over the St. Joseph River and turns due east . The highway has an intersection at SR 49 , in rural Defiance County . After the intersection with SR 49 the highway enters farmland and woodland , with a few houses . The route has an intersection with SR 2 , this intersection is the western terminus of the SR 2 concurrency . The concurrency heads east , passing through farmland , until SR 2 turns north in the community of Farmer . SR 249 heads east having an intersection with US 127 . The route turns southeast , before ending at an intersection with SR 15 in Ney .
There is no section of SR 249 that is included as a part of the National Highway System , a system of routes determined to be the most important for the nation 's economy , mobility and defense . The highway is maintained by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) like all other state routes in the state . The department tracks the traffic volumes along all state highways as a part of its maintenance responsibilities using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This measurement is a calculation of the traffic level along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2009 , ODOT figured that the lowest traffic level was 820 vehicles on the section that is concurrent with SR 2 , and the peak traffic volume was 6 @,@ 720 vehicles between US 127 and SR 15 .
= = History = =
The route that became SR 249 was first signed as SR 22 in 1923 following all of SR 249 as it is today and heading as far east @-@ southeast as Marion . Also in this year the route east of Farmer was paved . SR 249 made its debut in 1925 , as a north – south route , on a section of road that is now US 127 . The route went from SR 22 , now SR 249 , north to SR 9 , now SR 15 . In 1927 , SR 249 replaced part of SR 22 , from the Indiana state line to Ney . The rest of the route from the Indiana state line to Farmer was paved in 1942 . No significant changes have taken place to this state route since 1942 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Defiance County .
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= Operation Uranus =
Operation Uranus ( Russian : Операция « Уран » , romanised : Operatsiya " Uran " ) was the codename of the Soviet 19 – 23 November 1942 strategic operation in World War II which led to the encirclement of the German Sixth Army , the Third and Fourth Romanian armies , and portions of the German Fourth Panzer Army . The operation formed part of the ongoing Battle of Stalingrad , and was aimed at destroying German forces in and around Stalingrad . Planning for Operation Uranus had commenced in September 1942 , and was developed simultaneously with plans to envelop and destroy German Army Group Center and German forces in the Caucasus . The Red Army took advantage of the German army 's poor preparation for winter , and the fact that its forces in the southern Soviet Union were overstretched near Stalingrad , using weaker Romanian troops to guard their flanks ; the offensives ' starting points were established along the section of the front directly opposite Romanian forces . These Axis armies lacked heavy equipment to deal with Soviet armor .
Due to the length of the front created by the German summer offensive , aimed at taking the Caucasus oil fields and the city of Stalingrad , German and other Axis forces were forced to guard sectors beyond the length they were meant to occupy . The situation was exacerbated by the German decision to relocate several mechanized divisions from the Soviet Union to Western Europe . Furthermore , units in the area were depleted after months of fighting , especially those which took part in the fighting in Stalingrad . The Germans could only count on the 48th Panzer Corps , which had the strength of a single panzer division , and the 29th Panzergrenadier Division as reserves to bolster their Romanian allies on the German Sixth Army 's flanks . In comparison , the Red Army deployed over one million personnel for the purpose of beginning the offensive in and around Stalingrad . Soviet troop movements were not without problems , due to the difficulties of concealing their build @-@ up , and to Soviet units commonly arriving late due to logistical issues . Operation Uranus was first postponed from 8 to 17 November , then to 19 November .
At 07 : 20 Moscow time on 19 November , Soviet forces on the northern flank of the Axis forces at Stalingrad began their offensive ; forces in the south began on 20 November . Although Romanian units were able to repel the first attacks , by the end of 20 November the Third and Fourth Romanian armies were in headlong retreat , as the Red Army bypassed several German infantry divisions . German mobile reserves were not strong enough to parry the Soviet mechanized spearheads , while the Sixth Army did not react quickly enough nor decisively enough to disengage German armored forces in Stalingrad and reorient them to defeat the impending threat . By late 22 November Soviet forces linked up at the town of Kalach , encircling some 290 @,@ 000 men east of the Don River . Instead of attempting to break out of the encirclement , German dictator Adolf Hitler decided to keep Axis forces in Stalingrad and resupply them by air . In the meantime , Soviet and German commanders began to plan their next movements .
= = Background = =
On 28 June 1942 , the Wehrmacht began its offensive against Soviet forces opposite of Army Group South , codenamed Case Blue . After breaking through Red Army forces by 13 July , German forces encircled and captured the city of Rostov . Following the fall of Rostov , Hitler split German forces operating in the southern extremity of the southern Russian SFSR in an effort to simultaneously capture the city of Stalingrad and the Caucasus oil fields . The responsibility to take Stalingrad was given to the Sixth Army , which immediately turned towards the Volga River and began its advance with heavy air support from the Luftwaffe 's Luftflotte 4 . On 7 August , two German panzer corps were able to flank and encircle a Soviet force of 50 @,@ 000 personnel and approximately 1 @,@ 000 tanks , and on 22 August German forces began to cross the Don River to complete the advance towards the Volga . The following day , the Battle of Stalingrad began when vanguards of the Sixth Army penetrated the suburbs of the city .
By November the Sixth Army had occupied most of Stalingrad , pushing the defending Red Army to the banks of the Volga River . By this stage , there were indications of an impending Soviet offensive which would target Wehrmacht forces around the city , including increased Soviet activity opposite the Sixth Army 's flanks , and information gained through the interrogation of Soviet prisoners . However , the German command was intent upon finalizing its capture of Stalingrad . In fact , head of Army General Staff General Franz Halder had been dismissed in September after his efforts to warn about the danger which was developing along the over @-@ extended flanks of the Sixth Army and the Fourth Panzer Army . As early as September the Soviet Stavka ( high command ) began planning a series of counteroffensives to encompass the destruction of German forces in the south , fighting in Stalingrad and in the Caucasus , and against Army Group Center . Ultimately , command of Soviet efforts to relieve Stalingrad was put under the leadership of General Aleksandr Vasilevsky .
The Stavka developed two major operations to be conducted against Axis forces near Stalingrad , Uranus and Saturn , and also planned for Operation Mars designed to engage German Army Group Center in an effort to distract reinforcements and to inflict as much damage as possible . Operation Uranus involved the use of large Soviet mechanized and infantry forces to encircle German and other Axis forces directly around Stalingrad . As preparations for the offensive commenced , the attack 's starting points were positioned on stretches of front to the rear of the German Sixth Army , largely preventing the Germans from reinforcing those sectors quickly where Axis units were too overstretched to occupy effectively . The offensive was a double envelopment ; Soviet mechanized forces would penetrate deep into the German rear , while another attack would be made closer to the German Sixth Army in an effort to attack German units there directly in the rear . While the Red Army prepared , the German high commanders — influenced by their belief that the Red Army , building up opposite Germany Army Group Center to the north , was incapable of mounting a simultaneous offensive in the south — continued to deny the possibility of an impending Soviet offensive .
= = Comparison of forces = =
= = = Axis forces involved = = =
Case Blue involved German and other Axis forces sprawled out across a front over 480 kilometers ( 300 mi ) wide and several hundred kilometers deep , while the decision to conquer Stalingrad had stretched Axis forces even more thinly by drawing away personnel eastwards . For example , in early July the Sixth Army was defending a 160 @-@ kilometer ( 99 mi ) line , while also committing to an offensive which involved a distance of around 400 kilometers ( 250 mi ) . Army Group B , which was split from Army Group South ( the forces operating around the Caucasus were named Army Group A ) , seemed strong on paper : it included the Second and Sixth German , Fourth Panzer , Fourth and Third Romanian , Eighth Italian , and Second Hungarian Armies . Army Group B had the 48th Panzer Corps , which had the strength of a weakened panzer division , and a single infantry division as reserves . For the most part the German flanks were held by arriving non @-@ German Axis armies , while German forces were used to spearhead continued operations in Stalingrad and in the Caucasus .
While Adolf Hitler expressed confidence in the ability of non @-@ German Axis units to protect German flanks , in reality these units relied on largely obsolete equipment and horse @-@ drawn artillery , while in many cases the harsh treatment of enlisted personnel by officers caused poor morale . In regard to mechanization , the First Romanian Armored Division was equipped with around 100 Czech @-@ built Panzer 35 ( t ) tanks , armed with a 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) gun ineffective against the armor of Soviet T @-@ 34 tanks . Similarly , their 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) PaK anti @-@ tank guns were also antiquated and they were largely short of ammunition . Only after repeated requests did the Germans send the Romanian units 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) PaK guns ; six per division . These units were extended over very large sections of front ; for example , the Third Romanian Army occupied a line 140 kilometers ( 87 mi ) long , while the Fourth Romanian Army protected a line no less than 270 kilometers ( 170 mi ) long . The Italians and Hungarians were positioned at the Don west of the Third Romanian Army , but the German commanders did not hold in high regard the capability of those units to fight .
Generally , German forces were in no better shape ; they were weakened by months of fighting the Red Army , and , while Stavka raised new armies , the German high command attempted to maintain its existing mechanized units . Furthermore , during the course of the German offensive between May and November 1942 , two motorized divisions , the elite Leibstandarte and the Großdeutschland , were redeployed from Army Group A to the West , to provide a mechanized reserve in case of an Allied landing in France . The Sixth Army had also suffered many casualties during the fighting in the city of Stalingrad proper . In some cases , such as that of the 22nd Panzer Division , their equipment was no better than that of the First Romanian Armored Division . German formations were also overextended along large stretches of front ; the XI Army Corps , for example , had to defend a front around 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) long .
= = = Soviet forces involved = = =
The Red Army allocated an estimated 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 personnel , 804 tanks , 13 @,@ 400 artillery pieces and over 1 @,@ 000 aircraft for the upcoming offensive . Across the Third Romanian Army , the Soviets placed the redeployed 5th Tank Army , as well as the 21st and 65th Armies , in order to penetrate and overrun the German flanks . The German southern flank was targeted by the Stalingrad Front 's 51st and 57th Armies , led by the 13th and 4th Mechanized Corps ; these would punch through the Fourth Romanian Army , in order to link up with the 5th Tank Army near the town of Kalach . In total , the Soviets had amassed 11 armies and various independent tank brigades and corps .
Preparations for the offensive were , however , far from perfect ; on 8 November , Stavka issued orders to postpone the launch date of the operation , because transportation delays had prevented many units from being able to move into place . In the meantime , units at the front went through a number of war games to practice repelling an enemy counterattack and exploiting a breakthrough with mechanized forces . These movements were masked through a deception campaign by the Soviets , including the decrease of radio traffic , camouflage , operational security , using couriers for communication instead of radio , and active deception , such as increasing troop movements around Moscow . Troops were ordered to build defensive fortifications , to offer false impressions to the Germans , while fake bridges were put up to divert attention from the real bridges being built across the Don River . The Red Army also stepped up attacks against Army Group Center and set up dummy formations to maintain the idea of a main offensive against German forces in the center of the Soviet Union .
The Soviet Stalingrad Front forces were subject to heavy bombardment , making mobilization more difficult . The 38 engineer battalions allocated to the front were responsible for ferrying ammunition , personnel and tanks across the Volga River while carrying out minor reconnaissance along sections of the front which were to be the breakthrough points of the impending offensive . In three weeks the Red Army transported around 111 @,@ 000 soldiers , 420 tanks and 556 artillery pieces across the Volga .
On 17 November Vasilevsky was recalled to Moscow , where he was shown a letter written to Stalin by General Volsky , commander of the 4th Mechanized Corps , who urged calling off the offensive . Volsky believed the offensive as planned was doomed to failure due to the state of the forces earmarked for the operation ; he suggested postponing the offensive and redesigning it entirely . Many Soviet soldiers had not been issued with winter garments , and many died of frostbite , " due to the irresponsible attitude of commanders " . Although Soviet intelligence made honest efforts to collect as much information as possible on the disposition of the Axis forces arrayed in front of them , there was not much information on the state of the German Sixth Army . The Soviet commanders , overruling Vasilevsky , agreed the offensive would not be called off , and Stalin personally rang Volsky , who reiterated his intention to carry out the operation if ordered to do so .
= = Soviet offensive = =
Operation Uranus , postponed until 17 November , was again postponed for two days when Soviet General Georgy Zhukov was told the air units allotted to the operation were not ready ; it was finally launched on 19 November . Shortly after 5 a.m. Lieutenant Gerhard Stöck , posted with the Romanian IV Army Corps on the Kletskaya sector called Sixth Army headquarters housed in Golubinsky , offering intelligence on a pending attack which would occur after 05 : 00 that morning ; however , because his call had come in after five and false alarms were common during this time , the duty officer on the other end of the line was not keen on waking the Army Chief of Staff , General Arthur Schmidt . Although Soviet commanders suggested postponing the bombardment due to poor visibility due to thick fog , front headquarters decided to proceed . At 07 : 20 Moscow time ( 05 : 20 German time ) Soviet artillery commanders received the codeword " Siren " , prompting an 80 @-@ minute artillery bombardment directed almost entirely against the non @-@ German Axis units protecting the German flanks . Some 3 @,@ 500 guns opened up against the Third Romanian Army and the northern shoulder of the German Sixth Army 's flank . Although thick fog prevented the Soviet artillery from correcting their aim , their weeks of preparation and ranging allowed them to lay down accurate fire on enemy positions along the front . The effect was devastating , as communication lines were breached , ammunition dumps destroyed and forward observation points shattered . Many Romanian personnel who survived the bombardment began to flee to the rear . Soviet heavy artillery aimed at Romanian artillery positions and second @-@ echelon formations also caught the retreating Romanian soldiers .
= = = Against the Third Romanian Army : 19 November = = =
The offensive against the Third Romanian Army began at 08 : 50 , led by the 21st and 65th Soviet Armies and the 5th Tank Army . The first two assaults were repulsed by the Romanian defenders , and the effects of the heavy artillery bombardment had actually made it more difficult for Soviet armor to navigate through the minefields and terrain . However , the lack of heavy anti @-@ tank artillery caused the Romanian defense to collapse ; a breakthrough by the 4th Tank Corps and 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps was established by noon . Soon after , the 5th Tank Army was able to gain a breakthrough against the Second Romanian Corps , followed by the Eighth Cavalry Corps . As Soviet armor navigated through the thick fog by compass , overrunning Romanian and German artillery positions , three Romanian infantry divisions began to fall back in disarray ; the Third Romanian Army had been outflanked to the West and East . After receiving the news of the Soviet attack , Sixth Army headquarters failed to order the 16th and 24th Panzer Divisions , hitherto engaged in Stalingrad , to reorient themselves to bolster the Romanian defenses ; instead the task was given to the seriously understrength and poorly equipped 48th Panzer Corps .
The 48th Panzer Corps had fewer than 100 serviceable modern tanks to combat Soviet armor . Furthermore , they lacked fuel , and the shortage of tanks forced commanders to organize tank crews into infantry companies ; the 22nd Panzer Division , which formed part of the corps , was almost completely destroyed in the fighting that ensued . The 22nd had entered the fighting with fewer than thirty working tanks , and left with a company of tanks . The Romanian 1st Armored Division , attached to the 48th Panzer Corps , engaged the Soviet 26th Tank Corps after having lost communications with their German corps commanders , and were defeated by 20 November . As the Soviets continued to advance southwards , many Soviet tank crews began to suffer from the worsening blizzard , which affected men and equipment , and blocked gunsights . It was not uncommon for tanks to lose traction on the ground , and for a crew member to have an arm broken as he was thrown around inside the hull . However , the blizzard also neutralized the German corps ' coordination .
The rout of the Third Romanian Army began by the end of 19 November . The Soviet 21st Army and 5th Tank Army were able to capture some 27 @,@ 000 Romanian prisoners — the bulk of three divisions — and then continue their advance southwards . Soviet cavalry was used to exploit the breakthrough , sever communications between the Romanians and the Italian 8th Army , and to block any possible counterattack against the Soviet flank . While the Red Air Force strafed retreating Romanian soldiers , the Luftwaffe provided only negligible opposition . The withdrawal of the 1st Romanian Cavalry Division , originally positioned on the German 376th Infantry Division 's flank , allowed the 65th Army to bypass German defenses . As German forces began to react late on 19 November , another attack developed on the Sixth Army 's flank to the south .
= = = Against the German southern flank : 20 November = = =
In the early morning of 20 November Stavka telephoned Stalingrad Front commander Andrei Yeremenko asking if he would begin his portion of the offensive on schedule , at 08 : 00 . He responded he would do so only if the fog lifted ; although the 51st Army opened its artillery barrage on time because front headquarters could not contact the division , the rest of the forces prepared for the operation received orders to postpone the attack until 10 : 00 . The 51st Army engaged the Romanian 6th Corps , taking many prisoners . As the 57th Army joined the attack at 10 : 00 , the situation developed in such a way that the Stalingrad Front could throw its armored corps into battle . The German 297th Infantry Division watched as its Romanian support failed to put up resistance against the Red Army . However , confusion and lack of control caused the Soviet 4th and 13th Mechanized Corps to stumble as they began to exploit the breakthroughs achieved by the opening offensive .
The Germans responded quickly by redeploying their only reserve in the area , the 29th Panzergrenadier Division . Despite initial victories against Soviet armored forces , the Romanian collapse forced the division to again redeploy in an attempt to shore up defenses to the south . The 29th Panzergrenadier Division 's counterattack had cost the Red Army around fifty tanks , and caused Soviet commanders to worry about the safety of their left flank . However , the German division 's redeployment meant that by the end of the day only the 6th Romanian Cavalry Regiment was positioned between advancing Soviet forces and the Don River .
= = = Continued operations : 20 – 23 November = = =
While the Stalingrad Front launched its offensive on 20 November , the 65th Soviet Army continued to apply pressure to the German 11th Corps along the northern shoulder of the Sixth Army 's flank . The Red Army 's 4th Tank Corps advanced beyond the German 11th Corps , while the 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps crashed into the German unit 's rear . The German 376th Infantry Division and the Austrian 44th Infantry Division began to redeploy to face the enemy on their flanks , but were hindered by shortage of fuel . The 14th Panzer Division 's remaining panzer regiment destroyed a flanking regiment of the Soviet 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps , but its anti @-@ tank artillery suffered heavy casualties when it was overrun by Soviet forces . By the end of the day the Soviet 1st Tank Corps was chasing the retreating 48th Panzer Corps , while the Soviet 26th Tank Corps had captured the town of Perelazovsky , almost 130 kilometers ( 81 mi ) to the northwest of Stalingrad .
The Red Army 's offensive continued on 21 November , with forces of the Stalingrad Front achieving penetrations of up to 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) . By this time remaining Romanian units in the north were being destroyed in isolated battles , while the Red Army began to engage flanking portions of the German Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies . The German 22nd Panzer Division , despite attempting a short counterattack , was reduced to little more than a tank company and forced to withdraw to the southwest . The Soviet 26th Tank Corps , having destroyed a large portion of the Romanian 1st Armored Division , continued its advance to the southeast , avoiding engaging enemy left behind , although remnants of the Romanian 5th Corps were able to reorganize and put up a hastily constructed defense in the hope that it would be aided by the German 48th Panzer Corps . That day German General Friedrich Paulus , commander of the Sixth Army , received reports that the Soviets were less than 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) from his headquarters ; furthermore , there were no remaining units which could contest the Soviet advance . In the south , after a brief halt , the Soviet 4th Mechanized Corps continued its advance north , removing German defenders from several towns in the area , towards Stalingrad . As German forces in and around Stalingrad were at risk , Hitler ordered German forces in the area to establish an " all @-@ around defensive position " and designated forces between the Don and Volga rivers as " Fortress Stalingrad " , rather than allow the Sixth Army to attempt to break out . The Sixth Army , other Axis units , and most of the Fourth Panzer Army 's German units were caught inside the growing Soviet encirclement . Only the 16th Panzergrenadier Division began to fight its way out . Lack of coordination between Soviet tanks and infantry as the Red Army 's tank corps attempted to exploit the breakthrough along the Germans ' southern flank allowed much of the Fourth Romanian Army to escape destruction .
On 22 November Soviet forces began to cross the Don River and continued their advance towards the town of Kalach . German forces defending Kalach , mostly composed of maintenance and supply personnel , were not aware of the Soviet offensive until 21 November , and even then did not know in what strength the Red Army was approaching . The task of taking the bridge at Kalach was given to the Soviet 26th Tank Corps , which used two captured German tanks and a reconnaissance vehicle to approach it and fire on the guards . Soviet forces broke into the town by mid @-@ morning and drove the defenders out , allowing themselves and the 4th Tank Corps to link up with the Red Army 's 4th Mechanized Corps approaching from the south . The encirclement of German forces in Stalingrad was completed on 22 November 1942 . That day Soviet formations also continued to fight pockets of Romanian resistance , such as that put up by the Romanian 5th Corps .
Fighting continued on 23 November as the Germans attempted in vain to mount local counterattacks to break the encirclement . By this time Axis personnel inside the encirclement moved east towards Stalingrad to avoid Soviet tanks , while those that managed to escape the encirclement moved west toward German and other Axis forces .
= = Aftermath = =
Operation Uranus trapped between 250 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 Axis soldiers within an area stretching 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) from east to west and 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) north to south . The pocket contained four infantry corps , a panzer corps belonging to the Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies , and surviving elements of two Romanian divisions , a Croat infantry regiment and other specialist units . Trapped equipment included around 100 tanks , 2 @,@ 000 artillery pieces and mortars and 10 @,@ 000 trucks . The withdrawal to Stalingrad left lines of retreat littered with helmets , weapons and other equipment , and heavy equipment which had been destroyed was left on the side of the road . Bridges spanning the Don River were jammed with traffic , as surviving Axis soldiers hastily made their way eastwards in the cold weather , attempting to escape Soviet armor and infantry threatening to cut them off from Stalingrad . Many wounded Axis personnel were trampled , and many of those who attempted to cross the river on foot on the ice fell through and drowned . Hungry soldiers filled Russian villages scouring for supplies , while supply dumps were often looted in search of cans of food . The last stragglers crossed the Don River by 24 November , and demolished the bridges to seal off the Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies from the Soviets in Stalingrad .
The Sixth Army , in the midst of chaos , began to build defensive lines , hampered by the lack of fuel , ammunition and rations , and further burdened by the advancing Russian winter . It was also tasked with plugging gaps in the line caused by the disintegrating Romanian forces . On 23 November , some German units destroyed or burned everything not necessary for a breakout operation and began to pull back towards the northern end of Stalingrad . However , after the Germans had abandoned their winter bunkers , the Soviet 62nd Army was able to destroy the German 94th Infantry Division on the open ground ; survivors of the German division were attached to the 16th and 24th Panzer Divisions . Although German military commanders were of the opinion that Wehrmacht forces caught in the encirclement should break out , between 23 and 24 November Hitler decided instead to hold the position and attempt to resupply the Sixth Army by air . The personnel trapped in Stalingrad would require at least 680 metric tons ( 750 short tons ) of supplies per day , a task which the depleted Luftwaffe was actually in no condition to carry out . Furthermore , the revived Red Air Force was a threat to German aircraft attempting to fly over the encirclement . Although by December the Luftwaffe had assembled a fleet of around 500 aircraft , this was still insufficient to supply the Sixth Army and elements of the Fourth Panzer Army with the required supplies . During the first half of December the Sixth Army received less than 20 % of their daily requirements .
In the meantime , the Red Army strengthened its outer encirclement with the intention of destroying the encircled German units . Soviet armies would attack German units to the east and the south , aiming to split German units into smaller groups . These orders became effective on 24 November , and were to be executed without a major regrouping or movement of reserves . The outer encirclement ran for an estimated 320 kilometers ( 200 mi ) , although only three @-@ quarters of that distance was actually covered by Soviet troops ; the distance between the outer and inner encirclements was around 16 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) . The Soviet high command also began planning for Operation Saturn , which was aimed at destroying the Italian Eighth Army and cutting off German forces in the Caucasus . The Soviet Stavka planned Saturn to start on about 10 December .
German forces in the area had been further split up , as German general Erich von Manstein was given command of the newly created Army Group Don , comprising the German Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies , and the Third and Fourth Romanian Armies . Although the situation looked bleak for the Germans , a moment of relative calm had settled after the end of Operation Uranus ; German and Soviet forces were planning their next movements .
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= Hue – Da Nang Campaign =
The Hue – Da Nang Campaign was a series of military actions conducted by the Vietnam People 's Army ( VPA ) and the Viet Cong against the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) during the Vietnam War , also known in Vietnam as the American War . The campaign was centred on the cities of Huế ( Thừa Thiên @-@ Huế Province ) and Da Nang ( Quảng Nam Province ) , with secondary fronts in the provinces of Quảng Trị and Quảng Ngãi . The campaign began on March 5 and concluded on April 2 , 1975 .
During the spring season of 1975 , the Vietnam People 's Army High Command in Hanoi made the decision to seize the major South Vietnamese cities of Huế and Da Nang , and also destroy the various South Vietnamese units in I Corps Tactical Zone , led by ARVN General Ngô Quang Trưởng . Originally , the campaign was planned to take place over two phases ; during the seasons of spring @-@ summer and autumn . However , as the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces rolled over South Vietnamese defences on the outskirts of Huế and Da Nang , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu ordered General Trưởng to abandon all territories under his control , and pull his forces back to the coastal areas of I Corps . However , the South Vietnamese withdrawal quickly turned into a rout , as the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps picked off one South Vietnamese unit after another , until Huế and Da Nang was completely surrounded . By March 29 , 1975 , North Vietnamese troops had full control of Huế and Da Nang , while South Vietnam lost all territories in I Corps and most of the units belonging to the ARVN 1st Brigade .
The fall of Huế and Da Nang did not spell the end of the misery suffered by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . On March 31 , ARVN General Phạm Văn Phú — commander of II Corps Tactical Zone — attempted to form a new defensive line from Qui Nhơn to cover the retreat of the ARVN 22nd Infantry Division into the Mekong Delta , but they too were destroyed by the North Vietnamese . By April 2 , South Vietnam had lost control of the northern provinces , as well as two army corps .
= = Background = =
= = = North Vietnam = = =
During the Huế – Da Nang Campaign of 1975 , North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces were organised into three formations ; the Vietnam People 's Army 2nd Corps , Tri Thien Military Zone , and Military Region 5 Command . The 2nd Corps of the Vietnam People 's Army fielded three infantry divisions ( 304th , 324B and 325C Divisions ) , the 673rd Air @-@ Defence Division , the 164th Artillery Brigade , the 203rd Armoured Regiment , the 219th Combat Engineers Brigade , and the 463rd Communications Regiment . The 2nd Corps was led by Major @-@ General Nguyễn Hữu An , with Major @-@ General Le Linh as Political Commissar . Colonel Hoang Dan was the deputy commander , and Colonel Nguyen Cong Trang was the deputy political commissar .
Led by Brigadier @-@ General Lê Tự Đồng , the Tri Thien Military Zone had three infantry regiments ( 4th , 46th and 271st Regiments ) , and two battalions ( the 21st Independent Battalion and the 6th Local Force Battalion ) . Military Region 5 had one infantry division ( 2nd Division ) , which was supported by the 141st Regiment ( from the 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division ) , the 52nd Independent Brigade , two artillery regiments ( 368th and 572nd Artillery Regiments ) , two local battalions ( 70th and 72nd Local Force Battalions ) , and two local regiments ( 94th and 96th Local Force Regiments ) . North Vietnamese and Viet Cong units of Military Region 5 were placed under the responsibility of Major @-@ General Chu Huy Mân , with Vo Chi Cong as political commissar .
= = = Objectives = = =
= = = = Tri Thien = = = =
On February 21 , 1975 , North Vietnamese field commanders from Tri @-@ Thien Military Zone and the 2nd Army Corp held a conference to establish their objectives , which were planned to occur in two phases ; the spring @-@ summer phase that would begin in March and probably conclude in May , and the autumn phase to last from July to August 1975 . The North Vietnamese objective was to take control of Quảng Trị Province , isolate the city of Huế and if the opportunity presents itself , they would capture the entire Tri Thien @-@ Huế area . To isolate Huế , the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps would move against their target from the north @-@ west direction along Route 12 down to the south @-@ west along Highway 14 , thereby isolating the region from South Vietnamese forces in II Corps Tactical Zone .
In preparation for the Huế – Da Nang Campaign , the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps had successfully captured several important base areas that surrounded South Vietnamese units in Quảng Trị Province and Thừa Thiên Province . Those areas included Đông Hà @-@ Ái Tử to the north , Khe Sanh @-@ Ba Long to the west , and A Lưới @-@ Nam Dong in southern Huế . The main body of the 304th Division and the 3rd Regiment , 324th Division , had assembled in Nong Son and Thường Đức to attack Da Nang from the west . In Military Region 5 , the 2nd Division had established its positions in Tiên Phước , Tra My and Trà Bồng in Quảng Ngãi Province , and Đắk Tô and Tân Cảnh in Kon Tum Province .
= = = = Quảng Tin @-@ Quảng Ngãi = = = =
Once Huế had been isolated , Military Region 5 Command would initiate the Nam @-@ Ngai Campaign from the provinces of Quảng Tin and Quảng Ngãi , to isolate Da Nang from the Central Highlands . North Vietnamese units such as the 2nd Division , the 141st Regiment , the 52nd Brigade , along with two artillery regiments ( 368th and 572nd Artillery Regiments ) would coordinate their efforts with the Viet Cong 94th and 96th Local Force Regiments , and the 70th and 72nd Local Force Battalions . As part of their overall objective , they would tie down the ARVN 2nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 11th Armoured Squadron and the 912th Regional Force Company in Quảng Ngãi Province . And , if the opportunity arises , they would also capture Bình Định Province and the city of Qui Nhơn .
= = = = Da Nang = = = =
In the final phase of their operation , the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong would cut off Da Nang from the surrounding regions which made up I Corps Tactical Zone , and prevent reinforcements from retaking the city . Then , depending on the situation , the North Vietnamese would organize an attack to capture the major South Vietnamese army , navy and air force installations in Da Nang .
= = = South Vietnam = = =
South Vietnamese military forces in Huế and Da Nang belonged to the ARVN 1st Brigade , I Corps Tactical Zone . Commanded by Lieutenant General Ngô Quang Trưởng , the South Vietnamese I Corps was considered to be the strongest amongst all the military formations of South Vietnam . It had three infantry divisions ( 1st , 2nd and 3rd Infantry Divisions ) , the Airborne Division ( led by Major General Le Quang Luong ) , the Marine Corps Division ( led by Major General Bui The Lan ) , and four ranger groups ( 11th , 12th , 14th and 15th Ranger Groups ) . The Airborne and Marine Corps Division each had an assigned strength of four brigades . In addition to the infantry units , there were also the 5th Armoured Brigade , five squadrons of armored vehicles ( 4th , 7th , 11th , 17th and 20th Armored Squadrons ) , 13 armored companies , and 21 artillery battalions .
Local defense in I Corps was provided by 50 battalions and five companies of Regional and Popular Forces , and six companies of military police . Support for ground forces in the area came in the form of the 1st Air Force Division ( commanded by Brigadier @-@ General Nguyen Van Khanh ) , with two naval squadrons operating on the coast and another two along the rivers . Overall , I Corps fielded about 134 @,@ 000 soldiers ; 84 @,@ 000 were regular soldiers and 50 @,@ 000 belonged to the Regional and Popular Forces . Those forces were equipped with 449 tanks and armored vehicles , 418 artillery pieces , 64 M @-@ 42 Duster light air @-@ defense weapons , 373 aircraft of different types , and 165 naval vessels of different sizes .
= = = Defensive strategy = = =
In combination with the ‘ Ly Thuong Kiet Military Plan ’ and experiences gained during the North Vietnamese Nguyễn Huệ Offensive , Lieutenant General Ngô Quang Trưởng organised the defenses of I Corps into three phases , to be staged from three different areas .
= = = = Defensive phases = = = =
The first phase , known as the ‘ orange phase ’ , was considered to be the most important because it provided South Vietnamese units in I Corps with a platform to stop enemy attacks , and even attack them if necessary . To accomplish the objectives of the ‘ orange phase ’ , General Trưởng placed several elite combat units such as the Ranger groups and armoured forces on constant combat alert . The second phase , known as the ‘ green phase ’ , was designed to delay enemy forces and buy more time for the South Vietnamese to regroup in order to stage a counter @-@ attack , in the scenario that enemy forces managed to overcome the ‘ orange phase ’ . In the final phase , or the ‘ blue phases ’ , require South Vietnamese units to secure their areas of defence , then destroy and push enemy forces out of I Corps .
= = = = Areas of defence = = = =
General Trưởng 's areas of defence were centred on Tri Thien @-@ Huế , Da Nang , and Quảng Nam @-@ Quảng Ngãi .
= = = = Tri Thien @-@ Huế = = = =
The task of holding Tri Thien and Huế was entrusted to the ARVN 1st Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 4th and 15th Ranger Groups , the 913th and 914th Regional Forces Companies , the 17th and 20th Armoured Squadrons , 10 artillery battalions , one squadron of helicopters , two squadrons of reconnaissance aircraft , and one coastal patrol squadron . Those forces were commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Lâm Quang Thi .
= = = = Nam @-@ Da Nang = = = =
Da Nang was under the direct responsibility of Lieutenant @-@ General Ngô Quang Trưởng . It was home of the ARVN 3rd Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 4th and 7th Armoured Squadrons , the 11th and 14th Ranger Groups , the 911th Regional Force Company , the 1st Air Force Division , one coastal patrol squadron and two riverine squadrons .
= = = = Quảng Tin @-@ Quảng Ngãi = = = =
Quảng Tin and Quảng Ngãi was held by the ARVN 2nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 12th Ranger Group , the 11th Armoured Squadron , three artillery battalions , the 912th Regional Force Company , one coastal patrol squadron and one riverine squadron . Brigadier @-@ General Trần Văn Nhựt commanded the 3rd Infantry Division , and all other units in Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi .
= = Prelude = =
On March 5 , 1975 , the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps officially commenced its campaign against South Vietnamese forces of I Corps . The opening shots of the campaign was marked by an attack on South Vietnamese military convoys on Mount Hai Van , and the destruction of An Lo Bridge on National Highway 1 , located north of Huế . Positions held by the ARVN 913th Regional Force at Dong Ong Do and Hill @-@ 368 also came under attack , as Phu Bai Airbase was subjected to intense artillery bombardment . While the South Vietnamese were busy dealing with those attacks , General Nguyen Huu An secretly redeployed the 325th Division and the 9th Regiment of the 304th Division , from Quảng Trị towards Huế in the south . The 46th and 271st Regiment then moved into positions previously held by the 325th Division and 9th Regiment . And , to fool South Vietnamese intelligence agencies , the North Vietnamese also moved tank and artillery units to Cua Viet , Thanh Hoi and Ai Tu to cover their main thrust .
Between March 6 and 7 , the Viet Cong 4th Local Force Battalion assaulted and overran Mai Linh and 11 other surrounding military sub @-@ sectors in Quảng Trị Province . On the following day , General Lâm Quang Thi requested reinforcements from General Ngô Quang Trưởng in Da Nang , as a response to Communist attacks in his area of control . Meanwhile , the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps continued their onslaught , with the 324th Division launching attacks on South Vietnamese positions in Mo Tau , and on Hills 75 , 76 , 224 , 273 , and 303 all located south of Huế .
By March 10 , several South Vietnamese units were defeated in their attempts to hold off the North Vietnamese ; the 1st battalion of 54th Infantry Regiments of ARVN 1st Division ( South Vietnam ) was destroyed on Hill 224 and 273 ; the ARVN 47th Armoured Squadron was overrun by the VPA 1st Regiment , 324th Division , on Mount Nghe ; and the ARVN 113th Regional Force Battalion conceded Pho Lai to the VPA 4th Regiment , which was supported by the 223rd Artillery Regiment . General Thi then ordered the 15th Ranger Group and the 2nd Battalion of the 54th Infantry Regiment , with support from the 27th and 37th Tank Squadrons , to mount a counter @-@ attack on Hill 224 . Over the period of one week , both sides fired over 8 @,@ 000 rounds of artillery shells on Hill 224 , and the South Vietnamese air force conducted over 60 bombing sorties in an attempt to halt the advances of the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps .
On March 13 , amidst heavy fighting in the northern provinces of South Vietnam , General Ngô Quang Trưởng flew out to Saigon for a meeting with President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu . In this meeting , President Thiệu outlined his decision to abandon most of the provinces in I Corps Tactical Zone , and ordered General Trưởng to withdraw his forces towards the coastal regions of central Vietnam instead . In addition , the Airborne Division ( South Vietnam would be redeployed to the Mekong Delta region , where it could protect the nation 's capital . Unwilling to concede the northern provinces to the enemy , General Trưởng tried unsuccessfully to convince President Thiệu to reverse his decision in the believe that he could hold onto I Corps , and recapture lost territories by using the Airborne and Marine Corps Divisions . After he returned to his headquarters that afternoon , General Trưởng decided to redeploy his forces instead of carrying out President Thiệu 's order straightaway , for several reasons . Firstly , he wanted to convince the President that most South Vietnamese units were still intact , and that they still had the time to recapture lost territories . And secondly , General Trưởng did not want to create confusion amongst his subordinates , when the military situation in I Corps was still under control .
Thus , General Trưởng reorganised his defences in order to deal with the threat posed by North Vietnamese formations located south of I Corps ; he designated Da Nang to be the main centre of South Vietnamese defence in I Corps , with Tri Thien in the north , and with Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi in the south . To make up for the loss of the Airborne Division , General Trưởng ordered the 369th Marines Brigade to replace the 3rd Airborne Brigade in Quảng Nam Province , and the 258th Marines Brigade to take over from the 2nd Airborne Brigade on Mount Phu Gia , located north of Hai Van .
Meanwhile , between March 13 and 15 , the VPA 6th Regiment launched several attacks on Chuc Meo , La Son , Hill 300 and Hill 511 located west of Huế , forcing elements of the ARVN 1st Infantry Division to pull back towards Dong Tranh and Binh Dien .
On March 17 , the North Vietnamese High Command predicted that South Vietnamese units could withdraw into the cities of Huế and Da Nang , so the following orders were issued to North Vietnamese field commanders : General Lê Tự Đồng 's forces were to capture Phu Bai Air Base to prevent aerial transportation , and cut off a section of Highway 1 north of Huế , and General Nguyen Huu An 's 2nd Army Corps must secure Highway 1 south of the city , with the aim of isolating both Huế and Da Nang from the rest of the country .
On the following day , General Dong 's forces staged their attacks from two main directions , from Thanh Hoi and Tich Tuong @-@ Nhu Le , moving along Route 68 and National Highway 1 respectively . The North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps , on the other hand , assaulted South Vietnamese positions in Phu Loc and Phu Gia .
By 8 : 30pm on the evening of March 18 , most of northern Quảng Trị was under North Vietnamese control . ARVN Colonel Do Ky , also the provincial chief of Quảng Trị Province , tried to lead what was left of his troops back to Huế but was pursued by the North Vietnamese along National Highway 1 until they reached An Lo .
As the fighting in Quảng Trị unfolded , General Ngô Quang Trưởng flew back from Saigon where he tried to obtain approval from President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu for his new defensive plan , and hastily reorganised South Vietnamese defences in the northern regions of I Corps . Subsequently , General Trưởng sent out the following orders : the 480th Marines Brigade to leave Da Nang and to guard the north @-@ western flank of Huế ; the 1st Infantry Division , the 15th Ranger Group and the 7th Tank Squadron to protect south @-@ western Huế ; and the 258th Marines Brigade and the 914th Regional Force Battalion were to secure a section of Highway 1 which connected Huế with Da Nang .
= = Battle = =
= = = Fall of Huế = = =
While General Ngô Quang Trưởng was still busy reorganising South Vietnamese units in I Corps , on March 20 the Tri Thien Command finalised their plan to capture Huế , with the objective of preventing South Vietnamese forces from regrouping there . At 2 : 30pm on the same day , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu phoned the ARVN 1st Brigade Headquarters , and ordered General Trưởng to defend only Da Nang due to the lack of resources . Beginning at 5 : 40am on March 21 , the VPA 325th and 324th Divisions attacked South Vietnamese units positioned astride Highway 1 . At the same time , elements of the K5 Special Forces Battalion destroyed Thua Luu Bridge , which connected a stretch of road on Highway 1 between Huế and Da Nang , forcing thousands of South Vietnamese civilian and military vehicles heading towards Da Nang to turn back . The ARVN 20th Tank Squadron was then sent out to reopen Highway 1 , but was defeated by the VPA 203rd Armoured Regiment .
In light of the worsening military situation on the evening of March 22 , General Ngô Quang Trưởng authorised General Lâm Quang Thi to pull his forces back to Da Nang . However , as the main roads were blocked by the North Vietnamese , General Thi 's only option was to use a coastal corridor between Thuan An and Tu Hien , and board transport vessels belonging to the 106th Navy Squadron and head back to Da Nang .
On the morning of March 23 , the VPA 324th Division advanced through Hill @-@ 303 and Mo Tau , and assaulted northern Phu Loc , while the VPA 325th Division captured Mui Ne , Phuoc Tuong , and encircled Tu Hien located south of Huế . In the north , the Viet Cong 4th , 46th and 271st Regiments pursued a retreating South Vietnamese formation consisted of the 147th Marines Brigade , the 14th Ranger Group , 5th Infantry Regiment of the 1st Infantry Division ) , and the 17th Armoured Squadron , heading towards Thuan An . And , at 4.30pm on March 23 , the VPA 101st Regiment ( part of the 325th Division ) overran Luong Dien , and surrounded Phu Bai Air Base , to close the main corridor leading into Huế from the south . Simultaneously , the Viet Cong 46th Regiment destroyed South Vietnamese defences on Bo River , captured the districts of Quang Dien , Quang Loi and Huong Can , and secured the main roads on the outskirts of northern Huế .
Between March 24 and 25 , the VPA 3rd ( 324th Division ) and 101st Regiments continued their drive towards Huế , after they successfully captured Phu Bai Air Base . At the same time , the 1st Regiment ( 324th Division ) along with the Viet Cong 4th and 271st Regiments were able to destroy the last elements of the ARVN 147th Marines Brigade and the 15th Ranger Group , before they could board navy vessels anchored off the shores of Huong Thuy , Luong Thien and Ke Sung and Cu Lai .
By the evening of March 25 , the North Vietnamese had secured all major points surrounding Huế , and South Vietnamese units that failed to escape were completely surrounded . Consequently , the North Vietnamese claimed to have captured large numbers of South Vietnamese prisoners and military hardware . In all , a total of 58 @,@ 722 South Vietnamese soldiers became prisoners of war , with one colonel and 18 lieutenant @-@ colonels amongst the ranks , as well as about 14 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese government officials and employees , who reported to the North Vietnamese military authorities . The South Vietnamese military in Huế also surrendered vast quantities of weaponry , which included 140 tanks and armoured vehicles .
= = = Tin @-@ Ngai Campaign = = =
From the beginning of March 1975 , the combined North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces of Military Region 5 had been coordinating their efforts with the 2nd Army Corp and Tri Thien Command to isolate General Ngô Quang Trưởng 's I Corps from II Corps , led by Major @-@ General Phạm Văn Phú . North Vietnamese and Viet Cong areas of operations in the southern regions of I Corps mainly centred in south @-@ western Quảng Tin and north @-@ western Quảng Ngãi , which included Tien Phuoc , Tam Kỳ , Nui Thanh , Tra Bong and Binh Son .
Regular units of the Vietnam People 's Army such as the 2nd Division , the 141st Regiment ( 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division ) , the 52nd Independent Brigade , the 368th and 572nd Artillery Regiments operated alongside local Viet Cong units , namely the 94th and 96th Local Force Regiments , and 70th and 72nd Local Force Battalions . The southern region of I Corps was considered to be the weakest area of defence , which was under the responsibility of ARVN General Trần Văn Nhựt , who also led the 2nd Infantry Division . Also included in General Nhut 's order of battle were the 12th Ranger Group , the 916th Regional Force Battalion , the 11th Armoured Brigade , three battalions of artillery , one navy coastal squadron and riverine squadron .
Beginning at 4 : 30am on March 10 , North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces proceeded to capture the following targets : the VPA 38th Regiment overran the highpoints of Nui Vu , Nui Ngoc , Duong Con , Soui Da and Nui Vy ; the 36th Regiment destroyed South Vietnamese strong points at Trung Lien , Mount Da , Mount Khong ten , Ho Bach and Hill @-@ 215 ; the Viet Cong ‘ Ba Gia ’ Regiment held their positions on Hill @-@ 269 and Hill @-@ 310 , to stop South Vietnamese counter @-@ attacks from Tuan Duong ; while the 52nd Independent Brigade captured Go Han , Phuoc Tien , Duong Ong Luu , Duong Huế , Nui My , Hon Nhon , Deo Lieu , and Mount Đất Đỏ . Thus , 23 positions held by units of the ARVN 12th Ranger Groups were captured , just after four hours of fighting .
At 9 : 00am on March 10 , North Vietnamese soldiers of the 368th Artillery Regiment dragged 12 pieces of artillery which included 85mm , 105mm and 122mm guns onto the top of Nui Vu and Han Thon , and aimed their guns directly on Hill @-@ 211 and the administrative centre of Tien Phuoc , to support the 31st Regiment attacking those areas . At 1 : 30pm , following two failed counter @-@ attacks , South Vietnamese units in Phuoc Lam deserted from the battlefield . In the mean time , however , South Vietnamese troops in Tien Phuoc could bare held their ground with support from two A @-@ 37 bombers , after South Vietnamese commanders on the ground had called for reinforcement from Chu Lai . By 4 : 00pm , Tien Phuoc was captured by the VPA 2nd Division .
Due to the lost of Tien Phuoc and Phouc Lam , the ARVN 916th Regional Force Battalion retreated from the area . Thus , Tam Kỳ , the capital of Quảng Tin Province , was threatened to be overrun by the North Vietnamese .
On March 11 , General Ngô Quang Trưởng ordered General Trần Văn Nhựt to mobilise the 2nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 12th Ranger Group , elements of the 11th Armoured Squadron and one regional force battalion to mount a counter @-@ attack from Tuan Duong to Cam Khe and Duong Con. General Trưởng also ordered the ARVN 2nd Infantry Regiment ( 3rd Infantry Division ) to depart from Da Nang , and protect Tam Kỳ , so that General Nhut 's forces could be free up to fight the North Vietnamese .
However , between March 14 and 15 , the ARVN 2nd Infantry Regiment was forced to turn back from Tam Kỳ to deal with an attack on Thang Binh , by the Viet Cong 70th and 72nd Local Force Battalions . In southern Quảng Ngãi , the Viet Cong 94th Local Force Regiment attacked Binh Son , cut off a section of National Highway 1 near Chau O , and the ARVN 4th Infantry Regiment ( 2nd Infantry Division ) was pinned down trying to deal with Viet Cong attacks . Thus , South Vietnamese attempts to stage an effective counter @-@ attack were quickly blunted by the combined Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces in Quảng Ngãi Province . Recognising that he no longer has the manpower to mount a counter @-@ attack , General Nhut ordered his troops to abandon Tra Bong and Son Ha , and concentrate his units in Tam Kỳ and Chu Lai instead .
Following the failed counter @-@ attack , South Vietnamese forces in I Corps was further weakened when President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu pulled the Airborne Division back to Saigon . Now that the South Vietnamese 2nd Infantry Division and the 12th Ranger Group was overstretched between Quảng Ngãi and Hội An , with Tam Kỳ only defended by the ARVN 5th Infantry Regiment and one battalion from the ARVN 4th Infantry Regiment , North Vietnamese General Chu Huy Mân decided to utilise the advantage to capture Tam Kỳ . Beginning at 5 : 30am on March 21 , the North Vietnamese 2nd Division attacked Suoi Da , the last South Vietnamese outpost outside Tam Kỳ . At around 12 : 00pm , ARVN General Trần Văn Nhựt ordered the rest of the 4th Infantry Regiment out from Quảng Ngãi in an attempt to hold Tam Kỳ , so South Vietnamese defences in that province was further weakened . Again , taking advantage of the situation , General Chu Huy Mân ordered the 52nd Independent Brigade and the 94th Local Force Regiment to attack Quảng Ngãi . By 7 : 00am on March 24 , the cities of Tam Kỳ and Quảng Ngãi were simultaneously attacked by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces . In Tam Kỳ , the ARVN 4th and 5th Infantry Regiments were destroyed after two hours of heavy fighting , while the 37th and 39th Ranger Battalions ( from the ARVN 12th Ranger Group ) in the outskirts of the city simply fled from the battlefield . At 10 : 00am on March 24 , North Vietnamese and Viet Cong soldiers of the 2nd Division , the ‘ Ba Gia ’ Regiment , and the 31st Regiment successfully captured Tam Kỳ .
In Quảng Ngãi , the VPA 52nd Independent Brigade , with support from two special forces battalions , as well as tanks and armoured vehicles from the 574th Regiment , rolled over South Vietnamese defences . At around 2 : 00pm , the surviving elements of the ARVN 6th Infantry Regiment , the rest of the 12th Ranger Group and the 4th Tank Squadron was ambushed by the Viet Cong 94th Local Force Regiment along National Highway 1 , when they tried to retreat towards Chu Lai without a fight . As a result , over 600 South Vietnamese soldiers were killed , and around 3 @,@ 500 others were captured . At 11 : 30pm on March 24 , the North Vietnamese was in full control of Quảng Ngãi City . O
n March 25 , 1975 , the Tin @-@ Ngai Campaign concluded with North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces exercising full control over the provinces of Quảng Tin and Quảng Ngãi , leaving Da Nang as the only major city in I Corps still held by the South Vietnamese .
As such , out of the 44 provinces in South Vietnam , 10 were occupied by the Vietnam People 's Army , while three ARVN infantry divisions were rendered ineffective . In addition , the elite ARVN 147th Marines Brigade ceased to exist as a fighting force .
= = = Fall of Da Nang = = =
= = = = South Vietnamese dispositions = = = =
By 1975 , Da Nang had been become the second largest city in South Vietnam , with close to a million inhabitants . It was a major economic and political centre in I Corps Tactical Zone , and was home to the largest military installations which incorporated the South Vietnamese army , navy and air force . Logistically , the military infrastructure within the city could hold several thousand tons of weaponry , ammunition , food supplies and other essential war materials . It also had four large seaports , and a major airport at Da Nang and Nuoc Man . So , on March 25 , following the loss of Quảng Trị , Thừa Thiên , Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu ordered South Vietnamese commanders at all levels to hold what was left of I Corps till the very end . On March 26 , General Ngô Quang Trưởng gathered what was left of his units , about 75 @,@ 000 soldiers , and organised them into the following order :
Outer Defensive Line : The 258th Marines Brigade and the 914th Regional Force Battalion to hold all areas between Phuoc Tuong and Lien Chieu . The 369th Marines Brigade and the 57th Infantry Regiment ( 3rd Infantry Division ) were to protect Dai Loc and Dong Lam . The surviving elements of the 147th Marines Brigade , and the Marine Corps Division Headquarters would hold Nuoc Man airfield . Meanwhile , the remnants of the 3rd Infantry Division would hold Vinh Dien and Ninh Que , while the 15th Ranger Group held Ba Ren .
Inner Defensive Line : The 912th Regional Force Battalion , and the last elements of the 11th and 20th Armoured Squadrons held Phuoc Tuong @-@ Hoa My . The last three battalions of the 1st Infantry Division , the 2nd Infantry Division , the 12th Ranger Group , and about 3 @,@ 000 freshly trained soldiers from the Hoa Cam Training Camp were ordered to defend all key areas between Hoa Cam and Nuoc Man . All independent Regional and Popular Force battalions were placed in reserve , and could go into combat when required .
General Trưởng also had 12 artillery battalions at his disposal , as well as the 1st Air Force Division based at Da Nang and Nuoc Man , which were still intact despite the early clashes in I Corps .
= = = North Vietnamese plan of attack = = =
Following the conclusion of the Tri Thien and Tin @-@ Ngai Campaigns , the Vietnam People 's Army High Command ordered General Lê Trọng Tấn to journey south from Hanoi and personally take charge of the Da Nang Campaign . Subsequently , on March 25 , the North Vietnamese came up with a plan to attack Da Nang from four directions :
North : The 325th Division ( without the 95th Regiment ) , with support from one tank battalion and one artillery battalion , were ordered to advance along National Highway 1 and capture the ARVN 1st Brigade Headquarters , the South Vietnamese 1st Air Force Division at Da Nang , and then move on to the Son Tra Peninsula to capture the main seaport there .
North @-@ West : The 9th Regiment ( 304th Division ) , with support from one tank battalion , one artillery battalion and one anti @-@ aircraft gun battalion , were ordered to advance along Highway 14B , and capture the ARVN 3rd Infantry Division Headquarters at Phuoc Tuong , and then move on to Da Nang Air Base .
South & South @-@ East : The 2nd Division , with support from one artillery unit ( the 36th Artillery Regiment ) , one artillery battalion , one tank @-@ armoured vehicles battalion , one anti @-@ aircraft gun battalion , and one anti @-@ tank weapons company , were ordered to take Da Nang Air Base and the ARVN 1st Brigade Headquarters , then capture the city itself . The 3rd and 68th Regiments were placed in reserve .
South @-@ West : The 2nd Army Corps ( without the 9th Regiment , 304th Division ) was ordered to take all positions held by the ARVN 369th Marines Brigade along the defensive line at Thuong Duc @-@ Ai Nghia @-@ Hiep Duc , then advance toward Nuoc Man airfield . The 24th Regiment ( 304th Division ) was required to capture Hoa Cam , and then move on to Da Nang .
= = = = The fight begins = = = =
Before the North Vietnamese finalised their plan to capture Da Nang , the 2nd Army Corps had already begun making preparations for the final attack on the city . On March 24 , the VPA 325th Division fought with the ARVN 258th Marines Brigade and the 914th Regional Force Battalion at North Hai Van , and overran Phuoc Tuong , Nuoc Ngot , Tho Son and Thua Luu . Consequently , North Vietnamese forces captured enemy artillery positions in Phuoc Tuong , and made good use of it during the following weeks . On March 27 , with air @-@ support from A @-@ 37 attack aircraft from Da Nang , the 258th Marines Brigade and the 914th Regional Force Battalion tried to hold off North Vietnamese forces at Phu Gia and Hai Van , but they were pushed back and sustained heavy casualties in the process . The VPA 325th Division then continued their advance through So Hai , Loan Ly , An Bao and Lang Co . Soon afterwards , more than 30 artillery pieces belonging to the VPA 84th and 164th Artillery Regiments were placed at various high points in Son Thach , Son Khanh and Mui Trau ; beginning at 5 : 30am on March 28 , North Vietnamese artillery units bombarded South Vietnamese positions around Da Nang . Meanwhile , the ARVN 369th Marines Brigade quickly abandoned their position at Son Ga , after they had detected elements of the VPA 304th Division conducting reconnaissance missions on the battlefield . On March 28 , the VPA 66th Regiment ( 304th Division ) attacked and captured the administrative area of Ai Nghia and Nuoc Man airfield , while the VPA 24th Regiment attacked Hoa Cam and Toa in the outskirts of Da Nang .
The ARVN 369th Marines Brigade then tried to pull back towards An Dong and My Khe , but they were pursued by the VPA 2nd Division . Meanwhile , the 3 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese soldiers at Hoa Cam mutinied against their commanding officers , and surrendered to the North Vietnamese . South of Da Nang , the VPA 2nd Division , with support from tank and artillery units was able to overrun Ba Ren at around 9 : 00am on March 28 . In response , ARVN General Ngô Quang Trưởng ordered Air Force Brigadier @-@ General Nguyen Van Khanh to send a squadron of four A @-@ 37 bombers to destroy the main bridges at Ba Ren and Cau Lau , but they could not prevent the VPA 2nd Division from crossing the river using canoes , and other small river crafts . At 5 : 55am on March 29 , the outer South Vietnamese defence line located south of Da Nang succumbed to the North Vietnamese . At 6.30am on the same day , the last South Vietnamese strongholds in and around Hai Van were overrun by the North Vietnamese . The VPA 325th Division then secured Lien Chieu , the Nam O Bridge and the Trinh Me The Bridge , thereby clearing the main road for the supporting tank and armoured units to advance on Son Tra . As North Vietnamese troops were closing in , General Ngô Quang Trưởng and other high @-@ ranking South Vietnamese officers were airlifted out to the coastal areas , where they boarded the navy transport ship HQ @-@ 404 . At 12 : 00pm , the ARVN 1st Brigade Headquarters was finally captured . At 12 : 30pm , the 9th Regiment ( 304th Division ) also captured the ARVN 3rd Infantry Division Headquarters , and quickly established their control over the entire Phuoc Tuong area .
By the time Da Nang fall into North Vietnamese hands , South Vietnamese commanders on the ground simply lost control of their men as military discipline collapsed . On March 28 , about 6 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese soldiers of the 2nd Infantry Division deserted , and left the battlefield . And then the soldiers of the ARVN 3rd Infantry Division also retreated , thereby leaving the rear of the Marine Corps Division exposed to enemy attacks . Since March 25 , from the CIA Station in Da Nang , Al Francis and the U.S. Embassy in Saigon began formulating an evacuation plan , in order to evacuate U.S. citizens and South Vietnamese government officials out from Da Nang . As part of the plan , aircraft belonging to civilian airliners were to be used . And in addition to the South Vietnamese navy vessels of I Corps , U.S. General Homer Smith also provided five barges , six passenger liners , and three cargo ships to help with the evacuation process . Even though the evacuation plan was designed to be carried out in an orderly manner , chaos and confusion quickly descended on the civilian and military population of Da Nang as people fought each other to board the vessels anchored off the coast . On the afternoon of March 29 , North Vietnamese soldiers of the 2nd , 304th , 324th and 325th Divisions , as well as the 203rd Armoured Regiment , entered the city of Da Nang .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The struggle for Huế and Da Nang had cost South Vietnam its entire army corps , namely the units of the ARVN 1st Brigade , I Corps Tactical Zone . According to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 's official history , apart from the 16 @,@ 000 soldiers and civilians who managed to escape , over 120 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese soldiers were killed , wounded or captured after the fall of Huế and Da Nang . In their attempt to abandon the territories of I Corps , the South Vietnamese military left behind vast quantities of U.S.-supplied military hardware . The North Vietnamese claimed to have captured 129 aircraft of different models , 179 tanks and armoured vehicles , 327 artillery pieces , 184 transport vehicles and 47 naval crafts . More than 10 @,@ 000 tons of bombs , ammunition , grenades , food supplies , combat rations , and other materials were also captured . Total North Vietnamese and Viet Cong casualties are largely unknown .
= = = South Vietnam and the loss of the northern provinces = = =
President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu 's decision to abandon the Central Highlands and the coastal regions of I Corps had a negative impact on the fighting ability of South Vietnamese troops , especially as the northern provinces of South Vietnam were driven into chaos . On March 31 , after the fall of Huế and Da Nang , ARVN General Phạm Văn Phú @-@ commander of II Corps Tactical Zone- held a meeting with his General Staff and the provincial chiefs of Bình Định , Khánh Hòa , Phú Yên , Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận , and requested them to form a defensive line from Qui Nhơn into the Mekong Delta to cover the retreat of the ARVN 2nd Brigade from the Central Highlands . Subsequently , General Phu issued the following orders : Rear Admiral Hoang Co Minh was to oversee military operations in the Qui Nhơn region , Brigadier @-@ General Trần Văn Cẩm to hold Phú Yên , Brigadier @-@ General Nguyen Ngoc Oanh and Brigadier @-@ General Nguyen Van Luong was tasked with holding Nha Trang . Meanwhile , General Phan Dinh Niem- commander of the ARVN 22nd Infantry Division- was required to form a defensive line linking Qui Nhơn with Diêu Trì and Deo Ca , with the purpose of delaying North Vietnamese forces .
The withdrawal plan formulated by General Phạm Văn Phú and his General Staff was made with the belief that North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces would stop and consolidate their territorial gains before they could go on the attack again . However , during the spring offensive of 1975 , North Vietnamese commanders were more than willing to manoeuvre their units away from newly captured territories , in order to pursue retreating South Vietnamese units . Furthermore , South Vietnamese commanders never realised that Hanoi had given its field commanders the full flexibility to respond to the changing circumstances on the battlefield , and had supplied North Vietnamese units with weaponry required to achieve their objectives . Ultimately , the average South Vietnamese soldiers would have to pay for the miscalculation of their commanders . At 5 : 15am on March 31 , the 47th Infantry Regiment ( ARVN 22nd Infantry Division ) was ambushed by the 2nd Regiment ( VPA 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division ) , while withdrawing towards Phu An @-@ Lai Nghi . Upon arrival at Phu Cat , the remnants of the ARVN 47th Infantry Regiment was encircled and assaulted by the VPA 198th Regiment , and ceased to exist as a fighting unit by 12 : 30pm .
The 41st Infantry Regiment ( ARVN 22nd Infantry Division ) also came under attack from the VPA 95th Regiment , as they moved from Nui Mot to Phu Phong . Throughout the evening of March 31 , the ARVN 41st Infantry Regiment fought with the VPA 141st Regiment , as soon as they reached Phat Giao . In contrast to the other units , the 42nd Infantry Regiment ( ARVN 22nd Infantry Division ) was able to escape the North Vietnamese onslaught , but their strength was significantly reduced before they reached Dieu Tri . On April 1 , Quy Nhon fall into the hands of the North Vietnamese , which was followed by Tuy Hòa on April 2 . ARVN General Trần Văn Cẩm was captured in Tuy Hòa after his helicopter had landed on the ground , where he tried to survey the battlefield . The destruction of the ARVN 22nd Infantry Division , which had about 10 @,@ 000 fully equipped men , stirred up chaos in Nha Trang ; more than 3 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese recruits from the Lam Son Army Training Centre retreated into the city , while another 1 @,@ 000 soldiers went on a rampage and looted goods on the main streets . The chief of Khánh Hòa Province , Colonel Ly Ba Pham , boarded a military aircraft and flew out to Phan Rang , after he had notified Saigon that " the situation is irreversible " . On the afternoon of April 2 , Nha Trang was overrun by the North Vietnamese , and not a single battle was fought in its defence . By 2 : 00pm on April 2 , ARVN General Phạm Văn Phú had lost every military unit and territory under his control .
= = = The decisions of President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu = = =
According to many academics , both in Vietnam and in the West , the major factor which contributed to the rapid collapse of South Vietnamese defences in 1975 was the numerous , and contradictory orders issued by President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu . During the various phases of the South Vietnamese retreat from the northern provinces , namely in I and II Corps Tactical Zones , President Thiệu had at least three different plans and decisions laid out before him , and each one either lacked consistency or simply contradicted one another . For example , on March 13 , President Thiệu ordered General Ngô Quang Trưởng to abandon I Corps , and return the elite Airborne Division to the Mekong Delta region of III Corps . Soon afterwards , similar orders were issued to Major @-@ General Phạm Văn Phú to evacuate from the Central Highlands . Then , on March 17 , with intervention from General Cao Văn Viên , President Thiệu contradicted his previous orders when he approved General Trưởng 's defensive plan to hold the major cities of Huế and Da Nang .
However , the very next day , President Thiệu ordered General Ngô Quang Trưởng and General Lâm Quang Thi to abandon Huế , and only concentrate sufficient numbers of South Vietnamese units to hold Da Nang . On March 29 , as General Trưởng was about to board the navy transport ship HQ @-@ 404 , he received a phone call from President Thiệu , who ordered him to turn back and retake Da Nang from the North Vietnamese forces . By that stage , however , South Vietnamese units in I Corps had virtually disappeared , while their commanding officers had fled from their posts . So General Trưởng refused to carry out President Thiệu 's orders . Between April 3 and 4 , President Thiệu reprimanded General Phạm Văn Phú and General Lâm Quang Thi for the debacles in II and I Corps respectively , and Generals Pham Quoc Thuan and Dư Quốc Đống for the fall of Phước Long in 1974 . Even though President Thiệu used the defeat of South Vietnamese forces as a justification for the arrest of those generals , his real intention behind the arrests was to avert an imaginary military coup against him . For that reason , he chose to pull the Airborne Division back to III Corps , which was commanded by loyalist officers , instead of the Marine Corps Division .
General Ngô Quang Trưởng and General Lê Nguyên Khang were spared , but both men responded strongly to President Thiệu 's reaction . In General Trưởng 's view , the aforementioned generals were victims of injustice , as they were far more competent than Thiệu 's loyalists in Saigon . In addition to the military disasters suffered on the battlefield , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu also caused instability within his own government during the final days of South Vietnam 's existence . For example , on April 2 , President Thiệu requested the country 's National Assembly to dissolve Prime Minister Trần Thiện Khiêm 's cabinet , and replace him with Nguyễn Bá Cẩn . The National Assembly quickly approved President Thiệu 's request . Then on the same day , President Thiệu also ordered the arrest of seven individuals who had worked for Air @-@ Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ , believing they were plotting to overthrow him . William Colby — CIA Chief of Station in Saigon — wrote in a report back to Washington that the balance of power had leaned in Hanoi 's favour . As such , if South Vietnam were to survive the North Vietnamese onslaught , whoever replaced President Thiệu would have to accept a resolution to the conflict on North Vietnamese terms .
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= Baccano ! =
Baccano ! ( Japanese : バッカーノ ! , Hepburn : Bakkāno ! , Italian for " ruckus " , Italian pronunciation : [ bakˈkaːno ] ) is a Japanese light novel series written by Ryohgo Narita and illustrated by Katsumi Enami . The series , often told from multiple points of view , is mostly set within a fictional United States during various time periods , most notably the Prohibition era . It focuses on various people , including alchemists , thieves , thugs , Mafiosi and Camorristi , who are unconnected to one another . After an immortality elixir is recreated in 1930 Manhattan , the characters begin to cross paths , setting off events that spiral further and further out of control .
The first novel was released in February 2003 under ASCII Media Works ' ( formerly MediaWorks ) Dengeki Bunko imprint , and as of March 2013 , twenty novels have been released . The novels were adapted into a sixteen episode anime television series directed by Takahiro Omori and produced by Brain 's Base and Aniplex . The first thirteen episodes were aired on WOWOW from July 26 , 2007 , to November 1 , 2007 ; the final three were released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD . The series was also adapted into a two @-@ volume manga , an adventure video game for the Nintendo DS and two drama CDs . An additional novel was released with the first drama CD and two gaiden novels were released in parts with the DVDs of the anime adaption .
Funimation has dubbed the anime episodes in English , and has licensed them for release in the United States and Canada . The series was also licensed by Manga Entertainment for English releases in the United Kingdom , and by Madman Entertainment for releases in Australia and New Zealand . The entire English @-@ dubbed series was streamed through Hulu during October 2009 and English @-@ subtitled episodes continue to be streamed . Funimation streams English @-@ subtitled and English @-@ dubbed episodes through their website . The series has also aired in the Philippines , Hong Kong and Southeast Asia on Animax Asia . On January 25 , 2016 , it was announced that the streaming and DVD home distribution rights for the North American distributor of the anime , Funimation , would expire , which occurred on February 8 , 2016 .
The light novels of the series have been well received by readers and have also been awarded . The first light novel , The Rolling Bootlegs , was awarded the Gold Prize of the ninth Dengeki Novel Prize , held by ASCII Media Works in 2002 , after reaching third place . The anime adaptation of the series has been popular in Japan and the United States , and has also received significant praise for its plot , characters , strong dubbing , animation and musical score .
= = Plot = =
Aboard the ship Advenna Avis in 1711 , a group of alchemists summon a demon in the hopes of gaining eternal life . The demon gives them an elixir of immortality and the method of ending their existence , by " devouring " one another , and grants the summoner Maiza Avaro the formula of the elixir . Maiza and most of the alchemists decide that no one else must become immortal ; only Szilard Quates opposes . That night , the alchemists begin to disappear , devoured by Szilard . Realizing the threat posed by staying together , they scatter across the globe .
In New York City during November 1930 , Szilard succeeds in recreating the elixir , only to have it stolen by young thug Dallas Genoard . The elixir continually moves around the city because of Dallas , with the three mafiosi Gandor brothers , the two idiotic thieves Isaac Dian and Miria Harvent , and Maiza 's protege Firo Prochainezo and their Camorra family , the Martillo , all passing it around . Szilard makes Dallas an incomplete immortal ( meaning he still ages ) to retrieve the elixir . However , all other parties accidentally consume the elixir , mistaking it for alcohol , at a party for Firo . Firo falls in love with Szilard 's immortal homunculus Ennis , who betrays Szilard by telling Firo how to devour Szilard , which he does . The Gandor then cement Dallas to a barrel at the bottom of the Hudson River to punish him for killing Gandor members .
In late 1931 , the Gandor fight the Runorata family for control of the same area after a new drug surfaces . In an attempt to resolve the situation , Luck Gandor asks his adoptive brother Claire Stanfield , a psychopathic assassin , to travel to New York . Claire agrees to and boards the transcontinental train the Flying Pussyfoot , on which he works as a conductor . The train is hijacked by the Russo and Lemure gangs , who are trying to kidnap a senator 's family , and a battle ensues between the two gangs . Meanwhile , Jacuzzi Splot , Nice Holystone and their gang attempt to protect the passengers and fight the hijackers , while Claire assumes the identity of the Rail Tracer , a monster that eats train passengers , and slaughters much of the Russo and the Lemure , only to successfully propose to one of the Lemure , Chane Laforet , who is a daughter of immortals . The last remaining members of the Lemure are eventually defeated by Jacuzzi 's gang , while sadistic murderer Ladd Russo is incarcerated and loses his arm to Claire . At the same time , Ennis writes to Isaac and Miria , inviting them to Manhattan . The duo boards the same train and meets Jacuzzi , and unwittingly sway immortal Czeslaw Meyer from enacting malevolent acts by abandoning selling a series of homemade bombs meant for Runoratas to counter the Gandors .
The train arrives in New Year 1932 with the survivors going their separate ways : Jacuzzi and Nice escape custody and go into hiding after their base of operations in Chicago was taken over by the Russo family ; information gatherer Rachel returns to the Daily Days mostly unscathed ; Isaac and Miria introduce Czes to the Martillo family and is subsequently adopted by Firo and Ennis , who later marry , as the latter 's brother ; and Claire begins his mission to exterminate the enemies of his adoptive brothers , implying his intentions to find Chane and marry her after the job is done .
Later that year Dallas ' sister Eve searches for Dallas , putting her at odds with Luck . These stories involved the Daily Days News Information company and the Runorattas ' drug plot with Begg , a drug addicted immortal alchemist acquaintance of Maiza 's encroaching Gandor turf through his miracle drugs , testing it on innocent bystanders including a young man named Roy Maddock . Eventually Eve is caught up in the turf war involving drugs with the Runoratta family and Gandors , the ramifications of the turf war affecting two lovers : Gandor speakeasy waitress Edith and her boyfriend , revealed to be Roy . The climax of the conflict results in Luck secretly telling Eve where Dallas is to spare her from bloodshed , and with Claire 's help , the turf war ends with bittersweet results for Edith and Roy now associated with the Gandors until they finish the debt they compiled in the story albeit in happier terms .
Eventually , Dallas is pulled out of the river , but shortly after , he is abducted by the Larvae , a group working for Huey Laforet . Meanwhile , Jacuzzi 's operations begin to encroach on Gandor and Martillo turf . Representatives ( Ronnie Schiatto , Ennis and Tick Jefferson ) from both groups converge on Eve 's home , where his gang is staying along with Isaac and Miria . At the same time , the Larvae arrive to enlist Jacuzzi 's help ; they have kidnapped Dallas to prove that immortality is possible , and attempt to convince Jacuzzi into join them . Elsewhere in 1933 New York , Mist Wall , the largest branch office of the military equipment researcher and developer Nebula , is bombed as according to Huey 's plans with the help of Lamia , another faction of homunculus made by him .
The next year in 1934 at Alcatraz Island , Ladd befriends Firo , who was framed for a public bombing , and Isaac , who was finally caught for his thefts , and they meet Chane 's immortal father Huey , who was charged with treason and conspiracy years ago with affiliation to the Lemures among other terrorist acts . Meanwhile , Christopher Shouldered , Huey 's homunculus , and Graham Specter , Ladd 's loyal follower , cause an all out war in Chicago through various battles enacted by the Lamia and Russo family . Afterwards , Jacuzzi and his gang return to Chicago while Ladd attempts to kill Huey and fails thanks to the efforts of Isaac and Firo however the scuffle resulted in Huey 's eye taken with the help of Lamia operative Sham , a homunculus who can take over one 's consciousness by contact through his body in the form of water . The homunculus group Lamia ( associated with Larvae , the group previously encountered by the cast ) cause trouble for the Russo family while this happens . Several of the Lamia join their forces and others split for other purposes , particularly Christopher joining with the Russo family to protect their heir named Ricardo Russo along with Lamia member Sickle and Graham Spector . Isaac is eventually released from Alcatraz along with Firo . Placido Russo , Ricardo 's grandfather and Ladd 's uncle , is eventually turned immortal and consumed by Nebula scientist Renee for his failure in stopping the rampage of Chicago , resulting in Ricardo inheriting the crime family .
The remainder of the plot focuses of an even older faction of Immortals led by Huey 's mentor and former lover , Renee Paramedes Branvillier detailed their relationship with the 1711 immortals from the 1700s till the later 1930s and how the corporation Nebula involves themselves against the other crime families by allying themselves with Senator Beriam , who has a grudge against the immortals and wishes to rid the world of them . One particular immortal named Melvi targets Firo in 1935 by endangering Ennis in order to extract the memories of Szilard Quaites by eating Firo , unaware that his bodyguard is Claire Stanfield , resulting in his defeat . Later , Renee continues to pursue Huey by attempting to reclaim Chane for a purpose which put her at odds with Claire who intends to marry their daughter . As of this writing , the conflict appears to remain unresolved .
In 2001 , Maiza and a few immortals appear in a rural European town to apprehend a fellow alchemist and immortal Elmer C. Albatross , who had been masquerading as a demon and was imprisoned by the locals . They uncover an age old conspiracy detailing the origins of water homunculi from the 1930s ( Sham and Leeza Laforet , sister of Chane ) and also putting a stop the experiments on the people that had been ongoing in the town as they remained unaware of Szilard Quaite 's demise for almost the remaining century , his descendant Bild Quaites later encounters the immortals and reveals the horrific secrets of the village . Phil and Felt Nebil , homunculi resulting from Szilard 's experiments are subsequently freed from the village and allowed to wander the earth , ending up in New York after the ordeal .
In 2002 , a cult named SAMPLE launches a heist to replicate the Flying Pussyfoot incident via a twin cruise ship named Exit and Entrance only to be thwarted by Claire Stanfield and Chane Laforet 's descendants , Claudia and Charon Walken with Jaccuzi Splot and Nice Holystone 's descendant , Bobby Splot along with his gang with unwitting aide from another faction called Mask Makers led by Huey 's descendant Luchino B. Campanella . It is eventually revealed that Czes 's tormentor Fermet is in fact the mastermind and overall villain of the series after Szilard Quaites .
= = Production = =
Ryohgo Narita wanted to write a story set during the Prohibition and chose a light novel as the medium because not many of them had that setting . He believed that this choice would better attract the interest of the ASCII Media Works judges . After Narita saw The Untouchables , he spent about ten days working with inspirations and created Baccano ! " out of [ his ] useless calculations . " While writing the first novel The Rolling Bootlegs , he consulted many books while writing and mixed fictional elements with historical situations to create a unique plot flow . The story he originally planned was about an ancient magician who was revived during the Prohibition and began to terrorize New York City . A group of mafiosi then violently oppose the magician . However , the story became very different from the original concept . Narita never wrote a detailed outline for the novel and is relieved by that fact because it allowed the characters to " move on their own . " The original stages of the series included more supernatural elements . Maiza Avaro was a hypnotist ; Ennis was a succubus ; Szilard was a magician . In addition , every member of the Camorra , except for Firo , did not survive . Despite the great differences between the characters ' initial concepts and the result , Narita is " glad " that these ideas were not used in the finished novel .
Narita did not begin work on a second novel during the six months after the publication of The Rolling Bootlegs because his chief editor asked him to write nothing until after he graduated from university . After his graduation , he was offered to publish his next book in August , and he submitted his manuscripts in late April , a bit behind original deadlines . He had written over 400 pages , making the price over ¥ 700 , which is a high price for a novel written by a newcomer . This worried Narita because it was unlikely anyone would buy the novel . As a result , he and his chief editor decided that the novel would be released in two parts . However , Narita was still anxious about publishing such a long novel . To motivate himself to write more , he would often refer back to the dialogue he had written for Ladd Russo . As with the first novel , the plot changed because of the characters ' " movements " , most notably Claire Stanfield . Narita noted that all of the Lemure and Russo , with the exception of a character named Neider , were originally planned to die , but Claire 's presence in the novel left that concept " in ruins " . In addition , Chane Laforet , who was not well liked by the author , was also supposed to die , but as time passed , Narita became attached to her and changed her fate .
While creating the anime series , art director Ito Satoshi and other staff members scouted Manhattan and surrounding neighborhoods to accurately portray the area . They visited the Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood , Chinatown , Little Italy , Grand Central Terminal and various locations in Brooklyn and along the East River , many of which provide the backdrop for the events in Baccano ! . The staff also visited the Steamtown National Historic Site to create accurate steam locomotives .
Tyler Walker , the ADR director of the English dub of the series , held auditions for six days , during which about 140 people came for the eighteen main roles . Walker states that this is probably the longest casting process Funimation has held . He comments that because there are a lot of characters and most of them are older men , a character type he does not work with often , choosing voice actors and familiarizing them with their characters was difficult . He asked many directors and actors for recommendations and mainly aimed to cast newcomers , as he felt Baccano ! provided him a chance to discover newer talent . Walker wished to find actors who could provide the dialect and accents of the various time periods and locations , especially when casting for the characters with heavy European accents .
To prepare to write the script , Walker watched various movies featuring gangsters . He attempted to take what he could from The Untouchables , especially Robert De Niro 's portrayal of Al Capone . Walker watched movies created and set in the 1930s , including but not limited to The Public Enemy , Little Caesar , Once Upon a Time in America , Miller 's Crossing and various movies starring James Cagney , because he believed they would give him a truer feel on how people of the era sounded and talked . He wanted to capture the lingo and rhythm . Because Baccano ! is a " stylized gangster flick " and because of the nature of anime , he made the dialogue more flowery and lingo @-@ ridden than it would have been in reality .
= = Media = =
= = = Light novels = = =
The Baccano ! light novels are written by Ryohgo Narita and illustrated by Katsumi Enami . Originally , Narita entered the first novel into ASCII Media Works ' ninth Dengeki Novel Prize in 2002 and the novel won the Gold Prize , placing third . The first novel was released in February 2003 under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Bunko imprint , and as of March 3 , 2013 , twenty novels have been released . In addition , one novel accompanied the first drama CD , released on March 31 , 2006 , and two gaiden novels were released in parts with DVDs of the anime adaption , released from October 24 , 2007 to May 28 , 2008 .
Daewon C.I. licensed the Korean @-@ language release of the series in South Korea and releases the novels under their NT Novels imprint . A Chinese @-@ language release in Taiwan and Hong Kong is published by the Taiwan branch of Kadokawa Media under their Fantastic Novels imprint .
It was announced at the 2015 Anime Expo that Yen Press will start publishing the Baccano ! novels in English in 2016 .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
The series has been adapted into two drama CDs . The first , titled 1931 Local Chapter ・ Express Chapter ( 鈍行編 ・ 特急編 , Donkōhen ・ Tokkyūhen ) The Grand Punk Railroad , was released March 31 , 2006 by MediaWorks . Named after the second and third light novels , the CD retells the events occurring aboard the Flying Pussyfoot train .
The second CD , Firo Prochainezo witnesses the 53rd death of Pietro Gonzalez ( フィーロ ・ プロシェンツォ 、 ピエトロ ・ ゴンザレスの五十三回目の死を目撃す , Firo Puroshentso , Pietoro Gonzaresu no gojūsankaime no shi o mokugeki su ) , was released by Movic on October 24 , 2007 . It follows Firo and Luck as they chase two men to a small village in Mexico and attempt to retrieve money stolen from the Martillo and Gandor families .
= = = Anime = = =
A 16 @-@ episode anime series directed by Takahiro Omori and produced by Brain 's Base , Aniplex and Movic was adapted from the light novels . The episodes describe the events spanning from 1930 to 1932 in a non @-@ linear fashion , including the recreation of the immortality elixir , the hijacking of the Flying Pussyfoot , Eve 's hunt for her brother and the gang war between the Gandor and the Runorata . The first thirteen episodes aired in Japan from July 26 , 2007 to November 1 , 2007 on WOWOW , a Japanese pay @-@ per @-@ view station , and the final three were released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD . The series made its North American television debut when it started airing on the Funimation Channel September 6 , 2010 .
Eight DVD compilations were released by Aniplex , each containing two episodes , with the first released on October 24 , 2007 and the eighth on May 28 , 2008 . A Blu @-@ ray Baccano ! limited edition boxset was released on January 26 , 2011 by Aniplex . On July 21 , 2008 , Funimation announced that it has licensed Baccano ! for a North American release . Four DVD compilations were released , with the first on January 27 , 2009 and the fourth on June 16 , 2009 . A complete DVD collection boxset was released December 29 , 2009 , and re @-@ released on December 28 , 2010 as part of a lower @-@ priced Viridian Collection . A limited edition Blu @-@ ray boxset was released May 17 , 2011 . The entire English @-@ dubbed series was streamed through Hulu during October 2009 and English @-@ subtitled episodes continue to be streamed , and Funimation streamed subtitled and dubbed episodes through their website . In Australia and New Zealand , the series is licensed by Madman Entertainment , who released the series over four DVDs between June 24 , 2009 and October 21 , 2009 . A boxset was released on March 17 , 2010 . Baccano ! is licensed in the United Kingdom by Manga Entertainment and was released as a complete boxset on October 11 , 2010 . The series is aired in the Philippines , Hong Kong , India , Pakistan and Southeast Asia on Animax Asia .
It was announced on January 25 , 2016 , that Funimation 's DVD home distribution and streaming rights for the anime would expire on February 8 , 2016 and the series will be transferred to Aniplex of America .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The series ' original soundtrack was released as Spiral Melodies on October 24 , 2007 by Aniplex . Two singles , " Gun 's & Roses " by Paradise Lunch and " Calling " by Kaori Oda , were released on August 22 , 2007 . " Gun 's and Roses " contained the opening theme , a vocal version of the opening , two songs and karaoke versions of the three tracks . The " Calling " single included the ending theme , another track and the karaoke versions of the two .
= = = Manga = = =
A manga adaption titled Baccano ! 1931 The Grand Punk Railroad was written by Narita and illustrated by Ginyū Shijin . It was published in MediaWorks ' Dengeki Comic Gao ! magazine from December 27 , 2006 to February 27 , 2008 and was collected in two volumes released July 27 , 2007 and April 26 , 2008 . The chapters center around the hijacking of the Flying Pussyfoot train . The Chinese @-@ language release is published by the Taiwan branch of Kadokawa Media .
A second adaptation , written by Shinta Fujimoto and published in Square Enix 's Young Gangan magazine , began publication on October 16 , 2015 . The series is licensed by Yen Press , who publishes the chapters simultaneously with Japan .
Volume list
Chapter not yet in tankōbon format
= = = Video game = = =
On February 28 , 2008 , MediaWorks released an adventure game , simply titled Baccano ! , for the Nintendo DS . Based on the two Grand Punk Railroad light novels , the game recounts the events aboard the Flying Pussyfoot train from multiple perspectives . The player 's goal is to help the passengers arrive safely in New York City by selecting the correct choices . The game can conclude with one of about fifty scenarios , depending on the player 's decisions .
= = = Artbook = = =
On February 20 , 2009 , ASCII Media Works released an art book titled Katsumi Enami Artbook Baccano ! ( エナミカツミ画集バッカーノ ! , Enami Katsumi Gashū Baccano ! ) . The book not only featured illustrations drawn by Enami , but also included a story titled Boy Czeslaw , Fellows of the Forest ( of Buildings ) ( チェスワフぼうやと 、 ( ビルの ) 森の仲間達 , Chesuwafu Bōya to , ( Biru no ) Mori no Nakamatachi ) .
= = Reception = =
While reviewing the first light novel , Gabriella Ekens from Anime News Network said " he prose in Baccano ! is extremely punchy , moving quickly by focusing heavily on dialogue and action . " She also praised it by saying " blast moment to moment . " Nevertheless , she found the its gore as a con to enjoying it .
The anime adaptation of Baccano ! has received critical acclaim . Several critics from various websites have praised the series for its plot , characters , animation , musical score and its voice acting , especially the English dubbed version . For example , THEM Anime Reviews gave the entire series a score of 5 out of 5 stars , with reviewer Bradley Meek stating that the show was " a joy to watch " and despite the fact that " the series ends on an epilogue that feels a bit flat " , it left him with " the best possible feeling : a mixture of contentment and a hunger to see more " . He also praised the series for its animation which looked " great throughout , especially for a TV series " before summarizing the series as a " beautiful , confounding mess of chaos and delight " .
Baccano ! has received significant praise from Anime News Network reviewers . Theron Martin described the anime as " sometimes humorous , occasionally brutal , and nearly always fun " . He claimed that the anime 's " complex plotting and voluminous casting , combined with strong dubbing , animation , and musical score , make this a must @-@ see series for fans of American mobster stories , " and concluding that " this could be one of the year 's best series . " In his review , Carl Kimlinger claimed Baccano ! to be " one of the best , and certainly the most cleverly written series in recent years " and described it as " lethally fun " before giving the series an ' A ' rating for both the subbed and dubbed versions .
Davey C. Jones of Active Anime praised the anime , stating that , " Like Pulp Fiction changed the way we saw movies , Baccano will be the story that will change the way we see anime , " concluding that " this all over the map anime is one unique and crazy ride from start to its never ending finale " and that " Baccano offers something truly unique in anime . "
Daryl Surat and Mike Toole of Anime World Order Podcast consider Baccano ! to be their " pick for best series of 2007 ( or 2009 depending on how you want to count it ) . " Bryce Coulter of Mania Entertainment gave the complete series a ' B ' rating , stating that it is " a drastic and welcome departure from your typical anime formula and that ’ s what makes it so intriguing , " and concluding that it has a " little bit of comedy , drama , action , and romance all swirled up into one giant ruckus of fun ! "
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= Michael Schumacher =
Michael Schumacher ( German pronunciation : [ ˈmɪçaʔɛl ˈʃuːmaxɐ ] ; born 3 January 1969 ) is a German retired racing driver . He is a seven @-@ time Formula One World Champion and is widely regarded as one of the greatest Formula One drivers of all time . He was named Laureus World Sportsman of the Year twice . He won two titles with Benetton in 1994 and 1995 before moving to Ferrari where he drove for eleven years . His time with Ferrari yielded five consecutive titles between 2000 and 2004 .
Schumacher holds many of Formula One 's driver records , including most championships , race victories , fastest laps , pole positions and most races won in a single season – 13 in 2004 ( the last of these records was equalled by fellow German Sebastian Vettel nine years later ) . In 2002 , he became the only driver in Formula One history to finish in the top three in every race of a season and then also broke the record for most consecutive podium finishes . According to the official Formula One website , he is " statistically the greatest driver the sport has ever seen " .
After beginning in karting , Schumacher won the German drivers ' championships in Formula König and Formula Three before joining Mercedes in the World Sportscar Championship . In 1991 , his Mercedes @-@ funded race debut for the Jordan Formula One team resulted in Schumacher being signed by Benetton Formula One team as their driver for the rest of that season . Establishing himself as a top driver , finishing third in 1992 and fourth in 1993 , Schumacher became the first German World Drivers ' Champion in 1994 by one point over Damon Hill . In 1995 he repeated the success , this time with a greater margin . Schumacher moved to Ferrari in 1996 . Schumacher came close to winning the 1997 and 1998 titles , before breaking his leg at the 1999 British Grand Prix , ending another title run . Things then came good for Schumacher who won another five consecutive drivers ' titles from 2000 to 2004 . Schumacher retired from Formula One driving in 2006 staying with Ferrari as an advisor . He came close to an eighth title that year , but due to technical problems in the final two races he fell short to Fernando Alonso . Schumacher agreed to return for Ferrari part @-@ way through 2009 , as cover for the badly injured Felipe Massa , but was prevented by a neck injury . Schumacher returned to Formula One on a permanent basis from 2010 with the Mercedes team before retiring for a second time at the conclusion of the 2012 season .
His career was not without controversy , including being twice involved in collisions in the final race of a season that determined the outcome of the World Championship , with Damon Hill in 1994 in Adelaide , and with Jacques Villeneuve in 1997 in Jerez . Off the track , Schumacher is an ambassador for UNESCO and a spokesman for driver safety . He has been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts throughout his life and donated tens of millions of dollars to charity . Schumacher and his younger brother , Ralf , are the only brothers to win races in Formula One , and they were the first brothers to finish 1st and 2nd in the same race , a feat they repeated in four subsequent races .
In December 2013 , Schumacher suffered a serious head injury while skiing . He was airlifted to a hospital and placed in a medically induced coma , having suffered a traumatic brain injury . He was in the coma for six months from 29 December 2013 until 16 June 2014 . He left the hospital in Grenoble for further rehabilitation at the University Hospital ( CHUV ) in Lausanne . On 9 September 2014 , Schumacher was relocated to his home where he continues to receive medical treatment and rehabilitation privately .
= = Early years = =
Schumacher was born in Hürth , North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , to Rolf Schumacher , a bricklayer , and his wife Elisabeth . When Schumacher was four , his father modified his pedal kart by adding a small motorcycle engine . When Schumacher crashed it into a lamp post in Kerpen , his parents took him to the karting track at Kerpen @-@ Horrem , where he became the youngest member of the karting club . His father soon built him a kart from discarded parts and at the age of six Schumacher won his first club championship . To support his son 's racing , Rolf Schumacher took on a second job renting and repairing karts , while his wife worked at the track 's canteen . Nevertheless , when Michael needed a new engine costing 800 DM , his parents were unable to afford it ; he was able to continue racing with support from local businessmen .
Regulations in Germany require a driver to be at least fourteen years old to obtain a kart license . To get around this , Schumacher obtained a license in Luxembourg at the age of 12 .
In 1983 , he obtained his German license , a year after he won the German Junior Kart Championship . From 1984 on , Schumacher won many German and European kart championships . He joined Eurokart dealer Adolf Neubert in 1985 and by 1987 he was the German and European kart champion , then he quit school and began working as a mechanic . In 1988 he made his first step into single @-@ seat car racing by participating in the German Formula Ford and Formula König series , winning the latter .
In 1989 , Schumacher signed with Willi Weber 's WTS Formula Three team . Funded by Weber , he competed in the German Formula 3 series , winning the title in 1990 . He also won the Macau Grand Prix . At the end of 1990 , along with his Formula 3 rivals Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen and Karl Wendlinger , he joined the Mercedes junior racing programme in the World Sports @-@ Prototype Championship . This was unusual for a young driver : most of Schumacher 's contemporaries would compete in Formula 3000 on the way to Formula One . However , Weber advised Schumacher that being exposed to professional press conferences and driving powerful cars in long distance races would help his career . In the 1990 World Sportscar Championship season , Schumacher won the season finale at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in a Sauber – Mercedes C11 , and finished fifth in the drivers ' championship despite only driving in three of the nine races . He continued with the team in the 1991 World Sportscar Championship season , winning again at the final race of the season at Autopolis in Japan with a Sauber – Mercedes @-@ Benz C291 , leading to a ninth @-@ place finish in the drivers ' championship . He also competed at Le Mans during that season , finishing 5th in a car shared with Karl Wendlinger and Fritz Kreutzpointner . In 1991 , he competed in one race in the Japanese Formula 3000 Championship , finishing second .
= = Formula One career = =
Schumacher was noted throughout his career for his ability to produce fast laps at crucial moments in a race and to push his car to the very limit for sustained periods . Motor sport author Christopher Hilton observed in 2003 that a " measure of a driver 's capabilities is his performance in wet races , because the most delicate car control and sensitivity are needed " , and noted that like other great drivers , Schumacher 's record in wet conditions shows very few mistakes : up to the end of the 2003 season , Schumacher won 17 of the 30 races in wet conditions he contested . Some of Schumacher 's best performances occurred in such conditions , earning him the nicknames " Regenkönig " ( rain king ) or " Regenmeister " ( rain master ) , even in the non @-@ German @-@ language media . He is known as " the Red Baron " , because of his red Ferrari and in reference to the German Manfred von Richthofen , the famous flying ace of World War I. Schumacher 's nicknames include " Schumi " , " Schuey " and " Schu " . Schumacher is often credited with popularising Formula One in Germany , where it was formerly considered a fringe sport . When Schumacher retired in 2006 , three of the top ten drivers were German , more than any other nationality and more than have ever been present in Formula One history . Younger German drivers , such as Sebastian Vettel , felt Schumacher was key in their becoming Formula One drivers . In the latter part of his Formula One career , and as one of the senior drivers , Schumacher was the president of the Grand Prix Drivers ' Association . In a 2006 FIA survey , Michael Schumacher was voted the most popular driver of the season among Formula One fans .
= = = Jordan ( 1991 ) = = =
Schumacher made his Formula One debut with the Jordan @-@ Ford team at the 1991 Belgian Grand Prix , driving car number 32 as a replacement for the imprisoned Bertrand Gachot . Schumacher , still a contracted Mercedes driver , was signed by Eddie Jordan after Mercedes paid Jordan $ 150 @,@ 000 for his debut .
= = = = Belgian Grand Prix debut = = = =
The week before the race , Schumacher impressed Jordan designer Gary Anderson and team manager Trevor Foster during a test drive at Silverstone . His manager Willi Weber assured Jordan that Schumacher knew the challenging Spa track well , although in fact he had only seen it as a spectator . During the race weekend , team @-@ mate Andrea de Cesaris was meant to show Schumacher the circuit , but was held up with contract negotiations . Schumacher then learned the track on his own , by cycling around the track on a fold @-@ up bike he had brought with him . He impressed the paddock by qualifying seventh in this race . This matched the team 's season @-@ best grid position , and out @-@ qualified 11 @-@ year veteran de Cesaris . Motorsport journalist Joe Saward reported that after qualifying " clumps of German journalists were talking about ' the best talent since Stefan Bellof ' " . Schumacher retired on the first lap of the race with clutch problems .
= = = Benetton ( 1991 – 1995 ) = = =
Following his Belgian Grand Prix debut , and despite an agreement in principle between Jordan and Schumacher 's Mercedes management that would see the German race for the Irish team for the remainder of the season , Schumacher was engaged by Benetton @-@ Ford for the following race . Jordan applied for an injunction in the UK courts to prevent Schumacher driving for Benetton , but lost the case as they had not yet signed a final contract .
= = = = 1991 – 1993 = = = =
Schumacher finished the 1991 season with four points out of six races . His best finish was fifth in his second race , the Italian Grand Prix , in which he finished ahead of his team @-@ mate and three @-@ time World Champion Nelson Piquet .
At the start of the 1992 season the Sauber team , planning their Formula One debut with Mercedes backing for the following year , invoked a clause in Schumacher 's contract that stated that if Mercedes entered Formula One , Schumacher would drive for them . It was eventually agreed that Schumacher would stay with Benetton , Peter Sauber said that " [ Schumacher ] didn 't want to drive for us . Why would I have forced him ? " . The year was dominated by the Williams of Nigel Mansell and Riccardo Patrese , featuring powerful Renault engines , semi @-@ automatic gearboxes and active suspension to control the car 's ride height . In the " conventional " Benetton B192 Schumacher took his place on the podium for the first time , finishing third in the Mexican Grand Prix . He went on to take his first victory at the Belgian Grand Prix , in a wet race at the Spa @-@ Francorchamps circuit , which by 2003 he would call " far and away my favourite track " . He finished third in the Drivers ' Championship in 1992 with 53 points , three points behind runner @-@ up Patrese .
The Williams of Damon Hill and Alain Prost also dominated the 1993 season . Benetton introduced their own active suspension and traction control early in the season , last of the frontrunning teams to do so . Schumacher won one race , the Portuguese Grand Prix where he beat Prost , and had nine podium finishes , but retired in seven of the other 15 races . He finished the season in fourth , with 52 points .
= = = = 1994 – 1995 : World Championship years = = = =
The 1994 season was Schumacher 's first Drivers ' Championship . The season , however , was marred by the deaths of Ayrton Senna ( witnessed by Schumacher , who was directly behind in 2nd position ) and Roland Ratzenberger during the San Marino Grand Prix , and by allegations that several teams , but most particularly Schumacher 's Benetton team , broke the sport 's technical regulations .
Schumacher won six of the first seven races and was leading the Spanish Grand Prix , before a gearbox failure left him stuck in fifth gear . Schumacher finished the race in second place . Following the San Marino Grand Prix , the Benetton , Ferrari and McLaren teams were investigated on suspicion of breaking the FIA @-@ imposed ban on electronic aids . Benetton and McLaren initially refused to hand over their source code for investigation . When they did so , the FIA discovered hidden functionality in both teams ' software , but no evidence that it had been used in a race . Both teams were fined $ 100 @,@ 000 for their initial refusal to cooperate . However , the McLaren software , which was a gearbox program that allowed automatic shifts , was deemed legal . By contrast , the Benetton software was deemed to be a form of " launch control " that would have allowed Schumacher to make perfect starts , which was explicitly outlawed by the regulations . However , there was no evidence to suggest that this software was actually used . At the British Grand Prix , Schumacher was penalised for overtaking on the formation lap . He then ignored the penalty and the subsequent black flag , which indicates that the driver must immediately return to the pits , for which he was disqualified and later given a two @-@ race ban . Benetton blamed the incident on a communication error between the stewards and the team . Schumacher was also disqualified after winning the Belgian Grand Prix after his car was found to have illegal wear on its skidblock , a measure used after the accidents at Imola to limit downforce and hence cornering speed . Benetton protested that the skidblock had been damaged when Schumacher spun over a kerb , but the FIA rejected their appeal because of the pattern of wear and damage visible on the block . These incidents helped Damon Hill close the points gap , and Schumacher led by a single point going into the final race in Australia . On lap 36 Schumacher hit the guardrail on the outside of the track while leading . Hill attempted to pass , but as Schumacher 's car returned to the track there was a collision on the corner causing them both to retire . As a result , Schumacher won a very controversial championship , the first German to do so ( Jochen Rindt raced under the Austrian flag ) . At the FIA conference after the race , the new World Champion dedicated his title to Ayrton Senna .
In 1995 Schumacher successfully defended his title with Benetton . He now had the same Renault engine as Williams . He accumulated 33 more points than second @-@ placed Damon Hill . With team @-@ mate Johnny Herbert , he took Benetton to its first Constructors ' Championship and became the youngest two @-@ time World Champion in Formula One history .
The season was marred by several collisions with Hill , in particular an overtaking manoeuvre by Hill took them both out of the British Grand Prix on lap 45 and again on lap 23 of the Italian Grand Prix . Schumacher won nine of the 17 races , and finished on the podium 11 times . Only once did he qualify worse than fourth ; at the Belgian Grand Prix , he qualified 16th , but went on to win the race .
= = = Ferrari ( 1996 – 2006 ) = = =
In 1996 , Schumacher joined Ferrari , a team that had last won the Drivers ' Championship in 1979 and the Constructors ' Championship in 1983 , for a salary of $ 60 million over 2 years . He left Benetton a year before his contract with them expired ; he later cited the team 's damaging actions in 1994 as his reason for opting out of his deal . A year later Benetton employees Rory Byrne ( designer ) and Ross Brawn ( Technical Director ) joined Ferrari .
Ferrari had previously come close to the championship in 1982 and 1990 . The team had suffered a disastrous downturn in the early 1990s , partially as its famous V12 engine was no longer competitive against the smaller , lighter and more fuel efficient V10s of its competitors . Various drivers , notably Alain Prost , had given the vehicles labels such as " truck " , " pig " , and " accident waiting to happen " . Furthermore , the poor performance of the Ferrari pit crews was considered a running joke . At the end of 1995 , though the team had improved into a solid competitor , it was still considered inferior to front @-@ running teams such as Benetton and Williams . Schumacher declared the Ferrari 412T good enough to win the Championship .
Schumacher , Ross Brawn , Rory Byrne , and Jean Todt ( hired in 1993 ) , have been credited as turning this once struggling team into the most successful team in Formula One history . Three @-@ time World Champion Jackie Stewart believes the transformation of the Ferrari team was Schumacher 's greatest feat . Eddie Irvine also joined the team , moving from Jordan . During winter testing , Schumacher first drove a Ferrari , their 1995 Ferrari 412 T2 , and was two seconds faster than former regulars Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger had been .
= = = = 1996 – 1999 = = = =
Schumacher finished third in the Drivers ' Championship in 1996 and helped Ferrari to second place in the Constructors ' Championship ahead of his old team Benetton . He won three races , more than the team 's total tally for the period from 1991 to 1995 . Early in the 1996 season the car had reliability trouble and Schumacher did not finish six of the 16 races . He took his first win for Ferrari at the Spanish Grand Prix , where he lapped the entire field up to third place in the wet . Having taken the lead on lap 19 , he consistently lapped five seconds faster than the rest of the field in the difficult conditions . In the French Grand Prix Schumacher qualified in pole position , but suffered engine failure on the race 's formation lap . However at Spa @-@ Francorchamps , Schumacher used well @-@ timed pit @-@ stops to fend off Williams 's Jacques Villeneuve . Following that , at Monza , Schumacher won in front of the tifosi . Schumacher 's ability , combined with the improving reliability of Ferrari , enabled him to end the season putting up a challenge to eventual race and championship winner Damon Hill at the Suzuka .
Michael Schumacher and Jacques Villeneuve vied for the title in 1997 . Villeneuve , driving the superior Williams FW19 , led the championship in the early part of the season . However , by mid @-@ season , Schumacher had taken the championship lead , winning five races , and entered the season 's final Grand Prix with a one @-@ point advantage . Towards the end of the race , held at Jerez , Schumacher 's Ferrari developed a coolant leak and loss of performance indicating he may not finish the race . As Villeneuve approached to pass his rival , Schumacher attempted to provoke an accident , but got the short end of the stick , retiring from the race . Villeneuve went on and scored four points to take the championship . Schumacher was punished for unsportsmanlike conduct for the collision and was disqualified from the Drivers ' Championship .
In 1998 , Finnish driver Mika Häkkinen became Schumacher 's main title competition . Häkkinen won the first two races of the season , gaining a 16 @-@ point advantage over Schumacher . Schumacher then won in Argentina and , with the Ferrari improving significantly in the second half of the season , Schumacher took six victories and had five other podium finishes . Ferrari took a 1 – 2 finish at the French Grand Prix , the first Ferrari 1 – 2 finish since 1990 , and the Italian Grand Prix , which tied Schumacher with Häkkinen for the lead of the Drivers ' Championship with 80 points , but Häkkinen won the Championship by winning the final two races . There were two controversies ; at the British Grand Prix Schumacher was leading on the last lap when he turned into the pit lane , crossed the start finish line and stopped for a ten @-@ second stop go penalty . There was some doubt whether this counted as serving the penalty , but , because he had crossed the finish line when he came into the pit lane , the win was valid . At Spa , Schumacher was leading the race by 40 seconds in heavy spray , but collided with David Coulthard 's McLaren when the Scot , a lap down , slowed in very poor visibility to let Schumacher past . After both cars returned to the pits , Schumacher leaped out of his car and headed to McLaren 's garage in an infuriated manner and accused Coulthard of trying to kill him .
Rumours circulated that Coulthard may be replaced by Schumacher for the 1999 season and beyond and , in a previous edition of the F1 Racing magazine , Ron Dennis revealed that he had approached Schumacher to sign a deal with McLaren . However , peripheral financial issues that tied Schumacher with Ferrari , such as sponsorship agreements and payment , could not be rectified in a move to the rival team and so no deal came to fruition .
Schumacher 's efforts helped Ferrari win the Constructors title in 1999 . He lost his chance to win the Drivers ' Championship at the British Grand Prix at the high @-@ speed Stowe Corner , his car 's rear brake failed , sending him off the track and resulting in a broken leg . During his 98 @-@ day absence , he was replaced by Finnish driver Mika Salo . After missing six races he made his return at the inaugural Malaysian Grand Prix , qualifying in pole position by almost a second . He then assumed the role of second driver , assisting team mate Eddie Irvine 's bid to win the Drivers ' Championship for Ferrari . In the last race of the season , the Japanese Grand Prix , Häkkinen won his second consecutive title . Schumacher would later say that Häkkinen was the opponent he respected the most .
= = = = 2000 – 2004 : World Championship years = = = =
During this period Schumacher won more races and championships than any other driver in the history of the sport . Schumacher won his third World Championship in 2000 after a year @-@ long battle with Häkkinen . Schumacher won the first three races of the season and five of the first eight . Midway through the year , Schumacher 's chances suffered with three consecutive non @-@ finishes , allowing Häkkinen to close the gap in the standings . Häkkinen then took another two victories , before Schumacher won at the Italian Grand Prix . At the post race press conference , after equalling the number of wins ( 41 ) won by his idol , Ayrton Senna , Schumacher broke into tears . The championship fight would come down to the penultimate race of the season , the Japanese Grand Prix . Starting from pole position , Schumacher lost the lead to Häkkinen at the start . After his second pit @-@ stop , however , Schumacher came out ahead of Häkkinen and went on to win the race and the championship .
In 2001 , Schumacher took his fourth drivers ' title . Four other drivers won races , but none sustained a season @-@ long challenge for the championship . Schumacher scored a record @-@ tying nine wins and clinched the World Championship with four races yet to run . He finished the championship with 123 points , 58 ahead of runner @-@ up Coulthard . Season highlights included the Canadian Grand Prix , where Schumacher finished 2nd to his brother Ralf , thus scoring the first ever 1 – 2 finish by brothers in Formula One ; and the Belgian Grand Prix in which Schumacher scored his 52nd career win , breaking Alain Prost 's record for most career wins .
In 2002 , Schumacher used the Ferrari F2002 to retain his Drivers ' Championship . There was again some controversy , however , at the Austrian Grand Prix , where his teammate , Rubens Barrichello was leading , but in the final metres of the race , under team orders , slowed down to allow Schumacher to win the race . The crowd broke into outraged boos at the result and Schumacher tried to make amends by allowing Barrichello to stand on the top step of the podium . At the United States Grand Prix later that year , Schumacher dominated the race and was set for a close finish with Barrichello . At the end he slowed down to create a formation finish with Barrichello , but slowed too much allowing Barrichello to take the victory . In winning the Drivers ' Championship he equalled the record set by Juan Manuel Fangio of five World Championships . Ferrari won 15 out of 17 races , and Schumacher won the title with six races remaining in the season , which is still the earliest point in the season for a driver to be crowned World Champion . Schumacher broke his own record , shared with Nigel Mansell , of nine race wins in a season , by winning eleven times and finishing every race on the podium . He finished with 144 points , a record @-@ breaking 67 points ahead of the runner @-@ up , his teammate Rubens Barrichello . This pair finished nine of the 17 races in the first two places .
Schumacher broke Juan Manuel Fangio 's record of five World Drivers ' Championships by winning the drivers ' title for the sixth time in 2003 , a closely contested season . The biggest competition came once again from the McLaren Mercedes and Williams BMW teams . In the first race , Schumacher ran off track , and in the following two , was involved in collisions . He fell 16 points behind Kimi Räikkönen . Schumacher won the San Marino Grand Prix and the next two races , and closed within two points of Räikkönen . Aside from Schumacher 's victory in Canada , and Barrichello 's victory in Britain , the mid @-@ season was dominated by Williams drivers Ralf Schumacher and Juan Pablo Montoya , who each claimed two victories . After the Hungarian Grand Prix , Michael Schumacher led Montoya and Kimi Räikkönen by only one and two points , respectively . Ahead of the next race , the FIA announced changes to the way tyre widths were to be measured : this forced Michelin , supplier to Williams and McLaren among others , to rapidly redesign their tyres before the Italian Grand Prix . Schumacher , running on Bridgestone tyres , won the next two races . After Montoya was penalised in the United States Grand Prix , only Schumacher and Räikkönen remained in contention for the title . At the final round , the Japanese Grand Prix , Schumacher needed only one point whilst Räikkönen needed to win . By finishing the race in eighth place , Schumacher took one point and assured his sixth World Drivers ' title , ending the season two points ahead of Räikkönen .
In 2004 , Schumacher won a record twelve of the first thirteen races of the season , only failing to finish in Monaco after an accident with Juan Pablo Montoya during a safety car period when he briefly locked his car 's brakes . He clinched a record seventh drivers ' title at the Belgian Grand Prix . He finished that season with a record 148 points , 34 points ahead of the runner @-@ up , teammate Rubens Barrichello , and set a new record of 13 race wins out of a possible 18 , surpassing his previous best of 11 wins from the 2002 season .
= = = = 2005 – 2006 = = = =
Rule changes for the 2005 season required tyres to last an entire race , tipping the overall advantage to teams using Michelins over teams such as Ferrari that relied on Bridgestone tyres . The rule changes were partly in an effort to dent Ferrari 's dominance and make the series more interesting . The most notable moment of the early season for Schumacher was his battle with Fernando Alonso in San Marino , where he started 13th and finished only 0 @.@ 2 seconds behind the Spanish driver . Less than halfway through the season , Schumacher said " I don 't think I can count myself in this battle any more . It was like trying to fight with a blunted weapon .... If your weapons are weak you don 't have a chance . " Schumacher 's sole win in 2005 came at the United States Grand Prix . Prior to that race , the Michelin tyres were found to have significant safety issues . When no compromise between the teams and the FIA could be reached , all but the six drivers using Bridgestone tyres dropped out of the race after the formation lap . Schumacher retired in six of the 19 races . He finished the season in third with 62 points , fewer than half the points of World Champion Alonso .
2006 became the last season of Schumacher 's Ferrari career . After three races , Schumacher had just 11 points and was already 17 points behind Alonso . He won the following two races . His pole position at San Marino was his 66th , breaking Ayrton Senna 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old record .
Schumacher was stripped of pole position at the Monaco Grand Prix and started the race at the back of the grid . This was due to his stopping his car and blocking part of the circuit while Alonso was on his qualifying lap ; he still managed to work his way up to 5th place on the notoriously cramped Monaco circuit . By the Canadian Grand Prix , the ninth race of the season , Schumacher was 25 points behind Alonso , but he then won the following three races to reduce his disadvantage to 11 . After his victories in Italy ( in which Alonso had an engine failure ) and China , in which Alonso had tyre problems , Schumacher led in the championship standings for the first time during the season . Although he and Alonso had the same point total , Schumacher was in front because he had won more races .
The Japanese Grand Prix was led by Schumacher with only 16 laps to go , when , for the first time since the 2000 French Grand Prix , Schumacher 's car suffered an engine failure . Alonso won the race , giving himself a ten @-@ point championship lead . With only one race left in the season , Schumacher could only win the championship if he won the season finale and Alonso scored no points .
Before the Brazilian Grand Prix , Schumacher conceded the title to Alonso . In pre @-@ race ceremonies , football legend Pelé presented a trophy to Schumacher for his years of dedication to Formula One . During the race 's qualifying session , Schumacher had one of the quickest times during the first session and was fastest in the second session ; but a fuel pressure problem prevented him from completing a single lap during the third session , forcing him to start the race in tenth position . Early in the race Schumacher moved up to sixth place . However , in overtaking Alonso 's teammate , Giancarlo Fisichella , Schumacher experienced a tyre puncture caused by the front wing of Fisichella 's car . Schumacher pitted and consequently fell to 19th place , 70 seconds behind teammate and race leader Felipe Massa . Schumacher recovered and overtook both Fisichella and Räikkönen to secure fourth place . His performance was classified in the press as " heroic " , an " utterly breath @-@ taking drive " , and a " performance that ... sums up his career " .
= = = = 2007 – 2009 : retirement at Ferrari = = = =
While Schumacher was on the podium after winning the 2006 Italian Grand Prix , Ferrari issued a press release stating that he would retire from racing at the end of the 2006 season . Schumacher confirmed his retirement . The press release stated that Schumacher would continue working for Ferrari . It was revealed on 29 October 2006 that Ferrari wanted Schumacher to act as assistant to the newly appointed CEO Jean Todt . This would involve selecting the team 's future drivers . After Schumacher 's announcement , leading Formula One figures such as Niki Lauda and David Coulthard hailed Schumacher as the greatest all @-@ round racing driver in the history of Formula One . The tifosi and the Italian press , who did not always take to Schumacher 's relatively cold public persona , displayed an affectionate response after he announced his retirement .
= = = = 2007 : Ferrari adviser = = = =
He attended several Grands Prix during the season . Schumacher drove the Ferrari F2007 for the first time on 24 October at Ferrari 's home track in Fiorano , Italy . He ran no more than five laps and no lap times were recorded . A Ferrari spokesman said the short drive was done for the Fiat board of directors who were holding their meeting in Maranello .
During the 2007 season Schumacher acted as Ferrari 's adviser and Jean Todt 's ' super assistant ' . On 13 November 2007 Schumacher , who had not driven a Formula One car since he had retired a year earlier , undertook a formal test session for the first time aboard the F2007 . He returned in December 2007 to continue helping Ferrari with their development programme at Jerez circuit . He focused on testing electronics and tyres for the 2008 Formula One season .
= = = = 2008 : Ferrari road car development = = = =
In 2007 , former Ferrari top manager Ross Brawn said that Schumacher was very likely and also happy to continue testing in 2008 ; Schumacher later explained his role further saying that he would " deal with the development of the car inside Gestione Sportiva " and as part of that " I 'd like to drive , but not too often " .
During 2008 Schumacher also competed in motorcycle racing in the IDM Superbike @-@ series , but stated that he had no intention of a second competitive career in this sport . He was quoted as saying that riding a Ducati was the most exhilarating thing he had done in his life , the second most being sky diving .
= = = = 2009 : planned Massa substitution = = = =
In his capacity as racing advisor to Ferrari , Schumacher was present in Budapest for the Hungarian Grand Prix when Ferrari driver Felipe Massa was seriously injured after being struck by a suspension spring during qualifying . As it became clear that Massa would be unable to compete in the next race at Valencia Schumacher was chosen as a replacement for the Brazilian driver and on 29 July 2009 , Ferrari announced that they planned to draft in Schumacher for the European Grand Prix and subsequent Grands Prix until Massa was able to race again . Schumacher tested in a modified F2007 to prepare himself as he had been unable to test the 2009 car due to testing restrictions . Ferrari appealed for special permission for Schumacher to test in a 2009 spec car , but Williams , Red Bull and Toro Rosso were against this test . In the end , Schumacher was forced to call off his return due to the severity of the neck injury he had received in a motorcycle accident earlier in the year . Massa 's place at Ferrari was instead filled by Luca Badoer and Giancarlo Fisichella .
= = = Mercedes ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
In December 2009 it was announced that Schumacher would be returning to Formula One in the 2010 season alongside fellow German driver Nico Rosberg in the new Mercedes GP team . The new Mercedes team was their first majority involvement in an F1 team since 1955 . Schumacher stated that his preparations to replace the injured Massa for Ferrari had initiated a renewed interest in F1 , which , combined with the opportunity to fulfil a long @-@ held ambition to drive for Mercedes and to be working again with team principal Ross Brawn , led Schumacher to accept the offer once he was passed fit . After a period of intensive training medical tests , it was confirmed that the neck injury that had prevented him driving for Ferrari the year before had fully healed . Schumacher signed a three @-@ year contract , reportedly worth £ 20m .
Schumacher 's surprise return to F1 was compared to Niki Lauda 's in 1982 aged 33 and Nigel Mansell 's return in 1994 at age 41 . Schumacher turned 41 in January 2010 and his prospects with Mercedes were compared with the record set by the oldest F1 champion Juan Manuel Fangio who was 46 when he won his fifth championship .
= = = = 2010 : return from retirement = = = =
Schumacher 's first drive of the 2010 Mercedes car – the Mercedes MGP W01 – was at an official test in February 2010 in Valencia . He finished sixth in the first race of the season at the Bahrain Grand Prix . After the Malaysian race former driver Stirling Moss suggested that Schumacher , who had finished behind his team @-@ mate in each of the first four qualifying sessions and races , might be " past it " . Many other respected former Formula One drivers thought otherwise , including former rival Damon Hill , who warned " you should never write Schumacher off " . GrandPrix.com identified the inherent understeer of the Mercedes car , exacerbated by the narrower front tyres introduced for the 2010 season , as contributing to Schumacher 's difficulties . Jenson Button would later claim that Mercedes 2010 car was designed for him , and that their differing driving styles may have contributed to Schumacher 's difficulties .
Mercedes upgraded their car for the Spanish Grand Prix where Schumacher finished fourth . At the Monaco Grand Prix Schumacher finished sixth after passing Ferrari 's Fernando Alonso on the final corner of the race when the safety car returned to the pits . However , he was penalised 20 seconds after the race by the race stewards dropping him to 12th . The stewards judged the pass to be in breach of the FIA 's sporting code . Mercedes ' differing interpretation of the regulation would later lead to it being clarified by the FIA .
In Turkey , Schumacher qualified fifth , and finished fourth in the race , both his best results since his return . In European Grand Prix in Valencia , Schumacher finished 15th , the lowest recorded finish in his career . In Hungary , Schumacher finished outside the points in eleventh , but was found guilty of dangerous driving at 180 mph ( 290 km / h ) while unsuccessfully defending tenth position against Rubens Barrichello . As a result , he was demoted ten places on the grid for the following race , the Belgian Grand Prix , where he finished seventh , despite starting 21st after his grid penalty .
At the season finale in Abu Dhabi , Schumacher was involved in a major accident on the first lap , which occurred after a spin . In recovering from the incident Vitantonio Liuzzi 's car collided with Schumacher , barely missing his head . Nobody was hurt in the crash , but Schumacher said the crash had been " frightening " .
It was Schumacher 's first season since his début in 1991 that he finished without a win , pole position , podium or fastest lap . He finished the season 9th with 72 points .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Schumacher 's first points of 2011 were scored in Malaysia , he later came sixth in Spain and had a strong race at the Canadian Grand Prix finishing fourth , after running as high as second in a wet race . Schumacher was passed late in the race by eventual winner Jenson Button .
Schumacher clashed with Vitaly Petrov in Valencia , and with Kamui Kobayashi in Britain , and marked the 20th anniversary of his Formula One début at the Belgian Grand Prix . Despite starting last in Belgium , Schumacher raced well and finished fifth . Schumacher again raced well in Italy , duelling with Lewis Hamilton for fourth place . The Japanese Grand Prix saw Schumacher lead three laps during the race , marking the first time he had led a race since 2006 . In doing so , he became the oldest driver to lead a race since Jack Brabham in 1970 .
At the Indian Grand Prix Schumacher started well and finished fifth after overtaking Rosberg at the end of the race . Schumacher diced again with Rosberg in Abu Dhabi Grand Prix , battling over sixth position on the first lap . Schumacher finished the season in eighth place in the Drivers ' Championship , with 76 points .
= = = = 2012 : final season = = = =
Schumacher was again partnered by Rosberg at Mercedes for the 2012 season . Schumacher retired from the inaugural race of the season Australian Grand Prix , and scored a point in the second race in Malaysia . In China Schumacher started on the front row alongside Rosberg on pole , but retired due to a loose wheel after a mechanics error during a pit stop .
After causing a collision with Bruno Senna in Spain , Schumacher received a five @-@ place grid penalty for the Monaco Grand Prix . Schumacher was fastest in qualifying in Monaco ; but started sixth owing to his penalty . He later retired from seventh place in the race .
At the European Grand Prix , Schumacher finished third in the race , his only podium finish since his return to F1 with Mercedes . At the age of 43 years and 173 days , he became the oldest driver to achieve a podium since Jack Brabham 's second @-@ place finish at the 1970 British Grand Prix . Further records were set by Schumacher in Germany , where he set the fastest lap in a Grand Prix for the 77th time in his career , and in Belgium where he became the second driver in history to race in 300 Grands Prix .
Schumacher 's indecision over his future plans in F1 led to him being replaced by Lewis Hamilton at Mercedes for the 2013 season . In October 2012 , Schumacher announced he would retire for a second time at the conclusion of the season . The following week he was quoted as saying : " There were times in the past few months in which I didn 't want to deal with Formula One or prepare for the next Grand Prix . " The season and his 21 @-@ year F1 career concluded with the 2012 Brazilian Grand Prix , in which Schumacher finished seventh . He placed 13th in the 2012 Drivers ' Championship .
= = Helmet = =
Schumacher , in conjunction with Schuberth , helped develop the first lightweight carbon helmet . In 2004 , a prototype was publicly tested by being driven over by a tank ; it survived intact . The helmet keeps the driver cool by funneling directed airflow through fifty holes . Schumacher 's original helmet sported the colours of the German flag and his sponsor 's decals . On the top was a blue circle with white astroids . When Jos Verstappen was his team @-@ mate , Schumacher added four red diagonal strokes over the visor to differentiate his helmet from his team @-@ mate . After Schumacher joined Ferrari a prancing horse was added on the back . From the 2000 Monaco Grand Prix , in order to differentiate his colours from his new teammate Rubens Barrichello , Schumacher changed the upper blue colour and some of the white areas to red . Since 2004 , the helmet sported a white diagonal line with a white vertical line in the zone of the German Flag colors ( originally to accommodate sponsor AMD ) , but then these lines remained in the Suzuka 2006 design . He sported one @-@ off helmet designs four times . For the 1998 Japanese Grand Prix , a title decider with Mika Häkkinen , he replaced the German flag with a chequered flag motif and reflective silver replacing the white areas . At the 2004 Italian Grand Prix , the German flag design was replaced with an Italian flag in honour of his team 's home race . For the Brazilian Grand Prix race of 2006 ( at the time intended to be his final Grand Prix ) , he wore an all @-@ red helmet that included the names of his ninety @-@ one Grand Prix victories . For the 2011 Belgian Grand Prix , Schumacher 's 20th anniversary in Formula One , he wore a commemorative gold @-@ leafed helmet . The helmet , very similar to his current helmet , included the year of his début to the present , and the years of his seven World titles . For the 2012 Belgian Grand Prix , Schumacher 's 300th Grand Prix appearance , he wore a special platinum @-@ leafed helmet with a message of his achievement .
= = Honours = =
Schumacher was honoured many times during his career . In April 2002 , for his contributions to sport and his contributions in raising awareness of child education , he was named as one of the UNESCO Champions for sport , joining the other eight , which include Pelé , Sergey Bubka and Justine Henin . He won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year award twice , in 2002 and 2004 for his performances in the 2001 and 2003 seasons respectively . He also received nominations for the 2001 , 2003 , 2005 and 2007 awards . He shares the record for having the second @-@ most nominations for the award with Roger Federer with six nominations , and is eclipsed only by Tiger Woods who has been nominated seven times . He holds the distinction of having the most nominations for a motorsport athlete , ( Fernando Alonso has been nominated only twice , Sebastian Vettel three times , and Valentino Rossi five times ) and being the only motorsport athlete to have won the award more than once .
In honour of Schumacher 's racing career and his efforts to improve safety and the sport , he was awarded an FIA Gold Medal for Motor Sport in 2006 . In 2007 , in recognition of his contribution to Formula One racing , the Nürburgring racing track renamed turns 8 and 9 ( the Audi and Shell Kurves ) as the Schumacher S , and a month later he presented A1 Team Germany with the A1 World Cup at the A1GP World Cup of Motorsport 2007 awards ceremony . He was nominated for the Prince of Asturias Award for Sport for 2007 , which he won both for sporting prowess and for his humanitarian record .
In 2008 , the Swiss Football Association appointed long @-@ time Swiss resident Schumacher as the country 's ambassador for the 2008 European football championship .
On 30 April 2010 , Schumacher was honored with the Officier of Légion d 'honneur title from French prime minister François Fillon .
On 13 November 2014 , Schumacher was awarded the Millenium Trophy at the Bambi Awards .
= = Racing controversies = =
= = = Championship @-@ deciding collisions = = =
Going into the 1994 Australian Grand Prix , the final race of the 1994 season , Schumacher led Damon Hill by a single point in the Drivers ' Championship . Schumacher led the race from the beginning , but on lap 35 he went off track and hit the wall with his right side wheels , returning to the track at reduced speed , and with car damage , but still leading the race . At the next corner Hill attempted to pass on the inside , but Schumacher turned in sharply and they collided . Both cars were eliminated from the race and , as neither driver scored , Schumacher took the title . The race stewards judged it a racing accident and took no action against either driver , but public opinion is divided over the incident , and Schumacher was vilified in the British media .
At the 1997 European Grand Prix at Jerez , the last race of the season , Schumacher led Williams 's Jacques Villeneuve by one point in the Drivers ' Championship . As Villeneuve attempted to pass Schumacher at the Dry Sac corner on lap 48 , Schumacher turned in and the right @-@ front wheel of Schumacher 's Ferrari hit the left sidepod of Villeneuve 's car . Schumacher retired from the race as a result , but Villeneuve finished in third place , taking four points and so becoming the World Champion . The race stewards did not initially award any penalty , but two weeks after the race Schumacher was disqualified from the entire 1997 Drivers ' Championship after an FIA disciplinary hearing found that his " manoeuvre was an instinctive reaction and although deliberate not made with malice or premeditation . It was a serious error . " Schumacher accepted the decision and admitted having made a mistake . Schumacher 's actions were widely condemned in British , German , and Italian newspapers . This made Schumacher the only driver in the history of the sport , as of 2014 , to be disqualified from a Driver 's World Championship .
= = = Team orders = = =
Historically , team orders have always been an accepted part of Formula One . However , in the final metres of the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix , Schumacher 's teammate , Rubens Barrichello , slowed his car under orders from Ferrari to allow Schumacher to pass and win the race . Although the switching of positions did not break any actual sporting or technical regulation , it angered fans and it was claimed that the team 's actions showed a lack of sportsmanship and respect to the spectators . Many argued that Schumacher did not need to be " given " wins in only the 6th race of the season , particularly given that he had already won four of the previous five grands prix , and that Barrichello had dominated the race weekend up to that point . At the podium ceremony , Schumacher pushed Barrichello onto the top step , and for this disturbance , the Ferrari team incurred a US $ 1 million fine . Later in the season at the end of the 2002 United States Grand Prix , Schumacher slowed down within sight of the finishing line , allowing Barrichello to win by 0 @.@ 011 seconds , the 2nd closest margin in F1 history . Schumacher 's explanation varied between it being him " returning the favour " for Austria ( now that Schumacher 's title was secure ) , or trying to engineer a dead @-@ heat ( a feat derided as near @-@ impossible in a sport where timings are taken to within a thousandth of a second ) . The FIA subsequently banned " team orders which interfere with the race result " , but the ban was lifted for the 2011 season because the ruling was difficult to enforce .
= = = Dangerous driving = = =
During his spell in Sauber , in the 1991 Sportscar World Championship , Schumacher was involved in a serious incident with Derek Warwick in that year 's 430 km of Nürburgring . While trying to set his flying lap in qualifying , Schumacher encountered Warwick 's Jaguar on a slow lap resulting in lost time for Schumacher . As retaliation for being in his way , Schumacher swerved the Sauber into Warwick 's car , hitting the Jaguar 's nose and front wheel . Enraged by the German 's attitude , Warwick drove to the pits and chased a fleeing Schumacher on foot through the Sauber pits . He eventually caught up with Schumacher , and it took intervention from Jochen Mass to prevent Warwick physically assaulting Schumacher .
Toward the end of the 2010 Hungarian Grand Prix , Rubens Barrichello attempted to pass Schumacher down the inside on the main straight . Schumacher closed the inside line to force Barrichello onto the outside , but Barrichello persisted on the inside at 180 mph ( 290 km / h ) , despite the close proximity of a concrete wall and Schumacher leaving him only inches to spare . Barrichello said " It is the most dangerous thing that I have been through " , and " There is not a rule for that , but between ourselves we should take a line , stick to it and that 's it . " Schumacher said that " Obviously there was space enough to go through . We didn 't touch , so I guess I just left enough space for him to come through . " Ross Brawn said " at the end of the day he gave him enough space . You can argue that it was marginal , but it was just tough – tough racing . " A range of ex @-@ drivers and commentators were highly critical of Schumacher . Although there was no accident , the race steward , the same Derek Warwick of the 1991 Nürburgring incident , wanted to black flag Schumacher since that " would have shown a better example to our young drivers " . The Hungaroring incident was ruled to be dangerous and Schumacher received a 10 place grid penalty for the next race . Schumacher accepted the decision , and apologised .
= = = Other incidents = = =
In 1994 , suspicion of foul play by the Benetton team ( who were eventually found to have been responsible for some technical violations over the course of the season ) was said to have troubled Ayrton Senna that season . For example , in the words of his then team mate , Damon Hill , Senna had chosen to spend a bit of time at the first corner of the Aida circuit following his retirement from the Pacific Grand Prix . After listening to Schumacher 's Benetton B194 as it went past , Senna " concluded that there was , what he regarded , as unusual noises from the engine " . The FIA subsequently issued a press release setting out action that it required teams to take prior to the German Grand Prix , given that various cars were found to have an advanced engine management systems emulating launch and traction control .
In 1995 , Schumacher and Williams driver David Coulthard were disqualified for fuel irregularities , after a switch to Renault engines and Elf oils . On appeal , both drivers had their results and points reinstated , but both teams lost the points the results would normally have earned in the Constructors ' Championship .
The 1998 Canadian Grand Prix saw Schumacher accused of dangerous driving when his exit from the pit @-@ lane forced Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen off the track and into retirement . Despite receiving a 10 @-@ second penalty , Schumacher recovered and won the race .
Two laps from the finish of the 1998 British Grand Prix , Schumacher was leading the race when he was issued a stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty for overtaking a lapped car ( Alexander Wurz ) during the early moments of a Safety Car period . This penalty involves going into the pit lane and stopping for 10 seconds , and the rules state that a driver must serve his penalty within three laps of the penalty being issued . On the third lap after receiving the penalty , Schumacher turned into the pit lane to serve his penalty , but as this was the last lap of the race , and as Ferrari 's pit box was located after the start / finish line , Schumacher technically finished the race before serving the penalty . The stewards initially resolved that problem by adding 10 seconds to Schumacher 's race time , then later rescinded the penalty completely due to the irregularities in how the penalty had been issued .
In the 1998 Belgian Grand Prix , Schumacher was involved in a race @-@ ending collision whilst trying to lap David Coulthard in heavy spray . After the race he stormed into the McLaren garage and accused Coulthard of trying to kill him , and McLaren and Ferrari team members had to separate the drivers . Coulthard admitted some five years later that the accident had been his mistake .
During qualifying for the 2006 Monaco Grand Prix Schumacher set the fastest time , but his car stopped in the Rascasse corner on the racing line , leaving the corner partially blocked , while his main contender for the season title , Fernando Alonso , was on his final qualifying lap . Schumacher stated that he simply locked up the wheels going into the corner and that the car then stalled while he attempted to reverse out . Alonso believed he would have been on pole if the incident had not happened , and Schumacher was stripped of pole position by the race stewards and started the race at the back of the grid . In the same qualifying session , Giancarlo Fisichella was similarly found to have blocked David Coulthard from improving his time , but Fisichella was only demoted five places on the grid . At the 2010 Monaco Grand Prix , the safety car was deployed after an accident , involving Karun Chandhok and Jarno Trulli , and pulled into the pits on the last lap . Schumacher passed Alonso before the finish line . Mercedes held that " the combination of the race control messages ' Safety Car in this lap ' and ' Track Clear ' and the green flags and lights shown by the marshals after safety car line one indicated that the race was not finishing under the safety car and all drivers were free to race . This opinion appears to have been shared by the majority of the teams with cars in the top ten positions who also gave their drivers instructions to race to the finish line . " However an FIA investigation found Schumacher guilty of breaching Safety Car regulations and awarded him a 20 @-@ seconds penalty , which cost him six places .
= = Personal life = =
Schumacher 's younger brother Ralf was a Formula One driver until the end of 2007 . Their stepbrother Sebastian Stahl has also been a racing driver .
In August 1995 , Michael married Corinna Betsch . They have two children , a daughter Gina @-@ Marie , born in 1997 and a son Mick , born March 22 , 1999 . He has always been very protective of his private life and is known to dislike the celebrity spotlight . The family moved to a newly @-@ built mansion near Gland , Switzerland in 2007 , covering an area of 650 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 000 sq ft ) with a private beach on Lake Geneva and featuring an underground garage and petrol station . The family has two dogs – one stray that Corinna fell in love with in Brazil , and an Australian Shepherd named " Ed " whose arrival in the family made headlines . In fact , in 2007 , Schumacher personally drove a taxi through the Bavarian town of Coburg to collect the dog and enable the family to make their return flight to Switzerland . Both Schumacher and the taxi driver were reprimanded by local police .
One of his main hobbies is horse riding , and he plays football for his local team FC Echichens . He has appeared in several charity football games and organised games between Formula One drivers .
On 23 June 2003 , Schumacher was appointed as an Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large for the Most Serene Republic of San Marino .
Schumacher is a special ambassador to UNESCO and has donated 1 @.@ 5 million euros to the organization . Additionally , he paid for the construction of a school for poor children and for area improvements in Dakar , Senegal . He supports a hospital for child victims of war in Sarajevo , which specialises in caring for amputees . In Lima , Peru he funded the " Palace for the Poor " , a centre for helping homeless street children obtain an education , clothing , food , medical attention , and shelter . He stated his interest in these various efforts was piqued both by his love for children and the fact that these causes had received little attention . While an exact figure for the amount of money he has donated throughout his life is unknown , it is known that in his last four years as a driver , he donated at least $ 50 million . In 2008 , it was revealed that he had donated between $ 5M and $ 10M to the William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park of Bill Clinton .
Since his participation in an FIA European road safety campaign , as part of his punishment after the collision at the 1997 European Grand Prix , Schumacher continued to support other campaigns , such as Make Roads Safe , which is led by the FIA Foundation and calls on G8 countries and the UN to recognise global road deaths as a major global health issue . In 2008 , Schumacher was the figurehead of an advertising campaign by Bacardi to raise awareness about responsible drinking , with a focus on communicating an international message ' drinking and driving don 't mix ' . He featured in an advertising campaign for television , cinema and online media , supported by consumer engagements , public relations and digital media across the World .
On the eve of the 2002 British Grand Prix , on behalf of Fiat , Schumacher presented a Ferrari 360 Modena to the Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar at Silverstone .
On 21 June 2009 , Schumacher appeared on the BBC 's motoring programme Top Gear as the Stig . Presenter Jeremy Clarkson hinted later in the programme that Schumacher was not the regular Stig , and the BBC has since confirmed that this is the case . Schumacher was there on that occasion because Ferrari would not allow anyone else to drive the one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind black Ferrari FXX that was featured in the show . The FXX was presented to Schumacher upon his retirement at Monza in 2006 .
During his interview with Clarkson , Schumacher stated that his road cars are a Fiat 500 Abarth , and a Fiat Croma , which is his family car .
= = = Finance and sponsorship = = =
In 2004 , Forbes magazine listed him as the second highest paid athlete in the World . In 2005 , Eurobusiness magazine identified Schumacher as the World 's first billionaire athlete . His 2004 salary was reported to be around US $ 80 million . Forbes magazine ranked him 17th in its " The World 's Most Powerful Celebrities " list . A significant share of his income came from advertising . For example , Deutsche Vermögensberatung paid him $ 8 million over three years from 1999 for wearing a 10 by 8 centimetre advertisement on his post @-@ race cap . The deal was extended until 2010 . He donated $ 10 million for aid after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . His donation surpassed that of any other sports person , most sports leagues , many worldwide corporations and even some countries . Schumacher 's bodyguard Burkhard Cramer and Cramer 's two sons were killed in the tsunami .
In 2010 , his personal fortune was estimated at £ 515 million . He reportedly received a salary of £ 21 million each year from the Mercedes team , plus a further £ 9 million in endorsements .
= = = 2013 skiing accident = = =
On 29 December 2013 , Schumacher was skiing with his 14 @-@ year @-@ old son Mick descending the Combe de Saulire below the Dent de Burgin above Méribel in the French Alps . While crossing an unsecured off @-@ piste area between Piste Chamois and Piste Mauduit he fell and hit his head on a rock , sustaining a head injury despite wearing a ski helmet . According to his physicians , he would most likely have died had he not been wearing a helmet . Schumacher was put into a medically induced coma because of traumatic brain injury ; his doctors reported on 7 March 2014 that his condition was stable . On 4 April 2014 , Schumacher 's agent reported that he was showing " moments of consciousness " as he was gradually withdrawn from the medically induced coma , adding to reports by relatives of " small encouraging signs " over the preceding month . In mid @-@ June he was moved from intensive care into a rehabilitation ward . By 16 June 2014 , Schumacher had regained consciousness and left Grenoble Hospital for further rehabilitation at the University Hospital ( CHUV ) in Lausanne , Switzerland . On 9 September 2014 , Schumacher left CHUV and was brought back to his home for further rehabilitation . In November 2014 , it was reported that Schumacher was " paralysed and in a wheelchair " ; he " cannot speak and has memory problems " . In a video interview released in May 2015 , Schumacher 's manager Sabine Kehm said that his condition is slowly improving " considering the severeness of the injury he had " .
= = Racing record = =
= = = Career summary = = =
Source : Hilton , Christopher ( 2006 ) . Michael Schumacher : The Whole Story . Haynes . ISBN 1 @-@ 84425 @-@ 008 @-@ 3 .
= = = Complete Japanese Formula 3000 Championship results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) ( Races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Complete Formula One results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ; races in italics indicate fastest lap )
‡ Schumacher was disqualified from the 1997 World Drivers ' Championship due to dangerous driving in the European Grand Prix , where he caused an avoidable accident with Jacques Villeneuve . His points tally would have placed him in second place in that year 's standings . † Driver did not finish the Grand Prix , but was classified as he completed over 90 % of the race distance .
= = = 24 Hours of Le Mans results = = =
= = = Formula One records = = =
Schumacher holds the following records in Formula One .
= = Books and films = =
Allen , James ( 1999 ) . Michael Schumacher : Driven to Extremes . Bantam Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 81214 @-@ 9 .
Allen , James ( 2007 ) . Edge of Greatness . Headline . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7553 @-@ 1678 @-@ 6 .
Collings , Timothy ( 2004 ) . The Piranha Club . Virgin Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 7535 @-@ 0965 @-@ 2 .
Collings , Timothy ( 2005 ) . Team Schumacher . Highdown . ISBN 1 @-@ 905156 @-@ 03 @-@ 0 .
Domenjoz , Luc ( 2002 ) . Michael Schumacher : Rise of a genius . Parragon . ISBN 0 @-@ 7525 @-@ 9228 @-@ 9 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1992 ) . Autocourse 1992 – 93 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 905138 @-@ 96 @-@ 1 .
Henry , Alan ( 1996 ) . Wheel to Wheel : Great Duels of Formula One Racing . Weidenfeld Nicolson Illustrated . ISBN 0 @-@ 7538 @-@ 0522 @-@ 7 .
Hilton , Christopher ( 2003 ) . Michael Schumacher : The greatest of all . Haynes . ISBN 1 @-@ 84425 @-@ 044 @-@ X.
Hilton , Christopher ( 2006 ) . Michael Schumacher : The Whole Story . Haynes . ISBN 1 @-@ 84425 @-@ 008 @-@ 3 .
Kehm , Sabine ( 2003 ) . Michael Schumacher . Driving Force . Random House . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 189435 @-@ 2 .
Matchett , Steve ( 1995 ) . Life in the Fast Lane : The Story of the Benetton Grand Prix Year . London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson . ISBN 0 @-@ 297 @-@ 81610 @-@ 1 .
Matchett , Steve ( 1999 ) . The Mechanic 's Tale : Life in the Pit Lanes of Formula One . Osceola , Wisconsin : MBI Pub . ISBN 0 @-@ 7603 @-@ 0754 @-@ 7 .
Williams , Richard ( 1999 ) . The Death of Ayrton Senna . Bloomsbury . ISBN 0 @-@ 7475 @-@ 4495 @-@ 6 .
Schumacher had a voice role in the Disney / Pixar film Cars . His character is himself as a car ( Ferrari F430 ) . The French film Asterix and Obelix at the Olympic Games features Schumacher in a cameo role , also as himself .
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= Adamussium =
Adamussium is a monotypic genus of bivalve molluscs in the large family of scallops , the Pectinidae . The Antarctic scallop ( Adamussium colbecki ) is the only species in the genus though its exact relationship to other members of the family is unclear . It is found in the ice @-@ cold seas surrounding Antarctica , sometimes at great depths .
Adamussium colbecki is a large , slow @-@ growing scallop that lives on the seabed . The shell consists of a pair of ribbed calcareous valves which enclose the soft body and are joined by a ligament at a hinge . It feeds on microscopic green algae and is sometimes present in great numbers . It is able to move around by flapping its valves and to dart backwards to escape threats . The species is an important member of the Antarctic seabed community as the upper valve often acts as a substrate for seaweeds , sponges and other organisms . In addition , juveniles bind themselves by threads to the upper valve of older shells , using these as a base for several years as they grow . The adult scallops have been used in research to study the accumulation of heavy metals in marine organisms .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Antarctic scallop was first described by the British zoologist Edgar Albert Smith in 1902 as Pecten colbecki . He worked at the British Museum and was responsible for examining and describing shells from collections made over the years that had been deposited there . The German malacologist Johannes Thiele determined in 1934 that the characteristics of the Antarctic scallop were sufficiently different from those of other members of the genus Pecten to warrant its inclusion in a separate genus , Adamussium . More recently , examinations of the chromosome structure and of the mitochondrial DNA of A. colbecki have been undertaken , but the exact phylogenetic relationship it has with other pectinids is still unclear .
= = Description = =
The shell of the Antarctic scallop grows to about 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long and 7 centimetres wide and has a nearly circular outline . The two purplish @-@ red valves are paper thin and only slightly convex and are attached by a long , slightly sinuous , hinge . Near the hinge there is an umbo or beak on each valve , a raised hump from which the ribs radiate . The umbones are not very prominent and on either side of them are irregular winged processes , the auricles . In smaller specimens there are around 12 shallow ribs diverging from the umbones and further low ridges appear between these as the shell grows larger . There is a fine sculpturing of concentric lines on the outside of the valves . The auricles are also finely sculpted with the annual growth lines visible . The interior of the valves is pink . A fringe of numerous small tentacles project from the mantle between the two valves and there are a number of simple eyes in a row around the rim . The valves are held closed by powerful adductor muscles which work in opposition to an elastic ligament that lies just behind the umbones and which tends to open the valves . The flanges of the auricles provide a wide attachment for this ligament . The Antarctic scallop could be confused with other scallops , other bivalves or lamp shells .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Antarctic scallop is endemic to the waters surrounding Antarctica . These are mostly within the Antarctic Circle and include the Ross Sea , the Weddell Sea , the Davis Sea , McMurdo Sound and the Southern Ocean . Although it is commonly found at depths of less than 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , remotely operated underwater vehicles armed with lights and cameras have recorded the scallop at much greater depths , including one recording at 4 @,@ 840 metres ( 15 @,@ 880 ft ) . It is found on many different substrates including sand , gravel and silt , either on the surface or semi @-@ submerged in the sediment . It can flap its gills slightly to create a hollow in which to settle . In shallow waters it is usually attached by byssus threads to hard surfaces so as not to be swept away by water movement . At greater depths it is usually free living .
Although the Antarctic scallop has a circum @-@ polar distribution , this is very disjunct , and overall it is not common . In some places it is found at densities of up to 90 per square metre and in Terra Nova Bay in the Ross Sea , at depths between 40 metres ( 130 ft ) and 80 metres ( 260 ft ) , some scallop beds were found to be so crowded that adult individuals were lying on top of others . In other locations that seem eminently suitable in many ways , it was entirely absent . A possible explanation for this lies in the fact that its paper thin shell is characteristic of bivalves living in stable , deep water areas with little water movement . The shallower locations in which it now thrives are characterised by being protected bays or by having extensive sea ice coverage , each of which provides a stable environment unaffected by storm waves and where iceberg scouring does not normally occur . It is also absent from habitats dominated by other benthic suspension feeding communities whereas it is found in habitats with soft sediments and no dominant cnidarian and sponge communities . This might be because its larvae face such heavy predation in these locations that it is unable to establish itself .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Locomotion = = =
The Antarctic scallop can swim rather slowly by opening and closing its valves . It advances in this way with the rim of the shell to the front . It can detect the movement of nearby objects with its rudimentary eyes and , in order to escape predators , can move much more swiftly umbones first , by clapping its valves shut . A remotely controlled camera stationed on the sea bed is apt to find that all the scallops that were originally in its field of view have moved off to other locations .
= = = Feeding = = =
Like other members of the Pectinidae family , the Antarctic scallop is a suspension feeder , extracting its nourishment from the sea water that surrounds it . Bands of cilia on the velum , a curtain @-@ like fold of the mantle , waft particles towards the gills . Oxygen is absorbed by the gills and food particles , mostly microscopic algae , are trapped in mucous and transported to the mouth by cilia . There is a seasonal increase in microscopic ice algae which become available to suspension feeders when the sea ice melts in the summer , and most of the annual growth takes place at this time . Research has shown that this is as a result of the rise in sea temperature and not the greater availability of food .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The rate of growth of the Antarctic scallop is very slow compared to that of scallops living in warmer seas . It matures at 5 to 7 years old and spawning takes place in late summer . Little is known about the development of the veliger larvae but they may be planktonic for 4 or 5 months . Besides feeding on phytoplankton and small zooplankton , they may absorb dissolved organic matter and consume bacterioplankton . When they settle , metamorphosis takes place and the juveniles attach themselves with byssus threads , often attaching these to the upper valves of scallops , and remain attached for 3 to 5 years . While attached to the adult shell , the juveniles benefit from food particles in the fine detritus thrown up into the water column by movements of the adult . While studying the sizes and growth rates of adults , researchers came to realize that there were gaps in their records which were due to the fact that , in some years , no juveniles had survived .
= = Ecology = =
The Antarctic scallop is monitored in connection with the Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems ( VME ) classification set up by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources ( CCAMLR ) . As such , notification is required to be made by vessels that land the scallop as by @-@ catch during their fishing activities .
The Antarctic scallop is often found living in association with the Antarctic sea urchin , Sterechinus neumayeri , and Odontaster validus , a species of sea star . Predatory invertebrates found in the vicinity of the Antarctic scallop include the gastropod Neobuccinum eatoni , and the ribbon worm Parborlasia corrugatus . The Antarctic scallop does not itself have many predators and large individuals are adept at jumping and swimming to escape attackers . Any attached juveniles benefit from this . However , the scallops are intolerant of low salinity levels , and mortality sometimes occurs as a result of a pool of relatively fresh water that sometimes forms during the summer months under the sea ice as it melts .
There are a large number of epifaunal organisms living on the shells of Antarctic scallops , which may represent 90 % of the hard substrate available in a region where rocky surfaces are not common and much of the seabed consists of sediment . Because a diverse community of invertebrates and algae use its shell as a base , the Antarctic scallop is considered to be a " foundation species " ; a species of great importance in its habitat . The fact that the scallops can swim and move to other locations aids in the dispersal of these organisms . The epiphytes include benthic diatoms , forams , bacteria , bryozoans , sponges and algae . The foram Cibicides refulgens lives parasitically on the scallop 's shell and also grazes on the algae and bacteria growing there . In a research study , 10 different species of demosponge were found growing on a single Antarctic scallop . The demosponge Homaxinella balfourensis was one of the commonest epibionts growing harmlessly on the scallop 's shell . The relationship between sponge and scallop may be symbiotic ; the sponge avoids being engulfed in sediment while the scallop benefits from the protection provided by the sponge , which is distasteful to many predators .
The hydroid Hydractinia angusta has a mutualistic relationship with the scallop . A study showed that its larvae preferentially settled in the vicinity of other epibionts , usually on scallop shells , and that the scallop larvae were deterred from settling in the vicinity of colonies of the hydroid . It is surmised that the hydroid benefits from a solid substrate on which to live , and although the scallop benefits from the protection from predators provided by the stinging cells of the hydroid , it is disadvantaged by the failure of its larvae to establish themselves in their preferred location , on the shells of mature scallops .
= = Research = =
A laboratory study examined the effects on the Antarctic scallop of an increase in lead , copper and mercury content in the water . It was found that a rise in levels of heavy metals led to quite severe morphological changes in the scallop and a reduction in lysosomal membrane stability . Another experiment involved transplanting scallops from a clean water area to a bay where effluent from an Antarctic base was released . It was found that the scallops were relatively unaffected by the outflows and this resulted in the belief that benthic marine communities were unlikely to be severely affected by such discharges .
Another study analysed the tissues of Adamussium colbecki and compared them with those of Pecten jacobaeus , a temperate water species of scallop . It was found that copper , iron , cadmium and chromium were concentrated in the digestive organ of the Antarctic scallop . Cadmium levels in particular were higher in the Antarctic scallop than in P. jacobaeus and other pectinids , but zinc and manganese , found in the kidney , were considerably lower .
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= War of the Euboeote Succession =
The War of the Euboeote Succession was fought in 1256 – 1258 between the Prince of Achaea , William II of Villehardouin , and a broad coalition of other rulers from throughout Frankish Greece who felt threatened by William 's aspirations . The war was sparked by William 's attempt to gain control of a third of the island of Euboea , which was resisted by the local Lombard barons ( " terciers " or " triarchs " ) with the aid of the Republic of Venice . The Lord of Athens and Thebes , Guy I de la Roche , also entered the war against William , along with other barons of Central Greece . Their defeat at the Battle of Karydi in May / June 1258 effectively brought the war to an end in an Achaean victory , although a definite peace treaty was not concluded until 1262 .
= = Background = =
Following the Fourth Crusade , southern Greece had been divided among several Latin lordships , the most powerful of which was the Principality of Achaea , which controlled the entire Peloponnese peninsula . William II of Villehardouin , who in 1246 had succeeded his elder brother as prince , was a most energetic ruler , who aimed to expand and consolidate his rule over the other Latin states . Guy I de la Roche , the " Great Lord " of Athens and Thebes , was already his vassal for the fief of Argos and Nauplia , which lay in the Peloponnese , and William was also suzerain of the three Lombard baronies ( terzieri , " thirds " ) of Negroponte ( the medieval name of both the island of Euboea and its capital , modern Chalkis ) .
In 1255 , William 's second wife , Carintana dalle Carceri , baroness of the northern third of the island , died , and her husband laid claim to her inheritance , even minting coins presenting himself as " Triarch of Negroponte " . The other two triarchs , however , Guglielmo I da Verona and Narzotto dalle Carceri , rejected his claim . Although they were William 's nominal subjects and , in Guglielmo 's case , even related to him by marriage , they were loath to surrender Euboeote territory to someone outside their own families . Instead , they ceded Carintana 's barony to their kinsman , Grapella dalle Carceri . In this , they were supported by Paolo Gradenigo , the Venetian bailo ( representative ) at Negroponte , the capital of Euboea . Venice had a long presence at Negroponte , which was an important trading station , and exercised considerable influence over the island and the triarchs .
= = Contest for Negroponte = =
On 14 June 1256 , a treaty was signed between the Lombard triarchs and Gradenigo . In exchange for the Venetian alliance against Achaea , the triarchs renewed their previous agreements , ceded possession of the fortress of Negroponte , which controlled the bridge over the Euripus Strait , and of extensive lands on the island . The triarchs and their domains were freed from any duties and the considerable tribute that they paid to Venice until then , but in turn , they gave up the rights to all customs revenue to the Republic . Venice also received further concessions , such as the right to regulate the weights , measures and scales for all Euboea , and privileges for its citizens . Soon after , according to the historian Marino Sanudo , William called upon Guglielmo and Narzotto to present themselves to him . Constrained by their feudal oaths of fealty , they did so and were imprisoned by the Achaean prince . The triarchs ' wives , accompanied by many knights and other kinsmen , then went to Marco Gradenigo , the newly arrived bailo , and beseeched his aid . " Moved alike by policy and sympathy " , as the historian William Miller states , Gradenigo assented .
William , moving quickly in support of his own claims , had already seized Negroponte . Gradenigo and his Venetians attacked and took the city , but William responded by sending his nephew the baron of Karytaina , Geoffroy de Bruyères , who recaptured Negroponte and launched devastating raids in Euboea . Venice then laid siege to the city , which dragged on for thirteen months until its defenders capitulated in early 1258 . An Achaean counterattack was repulsed by Venetian infantry sallying forth and defeating the famed Achaean cavalry before the city 's walls .
= = League against Achaea and the Battle of Karydi = =
Faced with the opposition of Venice , William of Villehardouin turned to her rival , Genoa , for support . The Genoese , ever eager to thwart their rivals , Venice , and owing a debt for William 's assistance to them at Rhodes a few years before , readily accepted . Based at Monemvasia , Genoese @-@ crewed galleys preyed upon Venetian shipping . Othon de Cicon , the lord of Karystos in southern Euboea , in control of the strategic passage of the Cavo D 'Oro , also sided with William . Elsewhere , however , William 's appeals were met with hostility and mistrust , due to the Achaean ruler 's claims of suzerainty over all the Latin princes of southern Greece . From the summer of 1256 , Guy I de la Roche , the " Great Lord " ( " Megaskyr " ) of Athens and Thebes , and his kinsman William de la Roche , had joined the Venetian camp , although they were both vassals to the Villehardouins ( Guy as Lord of Argos and Nauplia and his brother as baron of Veligosti and Damala ) : the treaty between Venice and the triarchs had been signed at Guy 's capital , Thebes , while both Guy and William actively aided the Venetians in their siege of Negroponte . Thomas II de Stromoncourt , the Lord of Salona , and Ubertino Pallavicini , the Margrave of Bodonitsa , also entered in the anti @-@ Achaean coalition , to be joined soon after by Geoffroy de Bruyères , " the best soldier in all the realm of Romania [ i.e. Latin Greece ] " , who deserted his uncle 's cause .
William of Villehardouin responded by what William Miller described as " restless activity " : he unsuccessfully besieged the Venetian fortress of Coron , and led a raid into Attica , where he was nearly captured , before resolving on launching a full @-@ scale invasion of the de la Roche domains . His army assembled at Nikli , crossed the Isthmus of Corinth , and at the pass of Mount Karydi , on the way from Megara to Thebes , his army decisively defeated the coalition army . Guy de la Roche and the other barons fled the field and found refuge in the citadel of Thebes . William of Villehardouin followed after them and prepared to lay siege to the city , but relented after the Latin archbishop and many of his own nobles pleaded to show restraint and end the conflict . After extracting a pledge by Guy de la Roche to appear before the Achaean High Court , the assembly of the Achaean barons , and be judged , William 's troops withdrew .
The High Court quickly assembled at Nikli . Guy de la Roche presented himself before it accompanied by his own knights , but the assembled barons decided that they did not have the authority to judge him , and referred the matter to King Louis IX of France ( r . 1226 – 1270 ) . Guy travelled to France in 1259 , but Louis not only pardoned him , but awarded him the title of Duke , which he and his successors were to bear thereafter . The renegade Geoffroy de Bruyères too was brought for judgement before William , and it was only the determined and passionate intercession of the other barons that saved his life and secured a pardon from the vengeful prince . He was however deprived of the possession of his domains by the inalienable right of conquest , and retained them henceforth as a gift from the Prince , meaning that they would be forfeit upon his death unless he had any immediate descendants .
= = Aftermath = =
William 's victory at Karydi , coupled with a victory of his troops against the Venetians near Oreoi , brought an effective end to the conflict ; on 6 August 1258 , Guglielmo da Verona and Narzotto dalle Carceri consented to begin negotiations for peace through the Doge of Venice , and in early 1259 , the Doge authorized the new bailo , Andrea Barozzi , to sign a treaty with William . But due to William 's subsequent involvement in the great Epirote @-@ Achaean @-@ Sicilian alliance against the Empire of Nicaea , his defeat and capture at the Battle of Pelagonia and his captivity at the hands of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1259 – 1261 ) , a final peace treaty was delayed until William 's release in 1262 . The treaty , signed at the residence of the Archbishop of Thebes , essentially restored the status quo ante : William recognized Guglielmo , Narzotto , and Grapella as triarchs , and they in turn swore their allegiance to him . The fortress of Negroponte was razed , but Venice retained and even increased its quarter in the city , as well as retaining its exclusive right to levy customs in Euboea , except for the triarchs , the Prince , and their agents . Thus , Venice retained some of its 1256 gains , but overall the treaty was regarded as a setback , in view of the considerable expenses incurred . For some time afterwards , Venice was content to exercise her financial privileges , and refrained from meddling with the island 's politics .
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= Southern black bream =
The southern black bream ( Acanthopagrus butcheri ) ( also known as the black bream , southern bream and blue @-@ nosed bream ) is a species of marine and freshwater fish of the porgy family , Sparidae . It is a deep @-@ bodied fish , occasionally confused with other similar species that occur within its range , but is generally distinguished from these species by a lack of yellow ventral and anal fins . Southern black bream are endemic to Australia , inhabiting the southern coast from Shark Bay in Western Australia to Mallacoota , Victoria , as well as Tasmania .
The species is primarily an inhabitant of estuaries and coastal lakes , rarely entering the ocean , as it cannot complete its life cycle in a fully marine environment . During the breeding season , the species is known to penetrate into the upper reaches of rivers to spawn , causing an influx of juveniles in the estuaries a few months later . Southern black bream are opportunistic predators , consuming a wide range of crustaceans , molluscs , polychaetes and fish .
The southern black bream is a major target for both commercial and amateur fishermen due to its high quality flesh , with over 300 tonnes of fish taken each year by commercial fisheries . Anglers also seek out the fish for its sporting qualities , with the development of lure fishing for bream adding to this attraction . Aquaculture techniques for the species are being developed , with a slow growth rate the major hurdle to large scale food production .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The southern black bream is one of eleven species in the genus Acanthopagrus , part of the porgy family Sparidae . The Sparidae are perciform fish in the suborder Percoidei . The southern black bream was at first confused with its nearly identical east coast relative , the surf bream ( Acanthopagrus australis ) , with specimens initially grouped under the name Mylio australis by Rudall , Hale and Sheriden . In a 1949 review of the Australian " silver breams , " Ian Munro found that M. australis was in fact two separate species , creating the new species name of Mylio butcheri to accommodate the southern black bream . Munro based this classification on a number of new specimens , one of which was from the Gippsland Lakes , Victoria , which he designated to be the holotype . Mylio butcheri was later changed to Acanthopagrus butcheri when the true genus of the species was identified .
Acanthopagrus butcheri has a number of common names , many of which are applied to a number of related fish species , both in Australia and worldwide . The species is commonly referred to in publications as the " southern black bream " to avoid confusion with the black sea bream and other closely related species loosely given the name " black bream . " The species is known regionally by the names " black bream , " " Perth bream , " " Gippsland bream " and the " blue @-@ nose bream . " The latter name is given to mature fish over 1 kg in weight , as at this point their snouts begin to develop a bluish tinge . The Department of the Environment , Water , Heritage and the Arts of the Federal Government designated black bream as preferred name . Black bream has also been designated the standard name by the CSIRO Division of Marine and Atmospheric Research in commercial fishing in Australia .
= = Description = =
The southern black bream has a deep , moderately compressed body , with both the dorsal and ventral profiles equally curved . The mouth is of moderate size in comparison with the body , and contains six curved , peg like incisors in the front of both upper and lower jaws . The molars are set in series of four or five on each side of the upper jaw , and in series of three or four on the sides of the lower jaw , becoming smaller in size anteriorly . The body is covered with large scales , which may be cycloid or weakly ctenoid in shape . The head is mostly scale @-@ free , with the exception of parts of the operculum . A low , scaly sheath covers the bases of the soft dorsal , anal and caudal fins . The lateral line scale count is 52 – 58 . There is a single dorsal fin originating a little behind the posterior edge of the operculum , consisting of 10 to 13 spines set in front of 10 to 13 soft rays . The anal fin consists of 3 spines anterior to 8 to 10 soft rays , while the pectoral fin has 14 to 16 rays and the ventral has one large spine and 5 soft rays . The southern black bream is golden brown or bronze coloured on the back and sides , with greenish reflections when fresh , while the belly and chin are white . The fins are all dusky in colour , with the caudal fin often a dusky olive brown . The species has been known to reach a total maximum length of 60 cm ( 23 1 ⁄ 2 in ) and a weight of 4 kg ( 8 3 ⁄ 4 lb ) , but is much more common around 23 – 25 cm ( 9 – 9 3 ⁄ 4 in ) and under 2 kg .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The southern black bream is endemic to southern Australia , inhabiting coastal waters from Shark Bay , Western Australia in the west to Mallacoota , Victoria in the east and south around the entire Tasmanian coastline . The species is primarily an inshore species , although has been found on rare occasions on deeper reefs on the continental shelf . Southern black bream primarily inhabit estuarine environments , penetrating into the far reaches of freshwater creeks and rivers during the summer spawning season . They are also known from a number of coastal lakes and intermittently open estuaries . In estuarine and freshwater environments they seek out the cover of structures such as fallen tree branches , jetties , oyster leases and rocky areas , while in deeper areas of coastal lakes , they are often found over bare mud and sand substrates . The species is rarely found in the ocean , but are often washed out of creeks during times of high river flow and are able to survive in the marine environment , where they inhabit inshore reefs and rocky shorelines .
The species is most common in southern Victoria , where it inhabits numerous estuaries . The Gippsland Lakes , Mallacoota Inlet and Lake Tyers are the most densely populated bodies of water in the state and the species is often found along the coast . It is not as prolific in South Australia , with the Coorong and Kangaroo Island being the main bream @-@ producing areas in the state . The low numbers may be correlated with the state 's lack of rivers and estuaries , although bream have been caught in unexpected areas , including the Gulfs , as well as deep rocky reefs off Streaky Bay in lobster traps . Southern black bream are prevalent in southern Western Australia , with large numbers of estuaries holding the species . The Culham and Stokes Inlets are known to have large populations of the fish .
= = Biology = =
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Southern black bream are opportunistic omnivores , consuming a wide range of prey , including sessile , burrowing , benthic and pelagic species . The diet of the species varies between rivers , with their opportunistic feeding methods showing little pattern between seasons , although they appear to have certain prey preferences when two or more possible prey species are present . Crustaceans , including crabs , prawns , amphipods and copepods , are commonly taken , as are a number of polychaete and annelid worms . Bivalves such as mussels and cockles are crushed in the bream 's powerful jaws , with small fish such as gobies and anchovies also taken . Algae of the genus Enteromorpha are also a major component of most fish 's diets . Fish feeding in the upper reaches of river have different prey , reflecting the freshwater fauna , with insects , hardyheads , tadpoles , brine shrimp and gastropods taken . Studies from the Swan River suggest that there is a shift in diet with age . Younger fish consume amphipods , polychaetes and small individuals of various molluscs . The number of amphipods consumed decreased in the diets of older fish while the number of large molluscs , crabs and teleosts taken increased . The fish actively forage the substrate while swimming with their head down , snapping their prey down with little chewing .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Southern black bream become sexually mature at different ages throughout their range , with Western and South Australian fish maturing by two to three years of age , while Victorian fish mature at five years . There is also a difference in maturation age between the sexes , as females generally mature one year later than males . The timing of spawning is also variable over the species range , with fish in Western Australia able to spawn from July to November , South Australian fish spawning between November and January and Victorian fish in October to November . Reproducing fish migrate into the upper reaches of rivers and streams , where they shed their eggs , with each fish producing up to three million per season . The eggs are small and pelagic , hatching two days or so after fertilisation . The young bream spend the next four years of their lives living in rivers , estuaries and parts of the coastline , often seen schooling over seagrass beds in shallow reaches of estuaries . It is when they reach five years in age that fish living in the marine environment move offshore to deeper reefs , returning to the rivers to spawn , as they cannot complete their life cycle in the ocean . Southern black bream are known to live to 29 years of age .
A number of unusual reproductive features have been observed in the species including a number hermaphroditic individuals which have both functional ovaries and testes , with the ability for a change to the preference of one sex also occasionally observed . The species has also been known to hybridise with the closely related species Acanthopagrus australis forming viable offspring , themselves able to backcross with the parent species . This is only known from one coastal lake where the two species are landlocked together for extended periods , promoting interbreeding and the production of offspring with morphological traits intermediate between the two species . The setting required to cause hybridisation , however is too rare to consider the two species subspecies , or even a single species .
= = = Predators = = =
Apart from humans , a variety of seabirds are the southern black bream 's main predators , with the pelican , little black cormorant and great cormorant prominent . The species is also taken by larger fish including sharks , rays and a number of large predatory teleosts such as mulloway and flathead . A number of ectoparasites are known from the species , including species from the Copepoda , Monogenea , Branchiura , Isopoda and Hirudinea .
= = Relationship to humans = =
Southern black bream are one of the most important species to both commercial and recreational fisheries throughout its range , valued for its flavoursome and moist flesh . Due to its marketability , as well as its high tolerance to a wide range of salinity , the species has become a candidate for inland aquaculture in saline dams .
= = = Commercial fishery = = =
The southern black bream is one of the most important species to the commercial fisheries in both Victoria and southern Western Australia , although only small numbers are harvested in South Australian waters due to the lower populations . Victoria produces the majority of the catch , with the Gippsland region alone producing 80 % of the state 's haul . A. butcheri has been taken from the Gippsland Lakes since the 1880s when they were the predominantly targeted species , although during the 1920s mullet became the most frequently caught species in the lakes . The bream catch from the lakes now fluctuates between 200 and 400 tonnes per year . The Mallacoota inlet and Lake Tyers make up the other important bream @-@ producing regions of the state . In South Australia , bream are only commercially taken from the Coorong which has yielded 10 to 70 tonnes of the species per year since the 1970s . In lower Western Australia the Culham and Stokes inlet produce the bulk of the state 's catch , with annual hauls far greater now than during the early 1990s . During the 1970s and 1980s , Western Australia had a modest bream catch of around 26 tonnes per year , a figure which rocketed to 103 @.@ 9 tonnes in the 1992 / 3 season before receding to around 28 tonnes per year since 2000 . The species is commonly taken by gill nets , beach seine and haul nets , as well as by handline . The fish are normally sold fresh whole or as fillets in local markets throughout the states they are taken in .
= = = Recreational fishery = = =
Southern black bream have long been a favourite target for anglers who seek out the species for both its fighting qualities and high quality flesh . Bream are also popular due to their accessibility , with fish commonly caught from harbour and estuary banks , piers and rock walls , therefore eliminating the need for a boat in most regions . Research in Western Australia has shown that anglers take more bream than commercial fishermen , with a 1979 study indicating that at least 232 tonnes were taken , more than double that of the commercial harvest at its peak , although with the advent of catch and release fishing this figure has dropped .
Bream are commonly caught around structures within an estuary , including fallen branches , piers , rock walls , bridge abutments and other man made structures as well as on mud and sand banks where shellfish and crustaceans dwell . Although bream are opportunistic feeders , they can often be very difficult to catch in areas subject to high fishing pressure . Light fishing lines and sinkers are used to avoid spooking the fish and , as with all fishing , live bait produces the best results . Various crustaceans such as nippers , prawns and crabs are commonly used alongside various species of beach and tube worm . Frozen and cut bait such as prawns , mussels , cockles and fish pieces are also effective . Rigs are usually kept simple and light , with running ball or bean sinkers used on a light line from two up to four kilograms in breaking strength tied to a size 6 – 1 hook . In fast flowing waters , heavier sinkers may be needed to keep the bait in the target area long enough to be noticed by a fish . Burley is often introduced into the water , with chopped pilchards or chicken pellets soaked in fish oil popular amongst anglers . In recent years , the use of lures and flies on southern black bream has been successfully developed , with the species known to attack both hard bodied minnow and spinnerbait type lures , as well as soft plastic lures and saltwater flies .
The southern black bream is protected by size and bag limits in all the states it inhabits , which anglers must be aware of or face fines . In Western Australia the size limit is 25 cm with only 2 fish over 40 cm allowed to be taken from the Swan or Canning Rivers , while the bag limit varies throughout the state with West Coast allowing 4 per angler , Gascoyne 8 per angler , and Southern and Northern 20 per angler . In South Australia the daily bag limit is 10 per person , with a minimum legal size of 28 cm , which is the same limit as Victoria .
= = = Aquaculture = = =
Southern black bream are relatively easy to grow in captivity , with fish usually spawning during their natural season without needing the addition of hormones . Despite this , bream are not bred on a commercial basis due to a comparatively slow growth rate and a low fillet recovery . Studies by Sarre in 1999 , however , showed that the species can survive well in saline ponds with deep enough waters as long as food is supplemented to the ponds . This has led to the proposal of the breeding of the species to stock inland saline ponds for the use of recreational fishing , much like trout and barramundi are stocked elsewhere in Australia . Although the growth rate is currently too slow for food production purposes , genetic selection may allow the breeding of faster @-@ growing fish for market purposes . Southern black bream are currently bred to stock depleted estuaries , and thus their requirements for farming are already well known .
= = Similar species = =
A number of other members of the Sparidae inhabit Australian waters and maybe confused with A. butcheri . The yellowfin bream , Acanthopagrus australis is the most similar species to A. butcheri , overlapping in northern Victoria , with hybridisation events suggesting a recent divergence time , allowing few genetic differences to accumulate between the species . As its name suggests , the yellow fins of the yellowfin bream are distinctive . Overlapping the distribution of A. butcheri in the west is Acanthopagrus latus , the western yellowfin bream , which can be distinguished by the prominent yellow ventral , anal and lower caudal fins . The tarwhine , Rhabdosargus sarba , is also similar in shape , but possesses gold horizontal stripes which allow for identification .
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= French battleship Gaulois =
Gaulois was a Charlemagne @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the French Navy in the mid @-@ 1890s . She spent most of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron ( Escadre de la Méditerranée ) . The ship accidentally rammed two other French warships early in her career , although neither was seriously damaged , nor was the ship herself .
When World War I began , she escorted troop convoys from French North Africa to France for a month and a half . Gaulois was ordered to the Dardanelles in November 1914 to guard against a sortie into the Mediterranean by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . In 1915 , she joined British ships in bombarding Turkish fortifications . She was badly damaged during one such bombardment in March and had to beach herself to avoid sinking . She was refloated and sent to Toulon for permanent repairs . Gaulois returned to the Dardanelles and covered the Allied evacuation in January 1916 . On 27 December 1916 , she was en route for the Dardanelles after a refit in France when she was torpedoed and sunk by the German submarine UB @-@ 47 .
= = Design and description = =
Gaulois was 117 @.@ 7 metres ( 386 ft 2 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 26 metres ( 66 ft 6 in ) . At deep load , she had a draught of 7 @.@ 4 metres ( 24 ft 3 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 4 metres ( 28 ft ) aft . She displaced 10 @,@ 361 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 197 long tons ) normally , and 11 @,@ 325 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 150 long tons ) at deep load .
The ship used three 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines , one engine per shaft . They produced 14 @,@ 420 ihp ( 10 @,@ 750 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials using steam generated by 20 Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . Gaulois reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 024 knots ( 33 @.@ 380 km / h ; 20 @.@ 742 mph ) on her trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 101 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 084 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 3 @,@ 776 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 993 km ; 4 @,@ 345 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Gaulois carried her main armament of four 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of ten 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1893 guns , eight of which were mounted in individual casemates and the remaining pair in shielded mounts on the forecastle deck amidships . She also carried eight 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1893 guns in shielded mounts on the superstructure . The ship 's anti @-@ torpedo boat defences consisted of twenty 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns , fitted in platforms on both masts , on the superstructure , and in casemates in the hull . Gaulois mounted four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside . Two of these were submerged , angled 20 ° from the ship 's axis , and the other two were above the waterline . They were provided with twelve Modèle 1892 torpedoes . As was common with ships of her generation , she was built with a plough @-@ shaped ram .
The Charlemagne @-@ class ships carried a total of 820 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 807 @.@ 7 long tons ) of Harvey armour . They had a complete waterline armour belt that was 3 @.@ 26 metres ( 10 ft 8 in ) high . It tapered from its maximum thickness of 400 mm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) to a thickness of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at its lower edge . The armoured deck was 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick on the flat and was reinforced with an additional 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) plate where it angled downwards to meet the armoured belt . The main turrets were protected by 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) of armour and their roofs were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Their barbettes were 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The outer walls of the casemates for the 138 @.@ 6 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 46 in ) guns were 55 mm thick and they were protected by transverse bulkheads 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower walls were 326 mm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) thick and its roof consisted of 50 mm armour plates . Its communications tube was protected by armour plates 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Gaulois , named after the tribes that inhabited France during Roman times , was ordered on 22 January 1895 from the Arsenal de Brest . Her sister ship Charlemagne was being built in the slipway intended for Gaulois so the latter ship 's construction was delayed until the former was launched . Gaulois was laid down on 6 January 1896 and launched on 6 October of the same year . She was commissioned on 23 October 1899 after completing her sea trials .
Together with Charlemagne , the ship was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of the Mediterranean Squadron and they arrived at Toulon in January 1900 . Stormy weather during this voyage caused her captain to complain about her forward turret and casemates being flooded out in a head sea . The following month , while exercising in the harbour at Hyères , Gaulois accidentally rammed the destroyer Hallebarde , gouging a 4 @-@ by @-@ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 13 @.@ 1 by 4 @.@ 9 ft ) hole in the smaller ship . Hallebarde reached Toulon where she was repaired while the battleship was barely damaged . On 18 July , after combined manoeuvres with the Northern Squadron ( Escadre du Nord ) , the ship participated in a naval review conducted by the President of France , Émile Loubet , at Cherbourg . The following year , Gaulois and the Mediterranean Squadron participated in an international naval review by President Loubet in Toulon with ships from Spain , Italy and Russia .
In October 1901 , the 1st Battleship Division , under the command of Rear Admiral ( contre @-@ amiral ) Leonce Caillard , was ordered to proceed to the port of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos , then owned by the Ottoman Empire . After landing two companies of marines that occupied the major ports of the island on 7 November , Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks . The 1st Division departed Lesbos in early December and returned to Toulon . In May 1902 , the ship became the flagship of Vice Admiral ( vice @-@ amiral ) François Fournier who led a small delegation to celebrate the unveiling of the statue of Comte de Rochambeau in Lafayette Square , Washington , D.C. President Theodore Roosevelt was received aboard on 23 May and the ship made port visits to New York City and Boston before heading back to France . She made another port visit to Lisbon before arriving back at Toulon on 14 June .
During exercises off Golfe @-@ Juan , Gaulois accidentally rammed the battleship Bouvet on 31 January 1903 . Neither ship was seriously damaged in the accident . In April 1904 , she was one of the ships that escorted President Loubet during his state visit to Italy . Later that year , the ship made port visits in Thessaloniki and Athens with the rest of the Mediterranean Squadron . A wireless telegraph was installed aboard Gaulois in December 1905 . Together with the battleships Iéna and Bouvet , the ship aided survivors of the April 1906 eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Naples . For the rest of the decade , she participated in various exercises with the Mediterranean Squadron and made a number of port visits in France and its dependencies . Gaulois was briefly transferred to the Northern Squadron in August 1910 and she participated in a large naval review by President Armand Fallières off Cap Brun on 4 September 1911 . The ship was reassigned to the Mediterranean Squadron in October 1912 and she participated in a naval review by President Raymond Poincaré on 10 June 1913 . In June 1914 , the Navy planned to assign Gaulois to the Training Division of the Squadron as of October , but this was cancelled upon the outbreak of war in August .
= = = World War I = = =
Together with the older French pre @-@ dreadnoughts , the ship 's first mission in the war was to escort troop convoys from North Africa to France . Later in September , her main turrets required repairs in Bizerte as the forward turret was having difficulty traversing . Following these repairs , Gaulois was ordered to Tenedos Island , not far from the Gallipoli Peninsula of Turkey , in November to guard against a sortie by the German battlecruiser Goeben . She relieved the battleship Suffren which needed a refit in Toulon . She became flagship of Rear Admiral Émile Guépratte upon her arrival on 15 November . He transferred his flag back to Suffren when she returned on 10 January 1915 .
During the bombardment of 19 February , Gaulois supported Suffren as the latter ship bombarded Turkish forts covering the mouth of the Dardanelles . Late in the day , she bombarded the fort at Orhaniye Tepe on the Asiatic side of the strait . During the subsequent bombardment on 25 February , the ship anchored some 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) from the Asiatic shore and engaged the forts at Kum Kale and Cape Helles . Their return fire was heavy enough to force Gaulois to up anchor before she could suppress their guns . Later in the day , she closed to within 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) of the forts and engaged them with her secondary armament . During the day 's action , the ship was hit twice , but these did little damage .
On 2 March , the French squadron bombarded targets in the Gulf of Saros , at the base of the Gallipoli Peninsula . Five days later , the French squadron attempted to suppress the Turkish guns while British battleships bombarded the fortifications . Gaulois was hit by a 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) shell during this attack that caused little damage as it failed to detonate . Admiral Guépratte and his squadron returned to the Gulf of Saros on 11 March where they again bombarded Turkish fortifications .
They returned to assist in the major attack on the fortifications planned for 18 March . British ships made the initial entry into the Dardanelles , but the French ships passed through them to engage the forts at closer range . Gaulois was hit twice during this bombardment ; the first shell struck the quarterdeck , but caused little damage other than deforming the deck . The second shell hit just above the waterline on the starboard bow and did little obvious damage . In reality , however , it pushed in the armour plates below the waterline and opened up a hole 7 metres ( 23 ft 0 in ) by 22 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) through which water flooded in . Little could be done to staunch the inflow and Captain Briard decided to head for the Rabbit Islands , north of Tenedos , where he could beach his ship for temporary repairs . He ordered the non @-@ essential crewmen off the ship in case she foundered en route , but managed to reach the islands , escorted by Charlemagne .
Gaulois was refloated on 22 March and departed for Toulon via Malta three days later , escorted by Suffren . They encountered a storm on 27 March off Cape Matapan and the ship began taking on water as the repairs began to leak under the pressure of the storm . She radioed for assistance later that night and the armoured cruiser Jules Ferry and three torpedo boats arrived several hours later . The ship arrived in the Bay of Navarin the following morning and more repairs were made . Gaulois arrived without further incident at Toulon on 16 April and entered drydock the following day . The Navy took the opportunity to increase her stability by lightening her masts , removing some armour from the superstructure and conning tower as well as dismounting two 100 mm and six 47 mm guns . In addition , the ship was fitted with an anti @-@ torpedo bulge that stretched between her bridge and aft superstructure to increase her beam and thus her stability .
Her repairs were completed by early June and Gaulois departed for the Dardanelles on 8 June . She reached Lemnos on 17 June and relieved her sister St Louis on 27 July . The ship anchored 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) off the shore on 11 August to bombarded a Turkish artillery battery at Achi Baba . Splinters from return fire detonated a 100 mm shell and started a small fire , but it was put out without much trouble . On her voyage home , Gaulois ran aground at the harbour entrance and had to unload most of her ammunition before she could be refloated on 21 August . Together with the pre @-@ dreadnought République , the ship covered the Allied evacuation from Gallipoli in January 1916 . Badly in need of a refit , she sailed for Brest on 20 August where her captain argued that the range of her main armament needed to be increased by 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) if she was to be considered fit for the battleline . Some thought was given to disarming her and converting her into a barracks ship , but nothing was done before the ship was ordered back to the Eastern Mediterranean on 25 November .
= = = = Fate = = = =
By 27 December 1916 , Gaulois had reached the Aegean Sea and was off the southern coast of Greece when she was torpedoed by the submarine UB @-@ 47 despite her escort of one destroyer and two armed trawlers . The explosion of the single torpedo hit slightly abaft the mainmast . It killed two crewmen and another pair drowned as they attempted to abandon ship . The ship capsized 22 minutes after being hit and sank 14 minutes later off Cape Maleas at 36 ° 15 ′ N 23 ° 42 ′ E.
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= Cynna Kydd =
Cynna Kydd ( née Neele ; born 18 September 1981 in Kyabram , Victoria ) is a former Australian professional netball player . Kydd achieved some success in netball and swimming in her early life , and played in the Dairy Farmers State League at the age of 16 . She was also selected for the national under @-@ 21 team in 1999 and was accepted by the Australian Institute of Sport , before launching her professional career .
Kydd was a goal shooter for the Melbourne Kestrels in the Commonwealth Bank Trophy from 2000 to 2006 , serving as club captain for the last two years . An accurate and high @-@ scoring shooter , she was one of the league 's top players of that era , winning the competition 's Most Valuable Player award for 2004 . She was also a frequent member of the Australian national netball team from 2003 to 2005 . Her career was hampered by injury and poor form in later years , and she struggled after being dropped from the national side in early 2005 and missing out on a return in time for the 2006 Commonwealth Games after sustaining a serious concussion late in the year .
Kydd made the surprise decision at the beginning of the 2006 season to transfer from the Kestrels , where she had been captain , to the club 's more successful rival , the Melbourne Phoenix , but she lasted only one season before walking away from the club to travel overseas . She subsequently signed with New Zealand club Canterbury Flames for the 2007 National Bank Cup season , but withdrew her services before playing a game due to injury . She subsequently moved to England , where she currently plays mixed minor grade netball .
= = Early life = =
Kydd was born in the Victorian regional town of Kyabram , and began playing competitive netball at age nine . Though also a talented swimmer , she was forced to make a choice between the two sports , and ultimately chose netball . She played for local and Goulburn Valley representative teams as a teenager and , in 1998 at the age of 16 , was selected to play for the dominant Eastside Netball Club in the state Dairy Farmers State League competition , alongside three national league players . Despite a regular three @-@ hour commute and having to juggle sporting commitments with studies at Kyabram Secondary College , she played an integral role in Eastside 's premiership that year . She was subsequently named in the state under @-@ 21 squad for the annual Australian National Netball Championships and in the Melbourne Kestrels squad for the 1999 season .
Despite never having played a national league game , Kydd was selected in the national under @-@ 21 ( U @-@ 21 ) team in 1999 , which , as a result of reforms made that year , automatically saw her admitted to the Australian Institute of Sport ( AIS ) . She spent the 1999 season playing for the AIS team in the Victorian state league , before switching to their South Australian counterparts for the 2000 season . Kydd , at 188 cm ( 6 ft 2 in ) tall , established a reputation as an effective shooter , and despite often missing matches as a result of her national U @-@ 21 team was a key part of the team .
= = Commonwealth Bank Trophy debut = =
Kydd made her debut for the Melbourne Kestrels in April 2000 but , because of her relative inexperience , was asked to play only two games for them over the season . She earned selection in the U @-@ 21 national squad to tour Jamaica in May , followed by a successful stint with the team as part of the squad for the Youth World Cup in Wales . At season 's end Kydd was named in the state open team for the national championships and , while remaining in the U @-@ 21 squad , was also named in the initial national open squad , despite having only played two national league games . However , the national squad was at the time enjoying an unusual glut of shooters , and she was cut amidst fierce competition from six other prominent players , all aiming at just three positions in the final team . Her disappointment was , however , partly offset when she won the Commonwealth Bank Trophy 's Best New Talent award , worth A $ 5 @,@ 000 , in February 2001 .
Kydd graduated from high school at the end of 2000 , and moved to Kensington , an inner suburb of Melbourne , in February 2001 to study tourism and hospitality at Victoria University . At the beginning of the 2001 season , two of the Kestrels ' main stars , Shelley O 'Donnell and Janine Ilitch , both announced that they would be sidelined for most or all of the season because of pregnancy , and Kydd was called upon to fill the vacancy . She became a core player instantly , and although the Kestrels struggled , Kydd formed an effective combination with goal shooter Amanda Burton ( who she had previously played with in the interstate competition ) . Kydd was among the team 's standout performers and was frequently praised in the media for both her accuracy and consistency , coming away at season 's end with 390 goals and the fifth highest scoring average in the competition . She continued to represent Australia in under @-@ 21 competition , being selected for several home matches against England and a tour of New Zealand , and was again selected in the national open squad in the lead @-@ up to the 2002 Commonwealth Games , but was once again cut from the final team .
= = Furthering her career = =
Though she had missed out on Commonwealth Games selection , Kydd had established a reputation as a particularly difficult opponent by the beginning of the 2002 Commonwealth Bank Trophy season . She was consistently among the league 's top goalers , particularly after she was again paired with Burton , due to the axing of struggling new recruit Kristy Doyle . She scored her 500th goal with the Kestrels in the middle of the season , and excelled against some particularly difficult opponents , including then @-@ Australian captain Kathryn Harby @-@ Williams . She was integral in helping the Kestrels make the semifinals for the first time since 1999 , and was the third @-@ highest scorer in the league . Kydd was again named in the extended national squad at the end of the season , and finally survived the cut , being named in the squad to tour Jamaica in early 2003 , beating rival shooters Jane Altschwager and Megan Dehn ( née Anderson ) for the vacancy caused by the retirement of veteran player Jacqui Delaney .
= = = International selection = = =
At only 21 Kydd was the youngest player on the tour of Jamaica and , while she toured with the remainder of the team , was overlooked for a Test position . She finally made her full début against South Africa not long afterwards , and managed to cement her position with a superb performance , managing an accuracy rate of 94 % in the third Test . This performance , along with similar form in the national league , led to her selection in the starting squad for the 2003 Netball World Championships . She played every game in the world championships in July at the expense of ageing veteran Eloise Southby , a decision which was the cause of some controversy . She subsequently helped the Kestrels to the elimination final and , at the end of the season , was named as the team 's new vice @-@ captain , with predecessor Janine Ilitch assuming the captaincy . She also won the coveted Commonwealth Bank Trophy Player 's Player Award , and tied for third in the Most Valuable Player count .
= = = Career peak = = =
With the experience gained from several seasons in the national league , Kydd reached her peak in 2004 . She was rarely troubled in the national league all year , scoring 436 goals at an average accuracy of 79 % ; statistics among the best in the league . Although Burton had retired , creating a supporting void that the Kestrels struggled to fill , she again played a vital role in the team reaching the finals series . She also established her place as a regular member of the national team , playing in Test series against South Africa and New Zealand and a practice match against England . Though she struggled initially against the Silver Ferns , Kydd improved over the space of the series and was awarded player of the match in the third Test . At the end of the tour , she was given some praise for being among Australia 's best in what had been an otherwise disastrous series . She was rewarded for her form when she was a surprise choice for the 2004 Commonwealth Bank Trophy Most Valuable Player Award , being selected over favourite veteran internationals Catherine Cox and Sharelle McMahon . When captain Ilitch was ruled out for 2005 because of pregnancy , Kydd was the natural choice to replace her , and she was soon announced as the Kestrels ' new leader .
= = Form slump and injuries = =
Kydd graduated from university at the end of 2004 , but had significant difficulty finding employment as her netball commitments scared off prospective employers . She also became engaged to Garth Kydd , a member of the Australian men 's netball team , whom she married in April 2006 . Kydd was widely expected to again feature among the league 's best , however , she was disappointing against South Africa in February . She also struggled in the opening games of the national league season , a result largely attributed to nerves associated with the captaincy . She began to recover her form , but in May broke her finger . She continued to play but the injury severely inhibited her performance for four weeks . In June she was dropped from the national team for the first time in two years as a result of poor form and injury , with national coach Norma Plummer stating that she was " very disappointed that [ Kydd had ] let it drop " and that she " never thought she would have to [ cut her from the team ] " . The ageing Southby @-@ Halbish was brought in to replace her and Kydd admitted that her accuracy had been well below ideal levels . She improved markedly over the following two rounds , but on 23 July suffered major concussion after being hit hard in the head during a match against the Adelaide Thunderbirds , which required her to be taken to hospital . A brilliant performance against the Perth Orioles the following week seemed to suggest a quick recovery , however she was dogged with complications for the remainder of the season .
In an attempt to regain her position in the national squad , Kydd attended the extended squad 's first training camp in September 2005 , but was one of several players forced out after succumbing to a virus . She was subsequently left out of the team for a practice tour of Jamaica and New Zealand in the lead @-@ up to the 2006 Commonwealth Games , but continued her efforts to make the team for the Games . Finally , on 10 December 2005 , she voluntarily withdrew her name from selection , noting ongoing complications from the earlier concussion ( team doctors stated that she had probably attempted to return too quickly ) and low motivation .
= = Defection to the Melbourne Phoenix = =
After withdrawing from the Commonwealth Games squad , Kydd took a four @-@ month hiatus from the sport in order to recover from injury and regain motivation . She married fiancée Garth in April 2006 , and though widely known by her maiden name , decided to take on her husband 's surname . Kydd began the process of re @-@ signing with the Kestrels for the 2006 season , and returned to training with the club with March 2006 , but stunned the team when she defected to more successful rival Melbourne Phoenix only three weeks before the start of the season . The defection caused notable antagonism between the traditional rivals with Kydd 's former coach , Jane Searle and several team @-@ mates expressing shock at the suddenness of the switch .
After six years at the Kestrels , the defection saw Kydd forced to adapt to a new shooting combination with veteran international Sharelle McMahon . As she had had little opportunity to train with the new team before the opening of the season , the pair initially had some difficulty adjusting to each other 's style . After a tenuous start , however , the pair found form , and were able to form a relatively successful combination . Kydd scored 360 goals in the season , and assisted the Phoenix in becoming the top scoring side for the season , although occasionally patchy form from the team as a whole saw the Phoenix slip outside the top two at season 's end . Kydd was overlooked for a return to international selection during the 2006 – 07 season .
In October 2006 , Kydd announced that she was leaving the Phoenix after just one season , a move that stunned coach Julie Hoornweg . Kydd said that she was travelling overseas with her husband , leading to speculation she would play in New Zealand . Hoornweg said that if she had known that Kydd would not keep her long term commitment , then she would have rather invested in young talent , referring to Kydd as a " player at risk " . In November , New Zealand 's Canterbury Flames announced Kydd in their squad for the 2007 National Bank Cup . Her contract was to start in February 2007 , so that she could fulfil work commitments with Youth Hostels Association , Victoria . However , Kydd withdrew her services to the Flames without playing a match , citing medical advice , due to a concussion incident . In late 2007 , Kydd was playing mixed netball in the United Kingdom in the PIM Mixed A competition .
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= Cake ( band ) =
Cake ( stylized CAKE ) is an American alternative rock band from Sacramento , California . Consisting of singer John McCrea , trumpeter Vince DiFiore , guitarist Xan McCurdy , bassist Gabe Nelson and drummer Paulo Baldi , the band has been noted for McCrea 's sarcastic lyrics and monotone vocals , DiFiore 's trumpet parts , and their wide @-@ ranging musical influences , including country music , Mariachi , rock , funk , Iranian folk music and hip hop . There is also an UK based alternative rock band existent with the same name .
Cake was formed in 1991 by McCrea , DiFiore , Greg Brown , Frank French and Shon Meckfessel , who soon left and was replaced by Nelson . Following the self @-@ release of its debut album , Motorcade of Generosity , the band was signed to Capricorn Records in 1995 and released its first single , " Rock ' n ' Roll Lifestyle " , which hit number 35 on the Modern Rock Tracks music chart and was featured on MTV 's 120 Minutes ; French and Nelson then left the band , and were replaced by Todd Roper and Victor Damiani . Cake 's second album , 1996 's Fashion Nugget , went platinum on the strength of its lead single , " The Distance " . Following a tour of Europe and the United States , both Brown and Damiani announced they were leaving Cake , which led to speculation about the band 's future ; McCrea eventually recruited Xan McCurdy to take over on guitar , and persuaded Nelson to return .
Prolonging the Magic , the band 's third album , was released in 1998 and went platinum , having shipped over one million units ; this was followed three years later by Comfort Eagle , the band 's first album on Columbia Records , featuring the single " Short Skirt / Long Jacket " which hit number 7 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . Following a series of tours , including several versions of the Unlimited Sunshine Tour , the band released Pressure Chief in 2004 , its second and last album on Columbia . After creating its own label , Upbeat Records , the band released Showroom of Compassion in 2011 , which became its first album to debut at the top of the Billboard charts , selling 44 @,@ 000 copies in the first week after release .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Motorcade of Generosity ( 1991 – 1996 ) = = =
Cake was formed in 1991 when John McCrea , a Sacramento , California native who had moved to Los Angeles with a band only to see it " quickly crumble around him " , returned to Sacramento . He began looking for a new band to play with , having " grown tired of Sacramento 's coffeehouse circuit " , and quickly attracted trumpet player Vince DiFiore , guitarist Greg Brown , bassist Shon Meckfessel and drummer Frank French . All were active in the music scene at the time ; DiFiore notes that " [ McCrea ] came back and stole us from other bands " . The band soon came up with the name " Cake " ; rather than referring to the foodstuff , the name is meant to be " like when something insidiously becomes a part of your life ... [ we ] mean it more as something that cakes onto your shoe and is just sort of there until you get rid of it " . McFessel soon left to attend college , and was replaced by Gabe Nelson . After touring and becoming part of the club scene in San Francisco , the band independently recorded and released Motorcade of Generosity in 1994 , selling copies from their van as a method of paying touring expenses .
Motorcade was named one of the best indie releases of 1994 by Pulse ! , and after a concert at the Great American Music Hall Bonnie Simmons agreed to manage the band , leading to them signing a deal with Capricorn Records , who re @-@ released the album in 1995 . The first single , Rock ' n ' Roll Lifestyle , hit number 35 on the Modern Rock Tracks music chart and was featured on MTV 's 120 Minutes . Critical reactions to the album were largely positive ; Stephen Thompson in the Wisconsin State Journal described it as possessing " great lyrics , creative instrumentation and production that 's about as simple as production gets " , Thomas Conner praised it for being " soulful and smooth , witty and gritty , this record makes the ghosts of Bob Wills , Buddy Holly and Lou Reed smile " in the Tulsa World , and Matt Weitz in the Dallas Observer noted its " gimlet eye and sardonic humor " . The album was eventually nominated for a Bammy Award in the category of " Outstanding Debut Album " .
Nevertheless , some critics were less appreciative ; John Wirt , in The Advocate , praised the album 's sense of humor and " delicious " irreverence but noted that " [ the ] musicianship in Motorcade of Generosity suggests the Cake guys are mediocre players " . Mindy LaBernz , in The Austin Chronicle , described the album as " cover @-@ free , and , since we 're on the subject , genre @-@ free . A quartet made five by a trumpet player , Cake carry themselves with the snittiness of technically proficient , lyrically aware music lovers , who are almost anachronistically untrendy and brazenly proud of it " . The signing to Capricorn and re @-@ release of Motorcade led to both French and Nelson leaving the band , citing their dislike of " the prospect of extensive national touring " ; they were replaced by Todd Roper and Victor Damiani respectively .
= = = Fashion Nugget ( 1996 – 1998 ) = = =
Fashion Nugget , Cake 's second album , was released on September 17 , 1996 . Like Motorcade , it was produced by the band and released on Capricorn Records . Cake considered the album more professionally produced than Motorcade , despite references to its " raw " sound , and the reception was again generally positive ; critics noted the broadening of Cake 's sound , with Joshua Green noting in the Westword that " Nugget spans a broader range of topics than did Motorcade , with similarly appealing results " , and Matt Weitz in the Dallas Observer saying that " The gimlet eye and sardonic humor of 1994 's Motorcade of Generosity is intact , but Fashion Nugget is aptly named ; it updates Motorcade with beatboxy soul and hip @-@ hop rhythms " . The album 's first single , " The Distance " , written by Greg Brown , became the band 's biggest hit to date and is considered their " ubiquitous " song ; it hit number 5 on the RPM Alternative 30 , and entered the Modern Rock Tracks top 5 .
On the strength of " The Distance " , Fashion Nugget was certified gold on December 9 , 1996 and platinum on April 10 , 1997 . The second single from Fashion Nugget , a cover of the Freddie Perren and Dino Fekaris song " I Will Survive " , hit number 38 on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart . Although the band described it as a serious take on the original , one they 'd been playing live for years , original performer Gloria Gaynor considers it her least favorite version of the song due to its use of profanity . Following Fashion Nugget 's release , the band toured the United States , playing in cities including Tulsa , Chicago , Salt Lake City , Los Angeles , San Antonio , and Dallas . They later toured overseas , visiting the United Kingdom as a support act for Counting Crows , playing their own shows alongside the tour at venues including Dingwalls in London . The band also toured Japan ; a later tour of the US , starting in Minneapolis in June 1997 , was cancelled due to illness when McCrea was diagnosed with " fatigue and extreme exhaustion " . After McCrea recovered , the band continued touring , playing at the Big Stink festival in Vancouver , Washington , and the Jayhawk Music Festival in Lawrence , Kansas .
1997 also saw lineup changes ; bassist Victor Damiani and guitarist Greg Brown both left , prompting speculation about the band 's survival ; McCrea noted that " Musically , there was a really great symbiosis and I really felt that it ( their departures , especially Brown 's ) was the most stupid thing in the world " , and said that he had considered dissolving the band . Brown and Damiani formed the " new @-@ wave influenced " Deathray ; their places within Cake were taken by Xan McCurdy and Gabe Nelson , whom McCrea persuaded to rejoin the band .
= = = Prolonging the Magic ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = =
With Brown and Damiani 's departure , McCrea felt " freer to experiment " with the next album , 1998 's Prolonging the Magic ; he wrote and produced every song . As a result of this experimentation , the album was noted as " loaded with spiced @-@ up instrumentation , including a few new ingredients like the pedal steel guitar and musical saw thrown in for extra flavour " . McCrea stated that he deliberately " approached writing this record without the guitar as the central assumption of all life in the universe " . Music Week described it as an " inspired collection of leftfield rock " , while Thor Christensen of The Dallas Morning News said that it " brims with the same dry humor the Sacramento band displayed in past hits such as ' The Distance ' and ' Rock and Roll Lifestyle ' : The leadoff track , ' Satan Is My Motor , ' puts a devilish new spin on the rock ' n ' roll car @-@ song tradition , while ' When You Sleep ' revolves around the question of what your fingers do while the rest of the body snoozes " . Other reviewers were less complimentary , with Mike Pattenden in The Times writing that " Prolonging the Magic suggests that [ Cake ] may well be destined to go down as one @-@ hit wonders ... While a handful stand out – the country waltz Mexico , You Turn the Screws and Hem of Your Garment – Prolonging the Magic shows McRea and company to be little more than an above average bar @-@ room act . Cake are surviving on songwriting crumbs " . The album peaked at number 33 on the Billboard 200 , was listed in The Columbian as the second best album of 1998 , and eventually went platinum after shipping over 1 million units .
The album 's first single , " Never There " , hit number 1 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks , and was followed by " Let Me Go " in 1999 , which hit number 30 . Following Prolonging the Magic 's release , the band toured the United States , playing in cities including San Diego and Los Angeles . A tour of Europe was temporarily postponed in March after McCrea broke a bone in his hand while moving furniture , which also led to the delay of the European release of Prolonging the Magic . Both the album release and the tour happened in mid @-@ April , with Cake playing at the London Astoria . Later show locations in North America included Chicago , St. Louis , Missouri , and Toronto . A third single , " Sheep Go to Heaven " , was released in 2001 .
= = = Comfort Eagle ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = =
For their fourth album , Comfort Eagle , the band signed a deal with Columbia Records . Comfort Eagle was both produced and arranged by the band , and was recorded at Paradise Studios in Sacramento and Hyde Street Studios in San Francisco . Following the recording , drummer Todd Roper left the band , citing the demands extended touring would put on his time , and the commitments his two children , Griffin and Bella represented . He was replaced by Pete McNeal . The album 's release was preceded by the release of its first single , " Short Skirt / Long Jacket " , described as a parable about " the relationship between prosperity and the population boom ... There 's nothing more procreational than economic prosperity " . An accompanying video was directed by McCrea , and recorded using the DV system ; it featured vox populi recordings of members of the public listening to the song and giving their opinion . " Short Skirt / Long Jacket " hit number 2 on the Bear Rock Top 10 in Canada and number 7 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks ; the video became one of the 30 most requested tracks on MTV ; Billboard writers later listed the video as the 5th best of 2001 .
Comfort Eagle itself was released on July 24 , 2001 , to good reviews ; Michael D. Clark of The Houston Chronicle described it as " Cake at its best " , while a reviewer for The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution stated that the album 's songs were " among the best of the band 's career " , praising McCrea for widening his vocal repertoire . James Montgomery , writing for UWIRE , noted a stylistic change , saying that " While the core sound of the band – honky tonk guitars , mariachi horns and salsa rhythms – remain intact , they have been stripped down to the core , replaced instead with ill Casio beats , rubbery funk and Stax @-@ style horn bleats " . The album sold 22 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , the highest sales in the band 's history , and eventually went gold . With the exception of a slot at the Atlanta On The Bricks Festival , playing for 90 @,@ 000 people , the band chose to start the tour with small rather than large shows , such as in the Sacramento area , where they played for around 100 people . They launched their first full tour for the album in September , playing in the United States , Canada and across Europe .
A second single , " Love You Madly " , was released in 2002 , with an accompanying video again produced by McCrea . The video featured DiFiore and McNeal competing in a cooking competition , judged by Rick James , Phyllis Diller and Jeff Smith , and was noted by Billboard as " continuing the fresh , witty , and downright fun style seen in the " Short Skirt " video " . Cake had planned a second tour of Europe , followed by a series of shows around the United States , but in view of the September 11 attacks chose not to travel overseas . Instead , the band streamed a performance internationally from the Yahoo ! headquarters in California , playing emailed requests . The United States tour went ahead as planned , with Cake playing concerts in Birmingham , Alabama , St. Petersburg , Florida , Salt Lake City , and Las Vegas . This was followed by the Unlimited Sunshine Tour , a traveling festival headlined and planned by the band and featuring Modest Mouse , De La Soul and The Flaming Lips . A second Unlimited Sunshine Tour was undertaken in 2003 , featuring Cake , Cheap Trick and The Hackensaw Boys .
= = = Pressure Chief / B @-@ Sides and Rarities ( 2004 – 2011 ) = = =
Cake 's fifth album , Pressure Chief , was recorded in June 2004 in a converted house in Sacramento ; the album was again released on Columbia Records . Before its official release date on October 5 , the band played at the Austin City Limits Music Festival and KBCO 's World Class Rockfest . The album was also preceded by its first single , " No Phone " , which hit number 13 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart ; the song covered the ubiquitous and privacy @-@ invading use of cell phones , and was described by Jeremy Mahadevan of the New Straits Times as " a traditionally minimalist Cake anthem , with a killer melody and , unique to this album , fairly extensive use of synths " . A second single , " Wheels " , was also released but failed to chart . Pressure Chief itself hit number 17 on the Billboard top 200 , spending 7 weeks in the charts , and received mixed reviews from critics . Although it was acknowledged as a continuation of their old work , albeit with an increased use of synthesisers , Sam Spies of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch noted that " the experiments in style that made Cake fun to listen to have all but disappeared from ' Pressure Chief ' ... What 's left is mostly uninspired , so @-@ called alternative rock " , and Graeme Hammond of the Sunday Herald Sun wrote that " the melodies are listless , the album bereft of anything with the verve of Short Skirt / Long Jacket or Comfort Eagle " .
Other critics were more generous ; Doug Elfman of the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal called it " another great and bizarre , twangy album of alternative @-@ singer @-@ songwriting stories about cars and horrible relationships " , while a reviewer in the New Straits Times noted its " smart , subtly dissident , and always catchy pop " . Following Pressure Chief 's release , the band toured North America , playing in cities including Albany , New York , and Montreal . A second tour , in 2005 , saw the band headline the 20 @-@ city Virgin College Mega Tour , playing alongside Gomez ; while the Tour was in California , the band announced that it had been dropped from Columbia Records . This was followed by a tour of Europe , as well as concerts in Australia and Jakarta , along with a 2006 repeat of the Unlimited Sunshine Tour , featuring Cake , Tegan and Sara and Gogol Bordello .
Cake later formed their own label , Upbeat Records , which allowed them to release the compilation album B @-@ Sides and Rarities on August 14 , 2007 . This was followed by a series of concerts , including at the IndigO2 in London , and a performance in Anchorage , Alaska . Reviews of B @-@ Sides and Rarities were generally good ; Devin Grant of The Post and Courier wrote that " For an album full of odds and ends , this Cake release is every bit as good , and every bit as fun , as the band 's previous studio releases " , while Catherine P. Lewis of The Washington Post noted that , although several live tracks reduced the album 's strength , " there are still enough charming nuggets to make this album less disposable than the typical rarities compilation " .
= = = Showroom of Compassion and upcoming seventh studio album ( 2011 – present ) = = =
After six years without a new studio album , Cake recorded Showroom of Compassion in 2010 and released it on January 11 , 2011 . Rather than having it professionally recorded , the band built their own solar @-@ powered studio in Sacramento over five years and chose to produce the album themselves there . The album was preceded by its first single , " Sick of You " , which was released in September 2010 , hitting number 4 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart . The album itself opened at number 1 on the Billboard Top 200 Albums , selling 44 @,@ 000 copies ; this marked not only the first time a Cake album had hit the number 1 spot in an opening week , but also the lowest sales numbers for an album at the top of that chart .
The album received fairly good reviews ; Scott Bergen of The Record described it as " one of their best albums " , while Jim Farber of the Daily News wrote that " Fifteen years after they batted out their first left @-@ field hit with ' The Distance , ' the band 's sound and words still have bite " . George Lang of The Oklahoman , however , wrote that it was " frustratingly lacking in many more songs worthy of the band 's late- ' 90s boom period " . To promote the album , Cake performed on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno before releasing Showroom of Compassion 's second single , " Long Time " . This was followed by a spring tour of both Europe and North America , concluding with a show in Toronto on May 21 .
On February 26 , 2011 , Cake performed a live set for " Guitar Center Sessions " on DirecTV . The episode included an interview with program host Nic Harcourt . In September 2011 , Cake released a 24 @-@ page , hand @-@ made visual book for their song , Bound Away . They will release a vinyl box set consisting of their six studio albums , their rarities album and the previously unreleased , Live at the Crystal Palace for Record Store Day 2014 . A new studio album was announced for an early 2014 release , although in September 2014 McCrea admitted they hadn 't yet begun to record a new album .
= = Influences and musical style = =
Cake incorporates a wide range of genres into its music , including country music , Mariachi , new wave , college rock , jazz , funk , Iranian folk music , Brazilian music and hip hop . McCrea himself cites Hank Williams , Tom Zé , the Golden Gate Quartet and Sly and the Family Stone as particular influences . The band is most often noted for three things : the prominence of DiFiore 's trumpet lines , McCrea 's ironic , sarcastic lyrics , and his " droll , deadpan ... monotone " vocals . DiFiore 's trumpet work originated with McCrea 's desire for a second melodic instrument to go with a song he had written ; " A lead guitar playing those lines would have been really hokey . I like it when it 's a contrapuntal thing , where the guitar is doing one melody , the vocal is doing another melody , and the trumpet plays this third melody . If the music can be transparent enough , you can hear all three at the same time " .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Motorcade of Generosity ( 1994 )
Fashion Nugget ( 1996 )
Prolonging the Magic ( 1998 )
Comfort Eagle ( 2001 )
Pressure Chief ( 2004 )
Showroom of Compassion ( 2011 )
= = Awards = =
Cake have been nominated for five awards : four California Music Awards and one MTV Video Music Award .
= = Band members = =
Current members
John McCrea – lead vocals , acoustic guitar , piano , organ , vibraslap ( 1991 – present )
Vince DiFiore – trumpet , keyboards , melodica , auxiliary percussion , background vocals ( 1991 – present )
Gabe Nelson – bass , background vocals ( 1992 – 1994 , 1997 – present )
Xan McCurdy – electric guitar , background vocals ( 1997 – present )
Paulo Baldi – drums , percussion , background vocals ( 2004 – present )
Former members
Shon Meckfessel – bass , background vocals ( 1991 )
Frank French – drums , background vocals ( 1991 – 1994 )
Greg Brown – electric guitar , organ , background vocals ( 1991 – 1997 )
Victor Damiani – bass , background vocals ( 1994 – 1997 )
Todd Roper – drums , background vocals ( 1994 – 2001 )
Pete McNeal – drums , background vocals ( 2001 – 2004 )
Timeline
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= USS Montana ( ACR @-@ 13 ) =
USS Montana ( ACR @-@ 13 / CA @-@ 13 ) , also referred to as " Armored Cruiser No. 13 " , later renamed Missoula and reclassified CA @-@ 13 , was a Tennessee @-@ class armored cruiser of the United States Navy . She was built by the Newport News Drydock & Shipbuilding Co . ; her keel was laid down in April 1905 , she was launched in December 1906 , and she was commissioned in July 1908 . The final class of armored cruisers to be built for the US Navy , Montana and her sisters were armed with a main battery of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns , and were capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
Montana spent her active duty career in the Atlantic Fleet . She made two cruises to the Mediterranean Sea to protect American citizens in the Ottoman Empire , the first in 1909 in the aftermath of the Young Turk Revolution and the second during the Balkan Wars in 1913 . Montana was also involved in political unrest in Central American countries , sending landing parties ashore in Haiti and in Mexico during the Occupation of Veracruz , both in 1914 .
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Montana was tasked with convoy escort and training ship duties . With the end of the war in November 1918 came a new task , transporting American soldiers back from the battlefields of Europe . She made six round trips to France and carried back a total of 8 @,@ 800 men . Montana was then transferred to the Puget Sound Naval Yard in Washington State , where she was decommissioned and renamed Missoula . She remained in the reserve fleet until 1930 , when she was stricken under the terms of the London Naval Treaty . The ship was eventually sold for scrap in 1935 and broken up .
= = Design = =
Montana was 504 ft 6 in ( 153 @.@ 77 m ) long overall and had beam of 72 feet 10 inches ( 22 @.@ 20 m ) and a draft of 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) normally and up to 15 @,@ 981 long tons ( 16 @,@ 237 t ) at full load . The ship was propelled by two 4 @-@ cylinder , vertical triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam provided by sixteen coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers trunked into four funnels . The engines were rated at 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 22 knots ( 25 mph ; 41 km / h ) . She had a storage capacity for up to 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 6 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 000 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 914 officers and men . Originally fitted with a pair of military masts , Montana had her foremast replaced with a cage mast in 1911 .
Montana was armed with a main battery of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber Mark 3 guns in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . These were supported by a secondary battery of sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber Mark 8 guns mounted in casemates , eight on each broadside . For defense against torpedo boats , she carried twenty @-@ two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber guns in single pedestal mounts either in casemates or sponsons in the hull . She also carried a variety of smaller guns , including twelve 3 @-@ pounder automatic guns and four 1 @-@ pounders . Like other contemporary armored cruisers , she was also armed with four 21 inches ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes located below the waterline in her hull . Montana was protected by a combination of Krupp cemented steel and older Harvey steel . The ship 's armored belt was 5 in ( 127 mm ) thick and the maximum thickness of the armor deck was 3 in thick . The main battery turret faces were 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick , as were the sides of the conning tower .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Montana was laid down at the Newport News Drydock & Shipbuilding Co. in Newport News on 29 April 1905 . Her completed hull was launched on 15 December 1906 , and after fitting @-@ out work was completed , the new cruiser was commissioned into the United States Navy on 21 July 1908 . She was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet and was transferred to Norfolk , Virginia . Montana steamed out of Norfolk on 5 August for a cruise off the eastern coast of the United States that lasted until 25 January 1909 .
After a stop in Charleston , South Carolina , she continued south through the Caribbean Sea , arriving at Colón , Panama on 29 January . There , she joined the Special Service Squadron . This duty was interrupted twice ; the first came in February , when she returned to Hampton Roads , Virginia , where she and the rest of the Atlantic Fleet greeted the Great White Fleet at the conclusion of its circumnavigation of the globe . The second came in April , owing to instability in the Ottoman Empire following the Young Turk Revolution that threatened American interests . Montana departed Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , on 2 April , when she was sent to the Mediterranean to protect Americans in the region . She remained there until 23 July , when she left Gibraltar , arriving in Boston on 3 August . She thereafter returned to her normal operations patrolling the eastern coast of the United States .
Montana departed Hampton Roads on 8 April 1910 , bound for South America for the Argentina Centennial . She steamed in company with her sister ship North Carolina , eventually reaching Maldonado , Uruguay , where the two cruisers met their sister Tennessee and the armored cruiser South Dakota , which had steamed down independently . The four ships then continued on to Bahía Blanca , Argentina , for the centennial celebrations . The ship left Argentina on 30 June and arrived back in Hampton Roads on 22 July . After resuming her normal peacetime routine for the following three months , Montana was tasked with escorting President William Howard Taft aboard Tennessee for a trip to Panama . The two ships departed Charleston on 10 November for the visit , which lasted a week . On 26 July 1911 , Montana was transferred to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and she began an overhaul at the Portsmouth Navy Yard that lasted until 11 November 1912 . During the overhaul , a cage mast was installed in place of her original fore military mast .
After returning to service in late 1912 , Montana made another trip to the eastern Mediterranean , departing in December . Montana again joined Tennessee for the patrol , which was ordered in response to the Balkan Wars between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League , which again threatened American interests in the region . The ships operated under the command of Rear Admiral Austin M. Knight . During the trip , which lasted until June 1913 , she made stops in Beirut , İskenderun , and Mersin . After returning to the United States , the ship resumed her peacetime routine of training cruises off the American east coast , as well as cruises to Mexico , Cuba , and Haiti , over the following year . During this period , on 23 January 1914 , Montana was in Haiti when Michel Oreste abdicated from the presidency . Montana and the German protected cruiser SMS Vineta landed marines in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince to prevent rioting in the capital . Later that year , Montana took part in the United States occupation of Veracruz , where the ship 's commander , Louis McCoy Nulton , led a landing party in the city during the occupation . Montana also carried the remains on the seventeen sailors and marines who had been killed in the fighting back to New York City , arriving on 10 May . There , the Navy held a ceremony attended by President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels .
= = = World War I = = =
After the United States entered World War I on 6 April 1917 , Montana initially was tasked with transporting men and materiel in the York River area , along with conducting training exercises . On 17 July , she was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force ; she spent the majority of 1917 and 1918 escorting convoys from Hampton Roads , New York City , and Halifax , Nova Scotia to France . These operations included a troopship convoy of four transports — Finland , Henderson , Antilles , and San Jacinto — carrying part of the American Expeditionary Forces on 6 August 1917 . In early 1918 , she was briefly used as a training ship for naval cadets from the United States Naval Academy in the Chesapeake Bay . A troopship convoy followed in June 1918 in company with the cruisers South Dakota and Huntington and the destroyers Gregory and Fairfax , protecting the Italian steamers Re d 'Italia , Caserta , and Duca d 'Aosta , the French Patria , and American transports Pocahontas and Susquehanna .
In September 1918 , Montana took part in another troopship convoy to France with the battleship Georgia , the armored cruiser North Carolina , and the destroyer Rathburne . The convoy consisted of the transports Princess Matoika , President Grant , Mongolia , Rijndam , Wilhelmina , British steamer Ascanius . The following month she joined the battleship Nebraska to escort twelve British merchant ships bound for Liverpool . Following the Allied victory in November 1918 , Montana was sent to France to begin the process of transporting American soldiers back from Europe . By July 1919 , she had made six round trips between France and the United States , carrying a total of some 8 @,@ 800 American soldiers .
After the conclusion of the repatriation effort , Montana was transferred to the west coast of the United States . She arrived in the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Seattle on 16 August , where she remained until 2 February 1921 , when she was decommissioned . During this period of inactivity , she was renamed Missoula on 7 June 1920 so her original name could be used for one of the planned South Dakota @-@ class battleships , and she reclassified with the hull number CA @-@ 13 . Though decommissioned in 1921 , the ship remained in the Navy 's inventory until 15 July 1930 , when she was formally stricken from the naval register , according to the terms of the London Naval Treaty , which placed aggregate tonnage limits on the cruiser fleets of the signatory countries . She was sold to John Irwin Jr. on 29 September and was eventually broken up in 1935 .
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= Simone Russell =
Simone Russell is a fictional character on the American soap opera Passions , which aired on NBC from 1999 to 2007 and on DirecTV in 2007 – 08 . Passions followed the romantic and supernatural adventures in the fictional New England coastal town of Harmony .
Simone , a member of Passions ' Russell family , is introduced as the youngest daughter of Eve Russell and T. C. Russell , as well as the younger sister of Whitney Russell . While her early appearances center her love triangle with Chad Harris @-@ Crane and her sister Whitney , the character later receives more prominence on the show through her experience coming out as a lesbian to her family , and her relationship with Rae Thomas . The network defended the show 's treatment of Simone 's sexuality as a serious commentary on the topic .
Created by the soap 's founder and head writer James E. Reilly , the role was portrayed by three actresses over the course of the show : Lena Cardwell ( July 5 , 1999 to April 16 , 2001 ) , Chrystee Pharris ( April 17 , 2001 to April 22 , 2004 ) , and Cathy Jenéen Doe ( July 23 , 2004 – September 4 , 2007 ) . The character was created as a part of the show 's effort to represent a full African @-@ American family and full @-@ realized African @-@ American characters on television . The exact reasons behind Cardwell 's departure remain unknown while Pharris chose to leave to pursue other acting opportunities . Doe was the third and final actress to play Simone before the character was written off the show shortly before its transition to DirecTV .
Her storyline made daytime television history by having the first instance in a soap opera of two women in bed making love . The character is also notable for being daytime TV 's first African @-@ American lesbian . At the 17th GLAAD Media Awards , the show won Outstanding Daily Drama for its portrayal of Simone 's sexual orientation . The show 's representation of LGBT topics , and Cathy Jenéen Doe 's performance as Simone , received a mixed response from critics ; Doe was the principal actress during the storylines focusing on the character 's sexuality .
= = Character creation = =
= = = Background = = =
Sheraton Kalouria , senior vice president of NBC ’ s daytime programming , described the decision to create and cast a racially diverse ensemble , as seen with the inclusion of " the African American Russells and the Hispanic Lopez @-@ Fitzgeralds " in the soap 's four core families , as reflective of the show 's " truly color @-@ blind storytelling . " The cast emphasized the representation of an African @-@ American family and fully realized African @-@ American characters as the main attraction to the roles . Charles Divins , one of the actors who played Chad Harris @-@ Crane , viewed the show 's treatment of the Russells as " a strong African American family " as " refreshing . " Rodney Van Johnson praised the incorporation of a complete African @-@ American family as distinguishing Passions from other soap operas . He attributed the cast as bringing more positive portrayals of African @-@ Americans to daytime television :
" We are the only daytime drama with a full African @-@ American family . The Russells have a key role in the community . There aren 't just a flash in the pan . The storylines are heavy . The show has received a huge response from the African @-@ American community for that reason . "
= = = Characterization and casting = = =
Over the course of the show , Simone was played by three actresses : Lena Cardwell ( 1999 to 2001 ) , Chrystee Pharris ( 2001 to 2004 ) , and Cathy Jenéen Doe ( 2004 to 2007 ) . After seeing her audition , producers Reilly and Lisa de Cazotte considered the role ideal for Lena Cardwell . The show initially constructed the character primarily around her " major crush on street @-@ kid Chad Harris since he came to town . " Daniel R. Coleridge of TV Guide characterized Simone 's early behavior as " bitchy to her older sister , who was nothing but kind to her . " Variety 's Josef referred to the character as a " daredevil teen . " Cast members expressed disappointment at Cardwell 's departure from the show and the re @-@ casting of Simone . Tracey Ross described Cardwell as being " very sincere , completely authentic and without malice " in her performance . Johnson viewed himself as " a father figure to her " and said their close relationship helped make the Russell family more authentic and relatable to viewers . After leaving the show , Cardwell said she " received so much fan mail , it was overwhelming " and the experience " made me feel loved and appreciated . "
When assuming the role in 2001 , Pharris said her preparation consisted of asking her friends " as many questions as I could think of about Simone , Whitney and Chad " in order to make " the character my own by putting my own life experiences in the situation " . She commented that the ability to work closely with the producers allowed her to use her own family background as inspiration for her performance as Simone . While discussing the connection to her family , she stated : " my father had a temper so I made Simone have a temper too ! " Pharris explained she did not renew her contract in order to pursue other projects .
Doe was hired for the third and final recasting after moving to Los Angeles from New York , where she was primarily offered the role of " a runaway teenager , a prostitute , a drug dealer " . Initially hesitant to assume a character already established by other actors , she shaped her performance through her friendship with Pharris ; she described Pharris as " a really [ positive ] person " who answered her questions about the character . When discussing the decision to portray Simone as a lesbian , Kalouria emphasized " sexual identity isn 't a passing fancy " and " this is where [ Simone ] is ... I can assure you we 're not going to make light of this particular topic . "
= = Storylines = =
Born in 1983 , Simone Russell is the youngest daughter of T.C. and Eve Russell , and the younger sister of Whitney Russell . Her early storylines concentrate on her reluctant participation in her friend Kay Bennett 's schemes to separate Miguel Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald from Charity Standish and her attraction to Chad @-@ Harris Crane . Chad and Whitney hide their relationship from Simone to the point where Chad pretends to be Simone 's boyfriend to keep her happy . After catching Chad and Whitney having sex , she breaks with him and tells everyone in Harmony about his relationship with her sister .
Disconnected from her sister , Simone becomes close friends with Kay 's younger sister Jessica Bennett and Miguel 's younger sister Paloma Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald and turns to them for support . Simone acts primarily in a supporting role for these two character 's storylines , such as advising Paloma to divorce her abusive husband Spike Lester and seek professional help for her drug addiction . She briefly dates John Hastings , who is the son of David Hastings . At the time , John was falsely believed to be Grace Standish 's son and the half @-@ brother of Kay and Jessica . Simone 's relationship with John ends in 2004 when he moves to Italy with David and Grace .
In the summer of 2005 , Simone comes out as a lesbian by revealing her relationship with Rae Thomas to her family . Her family reacts negatively to her sexual orientation . T.C. beats her and says he is ashamed to be her father . Eve panics and is concerned that her daughter 's reputation will suffer if the rest of Harmony learns of her sexuality . Simone 's sexuality is regarded as " a badge of shame " by the characters Simone 's great @-@ aunt , Irma Johnson , describes homosexuality as a sin and calls her " vile " and " disgusting " . Simone turns to her mother for emotional support after Rae rebukes her declarations of love by revealing that she has no interest in a committed relationship . In December 2005 , Eve , Julian , Liz , and T.C. find a video from Alistair Crane , in which he claims to have hired Rae to seduce Simone and " turn " her into a lesbian . Rae later explains that the money is intended to start a lesbian club and that she was never hired to " turn " Simone gay . As she reconciles with Rae , Simone reconnects with her family . Her father , who recently suffered from a stroke following a car accident , apologizes for his homophobic behavior toward her . Her mother also becomes more supportive of her relationship .
Viewers saw the set @-@ up for the ending of Simone 's romance with Rae through the beginning of 2007 . Rae finds out Vincent Clarkson was framing Luis Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald for his girlfriend Fancy Crane 's rape . On February 12 , 2007 , Vincent stabs Rae to death before she can reveal his identity to Luis . Simone attempts to cope with Rae 's death by helping Jessica through her pregnancy . She invites Jessica to live in Rae 's old apartment so they can protect the baby from Spike . Eve , who was previously being blackmailed by Vincent , tells Simone the truth about Rae 's murder . Simone leaves Harmony with her sister Whitney to start a new life in New Orleans . She does not make a physical appearing during the show 's run on DirecTV or in the series finale . In July 2008 , Simone sends a letter to Kay congratulating her on her wedding to Miguel and includes a pair of earrings as the " something new . "
= = Impact and reception = =
Passions won the award for Outstanding Daily Drama at the 17th GLAAD Media Awards for its portrayal of Simone 's sexuality and her relationship with Rae . Doe accepted the award during the ceremony on the show 's behalf . The soap opera made daytime television history by having the first representation of two women in bed making love .
Simone 's storyline about coming out as a lesbian received mixed feedback from critics and media outlets . The Atlantic 's Aaron Foley connected the show 's inclusion of a black , lesbian character as a sign of " America bec [ oming ] more comfortable with seeing blacks on screen " and viewers " bec [ oming ] more comfortable with risky , sometimes hilarious storylines " . Foley commented the storyline was " short @-@ lived " . An article on Soaps.com noted that Simone would be remembered as " a character who broke down some barriers for the depiction of lesbians on daytime TV and earned the show awards and accolades from civil rights groups " . Damon Romine , media entertainment director of GLAAD ( 2005 @-@ 2009 ) , reported the introduction of gay characters makes soap operas " worth tuning in " and emphasized the show 's capability of normalizing LGBT topics with a wider audience :
" These stories have the ability to reach the many different generations of viewers who watch daytime and share with them stories of our lives , he says . What viewers are seeing is that more and more of their own neighbors and friends are dealing with these issues , and the soaps are merely reflecting the reality of the world we live in . "
Sarah Warn , former editor of entertainment website AfterEllen.com , gave the show a negative review calling the relationship " a poorly developed plot that has reduced Simone to a one @-@ dimensional character who happened to sleep with a girl . " Warn points out that viewers " haven 't had the chance to see this woman through her eyes " as the show does not attempt to fully explore her sexuality ; she expressed disappointment that Simone 's past relationships with men , and her possible bisexuality , are never addressed on the show . Despite the criticism , Warn praised the show for providing a more realistic representation of lesbian sexuality than the " one three @-@ minute scene than All My Children did in five years " .
Cathy Jenéen Doe received mixed feedback for her performance of the character . Doe was listed as a pre @-@ nominee for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for the 34th Daytime Emmy Awards alongside co @-@ star Emily Harper , but was not chosen as one of the final nominees . Warn criticized Doe and Jinario for being " horribly matched as scene partners " and lacking chemistry .
Simone 's storyline received frequent comparisons by critics to the soap 's treatment of Chad 's struggle with his sexuality , and Vincent 's identification as intersex . Herndon L. Davis of Windy City Times described the representation of Simone as daytime 's first African @-@ American lesbian as overshadowed by how the show " recklessly wrote a down @-@ low storyline which involved an African @-@ American man but eventually turned it into an outrageous intersex serial killer storyline " . Davis said the soap opera tackled " daytime 's bitter issue with race " .
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= Cupid at the Circus =
Cupid at the Circus is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is a romance with a storyline focused around a country boy who follows a circus parade to the circus grounds and becomes intent on sneaking into the show . He is discovered , but before he can be ejected , a girl asks her father to buy him a ticket of admission . Thankful , the boy gives her his pocket knife . Years later the two meet again and when he sees her using his pocket knife . He proposes and she accepts . Not too much is known for certain about the production of this film , including the writer , director and photographer credits . The circus scenes were done with special arrangement by Barnum & Bailey . The film was released on May 20 , 1910 to favorable reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a surviving official synopsis was published in The Moving Picture World . It states : " Tom Wilk is a poor country lad , living alone with his stepfather , who ill @-@ treats him . Tom leaves his work one day to follow a circus parade . He is fascinated with the wonders of the parade and follows it to the circus grounds , around which he stays all morning , and is finally tempted by his great wish to see the show , to crawl under the tent . He is discovered by a circus guard , and ordered off the ground . A small girl , Lillie Lockwood , and her father come to the circus , and witness Tom 's ejection . Urged by his daughter , Lillie 's father buys Tom a ticket of admission , giving him his first happy day . In return , Tom gives Lillie , as a keepsake , his most treasured possession , his pocket knife . On returning home , Tom is severely chastised by his step @-@ father , after which he decides to run away . He walks to a neighboring town , and is there engaged as an office boy by Gates , a lawyer . After some years of faithful service , in various capacities , Tom becomes a member of the firm . Lillie obtains a position as a stenographer in their office . She and Tom do not recognize each other , until Tom accidentally sees in her hand the little knife he had given her in the long ago . He declares he had loved her through the years , and has been patiently waiting for her , so the romance that began at the circus finds a happy climax at the altar . "
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as Tom Gates ( adult ) / alternatively Tom Wilk in the synopsis
Anna Rosemond as Lillie Lockwood ( adult )
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it may have been Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . While the director of the film is not known , two Thanhouser directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production nor does Bowers credit a cameraman . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The two known credits in the film are for the leading players , Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane . Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company and joined in the autumn of 1909 . Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company from 1909 . Crane 's was the first leading man of the company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser .
The setting of the film included Barnum and Bailey circus that were shot by a special arrangement with Mr. Barnum and Bailey . The date of the filming is unknown , but the 1910 route of Barnum & Bailey 's Greatest Show on Earth indicates that it the circus was in New York between March 24 through April 30 . The circus was at Madison Square Garden from March 24 through April 22 and it moved to Brooklyn , New York for April 25 through April 30 . The circus would go to Philadelphia , Washington D. C. , Baltimore , Maryland , and Wilmington , Delaware before moving back up through New Jersey on May 14 through May 18 . According to one review in the Santa Cruz Sentinel , the film showed " ... the Barnum and Bailey circus from the time they arrive at the lot until after the show . "
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel film was released on Friday May 20 , 1910 . There are different records for the length of the reel . According to Bowers , the film was 975 feet long , but one trade publication listed it as being 940 feet long . The film was advertised in theaters in Kansas , Nebraska , Pennsylvania , Missouri , Minnesota , Indiana , and California . The film was released one day before the Barnum and Bailey tent caught fire in Schenectady , New York . The May 21 fire did not result in injury or loss of life , but was caused an estimated $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages , equivalent to $ 254 @,@ 000 in 2015 .
The film was met with favorable reviews from critics . The Morning Telegraph offers general praise for the good photography and the well @-@ told story . The Nickelodeon was equally positive and began to reflect the acting , staging and photography was up to the regular standard of the Thanhouser company . The New York Dramatic Mirror offered additional comments on the Thanhouser company 's higher standards in their productions , but gave an otherwise positive review that focused on the novelty of the circus scenes .
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= Good Mourning ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" Good Mourning " is the first episode of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 103rd episode overall . It was written by Krista Vernoff and directed by Ed Ornelas . The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on September 24 , 2009 . In " Good Mourning " , the physicians are seen dealing with the revelation that a dead John Doe is their beloved co @-@ worker Dr. George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) , and dealing with the aftermath of Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) ' s near @-@ death experience . Further storylines include Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) and Stevens trying to decide whether or not to donate O 'Malley 's organs and Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) being offered Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) ' s chief of surgery job .
The episode was the first part of the two @-@ hour season six premiere , the second being " Goodbye " , and took place at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital . " Good Mourning " was the first episode that Knight did not appear in , following an early release from his contract , and Jessica Capshaw ( Dr. Arizona Robbins ) ' first episode in which she received star billing , having been upgraded from a recurring star . Mitch Pileggi reprised his role as a guest star , in addition to Debra Monk , Shannon Lucio and Zoe Boyle . " Good Mourning " opened to generally positive critical reviews , with Ramirez 's performance praised in particular . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 17 @.@ 03 million Americans , and garnered a 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking first for the night .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens to a voice @-@ over narrative from Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , explaining the Kübler @-@ Ross model , that is the five stages of grief . At the conclusion of season five 's finale , Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) and Dr. George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) both flatlined , from cancer and being dragged by a bus , respectively , and the opening of the episode reveals Stevens to have been revived , while O 'Malley has been pronounced brain dead . O 'Malley 's former wife Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) informs her colleagues that he has died , and suffers an emotional breakdown , hyperventilating . O 'Malley 's death had been implied in the first episode when he asks " We 're gonna survive this , right ? " with Grey answering nothing .
It is unknown whether or not O 'Malley is an organ donor , and the chief of surgery Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) calls O 'Malley 's mother , Louise ( Debra Monk ) , as she is his next of kin . Following Stevens ' resuscitation , she is unaware that O 'Malley has died , and her husband Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) decides not to tell her , with fear that she might go into circulatory shock and lose consciousness again . Pediatric surgeon Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) is introduced to a patient , with body pain , whom she diagnoses with growing pains .
Louise O 'Malley arrives at the hospital , and asks Torres to decide if O 'Malley 's organs will be donated . The victim of a speedboat accident , Clara Ferguson ( Zoe Boyle ) , arrives at the hospital in an ambulance , with both of her arms and one of her legs amputated . She is attended to by plastic surgeon Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , who informs her that her cut @-@ off arms can be reattached . The hospital 's president , Larry Jennings ( Mitch Pileggi ) , explains to neurosuregon Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) that Webber has not been substantially completing his role as chief of surgery , and offers Shepherd the job . Karev reveals O 'Malley 's death to Stevens , and Torres seeks her help in deciding whether or not to donate O 'Malley 's organs . Stevens opinionates that O 'Malley would give all his organs , and the two come to a mutual conclusion that donation is the correct option . Prior to the harvesting of his organs , O 'Malley 's former mentor Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) is uneasy about donating his organs , but soon comes to terms with the situation . Several days later , at O 'Malley 's funeral , the woman O 'Malley saved , Amanda ( Shannon Lucio ) is shown hysterically crying while Karev , Stevens , Meredith , and Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) are laughing — unable to deal with their true emotions . After the funeral , O 'Malley 's former best friend Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) is designated the job of emptying out his locker , but breaks down . Bailey subsequently discharges Stevens , and Robbins ' body pain patient returns , with chronic pain , though Robbins is unable to diagnose him . Torres approaches Webber , seeking information as to whether or not her application to become an attending surgeon has been accepted . Webber explains that the job is no longer available , as the surgeon who was going to retire , ultimately did not . Torres becomes enraged , saying that the current surgeon who has the job is a dinosaur , and storms out while yelling : " I 'm a superstar " . The episode closes with Lexie consoling the speedboat victim , Ferguson .
= = Production = =
" Good Mourning " was written by Krista Vernoff and directed by Ed Ornelas . Joe Mitacek edited the episode and Donald Lee Harris served as production designer . Featured music includes Sweet Honey in the Rock 's " Wade in the Water " and Joy Williams ' " Speaking a Dead Language " . " Good Mourning " is the first episode not to feature Knight 's character , O 'Malley . Knight was released from his contract at the conclusion of season five , following a disagreement with series creator Shonda Rhimes over lack of screen time for his character . When asked to make a ' flashback ' appearance in season six , Knight declined .
Vernoff offered her thoughts on the death of O 'Malley : " It 's heartbreaking . I fell in love with George , like many of you did , in season one . He was impulsive , big @-@ hearted , and yeah , it 's that heart that had him jump in front of a moving bus to save a life . It 's a devastating end to a beloved character , but I would argue with anyone who said it wasn 't a fitting end . " In the episode , Shepherd was offered the position of chief of surgery , but postponed his decision , due to Webber being his friend . Vernoff offered her insight on this :
" Derek was pretty freakin ' noble . So noble ! Cause you KNOW how much he wants that job . It was the promise of the Chiefdom that brought him to Seattle from NYC to begin with . And right here , the job was his for the taking . And out of loyalty and friendship , he went to [ Webber ] and warned him . "
The scene in which O 'Malley 's colleagues were laughing at his funeral was one of Vernoff 's favorite scenes . She added : " Shonda gave me smart notes that enhanced the writing and then the wonderful director Ed Ornelas and the amazing DP Herb Davis and the whole crew that support them made it visually beautiful and then the actors … damn , did they all bring their A game to this scene . And then there are the editors and music folks and the people who color correct everything and mix the sound … It 's a collaboration . What it takes to make good TV is a huge coming together of a great many artists . What it takes to make great TV is all that plus a little magic and a little luck . And that ’ s what I feel like we had with this scene . It 's so funny and so bittersweet and so , so sad . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
" Good Mourning " was originally broadcast on September 24 , 2009 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . It was viewed by a total of 17 @.@ 04 million Americans , in its 9 : 00 Eastern time @-@ slot . The episode was the series ' second least @-@ viewed season premiere , up to that point , just ahead of the season one premiere — " A Hard Day 's Night " . In comparison to the previous episode , " Good Mourning " made a 0 @.@ 08 % decrease in terms of viewership . However , the episode 's viewership ranked first in both its time @-@ slot and the entire night , beating out CBS 's juggernaut CSI . In addition to being a success in viewership , the episode also did well in ratings . " Good Mourning " ' s 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating ranked first in its time @-@ slot and the entire night , for both the rating and share percentages of the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode also received a rating of 10 @.@ 9 / 18 in the 18 @-@ 34 demographic , beating out CBS 's The Mentalist , and ranking first in the ratings and shares for the demographic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode opened to generally positive feedback , and aired back @-@ to @-@ back with the next episode , " Goodbye " , as a two @-@ hour season premiere special . Alan Sepinwall of NJ.com commented on the two episodes being conjoined into one week : " I keep going back and forth on whether it was a good idea to do that , or if we 'd have been better off spacing out the tearful speeches over two weeks . That isn 't to say that there shouldn 't have been tears , or speeches . George 's death , no matter how marginal he had become last season , is and should be a huge event in the lives of these characters . Had the show raced through Elizabeth Kubler @-@ Ross 's famous five stages of grief , it would have rang false , as if everyone making the show was in a hurry to move past the events of the wildly uneven fifth season . My problem is , when you put two episodes back @-@ to @-@ back , those rhythms - the pace at which the acts build to emotional crescendos and then briefly recede - start to become too predictable , and it sucks some of the life and emotion away . " Sepinwall also praised Wilson 's , Ramirez 's , and Chamber 's performances , in addition to the laughing at O 'Malley 's funeral .
Michael Pascua of The Huffington Post also praised Ramirez 's performance , calling her " the most genuine character " . Although he enjoyed Ramirez 's performance , Pascua was critical of the rest of the episode , writing : " The funeral wasn 't as sad as I thought it would be . There were so many pre @-@ episode pictures up that I thought the funeral would take up half the show , then it was five minutes and it wasn 't sad at all . The core group walked away and Izzie spread the giggles . She laughs at the fact that she has cancer , like this was all some really badly written show . Oh wait , it is . "
Kelly West of TV Blend was also critical of the episode , writing : " I don 't think based on the first episode that we can say that Grey 's is headed in a new direction , nor do I think the writers are making much of an effort to bring the series back to the greatness that was its earlier seasons . That said , this is Grey 's Anatomy and with that comes the usual drama , sex , love and whacky medical mysteries thrown in the mix to keep things moving . If that 's what you ’ re looking for , I think you 'll enjoy the season premiere just fine . " Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV noted that the special foreshadowed a " very dark " season , adding : " The talk between George 's mom and one of the surgeons [ Torres ] proved to be one of the more heart @-@ breaking scenes in an episode that in itself is heartbreaking enough . "
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= Dick Padden =
Richard Joseph " Dick " Padden ( September 17 , 1870 – October 31 , 1922 ) , nicknamed " Brains " , was an American professional baseball player , born in Wheeling , West Virginia , who played mainly as a second baseman in Major League Baseball for nine seasons from 1896 to 1905 .
After playing a season and a half in the minor leagues , the right @-@ handed infielder began his major league career for the Pittsburgh Pirates . He played three seasons in Pittsburgh , from 1896 to 1898 , before playing one season for the Washington Senators in 1899 . He returned to the minor leagues for the 1900 season , where he was the player @-@ manager for the Chicago White Sox , then a minor league team . When the Chicago club entered the American League , a major league , the following season , he moved on to play one season for the St. Louis Cardinals , before becoming Captain of the St. Louis Browns from 1902 and 1905 . In total , Padden played in 874 games , and collected 814 hits in 3545 at bats , for a lifetime batting average of .258 . He finished in the league 's top @-@ ten finishers in being hit by pitches six times , including a league @-@ leading 18 in 1904 .
Padden 's post @-@ career activities included duties as a talent scout for the St. Louis Browns and the Washington Senators , as well a lengthy career in the flint glass industry in Ohio . After retiring , he attempted to gain the Democratic Party nomination for the 1912 mayoral race in his hometown of Martin 's Ferry , Ohio . He died there , in 1922 , at the age of 52 of apoplexy .
= = Career = =
= = = Pittsburgh = = =
Padden began his professional career with the Roanoke Magicians , a minor league club in the Virginia State League in 1895 , where he played with and managed the team to a 52 – 74 win – loss record . During the 1896 season , the Pittsburgh Pirates manager , Connie Mack , was seeking a replacement for Harry Truby , his second baseman , who was not performing well , when Padden caught his attention . Padden was playing for the Toronto Canadiens in the Eastern League , and had a reputation of being a smart and quick player with good instincts , as well as a " careful , timely batsman " . Based on his need to upgrade his second base position , and Padden 's good reputation , Mack traded Truby for him . He began his major league career shortly thereafter on July 15 , one day after Truby 's final game in the majors . When Padden did not bat well to start the season , Mack and Pittsburgh 's president and part owner , William Kerr , began to feud over the decision , with Kerr questioning Mack over whether they should have traded Truby . However , his hitting improved and he completed the season with a .242 batting average in 61 games played .
In 1897 , with the Pirates , he led all National League second basemen with 134 games played , and 369 putouts . Besides games played , he established career highs in several batting categories that season , including ; 517 at bats , 84 runs scored , 146 hits , 10 triples , and tied his career high in home runs with two . He made 128 appearances in 1898 , again as their starting second baseman . His statistical output dropped from his previous season ; his batting average lowered to .257 , and scored 61 runs in 463 at bats .
= = = Washington = = =
On December 14 , 1898 , after the season was completed , Padden was traded , along with Jack O 'Brien and Jimmy Slagle , to the Washington Senators in exchange for Heinie Reitz . He played the 1899 season in Washington , and appeared in 134 games as their starting shortstop . He had a batting average of .277 , established his career high in stolen bases ( 27 ) , and was ejected from the game by the umpire three times , which led the league .
= = = Chicago = = =
Following the 1899 season , the Senators franchise ceased operations , which resulted in Padden 's sale , along with O 'Brien , to the Detroit Tigers of the American League , which was a minor league at the time . However , before the 1900 season began , he joined the Chicago White Sox , also a minor league team , as their player @-@ manager instead . On May 16 , he was involved in a physical altercation with Ducky Holmes and another Detroit player . While playing a doubleheader on September 16 , against Connie Mack and his Milwaukee team , Padden suggested to Mack that the second game be shortened to five innings due to the fact that the first game lasted just over three hours , and they might not finish the second game before darkness . Mack , who estimated that he could get five more good innings from his game one starting pitcher , Rube Waddell , quickly agreed . Padden 's suggestion backfired , and turned into a successful strategy for Mack , whose team , with Waddell pitching , won the game . Despite that incident , Padden and his leadership skills led the White Sox to the American League championship that season .
= = = St. Louis = = =
The White Sox stayed with the American League as they became a major league in 1901 , but Padden moved on to play for the St. Louis Cardinals of the National League . He was the team 's starting second baseman , and played in a total of 123 games . He had a batting average of .256 that season , and again led the league in ejections , with five ; however , he stole 26 bases , he had 62 RBIs , his highest single season total .
After his lone season with the Cardinals , Padden , along with many of his teammates deserted to the newly created St. Louis Browns franchise , which was scheduled to begin playing in 1902 in the American League . Padden was Captain of the Browns during his time on the team . In both 1902 and 1904 , he was the Browns ' starting second baseman , and were the only two of his four seasons with the club in which he played in more than 29 games . He led the league in hit by a pitches with 18 in 1904 , the only time in which he led the league in this category , although he did finish in the league 's top @-@ ten five times previously . On May 19 , 1905 , after 16 games , Padden was released by the Browns , and his major league career came to an end .
= = Post @-@ major league career = =
Padden was the player @-@ manager for the minor league team St. Paul Saints of the American Association for the 1906 season . He had a batting average of .288 that year , and hit three home runs . He stayed with the Saints for the 1907 season , but as a player only . After 52 games played , his season ended when he sprained his ankle . After his injury , he and his Saints manager , Mr. Ashenbach attempted to buy the Daytona team of the Eastern League , but were unsuccessful . He had hoped that his ankle would heal , so that he could be ready for the next season , but he never appeared as a player after the injury .
Following his retirement as a player , Padden returned to his old team and became a talent scout for the Browns in 1909 . He also became a talent scout for the Senators and worked in the flint glass industry in Ohio . Alfred Henry Spink described him as " one of the real foxy fellows of the baseball world . He could field beautifully and was never better than when being hard driven . " Padden retired to Martins Ferry , Ohio where in 1912 , he tried to secure the Democratic Party nomination for the mayoral race . He died in Martins Ferry of apoplexy on October 31 , 1922 at the age of 52 , and is interred at St. Marys Cemetery .
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= Cyclone Monica =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Monica was the most intense tropical cyclone , in terms of maximum sustained winds , on record to impact Australia . The 17th and final storm of the 2005 – 06 Australian region cyclone season , Monica originated from an area of low pressure off the coast of Papua New Guinea on 16 April 2006 . The storm quickly developed into a Category 1 cyclone the next day , at which time it was given the name Monica . Travelling towards the west , the storm intensified into a severe tropical cyclone before making landfall in Far North Queensland , near Lockhart River , on 19 April 2006 . After moving over land , convection associated with the storm quickly became disorganised .
On 20 April 2006 , Monica emerged into the Gulf of Carpentaria and began to re @-@ intensify . Over the following few days , deep convection formed around a 37 km ( 23 mi ) wide eye . Early on 22 April 2006 , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) assessed Monica to have attained Category 5 status , on the Australian cyclone intensity scale . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also upgraded Monica to a Category 5 equivalent cyclone , on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm attained its peak intensity the following day with winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a barometric pressure of 916 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) . On 24 April 2006 , Monica made landfall about 35 km ( 22 mi ) west of Maningrida , at the same intensity . Rapid weakening took place as the storm moved over land . Less than 24 hours after landfall , the storm had weakened to a tropical low . The remnants of the former @-@ Category 5 cyclone persisted until 28 April 2006 over northern Australia .
In contrast to the extreme intensity of the cyclone , relatively little structural damage resulted from it . No injuries were reported to have occurred during the storm 's existence and losses were estimated to be A $ 6 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 1 million ) . However , severe environmental damage took place . In the Northern Territory , an area about 7 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 300 mi2 ) was defoliated by Monica 's high wind gusts . In response to the large loss of forested area , it was stated that it would take several hundred years for the area to reflourish .
= = Meteorological history = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Monica originated from an area of low pressure that formed early on 16 April 2006 off the coast of Papua New Guinea . The low quickly became organised , with deep convection developing over the low @-@ pressure centre . Later that day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as the system became increasingly organised . Early the next day , the Bureau of Meteorology in Brisbane , Australia declared that the low had developed into a Category 1 cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone scale , with winds reaching 65 km / h ( 40 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Upon being classified as a cyclone , the storm was given the name Monica . At the same time , the JWTC designated Monica as Tropical Cyclone 23P . Monica tracked generally westward , towards Far North Queensland , in response to a low to mid @-@ level ridge to the south .
Low wind shear and good divergence in the path of the storm allowed for continued intensification as continued westward . Late on 17 April 2006 , Monica intensified into a Category 2 Cyclone , with winds reaching 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . By 1200 UTC on 18 April 2006 , the Bureau of Meteorology upgraded Monica to a severe tropical cyclone , a Category 3 on the Australian scale . This followed an increase in the storm 's outflow and a fluctuating central dense overcast . Several hours later , the JTWC upgraded Monica to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . During the afternoon of 19 April 2006 , the storm made landfall roughly 40 km ( 25 mi ) south @-@ southeast of the Lockhart River with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . At the same time , the JTWC assessed Monica to have intensified into a Category 2 equivalent storm with winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .
Shortly after making landfall , convection associated with the storm deteriorated and the outflow became fragmented . A shortwave trough to the south caused the ridge steering Monica to weaken , leading to the cyclone moving slower . After moving over land , the storm began to weaken , with the Bureau of Meteorology downgrading the storm to weaken to Category 1 cyclone and the JTWC downgraded the cyclone to a tropical storm . The following day , Monica moved offshore , entering the Gulf of Carpentaria . Once back over water , favourable atmospheric conditions allowed the storm to quickly intensify . Within 24 @-@ hours of moving over water , Monica re @-@ attained severe tropical cyclone status . Following a shift in steering currents , the storm slowed significantly and turned north @-@ westward . Steady intensification continued through 22 April 2006 as the storm remained in a region of low wind shear and favourable diffluence . Early on 22 April 2006 the Bureau of Meteorology upgraded Monica to a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone , the third of the season . By this time , a 37 km ( 23 mi ) wide eye had developed within the central dense overcast of the cyclone . Later that day , the JTWC assessed Monica to have intensified into a Category 5 equivalent storm .
Cyclone Monica attained its peak intensity on 23 April 2006 near Cape Wessel with a barometric pressure 916 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) . Maximum winds were estimated at 250 km / h ( 155 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) by the Bureau of Meteorology while the JTWC assessed it to have attained winds of 285 km / h ( 180 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Using the Dvorak technique , the peak intensity of the cyclone was estimated at T @-@ number of 7 @.@ 5 according to the Satellite Analysis Branch ( SAB ) , yet the Advanced Dvorak Technique of the CIMSS automatically estimated at T8.0 , the highest ranking on the Dvorak Scale . However , since the JTWC , SAB and CIMSS are not the official warning centres for Australian cyclones , these intensities remain unofficial .
On 24 April 2006 , the mid @-@ level ridge south of Monica weakened , causing the storm to turn towards the south @-@ west . Following this , the storm made landfall in the Northern Territory , roughly 35 km ( 22 mi ) west of Maningrida , as a Category 5 cyclone with winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Not long after making landfall , the storm weakened extremely quickly . Most convective activity associated with the storm dissipated within nine hours of moving onshore . This resulted in the storm 's maximum winds decreasing by 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) in a 12 @-@ hour span . After this rapid weakening , the storm turned sharply west moving over the town of Jabiru as a Category 2 cyclone . Within six hours of passing this town , the Bureau of Meteorology downgraded Monica to a tropical low , no longer producing gale @-@ force winds . The JTWC issued their final advisory on the storm at 1800 UTC that day . The remnants of Monica persisted for several more days , tracking near Darwin on 25 April 2006 before turning south @-@ east and accelerating over the Northern Territory . The remnants eventually dissipated on 28 April 2006 over central Australia .
= = = Intensity estimates = = =
The Bureau of Meteorology uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one @-@ minute sustained winds . The Bureau of Meteorology 's peak intensity for Monica was 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Monica was 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained , or 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
While the storm was active the Bureau of Meteorology 's Darwin Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre estimated that Monica , had peaked with a minimum pressure of 905 hPa ( 26 @.@ 72 inHg ) . However , during their post analysis of Monica , the Darwin Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre estimated using the Love @-@ Murphy pressure @-@ wind relationship , that the system had a minimum pressure of 916 hPa ( 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) . However , since then the BoM has started to use the Knaff , Zehr and Courtney pressure @-@ wind relationship , which has estimated that Monica had a minimum pressure of 905 hPa ( 26 @.@ 72 inHg ) . Other pressure estimates include the Joint Typhoon Warning Center 's post analysis estimated pressure of 879 hPa ( 25 @.@ 96 inHg ) and the University of Wisconsin @-@ Madison 's Advanced Dvorak Technique which estimated a minimum pressure of 868 @.@ 5 hPa ( 25 @.@ 65 inHg ) . The Advanced Dvorak Technique pressure estimate would suggest that the system was the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded worldwide as the pressure is below that of the current world record holder , Typhoon Tip of 1979 . In 2010 , Stephen Durden of NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory studied Cyclone Monica 's minimum pressure and suggested that the system likely peaked between 900 – 920 hPa ( 26 @.@ 58 – 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) and strongly refuted claims that Monica was the strongest tropical cyclone on record .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Queensland = = =
Upon being declared as Tropical Cyclone Monica on 17 April 2006 , the Bureau of Meteorology issued a gale warning for areas along the eastern coast of Far North Queensland . Several hours later , a cyclone warning was issued for north @-@ eastern areas as the storm intensified . An estimated 1 @,@ 000 people were planned to be evacuated in Far North Queensland before officials shut down major highways in the area . Ferry services in the Great Barrier Reef and flights in and out of the region were cancelled . However , no evacuations took place according to the Emergency Management in Australia . An aborigine community of 700 , located around the mouth of the Lockhart River , were in the direct path of the storm . The chief executive officer of the community stated that they were ready for the storm , having suffered no losses from Cyclone Ingrid which impacted the same area in 2005 .
Little damage was recorded in Queensland , despite Cyclone Monica being a Category 3 cyclone , as the storm impacted a sparsely populated region of the Cape York peninsula . A storm surge of 1 @.@ 23 m ( 4 ft ) was recorded in Mossman and waves were recorded up to 4 @.@ 24 m ( 13 @.@ 91 ft ) in Weipa . Heavy rainfall was also associated with the storm , exceeding 400 mm ( 16 in ) near where Monica made landfall . Wind gusts up to 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) were recorded as the storm traversed the peninsula . Officials reported about 15 % of the structures along the Lockhart River sustained minor damages and no fatalities were caused as a result of the cyclone . Minor coastal flooding was also reported due to Monica . Three Torres Strait Islanders were rescued after 22 days drifting at sea in the wake of the cyclone passing through the Torres Strait , north of mainland Queensland .
= = = Northern Territory = = =
Officials closed schools throughout the region in advance of the storm on 24 April 2006 and advised people to evacuate . A 10 pm curfew was also put in place to keep people off the streets during the night . Local tours in the territory were postponed or cancelled due to the storm . Several flights in and out of Darwin were also cancelled , as was the Darwin Anzac Day march . Alcan , the world 's second @-@ largest aluminium producer , warned customers of potential interruptions to supplies on contracts from its Gove refinery . Rio Tinto 's Ranger Uranium Mine ceased operations on 24 April 2006 , " as a precautionary measure " .
At one point , Monica was forecast to pass directly over Goulburn Island . In response , officials evacuated the island 's 337 residents to shelters set up in Pine Creek . Numerous schools in the threatened region , especially in Darwin , were closed ahead of Monica 's arrival . Several shelters were opened in Darwin early on 24 April in anticipation of an influx of evacuees . Stores throughout the area reported increased sales for storm supplies , with some reducing prices on specific items . The same day , the Darwin Returned and Services League of Australia cancelled all ANZAC Day services and marches in Darwin that were to be held the next day , to ensure the safety of prospective participants .
The Wessel Islands , located off the coast of the region , suffered significant damage from the storm . Mangrove trees were uprooted throughout the islands and sand dunes were destroyed . An outstation located on one of the islands was destroyed by the cyclone . The highest 24 @-@ hour rainfall from the storm was recorded near Darwin at 340 mm ( 13 in ) . A storm total for the same area was recorded at 383 mm ( 15 @.@ 1 in ) , surpassing the rainfall record for the entire month of April set in 1953 . Although the storm made landfall at peak intensity in Australia 's Northern Territory , the impacted areas were sparsely populated . Around the region where Monica made landfall , evidence of a 5 – 6 m ( 16 @.@ 4 – 19 @.@ 6 ft ) storm surge was present in Junction Bay . Along an area 50 km ( 30 mi ) wide and 130 km ( 80 mi ) long , countless trees were snapped or uprooted by the storm . Nearly 70 % of the forested areas around the bay were destroyed or defoliated by the storms ' 360 km / h ( 225 mph ) wind gusts . An estimated 7 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 350 mi2 ) of trees were downed by the storm with large areas of trees being uprooted .
Power lines were felled by high winds in Maningrida , 12 homes sustained damage from fallen trees in Jabiru , and extensive damage was reported in Oenpelli . Roughly 1 @,@ 000 people also lost phone service in the region . Several highways were blocked by fallen trees throughout the area . A resort in Jabiru sustained significant damage and was closed for two weeks following the storm . Insured damages to the national parks amounted to A $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 766 @,@ 000 ) . According to the Northern Territory Insurance Office , structural damage from Cyclone Monica amounted to A $ 5 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 4 million ) . The remnants of Monica produced significant rainfall over parts of the Northern Territory several days after the system weakened below cyclone status . Flash flooding was reported throughout the Adelaide River basin as up to 261 mm ( 10 @.@ 3 in ) of rain fell in a 24 @-@ hour span . On 26 April 2006 , the remnants of Monica spawned a small tornado near Channel Point ; several mangrove trees were snapped and branches were thrown to nearby beaches .
= = Aftermath = =
The Queensland Government State Disaster Management Group dispatched relief helicopters to remote communities for evacuation of people in flood zones and transport of relief workers . Relief efforts were already underway in relation to Cyclone Larry which caused significant damage in Queensland . The Government of Australia assisted affected business by providing disaster loans up to A $ 25 @,@ 000 for severely impacted areas and A $ 10 @,@ 000 for less affected areas . Farmers were also provided with up to $ 200 @,@ 000 in loans over a period of nine years . Following the impacts in the Northern Territory , two cleanup teams were dispatched from Darwin to assist in cleanup efforts in the hardest hit regions . In a study of the Arnhem forests which were devastated by the cyclone , environmentalists reported that it would take over 100 years for the forest to recover . The storm 's winds snapped numerous trees , estimated to have been over 200 years old and more than 60 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter . It is estimated that it would take several hundred years before trees of similar sizes would flourish in the region . Despite the minimal damage caused by Monica , the name was retired from the circulating lists of tropical cyclone names for the Australian Region .
Within weeks of the storm , the Alligator Rivers Region Advisory Committee began planting seedlings in deforested areas . By August 2006 , a review of the growth of the new plants found that 81 % to 88 % of the seeds had survived and begun growing . To fully restore the South Alligator valley , environmentalists requested A $ 7 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 6 million ) in funds . In a study at Magela Creek a year after the storm , it was determined that between 8 % and 19 % of the tree canopy lost due to the storm had begun to recover . Additional studies at the Gulungul Creek and the Alligator Rivers region revealed that suspended sediment values in flowing water had temporarily increased in the wake of Monica . The above @-@ average values persisted for roughly a year before the streams returned to pre @-@ cyclone sediment levels .
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= The Boat Race 2002 =
The 148th Boat Race took place on 30 March 2002 . Oxford won the race by three @-@ quarters of a length , one of the narrowest margins of victory in the history of the contest .
In the reserve race Isis beat Goldie ; Oxford also won the Women 's race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual competition between Oxford University and Cambridge University . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2001 race by 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) , and led overall with 77 victories to Oxford 's 69 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Aberdeen Asset Management for the third consecutive year .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
Despite weighing just over 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) less per man than their opponents , Cambridge were the pre @-@ race favourites . Both boats contained four Blues ; the Oxford cox Peter Hackworth attended St Paul 's School while Cambridge 's cox Ellie Griggs attended St Paul 's Girls ' School , so both were familiar with the course . Oxford 's crew contained two American international rowers in Dan Perkins and Luke McGee , and Gerritjan Eggenkamp , a Dutch international . Cambridge 's stroke , Rick Dunn , cousin of Oxford 's bow Andrew Dunn , was a world champion in coxless fours , and he rowed alongside fellow British internationals Tom Stallard and Josh West . Cambridge 's other international rowers included American Sam Brooks , German Sebastian Mayer and Australian Stu Welch .
( P ) – Boat Club President
= = Race description = =
Cambridge won the coin toss and elected to start from the northern bank ( the " Middlesex side " ) of the Thames . Despite Cambridge 's cox Griggs having her hand raised ( to indicate that she and the Cambridge crew were not yet ready to commence ) , race umpire Simon Harris started the race . With a stroke rate of 51 , Oxford took an early lead , but Cambridge pulled level as the crews passed Craven Cottage . Taking a slight lead round the Surrey bend , Cambridge 's number four , Mayer suffered an asthma attack and collapsed , allowing Oxford to draw up to within a second as they approached Barnes Bridge . In a sprint finish , Oxford pulled away to be three @-@ quarters of a length clear at the finishing post .
Oxford finished with a time of 16 minutes , 54 seconds , Cambridge finishing two seconds behind them , three @-@ quarters of a length behind . It was Oxford 's second victory in the previous three years , and brought the overall result to 77 – 70 in Cambridge 's favour . At the finish , following tradition , the Oxford crew threw their cox , Hackworth , into the water in celebration . Mayer was hospitalised minutes after the race , initially considered a result of exhaustion , but later diagnosed as following an asthma attack .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie . Earlier at Henley , Oxford won the 57th women 's race by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths .
= = Reaction = =
Hackworth said " it was neck and neck , but I had absolute belief we could do it " . Four @-@ time Olympic gold medallist Matthew Pinsent said of the race " it truly was amazing " . Cambridge coach Robin Williams was generous in defeat : " Credit to Oxford . They did an awesome job and took their chance . It was a fantastic race " , while Oxford 's coach Sean Bowden said " I believed that if we could get through Barnes Bridge well we could still do it . They were rowing so well and I knew how much they wanted it . " Simon Barnes of The Times noted that " Cambridge reeled in an early Oxford lead and went ahead themselves ... that should have been the end of it ... But this Oxford crew just kept pestering away ... and , with the finish in sight , Cambridge ... yielded . "
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= Dwarf ( Dungeons & Dragons ) =
A dwarf , in the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) fantasy roleplaying game , is a humanoid race , one of the primary races available for player characters . The idea for the D & D dwarf comes from European mythologies and J. R. R. Tolkien 's novel The Lord of the Rings ( 1954 @-@ 1955 ) , and has been used in D & D and its predecessor Chainmail since the early 1970s . Variations from the standard dwarf archetype of a short and stout demihuman are commonly called subraces , of which there are more than a dozen across many different rule sets and campaign settings .
= = History = =
The concept of the dwarf comes from Norse and Teutonic mythology . In particular , the dwarves in the Germanic story The Ring of the Nibelungen and the Brothers Grimm fairy tale " Rumpelstiltskin " have been called " ancestors " of Dungeons & Dragons dwarves . Along with giants , dwarves were one of the first types of non @-@ humans to be introduced into the Chainmail game , the forebear of D & D , when miniature figures of varying sizes were used together in the same wargame .
The dwarf first appears as a player character class in the original 1974 edition of Dungeons & Dragons , with a design that is strongly influenced by the dwarves of Poul Anderson 's 1961 novel Three Hearts and Three Lions . This early version of the D & D dwarf is limited to playing a fighter , and can not progress beyond the sixth level . The dwarf is again a character class in the original Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set ( 1977 ) . With the arrival of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons , the dwarf was modified into a player character race in the Player 's Handbook ( 1978 ) and detailed as a monster in the original Monster Manual ( 1977 ) . A number of dwarven subraces are presented as character races in the original Unearthed Arcana ( 1985 ) .
In 1989 , the hill dwarf , the most common dwarven subrace , appears as a character race in the second edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Player 's Handbook and as a monster in the Monstrous Compendium Volume Two . Dwarves are detailed as a race for the Forgotten Realms setting in Dwarves Deep ( 1990 ) . Several dwarven races are detailed as player character races in The Complete Book of Dwarves ( 1991 ) . The dwarf appears as a character race in the third edition Player 's Handbook ( 2000 ) , the 3 @.@ 5 revised Player 's Handbook ( 2003 ) , the fourth edition Player 's Handbook ( 2008 ) , and the fifth edition Player 's Handbook ( 2014 ) . The arctic dwarf , gray dwarf , gold dwarf , shield dwarf , urdunnir , and wild dwarf are all detailed in Races of Faerûn ( 2003 ) . Dwarves are one of the races detailed in Races of Stone ( 2004 ) . The dwarf , including the dwarf bolter and the dwarf hammerer , appears as a monster in the fourth edition Monster Manual ( 2008 ) .
= = Description = =
Dwarves average four feet in height , with squat , broad bodies . Male dwarves grow thick facial hair . The female dwarves in The Lord of the Rings novels , which greatly inspired D & D , were able to grow beards as well . Some authors , such as R. A. Salvatore , have followed suit in their writing , though the game rules ' official position is that females do not grow beards — the fourth edition of Dungeons and Dragons portrayed female dwarves as " beardless and even attractive " . In specific campaign settings , the potential for female dwarven facial hair sees much variation : In the World of Greyhawk some females can grow beards but those generally shave , in the Forgotten Realms they can grow full beards but also usually shave , and in Eberron they do not grow facial hair at all . In older editions of the game , female dwarves did grow beards in various campaign settings .
The book Three Hearts and Three Lions by Poul Anderson strongly influenced Dungeons & Dragons , having a dwarf named Hugi with a Scottish accent . Most popular portrayals of dwarves feature such an accent . Dwarves tend to be more useful for combat @-@ oriented players , as they gain a number of special abilities and bonuses in combat , mostly related to their hardiness and smaller stature compared to humans . Dwarves are also resistant to poison and magic , can see in the dark ( a skill called infravision in earlier editions and darkvision beginning with third edition ) , and can detect different types of mining @-@ related features underground , such as sloping tunnels . The dwarven ability to detect a sloping passage underground is also taken directly from Anderson 's book .
Dwarves are generally good in alignment . Ilan Mitchell @-@ Smith wrote that dwarves , along with other races allowed for use by players such as elves and halflings , are " defined in terms of subjectivity , and ultimately , humanity " as opposed to many other creatures who serve as a type of " monstrous other " .
Dwarves usually worship Moradin , whom they believe is their creator . According to their legends , Moradin fashioned the dwarves into a likeness of himself using gems and metal . He then breathed life into them . In many campaign settings , the dwarven pantheon of gods consists of the leader Moradin , as well as Abbathor , Berronar Truesilver , Clanggedin Silverbeard , Dugmaren Brightmantle , Dumathoin , Muamman Duathal , and Vergadain . Other dwarven gods may be present in different campaign settings .
Dwarves get along well with gnomes , who are often regarded as close cousins of the dwarven race . Dwarves are accepting of humans , half @-@ elves and halflings . Dwarves often do not get to know humans well as they live longer than the average human , and prefer to become friendly with the human 's family in general . Dwarves do not trust half @-@ orcs , and fail to appreciate elves , with whom they only ally in their many battles against orcs , goblins , evil giants and trolls .
= = Subraces = =
Over the history of D & D publications and rules editions , more than a dozen subraces of dwarf have been described . Hill dwarves are the standard dwarven race . Mountain dwarves live deeper underground and have fairer skin than hill dwarves . Aleithian dwarves are deep @-@ dwelling psionic dwarves who follow the dragon god Sardior . In the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd editions of D & D , Azers physically resembled dwarves , though they were unrelated . In the 4th Edition of the game , they are a product of the enslavement of dwarves by giants and titans . Badlands dwarves have adapted to life in the inhospitable wastes , developing a natural knack for finding water and tolerance to heat and thirst . Deep dwarves dwell underground and have a greater ability to see in the dark , but are sensitive to light . They are more resistant to magic and poison than standard dwarves . Dream dwarves are contemplative dwarves in touch with the world around them , which they call the " earth dream . " The duergar are an " evil and avaricious " subrace that live in the Underdark . Frost dwarves are extra @-@ planar dwarves who reside on the Iron Wastes of the Infinite Layers of the Abyss . They were once duergar enslaved by frost giants . Glacier dwarves reside in cold glaciers , mining a special material known as blue ice . These dwarves have great skill at crafting with ice and magical ice , and are tolerant to cold weather . Seacliff dwarves make their home in high seaside cliffs and are excellent swimmers .
= = = Dwarves in campaign settings = = =
On Athas , the planet of the Dark Sun campaign setting , dwarves stand less than 5 ' tall and weigh nearly 200 lbs . Each dwarf pursues a singular obsession , called a focus , that requires at least a week to complete . Athasian dwarves do not live underground , but some communities focus on unearthing long @-@ lost dwarven strongholds . Physically , the dwarves of Athas are unique among their kind , having no hair at all . Athasian dwarves can breed with humans to produce muls , who are sterile offsprings that share the strength and resiliency of dwarves with the size of humans .
In the Dragonlance setting , the dwarves are divided into three distinct groups , which are sub @-@ divided into clans . Hill dwarves consist of a single clan called the Neidar . They are very similar to the mountain dwarves but are slightly more forthcoming towards other races and cultures . Flint Fireforge , one of the Heroes of the Lance , is a Neidar . Mountain dwarves consist of several clans , two of these being the Hylar and the Daewar clans . Gully dwarves , or Aghar ( " the Anguished " ) are thought to be the offspring of gnomes and dwarves . Gully dwarves are first referred to in the Dragonlance Chronicles , by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman , as a " miserable lot . " Several clans live together , following the rule of their chieftains or one particular powerful leader .
The Forgotten Realms world of Faerûn has several major dwarven subraces . Shield dwarves , also known as mountain dwarves , are the dominant dwarves in the northern parts of Faerûn . These dwarves tend to be fatalistic due to generations of declining numbers . Gold dwarves , also known as hill dwarves , are the dominant dwarves in southern Faerûn . They are generally a more upbeat group than their northern cousins . They primarily reside in and around the Deep Realm , an underground realm surrounding a Grand Canyon @-@ like gorge . Arctic dwarves ( also known as the Inugaakalikurit ) , found in the northernmost reaches of Faerûn , are smaller and stronger than most other dwarves , and immune to cold . Urdunnir , also known as orecutter dwarves , have the magical ability to shape metal and stone , and can walk through the latter . Wild dwarves are short , primitive dwarves found in the deep jungles of Faerûn . Gray dwarves , or duergar , are mainly found in the Underdark , and have an aversion to light . Bruenor Battlehammer , a Shield Dwarf , is the king of Mithril Hall in the Forgotten Realms setting who reclaims his homeland from monsters including a shadow dragon named Shimmergloom that he kills single @-@ handedly .
In the World of Greyhawk setting , the group of humans known as Flan call dwarves dwur . They are found throughout the Flanaess , and are particularly numerous in the Lortmils , Principality of Ulek , Glorioles , Iron Hills , Crystalmists , and Ratik . Lord Obmi is a notable dwarf of the setting , a servant of Iuz and member of the Boneshadow organization .
Dwarves of the Spelljammer setting operate in huge spacefaring asteroids , honeycombed with tunnels .
= = Novels = =
Notable D & D novels prominently featuring dwarves include the following :
Dragonlance
Dragons of the Dwarven Depths ( July 2006 ) , by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman , ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7869 @-@ 4099 @-@ 9 )
Dark Thane by Jeff Crook
The Dwarf Home trilogy by Douglas Niles
The Dwarven Nations trilogy by Dan Parkinson
The Gates of Thorbardin by Dan Parkinson
Gully Dwarves by Dan Parkinson
Kender , Gully Dwarves , and Gnomes ( August 1987 ) , edited by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman , ( ISBN 0 @-@ 88038 @-@ 382 @-@ 8 )
Forgotten Realms
The War of the Spider Queen series by R.A. Salvatore
The Icewind Dale Trilogy by R.A. Salvatore
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= Dan Deacon : U.S.A. =
" Dan Deacon : U.S.A. " ( also known as the " Dan Deacon Special " ) is the first television special of the American anthology series Off the Air . The special was edited and directed by creator and executive producer Dave Hughes . The episode incorporates surreal footage of landscapes in the United States , with music by Dan Deacon from the album America . The special was commissioned by Williams Street Records as part of the Adult Swim 2013 Singles Program . The episode coincided with the release of another track by Deacon entitled " Why Am I on This Cloud ? " , featuring samples from other Adult Swim programming .
Promoted as a " one @-@ time airing " by members of the production staff , the episode premiered on Adult Swim on July 6 , 2013 . The special was viewed by 962 @,@ 000 viewers and received a 0 @.@ 8 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received positive critical reception from music journalist websites for its psychedelic visuals and uses of American iconography .
= = Synopsis = =
Similar to other episodes of Off the Air , the episode is presented without explanation or narration as a showcase of surreal animations , viral internet videos , archival footage and morphing psychedelic imagery , arranged around a single loose theme and blended without pause into a single continuous presentation . Excluding its closing credits , the special features the last four tracks from the album America by Dan Deacon ( referred to as the " ' U.S.A. ' suite " ) . The episode incorporates the following works , which center on landscapes in the United States :
El hombre y la Tierra excerpt
Radical Updates by Andrew Benson
Cityscape Chicago by Eric Hines
Space Station footage provided by Image Science and Analysis Laboratory at the NASA John Space Center
Groosland by Dutch National Ballet
CGI space objects by Adam Bruneau
American Harvest provided by Prelinger Archives
Head On by Lior Ben Horin
Murmuration by Liberty Smith and Sophie Windsor Clive
Cy 's Sunrise Lefts by Cyrus Sutton and Korduroy.tv
Moonwalk performance by Dean Potter
Primavera Concert Footage by Tom Bingham , Gill Austin , Jonathan Rej , and Jeff Crocker
Stone Mountain Ghillie Suits ; cinematography by Alan Steadman , featuring Cody DeMatteis and Zach White
Additional stock footage provided by iStock and Pond5
= = Production = =
The episode was produced by Williams Street Records as part of the Adult Swim 2013 Singles Program . Director and editor Dave Hughes had previously collaborated with Deacon in 2008 for his song " Okie Dokie " from the album Spiderman of the Rings . The short film Head On by Lior Ben Horin was featured in the a previous episode of the series entitled " Color " . According to Hughes , the special was commissioned to coincide with the release of Deacon 's track for the compilation album . Deacon 's track was released on William Street Record 's website on June 26 , 2013 ; entitled " Why Am I on This Cloud ? " , the song features samples from other Adult Swim programming . Despite the special 's national focus , the episode culls works from artists worldwide .
Hughes , along with associate producer Cody DeMatteis , utilized Adobe After Effects for some aspects of post @-@ production editing . The special makes extensive use of compression artifacts for artistic effect , namely " datamoshing " , where two videos are interleaved so intermediate frames are interpolated from two separate sources . The technique referred to as " photo stacking " , in which time @-@ lapse photographs are composited on top of one another , was also utilized for the NASA John Space Center footage .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Dan Deacon : U.S.A. " aired on July 6 , 2013 on Cartoon Network 's late @-@ night programming block , Adult Swim . Promoted as a " one @-@ time airing " by members of the production staff , the episode was broadcast as part of DVR Theater at 4 a.m. ; former episodes of the series aired in the 4 a.m. timeslot preceding the premiere of the special as well . The special was viewed by 962 @,@ 000 viewers and received a 0 @.@ 8 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode was previously released onto Adult Swim 's website on July 1 , 2013 ; it was published on Adult Swim 's official YouTube channel on July 3 .
Critical reception was positive , especially from music journalist websites , who praised its psychedelic visuals and uses of American iconography . Consequence of Sound 's Michael Roffman compared the scenic visuals to Koyaanisqatsi and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Exclaim ! magazine 's Alex Hudson called the special accompanied by the soundtrack " ambitious and shapeshifting " , but described some of the CGI featured as " corny " . Jamie Milton of This Is Fake DIY described the episode as a " bold slice of national pride , beloved to the landscapes that inspired the making of the excitable producer 's latest album " . In his review , he compared it to the theory of " Broken Britain " in the United Kingdom , stating between the special and " a 20 minute documentary about ' Broken Britain ' , you know which one you should go for . " An article by Fact magazine described the episode as a compilation of " eye @-@ popping scenes . "
Nancy Hoang of CMJ praised the episode 's visuals , highlighting the incorporation of the short film Murmuration by Liberty Smith and Sophie Windsor Clive . Chris Martins of Spin magazine enjoyed the colorful and psychedelic visuals . He found the episode appealing to stoner culture , ending his review stating that the special is " tailor @-@ made for late nights in haze @-@ filled dorm rooms . " Tom Breihan of Stereogum reviewed the special positively , calling the episode an " oddly patriotic work that pulls in all sorts of American iconography " . Rachel Haas of Paste magazine praised the special being released close to Independence Day , stating " this suite would possibly soundtrack the coolest , weirdest fireworks show ever . " Leor Galil of the Chicago Reader featured the video for his " 12 O 'Clock Track " , praising Hughes ' manipulation of Cityscape Chicago by cinematographer Eric Hines . However , given the tracks ' length , he argued the episode would best be enjoyed " through a nice pair of speakers at a barbecue instead of spending that time with your eyes affixed to a computer screen . "
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( film ) =
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) is the sixth spy film in the James Bond series , based on the 1963 novel of the same name by Ian Fleming . Following Sean Connery 's decision to retire from the role after You Only Live Twice , Eon Productions selected an unknown actor and model , George Lazenby , to play the part of James Bond . During the making of the film , Lazenby decided that he would play the role of Bond only once .
In the film Bond faces Blofeld ( Telly Savalas ) , who is planning to sterilise the world 's food supply through a group of brainwashed " angels of death " , unless his demands are met for an international amnesty for his previous crimes , recognition of his title as the Count De Bleuchamp ( the French form of Blofeld ) , and to be allowed to retire into private life . Along the way Bond meets , falls in love with , and eventually marries Contessa Teresa di Vicenzo ( Diana Rigg ) .
This is the only Bond film to be directed by Peter R. Hunt , who had served as a film editor and second unit director on previous films in the series . Hunt , along with producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , decided to produce a more realistic film that would follow the novel closely . It was shot in Switzerland , England , and Portugal from October 1968 to May 1969 . Although its cinema release was not as lucrative as its predecessor You Only Live Twice , On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was still one of the top performing films of the year . Critical reviews upon release were mixed , but the film 's reputation has improved over time , although reviews of Lazenby 's performance continue to vary .
= = Plot = =
In Portugal , James Bond – agent 007 , sometimes referred to simply as ' 007 ' – saves a woman on the beach from committing suicide by drowning , and later meets her again in a casino . The woman , Contessa Teresa " Tracy " di Vicenzo , invites Bond to her hotel room to thank him , but when Bond arrives he is attacked by an unidentifiable man . After subduing the man , Bond returns to his own room and finds Tracy there , who claims she didn 't know the attacker was there . The next morning , Bond is kidnapped by several men , including the one he fought with , who take him to meet Marc @-@ Ange Draco , the head of the European crime syndicate Unione Corse . Draco reveals that Tracy is his only daughter and tells Bond of her troubled past , offering Bond a personal dowry of one million pounds if he will marry her . Bond refuses , but agrees to continue romancing Tracy under the agreement that Draco reveals the whereabouts of Ernst Stavro Blofeld , the head of SPECTRE .
Bond returns to London , and after a brief argument with M at the British Secret Service headquarters , heads for Draco 's birthday party in Portugal . There , Bond and Tracy begin a whirlwind romance , and Draco directs the agent to a law firm in Bern , Switzerland . Bond investigates the office of Swiss lawyer Gumbold , and learns that Blofeld is corresponding with London College of Arms ' genealogist Sir Hilary Bray , attempting to claim the title ' Comte Balthazar de Bleuchamp ' .
Posing as Bray , Bond goes to meet Blofeld , who has established a clinical allergy @-@ research institute atop Piz Gloria in the Swiss Alps . Bond meets twelve young women , the " Angels of Death " , who are patients at the institute 's clinic , apparently cured of their allergies . At night Bond goes to the room of one patient , Ruby , for a romantic encounter . At midnight Bond sees that Ruby , apparently along with each of the other ladies , goes into a sleep @-@ induced hypnotic state while Blofeld gives them audio instructions for when they are discharged and return home . In fact , the women are being brainwashed to distribute bacteriological warfare agents throughout various parts of the world .
Bond tries to trick Blofeld into leaving Switzerland so that MI6 can arrest him without violating Swiss sovereignty . Blofeld refuses and Bond is eventually caught by henchwoman Irma Bunt . Blofeld reveals that he identified Bond after his attempt to lure him out of Switzerland , and tells his henchmen to take the agent away . Bond eventually makes his escape by skiing down Piz Gloria while Blofeld and his men give chase . Arriving at the village of Lauterbrunnen , Bond finds Tracy and they escape Bunt and her men after a car chase . A blizzard forces them to a remote barn , where Bond professes his love to Tracy and proposes marriage to her , which she accepts . The next morning , as the flight resumes , Blofeld sets off an avalanche ; Tracy is captured , while Bond is buried but manages to escape .
Back in London at M 's office , Bond is informed that Blofeld intends to hold the world to ransom by threatening to destroy its agriculture using his brainwashed women , demanding amnesty for all past crimes , and that he be recognised as the current Count de Bleuchamp . M tells 007 that the ransom will be paid and forbids him to mount a rescue mission . Bond then enlists Draco and his forces to attack Blofeld 's headquarters , while also rescuing Tracy from Blofeld 's captivity . The facility is destroyed , and Blofeld escapes the destruction alone in a bobsleigh , with Bond pursuing him . The chase ends when Blofeld becomes snared in a tree branch and injures his neck . Bond and Tracy marry in Portugal , then drive away in Bond 's Aston Martin . When Bond pulls over to the roadside to remove flowers from the car , Blofeld ( wearing a neck brace ) and Bunt commit a drive @-@ by shooting of the couple 's car ; Bond survives , but Tracy is killed in the attack . A police officer then approaches Bond 's car , Bond looks at the police officer . All choked up , Bond says : " it 's all right , it 's quite all right really . She 's having a rest , we 'll be going on soon . There 's no hurry you see , we have all the time in the world ..... " Bond starts to cry , and cradle Tracy 's body .
= = Cast = =
George Lazenby as James Bond – MI6 agent , codename 007 .
Diana Rigg as Countess Tracy di Vicenzo – A vulnerable countess and Marc @-@ Ange Draco 's daughter , who captures Bond 's heart . Like Honor Blackman in Goldfinger before her , Rigg had come to the notice of Eon Productions through her work on The Avengers , where she played Emma Peel from 1965 – 68 .
Telly Savalas as Ernst Stavro Blofeld aka Comte Balthazar de Bleuchamp – Bond 's nemesis , leader of SPECTRE and in hiding . Savalas had appeared in The Dirty Dozen in 1967 , leading to Broccoli suggesting him to director Peter Hunt , for the role , in place of Donald Pleasence , who had appeared in You Only Live Twice . Both Broccoli and Hunt felt Pleasence was unsuited to the more physical side of the Blofeld role in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service .
Gabriele Ferzetti as Marc @-@ Ange Draco – Head of the Union Corse , a major crime syndicate and Tracy 's father ( uncredited voice by David de Keyser ) .
Ilse Steppat as Irma Bunt – Blofeld 's henchwoman who assists in the attempts to eliminate Bond , and although they fail to finish him off Bunt eventually manages to kill Tracy . Said to be the most successful piece of casting in the film , the Bunt character did not appear in the film You Only Live Twice , although she did appear in the novel . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was Steppat 's last role : she died on 22 December 1969 , four days after the film premiered .
Bernard Lee as M – Head of the British Secret Service .
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny .
George Baker as Sir Hilary Bray – Herald in the London College of Arms , whom Bond impersonates in Piz Gloria . Baker also provided the voice of Bond while he was imitating Bray .
Yuri Borienko as Grunther – Blofeld 's brutish chief of security at Piz Gloria . In his role as a stuntman , Borienko was one of the people assisting with Lazenby 's audition : Lazenby accidentally broke his nose , which helped him get the part of Bond .
Bernard Horsfall as Shaun Campbell – 007 's colleague who tries to aid Bond in Switzerland as part of Operation Bedlam . Campbell has been called the film 's " Official Sacrificial Lamb " .
Desmond Llewelyn as Q.
Virginia North as Olympe – Draco 's female assistant . Nikki van der Zyl provided the uncredited voice for Olympe , making On Her Majesty 's Secret Service her sixth Bond film in succession .
Geoffrey Cheshire as Toussaint
Irvin Allen as Che Che
Terry Mountain as Raphael
James Bree as Gumbold
John Gay as Hammond
= = = Blofeld 's Angels of Death = = =
The Angels of Death are twelve beautiful women from all over the world being brainwashed by Blofeld under the guise of allergy or phobia treatment to spread the Virus Omega . A number appeared in the representative styles of dress of their particular nation . Their mission is to help Blofeld contaminate and ultimately sterilise the world 's food supply .
Julie Ege as Helen , a Scandinavian girl . Ege was a former Miss Norway who also starred in a number of Hammer Film Productions .
Jenny Hanley as an Irish girl .
Anouska Hempel as an Australian girl .
Joanna Lumley as an English girl . Like Diana Rigg ( and Honor Blackman in Goldfinger ) , Lumley would appear alongside Patrick Macnee , although her role was in a spin @-@ off from The Avengers , as Purdey in The New Avengers .
Catherina von Schell as Nancy , a Hungarian girl at the clinic whom Bond seduces .
Angela Scoular as Ruby Bartlett , an English girl at the clinic suffering from an allergy to chickens , whom Bond also beds . Scoular also played Buttercup in the 1967 comedy Casino Royale .
Mona Chong as a Chinese girl .
Sylvana Henriques as a Jamaican girl .
Dani Sheridan as an American girl .
Zara as an Indian girl .
Ingrit Back as a German girl .
Helena Ronee as an Israeli girl .
= = Production = =
The novel On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was first published after the film series started and contains " a gentle dig at the cinematic Bond 's gadgets , Broccoli and Saltzman had originally intended to make On Her Majesty 's Secret Service after Goldfinger and Richard Maibaum worked on a script at that time . However , Thunderball was filmed instead after the ongoing rights dispute over the novel were settled between Fleming and Kevin McClory . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was due to follow that , but problems with a warm Swiss winter and inadequate snow cover led to Saltzman and Broccoli postponing the film again , favouring production of You Only Live Twice .
Between the resignation of Sean Connery at the beginning of filming You Only Live Twice and its release , Saltzman had planned to adapt The Man with the Golden Gun in Cambodia and use Roger Moore as the next Bond , but political instability meant the location was ruled out and Moore signed up for another series of The Saint . After You Only Live Twice was released in 1967 , the producers once again picked up with On Her Majesty 's Secret Service .
Peter Hunt , who had worked on the five preceding films had impressed Broccoli and Saltzman enough to earn his directorial debut as they believed his quick cutting had set the style for the series ; it was also the result of a long @-@ standing promise from Broccoli and Saltzman for a directorial position . Hunt also asked for the position during the production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , and he brought along with him many crew members , including cinematographer Michael Reed . Hunt was focused on putting his mark – " I wanted it to be different than any other Bond film would be . It was my film , not anyone else 's . " On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the last film on which Hunt worked in the series .
= = = Writing = = =
Screenwriter Richard Maibaum , who worked on all the Bond films bar You Only Live Twice , was responsible for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service 's script . Saltzman and Broccoli decided to drop the science fiction gadgets from the earlier films and focus more on plot as in From Russia With Love . Peter Hunt asked Simon Raven to write some of the dialogue between Tracy and Blofeld in Piz Gloria , which was to be " sharper , better and more intellectual " ; one of Raven 's additions was having Tracy quoting James Elroy Flecker . When writing the script , the producers decided to make the closest adaptation of the book possible : virtually everything in the novel occurs in the film and Hunt was reported to always enter the set carrying an annotated copy of the novel .
With the script following the novel more closely than the other film adaptations of the eponymous source novels , there are several continuity errors due to the film taking place in a different order , such as Blofeld not recognising Bond , despite having met him face @-@ to @-@ face in the previous film You Only Live Twice . In the original script , Bond undergoes plastic surgery to disguise him from his enemies ; the intention was to allow an unrecognisable Bond to infiltrate Blofeld 's hideout and help the audience accept the new actor in the role . However , this was dropped in favour of ignoring the change in actor . To make audiences not forget it was the same James Bond , just played by another actor , the producers inserted many references to the previous films , some as in @-@ jokes . These include Bond breaking the fourth wall by stating " This never happened to the other fellow " , the credits sequence with images from the previous instalments , Bond visiting his office and finding objects from Dr. No , From Russia with Love and Thunderball , and a caretaker whistling the theme from Goldfinger .
= = = Casting = = =
In 1967 , after five films , Sean Connery retired from the role of James Bond and — during the filming of You Only Live Twice — was not on speaking terms with Albert Broccoli . The confirmed front runners were Englishman John Richardson , Dutchman Hans De Vries , American Robert Campbell , Englishman Anthony Rogers and Australian George Lazenby .
Broccoli and Hunt eventually chose Lazenby after seeing him in a Fry 's Chocolate Cream advertisement . Lazenby dressed the part by sporting several sartorial Bond elements such as a Rolex Submariner wristwatch and a Savile Row suit ( ordered , but uncollected , by Connery ) , and going to Connery 's barber at the Dorchester Hotel . Broccoli noticed Lazenby as a Bond @-@ type man based on his physique and character elements , and offered him an audition . The position was consolidated when Lazenby accidentally punched a professional wrestler , who was acting as stunt coordinator , in the face , impressing Broccoli with his ability to display aggression . Lazenby was offered a contract for seven films ; however , he was convinced by his agent Ronan O 'Rahilly that the secret agent would be archaic in the liberated 1970s , and as a result he left the series after the release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service in 1969 .
For Tracy Draco , the producers wanted an established actress opposite neophyte Lazenby . Brigitte Bardot was invited , but after she signed to appear in Shalako opposite Sean Connery the deal fell through , and Diana Rigg — who had already been the popular heroine Emma Peel in The Avengers — was cast instead . Rigg said one of the reasons for accepting the role was that she always wanted to be in an epic film . Telly Savalas was cast following a suggestion from Broccoli , and Hunt 's neighbour George Baker was offered the part of Sir Hilary Bray . Baker 's voice was also used when Lazenby was impersonating Bray , as Hunt considered Lazenby 's imitation not convincing enough . Gabriele Ferzetti was cast as Draco after the producers saw him in an Italian mafia film , but Ferzetti 's heavy Italian accent also led to his voice being redubbed by English actor David de Keyser for the final cut .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in the Canton of Bern , Switzerland , on 21 October 1968 , with the first scene shot being an aerial view of Bond climbing the stairs of Blofeld 's mountain retreat to meet the girls . The scenes were shot atop the now famous revolving restaurant Piz Gloria , located atop the Schilthorn near the village of Mürren . The location was found by production manager Hubert Fröhlich after three weeks of location scouting in France and Switzerland . The restaurant was still under construction , but the producers found the location interesting , and had to finance providing electricity and the aerial lift to make filming there possible . Various chase scenes in the Alps were shot at Lauterbrunnen and Saas @-@ Fee , while the Christmas celebrations were filmed in Grindelwald , and some scenes were shot on location in Bern . Production was hampered by weak snowfall which was unfavourable to the skiing action scenes . The producers even considered moving to another location in Switzerland , but it was taken by the production of Downhill Racer . The Swiss filming ended up running 56 days over schedule . In March 1969 , production moved to England , with London 's Pinewood Studios being used for interior shooting , and M 's house being shot in Marlow , Buckinghamshire . In April , the filmmakers went to Portugal , where principal photography wrapped in May . The pre @-@ credit coastal and hotel scenes were filmed at Hotel Estoril Palacio in Estoril and Guincho Beach , Cascais , while Lisbon was used for the reunion of Bond and Tracy , and the ending employed a mountain road in the Arrábida National Park near Setúbal . Harry Saltzman wanted the Portuguese scenes to be in France , but after searching there , Peter Hunt considered that not only were the locations not photogenic , but were already " overexposed " .
While the first unit shot at Piz Gloria , the second unit , led by John Glen , started filming the ski chases . The downhill skiing involved professional skiers , and various camera tricks . Some cameras were handheld , with the operators holding them as they were going downhill with the stuntmen , and others were aerial , with cameramen Johnny Jordan – who had previously worked in the helicopter battle of You Only Live Twice — developing a system where he was dangled by an 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) long parachute harness rig below a helicopter , allowing scenes to be shot on the move from any angle . The bobsledding chase was also filmed with the help of Swiss Olympic athletes , and was rewritten to incorporate the accidents the stuntmen suffered during shooting , such as the scene where Bond falls from the sled . Blofeld getting snared with a tree was performed at the studio by Savalas himself , after the attempt to do this by the stuntman on location came out wrong . Glen was also the editor of the film , employing a style similar to the one used by Hunt in the previous Bond films , with fast motion in the action scenes and exaggerated sound effects .
The avalanche scenes were due to be filmed in co @-@ operation with the Swiss army who annually used explosions to prevent snow build @-@ up by causing avalanches , but the area chosen naturally avalanched just before filming . The final result was a combination of a man @-@ made avalanche at an isolated Swiss location shot by the second unit , stock footage , and images created by the special effects crew with salt . The stuntmen were filmed later , added by optical effects . For the scene where Bond and Tracy crash into a car race while being pursued , an ice rink was constructed over an unused aeroplane track , with water and snow sprayed on it constantly . Lazenby and Rigg did most of the driving due to the high number of close @-@ ups .
For the cinematography , Hunt aimed for a " simple , but glamorous like the 1950s Hollywood films I grew up with " , as well as something realistic , " where the sets don 't look like sets " . Cinematographer Michael Reed added he had difficulties with lighting , as every set built for the film had a ceiling , preventing spotlights from being hung from above . While shooting , Hunt wanted " the most interesting framings possible " , which would also look good after being cropped for television .
Lazenby said he experienced difficulties during shooting , not receiving any coaching despite his lack of acting experience , and with director Hunt never addressing him directly , only through his assistant . Lazenby also declared that Hunt also asked the rest of the crew to keep a distance from him , as " Peter thought the more I was alone , the better I would be as James Bond . " Allegedly , there also were personality conflicts with Rigg , who was already an established star . However , according to director Hunt , these rumours are untrue and there were no such difficulties — or else they were minor — and may have started with Rigg joking to Lazenby before filming a love scene " Hey George , I 'm having garlic for lunch . I hope you are ! " Hunt also declared that he usually had long talks with Lazenby before and during shooting . For instance , to shoot Tracy 's death scene , Hunt brought Lazenby to the set at 8 o 'clock in the morning and made him rehearse all day long , " and I broke him down until he was absolutely exhausted , and by the time we shot it at five o 'clock , he was exhausted , and that 's how I got the performance . " Hunt said that if Lazenby had remained in the role , he would also have directed the successor film , Diamonds Are Forever , and that his original intentions were concluding the film with Bond and Tracy driving off following their wedding , saving Tracy 's murder for the pre @-@ credit sequence of Diamonds Are Forever . The idea was discarded after Lazenby quit the role .
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the longest Bond film until Casino Royale was released in 2006 . Despite that , two scenes were deleted from the final print : Irma Bunt spying on Bond as he buys a wedding ring for Tracy , and a chase over London rooftops and into the Royal Mail underground rail system after Bond 's conversation with Sir Hilary Bray was overheard .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service has been called " perhaps the best score of the series . " It was composed , arranged and conducted by John Barry ; it was his fifth successive Bond film . Barry opted to use more electrical instruments and a more aggressive sound in the music – " I have to stick my oar in the musical area double strong to make the audience try and forget they don 't have Sean ... to be Bondian beyond Bondian . "
Barry felt it would be difficult to compose a theme song containing the title " On Her Majesty 's Secret Service " unless it were written operatically , in the style of Gilbert and Sullivan . Leslie Bricusse had considered lyrics for the title song but director Peter R. Hunt allowed an instrumental title theme in the tradition of the first two Bond films . The theme was described as " one of the best title cuts , a wordless Moog @-@ driven monster , suitable for skiing at breakneck speed or dancing with equal abandon . "
Barry also composed the love song " We Have All the Time in the World " , with lyrics by Burt Bacharach 's regular lyricist Hal David , sung by Louis Armstrong . It is heard during the Bond – Tracy courtship montage , bridging Draco 's birthday party in Portugal and Bond 's burglary of the Gebrüder Gumbold law office in Bern , Switzerland . It was Louis Armstrong 's last recorded song as he died of a heart attack two years later . Barry recalled Armstrong was very ill , but recorded the song in one take . The song was re @-@ released in 1994 , achieving the number three position during a 13 @-@ week spell in the UK charts . A Hal David song entitled " Do You Know How Christmas Trees Are Grown ? " performed by Danish singer Nina also featured in the film in several scenes .
The theme , " On Her Majesty 's Secret Service " , is used in the film as an action theme alternative to Monty Norman 's " James Bond Theme " , as with Barry 's previous " 007 " themes . " On Her Majesty 's Secret Service " was covered in 1997 by the British big beat group , the Propellerheads for the Shaken and Stirred album . Barry @-@ orchestrator Nic Raine recorded an arrangement of the escape from Piz Gloria sequence and it was featured as a theme in the trailers for the 2004 Pixar animated film The Incredibles .
= = Release and reception = =
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was released on 18 December 1969 with its premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . Lazenby appeared at the premiere with a beard , looking " very un @-@ Bond @-@ like " , according to the Daily Mirror . Lazenby claimed the producers had tried to persuade him to shave it off to appear like Bond , but at that stage he had already decided not to make another Bond film and rejected the idea . The beard and accompanying shoulder @-@ length hair " strained his already fragile relationship with Saltzman and Broccoli " . As On Her Majesty 's Secret Service had been filmed in stereo , the first Bond film to use the technology , the Odeon had a new speaker system installed to benefit the new sounds .
Because Lazenby had informed the producers that On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was to be his only outing as Bond and because of the lack of gadgets used by Bond in the film , few items of merchandise were produced for the film , apart from the soundtrack album and a film edition of the book . Those that were produced included a number of Corgi Toys , including Tracey 's Cougar , Campbell 's Volkswagen and two versions of the bobsleigh — one with the 007 logo and one with the Piz Gloria logo . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was nominated for only one award : George Lazenby was nominated in the New Star of the Year – Actor category at the 1970 Golden Globe Award ceremony , losing out to Jon Voight .
= = = Box office = = =
The film topped the North American box office when it opened with a gross of $ 1 @.@ 2 million . The film closed its box office run with £ 750 @,@ 000 in the United Kingdom ( the highest @-@ grossing film of the year ) , $ 64 @.@ 6 million worldwide , half of You Only Live Twice 's total gross , but still one of the highest @-@ grossing films of 1969 . It was one of the most popular movies in France in 1969 , with admissions of 1 @,@ 958 @,@ 172 . Nonetheless this was a considerable drop from You Only Live Twice . After re @-@ releases , the total box office was $ 82 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worldwide .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
The majority of reviews were critical of either the film , Lazenby , or both , while most of the contemporary reviews in the British press referred to George Lazenby at some point as " The Big Fry " , a reference to his previous acting in Fry 's Chocolate advertisements . Derek Malcolm of The Guardian was dismissive of Lazenby 's performance , saying that he " is not a good actor and though I never thought Sean Connery was all that stylish either , there are moments when one yearns for a little of his louche panache . " For all the criticism of Lazenby , however , Malcolm says that the film was " quite a jolly frolic in the familiar money @-@ spinning fashion " . Tom Milne , writing in The Observer was even more scathing , saying that " I ... fervently trust ( OHMSS ) will be the last of the James Bond films . All the pleasing oddities and eccentricities and gadgets of the earlier films have somehow been lost , leaving a routine trail through which the new James Bond strides without noticeable signs of animation . "
Donald Zec in the Daily Mirror was equally damning of Lazenby 's acting abilities , comparing him unfavourably to Connery : " He looks uncomfortably in the part like a size four foot in a size ten gumboot . " Zec was kinder to Lazenby 's co @-@ star , saying that " there is style to Diana Rigg 's performance and I suspect that the last scene which draws something of a performance out of Lazenby owes much to her silken expertise . " The New York Times critic AH Weiler also weighed in against Lazenby , saying that " Lazenby , if not a spurious Bond , is merely a casual , pleasant , satisfactory replacement . "
One of the few supporters of Lazenby amongst the critics was Alexander Walker in the London Evening Standard who said that " The truth is that George Lazenby is almost as good a James Bond as the man referred to in his film as ' the other fellow ' . Lazenby 's voice is more suave than sexy @-@ sinister and he could pass for the other fellow 's twin on the shady side of the casino . Bond is now definitely all set for the Seventies . " Judith Crist of New York Magazine also found the actor a strong point of the movie , stating that " This time around there 's less suavity and a no @-@ nonsense muscularity and maleness to the role via the handsome Mr. Lazenby " .
The feminist film critic Molly Haskell also wrote an approving review of the film in the Village Voice : " In a world , an industry , and particularly a genre which values the new and improved product above all , it is nothing short of miraculous to see a movie which dares to go backward , a technological artefact which has nobly deteriorated into a human being . I speak of the new and obsolete James Bond , played by a man named George Lazenby , who seems more comfortable in a wet tuxedo than a dry martini , more at ease as a donnish genealogist than reading ( or playing ) Playboy , and who actually dares to think that one woman who is his equal is better than a thousand part @-@ time playmates . " Haskell was also affected by the film 's emotional ending : " The love between Bond and his Tracy begins as a payment and ends as a sacrament . After ostensibly getting rid of the bad guys , they are married . They drive off to a shocking , stunning ending . Their love , being too real , is killed by the conventions it defied . But they win the final victory by calling , unexpectedly , upon feeling . Some of the audience hissed , I was shattered . If you like your Bonds with happy endings , don 't go . "
= = = Reflective reviews = = =
Critical response to On Her Majesty 's Secret Service has become much more positive in recent years . Film critic James Berardinelli summed this up in his review of the movie : " with the exception of one production aspect , [ it ] is by far the best entry of the long @-@ running James Bond series . The film contains some of the most exhilarating action sequences ever to reach the screen , a touching love story , and a nice subplot that has agent 007 crossing ( and even threatening to resign from ) Her Majesty 's Secret Service . The problem is with Bond himself ... George Lazenby is boring , and his ineffectualness lowers the picture 's quality . Lazenby can handle the action sequences , but that 's about all he masters . "
The American film reviewer Leonard Maltin has suggested that if it had been Connery in the leading role instead of Lazenby , On Her Majesty 's Secret Service would have epitomised the series . On the other hand , Danny Peary wrote , " I 'm not sure I agree with those who insist that if Connery had played Bond it would definitely be the best of the entire Bond series ... Connery 's Bond , with his boundless humor and sense of fun and self @-@ confidence , would be out of place in this picture . It actually works better with Lazenby because he is incapable of playing Bond as a bigger @-@ than @-@ life hero ; for one thing he hasn 't the looks ... Lazenby 's Bond also hasn 't the assurance of Connery 's Bond and that is appropriate in the crumbling , depressing world he finds himself . He seems vulnerable and jittery at times . At the skating rink , he is actually scared . We worry about him ... On Her Majesty 's Secret Service doesn 't have Connery and it 's impossible to ever fully adjust to Lazenby , but I think that it still might be the best Bond film , as many Bond cultists claim . " Peary also described On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as " the most serious " , " the most cynical " and " the most tragic " of the Bond films .
Brian Fairbanks differed in his opinion of Lazenby , saying that the film " gives us a James Bond capable of vulnerability , a man who can show fear and is not immune to heartbreak . Lazenby is that man , and his performance is superb . " Fairbanks also thought On Her Majesty 's Secret Service to be " not only the best Bond , it is also the last truly great film in the series . In fact , had the decision been made to end the series , this would have been the perfect final chapter . "
The filmmaker Steven Soderbergh writes that " For me there 's no question that cinematically On Her Majesty 's Secret Service is the best Bond film and the only one worth watching repeatedly for reasons other than pure entertainment ... Shot to shot , this movie is beautiful in a way none of the other Bond films are " The director Christopher Nolan also saw On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as his favourite Bond film ; in describing its influence on his own film , Inception , Nolan said , " What I liked about it that we 've tried to emulate in this film is there 's a tremendous balance in that movie of action and scale and romanticism and tragedy and emotion . "
Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an 82 % rating based on 44 reviews . IGN ranked On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as the eighth best Bond film , Entertainment Weekly as the sixth , and Norman Wilner of MSN , as the fifth best . The film also became a fan favourite , seeing " ultimate success in the home video market " . In September 2012 it was announced that On Her Majesty 's Secret Service had topped a poll of Bond fans run by 007 Magazine to determine the greatest ever Bond film . Goldfinger came second in the poll and From Russia With Love was third .
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= The Getaway ( Dexter ) =
" The Getaway " is the fourth season finale of the American television drama series Dexter , and the 48th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Showtime on December 13 , 2009 . In the episode , Dexter goes to great lengths to stop Arthur , who now knows Dexter 's true identity . Meanwhile , Debra learns the truth about Dexter 's mother , the homicide division closes in on the Trinity Killer , and Rita reaffirms her support for Dexter , even as she acknowledges his hidden demons .
The teleplay was written by Wendy West and Melissa Rosenberg , based on a story by Rosenberg and Scott Reynolds . Directed by Steve Shill , " The Getaway " marked the conclusion of the Trinity Killer plotline , as well as the final regular appearance of guest star John Lithgow , who portrayed Arthur Mitchell . The episode also included the death of Rita Morgan , Dexter 's wife , who had been portrayed by Julie Benz , a regular cast member since the beginning of the series . To protect the twist ending of Rita 's death , Dexter producers imposed strict security measures , which included the distribution of fake alternate endings and forcing staff members to sign non @-@ disclosure agreements .
" The Getaway " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators calling the twist ending shocking , unexpected and likely to change the direction of the entire series . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 6 million households , making it the most @-@ watched original series episode in Showtime 's history .
= = Plot = =
Having learned the truth about Dexter 's identity , Arthur ( John Lithgow ) confronts Dexter ( Michael C. Hall ) at the police station , where nobody else knows Arthur is the Trinity Killer . He warns Dexter to leave him alone from now on . When he leaves , Dexter follows Arthur in his car , and accidentally strikes another car on his way . Dexter follows Arthur to a bank , where he sees Arthur bring a large envelope back to his van . Dexter attacks Arthur , knocking him out and dragging him into the van , and Dexter realizes the envelope is filled with cash . Dexter plans to take Arthur 's van away and kill Arthur , but he spots the driver of the car he struck earlier talking to police officers next to Dexter 's car . Dexter hides the envelope and confronts the driver , who acts very irritable . A frustrated Dexter attacks him and is detained by the police . By the time he is released , Arthur is gone , but Dexter recovers the envelope of money .
Meanwhile , Debra ( Jennifer Carpenter ) continues looking into the mysterious woman who had a secret affair with her and Dexter 's father , Harry ( James Remar ) . An old informant of Harry takes Debra to the woman 's house , which Debra recognizes as the house of Brian Moser . Moser was the Ice Truck Killer , the main villain from the first season who was engaged to Debra , then tried to kill her . The informant reveals the woman 's name was Laura Moser ( Sage Kirkpatrick ) , and while researching her , Debra learns Laura was Dexter 's mother , and that the Ice Truck Killer was Dexter 's brother . The police discovered the real identity of Trinity , and at Arthur 's house , Debra confronts Dexter , who feigns surprise and fears Debra is close to realizing his secret life as a serial killer . Instead , Debra says she believes the Ice Truck Killer used her to get to him , and she reasserts how much she loves her foster brother .
Inspired partially by Debra , and partially by his desire to be a better family man than Arthur , Dexter considers giving up killing people . After convincing his wife Rita ( Julie Benz ) to go safely out of town , Dexter searches for Arthur , eventually tracking him down and capturing him . Dexter insists he is not like Arthur , but Arthur insists they are both the same . Right before he is killed with a framing hammer , Arthur tells Dexter " It 's already over . " Disposing of Arthur 's body on his boat afterwards , Dexter comes to realize that his love for his family is starting to outweigh his need to kill , and he begins to hope for a future without killing . But upon returning home , he finds a message from Rita that she came home from the airport because she forgot her identification . Dexter returns her phone call , only to find that Rita 's cell phone and bags are in the house . Dexter hears Harrison crying in the bathroom and finds Rita dead in the bathtub . Harrison sits in a pool of Rita 's blood on the bathroom floor , in the same manner that Dexter was left in a pool of his mother 's blood during his youth , which gave Dexter his murderous tendencies .
= = Production = =
" The Getaway " , the Dexter fourth season finale , was directed by Steve Shill . The teleplay was written by Wendy West and Melissa Rosenberg , based on a story by Rosenberg and Scott Reynolds . It was the final episode helmed by show runner and executive producer Clyde Phillips before his departure from the show to spend more time with his family . Filming on " The Getaway " ended on October 13 , 2009 , and the episode was originally aired on Showtime on December 13 . " The Getaway " marked the conclusion of a season @-@ long plotline regarding the Trinity Killer , which featured John Lithgow as a serial killer and the primary antagonist of the fourth season . The episode also included the death of Rita Morgan , who had been a regular character since the beginning of the series . Although her death is off @-@ screen and the killer is not specifically identified , it is strongly suggested she was killed by Arthur Mitchell , which Lithgow himself confirmed to be true in an interview that aired on Showtime immediately after the episode was originally broadcast . Clyde Phillips said the ramifications " The Getaway " would have on the future of the series had not yet been determined , as brainstorming for the fifth season was not set to begin until February 2010 .
Rita 's death was alluded to by Dexter producers , who told media outlets " The Getaway " included a series @-@ changing twist , leading to widespread speculation about the possibility of a character death , or the possibility of Debra Morgan learning the truth about her brother 's homicidal nature . Extra security precautions were taken to prevent the finale 's secrets from becoming exposed . Network staff members were forced to sign non @-@ disclosure agreements , and decoy scripts were drafted and disseminated to protect the twist ending . In one of the fake alternate endings , Dexter learned on the news about a child murderer escaping from prison , and the episode would end with Dexter trying to decide whether to join Rita on vacation or go after the escaped killer . Nobody but essential cast and staff were allowed on the set during filming of the episode , and the scripts and DVDs of the episode were watermarked before they were taken off the set .
Phillips claimed the Dexter staff did not know how the finale would conclude until late in the season , but Phillips said Rita 's death began to feel inevitable as the story evolved . However , Julie Benz said she had been told John Lithgow knew about it from the beginning of the season . Phillips said the staff felt obligated to do more than simply kill the Trinity Killer in the final episode , especially because he felt the death of the third season antagonist ( played by Jimmy Smits ) was not handled " as well as we could have " . The writers discussed the idea of having Debra find out about Dexter 's secret life , but it was decided they could not anticipate how drastically the series would be changed by that revelation . Benz heard rumors from David Zayas that her character would be killed in the episode , but she was not officially notified until late September , when the producers held a meeting with her the day before the season finale script was distributed to the cast . She said , " It was a tough meeting . In a bizarre way , it felt like a scene from Defending Your Life . " Benz was unhappy about the news but she handled it professionally . Benz described the death scene as " very poetic " .
Executive Producer Sara Colleton said it was difficult to kill off a long @-@ standing character , but they felt " this is where Dexter needed to be taken " . She also felt the motives for Arthur killing Rita were deliberately made to be open to various interpretations , including that Arthur may have killed her " in a bizarre way to trigger Dexter to deal with who he really is " . When asked whether Arthur told Rita about Dexter 's secret life before killing her , Phillips said the answer had not been determined because the fifth season was not yet planned , but he added , " I would think that he did not tell her " . Michael C. Hall called the ending a " really bold stroke " that would reset the stage of the series just as the Dexter Morgan character began to feel he could live with an emotional connection to his wife and family . Hall also said of the ending , " More than anything I felt for the audience . I think this is the kind of thing that 's really going to tie people in knots . "
Lithgow called Rita 's death a " fantastic choice " , which he said shed a completely different light on the final scene between Dexter and Arthur , which appears to be somewhat sympathetic before the audience learned what Arthur had done . Lithgow said he knew that Arthur would be killed from the very beginning of the season . He said he particularly enjoyed working with Michael C. Hall in " The Getaway " , and particularly cited the opening scene in the police station , where he said Hall was " so great at working out the rhythms and finding the real meaning " of the moment where Dexter realizes Arthur has the advantage over him . Lithgow also said he enjoyed their final scene together , including the moment where he realized his daughter had committed suicide : " It 's very unusual for a character that despicable to have a moment like that , a moment of such pain . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Getaway " broke several records for the Showtime cable network . The finale episode was seen by 2 @.@ 6 million households , according to Nielsen ratings , making it the most @-@ watched original series episode in the network 's history . This rating surpassed the record that had been broken just a week prior by the Dexter episode , Hello , Dexter Morgan , which was seen by 2 @.@ 1 million households . The pair of Dexter episodes were the most watched Showtime telecast since the October 23 , 1999 broadcast of a boxing match between Mike Tyson and Orlin Norris . " The Getaway " was seen by 54 percent more viewers than the third season finale , " Do You Take Dexter Morgan ? " , which aired on December 14 , 2008 . The high ratings for " The Getaway " gave a boost to the third season finale of Californication , which aired immediately after the Dexter season finale . The Californication episode , Mia Culpa , was seen by 1 @.@ 1 million households , the highest ever viewership for the series .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
The episode received critical acclaim and has been cited by many critics as one of the best in the series , with several commentators calling the twist ending shocking , unexpected and likely to change the direction of the entire series . Entertainment Weekly television writer Ken Tucker praised the twist of the episode , which he said " sent the series spinning into a whole new direction for next season " . Tucker praised the Dexter writing staff , " for maintaining the suspense while creating a whole new world within the Dexter world : the awful universe of Trinity and his own trapped family . " Bill Harris of the Toronto Sun said the episode was good before the final scene , but that the twist shed a whole different light on several scenes . Harris said of the twist , " It 's nice to know TV can still be that impactful , isn 't it ? But my God , what a stunner . "
IGN reviewer Matt Fowler gave the episode an " Incredible " rating of 9 @.@ 6 / 10 , saying that : " I 'm sure we all loved Dexter 's final moments with Arthur , down in the toy train bomb shelter , but now looking back at the scene , knowing the final moments of the episode , it 's filled with so many more eerie easter eggs . Something was definitely up when Arthur said , " It 's already over . " We all thought so because we 've heard him say those words before . We also saw Dexter take a beat after the line , confused about its meaning . We could have chalked it up to the fact that Arthur was accepting his own death , but Dexter 's furrowed brow let us know that something more sinister was in play here . Of course , the real bitch here is that Dexter , having dispatched of Trinity officially , now can 't go back and do it with the spirit of vengeance . The scene stands quite beautifully on its own , but Dexter would certainly have not given Arthur an empathetic send off if he knew what that monster had done . We can all point fingers at certain missteps that Dexter took throughout the entire season - mistakes that led to Rita 's demise - but when you take it in as a whole it 's a rather satisfying and cleverly constructed story that actually made us all buy and believe , by the end , that Dexter truly wanted to be rid of his murderous spirit . His stubborn need to kill Trinity himself wound up circumventing the entire justice system , which would have wound up catching Arthur based solely on Deb 's tenacity and expert detective work . " Also , IGN listed Arthur Mitchell as 2nd on a list of Dexter 's Top 10 Kills saying that " This was the murder that America was clamoring for . And it was effin ' great . " In his review of the entire fourth season , Fowler , giving the season an " Incredible " rating of 9 @.@ 5 , said of the finale that " It all just came off as a ton of creepy , guilty fun . I would bet that when we all saw the final scene of the season finale that we , simply due to the time we 've spent the characters over four years , felt a ton of emotions that we might not have even known were there . "
E ! writer Kristin Dos Santos called the ending " horrifying " , and said of Rita , " This death just might go down as one of the most shocking deaths ever on television . " Claire Zulkey said that the twist ending was intense , and the teleplay was woven to feature several moments that had led him to suspect different conclusions . He also praised what he expected to be a " re @-@ set " of the series with Rita 's death . Marcia White of The Express @-@ Times declared Dexter " one of the best cable dramas on TV " , and called the final scene between Dexter and Arthur particularly touching . Mark Dawidziak of The Plain Dealer said the episode was shocking and suspenseful , and called Dexter " a series that leaves you guessing as the psychological ambiguities run deeper and darker " .
= = = Awards = = =
The director of " The Getaway " , Steve Shill , won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for this episode . In addition , Matthew V. Colonna was nominated for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series .
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= Neverwinter Nights 2 : Mysteries of Westgate =
Neverwinter Nights 2 : Mysteries of Westgate ( NWN2 : MoW ) is an expansion pack for the role @-@ playing video game Neverwinter Nights 2 . It was developed by Ossian Studios and published by Atari on April 29 , 2009 . The player creates a character and controls it , along with a group of three pre @-@ designed companions , journeying through the game world . The gameplay is very similar to that of the base game . Mysteries of Westgate also includes new monsters , music , and other tools , which can be used by players to create their own Neverwinter Nights 2 levels .
The game takes place in the Forgotten Realms world , a Dungeons & Dragons campaign setting , in the area of Westgate . The player creates a character at the start of the game who finds a cursed mask belonging to the " Night Masks " , a thieves ' guild at war with two other organizations . The player chooses which of these other organizations to side with , and embarks on a quest to lift the mask 's curse .
Mysteries of Westgate was made after Ossian Studios ' successful work on the 2006 expansion pack Darkness over Daggerford . The game 's release was delayed to April 2009 , despite its completion in September 2007 , because of digital rights management issues and coordination difficulties among the three companies involved . Mysteries of Westgate met with mixed reviews ; the game 's plot and small amount of spoken dialogue were criticized by reviewers , while its music and low price for overall content were praised .
= = Gameplay = =
Mysteries of Westgate is a role @-@ playing video game that is based on the fantasy role @-@ playing game Dungeons & Dragons , and uses the d20 System rules , which are based on determining the results of most tasks , such as attacks , by performing the equivalent of rolling a 20 @-@ sided die . The player begins the game by either importing their character from Neverwinter Nights 2 or creating a new one that starts at character level 8 . Each character has a race ( such as human or elf ) and a class ( such as fighter or wizard ) , which determine the character 's main abilities . Mysteries of Westgate has gameplay similar to the original Neverwinter Nights 2 and uses the same systems for gameplay elements , such as character levels , combat , and magic . The gameplay takes place primarily from an overhead perspective in a three @-@ dimensional environment . The player moves and commands characters with the mouse .
The game 's designers estimate that Mysteries of Westgate contains over 15 hours of gameplay , part of which is provided by pursuing optional side quests unrelated to the main plot . Mysteries of Westgate 's campaign features content that does not appear in Neverwinter Nights 2 or its other expansions , including four new monsters ( such as the wererat and sea serpent @-@ like quelzarn ) , a set of " sewer " terrain tiles , and new music , all of which is available to players for use in the creation of custom levels . The pack includes over one hundred magic items , equipment which the character can use during the adventure .
= = Plot = =
The storyline of Mysteries of Westgate is unrelated to Neverwinter Nights 2 or its other expansions . It begins with the player character ( PC ) finding a cursed mask in a dungeon , which causes the PC to have nightmares , and which cannot be discarded . The player soon discovers that the mask belongs to a group of thieves known as the Night Masks of Westgate . After traveling to Westgate , a port city along the Dragon Coast , the PC discovers that the Night Masks are involved in a guild war with a rival group of thieves known as the Ebon Claws . The temple of Lathander is also fighting the Night Masks , and the PC is faced with the choice of joining the temple or the Ebon Claws . The PC is joined by three companions near the start of the game : the rogue Rinara , a former Night Mask ; Mantides , a fallen paladin ; and Charissa , a cleric of Tyr . All three travel with the PC for most of the adventure .
The party then undertakes a number of quests , which vary depending on which faction the PC sides with . As the quests are completed , more is revealed about the cursed mask and how to get rid of it . The party eventually learns that the Night Masks are led by vampires , and additional clues lead them to the vampires ' catacombs . After defeating the vampire Latasha , the PC travels through a portal to reach the chamber of the Night Masks ' leader , Orbakh . Orbakh gives the PC the choice to either become a vampire or keep the cursed mask .
The game 's ending depends on the PC 's choice . If the PC chooses to become a vampire , former allies turn against the PC . Once they are defeated , Orbakh sends the PC to destroy the Ebon Claws . If the PC instead decides to keep the mask , Orbakh attacks ; after his defeat , the leader of the Ebon Claws arrives with a group of followers and attacks the party . After the party is victorious , they kill the last of the Night Masks and free the player character from the cursed mask .
= = Development = =
Soon after the release of Darkness over Daggerford , Ossian Studios ' previous game , discussion began over the possibility of the company creating another expansion for Neverwinter Nights 2 . Ossian officially proposed the game to Atari and Wizards of the Coast , the owners of the Dungeons & Dragons license , in the fall of 2006 , with production beginning in January 2007 . When asked about why the Dungeons & Dragons setting appealed to the company , Ossian Studios CEO Alan Miranda said , " All of our team members are [ Dungeons and Dragons ] fans , so developing a [ Neverwinter Nights 2 ] game seemed like a great opportunity . "
During the game 's early development stages , it was set in the Forgotten Realms nation of Rashemen . The location was changed because Obsidian Studios ' Neverwinter Nights 2 : Mask of the Betrayer was to take place in the same area . At lead designer Luke Scull 's suggestion , Westgate became the new setting for the game . Ossian wanted the game 's setting to differentiate itself from both Neverwinter Nights and the Baldur 's Gate series of games . They found Westgate , situated in another area of the Forgotten Realms setting , to be ideal . Miranda compared Westgate to a city @-@ sized version of Star Wars 's Mos Eisley Cantina ; a " melting pot " of creatures from everywhere in the setting . Ossian said they decided to make Mysteries of Westgate exclusively single @-@ player in order to improve the game experience .
David John , who had also worked on expansion packs for the original Neverwinter Nights , composed the score for Mysteries of Westgate , which took several months . In an interview soon after the game 's release , Scull said " Some of [ the game 's ] tracks are so good , I actually listen to them alongside my usual eclectic mix . " Mysteries of Westgate 's voice acting was recorded in Edmonton , Canada , with over 12 @,@ 000 words of new voice @-@ over material . The cast included some of the same people who previously acted in Neverwinter Nights : Hordes of the Underdark and other BioWare games . Brian Dunn and Brian Watson , both of whom had also worked on Darkness over Daggerford , created the game 's artwork and graphics .
Development of Mysteries of Westgate ended in September 2007 , but Atari delayed the pack 's release , because the digital rights management they wanted to use was not ready . The delay was also caused by coordination problems between Ossian , Obsidian , and Atari . The game was officially announced on October 22 , 2007 , with an estimated release date of " fall 2007 " . In May 2008 , IGN reported that the game was scheduled for release that June , but it was further delayed , finally being released on April 29 , 2009 . Development of Mysteries of Westgate continued during the delays , to ensure the game 's compatibility with the expansions and patches for Neverwinter Nights 2 that were released after the game 's completion . Scull said , " Kevin Smith , our Lead Technical Designer ... had to bug fix and create new builds of the game with each [ patch and expansion ] . "
When IGN 's Steve Butts asked Miranda why the game was made available only through download , he replied , " From a financial perspective , digital distribution makes a lot of sense . It allows us to sell the Adventure Pack at a lower price point while still providing players with the same high quality gameplay and content that they 've come to expect from NWN2 products . " . Some of the game 's voice @-@ overs , monsters , music , and objects were released to the Neverwinter Nights 2 community for free , for use in building custom adventures , without needing to purchase the game itself .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of Mysteries of Westgate were mixed . 1UP.com 's Jason Wilson said that the game 's plot is " an intriguing tale , and even after finishing the game , a number of encounters and plot points ring in my head ... but the story 's poor stitching distracts from its arc — I felt like a great hand ... was pushing me through the plot , and the tale felt a bit muddled toward the end . " Brett Todd of GameSpot called the plot " rough around the edges " , while GameZone reviewer Michael Lafferty said , " The game may have a disjointed storyline , but there are moments where humor shines through , and the game does take a few interesting plot twists . And the exploration of the city zones , the underground areas where the trolls abound , hold that sense of joyful discovery that make an RPG worth playing . " Numerous reviewers mentioned that the impact of the mask which drives the story is minimal , having little effect on the actual gameplay . Lafferty said the side quests were not necessarily optional , as they were often a source of additional gold , and a certain point in the game 's plot required a substantial sum of it to proceed . GamesRadar 's Rich McCormick praised the game 's storyline and main quest as some of its best points . In a review for GameStar , Christian Schmidt thought that the game 's appearance and humor were poor , but recommended it because of its strong storyline .
Todd found the pack 's difficulty to be " wildly careening " and stated , " Some battles are amazingly easy . You can soar through many scraps in moments , with your party carving up the opposition before you can tell if you 're fighting a mummy or a zombie . However , others are absolutely brutal ... There are more than a couple of moments in the game in which your party is ambushed by enemy spellcasters that rip you to pieces before you can even think about a proper response . " He praised the game 's music as blending in seamlessly with that of the original game , but criticized it for having a minimal amount of voice acting , with sequences of dialogue that begin with audio and transition into text . Steve Butts commented on this , saying , " the dialogue here really needs some work ... you 'll even be treated to some truly tortured sentences . ' Wait till you see how deep into the backside of evil I insert my boot in the name of justice ! ' is probably my favorite . It 's too bad there 's not more voice acting in the game , because hearing someone speak lines like that out loud may have given the developers an opportunity to edit some of the worst offenders . "
As a result of Mysteries of Westgate 's 2007 completion and 2009 release , it did not feature the improvements present in the two previous Neverwinter Nights 2 expansion packs , and received criticism because of this . Todd stated that the game lacks the artistic improvements of Mask of the Betrayer and Storm of Zehir , a sentiment echoed by Lafferty 's review . However , Butts stated that " Westgate delivers enough engaging content that the absence of all the latest improvements isn 't " too agonizing . " Several reviews noted that the fifteen hours of story and the new objects in the adventure pack make the expansion worth its US $ 9 @.@ 99 cost .
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= UBS =
UBS AG is a Swiss global financial services company , incorporated in the Canton of Zurich , and co @-@ headquartered in Zurich and Basel . The company provides wealth management , asset management , and investment banking services for private , corporate , and institutional clients worldwide , and is generally considered to be a bulge bracket bank . In Switzerland , these services are also offered to retail clients . The name UBS was originally an abbreviation for the Union Bank of Switzerland , but it ceased to be a representational abbreviation after the bank 's merger with Swiss Bank Corporation in 1998 . The company traces its origins to 1856 , when the earliest of its predecessor banks was founded .
UBS is considered the world 's largest manager of private wealth assets , with over CHF 2 @.@ 2 trillion in invested assets , and remains a leading provider of retail banking and commercial banking services in Switzerland . In 2014 , UBS ' assets under management ( AuM ) amounted to US $ 1 @,@ 966 @.@ 9 billion , representing a 15 @.@ 4 % increase in AuM compared to the equivalent data of 2013 . It is the biggest bank in Switzerland , operating in more than 50 countries with about 60 @,@ 000 employees around the world , as of 2014 .
In comparison to other European banks , UBS suffered among the largest losses during the subprime mortgage crisis , and the bank was required to raise large amounts of outside capital . In 2007 , the bank received a US $ 9 @.@ 7 billion capital injection from the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation ( currently GIC Private Limited effective from July 2013 ) , which remains one of the bank 's largest shareholders . The bank also received capital from the Swiss government , further complemented by a series of equity offerings in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 .
= = Corporate structure = =
UBS is a joint @-@ stock company ( " Aktiengesellschaft " ) pursuant to Swiss laws . Its shares are listed at the SIX Swiss Exchange , and the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) . As of February 2015 , UBS is present in all major financial centers worldwide , having offices in more than 50 countries , with about 35 % of its approx . 60 @,@ 000 employees working in the Americas , 36 % in Switzerland , 17 % in Europe , the Middle East and Africa and 12 % in the Asia Pacific region .
The bank has its major presence in the United States . Its American headquarters for investment banking are located in New York City , for private wealth management in Weehawken , New Jersey and its sales & trading headquarters can be found in Stamford , Connecticut . Company 's global business groups are ( i ) wealth management , ( ii ) investment banking and ( iii ) asset management . Additionally , UBS is the leading provider of retail banking and commercial banking services in Switzerland , as established already in 2009 . Overall invested assets are CHF 2 @.@ 689 trillion , shareholders ' equity is CHF 55 @.@ 313 billion and market capitalization is CHF 75 @.@ 147 billion by the end of 2015 .
In November 2014 , the shares in UBS Group AG were listed and started trading as a new holding company on the NYSE and SIX Swiss Exchange . Upon application and with the effect as of 14 January 2015 , the shares of the USB AG , the subsidiary of the UBS Group AG , were delisted from the NYSE .
UBS ' structure includes six divisions in total :
Starting already on 9 June 2003 , all UBS business groups , including UBS Paine Webber and UBS Warburg , were rebranded under the UBS moniker following company 's start of operations as a unified global entity .
= = = UBS Investment Bank = = =
UBS Investment Bank provides services covering securities , other financial products , and research in equities , rates , credit , foreign exchange , precious metals and derivatives .
As of the end of 2015 , the personnel employed at UBS Investment Bank totalled to 5 @,@ 243 presented in over 35 countries ( with principal offices in Hong Kong , London , New York , Singapore , Sydney , Tokyo and Zurich ) . This business division also advises and provides access to capital markets for corporate and institutional clients , governments , financial intermediaries , alternative asset managers , and private investors . UBS Investment Bank was formerly known as UBS Warburg and as Warburg Dillon Read , before the merger of Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation ( SBC ) .
Within the UBS Investment Bank division , the Investment Banking Department ( IBD ) provides a range of advisory and underwriting services including mergers and acquisitions , restructuring , equity offerings , investment grade and high yield debt offerings , leveraged finance and leveraged loan structuring , and the private placement of equity , debt , and derivatives .
The Sales & Trading division comprises equities ( brokering , dealing , market making and engaging in proprietary trading in equities , equity @-@ related products , equity derivatives , and structured products ) and FX , Rates and Credit ( FRC ) ( brokering , dealing , market making and engaging in proprietary trading in interest rate products , credit products , mortgage @-@ backed securities , leveraged loans , investment grade and high @-@ yield debt , currencies , structured products , and derivative products ) .
Since the early 2000s , UBS Investment Bank has been among the top fee @-@ generating investment banks globally . In 2010 , UBS ranked No.5 globally in mergers & acquisitions advisory , No.5 globally in debt capital markets bookrunning , No.5 globally in follow @-@ on equity offerings , No.3 in European follow @-@ on equity offerings , No.1 in Asia M & A advisory , No.2 in Asian equity capital markets bookrunning , No.2 in Asian follow @-@ on equity offerings , No.2 in Canadian M & A advisory , No.3 in Middle Eastern & African mergers & acquisitions advisory , and No.2 in Middle Eastern & African equity capital markets bookrunning . UBS also ranked No.1 on the 2010 M & A league tables in Australia , ahead of Macquarie Bank and Goldman Sachs .
= = = UBS Asset Management = = =
UBS Asset Management offers equity , fixed income , currency , hedge fund , real estate , infrastructure and private equity investment capabilities that can also be combined in multi @-@ asset strategies .
The 1998 UBS @-@ SBC merger and subsequent restructuring resulted in the combination of three major asset management operations : UBS Asset Management , Phillips & Drew ( owned by Union Bank of Switzerland ) , and Brinson Partners ( owned by SBC ) . The investment teams were merged in 2000 and in 2002 the brands were consolidated to become UBS Global Asset Management .
At the end of 2015 , UBS Asset Management was responsible for CHF 650 billion of invested assets and assets under administration were CHF 407 billion . With around 2 @,@ 300 employees in 24 countries , UBS Asset Management is the largest mutual fund manager in Switzerland , a leading fund house in Europe , and one of the largest hedge funds and real estate investment managers in the world . It has main offices in Chicago , Frankfurt , Hartford , Hong Kong , London , New York , Paris , Singapore , Sydney , Tokyo , and Zürich .
= = = UBS Wealth Management ( & Swiss Bank ) = = =
UBS 's wealth management division offers high @-@ net @-@ worth individuals around the world ( with the exception of those served by the division of Wealth Management Americas ) a range of advisory and investment products and services . As of the end of 2014 , UBS Wealth Management 's invested assets totaled CHF 947 billion .
More than 60 % of total invested assets in UBS Wealth Management belong to individuals with a net @-@ worth of CHF 10 million or more . Of the remaining 40 % of total invested assets , 30 % of the total belong to individuals with net @-@ worth between CHF 1 million and CHF 10 million and the last 10 % of total assets belong to individuals with a net @-@ worth of less than CHF 1 million .
UBS offers brokerage services and products as well as asset management and other investment advisory and portfolio management products and services . Additionally , UBS provides a broad range of securities and savings products that are supported by the firm 's underwriting and research activities as well as order execution and clearing services for transactions originated by individual investors .
The business is further divided geographically with separate businesses focused on the U.S. and other international markets . Two @-@ thirds of the total invested assets come from Europe and Switzerland with the final one @-@ third coming mainly from the Asia @-@ Pacific region .
With its headquarters in Switzerland , UBS Wealth Management is present in nearly 50 countries with approximately 230 offices ( 100 of which are in Switzerland ) . As of the end of 2014 , around 16 @,@ 700 people worldwide were employed by UBS Wealth Management . UBS Wealth Management in the U.S. is an outgrowth of the former Paine Webber brokerage business . The business was initially renamed UBS Paine Webber in March 2001 after it was acquired by UBS . The subsidiary was again renamed UBS Wealth Management USA in June 2003 .
In Switzerland , UBS Swiss Bank provides a complete set of retail banking services that includes checking , savings , credit cards , and mortgage products for individuals . They offer cash management and commercial banking services for small businesses and corporate clients as well .
= = = UBS Retail & Corporate = = =
UBS 's Retail & Corporate division delivers financial products and services to retail , corporate and institutional clients in Switzerland . It also provides stable and substantial profits for the Group and revenues opportunities for businesses within the bank . UBS maintains a leading position in the retail and corporate loan market in Switzerland ; in fact , it serves one in three pension funds , more than 85 % of the 1 @,@ 000 largest Swiss corporations and 85 % of banks that resides within the nation . In 2014 , the international financial magazine Euromoney named UBS " Best Domestic Cash Manager Switzerland " . At the end of 2014 , its lending portfolio reached CHF 137 billion . The 73 % of this sum was secured by residential property and the 15 % by commercial and industrial properties .
The products that this UBS division offers range from cash accounts , payments , savings and retirement solutions to investment fund products , residential mortgages and advisory services . This business division constitutes a central building block of UBS 's universal bank delivery model in Switzerland and it supports other divisions , such as Investment Bank , by referring clients to them and by assisting them to build their wealth to a level at which they can ben transferred to UBS Wealth Management .
The retail and corporate distribution network comprises not only customer service centers , but 1 @,@ 250 teller machines and self @-@ service terminals , as well as digital banking services .
= = = Competition = = =
On a global scale , UBS competes with the large global investment banks , and it is regularly compared against its fellow Swiss banking giant , Credit Suisse . In Switzerland , UBS competes with a number of cantonal banks , such as Zürcher Kantonalbank and other cantonal banks , as well as Raiffeisen , PostFinance , and Migros banks .
= = = UBS Young Professional Programs = = =
UBS is one of the major providers of young professional training in Switzerland , offering various programs , depending on applicants ' level of education . After graduation , over 70 % are permanently employed . Aside from the Apprenticeship and All @-@ round Trainee Program offered in Switzerland , UBS offers Internship program and the Graduate Training Programs ( GTP ) globally . The GTP is an 18 @-@ month development program for graduates with bachelor 's degree and above , which is specifically built around the different business groups of UBS . It consists of on @-@ the @-@ job training ( OJT ) , tailored education and networking events .
= = History = =
UBS , as it exists today , is the result of a complex history representing a merger product of the Union Bank of Switzerland and the Swiss Bank Corporation in June 1998 ( SBC ) . The official founding date of the bank is April 1862 , the year when its nucleus Bank in Winterthur was founded .
Although the merged company 's new name was originally supposed to be the " United Bank of Switzerland , " the officials opted to call it simply UBS because of a name clash with the separate Swiss company United Bank Switzerland – a part of the United Bank Limited 's Swiss subsidiary . Therefore , UBS is no longer an acronym but is the company 's brand . Its logo of three keys , carried over from SBC , stands for the company 's values of confidence , security , and discretion .
UBS also comprises a number of well @-@ known securities firms that have been acquired by the bank and its predecessors . Among the bank 's most notable constituent parts are Paine Webber , Dillon , Read & Co . , Kidder , Peabody & Co . , Phillips & Drew , S. G. Warburg & Co . , Blyth , Eastman , Dillon & Co . , Jackson & Curtis , and Union Securities , among others .
= = = Swiss Bank Corporation = = =
= = = = Origins and early years ( 1854 – 1945 ) = = = =
UBS , through Swiss Bank Corporation , traces its history to 1854 when six private banking firms in Basel , Switzerland pooled their resources to form the Bankverein , a consortium that acted as an underwriting syndicate for its member banks . In 1871 , the Bankverein coordinated with the German Frankfurter Bankverein to form the Basler Bankverein , a joint @-@ stock company replacing the original Bankverein consortium . After the new bank started with an initial commitment of CHF 30 million and CHF 6 million of share capital , it soon experienced growing pains when heavy losses in Germany caused it to suspend its dividend until 1879 . Following the years 1885 and 1886 , when the bank merged with the Zürcher Bankverein and acquired the Basler Depositenbank and the Schweizerische Unionbank , it changed its name to Schweizerischer Bankverein . The English name of the bank was originally Swiss Bankverein , but was changed to Swiss Bank Corporation ( SBC ) in 1917 .
SBC subsequently experienced a period of growth , which was only interrupted by the onset of World War I , in which the bank lost investments in a number of large industrial companies . By the end of 1918 , the bank had recovered and surpassed CHF 1 billion in total assets and grew to 2 @,@ 000 employees by 1920 . The impact of the stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression was severe , particularly as the Swiss franc suffered major devaluation in 1936 . The bank saw its assets fall from a 1929 peak of CHF 1 @.@ 6 billion to its 1918 levels of CHF 1 billion by 1936 .
In 1937 , SBC adopted its three @-@ keys logo , designed by Warja Honegger @-@ Lavater , symbolizing confidence , security , and discretion , which remains an integral part in the current @-@ day logo of UBS .
On the eve of World War II in 1939 , SBC , like other Swiss banks , was the recipient of large influxes of foreign funds for safekeeping . Just prior to the outbreak of the war , SBC made the timely decision to open an office in New York City . The office , located in the Equitable Building , was able to begin operations a few weeks after the outbreak of the war and was intended as a safe place to store assets in the case of an invasion . During the war , the banks ' traditional business fell off and the Swiss government became their largest client .
= = = = Post @-@ war years ( 1945 – 1998 ) = = = =
In 1945 , SBC acquired the Basler Handelsbank ( Commercial Bank of Basel ) , which was one of the largest banks in Switzerland , but became insolvent by the end of the war . SBC remained among the Swiss government 's leading underwriters of debt in the post @-@ war years . SBC , which had entered the 1950s with 31 branch offices in Switzerland and three abroad , more than doubled its assets from the end of the war to CHF 4 billion by the end of the 1950s and doubled assets again in the mid @-@ 1960s , exceeding CHF 10 billion by 1965 .
In 1961 , SBC acquired Banque Populaire Valaisanne , based in Sion , Switzerland and the Banque Populaire de Sierre . The bank opened a full branch office in Tokyo in 1970 .
In 1992 , SBC acquired O 'Connor & Associates , a Chicago @-@ based options trading firm and the largest market maker in the financial options exchanges in the U.S. O 'Connor was combined with SBC 's money market , capital market , and currency market activities to form a globally integrated capital markets and treasury operation .
In 1994 , SBC acquired Brinson Partners , an asset management firm focused on providing access for U.S. institutions to global markets , for US $ 750 million . Following the acquisition , founder Gary P. Brinson ran SBC 's asset management business and later when SBC merged with UBS was named chief investment officer of UBS Global Asset Management .
The acquisition of S.G. Warburg & Co . , a leading British investment banking firm , in 1995 for the price of US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion signified a major push into investment banking . S.G. Warburg & Co. had established a reputation as a daring merchant bank that grew to be one of the most respected investment banks in London . However , a Warburg expansion into the U.S. had turned out flawed and costly , and talks in 1994 with Morgan Stanley about a merger had collapsed . SBC merged the firm with its own existing investment banking unit to create SBC Warburg .
Two years later , in 1997 , SBC paid US $ 600 million to acquire Dillon , Read & Co . , a U.S. bulge bracket investment bank .
Dillon , Read & Co . , which traced its roots to the 1830s was among the powerhouse firms on Wall Street in the 1920s and 1930s , and by the 1990s had a particularly strong mergers and acquisitions advisory group . Dillon Read had been in negotiations to sell itself to ING , which owned 25 % of the firm already , but Dillon Read partners balked at ING 's integration plans .
After its acquisition by SBC , Dillon Read was merged with SBC @-@ Warburg to create SBC @-@ Warburg Dillon Read . Following SBC 's later merger with Union Bank of Switzerland , the SBC part was dropped from the name ; in 2000 when the new UBS got restructured the Dillon Read name was dropped , although it was brought back in 2005 as Dillon Read Capital Management , UBS 's ill @-@ fated hedge fund operations .
= = = Union Bank of Switzerland = = =
= = = = Origins and early years ( 1862 – 1945 ) = = = =
The Union Bank of Switzerland emerged in 1912 when the Bank in Winterthur fused with the Toggenburger Bank . The Bank in Winterthur , founded in 1862 with an initial share capital of CHF 5 million , focused on providing financing for industry and other companies , and had profited considerably from its close railroad connections and large warehousing facilities during the American Civil War when cotton prices rose dramatically . The Toggenburger Bank was founded in 1863 with an initial share capital of CHF 1 @.@ 5 million , and specialized as a savings and mortgage bank for individual customers , maintaining a branch office network in eastern Switzerland .
The new company was initially traded under the English name Swiss Banking Association , but in 1921 it was changed to Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) to mirror its French name , Union de Banques Suisses . In German , the bank was known as the Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft ( SBG ) .
The combined bank had total assets of CHF 202 million and a total shareholders ' equity of CHF 46 million . In 1917 , UBS completed the construction of a new headquarters in Zurich on Bahnhofstrasse , considered to be the Wall Street of Switzerland . By 1923 , offices were established throughout Switzerland . Although the bank suffered in the aftermath of World War I and the Great Depression , it was able to make several smaller acquisitions ; in 1937 it established Intrag AG , an asset management business responsible for investment trusts , ( i.e. mutual funds ) .
= = = = Activities in World War II = = = =
The activities of the Union Bank of Switzerland during World War II were not publicly known until decades after the war , when it was demonstrated that UBS likely took active roles in trading stolen gold , securities , and other assets during World War II .
The issue of " unclaimed property " of Holocaust victims became a major issue for UBS in the mid @-@ 1990s , and a series of revelations in 1997 brought the issue to the forefront of national attention in 1996 and 1997 .
UBS confirmed that a large number of accounts had gone unclaimed as a result of the bank 's policy of requiring death certificates from family members to claim the contents of the account . UBS 's handling of these revelations were largely criticized and the bank received significant negative attention in the U.S.
UBS came under significant pressure , particularly from American politicians , to compensate Holocaust survivors who were making claims against the bank .
In January 1997 , Christoph Meili , a night watchman at the Union Bank of Switzerland , found employees shredding archives compiled by a subsidiary that had extensive dealings with Nazi Germany . The shredding was in direct violation of a then @-@ recent Swiss law adopted in December 1996 protecting such material . UBS acknowledged that it had " made a deplorable mistake " , but an internal historian maintained that the destroyed archives were unrelated to the Holocaust . Criminal proceedings then began against the archivist for possible violation of a recent Federal Document Destruction decree and against Meili for possible violation of bank secrecy , which is a criminal offense in Switzerland . Both proceedings were discontinued by the District Attorney in September 1997 .
Meili was suspended from his job at the security company that served UBS , following a criminal investigation . Meili and his family left Switzerland for the United States where they were granted political asylum .
In 1997 , the World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss banks was launched to retrieve deposits made by victims of Nazi persecution during and prior to World War II , ultimately resulting in a settlement of US $ 1 @.@ 25 billion in August 1998 .
= = = = Post @-@ war years ( 1945 – 1998 ) = = = =
Shortly after the end of World War II , Union Bank of Switzerland completed the acquisition of the Eidgenössische Bank , a large Zürich @-@ based bank that became insolvent . As a result of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland exceeded CHF 1 billion in assets and moved its operations to Zurich . UBS opened branches and acquired a series of banks in Switzerland in the following years , growing from 31 offices in 1950 to 81 offices by the early 1960s .
In 1960 , Union Bank of Switzerland acquired an 80 % stake in Argor SA , a Swiss precious metals refinery founded in 1951 in the canton of Ticino . In 1973 , the bank increased the stake to full 100 % ownership , though the ownership was ultimately sold between 1986 and 1999 to Argor @-@ Heraeus SA . UBS continues to issue gold bars via Argor @-@ Heraeus which is famous for the unique kinebar holographic technology it uses to provide enhanced protection against bank gold bar counterfeiting .
By 1962 , Union Bank of Switzerland reached CHF 6 @.@ 96 billion of assets , narrowly edging ahead of Swiss Bank Corporation to become the largest bank in Switzerland . The rapid growth was punctuated by the 1967 acquisition of Interhandel ( Industrie- und Handelsbeteiligungen AG , the corporate successor of I.G. Chemie ) , which made UBS one of the strongest banks in Europe . Interhandel had become cash @-@ rich when a dispute concerning GAF Materials Corporation , a subsidiary formerly known as General Aniline & Film and seized by the U.S. government during the war , was resolved in 1963 and the subsidiary was disposed of .
By the 1980s , Union Bank of Switzerland established a position as a leading European underwriter of eurobonds . Following two major acquisitions in 1986 ( Phillips & Drew and Deutsche Länderbank ) , UBS made its first purchase in the United States in 1991 with Chase Investors Management Corporation , the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank . At the time of the acquisition , the business managed in excess of US $ 30 billion in assets .
Union Bank of Switzerland entered the 1990s as the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks . The bank 's investments had been in the conservative asset management and life insurance businesses ; further , 60 % of the bank 's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations . In 1993 , Credit Suisse outbid Union Bank of Switzerland for Switzerland 's Swiss Volksbank , the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s . The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of Union Bank of Switzerland as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time . Prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , UBS purchased a group of smaller Swiss banks in 1994 including the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell @-@ Ausserrhoden in 1996 , and in 1997 Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. from Lloyds Bank was acquired to improve access to the German investment banking and private wealth management markets .
= = = Merger of Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation = = =
During the mid @-@ 1990s , Union Bank of Switzerland came under fire from dissident shareholders critical of its conservative management and lower return on equity .
Martin Ebner , through his investment trust , BK Vision , became the largest shareholder in Union Bank of Switzerland and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank ’ s operations . Looking to take advantage of the situation , Credit Suisse approached Union Bank of Switzerland about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996 . Union Bank of Switzerland 's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger . Ebner , who supported the idea of a merger , led a shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of Union Bank of Switzerland 's chairman , Robert Studer with Mathis Cabiallavetta , one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation .
On 8 December 1997 , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all stock merger . At the time of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland , respectively . Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier , less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse 's merger overtures .
The merger resulted in the creation of UBS AG , a huge new bank with total assets of more than US $ 590 billion .
Also referred to as the " New UBS " to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland , the combined bank became the second largest in the world at the time , behind only the Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi . Additionally , the merger pulled together the banks ' various asset management businesses to create the world 's largest money manager , with approximately US $ 910 billion in assets under management . The combined entity was originally to be called United Bank of Switzerland , but foreseeing a problem with United Bank Switzerland , opted for UBS .
The merger , which was billed as a merger of equals , resulted in the Union Bank of Switzerland 's shareholders receiving 60 % of the combined company and Swiss Bank 's shareholders receiving the remaining 40 % of the bank 's common shares . Union Bank of Switzerland 's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank 's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer .
Nearly 80 % of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals . Prior to the merger , Swiss Bank Corporation was considered to be further along than Union Bank of Switzerland in developing its international investment banking business , particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform .
Union Bank of Switzerland had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland , while both banks had strong asset management capabilities . After the merger was completed , it was speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger .
= = = The failure of Long Term Capital Management ( LTCM ) = = =
Long Term Capital Management ( LTCM ) was a U.S. hedge fund used for trading strategies such as fixed income arbitrage , statistical arbitrage , and pairs trading , combined with high leverage . Its collapse in 1998 led to a bailout by major banks and investment houses , and resulted in massive losses for UBS at a time when it had merged with Swiss Bank Corporation . However , UBS involvement with LTCM pre @-@ dated the merger .
UBS had initially been reluctant to invest in LTCM , rebuffing an investment in 1994 and , again shortly thereafter . UBS , suffering criticism for its conservative business model , was looking for ways to catch up to its key Swiss rivals and viewed LTCM as the type of client that could help accelerate the bank 's growth . In 1997 , UBS entered into a financing arrangement with LTCM , and the hedge fund quickly became the bank 's largest client , generating US $ 15 million in fees for UBS . Union Bank of Switzerland sold LTCM a 7 @-@ year European call option on 1 million shares in LTCM , then valued at about US $ 800 million . It hedged this option by purchasing a US $ 800 million interest in LTCM and invested a further US $ 300 million in the hedge fund . Originally intended to provide UBS with a steady stream of income , UBS instead suffered major losses when the hedge fund collapsed . Following the merger , Swiss Bank managers were surprised to discover the massive exposure to LTCM at UBS . Ultimately , UBS was unable to sell or hedge its interest in LTCM as its value declined in the summer of 1998 .
By November 1998 , UBS 's losses from its exposure to LTCM were estimated at the level of approximately CHF 790 million . UBS would prove to be the largest single loser in the LTCM collapse , ultimately writing off CHF 950 million . The Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a bailout of US $ 3 @.@ 625 billion by the hedge fund 's major creditors to avoid a wider collapse in the financial markets . UBS contributed US $ 300 million to the bailout effort , which would largely be recovered . In the aftermath of the LTCM collapse , Mathis Cabiallavetta resigned as chairman of UBS , along with three other executives .
Following its involvement with LTCM , UBS issued a statement : " Given the developments in the international financial markets , in the future UBS will [ ... ] focus even more intensively on those areas of business likely to generate sustainable earnings with a justifiable level of risk . "
= = = Rising in the ranks ( 2000 – 2007 ) = = =
On 3 November 2000 , UBS merged with Paine Webber , an American stock brokerage and asset management firm led by chairman and CEO Donald Marron . At the time of its merger with UBS , Paine Webber had emerged as the fourth largest private client firm in the United States with 385 offices employing 8 @,@ 554 brokers . The acquisition pushed UBS to the top wealth and asset management firm in the world . Initially , the business was given the divisional name UBS PaineWebber but in 2003 the 123 @-@ year @-@ old name Paine Webber disappeared when it was renamed UBS Wealth Management USA . UBS took a CHF 1 billion writedown for the loss of goodwill associated with the retirement of the Paine Webber brand when it integrated its brands under the unified UBS name in 2003 .
John P. Costas , a former bond trader and co @-@ head of Fixed income at Credit Suisse First Boston and head of Fixed Income Trading at Union Bank of Switzerland in 1998 , was appointed CEO of UBS 's investment banking division , which originated in SBC 's Warburg Dillon Read division and was renamed UBS Warburg in December 2001 . In an attempt to break into the elite bulge bracket of investment banks , in which UBS then had little success while rival Credit Suisse was establishing itself as a major player on Wall Street with the acquisition of Donaldson , Lufkin & Jenrette in 2000 , Costas shifted the growth strategy from acquiring entire firms to hiring individual investment bankers or teams of bankers from rival firms . Costas had followed a similar approach in building out the UBS fixed income business , hiring over 500 sales and trading personnel and increasing revenues from US $ 300 million in 1998 to over US $ 3 billion by 2001 .
The arrival of former Drexel Burnham Lambert investment banker Ken Moelis marked a major coup for Costas . Moelis joined UBS from Donaldson Lufkin & Jenrette in 2001 shortly after its acquisition by Credit Suisse First Boston ( although Huw Jenkins claimed he had hired Moelis to the UK Parliamentary Banking commission while under oath , which is patently false ) . In his six years at UBS , Moelis ultimately assumed the role of president of UBS Investment Bank and was credited , along with Costas , with the build @-@ out of UBS 's investment banking operation in the United States . Within weeks of joining , Moelis brought over a team of 70 bankers from Donaldson , Lufkin & Jenrette . Costas and Moelis hired more than 30 senior U.S. bankers from 2001 through 2004 .
It was estimated that UBS spent as much as US $ 600 million to US $ 700 million hiring top bankers in the U.S. during this three @-@ year period . Among the bank 's other major recruits during this period were Olivier Sarkozy , Ben Lorello , Blair Effron , and Jeff McDermott .
By 2003 , UBS had risen to fourth place from seventh in global investment banking fees , earning US $ 2 @.@ 1 billion of the US $ 39 billion paid to investment banks that year , increasing 33 % . Over the next four years , UBS consistently ranked in the top 4 in the global fee pool and established a track record of 20 consecutive quarters of rising profits .
However , by the end of 2006 , UBS began to experience changing fortunes . In late 2005 , Costas headed a new hedge fund unit within UBS known as Dillon Read Capital Management . His former position was taken over by Huw Jenkins , a long @-@ time legacy UBS investment banker . In 2006 , UBS bankers Blair Effron and Michael Martin announced their departures . In March 2007 , Moelis announced that he was leaving the company , and shortly thereafter founded a new business , Moelis & Company . As he had when joining UBS , Moelis took a large team of senior UBS investment bankers . Moelis 's departure was caused primarily by repeated conflict over the availability of capital from the bank 's balance sheet to pursue large transactions , particularly leveraged buyouts . The bank 's apparent conservatism would be turned on its head when large losses were reported in various mortgage securities rather than corporate loans that generated investment banking fees . After Moelis , other notable departures included investment banking co @-@ head Jeff McDermott in early 2007 and , as the financial crisis set in , other high @-@ profile bankers such as Oliver Sarkozy in early 2008 and Ben Lorello in 2009 .
= = = The beginning of UBS ' troubles : Subprime mortgage crisis ( 2007 ) = = =
At the beginning of 2007 , UBS became the first Wall Street firm to announce a heavy loss in the subprime mortgage sector as the subprime mortgage crisis began to develop . In May 2007 , UBS announced the closure of its Dillon Read Capital Management ( DRCM ) division . Before that time , there was little understanding of the troubles at DRCM or the massive expansion of risk engineered by the investment banking division under the leadership of the newly placed CEO Huw Jenkins .
DRCM , which was a large internal hedge fund , had been started with much publicity in 2005 and invested money both on behalf of UBS and some of its clients . DRCM had been formed in large part to keep some of the bank 's traders from defecting to hedge funds , as well as to create a position for John Costas , who had been instrumental in creating UBS 's successful investment banking business in the U.S. from 2001 – 2005 . Costas had been replaced by Huw Jenkins , a long @-@ time legacy UBS investment banker with little fixed income or mortgage experience . DRCM hired a large team of professionals , many of whom were attracted from the investment bank with large compensation packages . Although in 2006 , DCRM had generated a profit for the bank of US $ 720 million , after UBS took over DRCM 's positions in May 2007 , losses grew from the US $ 124 million recorded by DRCM , ultimately to " 16 % of the US $ 19 billion in losses UBS recorded . " The UBS investment bank continued to expand subprime risk in the second quarter of 2007 while most market participants were reducing risk , resulting in not only expanding DRCM losses but creating the 84 % of the other losses experienced by the bank . By October 2007 , UBS was indicating that the assets could not be sold given the illiquidity in the market .
In response to the growing series of problems at UBS , and possibly his role in spearheading Costas ' departure from the bank , Peter Wuffli unexpectedly stepped down as CEO of the firm during the second quarter of 2007 . Wuffli would be joined by many of his fellow managers in the next year , most notably the bank 's chairman Marcel Ospel . However , the bank 's problems continued through the end of 2007 , when the bank reported its first quarterly loss in over five years . As its losses jeopardized the bank 's capital position , UBS quickly raised US $ 11 @.@ 5 billion of capital in December 2007 , US $ 9 @.@ 7 billion of which came from the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation ( GIC ) and US $ 1 @.@ 8 billion from an unnamed Middle Eastern investor . Those 2007 capital injections would initially be highly unpopular among UBS shareholders who clamored to have an opportunity to participate on the same terms . However , over time , these early investments in UBS proved to be unsuccessful for the investors involved , as the bank 's stock price remained below 2007 levels more than two years later .
= = = = Impact of the financial crisis ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
After a significant expansion of fixed income risk during 2006 and 2007 under the leadership of Huw Jenkins , the UBS Investment Bank CEO , the bank 's losses continued to mount in 2008 when UBS announced in April 2008 that it was writing down a further US $ 19 billion of investments in subprime and other mortgage assets . ( Jenkins had been asked to leave in October 2007 . ) By this point , UBS 's total losses in the mortgage market were in excess of US $ 37 billion , the largest such losses of any of its peers . In response to its losses , UBS announced a CHF 15 billion rights offering to raise the additional funds need to shore up its depleted reserves of capital . UBS cut its dividend in order to protect its traditionally high Tier 1 capital ratio , seen by investors as a key to its credibility as the world 's largest wealth management company . Marcel Ospel , who had been the architect of the merger that created UBS in 1998 , also announced that he would step down as a chairman of the bank to be replaced by Peter Kurer , the bank ’ s general counsel with virtually no banking experience . This ultimately proved very costly to UBS .
In October 2008 , UBS announced that it had placed CHF 6 billion of new capital , through mandatory convertible notes , with Swiss Confederation . The SNB ( Swiss National Bank ) and UBS made an agreement to transfer approximately US $ 60 billion of currently illiquid securities and various assets from UBS to a separate fund entity . In November 2008 , UBS put US $ 6 billion of equity into the new “ bad bank ” entity , keeping only an option to benefit if the value of its assets were to recover . Heralded as a “ neat ” package by the New York Times , the UBS structure guaranteed clarity for UBS investors by making an outright sale .
UBS announced in February 2009 that it had lost nearly CHF 20 billion ( US $ 17 @.@ 2 billion ) in 2008 , the biggest single @-@ year loss of any company in Swiss history . Since the beginning of the financial crisis in 2007 , UBS has written down more than US $ 50 billion from subprime mortgage investments and cut more than 11 @,@ 000 jobs .
= = = Stabilizing the ship ( 2009 – present ) = = =
By the spring of 2009 , UBS announced another management restructuring and initiated a plan to return to profitability . Jerker Johansson , the head of the investment bank division , resigned in April 2009 and was replaced by Alex Wilmot @-@ Sitwell and Carsten Kengeter . At the same time , UBS announced the planned cut of 8 @,@ 700 jobs and had implemented a new compensation plan . Under the plan , no more than one @-@ third of any cash bonus would be paid out in the year it is earned with the rest to be held in reserve and stock @-@ based incentives that would vest after three years ; top executives would have to hold 75 % of any vested shares . Additionally , the bank 's chairman , Peter Kurer , would no longer receive any extra variable compensation , only a cash salary and a fixed allotment of shares that could not be sold for four years . In April 2009 , UBS announced that it agreed to sell its Brazilian financial services business , UBS Pactual , for approximately US $ 2 @.@ 5 billion to BTG Investments . UBS rejected proposals to break apart the bank and divest its investment banking division .
By the summer of 2009 , UBS was showing increased signs of stabilization . The Swiss government sold its CHF 6 billion stake in UBS in late 2008 at a large profit ; Switzerland had purchased convertible notes in 2008 to help UBS clear its balance sheets of toxic assets . Taking advantage of improved conditions in the stock market in mid @-@ 2009 , UBS placed US $ 3 @.@ 5 billion of shares with a small number of large institutional investors . Oswald Grübel announced , “ We are building a new UBS , one that performs to the highest standards and behaves with integrity and honesty ; one that distinguishes itself not only through the clarity and reliability of the advice and services it provides but in how it manages and executes . " Grübel reiterated plans to maintain an integrated business model of providing wealth management , investment banking , and asset management services .
In August 2010 , UBS launched a new advertising campaign featuring the slogan : “ We will not rest " and signed a global sponsorship agreement with Formula 1 .
On 26 October 2010 , UBS announced that its private bank recorded net new funds of CHF 900 million during the third quarter , compared to an outflow of CHF 5 @.@ 5 billion in second quarter . UBS 's third quarter net profit of US $ 1 @.@ 65 billion beat analyst estimates , continuing a string of profitability .
After the elimination of almost 5 @,@ 000 jobs , UBS announced on 23 August 2011 that it was further cutting another 3 @,@ 500 positions in order to " improve operating efficiency " and save CHF 1 @.@ 5 to CHF 2 billion a year . 45 percent of the job cuts would come from the investment banking unit , which continued to post dismal figures since the 2008 financial crisis , while the rest would come from the wealth management and asset management divisions . The firm has seen profits fall due to the rise of the Swiss franc .
On 30 October 2012 , UBS announced that it was cutting 10 @,@ 000 jobs worldwide in an effort to slim down its investment banking operations , of which 2 @,@ 500 would be in Switzerland , followed by the United States and Great Britain . This 15 @-@ percent staff cut would make overall staff count come down from 63 @,@ 745 to 54 @,@ 000 . ( For comparison , the peak employment level in 2007 before the 2008 financial crisis was 83 @,@ 500 . ) UBS also announced that the investment bank would focus on its traditional strengths and exit much of its fixed income trading business that was not economically profitable .
On 19 December 2012 , UBS was fined $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( $ 1 @.@ 2 billion to the United States Department of Justice and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission , £ 160 million to the UK Financial Services Authority , and CHF 60 million to the Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority ) for its role in the Libor scandal over accusations that it tried to rig benchmark interest rates . US Assistant Attorney General Lanny Breuer described the conduct of UBS as " simply astonishing " and declared the US would seek , as a criminal matter , the extradition of traders Tom Hayes and Roger Darin . The bank stated that these and other fines would probably result in a significant fourth @-@ quarter loss in 2012 . The fine levied by the FSA , although reduced due to the bank 's cooperation , was the largest in the agency 's history .
In November 2014 , regulators including the FCA and CFTC hit UBS with fines , along with other banks , for currency manipulation .
On 6 January 2014 , it was reported that UBS had become the largest private banker in the world , with $ 1 @.@ 7 trillion in assets .
In May 2015 , media reports revealed UBS is planning to sell its Australian private banking division to some of its management after a review of underperforming businesses was conducted at the company . After the first 2016 quartal results , UBS is planning to cut jobs in Switzerland and abroad to stay competitive . ,
= = = Acquisition history = = =
As it exists today , UBS represents a conglomeration of dozens of individual firms , many of which date back to the 19th century . Over the years , these firms merged to form the bank 's three major predecessors , Union Bank of Switzerland , Swiss Bank Corporation , and Paine Webber .
The following is a visual illustration of the company 's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors , although this is not necessarily a comprehensive list :
= = Corporate governance = =
= = = Board of Directors = = =
Chairman Marcel Ospel did not apply for re @-@ election at the annual general meeting of shareholders held on 23 April 2008 , and was succeeded by Peter Kurer , who was general counsel . On 15 April 2009 , Peter Kurer was succeeded by Kaspar Villiger . Former Bundesbank president Axel A. Weber was nominated in mid @-@ 2011 for election to the board at the annual meeting 2012 and , at that time , intended to be elected as a chairman of the board after Villiger 's retirement in 2013 . However , in May 2012 , Villiger and board member Bruno Gehrig stepped down .
= = = Group Executive Board = = =
With Oswald Grübel 's resignation as CEO and Ermotti 's interim appointment on 24 September 2011 , The Wall Street Journal reported that the succession process appeared to be a two @-@ person race between Ermotti from EMEA and Kengeter from the investment bank . Ermotti , who had spent many years at what is now Bank of America Merrill Lynch , had joined UBS in April from UniCredit Group ; Kengeter is a German national who joined UBS from Goldman Sachs in 2008 and who had reportedly disagreed with some UBS investment bankers over pay and other matters , the journal also said .
Previously , on 29 February 2009 , Marcel Rohner had resigned and was succeeded by Grübel . On 1 April 2009 , Grübel hired Ulrich Körner in a newly established role as Chief operating officer ( COO ) and CEO of Corporate Center . Körner 's task was to cut administrative expenses and boost profits . After the last Annual General Meeting in May 2016 , Robert W. Scully and Dieter Wemmer were elected as new members of the Board . It has been decided that Martin Blessing will assume the role as President Personal & Corporate Banking and President UBS Switzerland , replacing Lukas Gaehwiler , who himself will take the new role as Chairman of the Region Switzerland . This will be effective on 1 September 2016 .
= = = Shareholders = = =
The most significant shareholders of UBS are GIC Private Limited , BlackRock Inc and Norges Bank with 7 @.@ 07 % , 4 @.@ 89 % and 3 @.@ 30 % of total share capital respectively . In 2008 during the subprime mortgage crisis , GIC Private Limited invested CHF 11 billion into UBS to help bail it out , thus becoming the largest single shareholder .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Holocaust assets ( 1930s – 1998 ) = = =
In January 1997 , Christoph Meili , a night guard at the Union Bank of Switzerland ( precursor of UBS ) in Zürich , Switzerland , discovered that bank officials were destroying documents about orphaned assets , believed to be the credit balances of deceased Jewish clients whose heirs ' whereabouts were unknown , as well as books from the Nazi German Reichsbank . The books listed real @-@ estate records for Berlin property that had been seized by the Nazis , placed in Swiss accounts , and then claimed to be owned by UBS . The destruction of such documents is illegal under Swiss law . This edict was the legal basis and foundation of the Bergier commission , constituted on 19 December 1996 . Articles 4 , 5 , and 7 made the destruction or withholding of documents relating to orphaned assets illegal .
Meili took some of the bank files home , then handed them over to a local Jewish organization , which brought the documents to the police and eventually to the press that subsequently revealed the document destruction . Zurich 's authorities opened a judicial investigation against Meili for suspected violations of the Swiss laws on banking secrecy , which is a prosecutable offense ex officio in Switzerland . After Meili and his family reported receiving death threats , they fled to the United States and were granted political asylum .
After a US $ 2 @.@ 56 billion lawsuit was filed against UBS and other Swiss banks on behalf of the Jewish victims of the Holocaust , a settlement was reached between UBS and other Swiss banks that had laundered Nazi assets totaling US $ 1 @.@ 25 billion in August 1998 .
In his book Imperfect Justice , Stuart Eizenstat claimed the " Meili Affair " was important in the decision of Swiss banks to participate in the process of reparations for victims of Nazi looting during World War II . He wrote that the affair " did more than anything to turn the Swiss banks into international pariahs by linking their dubious behavior during and after the war to the discovery of a seemingly unapologetic attempt to cover it up now by destroying documents . " Eizenstat believes that the affair influenced the Swiss Bankers Association ( SBA ) decision to create a Humanitarian Fund for the Victims of the Holocaust , as well as being one of a series of events that influenced the calling of the 1997 London Conference on Nazi Gold .
= = = U.S. trade embargoes ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = =
On 10 May 2004 , UBS was fined US $ 100 million by the U.S. Federal Reserve for illegally transferring funds from an account set up by the Federal Reserve at UBS to Iran , Cuba , and other countries under U.S. trade embargoes .
= = = Indian stock market crash ( 2004 – 2009 ) = = =
The Indian securities regulator Securities and Exchange Board of India ( SEBI ) alleged that UBS had played a role in the 2004 " Black Monday " stock market crash which followed the National Democratic Alliance government ’ s defeat in the general elections . SEBI 's ruling of 17 May 2005 barred UBS from issuing or renewing participatory notes for one year . The ban was later lifted on appeal , as a result of a Securities Appellate Tribunal ( SAT ) ruling on 9 September 2005 . SEBI challenged SAT 's order in the Supreme Court of India . On 9 February 2009 , the Supreme Court disposed of the case after SEBI and UBS said they had reached a settlement under which UBS agreed to pay an amount of about ₹ 50 lakh ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) .
= = = U.S. discrimination lawsuits ( 2001 – 2005 ) = = =
In April 2005 , UBS lost the landmark discrimination and sexual harassment case , Zubulake v. UBS Warburg . The plaintiff , Laura Zubulake , was a former institutional equities salesperson at the company 's Stamford office . The jury found that her manager , Matthew Chapin , had denied her important accounts and mocked her appearance to co @-@ workers . She claimed that several sexist policies in place , such as entertaining clients at strip clubs , made it difficult for women to socialize and foster business contacts with clients . The jury found that UBS had destroyed relevant e @-@ mail evidence after the litigation hold had been in place . UBS was ordered to pay the plaintiff US $ 9 @.@ 1 million in compensatory damages ( including back pay and professional damage ) , and US $ 20 @.@ 2 million in punitive damages .
On 18 October 2005 , three African @-@ American employees filed a class action lawsuit against the company in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York alleging racial discrimination in hiring , promotion , and other employment practices . The three plaintiffs in Freddie H. Cook , Sylvester L. Flaming Jr . , and Timothy J. Gandy v. UBS Financial Services , Inc . , claimed that segregation and discrimination in job assignments and compensation were widespread and the firm had done nothing to diversify its workforce . The lawsuit also claimed that offices operating in Largo , Maryland and Flushing , New York were illegally created to serve African @-@ Americans and Asian @-@ Americans respectively , and that the firm ’ s management frequently ridiculed the Largo branch office and its staff , referring to it as a “ diversity ” office . On 23 April 2007 , U.S. District Judge , Peter J. Messitte , granted plaintiff 's request to dismiss the class allegations without prejudice . As a result of this dismissal , the case now comprises the individual claims of three plaintiffs .
= = = U.S. tax evasion ( 2005 – ) = = =
In 2005 , Bradley Birkenfeld , a Geneva @-@ based employee who worked in the bank 's North American wealth management business , claimed that UBS 's dealings with American clients violated an agreement between the bank and the U.S. Internal Revenue Service . He said that he was disturbed by an internal legal document that he believed was prepared to give UBS legal cover should bank @-@ sanctioned illegal activities be uncovered . The bank could then shift the blame to its employees . He subsequently complained to UBS compliance officials about the bank 's " unfair and deceptive business practices " . When he received no response after three months , he wrote to UBS General Counsel Peter Kurer about the illegal practices . Subsequently , Birkenfeld resigned from UBS in October 2005 .
In 2007 , Birkenfeld , a U.S. citizen , decided to tell the U.S. Department of Justice ( DOJ ) what he knew about UBS 's practices . At the same time , he planned to take advantage of the Tax Relief and Health Care Act of 2006 that could pay him up to 30 % of any tax revenue recouped by the IRS as a result of Birkenfeld 's information . In April 2007 , Birkenfeld 's attorney arranged for Birkenfeld to be cooperating with the DOJ , though the relationship between the department and the whistleblower were troubled . Birkenfeld also met with the Securities and Exchange Commission , the IRS , and the U.S. Senate .
In June 2008 , based on Birkenfeld 's revelations , the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation made a formal request to enter Switzerland to probe a multimillion @-@ dollar tax evasion case involving UBS . That same month , the United States Senate panel that Birkenfeld had communicated with accused Swiss banks , including UBS , of helping wealthy Americans evade taxes through offshore accounts , and estimated the total cost of this practice to be in excess of US $ 100 billion annually . According to the findings , U.S. clients held about 19 @,@ 000 accounts at UBS , with an estimated US $ 18 billion to US $ 20 billion in assets , in Switzerland .
In response to the report and the FBI investigation , UBS announced that it would cease providing cross @-@ border private banking services to US @-@ domiciled clients through its non @-@ US regulated units as of July 2008 . In November 2008 , a U.S. federal grand jury indicted Raoul Weil , Chairman and CEO of UBS Global Wealth Management and Business Banking and member of UBS 's Group Executive Board , in connection with the ongoing investigation of UBS 's US cross @-@ border business . UBS would eventually cut ties to Weil in May 2009 and he would face charges after UBS had settled its criminal case with the government . The U.S. issued an international arrest warrant for Weil , and he was extradited to the United States after being arrested in Italy in 2013 . In January 2014 , Weil pleaded not @-@ guilty in federal court to helping U.S. taxpayers evade taxes on $ 20 billion in offshore assets .
On 18 February 2009 , UBS agreed to pay a fine of US $ 780 million to the U.S. government and entered into a deferred prosecution agreement ( DPA ) on charges of conspiring to defraud the United States by impeding the Internal Revenue Service . The DPA obliged UBS to pay US $ 780 million to settle criminal charges , and criminal charges were dismissed . The figures include interest , penalties , restitution for unpaid taxes and disgorgement of profits . As part of the deal , UBS also settled Securities and Exchange Commission charges of having acted as an unregistered broker / dealer and investment adviser for Americans .
The day after settling its criminal case on 19 February 2009 , the U.S. government filed a civil suit against UBS to reveal the names of all 52 @,@ 000 American customers , alleging that the bank and these customers conspired to defraud the IRS and federal government of the legitimately owed tax revenue . The Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority ( FINMA ) had provided to the United States government the identities of , and account information for , certain United States customers of UBS ’ s cross @-@ border business as part of its criminal investigation in 2009 . On 12 August 2009 , UBS announced a settlement deal that ended its litigation with the IRS . However , this settlement set up a showdown between the U.S. and Swiss governments over the secrecy of Swiss bank accounts . It was not until June 2010 that Swiss lawmakers approved a deal to reveal client data and account details of U.S. clients who were suspected of tax evasion .
In February 2015 , UBS announced to be investigated by the federal government over new charges stating that UBS facilitated tax evasion by its U.S. clients . The focus of the investigation lies on the possible sale of bearer bonds , a type of unregistered security that provides anonymity to the owner . UBS announced that it was cooperating with the investigators .
UBS employees allegedly discussed the legal ramifications of the use of bearer bonds with their clients , a type of security that has been virtually illegal in the U.S. The government investigation is trying to determine whether there was a criminal conspiracy to evade taxes and conceal what had allegedly already been done . The investigation , which was launched in January 2015 , also aims to determine whether bearer bonds were provided as investment vehicles to UBS clients before the expiration of its 2009 deferred prosecution agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice . The agreement lapsed in October 2010 . Should UBS have violated the agreement , the federal government can make new allegations against UBS on charges stemming from the violation . In such a case , prosecutors would likely ask for significant fines and for UBS to be put under regulatory oversight .
= = = Rogue trader scandal ( 2008 – 2012 ) = = =
On 15 September 2011 , UBS became aware of a massive loss , originally estimated at US $ 2 billion , allegedly due to unauthorized trading by Kweku Adoboli , a then 31 @-@ year @-@ old trader on the Delta One desk of the firm ’ s investment bank . Adoboli was arrested and later charged with fraud by abuse of position and false accounting dating as far back as 2008 .
UBS 's actual losses were subsequently confirmed as US $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , and according to the prosecutor in Adoboli 's trial he " was a gamble or two from destroying Switzerland 's largest bank for his own benefit . "
The bank stated that no client positions had been affected and its CEO Oswald Grübel initially dismissed calls for his resignation , commenting that “ if someone acts with criminal intent , you can ’ t do anything . ”
However , UBS 's management was subsequently criticized for its " lapses " by the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation , the bank 's largest shareholder , in a rare press statement on 20 September 2011 . On 24 September 2011 UBS announced Grübel 's resignation , and the appointment of Sergio Ermotti as a Group CEO on an interim basis .
On 5 October 2011 , Francois Gouws and Yassine Bouhara , co @-@ heads of UBS 's Global Equities franchise , also resigned .
The scale of UBS 's losses led to renewed calls for the global separation of commercial banking from investment banking , while media commentators suggested UBS should consider downsizing its investment bank and potentially rebranding it under the resurrected S.G. Warburg name .
In Switzerland , where the Government had bailed out UBS in 2008 , particular concern was voiced about the nature of the alleged trading which , it was suggested , might have been directed against the interests of the Swiss economy . Christian Levrat , the President of the SP @-@ Party said , " Should it prove true that UBS , having been rescued by the state in 2008 , has speculated against the Swiss franc , [ UBS Chairman ] Villiger must take the consequences . "
If found guilty , Abodoli will have generated the third @-@ largest loss by a rogue trader in history , after Jerome Kerviel of Société Générale ( who also worked on a Delta One desk ) and Yasuo Hamanaka , a copper trader at Sumitomo Corporation .
= = = Lehman Brothers notes ( 2007 – 2013 ) = = =
In 2011 , UBS was fined US $ 2 @.@ 5 million by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority connected to the sale of Lehman Brothers Holdings structured notes for omissions and misleading statements it made to investors . UBS underwrote and marketed $ 900 million worth of 100 % Principal @-@ Protection Notes between March 2007 and September 2008 ; Lehman Bros. went bankrupt in September 2008 . UBS also agreed to pay US $ 8 @.@ 25 million in restitution and interest to American investors .
In August 2013 , UBS settled a class action lawsuit filed by holders of Lehman notes . The lawsuit alleged that UBS 's depiction of the financial condition of Lehman Bros. was misleading . UBS settled the lawsuit with a payout of US $ 120 million .
= = = U.S. municipal bond market rigging ( 2001 – 2013 ) = = =
In 2011 , UBS agreed to pay US $ 160 million in restitution , penalties and disgorgement of profits for rigging bids in the U.S. municipal bond market , after the bank and three of its employees were charged by the U.S. Department of Justice in 2010 . In July 2013 , the three employees were convicted of conspiracy in the muni market fraud : former UBS Vice President Gary Heinz was sentenced to 27 months in prison and fined US $ 400 @,@ 000 ; former UBS global commodities chief Peter Ghavami was sentenced to 18 months and fined US $ 1 million ; and former UBS VP Michael Welty received a 16 @-@ month sentence and fined US $ 300 @,@ 000 . In addition to conspiracy , Ghavami and Heinz also were convicted of wire fraud . Federal prosecutors had asked for much harsher sentences , but U.S. District Judge Kimba Wood rebuffed the request . Wood said that the criminal behavior of the three was an aberration from their normal law @-@ abiding lives .
= = = Arms sales and Indian money laundering ( 2003 – 2011 ) = = =
UBS was implicated in a money laundering case involving Saudi arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi and an Indian citizen introduced to UBS by Khashoggi . In 2011 , Hasan Ali Khan , owner of a Pune , India stud farm , was arrested by India 's Enforcement Directorate and charged with serving as a front man for Khashoggi . Khan and Kolkata businessman Kashinath Tapuriah were charged under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act . Allegedly , in 2003 , Khan helped launder US $ 300 million of money Khashoggi made through arms sales via the Zurich branch of UBS .
Introduced to UBS by Khashoggi in 1982 , Khan enabled the arms dealer to launder funds held in American accounts through UBS Geneva . One of Khan 's accounts eventually was frozen when it was determined that the source of the funds came from Khashoggi 's arms sales .
India Today reported that Mr Khan allegedly had US $ 8 billion in " black money " ( laundered money ) in a UBS account . The figures were reported to be verified by India Today , based on a letter written by UBS Zurich . The government of India reportedly verified the existence of this account in UBS .
UBS denied Indian media reports alleging that it maintained a business relationship with or had any assets or accounts for Hasan Ali Khan . Upon formal request by the Indian and Swiss government authorities , the bank announced that the documentation corroborating such allegations was forged and numerous media reports claiming he had US $ 8 billion in black money at the bank were false .
= = = Libor benchmark rigging ( 2005 – 2012 ) = = =
In December 2012 , UBS agreed to pay US $ 1 @.@ 5 billion to settle a case filed by the U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission alleging that UBS engaged in a criminal conspiracy to rig the London Interbank Offered Rate ( Libor ) benchmarks used on loans via company 's Japan @-@ based subsidiary . UBS has also been charged by British and Swiss financial regulators for its Libor manipulation scheme . In settling the case , the bank acknowledged wrongdoing . UBS Chief Executive Sergio Ermotti said , " We are taking responsibility for what happened , " and said that all the employees linked to the scam had already left the bank . The U.S. fine would contribute to the bank 's loss of US $ 2 @.@ 7 billion in the fourth quarter .
UBS also paid a fine of £ 160 million ( US $ 0 @.@ 3 billion ) to the Financial Conduct Authority ( FCA ) , the largest fine issued by the U.K. regulator for Libor rigging .
The UBS scheme involved multiple banks , brokers and traders to manipulate interest rates to generate a profit on trades . The scheme lasted for six years before it was broken up . UBS entered into a deferred prosecution agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice , following which it was not a subject of criminal charges , except for company 's subsidiary , UBS Securities Japan , which was not exempt . The subsidiary pleaded guilty to wire fraud .
The scheme 's ringleader was former UBS trader Thomas Hayes , who was indicted by U.S. prosecutors along with a Swiss national , Roger Darin .
= = = Currency benchmark rigging ( 2003 – ) = = =
Market regulators in Asia , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and the United States began to investigate the $ 5 trillion @-@ a @-@ day foreign @-@ exchange market after Bloomberg News reported in June 2013 that several of the world 's largest currency trading banks had been front @-@ running client orders and rigging the foreign exchange benchmark WM / Reuters rates by colluding with counterparts . The behavior occurred daily in the spot foreign @-@ exchange market and went on for at least a decade according to currency traders .
At the center of the investigation were the transcripts of electronic chatrooms in which senior currency traders discussed with their competitors at other banks the types and volume of the trades they planned to place . The electronic chatrooms had names such as " The Cartel , " " The Bandits ' Club , " " One Team , One Dream " and " The Mafia " .
UBS set aside approximately US $ 2 billion in expected liability for alleged charges in currency rigging and French tax evasion cases .
For the currency rigging charges , UBS paid US $ 800 million to American , British , and Swiss regulators .
= = = U.S. mortgage @-@ backed securities ( 2004 – 2015 ) = = =
In July 2013 , UBS settled a lawsuit filed against it and 17 other banks by Federal Housing Finance Agency ( FHFA ) , the U.S. federal agency that oversees Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac , with a payout of US $ 885 million , but without UBS having to admit any wrongdoing . At the time of the settlement , the agency already settle with two other institutions , but UBS settlement was the first where the amount paid was released to public .
On behalf of Fannie and Freddie , the FHFA had sued UBS and 17 other banks in July 2011 over mortgage @-@ backed securities sold to the two government @-@ sponsored enterprises that buy mortgages in the secondary market and repackage them as securities to boost liquidity in the mortgage business . The lawsuit claimed that UBS misrepresented the quality of mortgages sold to the two housing agencies for US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion .
In February 2015 , UBS along with Citigroup and Goldman Sachs Group agreed to a $ 235 million settlement stemming from residential mortgage @-@ backed securities ( RMBS ) issued by the defunct Residential Capital LLC ( ResCap ) and underwritten by the three financial institutions .
The ResCap RMBS were issued before the sub @-@ prime mortgage crisis , and the lawsuit dates from 2008 . The lawsuit alleged that the prospectuses and registration statements issued by UBS , Citigroup and Goldman Sachs did not adequately disclose the risks of the RMBS and were , in fact , misleading to investors , who sustained heavy losses . The lawsuit alleged that the behavior of the three defendants violated securities laws .
= = = French tax evasion ( 2002 – ) = = =
In 2013 , France launched an investigation into UBS France 's alleged abetting of tax evasion by French taxpayers .
The investigation was spurred by the March 2012 publication of a muckraking book about UBS , Ces 600 milliards qui manquent à la France – Enquête au cœur de l ’ évasion fiscale ( " Those 600 billion which France is missing – Inquiry into the heart of tax evasion " ) , which estimated the amount of tax income lost to UBS @-@ controlled offshore accounts at € 600 billion .
UBS France executive Patrick de Fayet was among three local branch executives being investigated . UBS wealth management bankers allegedly broke the law by enabling French taxpayers to hide their assets in UBS @-@ controlled offshore assets to avoid paying taxes . The bankers undertook to direct their French clients ' assets to UBS 's Switzerland operation , rather than keep the money in France . UBS set aside approximately US $ 2 billion in expected liability for its currency rigging and French tax evasion cases .
UBS is facing fines of up to five billion euros for its alleged role in tax fraud , according to the French newspaper Le Temps .
In July 2014 , the bank was required to post a bond of 1 @.@ 1 billion euros , which UBS complied with while making multiple appeals in the French court system , finally losing its appeal at the Cour de Cassation , France 's highest court . UBS may appeal that ruling at the European Court of Human Rights .
In February 2015 , U.S. whistleblower Bradley Birkenfeld , the key figure in the UBS tax evasion scandal in the U.S. , was subpoenaed by French magistrate investigating the case .
The U.S. Department of Justice approved the request for Birkenfeld , who is still on parole after being convicted of one count of conspiracy to abet tax evasion by his UBS client Igor Olenicoff , to visit France to testify in the UBS case .
Federal Judge William Zloch granted Birkenfeld permission to travel to France from 27 February to 1 March 2015 to appear before the French court .
In 2014 , UBS accused the French government of engaging in a " highly politicized process " in its investigation of the bank and its French subsidiary . The crackdown on UBS France that began in mid @-@ 2013 where it came to light that Jerome Cahuzac , who served as budget director in the government of President Francois Hollande , had a secret Swiss bank account . A former marketing manager of UBS France , Stephanie Gibaud had to testify several times after UBS filed several libel cases against her in this case .
= = = German tax evasion ( 2004 – ) = = =
UBS Deutschland AG came under investigation by prosecutors in Mannheim , Germany , after a tax probe revealed suspicious funds transfers from Germany to Switzerland allegedly facilitated by UBS Deutschland 's Frankfurt office . Prosecutors have investigated UBS 's abetting of tax evasion by German taxpayers from 2004 to 2012 . The investigation was expected to lessen the chances of a German @-@ Swiss tax treaty .
UBS Deutschland 's Frankfurt office was raided by tax investigators in May 2012 , and over 100 @,@ 000 computer files and records were seized for evidence . The bank , which claims it is cooperating with the investigators , said that " an internal investigation into the specific allegations has not identified any evidence of misbehavior by UBS Deutschland AG . "
In July 2014 , the bank paid approximately US $ 400 million to settle similar charges in Bochum , Germany .
= = = Belgian tax evasion ( 2004 – ) = = =
In June 2014 , the chief executive of UBS Belgium , Marcel Brühwiler , was arrested on suspicion of fraud , while UBS ' offices and Brühwiler 's residence were searched by police . It is alleged that UBS Belgium actively recruited rich Belgians , proposing to funnel funds to secret Swiss accounts , enabling tax avoidance .
= = = Timber corruption and Malaysian money laundering ( 2006 – ) = = =
Swiss authorities are conducting criminal investigations on charges against UBS for laundering $ 90 million associated with timber businesses and government officials in Malaysia .
= = = Forex manipulation scandal ( 1991 @-@ 2015 ) = = =
UBS is one of several major banks found guilty in a scheme to manipulate foreign currencies around the world .
On 20 May 2015 , US authorities ruled that UBS was to pay $ 545 million in order to end an investigation into the manipulation of currency rates . UBS was the first among other fraudulent banks to report the misconduct and was thus able to escape prosecution by the US Department of Justice .
$ 203 million in fines is due to UBS ’ s forex activities breaching a previous deal made with the US over the rigging of the London interbank offered rate ( Libor ) . This agreement was dependent on the bank adhering to US laws and staying out of trouble with the US authorities for two years . The deal was struck in 2012 , and forex investigations started less than a year later , resulting in the non @-@ prosecution status being scrapped . On top of the $ 203 million fine , UBS has had to plead guilty to one count of wire fraud in the previous Libor case as part of the deal with the US Department of Justice to end investigations into its conduct in the current forex scandal . As of May 2015 , UBS is in a three @-@ year probation period with the justice department .
= = = Puerto Rico bond funds = = =
UBS sold a lot of the Puerto Rico funds , which were mostly concentrated in the debt of the Caribbean island 's government . The funds have declined as much as 75 percent from their initial prices from 2008 . Losses began in mid @-@ 2013 and were linked to a general weakness in municipal bond markets and Puerto Rican debt . UBS is facing trials against hundreds of arbitration claims by investors filed with FINRA ( Financial Industry Regulatory Authority ) asking for a total of more than $ 900 million in damages . The bond funds had already landed UBS Puerto Rico in trouble before in 2012 .
= = = Panama Papers ( 2016 – ) = = =
Several banks ( UBS , Barclays , HSBC , Deutsche Bank ) and many high profile names have been involved in a recently disclosed scandal concerning secret offshore financial dealings in the so @-@ called Panama Papers scandal .
= = Corporate social responsibility = =
In January 2010 , UBS issued a new code of conduct and business ethics which all employees were encouraged to sign . The code addressed issues such as financial crime , competition , confidentiality , as well as human rights and environmental issues . The eight @-@ page code also lays out potential sanctions against employees who violate it , including warnings , demotions , or dismissal . According to Kaspar Villiger , former Chairman of the Board , and Oswald J. Grübel , former Group CEO , the code is " an integral part of changing the way UBS conducts business " .
In 2011 , UBS expanded its global compliance database to include information on environmental and social issues provided by RepRisk , a global research firm specialized in environmental , social and corporate governance ( ESG ) risk analytics and metrics . This was done in an effort to mitigate environmental and social risks that could impact the bank ’ s reputation or financial performance and to simultaneously help globally standardize and systematically implement the firm ’ s due diligence processes . RepRisk data is used in the on @-@ boarding process to screen potential new clients and sourcing partners , alongside periodic client reviews and , also , to evaluate the risks related to transactions in investment banking and institutional lending .
= = Recognition = =
In 2006 for the fourth consecutive year UBS was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers living in the U.S. by Working Mother magazine .
It is a member of the Stonewall Diversity Champions scheme and has active gay and lesbian , ethnic minority , and women 's networking groups . UBS was included on Business Week 's The Best Places to Launch a Career 2008 , and ranked No. 96 out of the 119 total companies listed .
On 2 February 2010 , UBS topped the charts for the ninth year in a row in Institutional Investor 's annual ranking of Europe 's most highly regarded equity analysts . In a year of extremes for equity markets , money managers say that no firm did a better job than UBS to keep them informed about which European sectors , countries , and industries offered the greatest potential .
On 4 May 2010 , UBS Investment Bank was voted the leading pan @-@ European brokerage firm for equity and equity linked research for a record tenth successive year . A Thomson Reuters Extel survey ranked UBS number one in all three of the key disciplines of research : Research ( tenth year ) ; Sales ( ninth year running ) ; and Equity Trading and Execution ( up from second place in 2009 ) . UBS was also named as the number one leading pan @-@ European brokerage firm for economics and strategy research .
On 31 October 2013 , UBS Wealth Management was voted the Best Global Private Bank by Professional Wealth Management , retaining the title in 2014 while also being recognised as the Best Private Bank for Philanthropy Services , and Best Global Brand in Private Banking .
= = Sponsorship = =
According to Brad Birkenfeld , the whistleblower who revealed the bank 's abetting of tax evasion by its clients , UBS sponsored events like yacht races in the United States to attract wealthy people as potential clients .
The events gave its Switzerland @-@ based bankers a chance to network with the rich in order to cement business deals , which was illegal under U.S. banking laws .
= = = Sports = = =
UBS is particularly active in sponsoring various golf tournaments , cross @-@ country skiing in Switzerland , ice hockey , and a range of other events around the world .
UBS was the sponsor of the Alinghi sailing ship , winner of the Americas Cup in 2003 .
UBS has been or currently is a sponsor of the following sporting events and organizations :
= = = Culture = = =
UBS 's cultural sponsorships are typically related to classical music and contemporary art , although the company also sponsors a range of film festivals , music festivals , and other cultural events and organizations .
UBS has previously been or currently is a sponsor of the following cultural events and organizations :
= = Recent developments and outlook = =
Effective on 15 January 2015 , the Swiss National Bank ( SNB ) discontinued the minimum targeted exchange rate for the Swiss franc versus the euro of 1 @.@ 20 CHF / EUR , set forth in September 2011 , and it also moved the target range for three @-@ month LIBOR to between negative 1 @.@ 25 % and negative 0 @.@ 25 % ( previously negative 0 @.@ 75 % to positive 0 @.@ 25 % ) .
This resulted in a massive strengthening of the Swiss franc against the Euro , US dollar , British pound , Japanese yen and several other currencies , as well as a reduction in Swiss franc interest rates .
A significant portion of UBS 's foreign operations and Basel III risk @-@ weighted assets ( RWA ) are denominated in foreign currencies .
The UBS 's Basel III capital ratio concerned benefited from the appreciation of the Swiss franc . At the same time , since the portion of UBS 's operating income denominated in foreign currencies is greater than the portion of operating expenses so denominated , the UBS was also adversely affected , with further implications emanating from changes in interest rates as applied to equity and capital .
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= Forced abortion of Feng Jianmei =
On June 2 , 2012 , Feng Jianmei ( Chinese : 冯建梅 ; pinyin : Féng Jiànméi ) was forced to have an abortion in Zhenping County , Shaanxi , China , when she was seven months pregnant with her second child . Local officials had demanded that Feng and her husband pay a 40 @,@ 000 yuan fine for violating the nation 's one @-@ child policy . When they were unable to do so , authorities arrested Feng , made her sign an agreement to have an abortion , and held her down while injecting her with an abortifacient . Feng was reportedly traumatized by the incident and in poor health afterwards .
On June 11 , Feng 's family posted graphic pictures of her stillborn child . The images soon became a viral phenomenon , sparking controversy within China and drawing international attention to the issue of forced abortions . In response to national and international attention , the Chinese government launched an investigation . On June 26 , the investigation determined that Feng was not legally entitled to a second child , but that her rights had nonetheless been violated by the local family planning bureau , and as a result , two officials were fired and five others punished . On June 27 , the National Population and Family Planning Commission announced it would send inspection teams across China to review the practices of local family planning divisions . Feng 's husband , Deng Jiyuan ( Chinese : 邓吉元 ; pinyin : Dèng Jíyuán ) , hired a lawyer to pursue criminal charges , but ultimately the family decided to settle out of court .
The incident led to increased scrutiny of China 's one @-@ child policy , both nationally and internationally . Feng 's case has been cited in editorials critical of the one @-@ child policy , and has also been used as an example of how the Internet is empowering ordinary people in an environment of government censorship . On July 5 , European Parliament passed a resolution condemning both Feng 's case and forced abortion in general . On January 1 , 2016 , after months of discussion , China 's one @-@ child policy was replaced with a two @-@ child policy .
= = Background = =
= = = One @-@ child law = = =
Since 1979 , Chinese couples have been limited to one child by law in order to control the country 's population . Families living in rural areas , as well as those with an ethnic minority background , can often receive an exemption from the law and have a second child without penalty . Otherwise , couples who have two or more children are required to pay a fine to the government . According to He Yafu , an independent demographer , such fines are common and " have become a major source of profit for family planning authorities " in recent years . The demographer He adds that the fines allow wealthy families to have extra children while forcing poorer families into involuntary abortions . The fines generate an estimated 20 billion yuan per year in revenue for the government . He Yafu estimates that over 2 trillion yuan ( ~ $ 314 billion USD ) has been collected since 1980 .
China 's Population and Family Planning Law prohibits infringement on people 's personal rights and property for family planning purposes . Moreover , a 2001 law prohibited abortions after the sixth month of pregnancy . Nevertheless , human rights groups and critics of the one @-@ child policy say that these laws are inconsistently enforced , and the local officials in many areas still carry out forced sterilizations and / or coerced abortions , sometimes in the third trimester after the fetus has reached viability . In ten Chinese provinces , including Shaanxi , authorities are permitted to take " remedial measures " to ensure that birth quotas are not exceeded . In eight other provinces , authorities are required to terminate unauthorized pregnancies . Activists such as Chen Guangcheng have been jailed by the Chinese government for bringing to light evidence of forced abortions . In 2005 , Chen filed a class @-@ action lawsuit on behalf of women forced into sterilization or abortions and subsequently spent seven years in jail or under house arrest before emigrating to the United States in 2012 .
= = = Feng Jianmei = = =
In October 2011 , Feng Jianmei , who was a 22 @-@ year @-@ old woman from the small village of Yuping in Zeng Jia Township , Shaanxi province , became pregnant with her second child . She had married in 2006 and given birth to a girl in 2007 . After listening to the advice of relatives , Feng and her husband , Deng Jiyuan , had believed they would be allowed to have a second child since they had waited five years between children and lived in a rural area . According to Zhenping County officials , authorities had contacted Feng in March 2012 and told her that she needed to obtain documentation , including a new household registration ( referred to as hukou ) , in order to file an application to have the child . Her family denies this , saying that officials did not notify them until several days before the abortion was induced .
= = Abortion = =
Around May 28 , local family planning officials phoned Feng to try to persuade her to have an abortion . The attempt was unsuccessful , so on May 30 they visited the family house while Feng 's husband was away at work . At first , authorities tried to persuade her to voluntarily have an abortion . After several hours , she told the officials she was going out to buy food , and left them in her living room . Instead , she went to an aunt 's house , but around 15 officials followed her . They did not immediately arrest Feng , instead setting up shifts to keep watch over her at the aunt 's house . Early the next morning , Feng escaped , causing the guards to panic . She flagged down a van and persuaded the driver to help her . The driver let her out down the road , and Feng hid in hillside brush for the next 14 hours , waiting for the cover of darkness in the cold and rainy weather . When night came , she went to a relative 's house in the countryside , where she hid under the bed . Authorities from the family planning office found her regardless , and allegedly assaulted her . They let her get a night 's sleep before taking her to the hospital on June 2 . Several witnesses reported that four men carried Feng out of the house with a pillowcase over her head .
Simultaneously , family planning officials were in communication with Feng 's husband , Deng Jiyuan . On June 1 , they demanded that Deng either transfer his wife 's residency status on the next day or pay 100 @,@ 000 yuan ( US $ 15 @,@ 700 ) to the birth @-@ planning social security fund . Transferring the residency status in one day was impossible , but Deng negotiated the payment down to 30 @,@ 000 yuan before returning to Zhenping County ( he actually only had 18 @,@ 000 yuan that he had borrowed from work , but hoped an IOU would cover the balance ) . On his way back , Deng received a text message that demanded that he immediately pay the fee , which was now 40 @,@ 000 yuan , and " not a penny less . " Other family members received similar text messages .
At the hospital , two men forced Feng to apply her thumbprint to a consent form and sign a document authorizing the abortion . She was taken into an operating room and restrained by two men as she was injected with a poison to kill the fetus . Feng later told All Girls Allowed , an American group campaigning against the one @-@ child policy , " I could feel the baby jumping around inside me all the time , but then she went still . " She had been seven months pregnant at the time , so the abortion , voluntary or not , was illegal under Chinese law . No family members were allowed to be present for the procedure . After the child died of hypoxia , Feng underwent induced labor and delivered a stillborn girl on June 4 . Feng later told All Girls Allowed : " It was much more painful than my first childbirth . The baby was lifeless , and she was all purple and blue . " The corpse was then placed next to Feng on her bed for her family to dispose of when they arrived .
Feng was traumatized by the procedure and smashed the door and cabinetry of a nurse 's office in a fit of rage . A week later , Deng told The South China Morning Post , " My wife is not well . She is sad and distressed . Sometimes she becomes emotional and confused . " Feng reportedly had a severe headache for several weeks after the abortion and attempted suicide multiple times . On June 15 , an uncle told reporters Feng was in poor health and unable to eat . On June 26 , Feng was still in the hospital and suffering from headaches . She told reporters that she wanted to go home , but that hospital staff would not allow her to leave . On June 29 , her family reported that Feng would be released the next day . However , her condition worsened , and she did not return home until July 10 .
Deng filed an official complaint with Ankang 's petition office . A deputy mayor allegedly told Deng that they would investigate , but when nothing appeared to be happening , Deng posted his family 's story online. later telling CNN that " I 'm angry and want justice . " Meanwhile , the township officials had prepared a statement that said Feng was of sound mind and body when she signed the consent form authorizing the abortion .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Story goes viral = = =
Feng 's sister @-@ in @-@ law and Deng Jiyuan 's sister , Deng Jicai ( Chinese : 邓吉彩 ; pinyin : Dèng Jícǎi ) , came back from Hubei the day after the abortion and brought a video camera with her to film Feng . A family planning official , who discovered the tape , then demanded that it be erased . However , Jicai was able to capture several pictures with her cell phone . On June 11 , a picture of Feng lying in a hospital bed " staring at the ceiling with dull eyes " next to the bloody corpse was posted on Chinese social media website Sina Weibo , along with an image of a threatening text message sent by authorities . The images prompted outrage , and news of the event spread quickly . Angry comments from around China poured in , with people calling the authorities ' actions " an atrocity " , " the same as murder . " Many comments called for an end to the one @-@ child policy , or tied the case to other controversial topics such as the corruption of local officials or the country 's rural @-@ urban divide . Many posts were quickly deleted by government censors . Nonetheless , by June 13 , more than 40 @,@ 000 comments about the photos were present on Sina Weibo , and by June 15 , images of Feng were among the most forwarded . " Seven @-@ months pregnant forced abortion " was the website 's top search term , and more than one million user comments were logged on the topic . Discussion also spread to other social media outlets , including NetEase , where threads critical of the government were quickly locked to prevent further discussion .
Zhang Kai ( Chinese : 张凯 ; pinyin : Zhāng Kǎi ) , a lawyer known for his representation of the disadvantaged , posted the story on his blog . Li Chengpeng , a Chinese blogger with more than five million followers , learned of the story and wrote " the purpose of family planning was to control population , but now it has become murder population ... If this evil policy is not stopped , this country will have no humanity . " Zhao Chu , a writer decried the one @-@ child policy as a " profit @-@ oriented activity that everyone hates , " writing " this is not about enforcing the policy , it is about depriving someone ’ s right to live . " Liang Jianzhang , chief executive of Ctrip , called Feng 's case " outrageous and violent " and " not unique to Shaanxi , " saying that " abolition of the absurd family @-@ planning policy is the only way to root out this kind of evil . "
Local newspaper Hua Shang Bao ran a story on Feng.On June 12 , human rights activist Huang Qi also posted the story and images . The story was then picked up by major media outlets throughout China . On June 14 , state @-@ backed newspaper Global Times reported that " online posts about Feng 's forced abortion had triggered a torrent of criticism directed at the Zhenping government and sparked debate about the national family planning policy . " On his personal Weibo account , chief editor Hu Xijin wrote , " I strongly oppose the barbarous forced abortion , " saying the country 's family planning enforcement needed to change . However , he stated that overall the one @-@ child policy was a good thing , writing that " the world resources cannot afford to feed a China with billions of people . "
On June 13 , French news agency Agence France @-@ Presse reported that the graphic images of Feng and her stillborn child " have caused an uproar in China . " Al Jazeera also ran a story about Feng that day . The next day , BBC , CNN , The Age , and other major media outlets around the world ran articles on the topic .
= = = Chinese government response = = =
After the story of Feng Jianmei 's abortion gained widespread domestic and international exposure , Zhenping County officials denied the allegations , saying that the abortion was legal and that Feng had requested it . " Feng agreed to go through an operation to end the pregnancy on June 2 following repeated mediation by the township officials , " read the county 's website . They further stated that she did not have a local hukou registration and that the couple was not entitled to a second child . The statement was later removed , with a search for Feng 's name causing an " error " message . A few days later , local family planning official Yuan Fang stated the request for 40 @,@ 000 yuan was " a deposit " that would have been returned after Feng filed the necessary paperwork .
A hospital employee acknowledged that Feng was staying there and that the hospital " implements " family planning policy and " provides services " to that effect , but denied that forced abortion was a part of what they do . He said he didn 't know the details of Feng 's case but stated that " she is probably just exaggerating things on the Internet . " It was soon revealed that the Zeng Jia Township had failed to reach its enforcement quotas under the one @-@ child policy for the past two years , so it had received a " yellow card " warning . Desiring to remove the warning , town officials decided to crack down on enforcement in June 2012 .
Approximately ten days after the forced abortion occurred , the Shaanxi Provincial Population and Family Planning Commission launched an investigation . On June 13 , Yu Yanmei , the deputy head of Ankang , visited the Deng household . Two days later , the commission concluded that Feng had indeed been forced into an illegal abortion , writing , " Such practice has seriously violated the relevant policies ... harmed the image of our family planning work , and caused extremely poor effects in society . " Three officials , including the head of the local family @-@ planning department , were suspended from their jobs on June 14 . An employee of the Ankang Family Planning Bureau said that " grass @-@ roots comrades aren 't stupid , but this is what they 're forced to do ... This is a problem with the entire system . "
The Ankang city government promised to " pursue strict legal and disciplinary action " once the investigation was finished . On June 14 , the city issued a formal apology . " Since the illegal actions by some officials have seriously hurt Feng Jianmei and her family , we want to offer our deep apologies to them and to the generic public , " read the statement . The same day , deputy mayor Du Shouping visited Feng in the hospital to express the city 's " sincere apologies . " " I hope we can earn your forgiveness , " he said in a statement published on the city 's webpage . The Chinese government also said it had released a pamphlet emphasizing that late term abortion is prohibited and that the legal rights of pregnant women should be maintained .
On June 26 , the results of the investigation were announced . The investigation concluded that Feng was not entitled to have a second child due to her non @-@ agricultural hukou , and that she had been told to fix her registration in March . However , Feng 's rights were violated by county officials and there was no legal basis for the demanded 40 @,@ 000 yuan fee . " The incident showed that some officials at the grassroots level have a weak sense of the law and show little concern for the well @-@ being of the people , " the report said . The head of the family planning bureau of Zhenping , Jiang Nenghai , and one other official were fired . Five other government and hospital employees received some form of punishment . Additionally , the county government was ordered to provide Feng with a living stipend .
= = = Litigation = = =
Of the government 's actions , Deng Jicai said , " Of course we 're not satisfied with the result . " She added , " all they 've done is punish a few leaders , but they haven 't done anything to the people directly responsible for dragging my sister @-@ in @-@ law [ Feng ] in to have an abortion . They haven 't pursued a single person for criminal liability . " Jicai also noted that no mention was made of the people who later harassed the family , nor was there any mention of an incident where her brother was attacked and beaten .
Zhang Kai , a lawyer from Beijing , told Deng Jiyuan he would look into filing a lawsuit against the township government . " To force a woman who is seven months pregnant to have an abortion is a serious violation of the law , " he said . " At the very least it should be considered willful and malicious injury . " Zhang said he hoped the case would cause people to rethink China 's population control policies . On June 29 , he announced that he was officially representing the family and would seek the help of other lawyers to get the case heard in criminal court . However , he acknowledged that doing so would be difficult . " China 's family planning departments are above the law , " he explained . " Even when they do something illegal it is rare for them to be held responsible . " In response to the lawsuit threats , local officials cancelled a planned meeting to discuss the living stipend , saying they would wait for Jiyuan 's return to Zeng Jia Township .
Judge Xie Xue told reporters that forced abortion would not be classified as homicide or kidnapping , but could qualify as an intentional injury crime . In cases where complications arose after the abortion , such as Feng 's , the injury could be considered a serious offense bearing a possible penalty of three to ten years in prison . However , The Wall Street Journal said a legal remedy was unlikely , noting that a 2008 decision by the Supreme People 's Court indicated that litigation could not be based on specific provisions of the constitution . Furthermore , family planning law does not have any provision for damages awarded to victims of abuse by government officials .
On July 2 , Zhang submitted an official request for the Ankang police to file a case and investigate the officials involved . Subsequently , Deng returned home and decided to negotiate with local authorities . On July 10 , the family agreed to settle out of court for 70 @,@ 600 yuan ( ~ $ 11 @,@ 200 USD ) . Additionally , the township agreed to pay Feng 's medical bills if she contracted a disease from the abortion . " I 've given up legal appeals and agreed to take the compensation offered by the township government , " Deng remarked . " We just want our normal life back . " He added , " It has never been about the money . As ordinary people , we can no longer take the pressure from all sides of the society " . Zhang said the family gave up on pursuing criminal charges because local law enforcement was uncooperative , explaining that " if the prosecutors don 't fulfill their responsibilities [ to press charges ] , it 's impossible to do . " An official told Xinhua , China 's official state news agency , that the government was committed to providing for the family 's financial needs if they should encounter future financial difficulties and that the government would also provide medical care for the Dengs ' ailing mother .
Zhang said the compensation could not make up for a lifetime of " spiritual pain " and remarked that 70 @,@ 000 yuan could not compensate for a lost life . " In terms of compensation , the word satisfaction doesn ’ t even enter the equation , " Jiyuan remarked . " But this is the result , so we just have to accept it . " Reactions on Chinese social media were mixed , and some commented that the government had gotten too lenient a consequence . International activists said the settlement of Feng 's case was just the beginning of the fight to end the one @-@ child policy , with Bob Fu of ChinaAid remarking , " The bottom line is there are hundreds and thousands of [ cases like ] Feng Jianmei . " As of July 13 , the family had not received the promised compensation and Jiyuan told reporters he was not sure if it would ever come .
= = = Harassment and surveillance of family members = = =
In the weeks after Feng Jianmei 's story went public , the family suffered from what Zhang called " state @-@ backed harassment . " The harassment started when Deng Jiyuan attempted to go to Beijing to talk with a lawyer and do a television interview . Jiyuan 's travel attempt was stopped by " more than 100 people and a dozen cars , " according to Deng Jicai . Then , " a man suddenly appeared and kicked my brother in the stomach . " After Jiyuan was interviewed by Stern magazine on June 22 , the harassment from the government became worse , with Jiyuan stating that he was subsequently followed by " local officials and thugs " everywhere he went , even the bathroom . He then disappeared from public sight on June 24 , only phoning home on June 26 to say he was safe , but his whereabouts remained unknown .
On June 29 , Jiyuan reappeared in Beijing , telling reporters , " I came to Beijing in search of help . " He said that he had made two unsuccessful attempts to flee from custody before succeeding on his third try . While his official monitors were on the phone , Jiyuan fled to a friend 's home , where he remained for two days . He removed the sim card and battery from his cell phone to prevent being tracked . " I did not sleep or get any new clothes , I could not risk being arrested , " he recalled . They rented a car and drove to Beijing , and Jiyuan recalled that " I assumed there would be government people at the train station . " Whenever they neared police officers , he would get out of the car and walk to prevent being spotted .
Other family members were also reportedly followed and harassed by government officials . Protestors converged outside the hospital where Feng was staying , carrying a banner that read " severely beat the traitors and expel them . " Local media reported that the local government had organized the protest . About a dozen guards patrolled outside Feng 's hospital room for two weeks , following family members wherever they went . " We feel like prisoners , " remarked Deng Jicai . Supporters of the family allege that local officials were also engaged in an online smear campaign against the family . " The whole family feels very depressed and pressured , " said Jicai . On June 26 , a visiting family member had their tires slashed . A spokesperson for the Shaanxi provincial government called the allegations of harassment unfounded rumors . However , Liang Zhongtang , an independent researcher , said it was common for people who seek outside help to be harassed by local governments . He speculated that the township government was trying to prevent further media coverage of the case . On July 13 , Jiyuan said that he remained concerned over his family 's future safety , noting : " There are rumors on the street that after this thing calms down , when people are not paying attention to us anymore , they [ the officials who were punished for approving the abortion ] will kill my family . "
Later , when asked if she still wanted to have another child , Feng told The New York Times , " That depends on how my body recovers . Yes , if I can get my health back . "
= = Domestic and international response = =
= = = Official response and calls to reform in China = = =
On June 27 , the National Population and Family Planning Commission announced it would conduct a review of family planning enforcement country @-@ wide . As part of the review , ten inspection teams would be sent to nineteen different provinces to review the practices of local offices , and that the teams would be charged with settling disputes and would distribute contraceptives . Commission director Wang Xia said the inspection was of great importance , remarking that " even slight carelessness in law enforcement [ damages ] the image of the Party and the country . " Xia said the review would aim to " strengthen the day @-@ to @-@ day management of services , avoid the use of violence and prevent abuses of administrative enforcement " ; he placed a special emphasis on the " social maintenance fees " collected from policy violators . Simultaneously , the commission declared that fines collected for future violations could no longer be spent at the local level , but instead would go into a general fund . He Yafu described the campaign as an attempt by the commission to restore public trust that had been badly damaged by Feng 's forced abortion .
On July 3 , 2012 , an open letter by three members of the Development Research Center of the State Council , a think tank that advises the Chinese ruling cabinet , was published in the group 's newspaper , China Economic Times . In the letter they called for " adjustments " to be made to the one @-@ child policy " as soon as possible " . The group advised that " an opening up of the two @-@ child option to all should be considered . " Demographer Liang Zhongtang said the letter was likely the start of a gradual shift in policy , but that a sudden shift was very unlikely . Although there was no explicit mention of Feng Jianmei in the letter , multiple news sources drew a connection between the timing of the two events . Writing for The New Yorker , Evan Osnos said that " pressure for change of China ’ s one @-@ child policy seems to be mounting " in the wake of Feng 's case . On July 5 , a group of fifteen scholars released an own open letter to the National People 's Congress arguing that change to family planning law was " imperative " . The letter mentioned research indicating economic consequences of continuing the one @-@ child policy , but focused on human rights issues , mentioning Feng by name . " Behind these incidents are clear limitations and defects in the nation 's family planning laws , " read the letter . Liang Jianzhang , one of the letter 's signers , told a reporter " From an economic perspective , the one @-@ child policy is irrational . From a human @-@ rights perspective , it 's even less rational . "
= = = International reaction = = =
Feng Jianmei 's ordeal brought increased scrutiny to China 's abortion and population @-@ control policies . International commentators were highly critical of the government 's role in Feng 's abortion . " Feng Jianmei 's story demonstrates how the One @-@ Child Policy continues to sanction violence against women every day , " said Chai Ling of the NGO All Girls Allowed . Women 's Rights Without Frontiers ' president Reggie Littlejohn stated " no legitimate government would commit or tolerate such an act . Those who are responsible should be prosecuted for crimes against humanity . " In a press release , the Christian Alliance Defense Fund called Feng 's case " nothing less than a crime against humanity " and asked American political leaders to formally condemn the act . The World Evangelical Alliance said it was " outraged " by the incident and asked the Chinese government to " ensure that these tragic incidents are prevented from happening in the future . "
On July 5 , European Parliament passed a resolution condemning both the treatment of Feng and forced abortions in general , " especially in the context of the one @-@ child policy . " The resolution also requested that forced abortion be added the agenda for the next bilateral human rights dialogue with China . Additionally , some Members of the European Parliament ( MEPs ) requested an independent investigation into forced abortion and infanticide in China . A few days later , MEP Lojze Peterle opined that Chinese family planning law violates provisions outlined by the United Nations in the International Conference on Population and Development . He said the resolution passed by parliament gives the European Commission a " clear mandate " to withdraw funds from any organization potentially involved in aiding coercive practices in China , citing the International Planned Parenthood Federation and Marie Stopes International as two potential targets .
On July 9 , the Human Rights Subcommittee of the United States House of Representatives convened a hearing on the one @-@ child policy prompted by Feng 's story . In his opening remarks , chairman Chris Smith called the one @-@ child policy " a nightmarish ' brave new world ' ... where women are psychologically wounded , girls fall victim to sex @-@ selective abortion ... and most children grow up without brothers or sisters , aunts or uncles or cousins . " He said that because of Feng , people were " finally seeing the gruesome reality of China ’ s one @-@ child policy . " Congressman Joseph R. Pitts agreed , saying " It now seems that consensus in China is building towards reforming the policy . " Committee witnesses called for a number of responses such as restricting United Nations Population Fund outlays and encouraging U.S. corporations doing business in China to reject the country 's family @-@ planning practices at their facilities .
= = = International media coverage = = =
Feng 's case became a focal point for newspaper editorials against China 's one @-@ child policy and abortion in general . Opponents of the one @-@ child policy said the case is a potential turning point in the efforts to end the rule . On June 26 , Reuters said the story had sparked " a firestorm domestically and around the world , " explaining that " Feng Jianmei 's abortion was portrayed in the Chinese and international press as an example of the extreme measures some officials would take to control China 's population , even if it meant breaking Chinese law . " A story in The Wall Street Journal remarked that the case " dramatize [ s ] the harshness of the one @-@ child policy . " The incident prompted Evan Osnos , the New Yorker writer , to create a feature piece titled " Abortion and Politics in China . " Osnos said that " the Feng case is emblematic of some of the most inflammatory issues on Chinese public life , " including money , government corruption , the household registration system , and of course family planning , and that " the case is a dramatic demonstration of exactly why the Communist Party had reason to be afraid of the Internet . "
On June 23 , The Economist featured a story on China ’ s one @-@ child policy , focusing on Feng 's forced abortion and how the internet was changing power dynamics in China . " Three years ago , Ms. Feng ’ s suffering might have gone unnoticed ... But her relatives uploaded the graphic pictures onto the internet , and soon microblogs had flashed them to millions of people across the country , " writes the article 's author . Wang Songlian , a researcher for Chinese Human Rights Defenders , said it was certain that the internet had made discussion of Feng 's case possible , but she called the officials ' punishments " isolated " and said " government officials are virtually immune in using violence and carrying out the policy by force . We 've not seen any significant [ change ] in holding officials accountable . "
A June 22 editorial in The Australian argued against the one @-@ child policy , stating that Feng 's case " one small example of the terrible costs of China 's longstanding population control regime . " A June 25 editorial in the Herald Sun , which examined family planning in general , said that Feng " personifies the end game of forced population limits . "
Several commentators have compared Feng Jianmei to Liu Yang , who was in the news at roughly the same time for becoming the first Chinese female in space . On June 17 , the Tea Leaf Nation blog published a story entitled " Netizens Reflect As One Chinese Woman Touches Heaven , Another Hell . " The story , focused on a widely distributed Sina Weibo post , features pictures of Feng and Liu side by side , and the blogger wrote in the caption " The stark contrast between the fates of [ the ] two women ... is the clearest illustration of the torn state of this nation . " The post was quickly re @-@ tweeted by famous blogger Han Han . By the time the government deleted both posts , the information had already been shared 70 @,@ 000 times in the first 24 hours . The International Herald Tribune immediately picked up the story , stating , " The gruesome abortion incident was cast this weekend against China ’ s successful launching of its first female astronaut . The sad irony of the two women ’ s situations was not lost on Chinese netizens . " Two days later , the Global Post published the story and commented , " leave it to Sina Weibo to point out what 's important , " explaining that the juxtaposition of the two new stories " [ highlights ] China 's current troubled and contradictory state ... Some Chinese women get launched into space , others receive injections that kill their unborn child . "
Journalist Andrew Bolt used Feng 's case to editorialize against abortion in Australia , writing , " Deng Jiyuan has shamed the tyrants of Beijing . But ... he shames us here as well . " He compared Feng 's abortion to famous cases in Australia and concluded that the main difference was the graphic pictures of Feng 's baby .
Asia Times Online featured Feng 's story in an editorial titled " China 's addiction to birth planning " . Author Peter Lee remarked that it was " disturbing " how many resources the township devoted to persuading Feng , quoting an official as saying " On that day , pretty much all of the township leadership and relevant staff all went [ to get Feng to the hospital ] . " He concluded that the way the case was handled provides strong evidence that at least some of China 's leaders are anxious to end the one @-@ child policy . In contrast , an editorial published in The Peninsula argued that the case showed China 's leaders were losing their ability to control local authorities .
He Yafu says the controversy has damaged the public image of one @-@ child policy in China . Journalist Fareed Zakaria suggested there were signs that the Chinese government was softening its rules , noting the large number of prominent citizens who spoke out against Feng 's abortion . Zakaria wrote , " Even a few years ago , it would have taken a very brave Chinese thinker to pose that question in public . " However , he said that formal change would be impossible before a change in leadership occurred , and even then would " take much courage " .
A July 17 piece in The Huffington Post said that the case " captured the public imagination in China because it exemplifies broader systemic issues . " Feng 's case had been cited by both pro @-@ life and pro @-@ choice advocates in the United States in support of their causes ; for pro @-@ life advocates , the case represented " the kind of ' federally endorsed ' abortions that they fear may lie in store for the United States , " while for pro @-@ choice advocates , " [ Feng ] should have been granted a choice in the first place . "
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= Neither Here nor There ( Fringe ) =
" Neither Here nor There " is the fourth season premiere of the Fox science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode depicts the aftermath of the third season finale in which Peter Bishop disappears from his timeline . In the new , altered timeline , Olivia Dunham is joined by FBI agent Lincoln Lee after the latter 's partner is murdered . The two work to investigate his death , which revolves around shape @-@ shifting technology .
The episode was co @-@ written by J.H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , and Akiva Goldsman . Joe Chappelle directed the installment . Wyman and Pinkner approached it as a new pilot and used the character of Lee to help introduce viewers to the series . As a result of Lee 's inclusion , " Neither Here nor There " is the first episode to introduce his portrayer Seth Gabel , formerly a recurring actor , as a main cast member . Joe Flanigan guest @-@ starred as his partner , Robert Danzig . The episode is also the first to briefly feature recurring actress Michelle Krusiec as Nadine Park .
" Neither Here nor There " was originally broadcast on September 23 , 2011 on the Fox network to an estimated 3 @.@ 5 million viewers . It scored a 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 . Critical reception towards the episode was mixed , with several praising its special effects and Anna Torv 's acting but criticizing elements of its story .
= = Plot = =
At the end of " The Day We Died " , Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) uses the Machine to create a " bridge " between the prime and parallel universe allowing the two sides to work together to resolve the instabilities in both universes ; but in doing so , Peter vanishes . Because of this , Observer September ( Michael Cerveris ) says Peter never existed . Despite this , the Observers are aware of changes in the original timeline , with echoes of Peter appearing . December ( Eugene Lipinski ) charges September with assuring that the last memories of Peter are wiped out . Both universes have created a secure airlock @-@ like system around the shared room housing the Machine within the bridge . At the start of the episode , the two Olivias ( Anna Torv ) , still somewhat distrusting of the other , help to share relevant Fringe files between the two universes .
FBI agent Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) and his partner of five years , Robert Danzig ( Joe Flanigan ) , are pursuing an arms dealer ; while Lee apprehends the man , his partner is killed by a second , mysterious man with translucent skin and seemingly superhuman abilities . The skin of Danzig 's body also becomes translucent after he dies . When forensics comes on the scene , Olivia and Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) appear and take the agent 's body without revealing their intentions . Lincoln follows Olivia to the lab , where he is introduced to the Fringe division . Despite Olivia attempting to keep Lincoln away , he continues to follow the investigation as they discover another victim killed in a similar manner . From a witness , they learn about the appearance of the killer , but are unable to identify him by name .
Olivia agrees to bring Lincoln onto the case , and shows him that there have been roughly thirty victims in the last several days , who have had no obvious connection or signs of death , other than that their hearts stopped . Lincoln reveals that Danzig suffered from Crohn 's disease and was taking iron supplements , which leads Walter ( John Noble ) to realize that all of the victims were suffering from heavy metal poisoning , and that their killer extracted substances from their blood . Recognizing that several of the victims use commuter rail , Olivia initiates a manhunt at a nearby rail station . She and her team are then informed of the suspect 's location , and after a chase , in which one of the pursuing FBI agents is killed and another shot in the leg , Olivia is able to kill the suspect , who also had translucent skin and had been experimenting on himself . Lincoln kills a second man with the same condition . As the FBI cleans up the area , a woman ( Michelle Krusiec ) , also with translucent skin , watches from afar .
In examining the bodies , Walter discovers a bio @-@ mechanical module similar to those they had previously seen in the shapeshifters that Walternate used . Olivia and Lincoln take the module to the Machine room . As Lincoln is stunned by the technology , Olivia gives the module to Fauxlivia , who promises to take it to Walternate to investigate .
During the episode , Walter is shown to be agoraphobic and unwilling to leave his lab after Olivia arranged his release from a mental asylum . He becomes panicked when he briefly sees images of a man , Peter , in the lab ; Olivia attributes this to Walter lacking any foothold in reality . That evening , Walter is preparing for bed while September , outside , readies a device he has assembled to wipe out the remains of Peter 's existence . But at the last moment September disarms the device and walks away . Later Walter sees yet another image of Peter on his television and is terrified .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman . Executive producer Joe Chappelle directed . Pinkner and Wyman approached the episode " like a new pilot " to draw in viewers who wanted to watch the show but did not know when to start . They used Lincoln Lee as a tool to acquaint viewers with the new changes . Former guest actor Seth Gabel , who played Lee , joined the cast as a series regular for the fourth season . He believed his character allowed the audience to see Fringe Division from a new perspective . He explained , " You need a layman 's perspective from time to time . The show has gotten so deep into this crazy , surreal scientific world that you need someone to enter every now and then to remind you this is not the common experience . You need someone to show you how far down the rabbit hole you ’ ve gone , so you don 't become desensitized to it . I think Lincoln serves that for a while . "
The showrunners had the episode center around the idea that " Peter no longer exists " , and intended it to " set up the season arc from numerous characters ' perspectives " to show viewers what to expect from the season . When discussing the season 's arc , Fox and Warner Brothers wished to have Peter return as soon as possible , as they knew he was popular with fans . Pinkner and Wyman responded that to " really establish his absence [ it ] will take a little while " , but knew that a longer wait would lead to audience frustration .
The fourth season premiere was initially called " A Sort of Homecoming " , also the name of a song by rock band U2 . The episode 's opening credits featured a new amber @-@ tinted sequence , which listed new fringe science terms like " Psychometry " , " Gravitons " , and " Existence " . Pinkner said the new color of the credits " clearly [ indicates ] a universe without Peter in it . " " Neither Here nor There " marked the first appearance of recurring guest actress Michelle Krusiec . Her casting was confirmed in July 2011 . The episode also featured a one @-@ time guest appearance by actor Joe Flanigan , who played Lee 's partner Robert Danzig . Flanigan shot his scenes in July 2011 .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene in the diner where the Observers discuss Peter 's existence featured " California Dreamin ' " by vocal group The Mamas & the Papas . Other songs featured in the episode included " Rockin ' Robin " by Bobby Day and " Cinderella in the Palace " by Sergei Prokofiev , the latter performed by the National Symphony Orchestra of Ukraine . Walter later quotes a line from the 1963 John le Carre novel The Spy Who Came In From The Cold .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Neither Here nor There " originally broadcast in the United States on September 23 , 2011 to an estimated 3 @.@ 5 millions viewers . It scored a 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share among viewers 18 – 49 , meaning that it was seen by 1 @.@ 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . This ratings share was up 25 percent from the third season finale but down 21 percent from the season 's premiere . Despite its low ratings , the episode was the highest @-@ rated Friday premiere on Fox in six years . Among total viewers it came in fourth for the night but finished third among adults .
= = = Reviews = = =
Writing for The Onion 's A.V. Club , Noel Murray gave the episode a " B " , remarking that he " enjoyed the episode overall — largely because it 's just such a treat to have be [ sic ] back in this world with these people — I 'm not sure it was wholly successful in its attempt to play by the old rules . " He added that after the opening exchange between Olivia and Fauxlivia , the episode " settles into a fairly typical " Fringe formula involving a " villain of the week " and a freakish event . Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times praised Anna Torv 's two performances and believed " the containment built around ' the Machine ' " may " have been my favorite part of the episode . "
Den of Geek selected the episode 's special effects as a positive element , but was more critical of the episode as a whole . " As Fringe goes , " the website explained , " this ended up a rather lightweight narrative , which was more about getting Lincoln established with Fringe , and providing a few new plotlines that the subsequent stories can expand on . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler was equally ambivalent , and gave the episode a score of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . He observed , " It isn 't a bad episode . It 's a good addition to the Fringe lore . It 's well @-@ written , has plenty of action , and the actors are great as usual . But it just doesn 't feel like a fulfilling continuation of last season 's cliffhanger , nor does it strike me as a fantastic new direction for the season . "
Richard Edwards of SFX gave the episode 4 out of 5 stars , writing that it " chooses to mostly ignore exploring the implications [ of Peter 's disappearance ] on the overall story arc in favour of a fairly run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill ( by Fringe standards , at least ) case of the week . Even the potentially scintillating scenes between the alternate incarnations of the characters fail to materialise , aside from a couple of stilted encounters between the two Olivias . " Edwards did however praise the premiere for its special effects , and for doing an effective job presenting the characteristics of a world without Peter , especially highlighting Lincoln 's newcomer role as a lens for the audience .
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= Bix Beiderbecke =
Leon Bismark " Bix " Beiderbecke ( March 10 , 1903 – August 6 , 1931 ) was an American jazz cornetist , jazz pianist , and composer .
With Louis Armstrong and Muggsy Spanier , Beiderbecke was one of the most influential jazz soloists of the 1920s . His turns on " Singin ' the Blues " and " I 'm Coming , Virginia " ( both 1927 ) , in particular , demonstrated an unusual purity of tone and a gift for improvisation . With these two recordings , especially , he helped to invent the jazz ballad style and hinted at what , in the 1950s , would become cool jazz . " In a Mist " ( 1927 ) , one of a handful of his piano compositions and one of only two he recorded , mixed classical ( Impressionist ) influences with jazz syncopation .
A native of Davenport , Iowa , Beiderbecke taught himself to play cornet largely by ear , leading him to adopt a non @-@ standard fingering some critics have connected to his original sound . He first recorded with Midwestern jazz ensembles , The Wolverines and The Bucktown Five in 1924 , after which he played briefly for the Detroit @-@ based Jean Goldkette Orchestra before joining Frankie " Tram " Trumbauer for an extended gig at the Arcadia Ballroom in St. Louis . Beiderbecke and Trumbauer joined Goldkette in 1926 . The band toured widely and famously played a set opposite Fletcher Henderson at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City in October 1926 . He made his greatest recordings in 1927 ( see above ) . In 1928 , Trumbauer and Beiderbecke left Detroit to join the best @-@ known and most prestigious dance orchestra in the country : the New @-@ York @-@ based Paul Whiteman Orchestra .
Beiderbecke 's most influential recordings date from his time with Goldkette and Whiteman , although they were generally recorded under his own name or Trumbauer 's . The Whiteman period also marked a precipitous decline in Beiderbecke 's health , brought on by the demand of the bandleader 's relentless touring and recording schedule in combination with Beiderbecke 's persistent alcoholism . A few stints in rehabilitation centers , as well as the support of Whiteman and the Beiderbecke family in Davenport , did not check Beiderbecke 's decline in health . He left the Whiteman band in 1930 and the following summer died in his Queens apartment at the age of 28 .
His death , in turn , gave rise to one of the original legends of jazz . In magazine articles , musicians ' memoirs , novels , and Hollywood films , Beiderbecke has been reincarnated as a Romantic hero , the " Young Man with a Horn " . His life has been portrayed as a battle against such common obstacles to art as family and commerce , while his death has been seen as a martyrdom for the sake of art . The musician @-@ critic Benny Green sarcastically called Beiderbecke " jazz 's Number One Saint , " while Ralph Berton compared him to Jesus . Beiderbecke remains the subject of scholarly controversy regarding his true name , the cause of his death , and the importance of his contributions to jazz .
= = Early life = =
Beiderbecke was born on March 10 , 1903 , in Davenport , Iowa , the son of Bismark Herman and Agatha Jane ( Hilton ) Beiderbecke . There is disagreement over whether Beiderbecke was christened Leon Bismark ( and nicknamed " Bix " ) or Leon Bix . His father was nicknamed " Bix " , as , for a time , was his older brother , Charles Burnette " Burnie " Beiderbecke . Burnie Beiderbecke claimed that the boy was named Leon Bix and subsequent biographers have reproduced birth certificates to that effect . However , more recent research — which takes into account church and school records in addition to the will of a relative — has suggested that he was originally named Leon Bismark . Regardless , his parents called him Bix , which seems to have been his preference . In a letter to his mother when he was nine years old , Beiderbecke signed off , " frome your Leon Bix Beiderbecke not Bismark Remeber [ sic ] " .
Beiderbecke 's father , the son of German immigrants , was a well @-@ to @-@ do coal and lumber merchant , named after the Iron Chancellor of his native Germany . Beiderbecke 's mother was the daughter of a Mississippi riverboat captain . She played the organ at Davenport 's First Presbyterian Church , and encouraged young Bix 's interest in the piano . Beiderbecke was the youngest of three children . His brother , Burnie , was born in 1895 , and his sister , Mary Louise , in 1898 . He began playing piano at age two or three . His sister recalls that he stood on the floor and played it with his hands over his head . Five years later , he was the subject of an admiring article in the Davenport Daily Democrat that proclaimed : " Seven @-@ year @-@ old boy musical wonder ! Little Bickie Beiderbecke plays any selection he hears . "
At age ten , his older brother Burnie recalled that he stopped coming home for supper , instead hurrying down to the riverfront and slipping aboard one or another of the excursion boats to play the Calliope . A friend remembered that the plots of the silent matinees Bix and his friends watched on Saturdays didn 't interest him much , but as soon as the lights came on he would rush home to see if he could duplicate the melodies the accompanist had played during the action .
When his brother Burnie returned to Davenport at the end of 1918 after serving stateside during World War I , he brought with him a Victrola phonograph and several records , including " Tiger Rag " and " Skeleton Jangle " by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band . From these records , Bix first learned to love hot jazz ; he taught himself to play cornet by listening to Nick LaRocca 's horn lines . Beiderbecke also listened to jazz music off the riverboats that docked in downtown Davenport . Louis Armstrong and the drummer Baby Dodds claimed to have met Beiderbecke when their New @-@ Orleans @-@ based excursion boat stopped in Davenport . Historians disagree over whether that is true .
Beiderbecke attended Davenport High School from 1919 to 1921 . During this time , he sat in and played professionally with various bands , including those of Wilbur Hatch , Floyd Bean and Carlisle Evans . In the spring of 1920 he performed for the school 's Vaudeville Night , singing in a vocal quintet called the Black Jazz Babies and playing his horn . He also performed , at the invitation of his friend Fritz Putzier , in Neal Buckley 's Novelty Orchestra . The group was hired for a gig in December 1920 , but a complaint was lodged with the American Federation of Musicians , Local 67 , that the boys did not have union cards . In an audition before a union executive , Beiderbecke was forced to sight read and failed . He did not earn his card .
On April 22 , 1921 , a month after he turned 18 , Beiderbecke was arrested by two Davenport police officers on a charge brought by the father of a young girl . According to biographer Jean Pierre Lion , " Bix was accused of having taken this man 's five @-@ year @-@ old daughter into a garage and committing on her an act qualified by the police report as ' lewd and lascivious . ' " Although Beiderbecke was briefly taken into custody and held on a $ 1 @,@ 500 bond , the charge was dropped after the girl was not made available to testify . According to an affidavit submitted by her father , this was because " of the child 's age and the harm that would result to her in going over this case . " It is not clear from the father 's affidavit if the girl had identified Beiderbecke . Until recently , biographers have largely ignored this incident in Beiderbecke 's life , and Lion was the first , in 2005 , to print the police blotter and affidavit associated with the arrest . He dismissed the seriousness of the charge , but speculated that the arrest nevertheless might have led Beiderbecke to " feel abandoned and ashamed : he saw himself as suspect of perversion . "
Beiderbecke 's parents enrolled him in the exclusive Lake Forest Academy , north of Chicago in Lake Forest , Illinois . While historians have traditionally suggested that his parents sent him to Lake Forest to discourage his interest in jazz , others have begun to doubt this version of events , believing that he may have been sent away in response to his arrest . Regardless , Mr. and Mrs. Beiderbecke apparently felt that a boarding school would provide their son with both the necessary faculty attention and discipline to improve his academic performance . His interests , however , remained limited to music and sports . In pursuit of the former , Beiderbecke took the train into Chicago to catch the hot jazz bands at clubs and speakeasies , including the infamous Friar 's Inn , where he listened to and sometimes sat in with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings . He also traveled to the predominantly African @-@ American South Side to listen to what he called " real " jazz musicians . " Don 't think I 'm getting hard , Burnie , " he wrote to his brother , " but I 'd go to hell to hear a good band . " On campus , he helped organize the Cy @-@ Bix Orchestra with drummer Walter " Cy " Welge and almost immediately got into trouble with the Lake Forest headmaster for performing indecorously at a school dance .
Beiderbecke often failed to return to his dormitory before curfew , and sometimes stayed off @-@ campus the next day . In the early morning hours of May 20 , he was caught on the fire escape to his dormitory , attempting to climb back into his room . The faculty voted to expel him the next day , due both to his academic failings and his extracurricular activities , which included drinking . The headmaster informed Beiderbecke 's parents by letter that following his expulsion school officials confirmed that Beiderbecke " was drinking himself and was responsible , in part at least , in having liquor brought into the School . " Soon after , Beiderbecke began pursuing a career in music .
He returned to Davenport briefly in the summer of 1922 , then moved to Chicago to join the Cascades Band , working that summer on Lake Michigan excursion boats . He gigged around Chicago until the fall of 1923 , at times returning to Davenport to work for his father .
= = Career = =
= = = Wolverines = = =
Beiderbecke joined the Wolverine Orchestra late in 1923 , and the seven @-@ man group first played a speakeasy called the Stockton Club near Hamilton , Ohio . Specializing in hot jazz and recoiling from so @-@ called sweet music , the band took its name from one of its most frequent numbers , Jelly Roll Morton 's " Wolverine Blues . " During this time , Beiderbecke also took piano lessons from a young woman who introduced him to the works of Eastwood Lane . Lane 's piano suites and orchestral arrangements were both self @-@ consciously American and influenced by the French Impressionists , and it is said to have greatly influenced Beiderbecke 's style , especially on " In a Mist . " A subsequent gig at Doyle 's Dance Academy in Cincinnati became the occasion for a series of band and individual photographs that resulted in the most famous image of Beiderbecke — sitting fresh @-@ faced , his hair perfectly combed , his horn resting on his right knee .
On February 18 , 1924 , the Wolverines first recorded at Gennett Records in Richmond , Indiana . Their two sides that day included " Fidgety Feet " , written by Nick LaRocca and Larry Shields from the Original Dixieland Jazz Band , and " Jazz Me Blues . " Beiderbecke 's solo on the latter suggested something new and significant in jazz , according to biographers Richard M. Sudhalter and Philip R. Evans :
Both qualities — complementary or " correlated " phrasing and cultivation of the vocal , " singing " middle @-@ range of the cornet — are on display in Bix 's " Jazz Me Blues " solo , along with an already discernible inclination for unusual accidentals and inner chordal voices . It is a pioneer record , introducing a musician of great originality with a pace @-@ setting band . And it astonished even the Wolverines themselves .
The Wolverines recorded 15 sides for Gennett Records between February and October 1924 . The titles revealed a tough and well @-@ formed cornet talent . His lip had toughened from earlier , more tentative years ; on nine of the Wolverines ' recorded titles he proceeds commandingly from lead to opening solo without any need for a respite from playing .
Beiderbecke made his first recordings 21 months before Armstrong recorded as a leader with the Hot Five . Beiderbecke 's style was very different from that of Louis Armstrong according to The Oxford Companion to Jazz :
Where Armstrong 's playing was bravura , regularly optimistic , and openly emotional , Beiderbecke 's conveyed a range of intellectual alternatives . Where Armstrong , at the head of an ensemble , played it hard , straight , and true , Beiderbecke , like a shadowboxer , invented his own way of phrasing " around the lead . " Where Armstrong 's superior strength delighted in the sheer power of what a cornet could produce , Beiderbecke 's cool approach invited rather than commanded you to listen .
Where Armstrong emphasized showmanship and virtuosity , Beiderbecke emphasized melody , even when improvising , and — different from Armstrong and contrary to how the Bix Beiderbecke of legend would be portrayed — he rarely strayed into the upper reaches of the register . Paul Mares of the New Orleans Rhythm Kings insisted that Beiderbecke 's chief influence was the New Orleans cornetist Emmett Hardy , who died in 1925 at the age of 23 . Indeed , Beiderbecke had met Hardy and the clarinetist Leon Roppolo in Davenport in 1921 when the two joined a local band and played in town for three months . Beiderbecke apparently spent time with them , but the degree to which Hardy 's style influenced Beiderbecke 's is difficult to know because Hardy never recorded . In some respects , Beiderbecke 's playing was sui generis , but he nevertheless listened to and studied the music around him : from Armstrong and Joe " King " Oliver to the Original Dixieland Jazz Band and the New Orleans Rhythm Kings to Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel .
Soon , he was listening to Hoagy Carmichael , too . A law student and aspiring pianist and songwriter , Carmichael invited the Wolverines to Bloomington , Indiana , late in April 1924 . Beiderbecke had met Carmichael a couple of times before and the two became friends . On May 6 , 1924 , the Wolverines recorded a tune Carmichael had written especially for Beiderbecke and his colleagues : " Riverboat Shuffle " .
Beiderbecke left the Wolverines in October 1924 for a spot with Jean Goldkette in Detroit , but the job didn 't last long . Goldkette recorded for the Victor Talking Machine Company , whose musical director , Eddie King , objected to Beiderbecke 's hot @-@ jazz style of soloing ; it wasn 't copacetic with the commercial obligations that came with the band 's recording contract . King also was frustrated by the cornetist 's inability to deftly sight read . After a few weeks , Beiderbecke was bounced from the Goldkette band , but soon arranged a recording session back in Richmond with some of its members . On January 26 , 1925 , Bix and His Rhythm Jugglers set two tunes to wax : " Toddlin ' Blues " , another number by LaRocca and Shields , and Beiderbecke 's own composition , " Davenport Blues " . Beiderbecke biographer Lion has complained that the second number was marred by the alcohol consumed by the musicians . In subsequent years , " Davenport Blues " has been recorded by musicians from Bunny Berigan to Ry Cooder to Geoff Muldaur .
The following month , Beiderbecke enrolled at the University of Iowa in Iowa City , Iowa . His stint in academia was even briefer than his time in Detroit , however . When he attempted to pack his course schedule with music , his guidance counselor forced him instead to take religion , ethics , physical education , and military training . It was an institutional blunder that Benny Green described as being , in retrospect , " comical , " " fatuous , " and " a parody . " Beiderbecke promptly began to skip classes , and after he participated in a drunken bar fight , he was expelled . That summer he played with his friends Don Murray and Howdy Quicksell at a lake resort in Michigan . The band was run by Goldkette , and it put Beiderbecke in touch with another musician he had met before : the C @-@ melody saxophone player Frankie Trumbauer . The two hit it off , both personally and musically , despite Trumbauer having been warned by other musicians : " Look out , he 's trouble . He drinks and you 'll have a hard time handling him . " They were inseparable for much of the rest of Beiderbecke 's career , with Trumbauer acting as a father figure to Beiderbecke . When Trumbauer organized a band for an extended run at the Arcadia Ballroom in St. Louis , Beiderbecke joined him . There he also played alongside the clarinetist Pee Wee Russell , who praised Beiderbecke 's ability to drive the band . " He more or less made you play whether you wanted to or not , " Russell said . " If you had any talent at all he made you play better . "
= = = Goldkette = = =
In the spring of 1926 , Trumbauer closed up shop in St. Louis and , with Beiderbecke , moved to Detroit , this time to play with Goldkette 's headline ensemble . They played the summer at Hudson Lake , a resort in northern Indiana , and split the next year between touring , recording , and performing at Detroit 's Graystone Ballroom . In October 1926 , Goldkette 's " Famous Fourteen " , as they came to be called , opened at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City opposite the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra , one of the East Coast 's outstanding African American big bands . The Roseland promoted a " Battle of the Bands " in the local press and , on October 12 , after a night of furious playing , Goldkette 's men were declared the winners . " We [ … ] were amazed , angry , morose , and bewildered , " Rex Stewart , Fletcher 's lead trumpeter , said of listening to Beiderbecke and his colleagues play . He called the experience " most humiliating " .
Although the band recorded numerous sides for Victor during this period , none of them showcases Beiderbecke 's most famous solos . Much of Goldkette 's money was made through these records , but they were subject — as Eddie King had well understood — to the forces of the commercial market . As a result , their sound was often " sweeter " than what many of the hot jazz musicians would have preferred . In addition to their sessions with Goldkette , Beiderbecke and his friends recorded under their own names for the Okeh label . For instance , on February 4 , 1927 , Frank Trumbauer and His Orchestra recorded " Trumbology " , " Clarinet Marmalade " , and " Singin ' the Blues " , all three of which featured some of Beiderbecke 's best work . Again with Trumbauer , Beiderbecke re @-@ recorded Carmichael 's " Riverboat Shuffle " in May and delivered two of his best known solos a few days later on " I 'm Coming , Virginia " and " Way Down Yonder in New Orleans " . Beiderbecke earned co @-@ writing credit with Trumbauer on " For No Reason at All in C " , recorded under the name Tram , Bix and Eddie ( in their Three Piece Band ) . Beiderbecke switched between cornet and piano on that number , and then in September played only piano for his recording of " In A Mist " . This was perhaps the most fruitful year of his short career .
Under financial pressure , Goldkette folded his premier band in September in New York . Paul Whiteman hoped to snatch up Goldkette 's best musicians for his traveling orchestra , but Beiderbecke , Trumbauer , Murray , Bill Rank , Eddie Lang , Joe Venuti , Chauncey Morehouse , and Frank Signorelli instead joined the bass saxophone player Adrian Rollini at the Club New Yorker . When that job ended sooner than expected , in October 1927 , Beiderbecke and Trumbauer signed on with Whiteman . They joined his orchestra in Indianapolis on October 27 .
= = = Whiteman = = =
The Paul Whiteman Orchestra was the most popular and highest paid band of the day . In spite of Whiteman 's nickname , " The King of Jazz " , his was not a jazz ensemble , but a popular music outfit that played bits of jazz and classical music according to the demands of its record @-@ buying and concert @-@ going audience . Whiteman was perhaps best known for having premiered George Gershwin 's Rhapsody in Blue in New York in 1924 , and the orchestrator of that piece , Ferde Grofé , continued to be an important part of the band in 1928 . At three hundred pounds , Whiteman was huge both physically and culturally — " a man flabby , virile , quick , coarse , untidy and sleek , with a hard core of shrewdness in an envelope of sentimentalism , " according to a 1926 New Yorker profile . And many Beiderbecke partisans have turned Whiteman into a villain in the years since .
Benny Green , in particular , derided Whiteman for being a mere " mediocre vaudeville act , " and suggesting that " today we only tolerate the horrors of Whiteman 's recordings at all in the hope that here and there a Bixian fragment will redeem the mess . " Richard Sudhalter has responded by suggesting that Beiderbecke saw Whiteman as an opportunity to pursue musical ambitions that did not stop at jazz :
Colleagues have testified that , far from feeling bound or stifled by the Whiteman orchestra , as Green and others have suggested , Bix often felt a sense of exhilaration . It was like attending a music school , learning and broadening : formal music , especially the synthesis of the American vernacular idiom with a more classical orientation , so much sought @-@ after in the 1920s , were calling out to him .
The education that Beiderbecke did not receive from the University of Iowa , in other words , he sought through Whiteman . In the meantime , Beiderbecke played on four number @-@ one records in 1928 , all under the Whiteman name : " Together " , " Ramona " , " My Angel " , and " Ol ' Man River " , which featured Bing Crosby on vocals . This accomplishment says less about the jazz excellence of these records than it does about the tastes of the largely white , record @-@ buying public to which Whiteman ( and Goldkette before him ) catered .
For Beiderbecke , the downside of being with Whiteman was the relentless touring and recording schedule , exacerbated by Beiderbecke 's alcoholism . On November 30 , 1928 , in Cleveland , Beiderbecke suffered what Lion terms " a severe nervous crisis " and Sudhalter and Evans suggest " was in all probability an acute attack of delirium tremens , " presumably triggered by Beiderbecke 's attempt to curb his alcohol intake . " He cracked up , that 's all , " trombonist Bill Rank said . " Just went to pieces ; broke up a roomful of furniture in the hotel . "
In February 1929 , Beiderbecke returned home to Davenport to convalesce and was hailed by the local press as " the world 's hottest cornetist . " He then spent the summer with Whiteman 's band in Hollywood in preparation for the shooting of a new talking picture , The King of Jazz . Production delays prevented any real work from being done on the film , leaving Beiderbecke and his pals plenty of time to drink heavily . By September , he was back in Davenport , where his parents helped him to seek treatment . He spent a month , from October 14 until November 18 , at the Keeley Institute in Dwight , Illinois .
While he was away , Whiteman famously kept a chair empty in Beiderbecke 's honor . But when he returned to New York at the end of January 1930 , the renowned soloist did not rejoin Whiteman and performed only sparingly . On his last recording session , in New York , on September 15 , 1930 , Beiderbecke played on the original recording of Hoagy Carmichael 's new song , " Georgia on My Mind " , with Carmichael doing the vocal , Eddie Lang on guitar , Joe Venuti on violin , Jimmy Dorsey on clarinet and alto saxophone , Jack Teagarden on trombone , and Bud Freeman on tenor saxophone . The song would go on to become a jazz and popular music standard . In 2014 , the 1930 recording of " Georgia on My Mind " was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame .
Two years earlier , Beiderbecke had influenced another Carmichael standard , " Star Dust " . A Beiderbecke riff caught in Carmichael 's head and became the tune 's chorus . Bing Crosby , who sang with Whiteman , also cited Beiderbecke as an important influence . " Bix and all the rest would play and exchange ideas on the piano , " he said .
With all the noise [ of a New York pub ] going on , I don 't know how they heard themselves , but they did . I didn 't contribute anything , but I listened and learned [ … ] I was now being influenced by these musicians , particularly horn men . I could hum and sing all of the jazz choruses from the recordings made by Bix , Phil Napoleon , and the rest .
Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , the once @-@ booming music industry contracted and work became more difficult to find . For a while , Beiderbecke 's only income came from a radio show booked by Whiteman , The Camel Pleasure Hour . However , during a live broadcast on October 8 , 1930 , Beiderbecke 's seemingly limitless gift for improvisation finally failed him : " He stood up to take his solo , but his mind went blank and nothing happened , " recalled a fellow musician , Frankie Cush . Whiteman finally let Beiderbecke go . The cornetist spent the rest of the year at home in Davenport and then , in February 1931 , he returned to New York one last time .
= = Death = =
Beiderbecke died in his apartment , No. 1G , 43 @-@ 30 46th Street , in Sunnyside , Queens , on August 6 , 1931 . The week had been quite hot , making sleep difficult , and late into the evenings , Beiderbecke had played piano , both to the annoyance and to the delight of his neighbors . On the evening of August 6 , at about 9 @.@ 30 pm , his rental agent , George Kraslow , heard noises coming from across the hallway . " His hysterical shouts brought me to his apartment on the run , " Kraslow told Philip Evans in 1959 .
He pulled me in and pointed to the bed . His whole body was trembling violently . He was screaming there were two Mexicans hiding under his bed with long daggers . To humor him , I looked under the bed and when I rose to assure him there was no one hiding there , he staggered and fell , a dead weight , in my arms . I ran across the hall and called in a woman doctor , Dr. Haberski , to examine him . She pronounced him dead .
Historians have disagreed over the identity of the doctor who pronounced Beiderbecke dead . The official cause of death , meanwhile , was lobar pneumonia , with scholars continuing to debate the extent to which his alcoholism was also a factor . Beiderbecke 's mother and brother took the train to New York and brought his body home to Davenport . He was buried there on August 11 in the family plot at Oakdale Cemetery .
= = Legend and legacy = =
At the time of his death Beiderbecke was little known except among fellow musicians , and for several years critics paid little attention to his music . As Jean Pierre Lion has pointed out , " The only serious and analytical obituary to have been published in the months " after his death was by a Frenchman , Hugues Panassié . The notice appeared in October 1931 and began with a bit of hyperbole and an incorrect fact , two hallmarks of much of the subsequent writing about Beiderbecke : " The announcement of Bix Beiderbecke 's death plunged all jazz musicians into despair . We first believed it was a false alarm , as we had heard so often before about Bix . Unfortunately , precise information has been forthcoming , and we even know the day — August 7 — when he passed away . "
The New Republic critic Otis Ferguson wrote two short articles for the magazine , " Young Man with a Horn " ( July 29 , 1936 ) and " Young Man with a Horn Again " ( November 18 , 1940 ) , that worked to revive interest not only in Beiderbecke 's music but also in his biography . Beiderbecke " lived very briefly [ … ] in what might be called the servants ' entrance to art , " Ferguson wrote . " His story is a good story , quite humble and right . " The romantic notion of the short @-@ lived , doomed jazz genius can be traced back at least as far as Beiderbecke , and lived on in Glenn Miller , Charlie Parker , Billie Holiday , Jaco Pastorius and many more .
Ferguson 's sense of what was " right " became the basis for the Beiderbecke Romantic legend , which has traditionally emphasized the musician 's Iowa roots , his often careless dress , his difficulty sight reading , the purity of his tone , his drinking , and his early death . These themes were repeated by Beiderbecke 's friends in various memoirs , including The Stardust Road ( 1946 ) and Sometimes I Wonder ( 1965 ) by Hoagy Carmichael , Really the Blues ( 1946 ) by Mezz Mezzrow , and We Called It Music ( 1947 ) by Eddie Condon . Beiderbecke was portrayed as a tragic genius along the lines of Ludwig van Beethoven . " For his talent there were no conservatories to get stuffy in , no high @-@ trumpet didoes to be learned doggedly , note @-@ perfect as written , " Ferguson wrote , " because in his chosen form the only writing of any account was traced in the close shouting air of Royal Gardens , Grand Pavilions , honkeytonks , etc . " He was " this big overgrown kid , who looked like he 'd been snatched out of a cradle in the cornfields , " Mezzrow wrote . " The guy didn 't have an enemy in the world , " recalled Beiderbecke 's friend Russ Morgan , " [ b ] ut he was out of this world most of the time . " According to Ralph Berton , he was " as usual gazing off into his private astronomy , " but his cornet , Condon famously quipped , sounded " like a girl saying yes . "
In 1938 , Dorothy Baker borrowed the titles of her friend Otis Ferguson 's two articles and published the novel Young Man with a Horn . Her story of the doomed trumpet player Rick Martin was inspired , she wrote , by " the music , but not the life " of Beiderbecke , but the image of Martin quickly became the image of Beiderbecke : His story is about " the gap between the man 's musical ability and his ability to fit it to his own life . " In 1950 , Michael Curtiz directed the film Young Man with a Horn , starring Kirk Douglas , Lauren Bacall , and Doris Day . In this version , in which Hoagy Carmichael also plays a role , the Rick Martin character lives .
In Blackboard Jungle , a 1955 film starring Glenn Ford and Sidney Poitier , Beiderbecke 's music is briefly featured , but as a symbol of cultural conservatism in a nation on the cusp of the rock and roll revolution .
In 1971 , on the 40th anniversary of Beiderbecke 's death , the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival was founded in Davenport , Iowa , to honor the musician . In 1974 , Sudhalter and Evans published their biography , Bix : Man and Legend , which was nominated for a National Book Award . In 1977 , the Beiderbecke childhood home at 1934 Grand Avenue in Davenport was added to the National Register of Historic Places .
Beiderbecke 's music was featured in three British comedy drama television series , all written by Alan Plater : The Beiderbecke Affair ( 1984 ) , The Beiderbecke Tapes ( 1987 ) , and The Beiderbecke Connection ( 1988 ) . In 1991 , the Italian director Pupi Avati released Bix : An Interpretation of a Legend . Filmed partially in the Beiderbecke home , which Avati had purchased and renovated , Bix was screened at the Cannes Film Festival .
At the beginning of the 21st century , Beiderbecke 's music continues to reside mostly out of the mainstream and some of the facts of his life are still debated , but scholars largely agree — due in part to the influence of Sudhalter and Evans — that he was an important innovator in early jazz ; jazz cornetists , including Sudhalter ( before his death in 2008 ) , and Tom Pletcher , closely emulate his style . In 2003 , to mark the hundredth anniversary of his birth , the Greater Astoria Historical Society and other community organizations , spearheaded by Paul Maringelli and The Bix Beiderbecke Sunnyside Memorial Committee , erected a plaque in Beiderbecke 's honor at the apartment building in which he died in Queens . That same year , Frederick Turner published his novel 1929 , which followed the facts of Beiderbecke 's life fairly closely , focusing on his summer in Hollywood and featuring appearances by Al Capone and Clara Bow . The critic and musician Digby Fairweather sums up Beiderbecke 's musical legacy , arguing that " with Louis Armstrong , Bix Beiderbecke was the most striking of jazz 's cornet ( and of course , trumpet ) fathers ; a player who first captivated his 1920s generation and after his premature death , founded a dynasty of distinguished followers beginning with Jimmy McPartland and moving on down from there . "
= = Music = =
= = = Style and influence = = =
Bix Beiderbecke and Louis Armstrong were among jazz 's first soloists . In New Orleans , jazz had been ensemble playing , with the various instruments weaving their parts into a single and coherent aural tapestry . There had been soloists , to be sure , with the clarinetist Sidney Bechet the best known among them , but these players " lacked the technical resources and , even more , the creative depth to make the solo the compelling centerpiece of jazz music . " That changed in 1924 when Beiderbecke and Armstrong began to make their most important records . According to the critic Terry Teachout , they are " the two most influential figures in the early history of jazz " and " the twin lines of descent from which most of today 's jazz can be traced . "
Beiderbecke 's cornet style is often described by contrasting it with Armstrong 's markedly different approach . Armstrong was a virtuoso on his instrument , and his solos often took advantage of that fact . Beiderbecke was largely , although not completely , self @-@ taught , and the constraints imposed by that fact were evident in his music . While Armstrong often soared into the upper register , Beiderbecke stayed in the middle range , more interested in exploring the melody and harmonies than in dazzling the audience . Armstrong often emphasized the performance aspect of his playing , while Beiderbecke tended to stare at his feet while playing , uninterested in personally engaging his listeners . Armstrong was deeply influenced by the blues , while Beiderbecke was influenced as much by modernist composers such as Debussy and Ravel as by his fellow jazzmen .
Beiderbecke 's most famous solo was on " Singin ' the Blues " , recorded February 4 , 1927 . It has been hailed as an important example of the " jazz ballad style " — " a slow or medium @-@ tempo piece played gently and sweetly , but not cloyingly , with no loss of muscle . " The tune 's laid @-@ back emotions hinted at what would become , in the 1950s , the cool jazz style , personified by Chet Baker and Bill Evans . More than that , though , " Singin ' the Blues " has been noted for the way its improvisations feel less improvised than composed , with each phrase building on the last in a logical fashion . Benny Green describes the solo 's effect on practiced ears :
When a musician hears Bix 's solo on ' Singing the Blues ' , he becomes aware after two bars that the soloist knows exactly what he is doing and that he has an exquisite sense of discord and resolution . He knows also that this player is endowed with the rarest jazz gift of all , a sense of form which lends to an improvised performance a coherence which no amount of teaching can produce . The listening musician , whatever his generation or his style , recognizes Bix as a modern , modernism being not a style but an attitude .
Like Green , who made particular mention of Beiderbecke 's " amount of teaching , " the jazz historian Ted Gioia also has emphasized Beiderbecke 's lack of formal instruction , suggesting that it caused him to adopt " an unusual , dry embouchure " and " unconventional fingerings , " which he retained for the rest of his life . Gioia points to " a characteristic streak of obstinacy " in Beiderbecke that provokes " this chronic disregard of the tried @-@ and @-@ true . " He argues that this stubbornness was behind Beiderbecke 's decision not to switch from cornet to trumpet when many other musicians , including Armstrong , did so . In addition , Gioia highlights Beiderbecke 's precise timing , relaxed delivery , and pure tone , which contrasted with " the dirty , rough @-@ edged sound " of King Oliver and his protégé Armstrong , whose playing was often more energetic and whose style held more sway early in the 1920s than Beiderbecke 's . Gioia further wonders whether the many hyperbolic and quasi @-@ poetic descriptions of Beiderbecke 's style — most notably Condon 's " like a girl saying yes " — may indicate that Beiderbecke 's sound was muddled on recordings .
Eddie Condon , Hoagy Carmichael , and Mezz Mezzrow , all of whom hyperbolically raved about his playing , also saw Beiderbecke play live or performed alongside him . Condon , for instance , wrote of being amazed by Beiderbecke 's piano playing : " All my life I had been listening to music [ … ] But I had never heard anything remotely like what Beiderbecke played . For the first time I realized music isn 't all the same , it had become an entirely new set of sounds " " I tried to explain Bix to the gang , " Carmichael wrote , but " [ i ] t was no good , like the telling of a vivid , personal dream [ … ] the emotion couldn 't be transmitted . "
Mezzrow described Beiderbecke 's tone as being " pickled in alcohol [ … ] I have never heard a tone like he got before or since . He played mostly open horn , every note full , big , rich and round , standing out like a pearl , loud but never irritating or jangling , with a powerful drive that few white musicians had in those days . "
Some critics have highlighted " Jazz Me Blues " , recorded with the Wolverines on February 18 , 1924 , as being particularly important to understanding Beiderbecke 's style . Although it was one of his earliest recordings , the hallmarks of his playing were evident . " The overall impression we get from this solo , as in all of Bix at his best , " writes the trumpeter Randy Sandke , " is that every note is spontaneous yet inevitable . " Richard Hadlock describes Beiderbecke 's contribution to " Jazz Me Blues " as " an ordered solo that seems more inspired by clarinetists Larry Shields of the ODJB and Leon Roppolo of the NORK than by other trumpet players . " He goes on to suggest that clarinetists , by virtue of their not being tied to the melody as much as cornetists and trumpet players , could explore harmonies .
" Jazz Me Blues " was also important because it introduced what has been called the " correlated chorus " , a method of improvising that Beiderbecke 's Davenport friend Esten Spurrier attributed to both Beiderbecke and Armstrong . " Louis departed greatly from all cornet players in his ability to compose a close @-@ knit individual 32 measures with all phrases compatible with each other " , Spurrier told the biographers Sudhalter and Evans , " so Bix and I always credited Louis as being the father of the correlated chorus : play two measures , then two related , making four measures , on which you played another four measures related to the first four , and so on ad infinitum to the end of the chorus . So the secret was simple — a series of related phrases . "
Beiderbecke plays piano on his recordings " Big Boy " ( October 8 , 1924 ) , " For No Reason at All in C " ( May 13 , 1927 ) , " Wringin ' and Twistin ' " ( September 17 , 1927 ) — all with ensembles — and his only solo recorded work , " In a Mist " ( September 8 , 1927 ) . Critic Frank Murphy argues that many of the same characteristics that mark Beiderbecke on the cornet mark him on the keyboard : the uncharacteristic fingering , the emphasis on inventive harmonies , and the correlated choruses . Those inventive harmonies , on both cornet and piano , eventually helped point the way to bebop , which abandoned melody almost entirely .
= = = Compositions = = =
Bix Beiderbecke wrote or co @-@ wrote six instrumental compositions during his career :
" Davenport Blues " ( 1925 )
" In a Mist ( Bixology ) " ( 1927 )
" For No Reason at All in C " ( 1927 ) with Frank Trumbauer
" Candlelights " ( 1930 )
" Flashes " ( 1931 )
" In the Dark " ( 1931 )
" Candlelights " , " Flashes " , and " In the Dark " are piano compositions transcribed with the help of Bill Challis but never recorded by Beiderbecke . Two additional compositions were attributed to him by two other jazz composers : " Betcha I Getcha " , attributed to Beiderbecke as a co @-@ composer by Joe Venuti , the composer of the song , and " Cloudy " , attributed to Beiderbecke by composer Charlie Davis as a composition from circa 1924 .
= = = Major recordings = = =
Bix Beiderbecke 's first recordings were as a member of the Wolverine Orchestra
" Fidgety Feet " / " Jazz Me Blues " , recorded on February 18 , 1924 , in Richmond , Indiana , and released as Gennett 5408
" Copenhagen " , recorded on May 6 , 1924 , and released as Gennett 5453B and Claxtonola 40336B
" Riverboat Shuffle " / " Susie ( Of the Islands ) " , recorded on May 6 , 1924 , and released as Gennett 5454
As Bix Beiderbecke and his Rhythm Jugglers
" Toddlin ' Blues " / " Davenport Blues " , recorded on January 26 , 1925 , in Richmond , Indiana , and released as Gennett 5654
With the Jean Goldkette Orchestra in 1926 – 1927
" My Pretty Girl " / " Cover Me Up with Sunshine " , recorded on February 1 , 1927 , in New York and released as Victor 20588
" Sunny Disposish " / " Fox Trot " from " Americana " , recorded on February 3 , 1927 , in New York and released as Victor 20493B
" Clementine " , recorded on September 15 , 1927 in New York and released on Victor 20994 " Jean Goldkette and his Orchestra " .
With Frankie Trumbauer and His Orchestra and guitarist Eddie Lang
" Clarinet Marmalade " / " Singin ' the Blues " , recorded on February 4 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40772
" Riverboat Shuffle " / " Ostrich Walk " , recorded on May 9 , 1927 in New York and released as Okeh 40822
" I 'm Coming , Virginia " / " Way Down Yonder in New Orleans " , recorded on May 13 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40843
" For No Reason at All in C " / " Trumbology " , recorded on May 13 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40871 , Columbia 35667 , and Parlophone R 3419
" In a Mist " / " Wringin ' an ' Twistin ' " , recorded on September 9 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40916 and Vocalion 3150
" Borneo " / " My Pet " , recorded on April 10 , 1928 , in New York and released as Okeh 41039
As Bix Beiderbecke and His Gang
" At the Jazz Band Ball " / " Jazz Me Blues " , recorded on October 5 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40923
" Royal Garden Blues " / " Goose Pimples " , recorded on October 5 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 8544
" Sorry " / " Since My Best Gal Turned Me Down " , recorded on October 25 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 41001
" Wa @-@ Da @-@ Da ( Everybody 's Doin ' It Now ) " , recorded on July 7 , 1928 in Chicago , Illinois and released as Okeh 41088
" Rhythm King " , recorded on September 21 , 1928 in New York and released as Okeh 41173
With the Paul Whiteman Orchestra
" Lonely Melody " [ Take 3 ] / " Mississippi Mud " [ Take 2 ] , with Bing Crosby , the Rhythm Boys , and Izzy Friedman , recorded on January 4 , 1928 , in New York and released as Victor 25366
" Ramona " , recorded on January 4 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21214 @-@ A. No. 1 for 3 weeks
" Ol ' Man River " ( From Show Boat ) , recorded on January 11 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21218 @-@ A and Victor 25249 with Bing Crosby on vocals . No. 1 for 1 week
" San " [ Take 6 ] , recorded on January 12 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 24078 @-@ A
" Together " , recorded on January 21 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 35883 @-@ A. No. 1 for 2 weeks
" Mississippi Mud " [ Take 3 ] / " From Monday On " [ Take 6 ] , with vocals by Bing Crosby , recorded on February 28 , 1928 , in New York and released as Victor 21274
" My Angel " , recorded on April 21 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21388 @-@ A. No. 1 for 6 weeks
" My Melancholy Baby " , recorded on May 15 , 1928 , in New York and released as Columbia 50068 @-@ D
" Sweet Sue " , recorded on September 18 , 1928 , in New York and released as Columbia 50103 @-@ D
As Bix Beiderbecke and His Orchestra
" I Don 't Mind Walking in the Rain " / " I 'll Be a Friend with Pleasure " , recorded on September 8 , 1930 , in New York and released as Victor 23008
With Hoagy Carmichael and His Orchestra
" Barnacle Bill , the Sailor " / " Rockin ' Chair " , with vocals by Carson Robison , recorded on May 21 , 1930 , in New York and released as Victor V @-@ 38139 and Victor 25371
" Georgia on My Mind " , with Hoagy Carmichael on vocals , recorded on September 15 , 1930 , in New York and released as Victor 23013
= = Grammy Hall of Fame = =
Bix Beiderbecke was posthumously inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have " qualitative or historical significance . "
= = Honors = =
1962 , inducted into Down Beat 's Jazz Hall of Fame , critics ' poll
1971 , Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Society established in Davenport , Iowa ; founded annual jazz festival and scholarship
1977 , Beiderbecke 's 1927 recording of " Singin ' the Blues " inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame
1979 , statue presented at LeClaire Park , in Davenport , Iowa
1979 , inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame
1980 , Beiderbecke 's 1927 recording of " In a Mist " inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame
1989 , Asteroid 23457 Beiderbecke named after him .
1993 , inducted into the International Academy of Jazz Hall of Fame
2000 , statue dedicated in Davenport
2000 , ASCAP Jazz Wall of Fame
2004 , inducted into the inaugural class of the Lincoln Center 's Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame
2006 , the 1927 recording of " Singin ' the Blues " with Frankie Trumbauer and Eddie Lang was placed on the U.S. Library of Congress National Recording Registry .
2007 , inducted into the Gennett Records Walk of Fame in Richmond , Indiana
2014 , the 1930 recording of " Georgia on My Mind " by Hoagy Carmichael and His Orchestra , featuring Beiderbecke on cornet , inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame
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= Voltaire P. Twombly =
Voltaire Paine Twombly ( February 21 , 1842 – February 24 , 1918 ) was a Union veteran of the American Civil War and a recipient of the Medal of Honor . He received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Fort Donelson on February 15 , 1862 , when he picked up and carried his company 's colors after three other members of his regiment were killed or incapacitated by Confederate fire while attempting to secure the flag . Twombly also participated in a number of other engagements in the Civil War , including the Siege of Corinth and Sherman 's March to the Sea .
After being mustered out of service in 1865 , Twombly attended business school and entered into a number of business ventures . In 1880 , he entered politics upon being selected to be the treasurer of Van Buren County , Iowa . He served as the mayor of Keosauqua , Iowa from 1884 to early 1885 , and as the treasurer of Iowa from 1885 to 1891 .
= = Early life = =
Twombly was born to Samuel Twombly and Dorothy Twombly ( nee Wilder ) on February 21 , 1842 , near Farmington , Van Buren County , Iowa Territory . His father died in September of 1842 , leaving Twombly 's mother responsible for raising him . While growing up , Twombly was educated at several common schools and at the Lane Academy of Keosauqua .
= = Civil War = =
Twombly enlisted in the Union Army on April 24 , 1861 , after President Abraham Lincoln had called for soldiers to counter the secessionist Confederate States . On May 27 , 1861 , he was mustered into Company F of the 2nd Iowa Volunteer Infantry Regiment as a private in Keokuk , Iowa . The 2nd Iowa Regiment left for Northern Missouri on June 13 , 1861 , and was stationed at St. Joseph , Missouri to protect the city 's railroad lines . On July 21 , 1861 , the 2nd Iowa regiment was transferred to Bird 's Point , Missouri . The regiment would continue to be transferred throughout Missouri during the remainder of the year , but saw little combat . In October , Twombly was promoted to the rank of corporal and assigned to the color guard . In February of 1862 , the Second Iowa Infantry Regiment was incorporated into the Army of the Tennessee , which was under the command of Major General Ulysses S. Grant .
On February 15 , 1862 , the Army of the Tennessee attacked Fort Donelson in Tennessee . During the battle , Twombly picked up and carried his company 's flag after the color sergeant and two other corporals had been killed or injured by the enemy . Twombly was knocked to the ground by cannon fire , but managed to carry the flag for the duration of the battle . For his actions during the battle , Twombly was promoted to sergeant and later awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor in 1897 . His citation reads :
Took the colors after 3 of the color guard had fallen , and although most instantly knocked down by a spent ball , immediately arose and bore the colors to the end of the engagement .
Twombly carried his company 's flag during the April 1862 Battle of Shiloh and participated in the Siege of Corinth , Mississippi as an acting second lieutenant . In October of 1862 , Twombly received a knee injury during the Second Battle of Corinth . He was hospitalized and placed on leave for six weeks to help him recover from the injury . In 1863 , Twombly 's regiment was formally stationed in Corinth , and engaged in numerous actions against the cavalry forces of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest .
In October 1863 , Major General William Tecumseh Sherman replaced Grant as the commander of the Army of the Tennessee . In November of 1863 , Twombly and the Army of the Tennessee marched northeast into Tennessee ; his regiment spent the winter of 1863 – 1864 in Pulaski , Tennessee . Twombly went on to participate in the Atlanta Campaign and Sherman 's March to the Sea . He was promoted to first lieutenant in July of 1864 and to captain in November of 1864 . While stationed in Savannah , Georgia in January 1865 , Twombly was made the assistant inspector general of the Third Brigade of his division .
In early 1865 , Twombly and the Army of the Tennessee marched North through the Carolinas and fought Confederate forces in Columbia , South Carolina and Bentonville , North Carolina . Twombly reached Goldsboro , North Carolina by the end of March and was present at the surrender of Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston near Raleigh , North Carolina . Following the surrender , the Army of the Tennessee headed north to Washington , D.C. , where Twombly and the 2nd Iowa Infantry participated in the Grand Review of the Armies . Twombly was mustered out of service on July 12 in Louisville , Kentucky and formally discharged on July 20 in Davenport , Iowa .
= = Later life = =
From August to December 1865 , Twombly attended Bryant & Stratton 's Business College , a commercial school in Burlington , Iowa . After completing his education , he entered into a number of business ventures . From his graduation until December 1867 , Twombly worked as a flour merchant in Ottumwa , Iowa . He opened a milling company in Pittsburg , Van Buren County in January of 1868 , which he ran until April of 1876 . He later moved to Keosauqua , Iowa where he worked as a merchant until 1880 .
Twombly , who had consistently supported the Republican Party since reaching voting age , accepted the position of treasurer of Van Buren County in 1880 . He served in that position until 1884 , when Twombly became the Mayor of Keosauqua . In January 1885 , Twombly was elected the Treasurer of Iowa . He served three terms in the position before stepping down in January of 1891 .
After his term as Treasurer of Iowa had concluded , Twombly assisted with the creation of the Home Savings Bank of Des Moines . He became the director and president of the bank in June of 1891 , and maintained the two positions until January of 1901 . In October of 1891 , Twombly became the half @-@ owner of the Capital Hill Granite & Marble Works . Twombly stepped down from the position and retired from business in June of 1905 .
Twombly spent the last years of his life in retirement . He died in his home in Des Moines , Iowa on February 24 , 1918 , after having suffered from an illness for several months .
= = Personal life = =
Twombly married Chloe Funk on May 1 , 1866 . They had one daughter , Eva , on November 10 , 1878 .
Twombly had joined the Free Masons in 1866 , and remained a member for much of his life . He was also a member of the Grand Army of the Republic , and had served as the commander of his post .
Twombly worshipped in the Congregationalist Church .
= = Publications = =
Twombly , Voltaire ( 1897 ) . The Second Iowa Infantry at Fort Donelson , February 15 , 1862 : together with an outline history of the regiment from its organization at Keokuk , Iowa , May 27 , 1861 , to final discharge at Davenport , Iowa , July 20 , 1865 . Plain Talk Printing House .
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= Sd.Kfz. 10 =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 ( Sonderkraftfahrzeug - special motorized vehicle ) was a German half @-@ track that saw very widespread use in World War II . Its main role was as a prime mover for small towed guns such as the 2 cm FlaK 30 , the 7 @.@ 5 cm leIG , or the 3 @.@ 7 cm PaK 36 anti @-@ tank gun . It could carry eight troops in addition to towing a gun or trailer .
The basic engineering for all the German half @-@ tracks was developed during the Weimar @-@ era by the Reichswehr 's Military Automotive Department , but final design and testing was farmed out to commercial firms with the understanding that production would be shared with multiple companies . Demag was chosen to develop the smallest of the German half @-@ tracks and spent the years between 1934 and 1938 perfecting the design through a series of prototypes .
The chassis formed the basis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier . Approximately 14 @,@ 000 were produced between 1938 and 1945 , making it one of the most widely produced German tactical vehicles of the war . It participated in the Invasion of Poland , the Battle of France , the Balkans Campaign and fought on both the Western Front and the Eastern Front , in North Africa and in Italy .
= = Description = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 was unique among German half @-@ track designs as it used a hull rather than a frame . Power was provided by a Maybach 6 @-@ cylinder , water @-@ cooled , 3 @.@ 791 litres ( 231 @.@ 3 cu in ) NL 38 TRKM gasoline engine of 90 horsepower ( 91 PS ) . It had a semi @-@ automatic Maybach Variorex @-@ transmission SRG 102128H ( Schaltreglergetriebe 102128H ) with seven forward and three reverse gears . The driver selected the desired gear and initiated the shift by depressing the clutch . It could attain 75 km / h ( 47 mph ) , but the driver was cautioned not to exceed 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . In 1942 the Luftwaffe limited its vehicles to a non @-@ tactical speed of only 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) to extend the life of the rubber track pads ( Gummipolster ) .
Both tracks and wheels were used for steering . The steering system was set up so that gentle turns used just the steerable front wheels , but brakes would be applied to the tracks the farther the steering wheel was turned . The drive sprocket had the track @-@ saving but more complicated rollers rather than the more common teeth . The rear suspension consisted of five double roadwheels , overlapping and interleaved in the Schachtellaufwerk layout , mounted on swing arms sprung by torsion bars . An idler wheel , mounted at the rear of the vehicle , was used to control track tension . The front wheels had transversely mounted leaf springs and shock absorbers , the only ones on the vehicle , to dampen impacts .
The upper body had a baggage compartment separating the driver 's compartment from the crew compartment . Bench seats on the sides of the vehicle , with under @-@ seat storage , could accommodate six men . The windshield could fold forward and was also removable . A convertible canvas top was mounted at the upper part of the rear body . It fastened to the windshield when erected . Four side pieces could be mounted to protect the crew from the weather .
= = Design and development = =
Preliminary design of all the German half @-@ tracks of the early part of the war was done by Dipl.Ing. Ernst Kniepkamp of the Military Automotive Department ( Wa Prüf 6 ) before the Nazis took power in 1933 . His designs were then turned over to commercial firms for development and testing . Demag was assigned to develop the " Liliput " Kleinster geländegängiger Kettenschlepper ( smallest cross @-@ country tracked towing vehicle ) with the first D ll 1 prototype produced in 1934 . It had a six @-@ cylinder , 28 horsepower ( 28 PS ) BMW Type 315 engine mounted in the rear and only had three roadwheels per side . The D ll 2 followed in 1935 and kept the same engine , but added an extra roadwheel . It weighed 2 @.@ 56 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 52 long tons ; 2 @.@ 82 short tons ) .
While the first two vehicles were only automotive prototypes , the 3 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 3 long tons ; 3 @.@ 7 short tons ) D ll 3 had a 42 horsepower ( 43 PS ) BMW Type 316 engine mounted in the front , 5 roadwheels and a troop compartment that could fit six . The D 4 prototype never left the drawing board . There was no D 5 . It was succeeded by eight trial series ( Versuchs @-@ Serie ) D 6 prototypes in 1937 . This weighed 3 @.@ 85 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 79 long tons ; 4 @.@ 24 short tons ) , had a 83 horsepower ( 84 PS ) Maybach NL 38 TRK engine and a different transmission , but otherwise differed only in detail from the D ll 3 . Several D 6s and the D ll 3 were used as prototypes for the models intended for service with the Chemical Troops ( Nebeltruppen ) and the Air Defense Troops ( Luftschutztruppen ) . A series of 60 pre @-@ production ( 0 @-@ serie ) D 6s were ordered in 1937 from Demag , Adler and Mechanische Werke Cottbus ( MWC ) which differed only in details from the trial series . They were all delivered by November 1938 . On 17 March 1937 the vehicle was renamed as the leichter Zugkraftwagen 1 to ( Sd.Kfz. 10 ) ( light 1 ton semi @-@ tracked towing vehicle ) .
The D 7 was the mass @-@ production model and differed mainly from the D 6 by having different tracks and a NL 38 TRKM engine . The NL 38 TRK had proven to have too much compression for the 74 octane ( OZ 74 ) gasoline decreed for use after 1 October 1938 and had to be modified with new cylinder heads and shorter pistons than the TRKM , but this did not change the engine 's power . Deliveries began in October 1938 with one of the first machines off the production line demonstrated for the army on 11 October 1938 . Early machines had two fuel tanks , one of 58 litres ( 15 US gal ) and the other of 31 litres ( 8 @.@ 2 US gal ) , but they were replaced by a single 110 litres ( 29 US gal ) tank early in the production run . The NL 38 TRKM engine was replaced in late 1939 by the HL 42 TRKM which differed little other than it had been bored out to 4 @.@ 192 litres ( 255 @.@ 8 cu in ) to increase its power to 100 horsepower ( 100 PS ) . During 1940 the hull rear was reinforced to allow the vehicle to tow heavier loads like the 7 @.@ 5 cm PaK 40 anti @-@ tank gun , 15 cm sIG 33 infantry gun and the 10 @.@ 5 cm leFH 18 howitzer . An air compressor was added later for loads equipped with air brakes . These were designated as Model ( Ausführung - Ausf . ) B. In 1943 the semi @-@ automatic transmission was replaced by a manual transmission . During 1943 – 44 the original metal upper bodies were replaced with wood to conserve steel .
The D 7p chassis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier was based on that of the D 7 with a shortened suspension , but actually shared very few components with it other than the engine .
Demag was contracted to design a new version of the Sd.Kfz. 10 in 1944 with ten road wheels , a strengthened front axle , a strengthened idler crank arm , an improved track tensioner and increased ground clearance . Three prototypes were completed ; two were delivered in September 1944 , but the third was retained at the factory . Development , however , did not proceed any further . Yet another new version of the Sd.Kfz. 10 was proposed in the Emergency Development Program ( Entwicklungs @-@ Notprogramm ) of 20 February 1945 with armored engine and driver 's compartments that was to have had its development completed in June 1945 .
= = Production = =
Seven factories assembled the various models of the Sd.Kfz. 10 . Demag built approximately 1 @,@ 075 from 1938 to November 1942 . Adlerwerke completed 3 @,@ 414 between 1938 and December 1943 . Büssing @-@ NAG built 750 between 1938 and December 1942 . MWC assembled 4750 between 1939 and November 1944 . Mühlenbau @-@ Industrie A.G. ( MIAG ) completed 324 between 1939 and 1941 . Maschinenfabrik Niedersachsen Hannover ( MNH ) built about 600 between 1939 and November 1942 . Osterreicher Saurerwerke completed about 3 @,@ 075 from 1940 to December 1943 . Both Demag and MWC were producing the D 7p chassis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light APC in 1945 when a shortage of armored bodies meant that 276 had to be completed with wooden upper bodies . Eighty of these are known to have been delivered by 1 March 1945 . These numbers may include 310 chassis built for Sd.Kfz. 252 armored ammunition carriers and Sd.Kfz. 253 oberservation vehicles .
= = Variants = =
= = = Sd.Kfz. 10 / 1 = = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 1 was a chemical detection vehicle . Before the outbreak of World War II only ninety were intended to be delivered in 1940 – 42 to equip the Chemical Troops ( Nebeltruppen ) , but the 3 May 1940 production plan mentions that was to be produced at a rate of thirty per month until a total of 400 have been built and thereafter at ten per month . The last mention is a report that MWC was to complete ten vehicles by 15 January 1943 . Production may have continued after that , but definitely not after 1943 .
= = = Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2 = = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2 was a chemical decontamination vehicle fitted with a 200 kg ( 440 lb ) capacity spreader and space for eight 50 kg ( 110 lb ) barrels of decontamination chemicals . This left room for only two crewmen who had a bench seat between the barrels in front of the rear chassis wall . Each barrel could cover an area 1 by 160 metres ( 1 @.@ 1 by 175 @.@ 0 yd ) . The barrels were stowed on platforms over the tracks with foldable outer rails . The 10 / 2 had a significant number of differences from the standard model , including two fuel tanks totaling 86 litres ( 23 US gal ) , one of which had a tunnel to accommodate the auxiliary driveshaft which powered the spreader . This reduced the road range to only 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) . The 10 / 2 was 4 @.@ 83 metres ( 15 @.@ 8 ft ) long , 1 @.@ 9 metres ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) wide , and 1 @.@ 95 – 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 6 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 6 ft ) high , depending if the top was up or down . It weighed 3 @,@ 890 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 580 lb ) empty and 4 @,@ 900 kilograms ( 10 @,@ 800 lb ) loaded . While spreading its top speed was only 10 – 20 km / h ( 6 @.@ 2 – 12 @.@ 4 mph ) . Sixty to seventy were built in 1938 – 39 .
= = = Sd.Kfz. 10 / 3 = = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 3 was equipped with a 500 litres ( 130 US gal ) tank and spray system to lay down poison gas barriers . The spray nozzle swung back and forth to cover a width of 16 metres ( 52 ft ) . Approximately 67 were built in 1938 – 39 . On 15 April 1942 the Army High Command ( Oberkommando des Heeres - OKH ) ordered the tanks on the 65 vehicles in storage dismounted , the spray system disabled and the vehicles modified to carry 216 rounds of anti @-@ tank ammunition . The vehicles were to be issued to rebuilding Nebeltruppen units . By this stage of the war they were equipped with Nebelwerfer rocket launchers and had organic anti @-@ tank guns .
= = = Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4 and 10 / 5 = = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4 carried the 2 cm FlaK 30 mount on a special platform with fold @-@ down side and rear panels . This platform was specifically designed for the Flak 30 mount and could not readily accept a Flak 38 mount or vice versa . To accommodate the gun mount the vehicle was both wider and taller than normal , namely 2 @.@ 02 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and weighed 4 @,@ 075 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 984 lb ) empty . Four folding seats were fitted on the platform for the crew . Some of these gun mounts had a gun shield fitted . The ready ammunition bins fastened to the side and rear panels ( four on each side and two in the rear ) contained one 20 @-@ round magazine each . It usually towed an ammunition trailer ( Sd.Ah. 51 - Sonderanhänger — special single @-@ axle trailer ) with 640 more rounds , the gun 's sights and its rangefinder .
Vehicles built in 1940 ( only ) were fitted with removable loading ramps , cable rollers to act as pulleys , and a reinforced tail gate to allow a Flak 30 , mounted on a Sd.Ah. 51 trailer , to be quickly dismounted . From 1940 they were fitted with rifle racks over the front fenders and from 1942 these were given sheet metal covers as protection from the weather . Flak 38s were mounted on 10 / 4s beginning in 1941 although the platform wasn 't widened until later . As the war progressed the guns were more often fitted with gun shields .
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 5 carried the 2 cm FlaK 38 whose mount was wider , and lighter , than that of the Flak 30 , and the platform was enlarged to accommodate it from 1942 . Vehicle width increased to 2 @.@ 156 metres ( 7 @.@ 07 ft ) , but the height returned to that of the normal vehicle . Initially , vehicles modified with the wider platform for the Flak 38 did not have a special designation , but they were given one sometime in 1943 . The earliest known use is 1 September 1943 , but the older name lingered until 1 December 1944 . The Luftwaffe ordered 293 sets of armor plate ( Behelfspanzerung ) for its vehicles in 1943 . These plates covered the radiator , windshield and both sides of the driver 's compartment and were fitted to both versions .
Production began in 1939 for deliveries to the Army and Luftwaffe , although the exact numbers will never be known as they were often not broken out separately in the production reports . At any rate Adler built 1054 between 1939 and February 1943 , although some of these were completed as 10 / 5s beginning in 1942 . MWC was awarded two contracts for 975 10 / 5s to be delivered in 1943 – 44 , but 13 of these were delivered as ordinary Sd.Kfz. 10s in 1944 .
= = = Field modifications = = =
Some vehicles were fitted with a 3 @.@ 7 cm PaK 36 or 5 cm PaK 38 anti @-@ tank gun . Sometimes they had the cab and engine compartment armored as well . The Pak 36 was usually carried complete , but the Pak 38 was usually mounted without its wheels on a pivot mount . In the end of the war some vehicles were equipped with a triple @-@ mount ( " Drilling " in German ) of MG151 autocannon on a conical pivot . It was the same mount as was used in Sd.Kfz. 251 / 21 .
= = Deployment and use = =
Initially it was planned to use the Sd.Kfz. 10 as a towing vehicle for various light guns and trailers , but it was authorized as a substitute for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier in 1939 . The Ausf . B model saw its use broadened to tow heavier weapons like the 5 cm PaK 38 as well as their ammunition trailers . They also served in the maintenance and supply companies of motorized and tank units . Nine were delivered to Romania in 1942 as tractors for anti @-@ tank guns .
For the Chemical Troops ( Nebeltruppen ) each decontamination battery ( Entgiftungs @-@ Batterie ) was authorized six Sd.Kfz. 10 / 1 and six Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2 . Eighteen Sd.Kfz. 10 / 3 were held at the battalion level for issue to the batteries in lieu of their Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2s if needed . If necessary they could be substituted for Sd.Kfz. 11s of the appropriate type . When the decontamination units were authorized to be re @-@ equipped with heavy rocket launchers in November 1941 seven Sd.Kfz. 10 / 1s were used to tow the 28 / 32 cm Nebelwerfer 41 launchers and another was used by the platoon leader to tow an anti @-@ tank gun . Similarly decontamination units usually retained their Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2s and used them just like the 10 / 1s after removing their special equipment . However , it seems that the 10 / 3s were turned in when the unit was reorganized .
An early @-@ war Army anti @-@ aircraft company ( Flugabwehr @-@ Kompanie ) was organized in three platoons with a total of eighteen Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4s , twelve with guns and six carrying ammunition . When the four @-@ barrel 2 cm Flakvierling 38 was fielded in 1941 each platoon had four Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4s towing the guns and another for ammunition . Later these companies were reorganized with a total of eight Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4s carrying guns , two towing Flakvierlings and three carrying ammunition . These are just examples of some of the Army organizations which differed depending on the unit and the period . Sd.Kfz. 10 / 5s were substituted for 10 / 4s on a one for one basis . Detailed records do not survive for the Luftwaffe light anti @-@ aircraft units , but they appear to have been organized into batteries of nine or twelve guns .
= = = Usage in Sweden = = =
When war broke out in September 1939 , Sweden maintained a policy of neutrality . To support this policy a rapid upgrade of aging military equipment was necessary . Guns , vehicles and aircraft was both manufactured domestically and purchased abroad . Artillery guns , 10 @.@ 5 cm leFH 18 and towing vehicles was purchased from Germany in the winter of 1939 / 1940 and deliveries started in 1940 . The towing vehicles were partly Klöckner @-@ Deutz A330 4x4 trucks and partly Demag D7 halftracks . The halftracks were would be used in sub @-@ arctic climate and all twelve Demags were , in the autumn of 1940 , delivered along with twelve guns to the 8th Artillery regiment ( A8 ) in the northern city of Boden , close to the arctic -circle . Noteworthy is that the 10 @.@ 5 cm leFH 18 ( " Haubits m / 39 " in Swedish terms ) is a significantly heavier gun than the ones the German army towed with this vehicle . In Sweden the Demag was called " Artilleritraktor m / 40 " or " Arttrak m / 40 " for short .
Already in 1941 Sweden tried to purchase more Demags , but the ongoing war made this impossible . Orders then went to Volvo to make a " copy " ( the " Artilleritraktor m / 43 " or " Volvo HBT " ) , were the only specific requirement from the Swedish army was that the track links had to be interchangeable with the Demag . This Volvo was never in use at A8 .
After the war another twelve Sdkfz 10 , bought as surplus from Norway and elsewhere , were delivered to A8 . The total of 24 Sdkfz 10 were used in training gun crews all through the 1950s and early 1960s . 1966 all were sold to the highest bidders at Kalix airfield and they ended up in the villages surrounding Kalix and Boden . In the mid 1970s they were traced down and sold abroad . The last known one left Sweden in 1992 . Of the 24 sold in 1966 , as of 2014 fourteen have known locations with collectors and in museums all over the world .
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= The Wife of His Youth =
" The Wife of His Youth " is a short story by American author Charles W. Chesnutt , first published in July 1898 . It later served as the title story of the collection The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color @-@ Line . That book was first published in 1899 , the same year Chesnutt published his short story collection The Conjure Woman .
" The Wife of His Youth " features an upwardly mobile , light @-@ skinned mulatto man , a respected member of the Blue Veins Society in a Midwestern city . He is preparing to marry another light @-@ skinned mulatto woman when a much darker woman comes to him seeking her husband , whom she has not seen in 25 years . The story , which was met positively upon its publication , has become Chesnutt 's most anthologized work .
The story has been read as an analysis of race relations , not between black and white but within the black community , exploring its own color and class prejudices . The main character dreams of becoming white but ultimately seems to accept being black and the full history of African Americans in the United States . The ending of the story , however , has been called ambiguous and leaves several questions unanswered .
= = Plot = =
" The Wife of His Youth " follows Mr. Ryder , a bi @-@ racial man who was born and reared free before the Civil War . He heads the " Blue Veins Society " , a social organization for colored people in a northern town ; the membership consists of people with a high proportion of European ancestry , who look more white than black . The organization 's name stemmed from the joke that one would have to be so white ( to be a member ) that veins could be seen through the skin .
Ryder is sought after by the town 's women but begins courting a very light mixed @-@ race woman from Washington , DC named Molly Dixon . He plans to propose to her at the next Blue Vein ball , for which he is giving a speech . Before the talk , he meets an older , plain @-@ looking black woman . Her name is ' Liza Jane , and she is searching for her husband Sam Taylor , whom she has not seen in 25 years . She says she was married to Sam before the Civil War , when she was enslaved and he was a hired apprentice to the family of her master . Despite Taylor 's being a free black , the family tried to sell him into slavery . She assisted Sam in escaping , and he promised to return and free her , but she was sold to a different master . Ryder says that Taylor could have died , may have outgrown her , or could have remarried . However , she persists in saying that her husband has remained faithful , and refuses to stop looking . Ryder advises her that slave marriages did not count after the war ; marriages had to be officially made legal . She shows him an old picture of Sam and leaves .
At the ball Ryder addresses the members and tells them ' Liza Jane 's story . At the conclusion , he asks the attendees whether or not they think the man should acknowledge his wife . Everyone urges yes . He brings out ' Liza and says , " Ladies and gentlemen , this is the woman , and I am the man , whose story I have told you . Permit me to introduce to you the wife of my youth . "
= = Publication and response = =
" The Wife of His Youth " was first published in the July 1898 issue of The Atlantic Monthly , without reference to the author 's own racial background ( he was African American , with majority @-@ white ancestry ) . Reviews were positive . After Chesnutt read several compliments from friends and in various newspaper reviews , he wrote to editor Walter Hines Page , " taking it all in all , I have had a slight glimpse of what it means , I imagine , to be a successful author . "
One later review by influential critic William Dean Howells particularly praised Chesnutt . In " The Wife of His Youth " , Howells was impressed that the main character offered up a Christ @-@ like sacrifice , unimpeded by his being African American . In the 20th century , " The Wife of His Youth " became Chesnutt 's most anthologized short story .
Chesnutt had published " The Goophered Grapevine " in the August 1887 issue of the Atlantic during the editorship of Thomas Bailey Aldrich . It was his first nationally distributed story . He published two others under Aldrich , marking the beginning of a 20 @-@ year association with the magazine . In 1891 , Chesnutt contacted Aldrich 's successor Horace Scudder about publishing a book of his tales and revealed his African @-@ American heritage . Scudder advised against trying a book at that time , and suggested Chesnutt wait until he earned a broader reputation . Seven years later , Scudder endorsed Chesnutt to Page , who had taken his role as editor of the Atlantic .
With the support of both Scudder and Page , Houghton Mifflin published The Wife of his Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line in 1899 , which included " The Passing of Grandison " , which turned slave narratives around . That year , he also published his The Conjure Woman , a collection of his dialect or local color stories . The next year , Chesnutt 's first novel The House Behind the Cedars was published by the same company . Chesnutt advised his editor Harry D. Robins of his intentions with The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line :
" The book was written with the distinct hope that it might have its influence in directing attention to certain aspects of the race question which are quite familiar to those on the unfortunate side of it ; and I should be glad to have that view of it emphasized if in your opinion the book is strong enough to stand it ; for a sermon that is labeled a sermon must be a good one to get a hearing " .
Many years later , Carl Van Vechten , who corresponded with Chesnutt , included a character in his novel , Nigger Heaven ( 1926 ) , who reads " The Wife of His Youth " and its accompanying stories . The character despairingly realizes he will never write as well as Chesnutt . From the book :
He lifted The Wife of his Youth from its place on the table and opened its pages for the hundredth time . How much he admired the cool deliberation of its style , the sense of form , but more than all the civilized mind of this man who had surveyed the problems of his race from an Olympian height and had turned them into living and artistic drama . Nothing seemed to have escaped his attention , from the lowly life of the worker on the Southern plantation to the snobbery of the near whites of the north . Chesnutt had surveyed the entire field , calmly setting down what he saw , what he thought and felt about it .
= = Analysis = =
In " The Wife of His Youth " , Charles Chesnutt does not explore the relationship between whites and mulattoes ; instead , the story is concerned with race consciousness among those of mixed race , both from the North and South . Scholar William L. Andrews notes that this story , and others like it including " A Matter of Principle " , were unprecedented . Chesnutt " broke the ice in the American fiction of manners . " Like the other Blue Veins , Ryder has idealized whiteness and dreams of becoming white or , as Chesnutt writes it , " [ his ] absorption by the white race . " This is symbolized by his reading " A Dream of Fair Women " by Alfred , Lord Tennyson when his wife first appears in the story .
White readers , such as William Dean Howells , considered this a realistic portrayal of mixed @-@ race Americans , revealed by Chesnutt as an " insider " , much as Paul Laurence Dunbar had shown whites the lyrical side of blacks . Howells wrote :
We had known the nethermost world of the grotesque and comical negro and the terrible and tragic negro through the white observer on the outside , and the black character in its lyrical moods we had known from such an inside witness as Mr. Paul Dunbar ; but it had remained for Mr. Chesnutt to acquaint us with those regions where the paler shades dwell as hopelessly , with relation to ourselves [ i.e. whites ] , as the blackest negro .
Ultimately , Chesnutt is challenging the idea of two " races . " The story serves as an allegory of the changing relationship of freeborn and freedmen , mixed race and blacks , in a post @-@ Reconstruction Era . Such differences are expressed in language used by the characters , which also reflects differing education and class levels . Ryder speaks in the high rhetoric of " white " English ( emulating the Tennyson he reads ) while ' Liza uses a thick black dialect . That difference is further emphasized by Ryder 's writing ' Liza 's address in the flyleaf of his Tennyson book and , when recounting her story , switching into his own " soft dialect " . Ann duCille suggests the story questions the legality of marriage during enslavement . Ryder / Taylor 's decision is about choosing to accept or negate " the old plantation past " , or , as duCille writes , " between moral obligation and romantic desire " .
Cynthia Wachtell considers the story as a social satire . Ryder is pretentious and uppity , concerned about the delineations in class based on skin color , and promotes advancement of lighter @-@ skinned people , some of whom were already educated before the war . That his wife is revealed to be a dark @-@ skinned , unrefined cook is his " just desserts [ sic ] " . Dean McWilliams notes the ambiguity about whether Ryder really is Sam Taylor . Certainly , writes McWilliams , the drawing room image of Ryder at the beginning of the story seems nothing like the plantation worker described by ' Liza .
Even if he is Taylor , Tess Chakkalal questions if the reader should be certain that Ryder has made the " right " decision . There is an uncomfortable tension in his attempt to abandon the past and racial definitions in order to move into the future . Though the story has been traditionally read as having a happy ending , Wachtell emphasizes that ' Liza has no final lines which show her response to the husband who had forgotten her . Henry B. Wonham notes a significance to Ryder 's referring to ' Liza not simply as wife but " the wife of my youth " , as if dissociating from her even as he acknowledges her .
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= Australian cricket team in England in 1884 =
The Australia national cricket team toured England in 1884 . The team is officially termed the Fourth Australians , following three previous tours in the 1878 , 1880 and 1882 seasons . The 1884 tour was a private venture by the thirteen players who each invested an agreed sum to provide funding , none of Australia 's colonial cricket associations being involved . Billy Murdoch captained the team and George Alexander acted as player @-@ manager . The Australians played a total of 32 matches in England , 31 of which are recognised by CricketArchive as first @-@ class .
1884 was the first English season to feature more than a single Test match . A three @-@ match series was scheduled which included the inaugural Tests at both Old Trafford and Lord 's . The third Test was played at the Oval which had staged the Tests in 1880 and 1882 . England won the Test series 1 – 0 with an innings victory in the second Test at Lord 's , while the first and third Tests were drawn . The 1884 series was the first Ashes series in England , following publication of the mock " ashes " obituary after the 1882 Test .
The tour was dogged by financial controversy with the Australians accused by the British press of being interested only in money . The allegations were refuted by the Australian press but it later became clear , when an England team arrived in Australia the following winter , that there had been a financial dispute between Alexander and the English team manager James Lillywhite , resulting in the two teams at first boycotting each other . The dispute was never evident while Murdoch 's team was in England as they completed all their scheduled fixtures , winning eighteen matches and losing seven with seven drawn .
= = Australian squad = =
Australia had a 13 @-@ man squad captained by Billy Murdoch while George Alexander was player @-@ manager . Squad details below state the player 's colonial team at the time , his age at the beginning of the tour , his batting hand and his type of bowling :
The 1884 squad was very similar to the 1882 squad with Alexander , Cooper , Midwinter and Scott replacing Tom Garrett , Tom Horan , Sammy Jones and Hugh Massie . Cooper and Scott were making their first visit to England .
Australia used the same eleven players in all three Tests , Scott making his debut in the first Test , and in the majority of their first @-@ class matches as Alexander was effectively a reserve who made only five appearances on the tour and Cooper , who also made just five appearances , suffered a long @-@ term injury .
= = England Test selections = =
England selected a total of 16 players in the three Tests . Six players ( Barlow , Grace , Peate , Shrewsbury , Steel and Ulyett ) played in all three matches . O 'Brien ( first Test ) and Christopherson ( second Test ) made their Test debuts . Hornby captained England in the first Test and Harris in the other two .
Details of the England players include their ages at the beginning of the 1884 season , their batting and bowling styles , and the county club they represented in 1884 :
= = Tour preparations and voyages = =
The Fourth Australian team was selected after Christmas 1883 at which time Victoria were playing New South Wales at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) in a match which ended on New Year 's Eve with a three wicket win by Victoria . Another match was arranged to start on New Year 's Day , also at the MCG , between the Fourth Australians and a Combined XI . All the tour selections except Spofforth were playing , though Scott played for the Combined XI . Murdoch scored a career @-@ high 279 not out and McDonnell 111 in a total of 619 , the result being a draw . A return match with the Combined XI was arranged in February at the Association Ground in Sydney . Scott played for the Fourth Australians , replacing Alexander , and Spofforth played for the Combined XI , the Fourth Australians winning by 9 wickets .
Unlike other Australian touring teams , the 1884 team organised the project themselves and so it was a private business venture which involved none of the Australian colonial cricket associations . The players invested agreed sums to fund their travel and cover any losses .
After one final match in Adelaide , which was the last time South Australia needed odds ( i.e. , extra men ) to compete , the tourists left Melbourne on 11 March 1884 aboard the P & O steamer Sutlej and arrived at Plymouth on 29 April . With a programme of 32 fixtures arranged , the first game in England began on 12 May at Sheffield Park , Uckfield and the last game against the South of England was completed on 12 September . The team travelled home on the SS Mirzapore and reached Melbourne again in early November . Murdoch enjoyed a shipboard romance on the return voyage with an heiress called Jemima Watson whom he married at Fitzroy , Victoria in December , only a few weeks after the Mirzapore berthed .
The outward bound voyage had a short stopover at Colombo where the Australians played a drawn game on Galle Face Green against a Ceylon XVIII in a one @-@ day match on 1 April . The return voyage also stopped off in Colombo and the team played another odds match , again on Galle Face Green and drawn , on 23 October .
= = Tour itinerary = =
The following is a list of the matches played by the Fourth Australians , all but one of which are recognised by CricketArchive as first @-@ class fixtures :
= = Test series = =
= = = First Test = = =
This was the inaugural Old Trafford Test and , as Chris Harte described it , " the first time that a match of such importance had been staged outside of London " . Selection of an England home Test team in the 19th century was the privilege of the host club and Lancashire selected five local players in their squad of twelve , although Jack Crossland missed out and was made twelfth man . Barlow , Hornby , Pilling and Steel all played as it was believed their presence would boost the gate receipts .
Chris Harte commented that the match was also the origin of Old Trafford 's " reputation for wet weather " , the game being drawn after rain had made the first day unplayable . The match was therefore reduced to two days play and it was reported that the wicket dried much quicker than expected and conditions were never difficult for batting . Even so , England were all out for 95 in their first innings , Boyle taking six wickets for 42 runs conceded ( i.e. , 6 / 42 ) with his medium @-@ paced spin and Spofforth 4 / 42 . Shrewsbury , displaying " masterly technique " , scored 43 to save his team from real embarrassment . In their first innings , Australia " hit with more vigour and confidence than their opponents " and scored 182 , a lead of 87 . Their top scorer was Midwinter with 37 . The wicket had dried out on the final day and England were able to bat out time and secure the draw , scoring 180 for the loss of 9 wickets ( i.e. , 180 / 9 ) . Grace was top scorer with a patient 31 and Joey Palmer was the best of the Australian bowlers " with his controlled off- and leg @-@ cutters " .
= = = Second Test = = =
This was the inaugural Lord 's Test and England won by an innings after a century by A. G. Steel and fine bowling by Ted Peate and George Ulyett . The game ended just after lunch on the third day .
Wisden recorded that the main elements of England 's success were " the magnificent batting of A. G. Steel and the bowling of Ulyett " . Batting first , Australia were reduced to 160 / 9 despite an innings of 63 by Giffen ; but then Scott and Boyle added 69 for the final wicket , Wisden reporting that Scott played " cool , confident , skilful cricket " in an innings of 75 . At close of play on the first day , England were 90 / 3 so the match was evenly poised , with Lucas on 28 and Shrewsbury on 27 . Steel commenced his innings on the second morning and shared successful partnerships with Ulyett , Barlow and Lyttelton . While Steel was in , 261 runs were added and he made 148 including thirteen boundaries . It was the highest score made against the Australians during the season . By close of play , Australia had lost four wickets in their second innings for only 73 runs . Barlow later recorded that the score was 135 / 5 when he went out to join Steel and recalled Lord Harris , the England captain , saying to him : " For Heaven 's sake , Barlow , stop this rot ! " Barlow and Steel added 98 for the sixth wicket . Despite another good effort by Scott on the final day , Australia failed to avoid the innings defeat . Ulyett bowled very well but may have been helped by the state of the ground . However , Ulyett is best remembered in this match for taking what Pelham Warner called " one of the historic catches of cricket " when he caught and bowled Bonnor , noted for his powerful hitting . Warner recorded of Steel 's innings that George Giffen talked about it most enthusiastically as late as 1911 , when the two were in conversation at Adelaide . When Scott was dismissed for 75 in the Australian first innings , he was caught by his own captain Murdoch off the bowling of Steel . Murdoch was on as a substitute for an injured English player and this was the first time in Test cricket that a batsman was dismissed by a catch taken by a substitute fielder .
Soon afterwards , the London press reported that the entire proceeds of the match , a sum of £ 1 @,@ 334 , had been awarded to the Australians . This had been agreed beforehand by Alexander and Harris to enable the tourists to cover their costs , but the press disapproved and accused the Australians of being mercenary and acting outside the spirit of the game . Harte commented on the extreme bias of the press as , in all their other games , the Australians received only a share of the gate money , " an arrangement appreciated by the county clubs as the visitors ' popularity always boosted takings " .
= = = Third Test = = =
The final Test at the Oval was played in hot weather and Murdoch created a then @-@ record score of 211 , the first double @-@ century in Test cricket . Murdoch was helped by three missed chances off the bowling of Ulyett when he had made 46 , 171 and 205 . England followed on but had only lost two wickets when time ran out and the match was drawn .
After McDonnell had made 103 out of 158 , Murdoch and Scott completed the first double @-@ century partnership in Test cricket . England , as the score mounted , used 11 bowlers : the first time in Test cricket that an entire team including the wicketkeeper was called upon to bowl . On this occasion , the wicketkeeper Lyttelton was the most successful bowler , taking 4 / 19 . Grace , keeping wicket to Lyttelton , took a catch to dismiss Midwinter .
The two main features of England 's first innings were Scotton 's " stonewalling " and Read 's ( batting at number ten ) " hard and rapid hitting " . Scotton 's 90 in six hours and Read 's 117 in two enabled England to reach a respectable 346 but they still had to follow on , 205 runs behind . But the time taken by Scotton 's innings left Australia with not enough time to bowl England out again and the result was a draw .
= = Other matches = =
The tour began well for the Australians with an innings victory in their opening match at Uckfield against a team chosen by Lord Sheffield which included W. G. Grace , George Ulyett , Billy Barnes , Alfred Shaw and Arthur Shrewsbury . Although Fred Spofforth , Harry Boyle and Billy Midwinter were all playing , the Australian bowling was performed by George Giffen and Joey Palmer only , and they both took ten wickets in the match . However , the key performance in conditions that helped the bowling was Alick Bannerman 's innings of 94 which alone outscored the Sheffield XI 's first innings total of 86 .
The Australians had mixed success in their next five matches , winning against Surrey and an All @-@ England XI but losing to Oxford , MCC and the Gentlemen . An innings of 71 by Tup Scott in a low @-@ scoring match was the key to defeating Surrey by 8 wickets . Centuries by Grace , A. G. Steel and Barnes gave MCC an innings victory at Lord 's and Warner described this feat as " remarkable " .
The next ten matches prior to the Old Trafford Test were played mainly in the north of England and the Australians did very well in this period , through June and into early July . They lost only to the North by an innings at Old Trafford when their batting struggled against Ted Peate and Ulyett while good scores by A. N. Hornby and Barnes ensured the North 's victory . Giffen had a memorable game when the Australians played Lancashire at Old Trafford , taking a hat trick in the Lancashire innings and then scoring 113 . That match was drawn but the Australians defeated both Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire by the same three @-@ wicket margin . Spofforth , Palmer , Peate and Tom Emmett dominated the match at Bradford in which only 255 runs were scored in total . At Trent Bridge , the bowling of Giffen and Palmer enabled the Australians to recover from a first innings deficit of 39 and win . In the return match against the Gentlemen at the Oval , the last three English batsmen including Lord Harris were all stumped by Jack Blackham .
Between the first and second Tests , the Australian victory over Middlesex , whose batting could not cope with Spofforth , was their only win in four matches at Lord 's . The Australians struggled in a drawn game against Sussex for whom George Wyatt and Henry Phillips both scored centuries . Spofforth with 14 wickets and George Bonnor with an innings of 68 in a low @-@ scoring match put the Australians back on track when they easily defeated a strong Players XI at the Oval .
An innings of 60 by Lord Harris helped Kent recover from a first innings deficit before the Australians , batting last , collapsed to lose by 96 runs at Canterbury . The first match against Gloucestershire was drawn , W. G. Grace scoring 116 not out for his county . The Australians won the second match convincingly with an innings total of 402 ( Giffen 91 , Billy Murdoch 89 ) before dismissing Gloucestershire for only 83 . This began a good finish to the tour as the Australians won five of the last seven matches following the third Test . They twice defeated the South by an innings , Spofforth taking a total of 24 wickets in these two matches , but were again beaten by the North , for whom Dick Barlow scored a century and took ten wickets in the match .
= = Statistical summary = =
Murdoch , Percy McDonnell and Giffen all scored 1 @,@ 000 runs for the Australians in the 1884 season while Scott , Bannerman and Bonnor topped 900 . Murdoch scored two centuries including his 211 at the Oval ; Giffen , McDonnell and Scott one apiece . The outstanding bowler , as on previous tours , was Spofforth who took 205 wickets for the Australians at an average of 12 @.@ 50 with a best performance of 8 / 62 . Palmer took 130 wickets at 16 @.@ 14 and the other main bowlers were Giffen ( 81 wickets ) and Boyle ( 62 ) . Midwinter took 15 wickets while the other players bowled occasionally only . Blackham was the wicket @-@ keeper in 28 out of the 31 first @-@ class matches , Murdoch standing in for him in the other three . Blackham held 23 catches and completed 16 stumpings . Eight fielders held more than twenty catches each , the most being Bonnor 's 31 .
Putting the Australian performances into perspective , only eight Englishmen made 1 @,@ 000 runs and only Harris scored more than Murdoch . Louis Hall with four completed the most centuries while Harris , Grace , Ulyett and Billy Bates made three apiece . Spofforth was easily the highest wicket @-@ taker , beating the best English bowler Ted Peate by 70 while Palmer was third overall . Seven other Englishmen managed 100 wickets in the season .
In his history , Harry Altham wrote that the 1884 Australians have been equated with the 1882 team but he himself disagreed with that assessment . He added that George Giffen considered England 's team in the final Test to have been the strongest of the nineteenth century .
= = Controversy and aftermath = =
The bad feeling about the proceeds from the Lord 's Test lingered and , at the end of their tour , the Fourth Australians faced more recriminations from the British press . Among other things , they were accused of " introducing a bloodthirsty spirit " and " playing too obviously for money 's sake " . This criticism was countered by The Australasian of 11 October , whose cricket writer Tom Horan , though himself no supporter of Murdoch 's team , objected to the " spiteful criticism from certain portions of the English press " and pointed out the " narrow @-@ minded and insulting abuse levelled at the Australian cricketers " . However , in his history of Lord 's , Warner stated that the Australians had " evidently come into favour " and that " the rows and bickerings of the past were happily over and done with " .
The problems spilled over into the next Australian season when an English team formed by Alfred Shaw , James Lillywhite and Arthur Shrewsbury toured . A disagreement between Alexander and Lillywhite led to members of the Fourth Australians refusing to play against the tourists in certain matches and then being banned by the colonial authorities from playing in others . Having agreed contracts for matches with the colonial authorities , Lillywhite offered Alexander 30 % of the gate receipts from the first two Tests , but Murdoch and the rest of the team insisted on 50 % . One outcome was that Australia had to make eleven changes to their team for the second Test after terms could not be agreed with the Fourth Australians . The Fourth Australians had made up the team in the first Test but refused to play in the second Test in which nine debutants were necessary alongside Tom Horan and Sammy Jones .
When the Fifth Australians toured England in 1886 , the team was selected and managed by the Melbourne Club which was mindful of the past controversy . As a result , Murdoch , McDonnell and Bannerman were omitted despite still being leading batsmen . Boyle was unavailable , as were Horan and Massie who had toured in 1882 , while Alexander , Cooper and Midwinter were no longer in contention for places . Scott was appointed captain and the other survivors of 1884 were Blackham , Bonnor , Giffen , Palmer and Spofforth .
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= Appaloosa =
The Appaloosa is an American horse breed best known for its colorful spotted coat pattern . There is a wide range of body types within the breed , stemming from the influence of multiple breeds of horses throughout its history . Each horse 's color pattern is genetically the result of various spotting patterns overlaid on top of one of several recognized base coat colors . The color pattern of the Appaloosa is of interest to those who study equine coat color genetics , as it and several other physical characteristics are linked to the leopard complex mutation ( LP ) . Appaloosas are prone to develop equine recurrent uveitis and congenital stationary night blindness ; the latter has been linked to the leopard complex .
Artwork depicting prehistoric horses with leopard spotting exists in prehistoric cave paintings in Europe . Images of domesticated horses with leopard spotting patterns appeared in artwork from Ancient Greece and Han dynasty China through the early modern period ; the Nez Perce people of what today is the United States Pacific Northwest developed the original American breed . Appaloosas were once referred to by settlers as the " Palouse horse " , possibly after the Palouse River , which ran through the heart of Nez Perce country . Gradually , the name evolved into " Appaloosa " .
The Nez Perce lost most of their horses after the Nez Perce War in 1877 , and the breed fell into decline for several decades . A small number of dedicated breeders preserved the Appaloosa as a distinct breed until the Appaloosa Horse Club ( ApHC ) was formed as the breed registry in 1938 . The modern breed maintains bloodlines tracing to the foundation bloodstock of the registry ; its partially open stud book allows the addition of some Thoroughbred , American Quarter Horse and Arabian blood .
Today , the Appaloosa is one of the most popular breeds in the United States ; it was named the official state horse of Idaho in 1975 . It is best known as a stock horse used in a number of western riding disciplines , but is also a versatile breed with representatives seen in many other types of equestrian activity . Appaloosas have been used in many movies ; an Appaloosa is the mascot for the Florida State Seminoles . Appaloosa bloodlines have influenced other horse breeds , including the Pony of the Americas , the Nez Perce Horse , and several gaited horse breeds .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The Appaloosa is best known for its distinctive , preferred leopard complex spotted coat . Spotting occurs in several overlay patterns on one of several recognized base coat colors . There are three other distinctive , " core " characteristics : mottled skin , striped hooves , and eyes with a white sclera . Skin mottling is usually seen around the muzzle , eyes , anus , and genitalia . Striped hooves are a common trait , quite noticeable on Appaloosas , but not unique to the breed . The sclera is the part of the eye surrounding the iris ; although all horses show white around the eye if the eye is rolled back , to have a readily visible white sclera with the eye in a normal position is a distinctive characteristic seen more often in Appaloosas than in other breeds . Because the occasional individual is born with little or no visible spotting pattern , the ApHC allows " regular " registration of horses with mottled skin plus at least one of the other core characteristics . Horses with two ApHC parents but no " identifiable Appaloosa characteristics " are registered as " non @-@ characteristic , " a limited special registration status .
There is a wide range of body types in the Appaloosa , in part because the leopard complex characteristics are its primary identifying factors , and also because several different horse breeds influenced its development . The weight range varies from 950 to 1 @,@ 250 pounds ( 430 to 570 kg ) , and heights from 14 to 16 hands ( 56 to 64 inches , 142 to 163 cm ) . However , the ApHC does not allow pony or draft breeding .
The original " old time " or " old type " Appaloosa was a tall , narrow @-@ bodied , rangy horse . The body style reflected a mix that started with the traditional Spanish horses already common on the plains of America before 1700 . Then , 18th @-@ century European bloodlines were added , particularly those of the " pied " horses popular in that period and shipped en masse to the Americas once the color had become unfashionable in Europe . These horses were similar to a tall , slim Thoroughbred @-@ Andalusian type of horse popular in Bourbon @-@ era Spain . The original Appaloosa tended to have a convex facial profile that resembled that of the warmblood @-@ Jennet crosses first developed in the 16th century during the reign of Charles V. The old @-@ type Appaloosa was later modified by the addition of draft horse blood after the 1877 defeat of the Nez Perce , when U.S. Government policy forced the Indians to become farmers and provided them with draft horse mares to breed to existing stallions . The original Appaloosas frequently had a sparse mane and tail , but that was not a primary characteristic as many early Appaloosas did have full manes and tails . There is a possible genetic link between the leopard complex and sparse mane and tail growth , although the precise relationship is unknown .
After the formation of the Appaloosa Horse Club in 1938 , a more modern type developed after the addition of American Quarter Horse and Arabian bloodlines . The addition of Quarter Horse lines produced Appaloosas that performed better in sprint racing and in halter competition . Many cutting and reining horses resulted from old @-@ type Appaloosas crossed on Arabian bloodlines , particularly via the Appaloosa foundation stallion Red Eagle . An infusion of Thoroughbred blood was added during the 1970s to produce horses more suited for racing . Many current breeders also attempt to breed away from the sparse , " rat tail " trait , and therefore modern Appaloosas have fuller manes and tails .
= = Color and spotting patterns = =
The coat color of an Appaloosa is a combination of a base color with an overlaid spotting pattern . The base colors recognized by the Appaloosa Horse Club include bay , black , chestnut , palomino , buckskin , cremello or perlino , roan , gray , dun and grulla . Appaloosa markings have several pattern variations . It is this unique group of spotting patterns , collectively called the " leopard complex " , that most people associate with the Appaloosa horse . Spots overlay darker skin , and are often surrounded by a " halo " , where the skin next to the spot is also dark but the overlying hair coat is white .
It is not always easy to predict a grown Appaloosa 's color at birth . Foals of any breed tend to be born with coats that darken when they shed their baby hair . In addition , Appaloosa foals do not always show classic leopard complex characteristics . Patterns sometimes change over the course of the horse 's life although some , such as the blanket and leopard patterns , tend to be stable . Horses with the varnish roan and snowflake patterns are especially prone to show very little color pattern at birth , developing more visible spotting as they get older .
The ApHC also recognizes the concept of a " solid " horse , which has a base color " but no contrasting color in the form of an Appaloosa coat pattern " . Solid horses can be registered if they have mottled skin and one other leopard complex characteristic .
Base colors are overlain by various spotting patterns , which are variable and often do not fit neatly into a specific category . These patterns are described as follows :
= = = Color genetics = = =
Any horse that shows Appaloosa core characteristics of coat pattern , mottled skin , striped hooves , and a visible white sclera , carries at least one allele of the dominant " leopard complex " ( LP ) gene . The use of the word " complex " is used to refer to the large group of visible patterns that may occur when LP is present . LP is an autosomal incomplete dominant mutation in the TRPM1 gene located at horse chromosome 1 ( ECA 1 ) . All horses with at least one copy of LP show leopard characteristics , and it is hypothesized that LP acts together with other patterning genes ( PATN ) that have not yet been identified to produce the different coat patterns . Horses that are heterozygous for LP tend to be darker than homozygous horses , but this is not consistent .
Three single @-@ nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs ) in the TRPM1 gene have been identified as closely associated with the LP mutation , although the mechanism by which the pattern is produced remains unclear . A commercially available DNA based test is likely to be developed in the near future , which breeders can use to determine if LP is present in horses that do not have visible Appaloosa characteristics .
Not every Appaloosa exhibits visible coat spotting , but even apparently solid @-@ colored horses that carry at least one dominant LP allele will exhibit characteristics such as vertically striped hooves , white sclera of the eye , and mottled skin around the eyes , lips , and genitalia . Appaloosas may also exhibit sabino or pinto type markings , but because pinto genes may cover @-@ up or obscure Appaloosa patterns , pinto breeding is discouraged by the ApHC , which will deny registration to horses with excessive white markings . The genes that create these different patterns can all be present in the same horse . The Appaloosa Project , a genetic study group , has researched the interactions of Appaloosa and pinto genes and how they affect each other .
= = History = =
Recent research has suggested that Eurasian prehistoric cave paintings depicting leopard @-@ spotted horses may have accurately reflected a phenotype of ancient wild horse . Domesticated horses with leopard complex spotting patterns have been depicted in art dating as far back as Ancient Greece , Ancient Persia , and the Han Dynasty in China ; later depictions appeared in 11th @-@ century France and 12th @-@ century England . French paintings from the 16th and 17th centuries show horses with spotted coats being used as riding horses , and other records indicate they were also used as coach horses at the court of Louis XIV of France . In mid @-@ 18th @-@ century Europe , there was a great demand for horses with the leopard complex spotting pattern among the nobility and royalty . These horses were used in the schools of horsemanship , for parade use , and other forms of display . Modern horse breeds in Europe today that have leopard complex spotting include the Knabstrupper and the Pinzgau , or Noriker horse .
The Spanish probably obtained spotted horses through trade with southern Austria and Hungary , where the color pattern was known to exist . The Conquistadors and Spanish settlers then brought some vividly marked horses to the Americas when they first arrived in the early 16th century . One horse with snowflake patterning was listed with the 16 horses brought to Mexico by Cortez , and additional spotted horses were mentioned by Spanish writers by 1604 . Others arrived in the western hemisphere when spotted horses went out of style in late 18th @-@ century Europe , and were shipped to Mexico , California and Oregon .
= = = Nez Perce people = = =
The Nez Perce people lived in what today is eastern Washington , Oregon , and western Idaho , where they engaged in agriculture as well as horse breeding . The Nez Perce first obtained horses from the Shoshone around 1730 . They took advantage of the fact that they lived in excellent horse @-@ breeding country , relatively safe from the raids of other tribes , and developed strict breeding selection practices for their animals , establishing breeding herds by 1750 . They were one of the few tribes that actively used the practice of gelding inferior male horses and trading away poorer stock to remove unsuitable animals from the gene pool , and thus were notable as horse breeders by the early 19th century .
Early Nez Perce horses were considered to be of high quality . Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition wrote in his February 15 , 1806 , journal entry : " Their horses appear to be of an excellent race ; they are lofty , eligantly [ sic ] formed , active and durable : in short many of them look like fine English coarsers [ sic ] and would make a figure in any country . " Lewis did note spotting patterns , saying , " ... some of these horses are pided [ pied ] with large spots of white irregularly scattered and intermixed with the black brown bey [ sic ] or some other dark colour " . By " pied " , Lewis may have been referring to leopard @-@ spotted patterns seen in the modern Appaloosa , though Lewis also noted that " much the larger portion are of a uniform colour " . The Appaloosa Horse Club estimates that only about ten percent of the horses owned by the Nez Perce at the time were spotted . While the Nez Perce originally had many solid @-@ colored horses and only began to emphasize color in their breeding some time after the visit of Lewis and Clark , by the late 19th century they had many spotted horses . As white settlers moved into traditional Nez Perce lands , a successful trade in horses enriched the Nez Perce , who in 1861 bred horses described as " elegant chargers , fit to mount a prince . " At a time when ordinary horses could be purchased for $ 15 , non @-@ Indians who had purchased Appaloosa horses from the Nez Perce turned down offers of as much as $ 600 .
= = = Nez Perce War = = =
Peace with the United States dated back to an alliance arranged by Lewis and Clark , but the encroachment of gold miners in the 1860s and settlers in the 1870s put pressure on the Nez Perce . Although a treaty of 1855 originally allowed them to keep most of their traditional land , another in 1863 reduced the land allotted to them by 90 percent . The Nez Perce who refused to give up their land under the 1863 treaty included a band living in the Wallowa Valley of Oregon , led by Heinmot Tooyalakekt , widely known as Chief Joseph . Tensions rose , and in May 1877 , General Oliver Howard called a council and ordered the non @-@ treaty bands to move to the reservation . Chief Joseph considered military resistance futile , and by June 14 , 1877 , had gathered about 600 people at a site near present @-@ day Grangeville , Idaho . But on that day a small group of warriors staged an attack on nearby white settlers , which led to the Nez Perce War . After several small battles in Idaho , more than 800 Nez Perce , mostly non @-@ warriors , took 2000 head of various livestock including horses and fled into Montana , then traveled southeast , dipping into Yellowstone National Park . A small number of Nez Perce fighters , probably fewer than 200 , successfully held off larger forces of the U.S. Army in several skirmishes , including the two @-@ day Battle of the Big Hole in southwestern Montana . They then moved northeast and attempted to seek refuge with the Crow Nation ; rebuffed , they headed for safety in Canada .
Throughout this journey of about 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 300 km ) the Nez Perce relied heavily on their fast , agile and hardy Appaloosa horses . The journey came to an end when they stopped to rest near the Bears Paw Mountains in Montana , 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the Canadian border . Unbeknownst to the Nez Perce , Colonel Nelson A. Miles had led an infantry @-@ cavalry column from Fort Keogh in pursuit . On October 5 , 1877 , after a five @-@ day fight , Joseph surrendered . The battle — and the war — was over . With most of the war chiefs dead , and the noncombatants cold and starving , Joseph declared that he would " fight no more forever " .
= = = Aftermath of the Nez Perce War = = =
When the U.S. 7th Cavalry accepted the surrender of Chief Joseph and the remaining Nez Perce , they immediately took more than 1 @,@ 000 of the tribe 's horses , sold what they could and shot many of the rest . But a significant population of horses had been left behind in the Wallowa valley when the Nez Perce began their retreat , and additional animals escaped or were abandoned along the way . The Nez Perce were ultimately settled on reservation lands in north central Idaho , were allowed few horses , and were required by the Army to crossbreed to draft horses in an attempt to create farm horses . The Nez Perce tribe never regained its former position as breeders of Appaloosas . In the late 20th century , they began a program to develop a new horse breed , the Nez Perce horse , with the intent to resurrect their horse culture , tradition of selective breeding , and horsemanship .
Although a remnant population of Appaloosa horses remained after 1877 , they were virtually forgotten as a distinct breed for almost 60 years . A few quality horses continued to be bred , mostly those captured or purchased by settlers and used as working ranch horses . Others were used in circuses and related forms of entertainment , such as Buffalo Bill 's Wild West Show . The horses were originally called " Palouse horses " by settlers , a reference to the Palouse River that ran through the heart of what was once Nez Perce country . Gradually , the name evolved into " Apalouse " , and then " Appaloosa " . Other early variations of the name included " Appalucy " , " Apalousey " and " Appaloosie " . In one 1948 book , the breed was called the " Opelousa horse " , described as a " hardy tough breed of Indian and Spanish horse " used by backwoodsmen of the late 18th century to transport goods to New Orleans for sale . By the 1950s , " Appaloosa " was regarded as the correct spelling .
= = = Revitalization = = =
The Appaloosa came to the attention of the general public in January 1937 in Western Horseman magazine when Francis D. Haines , a history professor from Lewiston , Idaho , published an article describing the breed 's history and urging its preservation . Haines had performed extensive research , traveling with a friend and Appaloosa aficionado named George Hatley , visiting numerous Nez Perce villages , collecting history , and taking photographs . The article generated strong interest in the horse breed , and led to the founding of the Appaloosa Horse Club ( ApHC ) by Claude Thompson and a small group of other dedicated breeders in 1938 . The registry was originally housed in Moro , Oregon ; but in 1947 the organization moved to Moscow , Idaho , under the leadership of George Hatley . The Appaloosa Museum foundation was formed in 1975 to preserve the history of the Appaloosa horse . The Western Horseman magazine , and particularly its longtime publisher , Dick Spencer , continued to support and promote the breed through many subsequent articles .
A significant crossbreeding influence used to revitalize the Appaloosa was the Arabian horse , as evidenced by early registration lists that show Arabian @-@ Appaloosa crossbreeds as ten of the first fifteen horses registered with the ApHC . For example , one of Claude Thompson 's major herd sires was Ferras , an Arabian stallion bred by W.K. Kellogg from horses imported from the Crabbet Arabian Stud of England . Ferras sired Red Eagle , a prominent Appaloosa stallion added to the Appaloosa Hall of Fame in 1988 . Later , Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse lines were added , as well as crosses from other breeds , including Morgans and Standardbreds . In 1983 the ApHC reduced the number of allowable outcrosses to three main breeds : the Arabian horse , the American Quarter Horse and the Thoroughbred .
By 1978 the ApHC was the third largest horse registry for light horse breeds . From 1938 to 2007 more than 670 @,@ 000 Appaloosas were registered by the ApHC . The state of Idaho adopted the Appaloosa as its official state horse on March 25 , 1975 , when Idaho Governor Cecil Andrus signed the enabling legislation . Idaho offers a custom license plate featuring an Appaloosa horse , the first state to offer a plate featuring a state horse .
= = Registration = =
Located in Moscow , Idaho , the ApHC is the principal body for the promotion and preservation of the Appaloosa breed and is an international organization . Affiliate Appaloosa organizations exist in many South American and European countries , as well as South Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Canada , Mexico and Israel . The Appaloosa Horse Club has 33 @,@ 000 members as of 2010 , circulation of the Appaloosa Journal , which is included with most types of membership , was at 32 , ; 00 in 2008 . The American Appaloosa Association was founded in 1983 by members opposed to the registration of plain @-@ colored horses , as a result of the color rule controversy . Based in Missouri , it has a membership of more than 2 @,@ 000 as of 2008 . Other " Appaloosa " registries have been founded for horses with leopard complex genetics that are not affiliated with the ApHC . These registries tend to have different foundation breeding and histories than the North American Appaloosa . The ApHC is by far the largest Appaloosa horse registry , and it hosts one of the world 's largest breed shows .
The Appaloosa is " a breed defined by ApHC bloodline requirements and preferred characteristics , including coat pattern " . In other words , the Appaloosa is a distinct breed from limited bloodlines with distinct physical traits and a desired color , referred to as a " color preference " . Appaloosas are not strictly a " color breed " . All ApHC @-@ registered Appaloosas must be the offspring of two registered Appaloosa parents or a registered Appaloosa and a horse from an approved breed registry , which includes Arabian horses , Quarter Horses , and Thoroughbreds . In all cases , one parent must always be a regular registered Appaloosa . The only exception to the bloodline requirements is in the case of Appaloosa @-@ colored geldings or spayed mares with unknown pedigrees ; owners may apply for " hardship registration " for these non @-@ breeding horses . The ApHC does not accept horses with draft , pony , Pinto , or Paint breeding , and requires mature Appaloosas to stand , unshod , at least 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) . If a horse has excessive white markings not associated with the Appaloosa pattern ( such as those characteristic of a pinto ) it cannot be registered unless it is verified through DNA testing that both parents have ApHC registration .
Certain other characteristics are used to determine if a horse receives " regular " registration : striped hooves , white sclera visible when the eye is in a normal position , and mottled ( spotted ) skin around the eyes , lips , and genitalia . As the Appaloosa is one of the few horse breeds to exhibit skin mottling , this characteristic " ... is a very basic and decisive indication of an Appaloosa . " Appaloosas born with visible coat pattern , or mottled skin and at least one other characteristic , are registered with " regular " papers and have full show and breeding privileges . A horse that meets bloodline requirements but is born without the recognized color pattern and characteristics can still be registered with the ApHC as a " non @-@ characteristic " Appaloosa . These solid @-@ colored , " non @-@ characteristic " Appaloosas may not be shown at ApHC events unless the owner verifies the parentage through DNA testing and pays a supplementary fee to enter the horse into the ApHC 's Performance Permit Program ( PPP ) . Solid @-@ colored Appaloosas are restricted in breeding .
= = = Color rule controversy = = =
During the 1940s and 1950s , when both the Appaloosa Horse Club ( ApHC ) and the American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) were in their formative years , minimally marked or roan Appaloosas were sometimes used in Quarter Horse breeding programs . At the same time , it was noted that two solid @-@ colored registered Quarter Horse parents would sometimes produce what Quarter Horse aficionados call a " cropout " , a foal with white coloration similar to that of an Appaloosa or Pinto . For a considerable time , until DNA testing could verify parentage , the AQHA refused to register such horses . The ApHC did accept cropout horses that exhibited proper Appaloosa traits , while cropout pintos became the core of the American Paint Horse Association . Famous Appaloosas who were cropouts included Colida , Joker B , Bright Eyes Brother and Wapiti .
In the late 1970s , the color controversy went in the opposite direction within the Appaloosa registry . The ApHC 's decision in 1982 to allow solid @-@ colored or " non @-@ characteristic " Appaloosas to be registered resulted in substantial debate within the Appaloosa breeding community . Until then , a foal of Appaloosa parents that had insufficient color was often denied registration , although non @-@ characteristic Appaloosas were allowed into the registry . But breeder experience had shown that some solid Appaloosas could throw a spotted foal in a subsequent generation , at least when bred to a spotted Appaloosa . In addition , many horses with a solid coat exhibited secondary characteristics such as skin mottling , the white sclera , and striped hooves . The controversy stirred by the ApHC 's decision was intense . In 1983 a number of Appaloosa breeders opposed to the registration of solid @-@ colored horses formed the American Appaloosa Association , a breakaway organization .
= = Uses = =
Appaloosas are used extensively for both Western and English riding . Western competitions include cutting , reining , roping and O @-@ Mok @-@ See sports such as barrel racing ( known as the Camas Prairie Stump Race in Appaloosa @-@ only competition ) and pole bending ( called the Nez Percé Stake Race at breed shows ) . English disciplines they are used in include eventing , show jumping , and fox hunting . They are common in endurance riding competitions , as well as in casual trail riding . Appaloosas are also bred for horse racing , with an active breed racing association promoting the sport . They are generally used for middle @-@ distance racing at distances between 350 yards ( 320 m ) and 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) ; an Appaloosa holds the all @-@ breed record for the 4 @.@ 5 furlongs ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ; 910 m ) distance , set in 1989 .
Appaloosas are often used in Western movies and television series . Examples include " Cojo Rojo " in the Marlon Brando film The Appaloosa , " Zip Cochise " ridden by John Wayne in the 1966 film El Dorado and " Cowboy " , the mount of Matt Damon in True Grit . An Appaloosa horse is part of the controversial mascot team for the Florida State Seminoles , Chief Osceola and Renegade , even though the Seminole people were not directly associated with Appaloosa horses .
= = = Influence = = =
There are several American horse breeds with leopard coloring and Appaloosa ancestry . These include the Pony of the Americas and the Colorado Ranger . Appaloosas are crossbred with gaited horse breeds in an attempt to create a leopard @-@ spotted ambling horse . Because such crossbred offspring are not eligible for ApHC registration , their owners have formed breed registries for horses with leopard complex patterns and gaited ability . In 1995 the Nez Perce tribe began a program to develop a new and distinct horse breed , the Nez Perce Horse , based on crossbreeding the Appaloosa with the Akhal @-@ Teke breed from Central Asia . Appaloosa stallions have been exported to Denmark , to add new blood to the Knabstrup breed .
= = Health issues = =
= = = Genetically linked blindness = = =
Appaloosas have an eightfold greater risk of developing Equine Recurrent Uveitis ( ERU ) than all other breeds combined . Up to 25 percent of all horses with ERU may be Appaloosas . Uveitis in horses has many causes , including eye trauma , disease , and bacterial , parasitic and viral infections , but ERU is characterized by recurring episodes of uveitis , rather than a single incident . If not treated , ERU can lead to blindness , which occurs more often in Appaloosas than in other breeds . Eighty percent of all uveitis cases are found in Appaloosas with physical characteristics including roan or light @-@ colored coat patterns , little pigment around the eyelids and sparse hair in the mane and tail denoting the most at @-@ risk individuals . Researchers may have identified a gene region containing an allele that makes the breed more susceptible to the disease .
Appaloosas that are homozygous for the leopard complex ( LP ) gene are also at risk for congenital stationary night blindness ( CSNB ) . This form of night blindness has been linked with the leopard complex since the 1970s , and in 2007 a " significant association " between LP and CSNB was identified . CSNB is a disorder that causes an affected animal to lack night vision , although day vision is normal . It is an inherited disorder , present from birth , and does not progress over time . Studies in 2008 and 2010 indicate that both CSNB and leopard complex spotting patterns are linked to TRPM1 .
= = = Drug rules = = =
In 2007 the ApHC implemented new drug rules allowing Appaloosas to show with the drugs furosemide , known by the trade name of Lasix , and acetazolamide . Furosemide is used to prevent horses who bleed from the nose when subjected to strenuous work from having bleeding episodes when in competition , and is widely used in horse racing . Acetazolamide ( " Acet " ) is used for treating horses with the genetic disease hyperkalemic periodic paralysis ( HYPP ) , and prevents affected animals from having seizures . Acet is only allowed for horses that test positive for HYPP and have HYPP status noted on their registration papers . The ApHC recommends that Appaloosas that trace to certain American Quarter Horse bloodlines be tested for HYPP , and owners have the option to choose to place HYPP testing results on registration papers . Foals of AQHA @-@ registered stallions and mares born on or after January 1 , 2007 that carry HYPP will be required to be HYPP tested and have their HYPP status designated on their registration papers .
Both drugs are controversial , in part because they are considered drug maskers and diuretics that can make it difficult to detect the presence of other drugs in the horse 's system . On one side , it is argued that the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) , which sponsors show competition for many different horse breeds , and the International Federation for Equestrian Sports ( FEI ) , which governs international and Olympic equestrian competition , ban the use of furosemide . On the other side of the controversy , several major stock horse registries that sanction their own shows , including the American Quarter Horse Association , American Paint Horse Association , and the Palomino Horse Breeders of America , allow acetazolamide and furosemide to be used within 24 hours of showing under certain circumstances .
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= Abantiades latipennis =
Abantiades latipennis , known as the Pindi moth , is a species of moth in the Hepialidae family . It may also be referred to as a swift moth or a ghost moth , as this is a common name associated with Hepialidae . Endemic to Australia and identified in 1932 , it is most populous in temperate rainforest where eucalypti are prevalent , as the larvae feed primarily on the roots of these trees . Females lay eggs during flight in a scattering fashion . The larvae live for over eighteen months underground , while adult moths survive for approximately one week , as they have no mouthparts with which to feed . The moths are preyed upon by a number of predators , including bats and owls . Brown in colour overall , males are paler and the identifying silver bars of the male 's wings are more prominent than those of the female 's , with dark margins . Male adults are generally smaller .
Established clearfelling practices have been shown to favour the Pindi moth , and could lead to it being considered a pest due to opportunistic proliferation of the species . The resulting damage caused to the trees on which it feeds may be considered significant .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Abantiades latipennis is one of fourteen species currently identified within the genus Abantiades , all of which are found exclusively in Australia . The species was first described in 1932 by Norman Tindale , an Australian entomologist and anthropologist . Tindale described the species , under its current name , but provided no etymology for the specific epithet latipennis . He based the species description on specimens from Lorne ( including the holotype male and allotype female ) , Pomonal and Mount Mistake ( in the Langi Ghiran State Park ) , Victoria , and from Zeehan , Eaglehawk Neck and Launceston , Tasmania .
Being a member of the Hepialiade family , A. latipennis is considered phylogenetically primitive , possessing several features that are indicative of earlier evolutionary development . The jugum on the forewings of the adult is an archaic wing coupling mechanism ; further primitive characteristics include , as adults , the lack of mouthparts , large spacing between the fore- and hindwings , and the arrangement of the female genitalia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
A. latipennis is endemic to the Australasian region . More specifically , the moths inhabit New South Wales , Tasmania , Victoria , and Australian Capital Territory . As with other Abantiades species , the moth 's habitat is temperate rainforest , both primary and secondary . During its larval stage , the moth feeds on the roots of trees , and its prospering is thought to have an economic impact on the timber industry .
= = Life cycle and behaviour = =
Female moths " lay " their eggs by scattering them during flight ; up to 10 @,@ 000 eggs are released at once . Larvae then hatch from the eggs in the leaf litter on the forest floor and begin tunnelling , in search of suitable host roots . The number of instars and the period of the larval stage is yet unknown , with field observations suggesting a larval stage of more than eighteen months .
The phytophagous larvae of A. latipennis feed primarily on the root systems of two species of tree , Eucalyptus obliqua ( messmate stringybark ) and Eucalyptus regnans ( mountain ash ) . Both of these species are present in old growth forests and dominant in regrowth forests , contributing to the moth 's success in its own habitat . Forming simple and vertical tunnels , lined with silk , the caterpillars are subterranean before and during pupation , emerging for their metamorphosis . The tunnel entrances , 6 to 10 millimetres in diameter , are covered with silk webbing and leaf litter , and can be up to 60 centimetres ( 2 ft ) deep , although depth is more usually 12 to 35 cm .
By chewing the tap and lateral roots of trees , caterpillars feed on the cambium growth , produced by the tree at the site of the injury . The larvae may girdle a root , thereby causing its death , or the lesions may be only partial , allowing the root to continue functioning , albeit with some deformity .
The subterranean habitat of the larvae generally provides protection from predation , but the larvae are sometimes parasitised by tachina flies . The parasitoid larvae of the tachinid Rutilotrixa diversa , usually hosted by scarab beetles , have been discovered infecting A. latipennis .
Adult A. latipennis are crepuscular and males are strongly attracted to lights , forming leks at dusk , most notably after rains in autumn and late summer . Females use pheromones to attract males for mating . As a primitive species , they lack mouthparts as adults and are therefore unable to feed . Their lifespan as winged creatures is understandably short , lasting approximately a week , barring predation . Predation is commonly by bats , owls , and possums , though several other animals , from spiders to cats , occasionally consume them and contribute to the brief lifespan of the metamorphosed moths .
= = Ecology = =
As part of a study measuring the impact that the practice of clearfelling has on biodiversity in the Weld Valley of Tasmania , it was found that A. latipennis was one of the few species that thrived in regrowth forests that were previously clearfelled . An earlier study , conducted in other regions of southern Tasmania , examined the relationship between the moth and Eucalyptus regnans and E. obliqua and reached the same conclusion . The tunnelling and feeding habit of A. latipennis larvae on the roots of these two eucalypt species is mostly responsible for its abundance in clearfelled forests , as the trees are the typical regrowth of logged areas . This success may also be due in part to the caterpillar 's lack of dependence on decaying vegetation , a characteristic of the Abantiades genus and dissimilar to other Tasmanian genera — such as Eudonia and Barea — that have not fared as well in clearfelled forest .
The crowns of the eucalypts infected by A. latipennis have exhibited no consistent indication of root disturbance , with most trees studied appearing healthy and of average size for secondary forest . E. regnans and E. obliqua have demonstrated slow growth in regrowth stands , but this tendency has been attributed to significant root and crown competition . Some trees appeared chlorotic ( a yellowing effect in plants , caused by a reduction in chlorophyll ) , but this was not a reliable indicator of root infestation , and may be the result of other influences . Well @-@ established clearfelling practices in Tasmania could exacerbate the favouring of this species , and its proliferation could lead to extensive eucalypt damage and pest concerns , though the potential effect of this threat is as yet undetermined .
Lesions on the roots caused by the larval feeding provide ideal sites for the establishment of root rot @-@ causing fungi , once the larvae depart the root system for pupation . Areas on the roots with past feeding damage were found to have Armillaria sp. flourishing in the lesions . In rarer cases , the pathogen Perenniporia medulla @-@ panis was also found attacking the roots at the damaged locations . Other cases of decay and discolouration were noted , but attributed to unidentified microorganisms .
= = Morphology and identification = =
A. latipennis larvae vary in size and colour during growth , but can be grouped small and large . The small caterpillars are generally 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 inches ) long and an overall milky grey , with a light brown head capsule that is about 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) wide . Large caterpillars may be milky grey or a dark green @-@ brown , 60 to 90 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 5 in ) long , with a 6 to 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 to 0 @.@ 35 in ) wide brown head capsule .
Females are larger than males , with the wingspan of the male adult approximately 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . A female specimen collected in 1979 had a wingspan of 108 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) , but Tindale recorded female wingspans at 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in 1932 . The forewings of both males and females feature silvery @-@ white bars , although the bars of the male moth 's wings are more prominent and with dark margins . The female 's body colour is usually a darker brown than the male 's pale brown , as noted by Tindale , although a grey @-@ brown female was collected in 1979 .
Hepialidae have short , pectinate antennae and , unusually primitive for Lepidoptera , lack a functional proboscis or retinaculum and are therefore non @-@ feeding . The moths possess several other morphological features that are considered phylogenetically primitive . The gap between the fore- and hindwing is distinct and the wings are covered in scale @-@ like hairs . At the base of the forewing is a jugum , a small lobe that joins the fore- and hindwings during flight . In females , the configuration of the genitalia is exoporian , typified by an external groove along which spermatophores are transferred after mating , from the copulatory opening ( the ostium bursae ) , to the ovipore for fertilisation .
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= Bayan @-@ class cruiser =
The Bayan class was a group of four armored cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy around the beginning of the 20th century . Two of the ships were built in France , as Russian shipyards had no spare capacity . The lead ship , Bayan , was built several years earlier than the later three . The ship participated in several of the early naval battles of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , and provided naval gunfire support for the Imperial Russian Army until she struck a mine . Bayan was trapped in harbor during the subsequent Siege of Port Arthur , and was sunk by Japanese artillery . She was salvaged and put into service with the Imperial Japanese Navy with the name of Aso . She mostly served as a training ship before she was converted into a minelayer in 1920 . The ship was sunk as a target in 1932 .
Her three sisters were all assigned to the Baltic Fleet . Pallada was the first ship lost by the Russians during World War I when she was sunk by a German submarine in October 1914 . The two surviving ships were modified to lay mines , and participated in the Battle of Åland Islands in 1915 and the German invasion of the Estonian islands in 1917 . They were decommissioned in 1918 and sold for scrap in 1922 .
= = Background = =
The Bayan class marked a departure from the previous Russian armored cruisers , as they were smaller ships designed to serve as scouts for the fleet rather than as commerce raiders . Authorized in the 1896 – 1902 building program , the design was outsourced to a French shipyard , Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée , because Russian shipyards were already at full capacity . Negotiations began in March 1897 , and a contract was signed in May 1898 for one ship with delivery in 36 months .
The Navy was reasonably pleased with the first ship , Bayan , and decided to order another cruiser after the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 . Russian shipyards were still unavailable , so the Navy decided to simply order a repeat with minor modifications based on war experience . This was an attempt to minimize the work load on the Naval Technical Committee ( Morskoi tekhnicheskii komitet ) , but they proved to require more attention than planned and a contract was not signed until 20 April 1905 . The contract specified that all drawings would be turned over to allow for the construction of two identical ships in St. Petersburg , using newly available slipways . These changes generally added weight and the armor was reduced in thickness to compensate , although the change from Harvey armor to more resistant Krupp armor meant that there was little actual loss in protection .
= = Description = =
The Bayan @-@ class ships were 449 feet 7 inches ( 137 @.@ 0 m ) long overall and 443 feet ( 135 @.@ 0 m ) between perpendiculars . They had a maximum beam of 57 feet 6 inches ( 17 @.@ 5 m ) , a draft of 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) and displaced 7 @,@ 750 – 7 @,@ 802 long tons ( 7 @,@ 874 – 7 @,@ 927 t ) . The ships had a crew of 573 officers and men .
They had two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft , using steam provided by 26 Belleville boilers . Designed for a total of 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) intended to propel the cruisers at 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , the engines actually developed 17 @,@ 400 – 19 @,@ 320 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 980 – 14 @,@ 410 kW ) during their sea trials and drove the ships to maximum speeds of 20 @.@ 9 – 22 @.@ 55 knots ( 38 @.@ 71 – 41 @.@ 76 km / h ; 24 @.@ 05 – 25 @.@ 95 mph ) . They could carry a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 118 – 1 @,@ 219 t ) of coal , which gave the first Bayan a range of 3 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 200 km ; 4 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the Bayan @-@ class ships consisted of two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in single @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The guns fired a 194 @-@ pound ( 87 @.@ 8 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 891 m / s ) . At an elevation of + 15 ° , they had a range of 12 @,@ 208 yards ( 11 @,@ 163 m ) . The ships ' eight 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Canet Model 1891 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns were mounted in casemates on the sides of the ship 's hull . They fired shells that weighed 91 pounds ( 41 @.@ 4 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 792 @.@ 5 m / s ) . They had a range of 12 @,@ 602 yards ( 11 @,@ 523 m ) when fired at an elevation of + 20 ° .
A number of smaller guns were carried for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . These included twenty 50 @-@ caliber 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Model 1891 QF guns . Eight of these were mounted in casemates in the side of the hull and in the superstructure . The remaining guns were located above the 6 @-@ inch gun casemates in pivot mounts with gun shields . The gun fired 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 91 kg ) shells to a range of about 8 @,@ 606 yards ( 7 @,@ 869 m ) , at an elevation of + 20 ° degrees with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 830 ft / s ( 862 m / s ) . The Bayan class also mounted eight ( Bayan ) or four 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns in the three later ships . They fired a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell . In addition , Bayan was fitted with two 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns that fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 540 ft / s ( 470 m / s ) .
Bayan was equipped with two submerged 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside , while those of the three later ships were 18 inches ( 457 mm ) in size .
= = = Protection = = =
The waterline belt of the Bayan @-@ class ships was 6 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 – 200 mm ) thick over her machinery spaces . Fore and aft , it reduced to 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 inches ( 90 – 100 mm ) . The upper armor strake and the armor protecting the casemates was 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 60 mm ) thick . The thickness of the armored deck was 2 inches ( 50 mm ) ; over the central battery it was a single plate , but elsewhere it consisted of a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 30 mm ) plate over two 0 @.@ 39 @-@ inch ( 10 mm ) plates . The gun turret sides were protected by 5 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 9 inches ( 132 – 150 mm ) of armor and their roofs were 1 @.@ 2 inches thick . The barbettes were protected by armor plates 6 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 170 mm ) thick . The sides of the conning tower were 5 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 136 – 160 mm ) thick .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Bayan was assigned to the First Pacific Squadron after completion , and based at Port Arthur from the end of 1903 . She suffered minor damage during the Battle of Port Arthur at the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and participated in the action of 13 April 1904 , when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships , he turned back for Port Arthur , and Petropavlovsk struck a minefield and quickly sank after a mine detonated one of her magazines . After bombarding Imperial Japanese Army positions on 27 July , Bayan struck a mine and was under repair for the next month or so . She was subsequently trapped in Port Arthur and sunk at her mooring by Japanese howitzer shells on 8 December .
The ship was refloated by Japanese engineers the following year ; repairs , re @-@ boilering , and the replacement of her armament with Japanese weapons took until 1908 to complete . Renamed Aso in Japanese service , she initially served as a training ship before she was converted into a minelayer in 1920 . Aso was decommissioned on 1 April 1930 and renamed Hai Kan No. 4 . She was sunk as a target on 4 August 1932 by two submarine torpedoes .
All three of the later ships were assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion , although Admiral Makarov was detached to the Mediterranean several times before the start of World War I in 1914 . During the first month of the war , Pallada captured codebooks from the German cruiser Magdeburg that had run aground . She was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U @-@ 26 on 11 October 1914 and was lost with all hands . Her wreck was discovered in 2000 .
The surviving sisters were modified to lay mines shortly after the war began . They laid mines themselves during the war and provided cover for other ships laying minefields . Admiral Makarov and Bayan fought several inconclusive battles with German ships during the war , including the Battle of Åland Islands in mid – 1915 , and they also defended Moon Sound during the German invasion of the Estonian islands in late 1917 , where Bayan was badly damaged . Their 75 mm guns were removed in 1916 – 17 and replaced by one 8 @-@ inch and four 6 @-@ inch guns . A pair of anti @-@ aircraft guns were also added . Admiral Makarov was in Helsingfors when Finland declared independence in March 1918 , and was forced to evacuate even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . She reached Kronstadt after what became known as the " Ice Voyage " . The sisters were decommissioned in 1918 and sold for scrap in 1922 .
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= Lê Duẩn =
Lê Duẩn ( 7 April 1907 – 10 July 1986 ) was a Vietnamese communist politician . He rose in the party hierarchy in the late 1950s and became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam ( VCP ) at the 3rd National Congress in 1960 . He continued Hồ Chí Minh 's policy of ruling through collective leadership . From the mid @-@ 1960s , when Hồ 's health was failing , until his own death in 1986 , he was the top decision @-@ maker in Vietnam .
He was born into a lower @-@ class family in Quảng Trị Province , in the southern part of French Indochina as Lê Văn Nhuận . Little is known about his family and childhood . He first came in contact with Marxist literature in the 1920s through his work as a railway clerk . Lê Duẩn was a founding member of the Indochina Communist Party ( the future Communist Party of Vietnam ) in 1930 . He was imprisoned in 1931 and released in 1937 . From 1937 to 1939 he climbed the party ladder . He was rearrested in 1939 , this time for fomenting an uprising in the South . Lê Duẩn was released from jail following the successful communist @-@ led August Revolution .
During the First Indochina War , Lê Duẩn was an active communist cadre in the South . He headed the Central Office of South Vietnam , a party organ , from 1951 until 1954 . During the 1950s Lê Duẩn became increasingly aggressive towards the South and called for reunification through war . By the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1950s Lê Duẩn had become the second @-@ most powerful policy @-@ maker within the Party , eclipsing former party First Secretary Trường Chinh . By 1960 , he was officially the second @-@ most powerful party member , after party chairman Hồ . Throughout the 1960s Hồ 's health declined and Lê Duẩn assumed more of his responsibilities . On 2 September 1969 , Hồ died and Lê Duẩn became the most powerful figure in the North .
Throughout the Vietnam War , Lê Duẩn took an aggressive posture . He saw attack as the key to victory . When the North finally won the war in 1975 , Lê Duẩn and his associates were overly optimistic about the future . The Second Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1976 – 1980 ) was a failure and left the Vietnamese economy in crisis . Vietnam was then headed by a gerontocracy ( in which the rulers are much older than the average adult ) . Vietnam became internationally isolated during Lê Duẩn 's rule . In 1979 the country had invaded Kampuchea and ousted Pol Pot , fought a war with China and became dependent on Soviet economic aid . Lê Duẩn died in 1986 and was succeeded by Trường Chinh in July .
= = Early life and career = =
Lê Duẩn was born in Dai Hao village , Quảng Trị Province on 7 April 1907 ( although some sources cite 1908 ) as Lê Văn Nhuận . Little is known about his family and youth.Locals from his generation say that Duan 's parents were metal scrap collectors and blacksmiths . The son of a railway clerk , he became active in revolutionary politics as a young man . He received a French colonial education before working as a clerk for the Vietnam Railway Company in Hanoi during the 1920s . Through his job , he came into contact with several communists . In this period he became a Marxist .
Lê Duẩn became a member of the Revolutionary Youth League in 1928 . He cofounded the Indochina Communist Party in 1930 . Lê Duẩn was imprisoned the next year . He was released six years later , in 1937 . From 1937 to 1939 he advanced in the party hierarchy and at the 2nd National Congress , he joined its Central Committee . He was imprisoned again the following year for fomenting an uprising . After five years he was released , shortly after the 1945 August Revolution , in which the Indochinese Communist Party took power . Following his release , he became a trusted associate of Hồ Chí Minh , the leading Vietnamese communist .
During the First Indochina War Lê Duẩn served as the Secretary of the Regional Committee of South Vietnam , at first in Cochinchina in 1946 , but was reassigned to head the Central Office of South Vietnam from 1951 until 1954 . The Viet Minh 's position in the South became increasingly tenuous by the early to mid @-@ 1950s and in 1953 Lê Duẩn was replaced by his deputy Lê Đức Thọ and moved to North Vietnam .
= = = The road to the South = = =
In the aftermath of the 1954 Geneva Accords , which indirectly split Vietnam into North and South , Lê Duẩn was responsible for reorganising the combatants who had fought in South and Central Vietnam . In 1956 , he wrote " The Road to the South " , calling for a non violent revolution to achieve reunification . His thesis became the blueprint for action at the 11th Central Committee Plenum in 1956 . Although " The Road to the South " was formally accepted , its implementation waited until 1959 .
In 1956 Lê Duẩn was appointed to the Secretariat . Lê Duẩn was ordered by the Politburo in August 1956 to guide the revolutionary struggle in South Vietnam . The same month he traveled from U Minh to Bến Tre and instructed the southern communists to stop fighting in the name of religious sects . Throughout the year , the party had been split by factional rivalry between party boss Trường Chinh and President Hồ , who was supported by Võ Nguyên Giáp . This rivalry focused on the issue of land reform in the North . Lê Duẩn remained neutral , allowing him to act as the First Secretary ( head of the Communist Party ) on Hồ 's behalf in late 1956 . In 1957 , he was given a seat in the Politburo .
At the 1957 May Day parade , Trường Chinh was still seated as the country 's second most powerful figure . Lê Duẩn was gradually able to place his supporters , notably Lê Ðức Thọ , in top positions and outmaneuver his rivals . He visited Moscow in November 1957 and received approval for his war plans . In December 1957 , Hồ told the 13th Plenary Session of a " dual revolution " ; Trường Chinh became responsible for the socialist transformation of the north , while Lê Duẩn focused on planning the offensive in the south .
By 1958 , Lê Duẩn ranked second only to Hồ in the party hierarchy , although Trường Chinh remained powerful . Lê Duẩn was a party man and never held a post in the government . He made a brief , secret visit to South Vietnam in 1958 , writing a report , The Path to Revolution in the South , in which he stated that the North Vietnamese had to do more to assist the southern fighters . The Central Committee decided to initiate the revolution in January 1959 .
= = = First Secretary = = =
Lê Duẩn was informally chosen as the party 's First Secretary ( later known as the General Secretary ) by Hồ in 1959 , at the January plenum of the Central Committee and was elected to the post de jure at the 3rd National Congress . Lê Duẩn was not Hồ 's original choice for First Secretary according to Bùi Tín ; his preferred candidate was Võ Nguyên Giáp , but since Lê Duẩn was supported by the influential Lê Đức Thọ , the Head of the Party Organisational Department , Lê Duẩn was picked for the post . Lê Duẩn was considered a safe choice because of his time in prison during French rule , his thesis The Road to the South and his strong belief in Vietnamese reunification . Hoàng Văn Hoan claimed , after being sent into exile , that the 3rd National Congress also purged several party members . Indeed , three former ambassadors lost their Central Committee seats .
= = General Secretaryship = =
= = = Political infighting and power = = =
Lê Duẩn was officially named party leader in 1960 , leaving Hồ a figurehead . Hồ maintained influence in the government : Lê Duẩn , Tố Hữu , Trường Chinh and Phạm Văn Đồng often shared dinner with him . Later , throughout and after the war , they all remained important figures . In 1963 , Hồ purportedly corresponded with South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm in the hope of achieving a negotiated peace . Together with Lê Đức Thọ , Head of the Party Organisational Department and Nguyễn Chí Thanh , a military general , Lê Duẩn tried to monopolise the decision @-@ making process – this became even more evident following Hồ 's death . In 1964 , Hồ 's health began to fail and Lê Duẩn , as his trusted underling , more visibly took on day @-@ to @-@ day decision @-@ making responsibilities . Some analysts claim that by 1965 Hồ and Lê Duẩn had split and that " for all intents and purposes " Lê Duẩn had sidelined Hồ . Lê Duẩn , Lê Đức Thọ and Phạm Hùng " progressively tried to neutralise Hồ Chí Minh " and Phạm Văn Đồng .
By the late @-@ 1960s , Hồ 's declining health had weakened his position within the leadership . While Hồ was still consulted on important decisions , Lê Duẩn dominated the party . When Hồ died on 2 September 1969 , the collective leadership he had espoused continued , but Lê Duẩn was first among equals . The Central Committee 's first resolution following Hồ 's death pledged to uphold the collective leadership . Lê Duẩn chaired Hồ 's funeral committee and gave the event 's final speech .
From the beginning the party leadership had split into pro @-@ Soviet , pro @-@ Chinese and moderate factions . Under Hồ the party had followed a policy of neutrality between the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China in the aftermath of the Sino – Soviet split . This policy continued until reunification . In the aftermath of the war , a power struggle began between Lê Duẩn 's pro @-@ Soviet and its rival pro @-@ Chinese factions . Former rivals Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ formed a coalition and purged the pro @-@ Chinese faction . Their first victims were Hoàng Văn Hoan and Chu Văn Tấn . While the Politburo made decisions through consensus , Lê Duẩn , through his post as General Secretary , was the most powerful figure and was able to increase his power via his alliance with Lê Đức Thọ , Trần Quốc Hoàn and Võ Nguyên Giáp . Together with Lê Đức Thọ , Lê Duẩn controlled personnel appointments in the Ministry of Internal Affairs , the State Planning Commission , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the General Political Directorate of the Vietnam People 's Army ( VPA ) , the General Logistics Department of the VPA and the Ministry of Transport .
To strengthen their hold on power , Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ established a patronage network . For instance Lê Đức Thọ 's brother , Đinh Đức Thiện was appointed Minister of Communications and Transport ; in April 1982 Đồng Sĩ Nguyên , a protégé of Lê Duẩn , became Minister of Transport . Mai Chí Thọ , brother of Lê Đức Thọ , was Chairman of the People 's Committee of Hồ Chí Minh City ( equivalent to a Mayor ) from 1978 to 1985 . Several of Lê Duẩn 's relatives were appointed to offices in the propaganda and culture sector . However , with the exception of Mai Chí Thọ none of these figures reached the pinnacles of power in Vietnamese politics .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
At the 3rd National Congress , Lê Duẩn called for the establishment of a South Vietnamese people 's front . The Central Committee supported the proposal . A Central Committee resolution stated that " The common task of the Vietnamese revolution at present is to accelerate the socialist revolution in North Vietnam whilst at the same time stepping up the National People 's Democratic Revolution in South Vietnam . " On 20 December 1960 , three months later , the National Front for the Liberation of the South , better known as Việt Cộng , was established . Lê Duẩn claimed that the Việt Cộng would " rally ' all patriotic forces ' to overthrow the Diệm government [ in the South ] and thus ensure ' conditions for the peaceful reunification of the Fatherland ' " .
After the Sino – Soviet split , the Vietnamese communist leadership divided into pro @-@ China and pro @-@ Soviet factions . Initially Lê Duẩn was labeled pro @-@ China , because of his hawkish policies towards South Vietnam . After reunification he was referred to as pro @-@ Soviet . From 1956 – 63 , Lê Duẩn played a moderating role between the two factions , but with the death of Diệm and the Gulf of Tonkin incident , he became considerably more radical . The Chinese continued to support them throughout the war , with Liu Shaoqi , the President of the People 's Republic , in 1965 stating , " it is our policy that we will do our best to support you . " Unlike Hồ , who wanted a peaceful resolution , Lê Duẩn was far more militant . He wanted , in his own words , " final victory " . He dismissed Hồ 's position , as did the majority of the Politburo , calling him " naive " . When Hồ called for the establishment of a neutral South Vietnamese state in 1963 , Lê Duẩn responded by making overtures to the Chinese , who rejected the Soviet position of peaceful coexistence .
With the increased involvement of the United States military in 1965 , the North 's military strategy was forced to change . As Lê Duẩn noted in a letter to Nguyễn Chí Thanh , the war would become " fiercer and longer " . He believed the fundamentals of the conflict had not changed ; the South Vietnamese regime 's unpopularity remained its " Achilles ' heel " and he continued to advocate a combination of guerrilla warfare and NVA offensives . The communist commanders in the South were to avoid large attacks on the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) , but instead focus on many small attacks to demoralize the enemy . Lê Duẩn believed that the key to victory was for the NVA had to keep the initiative . He dismissed the possibility of an attack against North Vietnam by American forces , claiming that an attack on North Vietnam would be an attack on the entire socialist camp .
By July 1974 , following the cut @-@ off of US aid to the South , the North Vietnamese leadership had decided to abrogate the ceasefire and to invade in 1975 , instead of 1976 as previously planned , because they believed an earlier Vietnamese unification would put Vietnam in a stronger position against Chinese and Soviet influence . In his victory speech , Lê Duẩn stated : " Our party is the unique and single leader that organised , controlled and governed the entire struggle of the Vietnamese people from the first day of the revolution . " In his speech he congratulated the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam ( PRGRSV ) , the underground South Vietnamese government established in 1969 , for liberating South Vietnam from imperialism . PRGRSV @-@ ruled South Vietnam did not last long however and in 1976 the reunified Socialist Republic of Vietnam was established . Lê Duẩn purged South Vietnamese who had fought against the North , imprisoning over one million people and setting off a mass exodus and humanitarian disaster ( see Vietnamese boat people ) . A 1983 United States Department of State annual human rights survey called Vietnam under Lê Duẩn " the single most repressive government in the world . "
= = = Economy = = =
Vietnam developed little during the war years ; industry was nearly non @-@ existent in both North and South and both countries were dependent on foreign donor countries . Worse , the country 's critical agricultural infrastructure had been badly damaged . The South had roughly 20 @,@ 000 bomb craters , 10 million refugees , 362 @,@ 000 war invalids , 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 widows , 880 @,@ 000 orphans , 250 @,@ 000 drug addicts , 300 @,@ 000 prostitutes and 3 million unemployed .
Having won the war and defeated South Vietnam , Lê Duẩn 's mood in April 1975 was optimistic . As one Central Committee member put it , " Now nothing more can happen . The problems we face now are trifles compared to those in the past . " Lê Duẩn promised the Vietnamese people in 1976 that each family would own a radio set , refrigerator and TV within ten years ; he seemed to believe he could easily integrate the South Vietnamese consumer society with agrarian North Vietnam . In 1976 the 4th National Congress declared Vietnam would complete its socialist transformation within twenty years . This optimism proved unfounded ; instead Vietnam staggered from one economic crisis to another .
After the war , per @-@ capita income stood at US $ 101 ; it decreased to $ 91 in 1980 and then increased to $ 99 by 1982 , according to United Nations figures . Phạm Văn Đồng admitted that per @-@ capita income " had not increased compared to what it was ten years ago " . Physical health declined and malnutrition increased under Lê Duẩn , according to the Ministry of Health . According to the The International Herald Tribune , an estimated 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Vietnamese were suffering from malnutrition , leading the government to request aid from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization . Lê Duẩn 's policies led to an abrupt decline in the standard of living ; monthly per capita income in the North declined from $ 82 in 1976 to $ 58 in 1980 .
The main goals of the Second Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1976 – 80 ) , which was initiated at the 4th National Congress , were as follows ;
" Concentrate the forces of the whole country to achieve a leap forward in agriculture ; vigorously develop light industry " .
" [ T ] urn to full account existing heavy industry capacity and build many new industrial installations , especially in the machine industry , so as to support primary agriculture and light industry " .
" [ V ] irtually complete socialist transformation in the South " .
The Vietnamese leadership expected to reach these targets with economic aid from the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ( COMECON ) and loans from international agencies of the capitalist world . The 4th National Congress made it clear that agriculture would be socialised ; however , during the Second Five @-@ Year Plan the socialisation measures went so badly that Võ Chí Công , a Politburo member and Chairman of the Committee for the Socialist Transformation of Agriculture , claimed it would be impossible to meet the targets set by the plan by 1980 . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 out of 13 @,@ 246 socialist cooperatives , established during the plan , had collapsed in the South by 1980 . Politburo member Lê Thanh Nghị attacked lower @-@ level cadres for the failure of the socialist agriculture transformation . The collectivisation process led to an abrupt drop in food production in 1977 and 1978 , leading the 6th Plenum of the Central Committee to completely overhaul the Party 's agricultural policies .
With regard to heavy industry , the leadership 's position was muddled . In his Fourth Political Report Lê Duẩn stated that during the transition to socialism , priority would be given to heavy industry " on the basis of developing agriculture and light industry " . In another section of the report , Lê Duẩn stated that light industry would be prioritised ahead of heavy industry . The position of Phạm Văn Đồng , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers ( the head of government ) , was just as confused as Lê Duẩn 's . In practice Lê Duẩn prioritised heavy industry : 21 @.@ 4 % of state investment was in heavy industry in the Second Five @-@ Year Plan and 29 @.@ 7 percent in the Third Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1981 – 85 ) . Light industry only received 10 @.@ 5 and 11 @.@ 5 , respectively . From 1976 to 1978 industry grew , but from 1979 to 1980 industrial production fell substantially . During the Second Five @-@ Year Plan industry grew just 0 @.@ 1 percent . The 6th Plenum of the Central Committee criticised the policy that the state had to own everything .
Before the 5th Central Committee Plenum , Lê Duẩn believed that Vietnam was in a perilous position , although no talk of reforms followed . Beginning in 1979 , Lê Duẩn acknowledged that economic policy mistakes had been made by the national Party and State leadership .
Until the 6th plenum , the planners prevailed . That plenum condemned the old ways and promised that from then on the economy would be governed by " objective laws " . The roles of the plan and the market were openly discussed for the first time and the roles of the family and the private economy were enhanced and certain market prices were officially supported by the Party . Lê Duẩn endorsed the reforms at the 1982 5th National Congress . Lê Duẩn talked about the need to strengthen both the central planned economy and the local economy at once . In his report Lê Duẩn admitted that the Second Five @-@ Year Plan had been a failure economically .
At the beginning these changes had little practical effect , possibly due to opposition by the planners and confusion or fear among cadres . From 1981 – 84 agricultural production grew substantially , but the government did not use this opportunity to increase production of such crucial farm inputs as fertilizer , pesticide and fuel , nor of consumer goods . By the end of Lê Duẩn 's rule , in 1985 – 1986 , inflation had reached over 100 % annually , complicating economic policy @-@ making .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
= = = = Relations with the Eastern Bloc = = = =
Lê Duẩn visited the Soviet Union in October 1975 . The result of the visit was an official communique , which stated that the Soviets would send qualified experts to the country to educate and train economic , scientific , technical and cultural personnel . The Soviet Union gave Vietnam economic assistance and supported several national economic projects on most favoured terms . The communique stated that cooperation was within the " frameworks of multilateral cooperation of socialist countries . " Such a statement would normally have meant membership in COMECON , but Vietnam was not a member , wanting to establish its sovereignty . Phạm Văn Đồng snubbed the Soviet ambassador during the anniversary of the October Revolution and rejected key Soviet foreign policies . Despite continued pressure from the Soviets to join COMECON , Vietnam declined . Instead Vietnam joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank , moves the Soviet Union opposed .
Vietnam relented in 1978 , seeking economic aid to fund the Second Five @-@ Year Plan . In 1978 Lê Duẩn and Phạm Văn Đồng signed a 25 @-@ year Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Cooperation with the USSR . Under Soviet protection , Vietnam invaded Kampuchea . In reaction China invaded Vietnam . Vietnam leased several bases to the Soviet Union to protect its territory from China . It was rumored that one of China 's demands for peace was the ending of Soviet assistance to Vietnam . In Asia Vietnam played a role similar to Cuba 's in Latin America : it supported local revolutionary groups and was a headquarters for Soviet @-@ style communism . Vietnam supported the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and received $ 3 million a day in military aid .
At the 5th National Congress , Lê Duẩn reaffirmed Vietnam 's relations with the USSR . He stated , " Solidarity and co @-@ operation with the USSR : such is the corner stone of the external policy of our Party and of our State . " He further noted that their alliance was " a guarantee of the victory of the defense of the motherland and the socialist edification of our people . " Soviet official Mikhail Gorbachev echoed Lê Duẩn 's sentiments and said " Vietnam can count on the solidarity and the support of the USSR . "
Lê Duẩn 's foreign policy was criticised by Hoàng Văn Hoan , who accused him of sacrificing the country 's sovereignty . A delegation led by Vitaly Vorotnikov , visited Vietnam during its National Day , the holiday that celebrated the establishment of North Vietnam after the August Revolution and met with Lê Duẩn . Lê Duẩn attended the 27th Communist Party Congress and later met with Gorbachev . Soviet Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov and Anatoly Dobrynin attended Lê Duẩn 's funeral .
= = = = Relations with China = = = =
During the Vietnam War , the Chinese claimed that the Soviet Union would betray Vietnam . Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai told Lê Duẩn that the Soviets would lie to them to improve its relationship with the United States . According to Zhou this policy was enacted following Alexei Kosygin 's departure from Vietnam in 1965 . Lê Duẩn did not accept this view and at the 23rd Party Congress ( which China boycotted ) he referred to the Soviet Union as a " second motherland " . Because of his statement , China immediately began to cut its aid to Vietnam . According to the first secretary at the Soviet embassy to China , the Vietnamese saw the Chinese actions as an attack on them . At the Chinese Communist Party 's 45th anniversary , instead of a communique by Hồ Chí Minh , Phạm Văn Đồng and Lê Duẩn as had happened at the 44th anniversary , the Vietnamese Central Committee offered official greetings , but without signatures from top @-@ level officials .
Relations between the two countries further deteriorated following the China / US rapprochement . The Vietnamese , who were still fighting the Americans , felt betrayed . At the CPV Politburo meeting on 16 July 1971 , the Vietnamese agreed that Chinese policy towards the United States was like a " torpedo " directed against Vietnam . Zhou was told by Phạm Văn Đồng and Lê Duẩn that US President Richard Nixon 's , upcoming visit to China was " against the interests of Vietnam " . Later , in November , Phạm asked the Chinese to cancel Nixon 's visit ; the Chinese refused . The Vietnamese began to doubt China and they hid information about Vietnam 's next planned military offensive . The Sino / US rapprochement did not hurt Sino / Vietnamese relations in the long run , because the Soviet Union also eventually reconciled with the US .
Chinese and Vietnamese documents state that relations between them worsened in 1973 – 75 . A Vietnamese document claimed that China hindered the eventual reunification , while Chinese documents claimed that the source of the conflict was Vietnamese policy towards the Spratly and the Paracel Islands . However , the core issue for the Chinese was to minimize Vietnam 's cooperation with the Soviets . Increasing Soviet / Vietnamese cooperation left China ambivalent about reunification .
During Lê Duẩn 's China visit in June 1973 , Zhou told him that Vietnam should adhere to the Paris Peace Accords . Following the signing , Lê Thanh Nghị stated that the direction of Vietnam 's communism was directly linked to its relations with the Soviet Union . The Chinese opposed immediate reunification and to that end , began making economic agreements with the Provisional Revolutionary ( Communist ) Government of South Vietnam ( PRGSV ) . PRGSV head Nguyễn Hữu Thọ was treated well by the Chinese . This policy further damaged relations . China and Vietnam drifted further apart ; eventual Chinese aid did not improve relations .
Lê Thanh , unsuccessfully visited China in August 1975 to seek aid . On 22 – 28 September , Lê Duẩn and Lê Duẩn Thanh visited China in a second attempt . During the visit the Vietnamese wanted to assure the Chinese they were interested in maintaining good relations with both China and the Soviet Union . Deng Xiaoping stated that both superpowers acted as imperialists and sought hegemony . Lê Duẩn in a speech did not mention the Soviet Union by name , but noted that Vietnam had succeeded because of help from other socialist countries , meaning the Eastern bloc . Two agreements were signed , but no non @-@ refundable aid agreement was made . No joint communique was issued and Lê Duẩn left earlier than planned . According to Anne Gilks , the Sino / Vietnamese alliance effectively ended with the Fall of Saigon . Relations with China further deteriorated ; several leading pro @-@ Chinese communists were purged from the party .
Lê Duẩn visited China from 20 – 25 November 1977 to seek aid . CPC Chairman Hua Guofeng stated that Sino / Vietnamese relations had deteriorated because they held different principles . Hua insisted that China could not help Vietnam because of its own economic difficulties and differences in principles . Lê Duẩn countered that the only difference was how they viewed the Soviet Union and the United States . Following his visit , China ( Xinhua ) condemned COMECON . China halted all economic development projects between May and July 1978 . During this period total Chinese aid to Vietnam amounted to $ 300 million .
= = = = = Chinese invasion = = = = =
On 17 February 1979 , the Chinese People 's Liberation Army crossed the Vietnamese border , withdrawing on 5 March after a two @-@ week campaign which devastated northern Vietnam and briefly threatened Hanoi . Both China ( 40 @,@ 000 ) and Vietnam ( over 20 @,@ 000 ) suffered heavy losses . Peace talks broke down in December 1979 and both China ( 400 @,@ 000 ) and Vietnam ( 600 @,@ 000 ) began a major build @-@ up of forces along the border . Sporadic fighting on the border occurred throughout the 1980s and China threatened to force Vietnam 's exit from Kampuchea .
= = = = Vietnamese invasion and occupation of Cambodia = = = =
The independent Kampuchean Communist Party ( KCP ) was established alongside the Vietnamese and Laotian parties following the dissolution of the Indochinese Communist Party in 1955 . The Kampuchean movement was the weakest of the three . When the Vietnamese began formal military aid to the Khmer Rouge in 1970 , the Khmer leadership remained skeptical . On the orders of Võ Chí Công two regiments were sent into Kampuchea . Võ Chí Công promised Khmer leader Ieng Sary that Vietnamese troops would withdraw when the conflict had been won by the communists . The entry of Vietnamese troops led many Vietnamese officials to believe that Khmer Rouge officials had begun " to fear something " . In a conversation with Phạm Hùng , Lê Duẩn told him that despite some differences in opinions , the " authentic internationalism and attitude " of the sides would strengthen their party @-@ to @-@ party relations . However , by reading reports by Võ Chí Công , Lê Duẩn probably concluded that " authentic internationalism " in Kampuchea was in trouble . At the time , the Vietnamese leadership hoped this situation would change , but privately they understood that the Kampuchean situation was different from the Lao situation .
After Pol Pot and his supporters seized control of KCP in 1973 , KCP / VCP relations deteriorated sharply . North Vietnamese formations that were active in Kampuchea during the civil war were thereafter regularly attacked by their allies . By 1976 while it appeared that Kampuchea / Vietnam relations were normalizing , private suspicions within the respective leaderships grew . Lê Duẩn , Tôn Đức Thắng , Trường Chinh and Phạm Văn Đồng sent messages congratulating the ascension of Pol Pot , Khieu Samphan and Nuon Chea as Premier , President of the Presidium and President of the Assembly of the People 's Representative , respectively . In turn , KCP sent a congratulatory message to the PRGRSV on its seventh anniversary . On 21 September 1976 a Vietnamese women 's delegation visited Kampuchea and the KCP sent public greetings to the 4th National Congress . The Vietnamese leadership hoped that pro @-@ Vietnamese elements would develop within the KCP . When Kampuchean radio announced Pol Pot 's resignation , Lê Duẩn and the Vietnamese leadership took it seriously . During a meeting with the Soviet ambassador , Lê Duẩn told him that Pol Pot and Ieng Sary had been removed from the KCP leadership . The change was welcome to Vietnam , since the two were a " pro @-@ Chinese sect conducting a crude and severe policy . " Lê Duẩn added that " these were bad people [ the KCP leadership headed by Pol Pot ] " , but that Nuon Chea was " our man and is my personal friend . " However , all @-@ out confrontation was not planned and Lê Duẩn still believed that state @-@ to @-@ state relations could improve . He further noted that Kampuchea would eventually become like Laos , a socialist state and value its relationship with Vietnam and the Soviet Union .
On 30 April 1977 Democratic Kampuchea attacked several Vietnamese villages in An Giang Province , most notably in the Ba Chúc massacre . The Vietnamese leadership was shocked by this unprovoked attack and counterattacked . Vietnam still sought improved relations and when Pol Pot , on 27 September 1977 , announced the existence of the KCP , Vietnam sent a congratulatory note . In a conversation with the Soviet ambassador on 6 October , Lê Duẩn had no explanation for Kampuchea 's actions . He described the leadership as " strongly nationalistic and under strong influence of Peking [ China ] . " Lê Duẩn called Pol Pot a Trotskyist while claiming that Ieng Sary was " a fierce nationalist and pro @-@ Chinese . " He , however , erroneously believed that Nuon Chea and Son Sen harbored pro @-@ Vietnamese views .
On 31 December 1977 Kampuchea broke relations with Vietnam , stating that the " aggressor forces " from Vietnam sent had to be withdrawn . This was needed to " restore the friendly atmosphere between the two countries . " While they accused Vietnam of aggression , the real problem all along was the Vietnamese leadership ' plan , or ideal , of establishing a Vietnamese @-@ dominated Indochinese Federation . Vietnamese troops withdrew from the country in January , taking thousands of prisoners and civilian refugees . While the point of the Vietnamese attack had been to dampen the Kampuchean leadership 's aggressive stance , it had the opposite effect – the Kampuchean leadership treated it as a major victory over Vietnam , matching their victory over the Americans . Kampuchea did not respond to diplomatic overtures and began another attack . In response Vietnam began to promote an uprising against Pol Pot 's rule and invaded .
On 15 June 1978 the VCP Politburo sent a request to the Soviet Union to allow a delegation headed by Lê Duẩn to meet with Leonid Brezhnev and the Soviet leadership in general . In a meeting with the Soviet ambassador in September , Lê Duẩn said that Vietnam intended " to solve fully this question [ of Kampuchea ] by the beginning of 1979 . " Lê Duẩn did not believe that China would retaliate because it would have to send its forces by sea . However , China did attack in 1979 , but chose Vietnam as its target . He further claimed that Vietnam had little time and that waiting would benefit China . He further claimed that Vietnam had established nine battalions of Khmer deserters and that it was seeking Sao Pheum to lead them . However , he had been dead for three months . Lê Duẩn still believed that Nuon Chea was a friend of Vietnam , despite his largely anti @-@ Vietnam speech . Nuon Chea and Son Sen remained staunch Pol Pot supporters until the 1990s .
Vietnam sent 13 divisions into the country on 25 December 1978 , with an estimated 150 @,@ 000 soldiers supported by heavy artillery and air power . Kampuchea attempted a conventional defense , but this tactic led to the loss of half of its army within two weeks . The defeats prompted much of the Kampuchean leadership to evacuate towards the western region of the country . On 7 January 1979 , the Vietnamese Army entered Phnom Penh along with the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation . On the following day , a pro @-@ Vietnamese state , known as the People 's Republic of Kampuchea ( PRK ) , was established , with Heng Samrin as head of state and Pen Sovan as General Secretary of the Kampuchean People 's Revolutionary Party . The struggle between the Khmer Rouge and the PRK ended only with Vietnam 's withdrawal in 1989 .
= = = Last years and death = = =
By the time of the 5th National Congress , the party leadership had turned into a veritable gerontocracy . The five most powerful Politburo members were all over the age of 70 ; Lê Duẩn was 74 , Trường Chinh was 75 , Phạm Văn Đồng was 76 , Phạm Hùng was 70 and Lê Đức Thọ was 72 . Lê Duẩn is believed to have been in bad health during this period ; he had travelled to the Soviet Union on several occasions for medical treatment during the late @-@ 1970s and early 1980s . It was reported that Lê Duẩn did not lead the party delegates of the 5th National Congress to the Hồ Chí Minh Mausoleum because of his deteriorating health . Lê Duẩn looked both feeble and old ; he had problems reading his report to the Congress .
At the 5th National Congress , the Lê Duẩn / Lê Đức Thọ clique amassed considerable power by staffing the 5th Central Committee , the 5th Secretariat and the 5th Politburo with their own supporters . Several moderates and old companions of Hồ Chí Minh , as well as pro @-@ Chinese communists ( labelled dismissively as Maoists ) and followers of Trường Chinh , were removed from the Politburo and the Central Committee . The most prominent ouster was that of Võ Nguyên Giáp , the commander at the Battle of Diên Biên Phu . Giáp 's removal signaled more the defeat of a rival than of an ideological tendency . Nguyễn Duy Trinh and Lê Thanh Nghị were removed from the Politburo because of their moderate stances , while Trần Quốc Hoàn , Lê Văn Lương and Nguyễn Văn Linh were removed because of their alignment with Trường Chinh . In their place Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ appointed military men , including Đỗ Mười , Lê Đức Anh and General Đồng Sĩ Nguyên . The appointment of Nguyễn Đức Tâm and Nguyễn Cơ Thach strengthened Lê Đức Thọ . The Lê Duẩn / Lê Đức Thọ clique thereafter had a clear majority within the 5th Secretariat .
Lê Duẩn 's report to the 5th National Congress was a biting self @-@ criticism of his leadership and the party 's management . He criticised political and economic corruption and the gerontocracy itself . The 5th Central Committee contained only one member under 60 . During this period the Central Committee was disrupted by factional infighting between pragmatists and conservatives . This struggle would lead to economic reform . Lê Duẩn and his supporters began the effort to open the economy .
Apparently Lê Duẩn suffered a heart attack after the Congress and was hospitalized in the Soviet Union . He remained General Secretary until on 10 July 1986 at age 79 , he died of natural causes in Hanoi . He was temporarily succeeded by Trường Chinh , who was deposed and replaced by Nguyễn Văn Linh at the December 6th National Congress .
= = Political beliefs = =
Lê Duẩn was a nationalist and during the war he claimed that the " nation and socialism were one " . He stressed the importance of building socialism politically , economically and culturally and of defending the socialist fatherland . Ideologically he was often referred to as a pragmatist . He often broke with Marxism – Leninism to stress Vietnam 's uniqueness , most notably in agriculture . Lê Duẩn 's view of socialism was statist , highly centralised and managerial .
In one of his own works , Lê Duẩn talked about " the right of collective mastery " , but in practice he opposed this . For instance , party cadres who presented the peasants ' demands for higher prices for their products at the National Congress were criticised by Lê Duẩn . His ideas of collective mastery were hierarchical : " Management by the state aims at ensuring the right of the masses to be the collective masters of the country . How then will the state manage its affairs so as to ensure this right of collective mastery ? " His answer to this problem was managerial and statist .
Lê Duẩn 's concept of " collective mastery " was featured in the 1980 Vietnamese Constitution as was his concept of " collective mastery " of society . The concept was Lê Duẩn 's version of popular sovereignty that advocated an active role for the people , so that they could become their own masters as well as masters of society , nature and the nation . It stated that the people 's collective mastery in all fields was assured by the state and was implemented by permitting their participation in state affairs and in mass organisations . On paper , these organisations , to which almost all citizens belong , play an active role in government and have the right to introduce bills before the National Assembly .
Lê Duẩn said that land ownership entailed a " struggle between the two roads – collective production and private production ; large @-@ scale socialist production and small scattered production . " This quote could easily have been taken from Joseph Stalin , Mao Zedong or Trường Chinh in his radical years . His views had a direct impact on Vietnam . Since it was believed that collective ownership was the only alternative to capitalism , it was introduced without controversy by the country 's leadership .
Subcontracting cooperatives to peasants became the norm by the late @-@ 1970s and was legalised in 1981 . For conservatives this policy was similar to that of Lenin 's New Economic Policy , a temporary break from hardline socialist development . However , those who supported reforms saw subcontracting as another way of implementing socialism in agriculture , which was justified by the ideological tenet of the " three interests " . This was an important ideological innovation and broke with Lê Duẩn 's " two roads " theory .
Lê Duẩn departed from Marxist / Leninist orthodoxy when it came to practical policy and stated that the country had to " carry out agricultural cooperation immediately , even before having built large industry . " While he acknowledged that his view was heresy , Lê Duẩn insisted that Vietnam was in a unique situation ; " It seems that no country so far in history has been in a situation such as ours . We must lead the peasantry and agriculture immediately to socialism , without waiting for a developed industry , though we know very well that without the strong impact of industry , agriculture cannot achieve large @-@ scale production and new relations of agriculture cannot be consolidated ... To proceed from small @-@ scale production to large @-@ scale production is a new one . " According to Lê Duẩn the key to socialism was not mechanisation and industrialisation , but a new division of labour . He also believed that cooperatives did not need to be autarkic , but rather " organically connected , through the process of production itself , with other cooperatives and with the state economic sector . " Vietnam could achieve this through state intervention and control . He saw the economy as one whole directed by the state and not many parts intertwined .
In his victory speech after the 1976 parliamentary election , Lê Duẩn talked about perfecting socialism in the North by eliminating private ownership and the last vestiges of capitalism and of the need to initiate socialist transformation in the South . In the South the Party , according to Lê Duẩn , would focus on abolishing the comprador bourgeoisie and the last " remnants of the feudal landlord classes " . " Comprador bourgeoisie " was their term for the bourgeois classes , who made a living by financial dealings and through transactions with Westerners . Lê Duẩn did not reveal that in addition to removing the comprador bourgeoisie and the feudal landlord classes from the South , he intended to obliterate the entire bourgeois class .
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= SMS Sankt Georg =
SMS Sankt Georg was the third and final armored cruiser of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . She was built at the Pola Arsenal ; her keel was laid in March 1901 , she was launched in December 1903 , and completed in July 1905 . Her design was based on the previous armored cruiser Kaiser Karl VI , with the primary improvement being a stronger armament . Sankt Georg , named for Saint George , was armed with a main battery of two 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns , five 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns .
Sankt Georg served in the training and reserve squadrons during her peacetime career , usually alternating with Kaiser Karl VI . In April – May 1907 , Sankt Georg participated in the Jamestown Exposition in the United States , to commemorate the first English colony in North America . During World War I , the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet largely remained inactive as a fleet in being , though she did bombard the Italian coast in May 1915 following the latter 's declaration of war on Austria @-@ Hungary . In 1917 , she supported the Austro @-@ Hungarian forces that raided the Otranto Barrage ; in the ensuing Battle of the Strait of Otranto , Sankt Georg 's arrival on the scene was sufficient to force the Anglo @-@ Italian forces to break off the engagement and retreat .
By February 1918 , the crews of Sankt Georg and several other warships grew weary of the war and the long periods of inactivity , which led to the Cattaro Mutiny . The mutiny was quickly suppressed , but Sankt Georg and several other ships were subsequently decommissioned . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , Sankt Georg was awarded as a war prize to Britain . In 1920 , she was sold to Italian ship breakers and scrapped thereafter .
= = Design = =
In the 1890s , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy began to build armored cruisers to support the battle fleet and to perform some of the roles then reserved only for battleships . The first vessel , Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia , was built as an enlarged version of the protected cruiser Kaiserin Elisabeth , with a more powerful armament and heavier armor . She was followed by an improved cruiser , Kaiser Karl VI , which provided the basis for an even larger ship , which was named Sankt Georg . Each iteration carried a heavier armament and had a higher top speed than the preceding design .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Sankt Georg was 123 @.@ 23 meters ( 404 ft 4 in ) long at the waterline and was 124 @.@ 3 m ( 407 ft 10 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 19 @.@ 01 m ( 62 ft 4 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 83 m ( 22 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 289 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 174 long tons ) as designed and up to 8 @,@ 070 t ( 7 @,@ 940 long tons ) at full load . Her crew numbered 630 officers and men . Sankt Georg was fitted with two pole masts for observation .
The ship 's propulsion system consisted of two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion engines that drove a pair of screw propellers . Steam was provided by eight coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into three funnels on the centerline . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . On her full power trials , she reached 15 @,@ 271 ihp ( 11 @,@ 388 kW ) and 22 @.@ 01 kn ( 40 @.@ 76 km / h ; 25 @.@ 33 mph ) . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Sankt Georg was armed with a main battery of two large @-@ caliber guns and several medium @-@ caliber pieces . She carried two 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) G. L / 40 S. guns in single gun turret on the centerline forward . These guns fired a 229 @-@ kilogram ( 505 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 725 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 380 ft / s ) , at a maximum range of 10 @,@ 000 m ( 11 @,@ 000 yd ) . Each gun , manufactured by Škoda Works , was supplied with forty high @-@ explosive and forty armor @-@ piercing shells . The guns were housed in electrically trained turrets that allowed elevation to 20 ° and depression to − 4 ° . Five 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) G. L / 42 guns and four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns , all mounted individually in casemates with one of the 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) G. L / 42 on a single turret aft , rounded out her offensive armament . Sankt Georg carried 120 rounds for each of the 19 cm guns and 180 rounds for the 15 cm pieces .
A battery of nine 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) L / 45 guns , six 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 44 quick @-@ firing guns ( QF ) and two 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 33 QF guns provided close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . The 7 cm guns had an actual caliber of 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) . They had a rate of fire of twenty rounds per minute , and each gun was supplied with 400 rounds of ammunition . The 4 @.@ 7 cm guns had a rate of fire of 25 rounds per minute , and were typically stocked with 500 rounds . She carried several smaller weapons , including a pair of 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine guns and two 7 cm landing guns . One 7 cm L / 50 antiaircraft gun was installed in 1916 . Sankt Georg was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside .
The ship was protected by a main armored belt that was 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) thick in the central portion that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces , and reduced to 165 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) on either end . Transverse armored bulkheads that were 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) thick capped the armored belt on either end . She had an armored deck that was 36 – 50 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Her two gun turrets had 210 mm thick faces , and the conning tower had 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
On 11 March 1901 , the keel for Sankt Georg was laid down at the Pola Arsenal . She was launched on 8 December 1903 , and completed on 21 July 1905 . Starting from her commissioning , Sankt Georg frequently served in the training squadron , along with the three Habsburg @-@ class battleships , though she alternated in the squadron with the armored cruiser Kaiser Karl VI . Once the summer training schedule was completed each year , the ships of the training squadron were demobilized in the reserve squadron , which was held in a state of partial readiness .
In April 1907 , Sankt Georg and the light cruiser Aspern were sent to the United States to represent Austria @-@ Hungary at the Jamestown Exposition , the commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the Jamestown colony , the first permanent English settlement in the Americas . In addition to the celebration at Jamestown , Sankt Georg also visited Annapolis and New York City while on the trip . In addition to the Austro @-@ Hungarian delegation , the international fleet consisted of warships from Great Britain , Japan , Germany , France , Italy , and several other nations . The event started on 26 April , and over the following two weeks , the crews from many of the ships , including Sankt Georg , competed in various sailing and rowing races . Of eighteen races , Sankt Georg 's crew placed in six , winning two .
= = = World War I = = =
On 28 June 1914 , Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir to the Austro @-@ Hungarian throne , was assassinated in Sarajevo ; the assassination sparked the July Crisis and ultimately the First World War , which broke out a month later on 28 July . The German battlecruiser SMS Goeben , which had been assigned to the Mediterranean Division , sought the protection of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , and so Admiral Anton Haus sent the fleet , including Sankt Georg , south on 7 August to assist his German ally . Goeben 's commander , Admiral Wilhelm Souchon , intended to use the Austro @-@ Hungarian move as a feint to distract the British Mediterranean Fleet which was pursuing Goeben ; Souchon instead took his ship to Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire . Their decoy mission complete , Sankt Georg and the rest of the fleet returned to port without engaging any British forces .
Following the Italian declaration of war against the Central Powers on 23 May 1915 , the entire Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet sortied to bombard Italian coastal targets . Sankt Georg took part in the operation ; escorted by a pair of torpedo boats , she shelled the city of Rimini . She damaged a railroad bridge and was not engaged by Italian forces . Thereafter , the Austro @-@ Hungarians returned to their strategy of serving as a fleet in being , which would tie down Allied naval forces . Haus hoped that torpedo boats and mines could be used to reduce the numerical superiority of the Italian fleet before a decisive battle could be fought . For most of the war , Sankt Georg was assigned to the Cruiser Flotilla and based at Cattaro , though she was too slow to operate with the newer Novara @-@ class cruisers that carried out the bulk of offensive operations .
= = = = Battle of the Strait of Otranto = = = =
During the Battle of the Strait of Otranto on 15 May 1917 , Sankt Georg was deployed to support the three light cruisers commanded by Captain Miklós Horthy — Novara , Saida , and Helgoland — that had raided the Otranto Barrage in the southern Adriatic . After completing their attack on the Allied defenses , the three cruisers turned north before being engaged by British and Italian warships , including the British cruiser HMS Dartmouth . Horthy called for reinforcements , which led Sankt Georg to sortie , accompanied by two destroyers and four torpedo boats . The Austro @-@ Hungarians hoped that Sankt Georg might cut off the weaker Allied cruisers and destroy them .
While Sankt Georg was steaming to join the battle , Novara was hit by shells from Dartmouth that damaged her boilers , significantly reducing her speed . She soon broke down but at the same time , shortly after 11 : 00 , most of the Allied warships broke off the engagement , having spotted smoke on the horizon from Austro @-@ Hungarian reinforcements . By that time , Sankt Georg was still about 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) away . While Dartmouth and the other Allied ships were withdrawing , several Italian destroyers closed to attack the stricken Novara and her sister ships . Heavy Austro @-@ Hungarian fire drove them off and by 12 : 07 they had retreated with the rest of the Anglo @-@ Italian ships . Sankt Georg arrived and Saida took Novara under tow for the voyage back to port . The four cruisers assembled in line @-@ ahead formation , with Sankt Georg the last vessel in the line , to cover the other three ships . Later in the afternoon , the old coastal defense ship Budapest and three more torpedo boats joined the ships to strengthen the escort .
= = = = Cattaro Mutiny = = = =
By early 1918 , the long periods of inactivity had begun to wear on the crews of several warships at Cattaro , including Sankt Georg . At this time , Sankt Georg was the flagship of the Cruiser Flotilla , commanded by Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Alexander Hansa . On 1 February , the Cattaro Mutiny broke out , starting aboard Sankt Georg . An enlisted man shot the ship 's commander in the head , badly injuring him , when mutineers seized control of the ship . They then rapidly gained control of Kaiser Karl VI and most of the other major warships in the harbor . There was some resistance to the mutiny by crewmembers ; the wireless operators aboard Sankt Georg prevented a message announcing the mutiny from being sent to the rest of the fleet and the crews of the more active vessels tended to oppose the rebellion . A tense stand @-@ off began between the rebel and loyalist ships in the harbor : the destroyer Csepel steamed out and trained her torpedo tubes at Sankt Georg , before being recalled by Hansa 's chief of staff . Helgoland 's commander , Erich Heyssler , also moved to prepare his ship 's torpedoes but Sankt Georg 's gunners aimed their 24 cm guns at Helgoland , which convinced Heyssler to back down .
The mutineers issued a lengthy list of demands , that ranged from longer periods of leave to and end to the war , based on the United States President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points . The following day , many of the mutinous ships abandoned the effort and rejoined loyalist forces in the inner harbor ; first the light cruisers and most of the torpedo boats escaped from the guns of the mutineers , followed by several of the other larger vessels . By late in the day , only the men aboard Sankt Georg and a handful of destroyers and torpedo boats remained in rebellion . Only on the morning of 3 February , after the arrival of the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships of the III Division , were the last of the mutineers convinced to surrender . Trials on the ringleaders commenced quickly , and four men were executed , including the sailor who had shot Sankt Georg 's commander .
= = = Fate = = =
In the aftermath of the Cattaro Mutiny , most of the obsolete warships of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , including Sankt Georg , were decommissioned to reduce the number of idle warships . On 3 November 1918 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian government signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti with Italy , ending their participation in the conflict . After the end of the war , Sankt Georg was ceded as a war prize to Great Britain , under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . She was then sold to ship breakers in Italy and broken up for scrap after 1920 .
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= St Nicholas , Blakeney =
St Nicholas is the Anglican parish church of Blakeney , Norfolk , in the deanery of Holt and the Diocese of Norwich . The church was founded in the 13th century , but the greater part of the church dates from the 15th century when Blakeney was a seaport of some importance . Of the original structure only the chancel has survived rebuilding , perhaps owing to its link to a nearby Carmelite friary . An unusual architectural feature is a second tower , used as a beacon , at the east end ( the church stands just inland from , and about 30 metres ( 98 ft ) above , the small port ) . Other significant features are the vaulted chancel with a stepped seven @-@ light lancet window , and the hammerbeam roof of the nave . St Nicholas is a nationally important building , with a Grade I listing for its exceptional architectural interest .
Much of the original church furniture was lost in the Reformation , but a late @-@ Victorian restoration recreated something of the original appearance , as well as repairing and refacing the building . The Victorian woodwork was created to match the few older pieces that remained , or to follow a similar style ; thus , the new wooden pulpit follows the themes of the medieval font . Of the stained glass smashed in the Reformation only fragments have been recovered , and these have been incorporated in a window in the north aisle of the church . Nine Arts and Crafts windows by James Powell and Sons are featured on the east and south sides of the church , and the north porch has two modern windows of predominantly blue colour . St Nicholas contains some notable memorials , including several plaques for the Blakeney lifeboats and their crews , and much pre @-@ Reformation graffiti , particularly depictions of ships . The location of the latter suggests that they were votive in nature , although the saint concerned is now unknown .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation to 1547 = = =
St Nicholas is the parish church of Blakeney , Norfolk , a small English town with a history dating back to at least early Neolithic times . It was one of a number of small ports opening onto the sheltered inlet of Blakeney Haven , and exported a range of products including fish , grain , and timber . In the Domesday Book of 1086 the town is recorded under the name " Esnuterle " ( Snitterley ) ; the present @-@ day name first appears in 1340 .
Domesday recorded an early church at Snitterley , but its location is unknown , and it may not have been the present site of St Nicholas . There are scheduled monument and Grade II listed ruins of a medieval building in the salt marshes north of the present town described as " Blakeney Chapel " , but , despite the name , it now seems likely that this was a domestic dwelling rather than a religious edifice . Another possible chapel site east of the Glaven was shown on an 1835 map , but there is no documentation to support that identification .
The nearby Carmelite friary had its own church by 1321 , built on land donated by tenants of William de Roos , " that the Carmelite friars , by the King 's licence , and that of Sir William Roos , might inhabit therein for ever , and might build a chapel " . The friars were also given 100 marks to build their church , in return for which they undertook " to pray for the good estate of the said Sir William Roos and his Lady Maud ... and to have and to hold that lord and lady , and their heirs , for their principal founders " .
The original building on the present site was constructed in the late 13th or early 14th century , at around the same time as the friary , which was founded in about 1296 . Its hilltop location is unusual for the area ; most nearby churches are built on mounds near water . The new church was dedicated to Saint Nicholas , the patron saint of sailors , and the living was first recorded as being in the gift of Sir John de Cockfield , passing to his Bacon descendants before its acquisition by the Abbot and Convent of Langley in 1375 . The abbey controlled more than 60 Norfolk parishes , and the living of Blakeney was within its gift for the next sixty years , ending with the dissolution of the abbey in 1435 . The patronage seems then to have passed to the Earl of Sussex , but quickly transferred to John Calthorpe , a descendant of the original founder , John Cockfield , and it remained with his family until 1922 . Sir Alfred Jodrell then acquired the patronage , bequeathing it to Keble College , Oxford on his death in 1956 . Since 1989 , the benefice has been in the gift of Keble College , and the Bishop of Norwich .
Blakeney gained its market charter in 1222 , and by the early 15th century it was one of the few ports permitted to trade in horses , gold and silver , through " merchants sworn by oath to the king " , which contributed to the town 's growing wealth . Few Early English churches survive in Norfolk owing to extensive rebuilding amid the prosperity of the 15th century , and the thriving port of Blakeney was no exception . Only the chancel avoided major reconstruction in 1434 , probably because of its association with the Carmelite friary ; John Calthorpe specified in his will of 1530 that he was to buried " in the White ffryes of Sniterlie [ Blakeney ] in the myddys of the chancel " . The Perpendicular nave and the 31 m ( 104 ft ) west tower were part of the 1434 rebuilding , but the unusual second , slender , tower at the north @-@ east corner of the church was of a later date .
= = = Reformation and after = = =
The English Reformation inevitably affected St Nicholas . Edward VI 's 1547 injunction decreed that all images in churches were to be dismantled or destroyed , including stained glass , shrines , roods , statues and bells , and altars were to be dismantled and replaced by wooden tables . Blakeney did not escape these changes ; an Inventory of Church Goods of 1552 and official visitations later in the century revealed that the chancel was falling into decay and " the church porche defiled with cattel " . The reports continue " the pavement is much broken ... the walls are in decaie ... east window is much broken ... the chancel needs paving " – it was even alleged that graves were left uncovered . The rector from 1590 to 1621 , Jacob Poynter , and his curate , Mr Aldriche , were keen Puritan reformers who refused to wear the surplice or use the Book of Common Prayer , and seemed to have had little concern for the fabric of the church . One positive outcome of the Reformation was that registers were to be kept in every church to record baptisms , marriages and burials ; the Blakeney registers are very largely complete from 1538 .
By 1717 , the local population seems to have been very homogeneous in terms of belief : " Persons , servants included , above the age of sixteen , the men chiefly sea @-@ faring are supposed to be rather above three hundred . Papist none . Protestant dissenter none " . Nevertheless , in 1854 there were Non @-@ conformist chapels of three denominations , of which only the Methodist remains .
The church was originally constructed of flint with stone dressings , but was substantially refaced with knapped flint in the 1880s ; the tower was restored at the same time . A wall was built behind the altar in 1886 to create a separate sacristy for storing vestments and other items . The west tower was restored again in 1989 , and the current doors to the sacristy were added in the same year .
Electric lighting was installed in 1938 and an outer door for the north porch added in 1962 . Major renovations were carried out from 1981 to 1983 ; these comprised repairs to the north aisle roof and the east tower , plastering and limewashing of the chancel , replacement of the old electrical and heating systems , and minor work on the organ . The most recent round of restoration was the 2000 reflooring of the nave , installation of a vestry , toilet and kitchen , a new heating system with a detached boiler house , and reglazing of the north porch . Because of the remoteness of the altar from the congregation , a second altar was erected between the parclose screens ( extensions forward from the ends of the rood screen ) to enable a more intimate celebration of the Eucharist . St Nicholas was designated as a Grade I listed building in 1959 , which recognizes it as a building of exceptional interest .
The benefice has expanded during the long history of its church . Cockthorpe and Little Langham parish was added in 1606 , Glandford in 1743 , Wiveton in 1922 , and Cley in 1935 . The parish is in the deanery of Holt , the Diocese of Norwich and the Province of Canterbury . The rector originally received tithes to support himself and the church , but this was later replaced by rent from the glebe ( church lands ) . Rector Pointer , for example , received tithes and also had the income from the sales of his corn and saffron crops . The state had supported poorer clergy since the introduction of Queen Anne 's Bounty in 1704 , but since 1947 the Church Commissioners have been responsible for arranging the stipends and pensions of Anglican priests .
= = Description = =
St Nicholas , Blakeney , is a large Gothic parish church with an aisled nave , a deep chancel of two bays , a large tower at the western end , and a smaller tower at the eastern end , to the north of the chancel . The north porch was rebuilt in 1896 .
The west tower is surmounted with crenellations and pinnacles and is supported by stepped buttresses at each corner . The buttresses are constructed from flint and stone , and have arched insets on the faces . They rest on stone plinths , each bearing carved shields , that on the north buttress with an inaccurate rendering of the arms of the see , and the other with a cross and a dolphin . The tower has three Perpendicular windows in the belfry and a large Perpendicular window in its western face , giving light to the west end of the nave .
The nave is 30 m ( 100 ft ) long and 14 m ( 47 ft ) , and is separated from the aisles on north and south sides by arcades of six bays . It is lit by Perpendicular windows , each aisle bay window having four lights apiece , with three @-@ light windows in the clerestory above . The nave 's oak and chestnut hammerbeam roof dates from the 15th century , and features carved angels on the hammers . These rest on arched braces , except above each window , where the hammers rest on corbels instead . The only trace of the earlier 13th @-@ century nave is the reuse of some older stone , mainly in the north aisle , and the raised chancel walls , and some Purbeck Marble fragments beneath the west tower .
The Lady Chapel in the south aisle and St Thomas ' Chapel in the north aisle were dedicated to St Mary and St Thomas of Canterbury respectively . They fell into disuse in the Reformation , but were restored in the 1880s .
The 13th @-@ century chancel has two rib vaulted bays , making it one of only six extant Early English vaulted chancels . Its walls were raised in the 15th century by constructing a chamber above the vaulting using stone from the demolished 13th @-@ century nave , but , from the outside , this end of the church is still lower than the western section . Internally , the chancel vault is much lower than the adjacent nave because of the room above . It has three 15th @-@ century Perpendicular windows down each side , and is notable for the unusual east window with seven stepped lights , a feature found in only two other Early English churches , Lincoln Cathedral and St Martins in Ockham . The chancel contains three simple sedilia , or priest 's seats , with trefoil arches and round columns . The sacristry behind the altar has a small lancet window , and the chamber above the chancel , which is floored only by the curved upper surface of the vault below , is lit by a single two @-@ light window .
The polygonal eastern tower has stepped buttresses at its corners and louvred belfry windows just below the parapet . Its origins are not entirely clear , but it was possibly originally a turret for stairs leading to a room over the chancel , later extended upwards as an aesthetic enhancement and to act as a beacon for mariners . Its date is uncertain , but it is much later than the chancel . Although its lack of height compared to the west tower has led to some questioning of its suitability as a beacon , it has been suggested that lining up the two towers guided ships into the navigable channel between the inlet 's sandbanks ; this is the " leading light " practice later achieved using pairs of lighthouses at different levels .
= = Furnishings and fixtures = =
The octagonal font dates from the 15th century ; its carved panels alternate images of the symbols of the Four Evangelists with seated figures of the Doctors of the Church ( Saint Ambrose , Saint Augustine , Saint Jerome , and Pope Gregory I ) . The central column carries shields depicting the Instruments of the Passion and the Holy Wounds . The eastern shield is unusual in that a sword is shown with an ear stuck to it . This refers to the story of Saint Peter striking off the ear of Malchus , the High Priest 's servant , in the garden of Gethsemane .
Most East Anglian churches lost their medieval furnishings in the upheavals of the Reformation , and Blakeney is no exception . Apart from the hammerbeam roof , there is little original wood work in the nave ; a few benches in the aisles , the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis @-@ decorated beam supporting the rood , and two panels of the rood screen . The chancel retains four of its original choir stalls with their misericords , which are decorated with head and leaf motifs on the arms . St Nicholas benefited from sympathetic restoration in the late 19th and early 20th century . The new stalls and misericords match the style of the old , and the 1886 pulpit echoes the font , with the Instruments of the Passion on the stone stand , and the twelve Apostles carved on the woodwork . The pulpit has been described as " Victorian craftsmanship of matchless quality " . The north porch was restored in 1896 , and in the following year the west tower was repaired , and pews of a 15th @-@ century pattern placed in the nave .
1910 saw the restoration of the rood screen in a style consistent with that of the two ancient panels , the reconstruction of the rood loft , and the installation of a Norman and Beard two @-@ manual organ with more than a thousand pipes . The organ pipes are above the parclose screens ; the bellows , wind chest and electric blower are concealed in the chamber above the chancel . The stalls with their misericords were restored in 1913 . The rood crucifix , flanked by St Mary and St John , came from Germany in 1913 .
Much church plate , such as the chalice and pyx had been confiscated , sold or stolen in the heat of the Reformation . In the more tolerant climate of Elizabethan England , the excesses of extreme Protestantism were curbed by centralised control of the Church of England , the Act of Uniformity and the Book of Common Prayer . Most churches then had to buy a new chalice ; Blakeney 's was purchased in 1567 , and exchanged for another in 1716 . One lost treasure is a " Map of the World " ( Mappa Mundi et Chroniculum Mundi ) , which was recorded as present in the church in 1368 . This is thought more likely to be a version of Ranulf Higdon 's Polychronicon , a geographical text , than a true map like the Hereford Mappa Mundi .
The stained glass is mostly late @-@ 19th @-@ century Arts and Crafts by James Powell and Sons . Powell , coincidentally based at Whitefriars , a former Carmelite friary in London , used leading members of the movement such as Edward Burne @-@ Jones as designers , and his nine windows at Blakeney are regarded as fine examples of his work . The east window dating from 1895 represents the Te Deum , and the south windows , glazed in 1900 , tell the story of the early British church . Some 15th @-@ century fragments of the original Norwich School glass that had been buried in the churchyard during the Reformation were incorporated into one of the otherwise plain windows in the north aisle in 1938 , showing " Christ rising from the tomb " , with six figures above . Five of the figures are angels ; there would have been nine originally , one for each order . The sixth image depicts a female saint wearing a crown . The angel 's legs are clothed in " feather tights " , believed to have been derived from costumes worn in medieval religious plays . The north porch is flanked by two blue @-@ themed modern stained glass windows by Jane Gray from 2002 , one dedicated to the RAF , the other to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) . The stained glass , taken as a whole , has been described as showing a " phenomenal standard of composition and artistry ... Few churches contain such a treasury . " The current reredos and altar were erected in 1923 , as was a wooden war memorial in the north aisle .
Most churches prior to the Reformation had painted walls , often with murals ; these were whitewashed by the reformers , and often religious texts or the Ten Commandments replaced the images . These inscriptions were in turn obliterated under the Catholic Queen Mary . At Blakeney , as elsewhere , the formerly coloured walls are now the plain white typical of English churches .
= = Memorials = =
John Calthorpe 's " synfull body " lies at the eastern end of the nave under a marble gravestone and a brass plaque that carries his arms and a Latin inscription describing him as uni fundatorum fratum convent , " a founder [ benefactor ] of the convent of friars " . It is possible that he was originally buried in the chancel of the Carmelite friary , as he requested , but was re @-@ interred in the nave of St Nicholas at the Dissolution . A number of other stones carry standard tags in Latin or English requesting prayers or simply stating the identity of the internee , but Sir John Smyth 's 1460 memorial enjoined " As I am that shall you be , Pray for the sowle of me " .
Blakeney was a lifeboat station from around 1825 to 1924 . Various wall plaques commemorate the boats ' rescues and crew losses from 1862 , when the RNLI took over the running of the service , up to the station 's closure . There are two blue wooden boards from the RNLI listing the earlier lifeboats and their achievements ; the Brightwell ( 1862 ) , another Brightwell ( 1863 ) , the Zaccheus Burroughs ( 1891 ) , and the Hettie ( 1873 ) . Next to these is a stone plaque listing the rescues from 1877 to 1924 , including those of the last lifeboat , the Caroline ( 1908 ) , and further along the north aisle a painting of George Long , coxswain of the Caroline , is placed above the record of its most famous rescues on consecutive days on 7 and 8 January 1918 , when 30 people were saved from two steamers in a storm . A large wooden board acts as a war memorial , listing those locals who died in various military engagements . The clock in the west tower was donated by a Mrs Cooke in 1945 in memory of her late husband and sons .
= = Medieval graffiti = =
The interiors of most Norfolk churches contain much pre @-@ Reformation graffiti , unless they have been heavily limewashed or resurfaced . The churches of the Glaven ports in general , and Blakeney in particular , conform to this pattern . St Nicholas has an extensive array of prayers , merchant 's marks and other symbols , but is notable for the large number of depictions of ships , at least 30 , heavily concentrated in the nave towards the eastern end of the south aisle . There is a side altar there of unknown dedication , and an empty niche that would have once held the image of a saint . The pillars were painted red in the Middle Ages , and ship images scratched into the soft , chalky stone would have been much more conspicuous than they are now . It is likely that the images , mostly of smaller ships , were created as votive offerings by the seafaring inhabitants of the port . The carving of ship graffiti in religious buildings is a tradition in ports going back to the Bronze Age , and has been found across Europe .
Mason 's marks were used by the stonemason to identify his work , and in the days of the medieval craft guilds may also have had mystical or religious significance . In England , the use of these marks became widespread after the Norman Conquest . Similarly , merchants had their own marks to identify their products , and these frequently appeared on houses , gravestones and church walls .
= = People = =
The long patronage of the Calthorpes under their various incarnations as the Lords Calthorpe , Gough @-@ Calthorpes and Anstruther @-@ Gough @-@ Calthorpes has already been noted . A Henry Calthorpe was rector from 1743 to 1781 , and was followed by Richard Thomas Gough , who held the living for 43 years . Gough and Richard Henry Tillard , incumbent from 1858 to 1906 , are commemorated by plaques in the chancel . Of the other rectors , Mowbray O 'Rorke had been Bishop of Accra from 1913 , but accepted the Blakeney living in 1924 , remaining until he retired in 1939 , and Clifford Leofric Purdy ( Jim ) Bishop , rector from 1949 to 1953 , rose to become Bishop of Malmesbury from 1962 .
The graveyard , as in many coastal parish churches , contains mainly local people and seafarers . Several stones bear the surname " Long " , a name carried by five of the crew of the Caroline on its epic rescues in January 1918 . A notable outsider buried here is Sir Henry " Tim " Birkin a leading British racing driver and one of the " Bentley Boys " of the 1920s .
= = Services and congregation = =
The rector of this Church of England parish as of 2011 is the Rev Neil Batcock . The benefice rotates its services among its five constituent churches , with typically five services in total on Sundays , and two mid @-@ week Holy Communions . As with most Anglican churches in England , the congregation is mainly elderly , although there are monthly family services focussed on children . There is also a monthly laying on of hands for healing , and sometimes other variants from the standard format involving music or Taizé @-@ influenced worship . The parish accepts the diocese 's guidance on permitting baptism and marriage in church after a divorce , and claims to work closely with its Catholic and Methodist neighbours .
St Nicholas is also used for non @-@ religious events such as flower festivals , craft workshops and musical performances , and it has won diocesan tourism awards for its in @-@ church information facilities . The church appeared in Simon Jenkins ’ book , 1000 Best Churches , where it was described as having " a sense of vigorous activity " and as " a rare example of what every large parish church should aspire to being , also a community centre , market place and museum " . It was also featured in the Daily Telegraph 's list of 100 favourite churches , and a Norfolk tourism website rated it one of the top ten churches in the county .
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= Major General George Henry Thomas =
Major General George Henry Thomas , also known as the Thomas Circle Monument , is an equestrian sculpture in Washington , D.C. that honors Civil War general George Henry Thomas . The monument is located in the center of Thomas Circle , on the border of the downtown and Logan Circle neighborhoods . It was sculpted by John Quincy Adams Ward , best known for his work on the George Washington statue . Attendees at the dedication in 1879 included President Rutherford B. Hayes , Generals Irvin McDowell , Philip Sheridan , and William Tecumseh Sherman , senators and thousands of soldiers .
The sculpture is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . It is considered by art critics and historians to be one of the best equestrian statues in the city . The statue , which rests on an oval pedestal , and the surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
George Henry Thomas was a Union general in the Civil War and a principal commander in the Western Theater . During the Battle of Chickamauga , he was responsible for saving the Union Army from being completely routed , earning him the nickname " Rock of Chickamauga " . The Society of the Army of the Cumberland , composed of veterans , chose to erect a monument to Thomas utilizing bronze cannons captured from Confederate forces . John Quincy Adams Ward was selected to sculpt the statue and began the process in 1875 . The sculpture , which cost $ 40 @,@ 000 , was paid for by the Society . On July 31 , 1876 , Congress appropriated $ 25 @,@ 000 to pay for the pedestal and base , although the final cost was only $ 20 @,@ 000 . The contract for the statue stated three of the horse 's feet had to be touching the ground . This was to make sure it wouldn 't receive the same type of criticism Andrew Jackson 's sculpture in Lafayette Square received and to avoid the " stagey , theatrical animal that poses and postures in so many of the public squares of the United States . " Thomas 's widow , Frances , gave Ward photographs of her husband and lent him Thomas ' uniform and saddle to help with the design . After he finished the plaster model in 1879 , Ward invited Thomas ' family , Society officers , and members of the press to his studio in New York to view the model . The reaction was very positive . The Society was so impressed with Ward 's work , they later selected him to design the James A. Garfield Monument and the Philip Sheridan sculpture as well , though the contract for the latter was eventually cancelled . Architects John L. Smithmeyer and Paul J. Pelz , best known for designing the Thomas Jefferson Building and Healy Hall , were selected to design the monument base . The Bureau Brothers Foundry cast the sculpture while stonework was provided by contractor M. K. Chase . The traffic circle where the monument was erected was previously known as Memorial Circle because nearby residents planted memorial trees in honor of their respective home states . The name was changed to Thomas Circle when the monument was installed .
= = = Dedication = = =
The memorial was dedicated on November 19 , 1879 , with an estimated 50 @,@ 000 people in attendance . Harper 's Weekly described the event as the grandest ceremony ever held in the city The ceremony featured a two @-@ mile 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) military procession , led by General Thomas Turpin Crittenden , of around 500 Army of the Cumberland veterans , 1 @,@ 000 army troops , 1 @,@ 000 marines and sailors , state troops from Maryland , New York , and Pennsylvania , and generals Irvin McDowell , Philip Sheridan , and William Tecumseh Sherman . Music in the procession was performed by seven military bands , with the United States Marine Band in the first position . The procession began east of the U.S. Capitol and marched past President Rutherford B. Hayes at the White House on its way toward the memorial site . Most of the buildings along the line of march , including nearly every building on Pennsylvania Avenue , were decorated with flags , streamers , and other decorations . The most elaborately decorated building along the line of march was the Quartermaster General 's office , located on the corner of 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW , which was decorated with numerous flags and a canvas bearing a portrait of Thomas . The circle and the homes surrounding it were extensively decorated . There were 38 poles , each 33 feet ( 10 m ) high , placed around the edge of the circle , with the flag of every U.S. state at the time . A temporary platform seating 1 @,@ 500 people was erected around part of the circle for special guests and dignitaries .
The ceremony began with a prayer followed by the songs " Hail to the Chief " and " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . The statue was then unveiled accompanied by a thirteen gun salute . After the unveiling , a chorus of 100 men sang hymns with music performed by the Marine Band . General Anson G. McCook , a member of the Fighting McCooks who served under Thomas , delivered the dedication speech . Senator Stanley Matthews also gave a speech which included the presentation of the statue as an offering to the country . The statue was accepted by President Hayes on behalf of the American people . Hayes stated : " In the name of the people of the United States I accept this noble statue , so worthy of its subject , erected in honor of Gen. George H. Thomas by his comrades of the illustrious Army of the Cumberland . " The monument was the sixth equestrian sculpture erected in Washington , D.C.
= = = Influence and historic designation = = =
Art critics , historians , and Civil War monument researchers Kirk Savage and Kathryn Allamong Jacob consider the Thomas monument one of the best equestrian statues in Washington , D.C. According to Savage , it " enhanced the circle 's prestige by giving it a commemorative identity in this rapidly emerging landscape " and " served at once as a national monument honoring a war hero and a real estate amenity for an affluent urban setting . " It increased development at Thomas Circle and the surrounding area , although none of the stately homes around the circle are still standing . Along with seventeen other Civil War monuments , Major General George Henry Thomas was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . The sculpture and the surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = Design and location = =
The monument is located in the center of Thomas Circle , at the intersection of 14th Street , M Street , Massachusetts Avenue and Vermont Avenue NW . Following a reconstruction of Thomas Circle completed in 2006 , new sidewalks and landscaping allowed visitors easier access to the monument and surrounding park . The monument is approximately 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) high while the statue itself is around 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high . The bronze figures of Thomas and the horse are around twice life @-@ size . Thomas is depicted surveying a battlefield while at the top of a hill . He is holding the reins of the horse with his left hand and his right hand is holding his hat and gloves . Thomas is wearing a double @-@ breasted military coat and plain riding boots , while his sword hangs from his left side . The horse looks straight ahead as its mane and tail are blown by the wind . Its " dilated nostrils , erect ears , tense muscles , and waving , bushy tail " demonstrate the horse 's excitement . The horse was originally designed to be a mare . After it was pointed out that Thomas only rode stallions , additions were made to the sculpture , though the slender head and neck are still reminiscent of a mare .
The statue stands on an oval granite pedestal featuring two Baroque scrolls on each end . A bronze badge of the Army of the Cumberland , which Thomas had commanded , and a laurel wreath is also on each side of the pedestal . The circular granite base features four steps and four blocks protruding from the pedestal to the lowest step . Decorative gas lamps previously stood on the base 's four blocks , but these were removed sometime around 1922 .
Inscriptions on the monument include the following :
( pedestal east side ) ERECTED BY HIS COMRADES / OF THE SOCIETY OF / THE ARMY OF THE CUMBERLAND
( pedestal , west side ) MAJ . GEN . GEORGE H. THOMAS / SAN FRANCISCO CAL . / MARCH 28 , 1870
( bottom of sculpture , east side ) J. Q. A. WARD SCULP 1879
( bottom of sculpture , west side ) BUREAU BROS & HEATON / FOUNDERS . PHIL
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= Jackie Robinson Day =
Jackie Robinson Day is a traditional event which occurs annually in Major League Baseball , commemorating and honoring the day Jackie Robinson made his major league debut . April 15 was Opening Day in 1947 , Robinson 's first season in the Major Leagues . Initiated for the first time on April 15 , 2004 , Jackie Robinson Day is celebrated each year on that day . The festivity is a result of Robinson 's memorable career , best known for becoming the first black major league baseball player of the modern era in 1947 . His debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers ( today known as the Los Angeles Dodgers ) ended approximately eighty years of baseball segregation , also known as the baseball color line , or color barrier . He also was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962 , remembered for his services with the number 42 jersey .
The gala is celebrated at varied ballparks by Major League team players . On that one day , all players , coaches , and managers on both teams , and the umpires , wear # 42 on their jerseys .
Shea Stadium was one of the prominent venues hosting the event , having commemorated the retirement of Robinson 's number 42 jersey in 1997 . Bob DuPuy , the President and Chief Operating Officer of Major League baseball , described Jackie Robinson Day as a significance " not only for baseball , but for our country in general . "
= = History = =
= = = 2004 = = =
The first Jackie Robinson Day was on April 15 , 2004 . That day was a start to an annual tradition throughout Major League Baseball and an inspirational reminder about what happened on that day exactly fifty @-@ seven years earlier when Jackie Robinson became a Major League Baseball player . The day would be the first official league @-@ wide Jackie Robinson Day , having festivities taking place at all 13 ballparks where Major League games were scheduled to be played . Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig made the announcement with Sharon Robinson ( daughter of Rachel and Jackie Robinson ) .
" I have often stated that baseball 's proudest moment and its most powerful social statement came on April 15 , 1947 when Jackie Robinson first set foot on a Major League Baseball field " , said Selig . " On that day , Jackie brought down the color barrier and ushered in the era in which baseball became the true national pastime . Fifty years after that historic event , in April 1997 , I was proud to join Rachel Robinson and President Bill Clinton at Shea Stadium to honor Jackie by retiring his uniform number 42 in perpetuity . By establishing April 15 as ' Jackie Robinson Day ' throughout Major League Baseball , we are further ensuring that the incredible contributions and sacrifices he made — for baseball and society — will not be forgotten . "
It began that Thursday morning with Sharon Robinson , ringing the ceremonial Opening Bell at the New York Stock Exchange . Rachel Robinson ( Jackie Robinson 's wife ) , officials from the Major League Baseball foundation , and officials of the Jackie Robinson Foundation ( JRF ) took part in the special ceremony honoring Jackie Robinson . Festivities took place in the 13 ballparks that had scheduled games that day . The balls had a " 42 " logo on each of them for the games that day . Jackie Robinson Foundation scholars threw out the ceremonial first pitch prior to each game . " I 'm very happy my son is in Boston today , we 're happy that the scholars and family are at different clubs and look forward to expanding the celebration as the years go on " , Robinson said . " And also continuing to come up with creative ways to reach out to the African @-@ American community and bring them into this wonderful game of baseball that we all love . "
= = = 2005 = = =
April 15 , 2005 , was the 58th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's major league debut . Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig officially declared that every April 15 would be designated as Jackie Robinson Day and it would be celebrated each year throughout Major League Baseball . Every ballpark in Major League Baseball in the United States celebrated Jackie Robinson Day , unlike in 2004 when it was only celebrated in 13 ballparks . Each ballpark showed a video tribute to Robinson , and many brought out Jackie Robinson Foundation scholars onto the field before the games . In Cincinnati , Ohio , Ken Griffey , Jr. spoke of how much every African @-@ American baseball player owes Robinson , who was chosen by manager Branch Rickey to break the color line because of Robinson 's inner courage and ability to keep his temper in check .
= = = 2006 = = =
April 15 , 2006 , was the 59th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's major league debut . Rachel Robinson attended the ceremony , having former Negro Leagues players Robert Scott and Armando Vazquez also attending the ceremony . His widow was honored and celebrated at Shea Stadium . After a video tribute on the scoreboard of Shea Stadium of Jackie Robinson , Rachel Robinson walked to the pitcher 's mound before the New York Mets hosted the Milwaukee Brewers , along with Bob DuPuy , baseball 's chief operating officer , and New York Mets manager Willie Randolph . " I 've got a picture of Jackie in my office , so I think about that every day , " Randolph said . " I 'm just happy to be a part of this day . " A large blue , gray and white circle with " 42 " on it was put over home plate representing the colors of Jackie Robinson 's uniform with the Dodgers as a major leaguer .
= = = 2007 = = =
April 15 , 2007 , was the 60th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's major league debut , with ceremonies held at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , California . Uniformed personnel ( players , coaches and managers ) were invited to wear the number 42 just for that day to commemorate Robinson . During the 2007 regular season , Ken Griffey , Jr. called Bud Selig to ask for permission to wear number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day . Griffey received special permission from Rachel Robinson to wear number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day of 2007 .
Number 42 had been retired for all Major League Baseball teams . This meant that no future Major League Baseball player could wear it . The number was retired in a ceremony which took place in 1997 at Shea Stadium to mark the 50th anniversary of Robinson 's first game with the Dodgers . ( The last player to wear the Number 42 is Mariano Rivera of the New York Yankees , who retired at the end of the 2013 season ) . Selig embraced the gesture and encouraged other Major League Baseball clubs to have a player wear number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day as well .
Several players thought having over 150 players wearing number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day was far too many . " This is supposed to be an honor " , Minnesota Twins outfielder Torii Hunter told USA Today , " and just a handful of guys wearing the number . Now you 've got entire teams doing it . I think we 're killing the meaning . It should be special wearing Jackie 's number , not just because it looks cool . " Cleveland Indians pitcher C.C. Sabathia , who decried the lack of African @-@ American players in the game in March 2007 , told USA Today that " It kind of waters it down . I could see the Dodgers since that was his team , but not everyone else . " " I didn 't know so many guys planned to wear the number . I sure wasn 't expecting whole teams to wear it " , Griffey told the USA Today . " But I 'm not going to look at it as a negative . This is a tribute for what the man has done , a day to celebrate . " Garret Anderson , Los Angeles Angels left fielder , told the USA Today that he won 't wear number 42 because " I just don 't feel I 'm worthy of it . "
Hank Aaron and Frank Robinson , both Baseball Hall of Famers , threw the ceremonial first pitches , and fellow Hall of Famers Joe Morgan and Dave Winfield were on hand . Actors Courtney B. Vance and Marlon Wayans also attended the Jackie Robinson Day ceremony . Academy Award winner Jennifer Hudson sang " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " before the games started . More than 240 players wore number 42 in honor of Jackie Robinson 's retired number , including the entire team rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers , New York Mets , Houston Astros , Philadelphia Phillies , St. Louis Cardinals , Milwaukee Brewers , and Pittsburgh Pirates . All scheduled games were played that day except for several games – notably the Washington Nationals @-@ New York Mets , the Houston Astros @-@ Philadelphia Phillies ( the game and the ceremony was held on the make @-@ up date on April 23 , 2007 ) , as was the Pirates game against the San Francisco Giants ; the uniforms were worn at the team 's next home game at PNC Park – all due to a major rainstorm in the Eastern United States that postponed six games .
Andre Ethier , Russell Martin and Wilson Valdez managed to each earn three hits each during the Dodgers game . Ethier hit a home run which drove in the first four runs of the season for the Dodgers , who stole five bases — their most since August 23 , 1999 when they stole seven in a game at Milwaukee . " It 's kind of cool to have a decent game on Jackie Robinson Day , " Martin said . " I ’ m going to remember this probably for the rest of my life . " Randy Wolf , who was playing for the Dodgers at the time ( currently a free agent ) allowed six hits and three runs in six innings and struck out seven . " The whole team wearing No. 42 , it kind of goes sour if we don ’ t win , " Wolf said . " It was great . There were a lot of special people here . It 's a special day and I think they did it right . " The San Diego Padres ' José Cruz , Jr. hit his 200th career home run .
Chris Young 's streak of 25 consecutive road starts without a loss was broken that day by the Dodgers win . The only other pitcher in major league baseball history had gone as many as 25 straight road starts without losing — Allie Reynolds had a 25 @-@ game streak in 1948 – 1949 . " I was terrible , " Young said . " I just never found my rhythm and never found my groove . I put the guys in a hole early in the game and it was just too much to overcome . I can ’ t imagine , having to go through that , the courage it took , the discipline , and just how successful he was . I mean , he wasn ’ t just successful integrating the game . He was a great baseball player . He 's a Hall of Fame baseball player . He wouldn ’ t allow himself to fail , and that 's tremendous . "
" Oh Happy Day , " a Robinson favorite , was sung by The Brookinaires Gospel Choir from The First African Methodist Episcopal Church . Paintings of Minnesota Twins logos acknowledging Robinson were on both sides of the home plate with another behind second base , and " Jackie Robinson Day " was printed on the bases . A video tribute with Morgan and Aaron among those participating was shown . Several current players expressed their thanks to Robinson in the video also .
= = = 2008 = = =
April 15 , 2008 , was the 61st anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's major league debut . Over 330 team members wore number 42 , more than the over 240 last year . When the teams took the field , all players , managers and coaches were wearing number 42 , and was repeated at all other 14 ballparks that had scheduled games that day . All players wore number 42 at games including the Washington Nationals ' game at the New York Mets , Pittsburgh 's game at the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Los Angeles Angels ' game at the Texas Rangers . The Oakland Athletics , St. Louis Cardinals and Tampa Bay Rays also wore number 42 , increasing the total to nine teams . " The significance of Jackie Robinson Day is not lost on anyone " , said Bob DuPuy . " As more and more people realize what April 15 means , not only for baseball , but for our country in general , I think you 're going to see the celebration grow annually . "
= = = 2009 = = =
The celebration for the 2009 season , commemorating the 62nd anniversary of Robinson 's debut , included the dedication for the Jackie Robinson Rotunda at Citi Field , the New York Mets ' new home in Flushing Meadows prior to the Mets playing the San Diego Padres in the second regular season game to be played there . Additionally , for the first time , all uniformed personnel ( players , managers , coaches and umpires ) wore # 42 for the day . The sole exception was when the scheduled game at Nationals Park between the Philadelphia Phillies and the Washington Nationals was rained out ; they wore the jerseys in the night game of a day @-@ night doubleheader May 16 .
= = = 2010 = = =
The celebration of Jackie Robinson Day , marking the 63rd anniversary of his debut , marked the second season that all uniformed personnel and umpires wearing # 42 . A total of twelve games were played that day , so as a result , several teams wore Robinson 's number in another game in April due to an off day planned for several teams . The main celebration was again in New York , but was held at the new Yankee Stadium , yards from the original stadium where Robinson played in seven World Series against the New York Yankees .
= = = 2011 = = =
The 64th anniversary of Robinson 's debut marked the third straight season all uniformed players and umpires wearing # 42 , with the exception of the rained @-@ out New York Mets @-@ Atlanta Braves game ; the teams wore the uniforms the following day 's makeup game . In addition , a new MLB website , www.iam42.com , was established .
= = = 2012 = = =
65th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's debut and 4th straight season all uniformed players , coaches and umpires wore No. 42 .
= = = 2013 = = =
2013 marked the 66th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's debut and 5th straight season all uniformed players , coaches and umpires wore No. 42 .
= = = 2014 = = =
The 67th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's debut was celebrated at Historic Dodgertown , where Robinson and teammates used to spend their spring training preparing for the upcoming season for the Dodgers . Owned by former Dodger owner Peter O 'Malley , Historic Dodgertown hosted the 2014 celebration by putting on a minor league exhibition game . Also , four games – Atlanta at Philadelphia , Cleveland at Detroit , Tampa Bay at Baltimore and the Chicago Cubs at the New York Yankees – were postponed due to a rainstorm that plagued much of the eastern USA .
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= Shen Kuo =
Shen Kuo ( Chinese : 沈括 ; 1031 – 1095 ) , courtesy name Cunzhong ( 存中 ) and pseudonym Mengqi ( now usually given as Mengxi ) Weng ( 夢溪翁 ) , was a Han Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman of the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . Excelling in many fields of study and statecraft , he was a mathematician , astronomer , meteorologist , geologist , zoologist , botanist , pharmacologist , agronomist , archaeologist , ethnographer , cartographer , encyclopedist , general , diplomat , hydraulic engineer , inventor , academy chancellor , finance minister , governmental state inspector , poet , and musician . He was the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy in the Song court , as well as an Assistant Minister of Imperial Hospitality . At court his political allegiance was to the Reformist faction known as the New Policies Group , headed by Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) .
In his Dream Pool Essays or Dream Torrent Essays ( 夢溪筆談 ; Mengxi Bitan ) of 1088 , Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needle compass , which would be used for navigation ( first described in Europe by Alexander Neckam in 1187 ) . Shen discovered the concept of true north in terms of magnetic declination towards the north pole , with experimentation of suspended magnetic needles and " the improved meridian determined by Shen 's [ astronomical ] measurement of the distance between the pole star and true north " . This was the decisive step in human history to make compasses more useful for navigation , and may have been a concept unknown in Europe for another four hundred years ( evidence of German sundials made circa 1450 show markings similar to Chinese geomancer compasses in regard to declination ) .
Alongside his colleague Wei Pu , Shen planned to map the orbital paths of the Moon and the planets in an intensive five @-@ year project involving daily observations , yet this was thwarted by political opponents at court . To aid his work in astronomy , Shen Kuo made improved designs of the armillary sphere , gnomon , sighting tube , and invented a new type of inflow water clock . Shen Kuo devised a geological hypothesis for land formation ( geomorphology ) , based upon findings of inland marine fossils , knowledge of soil erosion , and the deposition of silt . He also proposed a hypothesis of gradual climate change , after observing ancient petrified bamboos that were preserved underground in a dry northern habitat that would not support bamboo growth in his time . He was the first literary figure in China to mention the use of the drydock to repair boats suspended out of water , and also wrote of the effectiveness of the relatively new invention of the canal pound lock . Although Ibn al @-@ Haytham ( 965 – 1039 ) was the first to describe camera obscura , Shen was the first in China to do so , several decades later . Shen wrote extensively about movable type printing invented by Bi Sheng ( 990 – 1051 ) , and because of his written works the legacy of Bi Sheng and the modern understanding of the earliest movable type has been handed down to later generations . Following an old tradition in China , Shen created a raised @-@ relief map while inspecting borderlands . His description of an ancient crossbow mechanism which he himself unearthed proved to be a Jacob 's staff , a surveying tool which wasn 't known in Europe until described by Levi ben Gerson in 1321 .
Shen Kuo wrote several other books besides the Dream Pool Essays , yet much of the writing in his other books has not survived . Some of Shen 's poetry was preserved in posthumous written works . Although much of his focus was on technical and scientific issues , he had an interest in divination and the supernatural , the latter including his vivid description of unidentified flying objects from eyewitness testimony . He also wrote commentary on ancient Daoist and Confucian texts .
= = Life = =
= = = Birth and youth = = =
Shen Kuo was born in Qiantang ( modern @-@ day Hangzhou ) in the year 1031 . His father Shen Zhou ( 沈周 ; 978 – 1052 ) was a somewhat lower @-@ class gentry figure serving in official posts on the provincial level ; his mother was from a family of equal status in Suzhou , with her maiden name being Xu ( 許 ) . Shen Kuo received his initial childhood education from his mother , which was a common practice in China during this period . She was very educated herself , teaching Kuo and his brother Pi ( 披 ) the military doctrines of her own elder brother Xu Tang ( 許洞 ; 975 – 1016 ) . Since Shen was unable to boast of a prominent familial clan history like many of his elite peers born in the north , he was forced to rely on his wit and stern determination to achieve in his studies , subsequently passing the Imperial Exams and enter the challenging and sophisticated life of an exam @-@ drafted state bureaucrat .
From about 1040 , Shen 's family moved around Sichuan province and finally to the international seaport at Xiamen , where Shen 's father accepted minor provincial posts in each new location . Shen Zhou also served several years in the prestigious capital judiciary , the equivalent of a federal supreme court . Shen Kuo took notice of the various towns and rural features of China as his family traveled , while he became interested during his youth in the diverse topography of the land . He also observed the intriguing aspects of his father 's engagement in administrative governance and the managerial problems involved ; these experiences had a deep impact on him as he later became a government official . Since he often became ill as a child , Shen Kuo also developed a natural curiosity about medicine and pharmaceutics .
Shen Zhou died in the late winter of 1051 ( or early 1052 ) , when his son Shen Kuo was 21 years old . Shen Kuo grieved for his father , and following Confucian ethics , remained inactive in a state of mourning for three years until 1054 ( or early 1055 ) . As of 1054 , Shen began serving in minor local governmental posts . However , his natural abilities to plan , organize , and design were proven early in life ; one example is his design and supervision of the hydraulic drainage of an embankment system , which converted some one hundred thousand acres ( 400 km ² ) of swampland into prime farmland . Shen Kuo noted that the success of the silt fertilization method relied upon the effective operation of sluice gates of irrigation canals .
= = = Official career = = =
In 1063 Shen Kuo successfully passed the Imperial examinations , the difficult national @-@ level standard test that every high official was required to pass in order to enter the governmental system . He not only passed the exam however , but was placed into the higher category of the best and brightest students . While serving at Yangzhou , Shen 's brilliance and dutiful character caught the attention of Zhang Chu ( 張蒭 ; 1015 – 1080 ) , the Fiscal Intendant of the region . Shen made a lasting impression upon Zhang , who recommended Shen for a court appointment in the financial administration of the central court . Shen would also eventually marry Zhang 's daughter , who became his second wife .
In his career as a scholar @-@ official for the central government , Shen Kuo was also an ambassador to the Western Xia Dynasty and Liao Dynasty , a military commander , a director of hydraulic works , and the leading chancellor of the Hanlin Academy . By 1072 , Shen was appointed as the head official of the Bureau of Astronomy . With his leadership position in the bureau , Shen was responsible for projects in improving calendrical science , and proposed many reforms to the Chinese calendar alongside the work of his colleague Wei Pu . With his impressive skills and aptitude for matters of economy and finance , Shen was appointed as the Finance Commissioner at the central court .
As written by Li Zhiyi , a man married to Hu Wenrou ( granddaughter of Hu Su , a famous minister of the Song Dynasty ) , Shen Kuo was Li 's mentor while Shen served as an official . According to Li 's epitaph for his wife , Shen would sometimes relay questions via Li to Hu when he needed clarification for his mathematical work , as Hu Wenrou was esteemed by Shen as a remarkable female mathematician . Shen lamented : " if only she were a man , Wenrou would be my friend . "
While employed by the central government , Shen Kuo was also sent out with others to inspect the granary system of the empire , investigating problems of illegal collections , negligence , ineffective disaster relief , and inadequate water @-@ conservancy projects . While Shen was appointed as the regional inspector of Zhejiang in 1073 , the Emperor requested that Shen pay a visit to the famous poet Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) , then an administrator in Hangzhou . Shen took advantage of this meeting to copy some of Su 's poetry , which he presented to the Emperor indicating that it expressed " abusive and hateful " speech against the Song court ; these poems were later politicized by Li Ding and Shu Dan in order to level a court case against Su . ( The Crow Terrace Poetry Trial , of 1079 . ) With his demonstrations of loyalty and ability , Shen Kuo was awarded the honorary title of a State Foundation Viscount by Emperor Shenzong of Song ( r . 1067 – 1085 ) , who placed a great amount of trust in Shen Kuo . He was even made ' companion to the heir apparent ' ( 太子中允 ; ' Taizi zhongyun ' ) .
At court Shen was a political favorite of the Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) , who was the leader of the political faction of Reformers , also known as the New Policies Group ( 新法 , Xin Fa ) . Shen Kuo had a previous history with Wang Anshi , since it was Wang who had composed the funerary epitaph for Shen 's father , Zhou . Shen Kuo soon impressed Wang Anshi with his skills and abilities as an administrator and government agent . In 1072 , Shen was sent to supervise Wang 's program of surveying the building of silt deposits in the Bian Canal outside the capital city . Using an original technique , Shen successfully dredged the canal and demonstrated the formidable value of the silt gathered as a fertilizer . He gained further reputation at court once he was dispatched as an envoy to the Khitan Liao Dynasty in the summer of 1075 . The Khitans had made several aggressive negotiations of pushing their borders south , while manipulating several incompetent Chinese ambassadors who conceded to the Liao Kingdom 's demands . In a brilliant display of diplomacy , Shen Kuo came to the camp of the Khitan monarch at Mt . Yongan ( near modern Pingquan , Hebei ) , armed with copies of previously archived diplomatic negotiations between the Song and Liao dynasties . Shen Kuo refuted Emperor Daozong 's bluffs point for point , while the Song reestablished their rightful border line . In regard to the Lý Dynasty of Đại Việt ( in modern northern Vietnam ) , Shen demonstrated in his Dream Pool Essays that he was familiar with the key players ( on the Vietnamese side ) in the prelude to the Sino @-@ Vietnamese War of 1075 – 1077 . With his reputable achievements , Shen became a trusted member of Wang Anshi 's elite circle of eighteen unofficial core political loyalists to the New Policies Group .
Although much of Wang Anshi 's reforms outlined in the New Policies centered on state finance , land tax reform , and the Imperial examinations , there were also military concerns . This included policies of raising militias to lessen the expense of upholding a million soldiers , putting government monopolies on saltpetre and sulphur production and distribution in 1076 ( to ensure that gunpowder solutions would not fall into the hands of enemies ) , and aggressive military policy towards China 's northern rivals of the Western Xia and Liao dynasties . A few years after Song Dynasty military forces had made victorious territorial gains against the Tanguts of the Western Xia , in 1080 Shen Kuo was entrusted as a military officer in defense of Yanzhou ( modern @-@ day Yan 'an , Shaanxi province ) . During the autumn months of 1081 , Shen was successful in defending Song Dynasty territory while capturing several fortified towns of the Western Xia . The Emperor Shenzong of Song rewarded Shen with numerous titles for his merit in these battles , and in the sixteen months of Shen 's military campaign , he received 273 letters from the Emperor . However , Emperor Shenzong trusted an arrogant military officer who disobeyed the emperor and Shen 's proposal for strategic fortifications , instead fortifying what Shen considered useless strategic locations . Furthermore , this officer expelled Shen from his commanding post at the main citadel , so as to deny him any glory in chance of victory . The result of this was nearly catastrophic , as the forces of the arrogant officer were decimated ; Xinzhong Yao states that the death toll was 60 @,@ 000 . Nonetheless , Shen was successful in defending his fortifications and the only possible Tangut invasion @-@ route to Yanzhou .
= = = Impeachment and later life = = =
The new Chancellor Cai Que ( 蔡確 ; 1036 – 1093 ) held Shen responsible for the disaster and loss of life . Along with abandoning the territory which Shen Kuo had fought for , Cai ousted Shen from his seat of office . Shen 's life was now forever changed , as he lost his once reputable career in state governance and the military . Shen was then put under probation in a fixed residence for the next six years . However , as he was isolated from governance , he decided to pick up the ink brush and dedicate himself to intensive scholarly studies . After completing two geographical atlases for a state @-@ sponsored program , Shen was rewarded by having his sentence of probation lifted , allowing him to live in a place of his choice . Shen was also pardoned by the court for any previous faults or crimes that were claimed against him .
In his more idle years removed from court affairs , Shen Kuo enjoyed pastimes of the Chinese gentry and literati that would indicate his intellectual level and cultural taste to others . As described in his Dream Pool Essays , Shen Kuo enjoyed the company of the " nine guests " ( 九客 , jiuke ) , a figure of speech for the Chinese zither , the older 17x17 line variant of weiqi ( known today as go ) , Zen Buddhist meditation , ink ( calligraphy and painting ) , tea drinking , alchemy , chanting poetry , conversation , and drinking wine . These nine activities were an extension to the older so @-@ called Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar .
According to Zhu Yu 's book Pingzhou Table Talks ( 萍洲可談 ; Pingzhou Ketan ) of 1119 , Shen Kuo had two marriages ; the second wife was the daughter of Zhang Chu ( 張蒭 ) , who came from Huainan . Lady Zhang was said to be overbearing and fierce , often abusive to Shen Kuo , even attempting at one time to pull off his beard . Shen Kuo 's children were often upset over this , and prostrated themselves to Lady Zhang to quit this behavior . Despite this , Lady Zhang went as far as to drive out Shen Kuo 's son from his first marriage , expelling him from the household . However , after Lady Zhang died , Shen Kuo fell into a deep depression and even attempted to jump into the Yangtze River to drown himself . Although this suicide attempt failed , he would die a year later .
In the 1070s , Shen had purchased a lavish garden estate on the outskirts of modern @-@ day Zhenjiang , Jiangsu province , a place of great beauty which he named " Dream Brook " ( " Mengxi " ) after he visited it for the first time in 1086 . Shen Kuo permanently moved to the Dream Brook Estate in 1088 , and in that same year he completed his life 's written work of the Dream Pool Essays , naming the book after his garden @-@ estate property . It was there that Shen Kuo spent the last several years of his life in leisure , isolation , and illness , until his death in 1095 .
= = Scholarly achievements = =
Shen Kuo wrote extensively on a wide range of different subjects . His written work included two geographical atlases , a treatise on music with mathematical harmonics , governmental administration , mathematical astronomy , astronomical instruments , martial defensive tactics and fortifications , painting , tea , medicine , and much poetry . His scientific writings have been praised by sinologists such as Joseph Needham and Nathan Sivin , and he has been compared by Sivin to polymaths such as his contemporary Su Song , as well as Gottfried Leibniz and Mikhail Lomonosov .
= = = Raised @-@ relief map = = =
If the account of Sima Qian ( c . 145 – 86 BC ) in his Records of the Grand Historian is proven correct upon the unearthing of Qin Shi Huang 's ( r . 221 – 210 BC ) tomb , the raised @-@ relief map has existed since the Qin Dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) . Robert Temple and Joseph Needham suggest that certain pottery vessels of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) showing artificial mountains as lid decorations may have influenced the raised @-@ relief map . The Han Dynasty general Ma Yuan ( 14 BC – 49 AD ) made a raised @-@ relief map of valleys and mountains in a rice @-@ constructed model of 32 AD . Such rice models were expounded on by the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) author Jiang Fang in his Essay on the Art of Constructing Mountains with Rice ( c . 845 AD ) . A raised @-@ relief map made of wood representing all the provinces of the empire and put together like a giant 0 @.@ 93 m2 ( 10 ft2 ) jigsaw puzzle was invented by Xie Zhuang ( 421 – 466 AD ) during the Liu Song Dynasty ( 420 – 479 ) .
Shen 's largest atlas included twenty three maps of China and foreign regions that were drawn at a uniform scale of 1 : 900 @,@ 000 . Shen also created a raised @-@ relief map using sawdust , wood , beeswax , and wheat paste . Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) was inspired by the raised @-@ relief map of Huang Shang and so made his own portable map made of wood and clay which could be folded up from eight hinged pieces .
= = = Pharmacology = = =
For pharmacology , Shen wrote of the difficulties of adequate diagnosis and therapy , as well as the proper selection , preparation , and administration of drugs . He held great concern for detail and philological accuracy in identification , use and cultivation of different types of medicinal herbs , such as in which months medicinal plants should be gathered , their exact ripening times , which parts should be used for therapy ; for domesticated herbs he wrote about planting times , fertilization , and other matters of horticulture . In the realms of botany , zoology , and mineralogy , Shen Kuo documented and systematically described hundreds of different plants , agricultural crops , rare vegetation , animals , and minerals found in China . For example , Shen noted that the mineral orpiment was used to quickly erase writing errors on paper .
= = = Civil engineering = = =
The writing of Shen Kuo is the only source for the date when the drydock was first used in China . Shen Kuo wrote that during the Xi @-@ Ning reign ( 1068 – 1077 ) , the court official Huang Huaixin devised a plan for repairing 60 m ( 200 ft ) long palatial boats that were a century old ; essentially , Huang Huaixin devised the first Chinese drydock for suspending boats out of water . These boats were then placed in a roof @-@ covered dock warehouse to protect them from weathering . Shen also wrote about the effectiveness of the new invention ( i.e. by the 10th century engineer Qiao Weiyo ) of the pound lock to replace the old flash lock design used in canals . He wrote that it saved the work of five hundred annual labors , annual costs of up to 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 strings of cash , and increased the size limit of boats accommodated from 21 tons / 21000 kg to 113 tons / 115000 kg .
If it were not for Shen Kuo 's analysis and quoting in his Dream Pool Essays of the writings of the architect Yu Hao ( fl . 970 ) , the latter 's work would have been lost to history . Yu designed a famous wooden pagoda that burned down in 1044 and was replaced in 1049 by a brick pagoda ( the ' Iron Pagoda ' ) of similar height , but not of his design . From Shen 's quotation — or perhaps Shen 's own paraphrasing of Yu Hao 's Timberwork Manual ( 木經 ; Mujing ) — shows that already in the 10th century there was a graded system of building unit proportions , a system which Shen states had become more precise in his time but stating no one could possibly reproduce such a sound work . However , he did not anticipate the more complex and matured system of unit proportions embodied in the extensive written work by scholar @-@ official Li Jie ( 1065 – 1110 ) , the Treatise on Architectural Methods ( 營造法式 ; Yingzao Fashi ) of 1103 . Klaas Ruitenbeek states that the version of the Timberwork Manual quoted by Shen is most likely Shen 's summarization of Yu 's work or a corrupted passage of the original by Yu Hao , as Shen writes : " According to some , the work was written by Yu Hao . "
= = = Anatomy = = =
The Chinese had long taken an interest in examining the human body . For example , in 16 AD the Xin Dynasty usurper Wang Mang called for the dissection of an executed man , to examine his arteries and viscera in order to discover cures for illnesses . Shen also took interest in human anatomy , dispelling the long @-@ held Chinese theory that the throat contained three valves , writing , " When liquid and solid are imbibed together , how can it be that in one 's mouth they sort themselves into two throat channels ? " Shen maintained that the larynx was the beginning of a system that distributed vital qi from the air throughout the body , and that the esophagus was a simple tube that dropped food into the stomach . Following Shen 's reasoning and correcting the findings of the dissection of executed bandits in 1045 , an early 12th @-@ century Chinese account of a bodily dissection finally supported Shen 's belief in two throat valves , not three . Also , the later Song Dynasty judge and early forensic expert Song Ci ( 1186 – 1249 ) would promote the use of autopsy in order to solve homicide cases , as written in his Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified .
= = = Mathematics and optics = = =
In the broad field of mathematics , Shen Kuo mastered many practical mathematical problems , including many complex formulas for geometry , circle packing , and chords and arcs problems employing trigonometry . Shen addressed problems of writing out very large numbers , as large as 1043 . Shen 's " technique of small increments " laid the foundation in Chinese mathematics for packing problems involving equal difference series . Sal Restivo writes that Shen used summation of higher series to ascertain the number of kegs which could be piled in layers in a space shaped like the frustum of a rectangular pyramid . In his formula " technique of intersecting circles " , he created an approximation of the arc of a circle s given the diameter d , sagita v , and length of the chord c subtending the arc , the length of which he approximated as s = c + 2v2 / d . Restivo writes that Shen 's work in the lengths of arcs of circles provided the basis for spherical trigonometry developed in the 13th century by Guo Shoujing ( 1231 – 1316 ) . He also simplified the counting rods technique by outlining short cuts in algorithm procedures used on the counting board , an idea expanded on by the mathematician Yang Hui ( 1238 – 1298 ) . Victor J. Katz asserts that Shen 's method of " dividing by 9 , increase by 1 ; dividing by 8 , increase by 2 , " was a direct forerunner to the rhyme scheme method of repeated addition " 9 , 1 , bottom add 1 ; 9 , 2 , bottom add 2 " .
Shen wrote extensively about what he had learned while working for the state treasury , including mathematical problems posed by computing land tax , estimating requirements , currency issues , metrology , and so forth . Shen once computed the amount of terrain space required for battle formations in military strategy , and also computed the longest possible military campaign given the limits of human carriers who would bring their own food and food for other soldiers . Shen wrote about the earlier Yi Xing ( 672 – 717 ) , a Buddhist monk who applied an early escapement mechanism to a water @-@ powered celestial globe . By using mathematical permutations , Shen described Yi Xing 's calculation of possible positions on a go board game . Shen calculated the total number for this using up to five rows and twenty five game pieces , which yielded the number 847 @,@ 288 @,@ 609 @,@ 443 .
Shen Kuo experimented with the pinhole camera and burning mirror as the ancient Chinese Mohists had done in the 4th century BC . Although the Iraqi Muslim scientist Ibn al @-@ Haytham ( 965 – 1039 ) was the first to experiment with camera obscura , Shen Kuo was the first to attribute geometrical and quantitative properties to the camera obscura , just several decades after Ibn al @-@ Haytham 's death . Using a fitting metaphor , Shen compared optical image inversion to an oarlock and waisted drum . He also discussed focal points and noted that the image in a concave mirror is inverted . Shen , who never asserted that he was the first to experiment with camera obscura , hints in his writing that camera obscura was dealt with in the Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang written by Duan Chengshi ( d . 863 ) during the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , in regard to the inverted image of a Chinese pagoda by a seashore .
= = = Magnetic needle compass = = =
Since the time of the engineer and inventor Ma Jun ( c . 200 – 265 ) , the Chinese had used the south @-@ pointing chariot , which did not employ magnetism , as a compass . In 1044 the Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques ( 武經總要 ; Wujing Zongyao ) recorded that fish @-@ shaped objects cut from sheet iron , magnetized by thermoremanence ( essentially , heating that produced weak magnetic force ) , and placed in a water @-@ filled bowl enclosed by a box were used for directional pathfinding alongside the south @-@ pointing chariot .
However , it was not until the time of Shen Kuo that the earliest magnetic compasses would be used for navigation . In his written work , Shen Kuo made the first known explicit reference to the magnetic compass @-@ needle and the concept of true north . He wrote that steel needles were magnetized once they were rubbed with lodestone , and that they were put in floating position or in mountings ; he described the suspended compass as the best form to be used , and noted that the magnetic needle of compasses pointed either south or north . Shen Kuo asserted that the needle will point south but with a deviation , stating " [ the magnetic needles ] are always displaced slightly east rather than pointing due south . "
Shen Kuo wrote that it was preferable to use the twenty @-@ four @-@ point rose instead of the old eight compass cardinal points — and the former was recorded in use for navigation shortly after Shen 's death . The preference of use for the twenty @-@ four @-@ point @-@ rose compass may have arisen from Shen 's finding of a more accurate astronomical meridian , determined by his measurement between the pole star and true north ; however , it could also have been inspired by geomantic beliefs and practices . The book of the author Zhu Yu , the Pingzhou Table Talks published in 1119 ( written from 1111 to 1117 ) , was the first record of use of a compass for seafaring navigation . However , Zhu Yu 's book recounts events back to 1086 , when Shen Kuo was writing the Dream Pool Essays ; this meant that in Shen 's time the compass might have already been in navigational use . In any case , Shen Kuo 's writing on magnetic compasses has proved invaluable for understanding China 's earliest use of the compass for seafaring navigation .
= = = Archaeology = = =
Many of Shen Kuo 's contemporaries were interested in antiquarian pursuits of collecting old artworks . They were also interested in archaeological pursuits , although for rather different reasons than why Shen Kuo held an interest in archaeology . While Shen 's educated Confucian contemporaries were interested in obtaining ancient relics and antiques in order to revive their use in rituals , Shen was more concerned with how items from archeological finds were originally manufactured and what their functionality would have been , based on empirical evidence . Shen Kuo criticized those in his day who reconstructed ancient ritual objects using only their imagination and not the tangible evidence from archeological digs or finds . Shen also disdained the notion of others that these objects were products of the " sages " or the aristocratic class of antiquity , rightfully crediting the items ' manufacture and production to the common working people and artisans of previous eras . Fraser and Haber write that Shen Kuo " advocated the use of an interdisciplinary approach to archaeology and practiced such an approach himself through his work in metallurgy , optics , and geometry in the study of ancient measures . "
While working in the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo 's interest in archaeology and old relics led him to reconstruct an armillary sphere from existing models as well as from ancient texts that could provide additional information . Shen used ancient mirrors while conducting his optics experiments . He observed ancient weaponry , describing the scaled sight devices on ancient crossbows and the ancients ' production of swords with composite blades that had a midrib of wrought iron and low @-@ carbon steel while having two sharp edges of high @-@ carbon steel . Being a knowledgeable musician , Shen also suggested suspending an ancient bell by using a hollow handle . In his assessment of the carved reliefs of the ancient Zhuwei Tomb , Shen stated that the reliefs demonstrate genuine Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) era clothing .
After unearthing an ancient crossbow device from a house 's garden in Haichow , Jiangsu , Shen discovered that the cross @-@ wire grid sighting device , marked in graduated measurements on the stock , could be used to calculate the height of a distant mountain in the same way that mathematicians could apply right @-@ angle triangles to measure height . Needham asserts Shen had discovered the survey device known as Jacob 's staff , which was not described elsewhere until the Provençal Jewish mathematician Levi ben Gerson ( 1288 – 1344 ) wrote of it in 1321 . Shen wrote that while viewing the whole of a mountain , the distance on the instrument was long , but while viewing a small part of the mountainside the distance was short due to the device 's cross piece that had to be pushed further away from the observer 's eye , with the graduation starting on the further end . He wrote that if one placed an arrow on the device and looked past its end , the degree of the mountain could be measured and thus its height could be calculated .
= = = Geology = = =
The ancient Greek Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC ) wrote in his Meteorology of how the earth had the potential for physical change , including the belief that all rivers and seas at one time did not exist where they were , and were dry . The Greek writer Xenophanes ( 570 BC – 480 BC ) wrote of how inland marine fossils were evidence that massive periodic flooding had wiped out mankind several times in the past , but never wrote of land formation or shifting seashores . Du Yu ( 222 – 285 ) a Chinese Jin Dynasty officer , believed that the land of hills would eventually be leveled into valleys and valleys would gradually rise to form hills . The Daoist alchemist Ge Hong ( 284 – 364 ) wrote of the legendary immortal Magu ; in a written dialogue by Ge , Ma Gu described how what was once the Eastern Sea ( i.e. East China Sea ) had transformed into solid land where mulberry trees grew , and would one day be filled with mountains and dry , dusty lands . The later Persian Muslim scholar Abū Rayhān al @-@ Bīrūnī ( 973 – 1048 ) hypothesized that India was once covered by the Indian Ocean while observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers .
It was Shen Kuo who formulated a hypothesis about the process of land formation ( geomorphology ) based upon several observations as evidence . This included his observation of fossil shells in a geological stratum of a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean . He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by erosion of the mountains , uplift , and the deposition of silt , after observing strange natural erosions of the Taihang Mountains and the Yandang Mountain near Wenzhou . He hypothesized that , with the inundation of silt , the land of the continent must have been formed over an enormous span of time . While visiting the Taihang Mountains in 1074 , Shen Kuo noticed strata of bivalve shells and ovoid rocks in a horizontal @-@ running span through a cliff like a large belt . Shen proposed that the cliff was once the location of an ancient seashore that by his time had shifted hundreds of miles east . Shen wrote that in the Zhiping reign period ( 1064 – 1067 ) a man of Zezhou unearthed an object in his garden that looked like a serpent or dragon , and after examining it , concluded the dead animal had apparently turned to " stone " . The magistrate of Jincheng , Zheng Boshun , examined the creature as well , and noted the same scale @-@ like markings that were seen on other marine animals . Shen Kuo likened this to the " stone crabs " found in China .
Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a climatic area where they had never been known to be grown , the climate there must have shifted geographically over time . Around the year 1080 , Shen Kuo noted that a landslide on the bank of a large river near Yanzhou ( modern Yan 'an ) had revealed an open space several dozens of feet under the ground once the bank collapsed . This underground space contained hundreds of petrified bamboos still intact with roots and trunks , " all turned to stone " as Shen Kuo wrote . Shen Kuo noted that bamboos do not grow in Yanzhou , located in northern China , and he was puzzled during which previous dynasty the bamboos could have grown . Considering that damp and gloomy low places provide suitable conditions for the growth of bamboo , Shen deduced that the climate of Yanzhou must have fit that description in very ancient times . Although this would have intrigued many of his readers , the study of paleoclimatology in medieval China never developed into an established discipline .
The philosopher Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) wrote of this curious natural phenomenon of fossils as well . He was known to have read the works of Shen Kuo . Shen 's description of soil erosion and weathering predated that of Georgius Agricola in his book of 1546 , De veteribus et novis metallis . Furthermore , Shen 's theory of sedimentary deposition predated that of James Hutton , who published his groundbreaking work in 1802 ( considered the foundation of modern geology ) . Historian Joseph Needham likened Shen 's account to that of the Scottish scientist Roderick Murchison ( 1792 – 1871 ) , who was inspired to become a geologist after observing a providential landslide .
= = = Meteorology = = =
Early speculation and hypothesis pertaining to what is now known as meteorology had a long tradition in China before Shen Kuo .
Shen wrote vivid descriptions of tornadoes — the first known description of them in East Asia .
He also gave reasoning ( earlier proposed by Sun Sikong , 1015 – 1076 ) that rainbows were formed by the shadow of the sun in rain , occurring when the sun would shine upon it . Paul Dong writes that Shen 's explanation of the rainbow as a phenomenon of atmospheric refraction " is basically in accord with modern scientific principles . " In Europe , Roger Bacon ( 1214 – 1294 ) was the first to suggest that the colors of the rainbow were caused by the reflection and refraction of sunlight through rain drops .
Shen hypothesized that rays of sunlight refract before reaching the surface of the earth , hence people on earth observing the sun are not viewing it in its exact position , in other words , the altitude of the apparent sun is higher than the actual altitude of the sun . Dong writes that " at the time , this discovery was remarkably original . " Ibn al @-@ Haytham , in his Book of Optics ( 1021 ) , also discussed atmospheric refraction ( in regard to twilight ) .
= = = Astronomy and instruments = = =
Being the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo was an avid scholar of medieval astronomy , and improved the designs of several astronomical instruments . Shen is credited with making improved designs of the gnomon , armillary sphere , and clepsydra clock . For the clepsydra he designed a new overflow @-@ tank type , and argued for a more efficient higher @-@ order interpolation instead of linear interpolation in calibrating the measure of time . Improving the 5th century model of the astronomical sighting tube , Shen Kuo widened its diameter so that the new calibration could observe the pole star indefinitely . This came about due to the position of the pole star shifting in position since the time of Zu Geng in the 5th century , hence Shen Kuo diligently observed the course of the pole star for three months , plotting the data of its course and coming to the conclusion that it had shifted slightly over three degrees . Apparently this astronomical finding had an impact upon the intellectual community in China at the time . Even Shen 's political rival and contemporary astronomer Su Song featured Shen 's corrected position of the pole star ( halfway between Tian shu , at − 350 degrees , and the current Polaris ) in the fourth star map of his celestial atlas .
The astronomical phenomena of the solar eclipse and lunar eclipse had been observed in the 4th century BC by astronomers Gan De and Shi Shen ; the latter gave instructions on predicting the eclipses based on the relative position of the Moon to the Sun . The philosopher Wang Chong argued against the ' radiating influence ' theory of Jing Fang 's writing in the 1st century BC and that of Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 ) ; the latter two correctly hypothesized that the brightness of the Moon was merely light reflected from the Sun . Jing Fang had written in the 1st century BC of how it was long accepted in China that the Sun and Moon were spherical in shape ( ' like a crossbow bullet ' ) , not flat . Shen Kuo also wrote of solar and lunar eclipses in this manner , yet expanded upon this to explain why the celestial bodies were spherical , going against the ' flat earth ' theory for celestial bodies . However , there is no evidence to suggest that Shen Kuo supported a round earth theory , which was introduced into Chinese science by Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi in the 17th century . When the Director of the Astronomical Observatory asked Shen Kuo if the shapes of the Sun and Moon were round like balls or flat like fans , Shen Kuo explained that celestial bodies were spherical because of knowledge of waxing and waning of the Moon . Much like what Zhang Heng had said , Shen Kuo likened the Moon to a ball of silver , which does not produce light , but simply reflects light if provided from another source ( the Sun ) . He explained that when the Sun 's light is slanting , the Moon appears full . He then explained if one were to cover any sort of sphere with white powder , and then viewed from the side it would appear to be a crescent , hence he reasoned that celestial bodies were spherical . He also wrote that , although the Sun and Moon were in conjunction and opposition with each other once a month , this did not mean the Sun would be eclipsed every time their paths met , because of the small obliquity of their orbital paths .
Shen is also known for his cosmological hypotheses in explaining the variations of planetary motions , including retrogradation . His colleague Wei Pu realized that the old calculation technique for the mean Sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent Sun , since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion , and behind it in the retarded phase . Shen 's hypotheses were similar to the concept of the epicycle in the Greco @-@ Roman tradition , only Shen compared the side @-@ section of orbital paths of planets and variations of planetary speeds to points in the tips of a willow leaf . In a similar rudimentary physical analogy of celestial motions , as John B. Henderson describes it , Shen likened the relationship of the Moon 's path to the ecliptic , the path of the Sun , " to the figure of a rope coiled about a tree . "
Along with his colleague Wei Pu in the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo planned to plot out the exact coordinates of planetary and lunar movements by recording their astronomical observations three times a night for a continuum of five years . The Song astronomers of Shen 's day still retained the lunar theory and coordinates of the earlier Yi Xing , which after 350 years had devolved into a state of considerable error . Shen criticized earlier Chinese astronomers for failing to describe celestial movement in spatial terms , yet he did not attempt to provide any reasoning for the motive power of the planets or other celestial movements . Shen and Wei began astronomical observations for the Moon and planets by plotting their locations three times a night for what should have been five successive years . The officials and astronomers at court were deeply opposed Wei and Shen 's work , offended by their insistence that the coordinates of the renowned Yi Xing were inaccurate . They also slandered Wei Pu , out of resentment that a commoner had expertise exceeding theirs . When Wei and Shen made a public demonstration using the gnomon to prove the doubtful wrong , the other ministers reluctantly agreed to correct the lunar and solar errors . Despite this success , they eventually dismissed Wei and Shen 's tables of planetary motions . Therefore , only the worst and most obvious planetary errors were corrected , and many inaccuracies remained .
= = = Movable type printing = = =
Shen Kuo wrote that during the Qingli reign period ( 1041 – 1048 ) , under Emperor Renzong of Song ( 1022 – 1063 ) , an obscure commoner and artisan known as Bi Sheng ( 990 – 1051 ) invented ceramic movable type printing . Although the use of assembling individual characters to compose a piece of text had its origins in antiquity , Bi Sheng 's methodical innovation was something completely revolutionary for his time . Shen Kuo noted that the process was tedious if one only wanted to print a few copies of a book , but if one desired to make hundreds or thousands of copies , the process was incredibly fast and efficient . Beyond Shen Kuo 's writing , however , nothing is known of Bi Sheng 's life or the influence of movable type in his lifetime . Although the details of Bi Sheng 's life were scarcely known , Shen Kuo wrote :
When Bi Sheng died , his fount of type passed into the possession of my followers ( i.e. one of Shen 's nephews ) , among whom it has been kept as a precious possession until now .
There are a few surviving examples of books printed in the late Song Dynasty using movable type printing . This includes Zhou Bida 's Notes of The Jade Hall ( 玉堂雜記 ) printed in 1193 using the method of baked @-@ clay movable type characters outlined in the Dream Pool Essays . Yao Shu ( 1201 – 1278 ) , an advisor to Kublai Khan , once persuaded a disciple Yang Gu to print philological primers and Neo @-@ Confucian texts by using what he termed the " movable type of Shen Kuo " . Wang Zhen ( fl . 1290 – 1333 ) , who wrote the valuable agricultural , scientific , and technological treatise of the Nong Shu , mentioned an alternative method of baking earthenware type with earthenware frames in order to make whole blocks . Wang Zhen also improved its use by inventing wooden movable type in the years 1297 or 1298 , while he was a magistrate of Jingde , Anhui province . The earlier Bi Sheng had experimented with wooden movable type , but Wang 's main contribution was improving the speed of typesetting with simple mechanical devices , along with the complex , systematic arrangement of wooden movable type involving the use of revolving tables . Although later metal movable type would be used in China , Wang Zhen experimented with tin metal movable type , but found its use to be inefficient .
By the 15th century , metal movable type printing was developed in Ming Dynasty China ( and earlier in Joseon Korea , by the mid 13th century ) , and was widely applied in China by at least the 16th century . In Jiangsu and Fujian , wealthy Ming era families sponsored the use of metal type printing ( mostly using bronze ) . This included the printing works of Hua Sui ( 1439 – 1513 ) , who pioneered the first Chinese bronze @-@ type movable printing in the year 1490 . In 1718 , during the mid Qing Dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) , the scholar of Tai 'an known as Xu Zhiding developed movable type with enamelware instead of earthenware . There was also Zhai Jinsheng ( b . 1784 ) , a teacher of Jingxian , Anhui , who spent thirty years making a font of earthenware movable type , and by 1844 he had over 100 @,@ 000 Chinese writing characters in five sizes .
Despite these advances , movable type printing never gained the amount of widespread use in East Asia that woodblock printing had achieved since the Chinese Tang Dynasty in the 9th century . With written Chinese , the vast amount of written morpheme characters impeded movable type 's acceptance and practical use , and was therefore seen as largely unsatisfactory . Furthermore , the European printing press , first invented by Johannes Gutenberg ( 1398 – 1468 ) , was eventually wholly adopted as the standard in China , yet the tradition of woodblock printing remains popular in East Asian countries still .
= = = Other achievements in science and technology = = =
Shen Kuo described the phenomena of natural predator insects controlling the population of pests , the latter of which had the potential to wreak havoc upon the agricultural base of China .
While visiting the iron producing district at Cizhou in 1075 , Shen described the " partial decarburization " method of reforging cast iron under a cold blast , which Hartwell , Needham , and Wertime state is the predecessor of the Bessemer process . Shen was worried about deforestation due to the needs of the iron industry and ink makers using pine soot in the production process , so he suggested for the latter an alternative of petroleum , which he believed was " produced inexhaustibly within the earth " . Shen used the soot from the smoke of burned petroleum fuel ( 石油 Shíyóu , " rock oil " as Shen called it ) to invent a new , more durable type of writing ink ; the Ming Dynasty pharmacologist Li Shizhen ( 1518 – 1593 ) wrote that Shen 's ink was " lustrous like lacquer , and superior to that made from pinewood lamp @-@ black , " or the soot from pinewood .
= = = Beliefs and philosophy = = =
Shen Kuo was much in favor of philosophical Daoist notions which challenged the authority of empirical science in his day . Although much could be discerned through empirical observation and recorded study , Daoism asserted that the secrets of the universe were boundless , something that scientific investigation could merely express in fragments and partial understandings . Shen Kuo referred to the ancient Daoist I Ching in explaining the spiritual processes and attainment of foreknowledge that cannot be attained through " crude traces " , which he likens to mathematical astronomy . Nathan Sivin proposes that Shen was the first in history to " make a clear distinction between our unconnected experiences and the unitary causal world we postulate to explain them , " which Biderman and Scharfstein state is arguably inherent in the works of Heraclitus , Plato , and Democritus as well . Shen was a firm believer in destiny and prognostication , and made rational explanations for the relations between them . Shen held a special interest in fate , mystical divination , bizarre phenomena , yet warned against the tendency to believe that all matters in life were preordained . When describing an event where lightning had struck a house and all the wooden walls did not burn ( but simply turned black ) and lacquerwares inside were fine , yet metal objects had melted into liquid , Shen Kuo wrote :
Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary life , but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous . How insecure it is to investigate natural principles using only the light of common knowledge , and subjective ideas .
In his commentary on the ancient Confucian philosopher Mencius ( 372 – 289 BC ) , Shen wrote of the importance of choosing to follow what one knew to be a true path , yet the heart and mind could not attain full knowledge of truth through mere sensory experience . In his own unique way but using terms influenced by the ideas of Mencius , Shen wrote of an autonomous inner authority that formed the basis for one 's inclination towards moral choices , a concept linked to Shen 's life experiences of surviving and obtaining success through self @-@ reliance . Along with his commentary on the Chinese classic texts , Shen Kuo also wrote extensively on the topics of supernatural divination and Buddhist meditation .
= = = Art criticism = = =
As an art critic , Shen criticized the paintings of Li Cheng ( 919 – 967 ) for failing to observe the principle of " seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large " in portraying buildings and the like . He praised the works of Dong Yuan ( c . 934 – c . 962 ) ; he noted that although a close @-@ up view of Dong 's work would create the impression that his brush techniques were cursory , seen from afar his landscape paintings would give the impression of grand , resplendent , and realistic scenery . In addition , Shen 's writing on Dong 's artworks represents the earliest known reference to the Jiangnan style of painting . In his " Song on Painting " and in his Dream Pool Essays , Shen praised the creative artworks of the Tang painter Wang Wei ( 701 – 761 ) ; Shen noted that Wang was unique in that he " penetrated into the mysterious reason and depth of creative activity , " but was criticized by others for not conforming his paintings to reality , such as his painting with a banana tree growing in a snowy , wintry landscape .
= = Written works = =
Much of Shen Kuo 's written work was probably purged under the leadership of minister Cai Jing ( 1046 – 1126 ) , who revived the New Policies of Wang Anshi , although he set out on a campaign of attrition to destroy or radically alter the written work of his predecessors and especially Conservative enemies . For example , only six of Shen 's books remain , and four of these have been significantly altered since the time they were penned by the author .
In modern times , the best attempt at a complete list and summary of Shen 's writing was an appendix written by Hu Daojing in his standard edition of Brush Talks , written in 1956 .
= = = Dream Pool Essays = = =
Shen Kuo 's Dream Pool Essays consists of some 507 separate essays exploring a wide range of subjects . It was Shen 's ultimate attempt to comprehend and describe a multitude of various aspects of nature , science , and reality , and all the practical and profound curiosities found in the world . The literal translation of the title , Dream Brook Brush Talks , refers to his Dream Brook estate , where he spent the last years of his life . About the title , he is quoted as saying : " Because I had only my writing brush and ink slab to converse with , I call it Brush Talks . "
The book was originally 30 chapters long , yet an unknown Chinese author 's edition of 1166 edited and reorganized the work into 26 chapters .
A passage called " Strange Happenings " contains a peculiar account of an unidentified flying object .
= = = Other written works = = =
Although the Dream Pool Essays is certainly his most extensive and important work , Shen Kuo wrote other books as well . In 1075 , Shen Kuo wrote the Xining Fengyuan Li ( 熙寧奉元曆 ; The Oblatory Epoch astronomical system of the Splendid Peace reign period ) , which was lost , but listed in a 7th chapter of a Song Dynasty bibliography . This was the official report of Shen Kuo on his reforms of the Chinese calendar , which were only partially adopted by the Song court 's official calendar system . During his years of retirement from governmental service , Shen Kuo compiled a formulary known as the Liang Fang ( 良方 ; Good medicinal formulas ) . Around the year 1126 it was combined with a similar collection by the famous Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) , who was ironically a political opponent to Shen Kuo 's faction of Reformers and New Policies supporters at court , yet it was known that Shen Kuo and Su Shi were nonetheless friends and associates . Shen wrote the Mengqi Wanghuai Lu ( 夢溪忘懷錄 ; Record of longings forgotten at Dream Brook ) , which was also compiled during Shen 's retirement . This book was a treatise in the working since his youth on rural life and ethnographic accounts of living conditions in the isolated mountain regions of China . Only quotations of it survive in the Shuo Fu ( 說郛 ) collection , which mostly describe the agricultural implements and tools used by rural people in high mountain regions . Shen Kuo also wrote the Changxing Ji ( 長興集 ; Collected Literary Works of [ the Viscount of ] Changxing ) . However , this book was without much doubt a posthumous collection , including various poems , prose , and administrative documents written by Shen . By the 15th century ( during the Ming Dynasty ) , this book was reprinted , yet only the 19th chapter remained . This chapter was reprinted in 1718 , yet poorly edited . Finally , in the 1950s the author Hu Daojing supplemented this small yet valuable work with additions of other scattered poems written by Shen , in the former 's Collection of Shen Kua 's Extant Poetry ( Shanghai : Shang @-@ hai Shu @-@ tian , 1958 ) . In the tradition of the popular Song era literary category of ' travel record literature ' ( ' youji wenxue ' ) , Shen Kuo also wrote the Register of What Not to Forget , a traveler 's guide to what type of carriage is suitable for a journey , the proper foods one should bring , the special clothing one should bring , and many other items .
In his Sequel to Numerous Things Revealed , the Song author Cheng Dachang ( 1123 – 1195 ) noted that stanzas prepared by Shen Kuo for military victory celebrations were later written down and published by Shen . This includes a short poem " Song of Triumph " by Shen Kuo , who uses the musical instrument mawei huqin ( ' horse @-@ tail barbarian stringed instrument ' or ' horse @-@ tail fiddle ' ) of the northwestern Inner Asian nomads as a metaphor for prisoners @-@ of @-@ war led by Song troops :
Historian Jonathan Stock notes that the bent bow described in the poem above represents the arched bow used to play the huqin , while the sound of the instrument itself represented the discontent expressed by the prisoners @-@ of @-@ war with their defeated khan .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Praise , critique , and criticism = = =
In the Routledge Curzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism , Xinzhong Yao states that Shen Kuo 's legacy was tainted by his eager involvement in Wang Anshi 's New Policies reforms , his actions criticized in the later traditional histories . However , Shen 's reputation as a polymath has been well regarded . The British sinologist , historian , and biochemist Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) stated that Shen Kuo was " one of the greatest scientific minds in Chinese history . " The French sinologist Jacques Gernet is of the opinion that Shen possessed an " amazingly modern mind . " Yao states of Shen 's thorough recording of natural sciences in his Dream Pool Essays :
We must regard Shen Kuo 's collection as an indispensable primary source attesting to the unmatched level of attainment achieved by Chinese science prior to the twelfth century .
However , Toby E. Huff writes that Shen Kuo 's " scattered set " of writings lacks clear @-@ cut organization and " theoretical acuteness , " that is , scientific theory . Nathan Sivin wrote that Shen 's originality stands " cheek by jowl with trivial didacticism , court anecdotes , and ephemeral curiosities " that provide little insight . Donald Holzman writes that Shen " has nowhere organized his observations into anything like a general theory . " Huff writes that this was a systemic problem of early Chinese science , which lacked systematic treatment that could be found in European works such as the Concordance and Discordant Canons by the lawyer Gratian of Bologna ( fl . 12th century ) . In regard to an overarching concept of science which could branch together all the various sciences studied by the Chinese , Sivin asserts that the writings of Shen Kuo " do not indicate that he achieved , or even sought , an integrated framework for his diverse knowledge ; the one common thread is the varied responsibilities of his career as a high civil servant . "
= = = Burial and posthumous honors = = =
Upon his death , Shen Kuo was interred in a tomb in Yuhang District of Hangzhou , at the foot of the Taiping Hill . His tomb was eventually destroyed , yet Ming Dynasty records indicated its location , which was found in 1983 and protected by the government in 1986 . The remnants of the tomb 's brick structure remained , along with Song Dynasty glasswares and coins . The Hangzhou Municipal Committee completed a restoration of Shen 's tomb in September 2001 .
In addition to his tomb , Shen Kuo 's Mengxi garden estate , his former two acre ( 8 @,@ 000 m ² ) property in Zhenjiang , was restored by the government in 1985 . However , the renovated Mengxi Garden is only part of the original of Shen Kuo 's time . A Qing Dynasty era hall built on the site is now used as the main admissions gate . In the Memorial Hall of the gardens , there is a large painting depicting the original garden of Shen Kuo 's time , including wells , green bamboo groves , stone @-@ paved paths , and decorated walls of the original halls . In this exhibition hall there stands a 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) tall statue of Shen Kuo sitting on a platform , along with centuries @-@ old published copies of his Dream Pool Essays in glass cabinets , one of which is from Japan . At the garden estate there are also displayed marble banners , statues of Shen Kuo , and a model of an armillary sphere ; a small museum gallery depicts Shen 's various achievements .
The Chinese Mount Zijinshan Observatory discovered a new planetoid in 1964 ; in 1979 , the Chinese Academy of Sciences decided to honor Shen by listing " Shen Kuo " as one of its names .
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= Conscience =
Conscience is an aptitude , faculty , intuition or judgment that assists in distinguishing right from wrong . Moral judgment may derive from values or norms ( principles and rules ) . In psychological terms conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a human commits actions that go against his / her moral values and to feelings of rectitude or integrity when actions conform to such norms . The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before an action and whether such moral judgments are or should be based in reason has occasioned debate through much of the history of Western philosophy .
Religious views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans , to a beneficent universe and / or to divinity . The diverse ritualistic , mythical , doctrinal , legal , institutional and material features of religion may not necessarily cohere with experiential , emotive , spiritual or contemplative considerations about the origin and operation of conscience . Common secular or scientific views regard the capacity for conscience as probably genetically determined , with its subject probably learned or imprinted ( like language ) as part of a culture .
Commonly used metaphors for conscience include the " voice within " and the " inner light " . Conscience , as is detailed in sections below , is a concept in national and international law , is increasingly conceived of as applying to the world as a whole , has motivated numerous notable acts for the public good and been the subject of many prominent examples of literature , music and film .
= = Religious , secular and philosophical views about conscience = =
Although humanity has no generally accepted definition of conscience or universal agreement about its role in ethical decision @-@ making , three approaches have addressed it :
Religious views
Secular views
Philosophical views
= = Religious views = =
In the literary traditions of the Upanishads , Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita , conscience is the label given to attributes composing knowledge about good and evil , that a soul acquires from the completion of acts and consequent accretion of karma over many lifetimes . According to Adi Shankara in his Vekachudamani morally right action ( characterised as humbly and compassionately performing the primary duty of good to others without expectation of material or spiritual reward ) , helps " purify the heart " and provide mental tranquility but it alone does not give us " direct perception of the Reality " . This knowledge requires discrimination between the eternal and non @-@ eternal and eventually a realization in contemplation that the true self merges in a universe of pure consciousness .
In the Zoroastrian faith , after death a soul must face judgment at the Bridge of the Separator ; there , evil people are tormented by prior denial of their own higher nature , or conscience , and " to all time will they be guests for the House of the Lie . " The Chinese concept of Ren , indicates that conscience , along with social etiquette and correct relationships , assist humans to follow The Way ( Tao ) a mode of life reflecting the implicit human capacity for goodness and harmony .
Conscience also features prominently in Buddhism . In the Pali scriptures , for example , Buddha links the positive aspect of conscience to a pure heart and a calm , well @-@ directed mind . It is regarded as a spiritual power , and one of the “ Guardians of the World ” . The Buddha also associated conscience with compassion for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until right conduct culminates in right mindfulness and right contemplation . Santideva ( 685 – 763 CE ) wrote in the Bodhicaryavatara ( which he composed and delivered in the great northern Indian Buddhist university of Nalanda ) of the spiritual importance of perfecting virtues such as generosity , forbearance and training the awareness to be like a " block of wood " when attracted by vices such as pride or lust ; so one can continue advancing towards right understanding in meditative absorption . Conscience thus manifests in Buddhism as unselfish love for all living beings which gradually intensifies and awakens to a purer awareness where the mind withdraws from sensory interests and becomes aware of itself as a single whole .
The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote in his Meditations that conscience was the human capacity to live by rational principles that were congruent with the true , tranquil and harmonious nature of our mind and thereby that of the Universe : " To move from one unselfish action to another with God in mind . Only there , delight and stillness ... the only rewards of our existence here are an unstained character and unselfish acts . "
The Islamic concept of Taqwa is closely related to conscience . In the Qur ’ ān verses 2 : 197 & 22 : 37 Taqwa refers to " right conduct " or " piety " , " guarding of oneself " or " guarding against evil " . Qur ’ ān verse 47 : 17 says that God is the ultimate source of the believer 's taqwā which is not simply the product of individual will but requires inspiration from God . In Qur ’ ān verses 91 : 7 – 8 , God the Almighty talks about how He has perfected the soul , the conscience and has taught it the wrong ( fujūr ) and right ( taqwā ) . Hence , the awareness of vice and virtue is inherent in the soul , allowing it to be tested fairly in the life of this world and tried , held accountable on the day of judgment for responsibilities to God and all humans .
Qur ’ ān verse 49 : 13 states : " O humankind ! We have created you out of male and female and constituted you into different groups and societies , so that you may come to know each other @-@ the noblest of you , in the sight of God , are the ones possessing taqwā . " In Islam , according to eminent theologians such as Al @-@ Ghazali , although events are ordained ( and written by God in al @-@ Lawh al @-@ Mahfūz , the Preserved Tablet ) , humans possess free will to choose between wrong and right , and are thus responsible for their actions ; the conscience being a dynamic personal connection to God enhanced by knowledge and practise of the Five Pillars of Islam , deeds of piety , repentance , self @-@ discipline and prayer ; and disintegrated and metaphorically covered in blackness through sinful acts . Marshall Hodgson wrote the three @-@ volume work : The Venture of Islam : Conscience and History in a World Civilization .
In the Protestant Christian tradition , Martin Luther insisted in the Diet of Worms that his conscience was captive to the Word of God , and it was neither safe nor right to go against conscience . To Luther , conscience falls within the ethical , rather than the religious , sphere . John Calvin saw conscience as a battleground : " [ ... ] the enemies who rise up in our conscience against his Kingdom and hinder his decrees prove that God 's throne is not firmly established therein " . Many Christians regard following one 's conscience as important as , or even more important than , obeying human authority . A fundamentalist Christian view of conscience might be : ' God gave us our conscience so we would know when we break His Law ; the guilt we feel when we do something wrong tells us that we need to repent . ' This can sometimes ( as with the conflict between William Tyndale and Thomas More over the translation of the Bible into English ) lead to moral quandaries : " Do I unreservedly obey my Church / priest / military / political leader or do I follow my own inner feeling of right and wrong as instructed by prayer and a personal reading of scripture ? " Some contemporary Christian churches and religious groups hold the moral teachings of the Ten Commandments or of Jesus as the highest authority in any situation , regardless of the extent to which it involves responsibilities in law . In the Gospel of John ( 7 : 53 – 8 : 11 ) ( King James Version ) Jesus challenges those accusing a woman of adultery stating : " ' He that is without sin among you , let him first cast a stone at her . ' And again he stooped down , and wrote on the ground . And they which heard it , being convicted by their own conscience , went out one by one " ( see Jesus and the woman taken in adultery ) . In the Gospel of Luke ( 10 : 25 – 37 ) Jesus tells the story of how a despised and heretical Samaritan ( see Parable of the Good Samaritan ) who ( out of compassion and conscience ) helps an injured stranger beside a road , qualifies better for eternal life by loving his neighbor , than a priest who passes by on the other side .
This dilemma of obedience in conscience to divine or state law , was demonstrated dramatically in Antigone 's defiance of King Creon 's order against burying her brother an alleged traitor , appealing to the " unwritten law " and to a " longer allegiance to the dead than to the living " .
Catholic theology sees conscience as the last practical " judgment of reason which at the appropriate moment enjoins [ a person ] to do good and to avoid evil " . Thus , conscience is not like the will , nor a habit like prudence , but " the interior space in which we can listen to and hear the truth , the good , the voice of God . It is the inner place of our relationship with Him , who speaks to our heart and helps us to discern , to understand the path we ought to take , and once the decision is made , to move forward , to remain faithful " In terms of logic , conscience can be viewed as the practical conclusion of a moral syllogism whose major premise is an objective norm and whose minor premise is a particular case or situation to which the norm is applied . Thus , Catholics are taught to carefully educate themselves as to revealed norms and norms derived therefrom , so as to form a correct conscience . Catholics are also to examine their conscience daily and with special care before confession . Catholic teaching holds that , " Man has the right to act according to his conscience and in freedom so as personally to make moral decisions . He must not be forced to act contrary to his conscience . Nor must he be prevented from acting according to his conscience , especially in religious matters " . This right of conscience does not allow one to arbitrarily disagree with Church teaching and claim that one is acting in accordance with conscience . A sincere conscience presumes one is diligently seeking moral truth from authentic sources , that is , seeking to conform oneself to that moral truth by listening to the authority established by Christ to teach it . Nevertheless , despite one 's best effort , " [ i ] t can happen that moral conscience remains in ignorance and makes erroneous judgments about acts to be performed or already committed ... This ignorance can often be imputed to personal responsibility ... In such cases , the person is culpable for the wrong he commits . " Some Catholics appeal to conscience in order to justify dissent , not on the level of conscience properly understood , but on the level of the principles and norms which are supposed to inform conscience . For example , some priests make on the use of the so @-@ called internal forum solution ( which is not sanctioned by the Magisterium ) to justify actions or lifestyles incompatible with Church teaching , such as Christ 's prohibition of remarriage after divorce or sexual activity outside marriage . The Catholic Church has warned that " rejection of the Church 's authority and her teaching ... can be at the source of errors in judgment in moral conduct " .
Judaism arguably does not require uncompromising obedience to religious authority ; the case has been made that throughout Jewish history rabbis have circumvented laws they found unconscionable , such as capital punishment . Similarly , although an occupation with national destiny has been central to the Jewish faith ( see Zionism ) many scholars ( including Moses Mendelssohn ) stated that conscience as a personal revelation of scriptural truth was an important adjunct to the Talmudic tradition . The concept of inner light in the Religious Society of Friends or Quakers is associated with conscience . Freemasonry describes itself as providing an adjunct to religion and key symbols found in a Freemason Lodge are the square and compasses explained as providing lessons that Masons should " square their actions by the square of conscience " , learn to " circumscribe their desires and keep their passions within due bounds toward all mankind . " The historian Manning Clark viewed conscience as one of the comforters that religion placed between man and death but also a crucial part of the quest for grace encouraged by the Book of Job and the Book of Ecclesiastes , leading us to be paradoxically closest to the truth when we suspect that what matters most in life ( " being there when everyone suddenly understands what it has all been for " ) . Leo Tolstoy , after a decade studying the issue ( 1877 – 1887 ) , held that the only power capable of resisting the evil associated with materialism and the drive for social power of religious institutions , was the capacity of humans to reach an individual spiritual truth through reason and conscience . Many prominent religious works about conscience also have a significant philosophical component : examples are the works of Al @-@ Ghazali , Avicenna , Aquinas , Joseph Butler and Dietrich Bonhoeffer ( all discussed in the philosophical views section ) .
= = Secular views = =
The secular approach to conscience includes psychological , physiological , sociological , humanitarian and authoritarian views . Lawrence Kohlberg considered critical conscience to be an important psychological stage in the proper moral development of humans , associated with the capacity to rationally weigh principles of responsibility , being best encouraged in the very young by linkage with humorous personifications ( such as Jiminy Cricket ) and later in adolescents by debates about individually pertinent moral dilemmas . Erik Erikson placed the development of conscience in the ' pre @-@ schooler ' phase of his eight stages of normal human personality development . The psychologist Martha Stout terms conscience " an intervening sense of obligation based in our emotional attachments . " Thus a good conscience is associated with feelings of integrity , psychological wholeness and peacefulness and is often described using adjectives such as " quiet " , " clear " and " easy " .
Sigmund Freud regarded conscience as originating psychologically from the growth of civilisation , which periodically frustrated the external expression of aggression : this destructive impulse being forced to seek an alternative , healthy outlet , directed its energy as a superego against the person 's own " ego " or selfishness ( often taking its cue in this regard from parents during childhood ) . According to Freud , the consequence of not obeying our conscience is guilt , which can be a factor in the development of neurosis ; Freud claimed that both the cultural and individual super @-@ ego set up strict ideal demands with regard to the moral aspects of certain decisions , disobedience to which provokes a ' fear of conscience ' .
Antonio Damasio considers conscience an aspect of extended consciousness beyond survival @-@ related dispositions and incorporating the search for truth and desire to build norms and ideals for behavior .
= = = Conscience as society @-@ forming instincts = = =
Michel Glautier argues that conscience is one of the instincts and drives which enable people to form societies : groups of humans without these drives or in whom they are insufficient cannot form societies and do not reproduce their kind as successfully as those that do .
Charles Darwin considered that conscience evolved in humans to resolve conflicts between competing natural impulses @-@ some about self @-@ preservation but others about safety of a family or community ; the claim of conscience to moral authority emerged from the " greater duration of impression of social instincts " in the struggle for survival . In such a view , behavior destructive to a person 's society ( either to its structures or to the persons it comprises ) is bad or " evil " . Thus , conscience can be viewed as an outcome of those biological drives that prompt humans to avoid provoking fear or contempt in others ; being experienced as guilt and shame in differing ways from society to society and person to person . A requirement of conscience in this view is the capacity to see ourselves from the point of view of another person . Persons unable to do this ( psychopaths , sociopaths , narcissists ) therefore often act in ways which are " evil " .
Fundamental in this view of conscience is that humans consider some " other " as being in a social relationship . Thus , nationalism is invoked in conscience to quell tribal conflict and the notion of a Brotherhood of Man is invoked to quell national conflicts . Yet such crowd drives may not only overwhelm but redefine individual conscience . Friedrich Nietzsche stated : " communal solidarity is annihilated by the highest and strongest drives that , when they break out passionately , whip the individual far past the average low level of the ' herd @-@ conscience . ' Jeremy Bentham noted that : " fanaticism never sleeps ... it is never stopped by conscience ; for it has pressed conscience into its service . " Hannah Arendt in her study of the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem , notes that the accused , as with almost all his fellow Germans , had lost track of his conscience to the point where they hardly remembered it ; this wasn 't caused by familiarity with atrocities or by psychologically redirecting any resultant natural pity to themselves for having to bear such an unpleasant duty , so much as by the fact that anyone whose conscience did develop doubts could see no one who shared them : " Eichmann did not need to close his ears to the voice of conscience ... not because he had none , but because his conscience spoke with a " respectable voice " , with the voice of the respectable society around him " .
An interesting area of research in this context concerns the similarities between our relationships and those of animals , whether animals in human society ( pets , working animals , even animals grown for food ) or in the wild . One idea is that as people or animals perceive a social relationship as important to preserve , their conscience begins to respect that former " other " , and urge actions that protect it . Similarly , in complex territorial and cooperative breeding bird communities ( such as the Australian magpie ) that have a high degree of etiquettes , rules , hierarchies , play , songs and negotiations , rule @-@ breaking seems tolerated on occasions not obviously related to survival of the individual or group ; behaviour often appearing to exhibit a touching gentleness and tenderness .
= = = Evolutionary biology and physics = = =
Contemporary scientists in ethology and evolutionary psychology seek to explain conscience as a function of the brain that evolved to facilitate altruism within societies .
In his book The God Delusion , Richard Dawkins states that he agrees with Robert Hinde 's Why Good is Good , Michael Shermer 's The Science of Good and Evil , Robert Buckman 's Can We Be Good Without God ? and Marc Hauser 's Moral Minds , that our sense of right and wrong can be derived from our Darwinian past . Christopher Hitchens in God is Not Great has argued that " Modern vernacular describes conscience – not too badly – as whatever it is that makes us behave well when nobody is looking ... Those who believe that the existence of conscience is a proof of a godly design are advancing an argument that simply cannot be disproved because there is no evidence for or against it . " Charles Lineweaver has argued that our " ideas of " good " and " evil " , and our consciences that we rely on to help us make moral decisions ( like Pinnochio ’ s Jiminy Cricket ) , are features of consciousness that have evolved under selection pressure , just like skin color , intestinal pH and fingernail growth rates . "
= = = Neuroscience and artificial conscience = = =
Numerous case studies of brain damage have shown that damage to areas of the brain ( such as the anterior prefrontal cortex ) results in the reduction or elimination of inhibitions , with a corresponding radical change in behaviour . When the damage occurs to adults , they may still be able to perform moral reasoning ; but when it occurs to children , they may never develop that ability .
Attempts have been made by neuroscientists to locate the free will necessary for what is termed the ' veto ' of conscience over unconscious mental processes ( see Neuroscience of free will and Benjamin Libet ) in a scientifically measurable awareness of an intention to carry out an act occurring 350 – 400 microseconds after the electrical discharge known as the ' readiness potential.'
Jacques Pitrat claims that some kind of artificial conscience is beneficial in artificial intelligence systems to improve their long @-@ term performance and direct their introspective processing .
= = Philosophical views = =
The word " conscience " derives etymologically from the Latin conscientia , meaning " privity of knowledge " or " with @-@ knowledge " . The English word implies internal awareness of a moral standard in the mind concerning the quality of one 's motives , as well as a consciousness of our own actions . Thus conscience considered philosophically may be first , and perhaps most commonly , a largely unexamined " gut feeling " or " vague sense of guilt " about what ought to be or should have been done . Conscience in this sense is not necessarily the product of a process of rational consideration of the moral features of a situation ( or the applicable normative principles , rules or laws ) and can arise from parental , peer group , religious , state or corporate indoctrination , which may or may not be presently consciously acceptable to the person ( " traditional conscience " ) . Conscience may be defined as the practical reason employed when applying moral convictions to a situation ( " critical conscience " ) . In purportedly morally mature mystical people who have developed this capacity through daily contemplation or meditation combined with selfless service to others , critical conscience can be aided by a " spark " of intuitive insight or revelation ( called marifa in Islamic Sufi philosophy and synderesis in medieval Christian scholastic moral philosophy ) . Conscience is accompanied in each case by an internal awareness of ' inner light ' and approbation or ' inner darkness ' and condemnation as well as a resulting conviction of right or duty either followed or declined .
= = = Medieval philosophical views = = =
The medieval Islamic scholar and mystic Al @-@ Ghazali divided the concept of Nafs ( soul or self ( spirituality ) ) into three categories based on the Qur ’ an :
Nafs Ammarah ( 12 : 53 ) which " exhorts one to freely indulge in gratifying passions and instigates to do evil "
Nafs Lawammah ( 75 : 2 ) which is " the conscience that directs man towards right or wrong "
Nafs Mutmainnah ( 89 : 27 ) which is " a self that reaches the ultimate peace "
The medieval Persian philosopher and physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al @-@ Razi believed in a close relationship between conscience or spiritual integrity and physical health ; rather than being self @-@ indulgent , man should pursue knowledge , use his intellect and apply justice in his life . The medieval Islamic philosopher Avicenna , whilst imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan , wrote his famous isolated @-@ but @-@ awake " Floating Man " sensory deprivation thought experiment to explore the ideas of human self @-@ awareness and the substantiality of the soul ; his hypothesis being that it is through intelligence , particularly the active intellect , that God communicates truth to the human mind or conscience . According to the Islamic Sufis conscience allows Allah to guide people to the marifa , the peace or " light upon light " experienced where a Muslim 's prayers lead to a melting away of the self in the inner knowledge of God ; this foreshadowing the eternal Paradise depicted in the Qur ’ ān .
Some medieval Christian scholastics such as Bonaventure made a distinction between conscience as a rational faculty of the mind ( practical reason ) and inner awareness , an intuitive " spark " to do good , called synderesis arising from a remnant appreciation of absolute good and when consciously denied ( for example to perform an evil act ) , becoming a source of inner torment . Early modern theologians such as William Perkins and William Ames developed a syllogistic understanding of the conscience , where God 's law made the first term , the act to be judged the second and the action of the conscience ( as a rational faculty ) produced the judgement . By debating test cases applying such understanding conscience was trained and refined ( i.e. casuistry ) .
In the 13th century , St. Thomas Aquinas regarded conscience as the application of moral knowledge to a particular case ( S.T. I , q . 79 , a . 13 ) . Thus , conscience was considered an act or judgment of practical reason that began with synderesis , the structured development of our innate remnant awareness of absolute good ( which he categorised as involving the five primary precepts proposed in his theory of Natural Law ) into an acquired habit of applying moral principles . According to Singer , Aquinas held that conscience , or conscientia was an imperfect process of judgment applied to activity because knowledge of the natural law ( and all acts of natural virtue implicit therein ) was obscured in most people by education and custom that promoted selfishness rather than fellow @-@ feeling ( Summa Theologiae , I – II , I ) . Aquinas also discussed conscience in relation to the virtue of prudence to explain why some people appear to be less " morally enlightened " than others , their weak will being incapable of adequately balancing their own needs with those of others .
Aquinas reasoned that acting contrary to conscience is an evil action but an errant conscience is only blameworthy if it is the result of culpable or vincible ignorance of factors that one has a duty to have knowledge of . Aquinas also argued that conscience should be educated to act towards real goods ( from God ) which encouraged human flourishing , rather than the apparent goods of sensory pleasures . In his Commentary on Aristotle 's Nicomachean Ethics Aquinas claimed it was weak will that allowed a non @-@ virtuous man to choose a principle allowing pleasure ahead of one requiring moral constraint .
Thomas A Kempis in the medieval contemplative classic The Imitation of Christ ( ca 1418 ) stated that the glory of a good man is the witness of a good conscience . " Preserve a quiet conscience and you will always have joy . A quiet conscience can endure much , and remains joyful in all trouble , but an evil conscience is always fearful and uneasy . " The anonymous medieval author of the Christian mystical work The Cloud of Unknowing similarly expressed the view that in profound and prolonged contemplation a soul dries up the " root and ground " of the sin that is always there , even after one 's confession and however busy one is in holy things : " therefore , whoever would work at becoming a contemplative must first cleanse his [ or her ] conscience . " The medieval Flemish mystic John of Ruysbroeck likewise held that true conscience has four aspects that are necessary to render a man just in the active and contemplative life : " a free spirit , attracting itself through love " ; " an intellect enlightened by grace " , " a delight yielding propension or inclination " and " an outflowing losing of oneself in the abyss of ... that eternal object which is the highest and chief blessedness ... those lofty amongst men , are absorbed in it , and immersed in a certain boundless thing . "
= = = Modern philosophical ideas = = =
Benedict de Spinoza in his Ethics , published after his death in 1677 , argued that most people , even those that consider themselves to exercise free will , make moral decisions on the basis of imperfect sensory information , inadequate understanding of their mind and will , as well as emotions which are both outcomes of their contingent physical existence and forms of thought defective from being chiefly impelled by self @-@ preservation . The solution , according to Spinoza , was to gradually increase the capacity of our reason to change the forms of thought produced by emotions and to fall in love with viewing problems requiring moral decision from the perspective of eternity . Thus , living a life of peaceful conscience means to Spinoza that reason is used to generate adequate ideas where the mind increasingly sees the world and its conflicts , our desires and passions sub specie aeternitatis , that is without reference to time . Hegel 's obscure and mystical Philosophy of Mind held that the absolute right of freedom of conscience facilitates human understanding of an all @-@ embracing unity , an absolute which was rational , real and true . Nevertheless , Hegel thought that a functioning State would always be tempted not to recognize conscience in its form of subjective knowledge , just as similar non @-@ objective opinions are generally rejected in science . A similar idealist notion was expressed in the writings of Joseph Butler who argued that conscience is God @-@ given , should always be obeyed , is intuitive , and should be considered the " constitutional monarch " and the " universal moral faculty " : " conscience does not only offer itself to show us the way we should walk in , but it likewise carries its own authority with it . " Butler advanced ethical speculation by referring to a duality of regulative principles in human nature : first , " self @-@ love " ( seeking individual happiness ) and second , " benevolence " ( compassion and seeking good for another ) in conscience ( also linked to the agape of situational ethics ) . Conscience tended to be more authoritative in questions of moral judgment , thought Butler , because it was more likely to be clear and certain ( whereas calculations of self @-@ interest tended to probable and changing conclusions ) . John Selden in his Table Talk expressed the view that an awake but excessively scrupulous or ill @-@ trained conscience could hinder resolve and practical action ; it being " like a horse that is not well wayed , he starts at every bird that flies out of the hedge " .
As the sacred texts of ancient Hindu and Buddhist philosophy became available in German translations in the 18th and 19th centuries , they influenced philosophers such as Schopenhauer to hold that in a healthy mind only deeds oppress our conscience , not wishes and thoughts ; " for it is only our deeds that hold us up to the mirror of our will " ; the good conscience , thought Schopenhauer , we experience after every disinterested deed arises from direct recognition of our own inner being in the phenomenon of another , it affords us the verification " that our true self exists not only in our own person , this particular manifestation , but in everything that lives . By this the heart feels itself enlarged , as by egotism it is contracted . "
Immanuel Kant , a central figure of the Age of Enlightenment , likewise claimed that two things filled his mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe , the oftener and more steadily they were reflected on : " the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me ... the latter begins from my invisible self , my personality , and exhibits me in a world which has true infinity but which I recognise myself as existing in a universal and necessary ( and not only , as in the first case , contingent ) connection . " The ' universal connection ' referred to here is Kant 's categorical imperative : " act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law . " Kant considered critical conscience to be an internal court in which our thoughts accuse or excuse one another ; he acknowledged that morally mature people do often describe contentment or peace in the soul after following conscience to perform a duty , but argued that for such acts to produce virtue their primary motivation should simply be duty , not expectation of any such bliss . Rousseau expressed a similar view that conscience somehow connected man to a greater metaphysical unity . John Plamenatz in his critical examination of Rousseau 's work considered that conscience was there defined as the feeling that urges us , in spite of contrary passions , towards two harmonies : the one within our minds and between our passions , and the other within society and between its members ; " the weakest can appeal to it in the strongest , and the appeal , though often unsuccessful , is always disturbing . However , corrupted by power or wealth we may be , either as possessors of them or as victims , there is something in us serving to remind us that this corruption is against nature . "
Other philosophers expressed a more sceptical and pragmatic view of the operation of " conscience " in society . John Locke in his Essays on the Law of Nature argued that the widespread fact of human conscience allowed a philosopher to infer the necessary existence of objective moral laws that occasionally might contradict those of the state . Locke highlighted the metaethics problem of whether accepting a statement like " follow your conscience " supports subjectivist or objectivist conceptions of conscience as a guide in concrete morality , or as a spontaneous revelation of eternal and immutable principles to the individual : " if conscience be a proof of innate principles , contraries may be innate principles ; since some men with the same bent of conscience prosecute what others avoid . " Thomas Hobbes likewise pragmatically noted that opinions formed on the basis of conscience with full and honest conviction , nevertheless should always be accepted with humility as potentially erroneous and not necessarily indicating absolute knowledge or truth . William Godwin expressed the view that conscience was a memorable consequence of the " perception by men of every creed when the descend into the scene of busy life " that they possess free will . Adam Smith considered that it was only by developing a critical conscience that we can ever see what relates to ourselves in its proper shape and dimensions ; or that we can ever make any proper comparison between our own interests and those of other people . John Stuart Mill believed that idealism about the role of conscience in government should be tempered with a practical realisation that few men in society are capable of directing their minds or purposes towards distant or unobvious interests , of disinterested regard for others , and especially for what comes after them , for the idea of posterity , of their country , or of humanity , whether grounded on sympathy or on a conscientious feeling . Mill held that certain amount of conscience , and of disinterested public spirit , may fairly be calculated on in the citizens of any community ripe for representative government , but that " it would be ridiculous to expect such a degree of it , combined with such intellectual discernment , as would be proof against any plausible fallacy tending to make that which was for their class interest appear the dictate of justice and of the general good . "
Josiah Royce ( 1855 – 1916 ) built on the transcendental idealism view of conscience , viewing it as the ideal of life which constitutes our moral personality , our plan of being ourself , of making common sense ethical decisions . But , he thought , this was only true insofar as our conscience also required loyalty to " a mysterious higher or deeper self . " In the modern Christian tradition this approach achieved expression with Dietrich Bonhoeffer who stated during his imprisonment by the Nazis in World War II that conscience for him was more than practical reason , indeed it came from a " depth which lies beyond a man 's own will and his own reason and it makes itself heard as the call of human existence to unity with itself . " For Bonhoeffer a guilty conscience arose as an indictment of the loss of this unity and as a warning against the loss of one 's self ; primarily , he thought , it is directed not towards a particular kind of doing but towards a particular mode of being . It protests against a doing which imperils the unity of this being with itself . Conscience for Bonhoeffer did not , like shame , embrace or pass judgment on the morality of the whole of its owner 's life ; it reacted only to certain definite actions : " it recalls what is long past and represents this disunion as something which is already accomplished and irreparable " . The man with a conscience , he believed , fights a lonely battle against the " overwhelming forces of inescapable situations " which demand moral decisions despite the likelihood of adverse consequences.Simon Soloveychik has similarly claimed that the truth distributed in the world , as the statement about human dignity , as the affirmation of the line between good and evil , lives in people as conscience .
As Hannah Arendt pointed out , however , ( following the utilitarian John Stuart Mill on this point ) : a bad conscience does not necessarily signify a bad character ; in fact only those who affirm a commitment to applying moral standards will be troubled with remorse , guilt or shame by a bad conscience and their need to regain integrity and wholeness of the self . Representing our soul or true self by analogy as our house , Arendt wrote that " conscience is the anticipation of the fellow who awaits you if and when you come home . " Arendt believed that people who are unfamiliar with the process of silent critical reflection about what they say and do will not mind contradicting themselves by an immoral act or crime , since they can " count on its being forgotten the next moment ; " bad people are not full of regrets . Arendt also wrote eloquently on the problem of languages distinguishing the word consciousness from conscience . One reason , she held , was that conscience , as we understand it in moral or legal matters , is supposedly always present within us , just like consciousness : " and this conscience is also supposed to tell us what to do and what to repent ; before it became the lumen naturale or Kant 's practical reason , it was the voice of God . "
Albert Einstein , as a self @-@ professed adherent of humanism and rationalism , likewise viewed an enlightened religious person as one whose conscience reflects that he " has , to the best of his ability , liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts , feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their super @-@ personal value . " Einstein often referred to the " inner voice " as a source of both moral and physical knowledge : " Quantum mechanics is very impressive . But an inner voice tells me that it is not the real thing . The theory produces a good deal but hardly brings one closer to the secrets of the Old One . I am at all events convinced that He does not play dice . "
Simone Weil who fought for the French resistance ( the Maquis ) argued in her final book The Need for Roots : Prelude to a Declaration of Duties Towards Mankind that for society to become more just and protective of liberty , obligations should take precedence over rights in moral and political philosophy and a spiritual awakening should occur in the conscience of most citizens , so that social obligations are viewed as fundamentally having a transcendent origin and a beneficent impact on human character when fulfilled . Simone Weil also in that work provided a psychological explanation for the mental peace associated with a good conscience : " the liberty of men of goodwill , though limited in the sphere of action , is complete in that of conscience . For , having incorporated the rules into their own being , the prohibited possibilities no longer present themselves to the mind , and have not to be rejected . "
Alternatives to such metaphysical and idealist opinions about conscience arose from realist and materialist perspectives such as those of Charles Darwin . Darwin suggested that " any animal whatever , endowed with well @-@ marked social instincts , the parental and filial affections being here included , would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience , as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well , or as nearly as well developed , as in man . " Émile Durkheim held that the soul and conscience were particular forms of an impersonal principle diffused in the relevant group and communicated by totemic ceremonies . AJ Ayer was a more recent realist who held that the existence of conscience was an empirical question to be answered by sociological research into the moral habits of a given person or group of people , and what causes them to have precisely those habits and feelings . Such an inquiry , he believed , fell wholly within the scope of the existing social sciences . George Edward Moore bridged the idealistic and sociological views of ' critical ' and ' traditional ' conscience in stating that the idea of abstract ' rightness ' and the various degrees of the specific emotion excited by it are what constitute , for many persons , the specifically ' moral sentiment ' or conscience . For others , however , an action seems to be properly termed ' internally right ' , merely because they have previously regarded it as right , the idea of ' rightness ' being present in some way to his or her mind , but not necessarily among his or her deliberately constructed motives .
The French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir in A Very Easy Death ( Une mort très douce , 1964 ) reflects within her own conscience about her mother 's attempts to develop such a moral sympathy and understanding of others .
Michael Walzer claimed that the growth of religious toleration in Western nations arose amongst other things , from the general recognition that private conscience signified some inner divine presence regardless of the religious faith professed and from the general respectability , piety , self @-@ limitation , and sectarian discipline which marked most of the men who claimed the rights of conscience . Walzer also argued that attempts by courts to define conscience as a merely personal moral code or as sincere belief , risked encouraging an anarchy of moral egotisms , unless such a code and motive was necessarily tempered with shared moral knowledge : derived either from the connection of the individual to a universal spiritual order , or from the common principles and mutual engagements of unselfish people . Ronald Dworkin maintains that constitutional protection of freedom of conscience is central to democracy but creates personal duties to live up to it : " Freedom of conscience presupposes a personal responsibility of reflection , and it loses much of its meaning when that responsibility is ignored . A good life need not be an especially reflective one ; most of the best lives are just lived rather than studied . But there are moments that cry out for self @-@ assertion , when a passive bowing to fate or a mechanical decision out of deference or convenience is treachery , because it forfeits dignity for ease . " Edward Conze stated it is important for individual and collective moral growth that we recognise the illusion of our conscience being wholly located in our body ; indeed both our conscience and wisdom expand when we act in an unselfish way and conversely " repressed compassion results in an unconscious sense of guilt . "
The philosopher Peter Singer considers that usually when we describe an action as conscientious in the critical sense we do so in order to deny either that the relevant agent was motivated by selfish desires , like greed or ambition , or that he acted on whim or impulse .
Moral anti @-@ realists debate whether the moral facts necessary to activate conscience supervene on natural facts with a posteriori necessity ; or arise a priori because moral facts have a primary intension and naturally identical worlds may be presumed morally identical . It has also been argued that there is a measure of moral luck in how circumstances create the obstacles which conscience must overcome to apply moral principles or human rights and that with the benefit of enforceable property rights and the rule of law , access to universal health care plus the absence of high adult and infant mortality from conditions such as malaria , tuberculosis , HIV / AIDS and famine , people in relatively prosperous developed countries have been spared pangs of conscience associated with the physical necessity to steal scraps of food , bribe tax inspectors or police officers , and commit murder in guerrilla wars against corrupt government forces or rebel armies . Scrutton has claimed that true understanding of conscience and its relationship with morality has been hampered by an " impetuous " belief that philosophical questions are solved through the analysis of language in an area where clarity threatens vested interests . Susan Sontag similarly argued that it was a symptom of psychological immaturity not to recognise that many morally immature people willingly experience a form of delight , in some an erotic breaking of taboo , when witnessing violence , suffering and pain being inflicted on others . Jonathan Glover wrote that most of us " do not spend our lives on endless landscape gardening of our self " and our conscience is likely shaped not so much by heroic struggles , as by choice of partner , friends and job , as well as where we choose to live . Garrett Hardin in a famous article called tragedy of the commons argued that any instance in which society appeals to an individual exploiting a commons to restrain himself or herself for the general good @-@ by means of his or her conscience- merely sets up a system which , by selectively diverting societal power and physical resources to those lacking in conscience , while fostering guilt ( including anxiety about his or her individual contribution to over @-@ population ) in people acting upon it , actually works toward the elimination of conscience from the race .
John Ralston Saul expressed the view in The Unconscious Civilization that in contemporary developed nations many people have acquiesced in turning over their sense of right and wrong , their critical conscience , to technical experts ; willingly restricting their moral freedom of choice to limited consumer actions ruled by the ideology of the free market , while citizen participation in public affairs is limited to the isolated act of voting and private @-@ interest lobbying turns even elected representatives against the public interest .
Some argue on religious or philosophical grounds that it is blameworthy to act against conscience , even if the judgement of conscience is likely to be erroneous ( say because it is inadequately informed about the facts , or prevailing moral ( humanist or religious ) , professional ethical , legal and human rights norms ) . Failure to acknowledge and accept that conscientious judgements can be seriously mistaken , may only promote situations where one 's conscience is manipulated by others to provide unwarranted justifications for non @-@ virtuous and selfish acts ; indeed , insofar as it is appealed to as glorifying ideological content , and an associated extreme level of devotion , without adequate constraint of external , altruistic , normative justification , conscience may be considered morally blind and dangerous both to the individual concerned and humanity as a whole . Langston argues that philosophers of virtue ethics have unnecessarily neglected conscience for , once conscience is trained so that the principles and rules it applies are those one would want all others to live by , its practise cultivates and sustains the virtues ; indeed , amongst people in what each society considers to be the highest state of moral development there is little disagreement about how to act.Emmanuel Levinas viewed conscience as a revelatory encountering of resistance to our selfish powers , developing morality by calling into question our naive sense of freedom of will to use such powers arbitrarily , or with violence , this process being more severe the more rigorously the goal of our self was to obtain control . In other words , the welcoming of the Other , to Levinas , was the very essence of conscience properly conceived ; it encouraged our ego to accept the fallibility of assuming things about other people , that selfish freedom of will " does not have the last word " and that realising this has a transcendent purpose : " I am not alone ... in conscience I have an experience that is not commensurate with any a priori [ see a priori and a posteriori ] framework @-@ a conceptless experience . "
= = Conscientious acts and the law = =
English humanist lawyers in the 16th and 17th centuries interpreted conscience as a collection of universal principles given to man by god at creation to be applied by reason ; this gradually reforming the medieval Roman law @-@ based system with forms of action , written pleadings , use of juries and patterns of litigation such as Demurrer and Assumpsit that displayed an increased concern for elements of right and wrong on the actual facts . A conscience vote in a parliament allows legislators to vote without restrictions from any political party to which they may belong . In his trial in Jerusalem Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann claimed he was simply following legal orders under paragraph 48 of the German Military Code which provided : " punishability of an action or omission is not excused on the ground that the person considered his behaviour required by his conscience or the prescripts of his religion " . The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights ( UDHR ) which is part of international customary law specifically refers to conscience in Articles 1 and 18 . Likewise , the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( ICCPR ) mentions conscience in Article 18 @.@ 1 .
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights . They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought , conscience and religion ; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief , and freedom , either alone or in community with others and in public or private , to manifest his religion or belief in teaching , practice , worship and observance
Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought , conscience and religion . This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice , and freedom , either individually or in community with others and in public or private , to manifest his religion or belief in worship , observance , practice and teaching
It has been argued that these articles provide international legal obligations protecting conscientious objectors from service in the military .
John Rawls in his A Theory of Justice defines a conscientious objector as an individual prepared to undertake , in public ( and often despite widespread condemnation ) , an action of civil disobedience to a legal rule justifying it ( also in public ) by reference to contrary foundational social virtues ( such as justice as liberty or fairness ) and the principles of morality and law derived from them . Rawls considered civil disobedience should be viewed as an appeal , warning or admonishment ( showing general respect and fidelity to the rule of law by the non @-@ violence and transparency of methods adopted ) that a law breaches a community 's fundamental virtue of justice . Objections to Rawls ' theory include first , its inability to accommodate conscientious objections to the society 's basic appreciation of justice or to emerging moral or ethical principles ( such as respect for the rights of the natural environment ) which are not yet part of it and second , the difficulty of predictably and consistently determining that a majority decision is just or unjust . Conscientious objection ( also called conscientious refusal or evasion ) to obeying a law , should not arise from unreasoning , naive " traditional conscience " , for to do so merely encourages infantile abdication of responsibility to calibrate the law against moral or human rights norms and disrespect for democratic institutions . Instead it should be based on " critical conscience ' – seriously thought out , conceptually mature , personal moral or religious beliefs held to be fundamentally incompatible ( that is , not merely inconsistent on the basis of selfish desires , whim or impulse ) , for example , either with all laws requiring conscription for military service , or legal compulsion to fight for or financially support the State in a particular war . A famous example arose when Henry David Thoreau the author of Walden was willingly jailed for refusing to pay a tax because he profoundly disagreed with a government policy and was frustrated by the corruption and injustice of the democratic machinery of the state . A more recent case concerned Kimberly Rivera , a private in the US Army and mother of four children who , having served 3 months in Iraq War decided the conflict was immoral and sought refugee status in Canada in 2012 ( see List of Iraq War resisters ) , but was deported and arrested in the US .
In the Second World War , Great Britain granted conscientious @-@ objection status not just to complete pacifists , but to those who objected to fighting in that particular war ; this was done partly out of genuine respect , but also to avoid the disgraceful and futile persecutions of conscientious objectors that occurred during the First World War .
Amnesty International organises campaigns to protect those arrested and or incarcerated as a prisoner of conscience because of their conscientious beliefs , particularly concerning intellectual , political and artistic freedom of expression and association . Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma , was the winner of the 2009 Amnesty International Ambassador of Conscience Award . In legislation , a conscience clause is a provision in a statute that excuses a health professional from complying with the law ( for example legalising surgical or pharmaceutical abortion ) if it is incompatible with religious or conscientious beliefs . Expressed justifications for refusing to obey laws because of conscience vary . Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons — notably , members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine . Other objections can stem from a deep sense of responsibility toward humanity as a whole , or from the conviction that even acceptance of work under military orders acknowledges the principle of conscription that should be everywhere condemned before the world can ever become safe for real democracy . A conscientious objector , however , does not have a primary aim of changing the law . John Dewey considered that conscientious objectors were often the victims of " moral innocency " and inexpertness in moral training : " the moving force of events is always too much for conscience " . The remedy was not to deplore the wickedness of those who manipulate world power , but to connect conscience with forces moving in another direction- to build institutions and social environments predicated on the rule of law , for example , " then will conscience itself have compulsive power instead of being forever the martyred and the coerced . " As an example , Albert Einstein who had advocated conscientious objection during the First World War and had been a longterm supporter of War Resisters ' International reasoned that " radical pacifism " could not be justified in the face of Nazi rearmament and advocated a world federalist organization with its own professional army . Samuel Johnson pointed out that an appeal to conscience should not allow the law to bring unjust suffering upon another . Conscience , according to Johnson , was nothing more than a conviction felt by ourselves of something to be done or something to be avoided ; in questions of simple unperplexed morality , conscience is very often a guide that may be trusted . But before conscience can conclusively determine what morally should be done , he thought that the state of the question should be thoroughly known . " No man 's conscience " , said Johnson " can tell him the right of another man ... it is a conscience very ill informed that violates the rights of one man , for the convenience of another . "
Civil disobedience as non @-@ violent protest or civil resistance are also acts of conscience , but are designed by those who undertake them chiefly to change , by appealing to the majority and democratic processes , laws or government policies perceived to be incoherent with fundamental social virtues and principles ( such as justice , equality or respect for intrinsic human dignity ) . Civil disobedience , in a properly functioning democracy , allows a minority who feel strongly that a law infringes their sense of justice ( but have no capacity to obtain legislative amendments or a referendum on the issue ) to make a potentially apathetic or uninformed majority take account of the intensity of opposing views . A notable example of civil resistance or satyagraha ( " satya " in sanskrit means " truth and compassion " , " agraha " means " firmness of will " ) involved Mahatma Gandhi making salt in India when that act was prohibited by a British statute , in order to create moral pressure for law reform . Rosa Parks similarly acted on conscience in 1955 in Montgomery , Alabama refusing a legal order to give up her seat to make room for a white passenger ; her action ( and the similar earlier act of 15 @-@ year @-@ old Claudette Colvin ) leading to the Montgomery Bus Boycott . Rachel Corrie was a US citizen allegedly killed by a bulldozer operated by the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) while involved in direct action ( based on the non @-@ violent principles of Martin Luther King and Mahatma Gandhi ) to prevent demolition of the home of local Palestinian pharmacist Samir Nasrallah . Al Gore has argued " If you 're a young person looking at the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now , and not done , I believe we have reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration . " In 2011 , NASA climate scientist James E. Hansen , environmental leader Phil Radford and Professor Bill McKibben were arrested for opposing a tar sands oil pipeline and Canadian renewable energy professor Mark Jaccard was arrested for opposing mountain @-@ top coal mining ; in his book Storms of my Grandchildren Hansen calls for similar civil resistance on a global scale to help replace the ' business @-@ as @-@ usual ' Kyoto Protocol cap and trade system , with a progressive carbon tax at emission source on the oil , gas and coal industries – revenue being paid as dividends to low carbon footprint families .
Notable historical examples of conscientious noncompliance in a different professional context included the manipulation of the visa process in 1939 by Japanese Consul @-@ General Chiune Sugihara in Kaunas ( the temporary capital of Lithuania between Germany and the Soviet Union ) and by Raoul Wallenberg in Hungary 1n 1944 to allow Jews to escape almost certain death . Ho Feng @-@ Shan the Chinese Consul @-@ General in Vienna in 1939 , defied orders from the Chinese ambassador in Berlin to issue Jews with visas for Shanghai . John Rabe a German member of the Nazi Party likewise saved thousands of Chinese from massacre by the Japanese military at Nanking . The White Rose German student movement against the Nazis declared in their 4th leaflet : " We will not be silent . We are your bad conscience . The White Rose will not leave you in peace ! " Conscientious noncompliance may be the only practical option for citizens wishing to affirm the existence of an international moral order or ' core ' historical rights ( such as the right to life , right to a fair trial and freedom of opinion ) in states where non @-@ violent protest or civil disobedience are met with prolonged arbitrary detention , torture , forced disappearance , murder or persecution . The controversial Milgram experiment into obedience by Stanley Milgram showed that many people lack the psychological resources to openly resist authority , even when they are directed to act callously and inhumanely against an innocent victim .
= = World conscience = =
World conscience is the universalist idea that with ready global communication , all people on earth will no longer be morally estranged from one another , whether it be culturally , ethnically , or geographically ; instead they will conceive ethics from the utopian point of view of the universe , eternity or infinity , rather than have their duties and obligations defined by forces arising solely within the restrictive boundaries of ' blood and territory.'
Often this derives from a spiritual or natural law perspective , that for world peace to be achieved , conscience , properly understood , should be generally considered as not necessarily linked ( often destructively ) to fundamentalist religious ideologies , but as an aspect of universal consciousness , access to which is the common heritage of humanity . Thinking predicated on the development of world conscience is common to members of the Global Ecovillage Network such as the Findhorn Foundation , international conservation organisations like Fauna and Flora International , as well as performers of world music such as Alan Stivell . Non @-@ government organizations , particularly through their work in agenda @-@ setting , policy @-@ making and implementation of human rights @-@ related policy , have been referred to as the conscience of the world
Edward O Wilson has developed the idea of consilience to encourage coherence of global moral and scientific knowledge supporting the premise that " only unified learning , universally shared , makes accurate foresight and wise choice possible " . Thus , world conscience is a concept that overlaps with the Gaia hypothesis in advocating a balance of moral , legal , scientific and economic solutions to modern transnational problems such as global poverty and climate change , through strategies such as environmental ethics , climate ethics , natural conservation , ecology , cosmopolitanism , sustainability and sustainable development , biosequestration and legal protection of the biosphere and biodiversity . The NGO 350.org , for example , seeks to attract world conscience to the problems associated with elevation in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations .
The microcredit initiatives of Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus have been described as inspiring a " war on poverty that blends social conscience and business savvy " .
The Green party politician Bob Brown ( who was arrested by the Tasmanian state police for a conscientious act of civil disobedience during the Franklin Dam protest ) expresses world conscience in these terms : " the universe , through us , is evolving towards experiencing , understanding and making choices about its future ' ; one example of policy outcomes from such thinking being a global tax ( see Tobin tax ) to alleviate global poverty and protect the biosphere , amounting to 1 / 10 of 1 % placed on the worldwide speculative currency market . Such an approach sees world conscience best expressing itself through political reforms promoting democratically based globalisation or planetary democracy ( for example internet voting for global governance organisations ( see world government ) based on the model of " one person , one vote , one value " ) which gradually will replace contemporary market @-@ based globalisation .
The American cardiologist Bernard Lown and the Russian cardiologist Yevgeniy Chazov were motivated in conscience through studying the catastrophic public health consequences of nuclear war in establishing International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War ( IPPNW ) which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985 and continues to work to " heal an ailing planet " .
Worldwide expressions of conscience contributed to the decision of the French government to halt atmospheric nuclear tests at Mururoa in the Pacific in 1974 after 41 such explosions ( although below @-@ ground nuclear tests continued there into the 1990s ) .
A challenge to world conscience was provided by an influential 1968 article by Garrett Hardin that critically analyzed the dilemma in which multiple individuals , acting independently after rationally consulting self @-@ interest ( and , he claimed , the apparently low ' survival @-@ of @-@ the @-@ fittest ' value of conscience @-@ led actions ) ultimately destroy a shared limited resource , even though each acknowledges such an outcome is not in anyone 's long @-@ term interest . Hardin 's conclusion that commons areas are practicably achievable only in conditions of low population density ( and so their continuance requires state restriction on the freedom to breed ) , created controversy additionally through his direct deprecation of the role of conscience in achieving individual decisions , policies and laws that facilitate global justice and peace , as well as sustainability and sustainable development of world commons areas , for example including those officially designated such under United Nations treaties ( see common heritage of humanity ) . Areas designated common heritage of humanity under international law include the Moon , Outer Space , deep sea bed , Antarctica , the world cultural and natural heritage ( see World Heritage Convention ) and the human genome . It will be a significant challenge for world conscience that as world oil , coal , mineral , timber , agricultural and water reserves are depleted , there will be increasing pressure to commercially exploit common heritage of mankind areas .
The philosopher Peter Singer has argued that the United Nations Millennium Development Goals represent the emergence of an ethics based not on national boundaries but on the idea of one world . Ninian Smart has similarly predicted that the increase in global travel and communication will gradually draw the world 's religions towards a pluralistic and transcendental humanism characterized by an " open spirit " of empathy and compassion .
Noam Chomsky has argued that forces opposing the development of such a world conscience include free market ideologies that valorise corporate greed in nominal electoral democracies where advertising , shopping malls and indebtedness , shape citizens into apathetic consumers in relation to information and access necessary for democratic participation . John Passmore has argued that mystical considerations about the global expansion of all human consciousness , should take into account that if as a species we do become something much superior to what we are now , it will be as a consequence of conscience not only implanting a goal of moral perfectibility , but assisting us to remain periodically anxious , passionate and discontented , for these are necessary components of care and compassion . The Committee on Conscience of the US Holocaust Memorial Museum has targeted genocides such as those in Rwanda , Bosnia , Darfur , the Congo and Chechnya as challenges to the world 's conscience . Oscar Arias Sanchez has criticised global arms industry spending as a failure of conscience by nation states : " When a country decides to invest in arms , rather than in education , housing , the environment , and health services for its people , it is depriving a whole generation of its right to prosperity and happiness . We have produced one firearm for every ten inhabitants of this planet , and yet we have not bothered to end hunger when such a feat is well within our reach . This is not a necessary or inevitable state of affairs . It is a deliberate choice " ( see Campaign Against Arms Trade ) . US House of Representatives Speaker Nancy Pelosi , after meeting with the 14th Dalai Lama during the 2008 violent protests in Tibet and aftermath said : " The situation in Tibet is a challenge to the conscience of the world . " Nelson Mandela , through his example and words , has been described as having shaped the conscience of the world .
The Right Livelihood Award is awarded yearly in Sweden to those people , mostly strongly motivated by conscience , who have made exemplary practical contributions to resolving the great challenges facing our planet and its people . In 2009 , for example , along with Catherine Hamlin ( obstetric fistula and see fistula foundation ) ) , David Suzuki ( promoting awareness of climate change ) and Alyn Ware ( nuclear disarmament ) , René Ngongo shared the Right Livelihood Award " for his courage in confronting the forces that are destroying the Congo Basin 's rainforests and building political support for their conservation and sustainable use " . Avaaz is one of the largest global on @-@ line organizations launched in January 2007 to promote conscience @-@ driven activism on issues such as climate change , human rights , animal rights , corruption , poverty , and conflict , thus " closing the gap between the world we have and the world most people everywhere want " .
= = Notable examples of modern acts based on conscience = =
In a notable contemporary act of conscience , Christian bushwalker Brenda Hean protested against the flooding of Lake Pedder despite threats and that ultimately lead to her death . Another was the campaign by Ken Saro @-@ Wiwa against oil extraction by multinational corporations in Nigeria that led to his execution . So too was the act by the Tank Man , or the Unknown Rebel photographed holding his shopping bag in the path of tanks during the protests at Beijing 's Tiananmen Square on 5 June 1989 . The actions of United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld to try and achieve peace in the Congo despite the ( eventuating ) threat to his life , were strongly motivated by conscience as is reflected in his diary , Vägmärken ( Markings ) . Another example involved the actions of Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson , Jr to try and prevent the My Lai Massacre in the Vietnam War . Evan Pederick voluntarily confessed and was convicted of the Sydney Hilton bombing stating that his conscience could not tolerate the guilt and that " I guess I was quite unique in the prison system in that I had to keep proving my guilt , whereas everyone else said they were innocent . " Vasili Arkhipov was a Russian naval officer on out @-@ of @-@ radio @-@ contact Soviet submarine B @-@ 59 being depth @-@ charged by US warships during the Cuban Missile Crisis whose dissent when two other officers decided to launch a nuclear torpedo ( unanimous agreement to launch was required ) may have averted a nuclear war . In 1963 Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc performed a famous act of self @-@ immolation to protest against alleged persecution of his faith by the Vietnamese Ngo Dinh Diem regime .
Conscience played a major role in the actions by anaesthetist Stephen Bolsin to whistleblow ( see list of whistleblowers ) on incompetent paediatric cardiac surgeons at the Bristol Royal Infirmary . Jeffrey Wigand was motivated by conscience to expose the Big Tobacco scandal , revealing that executives of the companies knew that cigarettes were addictive and approved the addition of carcinogenic ingredients to the cigarettes . David Graham , a Food and Drug Administration employee , was motivated by conscience to whistleblow that the arthritis pain @-@ reliever Vioxx increased the risk of cardiovascular deaths although the manufacturer suppressed this information . Rick Piltz from the U.S. Climate Change Science Program , blew the whistle on a White House official who ignored majority scientific opinion to edit a climate change report ( " Our Changing Planet " ) to reflect the Bush administration 's view that the problem was unlikely to exist . " Muntadhar al @-@ Zaidi , an Iraqi journalist , was imprisoned and allegedly tortured for his act of conscience in throwing his shoes at George W. Bush . Mordechai Vanunu an Israeli former nuclear technician , acted on conscience to reveal details of Israel 's nuclear weapons program to the British press in 1986 ; was kidnapped by Israeli agents , transported to Israel , convicted of treason and spent 18 years in prison , including more than 11 years in solitary confinement .
At the awards ceremony for the 200 metres at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City John Carlos , Tommie Smith and Peter Norman ignored death threats and official warnings to take part in an anti @-@ racism protest that destroyed their respective careers . W. Mark Felt an agent of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation who retired in 1973 as the Bureau 's Associate Director , acted on conscience to provide reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein with information that resulted in the Watergate scandal . Conscience was a major factor in US Public Health Service officer Peter Buxtun revealing the Tuskegee syphilis experiment to the public . The 2008 attack by the Israeli military on civilian areas of Palestinian Gaza was described as a " stain on the world 's conscience " . Conscience was a major factor in the refusal of Aung San Suu Kyi to leave Burma despite house arrest and persecution by the military dictatorship in that country . Conscience was a factor in Peter Galbraith 's criticism of fraud in the 2009 Afghanistan election despite it costing him his United Nations job . Conscience motivated Bunnatine Greenhouse to expose irregularities in the contracting of the Halliburton company for work in Iraq . Naji al @-@ Ali a popular cartoon artist in the Arab world , loved for his defense of the ordinary people , and for his criticism of repression and despotism by both the Israeli military and Yasser Arafat 's PLO , was murdered for refusing to compromise with his conscience . The journalist Anna Politkovskaya provided ( prior to her murder ) an example of conscience in her opposition to the Second Chechen War and then @-@ Russian President Vladimir Putin . Conscience motivated the Russian human @-@ rights activist Natalia Estemirova , who was abducted and murdered in Grozny , Chechnya in 2009 . The Death of Neda Agha @-@ Soltan arose from conscience @-@ driven protests against the 2009 Iranian presidential election . Female Muslim lawyer Shirin Ebadi ( winner of the 2003 Nobel Peace Prize ) has been described as the ' conscience of the Islamic Republic ' for her work in protecting the human rights of women and children in Iran . The human rights lawyer Gao Zhisheng , often referred to as the ' conscience of China ' and who had previously been arrested and allegedly tortured by the Chinese regime for defending members of the Falun Gong , was abducted by Chinese security agents on 4 February 2009 and has not been seen since . 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo in his final statement before being sentenced by a closed Chinese court to over a decade in jail as a political prisoner of conscience stated : " For hatred is corrosive of a person ’ s wisdom and conscience ; the mentality of enmity can poison a nation ’ s spirit . " Sergei Magnitsky , a lawyer in Russia , was arrested , held without trial for almost a year and died in custody , as a result of exposing corruption . On 6 October 2001 Laura Whittle was a naval gunner on HMAS Adelaide ( FFG 01 ) under orders to implement a new border protection policy when they encountered the SIEV @-@ 4 ( Suspected Illegal Entry Vessel @-@ 4 ) refugee boat in choppy seas . After being ordered to fire warning shots from her 50 calibre machinegun to make the boat turn back she saw it beginning to break up and sink with a father on board holding out his young daughter that she might be saved ( see Children Overboard Affair ) . Whittle jumped without a life vest 12 metres into the sea to help save the refugees from drowning thinking " this isn 't right ; this isn 't how things should be . " In February 2012 journalist Marie Colvin was deliberately targeted and killed by the Syrian Army in Homs during the 2011 – 2012 Syrian uprising and Siege of Homs , after she decided to stay at the " epicentre of the storm " in order to " expose what is happening . " In October 2012 the Taliban organised the attempted murder of Malala Yousafzai a teenage girl who had been campaigning , despite their threats , for female education in Pakistan . In December 2012 the 2012 Delhi gang rape case was said to have stirred the collective conscience of India to civil disobedience and public protest at the lack of legal action against rapists in that country ( see Rape in India ) In June 2013 Edward Snowden revealed details of a US National Security Agency internet and electronic communication PRISM ( surveillance program ) because of a conscience @-@ felt obligation to the freedom of humanity greater than obedience to the laws that bound his employment .
= = Conscience in literature , art , film , and music = =
The ancient epic of the Indian subcontinent , the Mahabharata of Vyasa , contains two pivotal moments of conscience . The first occurs when the warrior Arjuna being overcome with compassion against killing his opposing relatives in war , receives counsel ( see Bhagavad @-@ Gita ) from Krishna about his spiritual duty ( " work as though you are performing a sacrifice for the general good " ) . The second , at the end of the saga , is when king Yudhishthira having alone survived the moral tests of life , is offered eternal bliss , only to refuse it because a faithful dog is prevented from coming with him by purported divine rules and laws . The French author Montaigne ( 1533 – 1592 ) in one of the most celebrated of his essays ( " On experience " ) expressed the benefits of living with a clear conscience : " Our duty is to compose our character , not to compose books , to win not battles and provinces , but order and tranquillity in our conduct . Our great and glorious masterpiece is to live properly " . In his famous Japanese travel journal Oku no Hosomichi ( Narrow Road to the Deep North ) composed of mixed haiku poetry and prose , Matsuo Basho ( 1644 – 94 ) in attempting to describe the eternal in this perishable world is often moved in conscience ; for example by a thicket of summer grass being all that remains of the dreams and ambitions of ancient warriors . Chaucer 's " Franklin 's Tale " in The Canterbury Tales recounts how a young suitor releases a wife from a rash promise because of the respect in his conscience for the freedom to be truthful , gentle and generous .
The critic A. C. Bradley discusses the central problem of Shakespeare 's tragic character Hamlet as one where conscience in the form of moral scruples deters the young Prince with his " great anxiety to do right " from obeying his father 's hell @-@ bound ghost and murdering the usurping King ( " is 't not perfect conscience to quit him with this arm ? " ( v.ii.67 ) ) .
Bradley develops a theory about Hamlet 's moral agony relating to a conflict between " traditional " and " critical " conscience : " The conventional moral ideas of his time , which he shared with the Ghost , told him plainly that he ought to avenge his father ; but a deeper conscience in him , which was in advance of his time , contended with these explicit conventional ideas . It is because this deeper conscience remains below the surface that he fails to recognise it , and fancies he is hindered by cowardice or sloth or passion or what not ; but it emerges into light in that speech to Horatio . And it is just because he has this nobler moral nature in him that we admire and love him " . The opening words of Shakespeare 's Sonnet 94 ( " They that have pow 'r to hurt , and will do none " ) have been admired as a description of conscience . So has John Donne 's commencement of his poem s : Goodfriday , 1613 . Riding Westward : " Let man 's soul be a sphere , and then , in this , Th ' intelligence that moves , devotion is ; "
Anton Chekhov in his plays The Seagull , Uncle Vanya and Three Sisters describes the tortured emotional states of doctors who at some point in their careers have turned their back on conscience . In his short stories , Chekhov also explored how people misunderstood the voice of a tortured conscience . A promiscuous student , for example , in The Fit describes it as a " dull pain , indefinite , vague ; it was like anguish and the most acute fear and despair ... in his breast , under the heart " and the young doctor examining the misunderstood agony of compassion experienced by the factory owner 's daughter in From a Case Book calls it an " unknown , mysterious power ... in fact close at hand and watching him . " Characteristically , Chekhov 's own conscience drove him on the long journey to Sakhalin to record and alleviate the harsh conditions of the prisoners at that remote outpost . As Irina Ratushinskaya writes in the introduction to that work : " Abandoning everything , he travelled to the distant island of Sakhalin , the most feared place of exile and forced labour in Russia at that time . One cannot help but wonder why ? Simply , because the lot of the people there was a bitter one , because nobody really knew about the lives and deaths of the exiles , because he felt that they stood in greater need of help that anyone else . A strange reason , maybe , but not for a writer who was the epitome of all the best traditions of a Russian man of letters . Russian literature has always focused on questions of conscience and was , therefore , a powerful force in the moulding of public opinion . "
E. H. Carr writes of Dostoevsky 's character the young student Raskolnikov in the novel Crime and Punishment who decides to murder a ' vile and loathsome ' old woman money lender on the principle of transcending conventional morals : " the sequel reveals to us not the pangs of a stricken conscience ( which a less subtle writer would have given us ) but the tragic and fruitless struggle of a powerful intellect to maintain a conviction which is incompatible with the essential nature of man . "
Hermann Hesse wrote his Siddhartha to describe how a young man in the time of the Buddha follows his conscience on a journey to discover a transcendent inner space where all things could be unified and simply understood , ending up discovering that personal truth through selfless service as a ferryman . J. R. R. Tolkien in his epic The Lord of the Rings describes how only the hobbit Frodo is pure enough in conscience to carry the ring of power through war @-@ torn Middle @-@ earth to destruction in the Cracks of Doom , Frodo determining at the end to journey without weapons , and being saved from failure by his earlier decision to spare the life of the creature Gollum . Conor Cruise O 'Brien wrote that Albert Camus was the writer most representative of the Western consciousness and conscience in its relation to the non @-@ Western world . Harper Lee 's To Kill a Mockingbird portrays Atticus Finch ( played by Gregory Peck in the classic film from the book ( see To Kill a Mockingbird ( film ) ) ) as a lawyer true to his conscience who sets an example to his children and community .
The Robert Bolt play A Man For All Seasons focuses on the conscience of Catholic lawyer Thomas More in his struggle with King Henry VIII ( " the loyal subject is more bounden to be loyal to his conscience than to any other thing " ) . George Orwell wrote his novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four on the isolated island of Jura , Scotland to describe how a man ( Winston Smith ) attempts to develop critical conscience in a totalitarian state which watches every action of the people and manipulates their thinking with a mixture of propaganda , endless war and thought control through language control ( double think and newspeak ) to the point where prisoners look up to and even love their torturers . In the Ministry of Love , Winston 's torturer ( O 'Brien ) states : " You are imagining that there is something called human nature which will be outraged by what we do and will turn against us . But we create human nature . Men are infinitely malleable " .
A tapestry copy of Picasso 's Guernica depicting a massacre of innocent women and children during the Spanish civil war is displayed on the wall of the United Nations building in New York City , at the entrance to the Security Council room , demonstrably as a spur to the conscience of representatives from the nation states . Albert Tucker painted Man 's Head to capture the moral disintegration , and lack of conscience , of a man convicted of kicking a dog to death .
The impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh wrote in a letter to his brother Theo in 1878 that " one must never let the fire in one 's soul die , for the time will inevitably come when it will be needed . And he who chooses poverty for himself and loves it possesses a great treasure and will hear the voice of his conscience address him every more clearly . He who hears that voice , which is God 's greatest gift , in his innermost being and follows it , finds in it a friend at last , and he is never alone ! ... That is what all great men have acknowledged in their works , all those who have thought a little more deeply and searched and worked and loved a little more than the rest , who have plumbed the depths of the sea of life . "
The 1957 Ingmar Bergman film Seventh Seal portrays the journey of a medieval knight ( Max von Sydow ) returning disillusioned from the crusades ( " what is going to happen to those of us who want to believe , but aren 't able to ? " ) across a plague @-@ ridden landscape , undertaking a game of chess with the personification of Death until he can perform one meaningful altruistic act of conscience ( overturning the chess board to distract Death long enough for a family of jugglers to escape in their wagon ) .
The 1942 Casablanca centers on the development of conscience in the cynical American Rick Blaine ( Humphrey Bogart ) in the face of oppression by the Nazis and the example of the resistance leader Victor Laszlo .
The David Lean and Robert Bolt screenplay for Doctor Zhivago ( an adaptation of Boris Pasternak 's novel ) focuses strongly on the conscience of a doctor @-@ poet in the midst of the Russian Revolution ( in the end " the walls of his heart were like paper " ) .
The 1982 Ridley Scott film Blade Runner focuses on the struggles of conscience between and within a bounty hunter ( Rick Deckard ( Harrison Ford ) ) and a renegade replicant android ( Roy Batty ( Rutger Hauer ) ) in a future society which refuses to accept that forms of artificial intelligence can have aspects of being such as conscience .
Johann Sebastian Bach wrote his last great choral composition the Mass in B minor ( BWV 232 ) to express the alternating emotions of loneliness , despair , joy and rapture that arise as conscience reflects on a departed human life . Here JS Bach 's use of counterpoint and contrapuntal settings , his dynamic discourse of melodically and rhythmically distinct voices seeking forgiveness of sins ( " Qui tollis peccata mundi , miserere nobis " ) evokes a spiraling moral conversation of all humanity expressing his belief that " with devotional music , God is always present in his grace " .
Ludwig van Beethoven 's meditations on illness , conscience and mortality in the Late String Quartets led to his dedicating the third movement of String Quartet in A Minor ( 1825 ) Op. 132 ( see String Quartet No. 15 ) as a " Hymn of Thanksgiving to God of a convalescent " . John Lennon 's work " Imagine " owes much of its popular appeal to its evocation of conscience against the atrocities created by war , religious fundamentalism and politics . The Beatles George Harrison @-@ written track " The Inner Light " sets to Indian raga music a verse from the Tao Te Ching that " without going out of your door you can know the ways of heaven ' . In the 1986 movie The Mission the guilty conscience and penance of the slave trader Mendoza is made more poignant by the haunting oboe music of Ennio Morricone ( " On Earth as it is in Heaven " ) The song Sweet Lullaby by Deep Forest is based on a traditional Baegu lullaby from the Solomon Islands called " Rorogwela " in which a young orphan is comforted as an act of conscience by his older brother . The Dream Academy song ' Forest Fire ' provided an early warning of the moral dangers of our ' black cloud ' ' bringing down a different kind of weather ... letting the sunshine in , that 's how the end begins . "
The American Society of Journalists and Authors ( ASJA ) presents the Conscience @-@ in @-@ Media Award to journalists whom the society deems worthy of recognition for demonstrating " singular commitment to the highest principles of journalism at notable personal cost or sacrifice " .
The Ambassador of Conscience Award , Amnesty International 's most prestigious human rights award , takes its inspiration from a poem written by Irish Nobel prize @-@ winning poet Seamus Heaney called " The Republic of Conscience . " Winners of the award have included : Malala Yousafzai , singer and social justice activist Harry Belafonte , musician Peter Gabriel ( 2008 ) , Nelson Mandela ( 2006 ) , the Irish rock band U2 ( 2005 ) , Mary Robinson and Hilda Morales Trujillo ( a Guatemalan women 's rights activist ) ( 2004 ) and the author and public intellectual Václav Havel ( 2003 ) .
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= The Royal Opera =
The Royal Opera is a company based in central London , resident at the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden . Along with the English National Opera , it is one of the two principal opera companies in London . Founded in 1946 as the Covent Garden Opera Company , it was known by that title until 1968 . It brought a long annual season and consistent management to a house that had previously hosted short seasons under a series of impresarios . Since its inception , it has shared the Royal Opera House with the dance company now known as The Royal Ballet .
When the company was formed , its policy was to perform all works in English , but since the late 1950s most operas have been performed in their original language . From the outset , performers have comprised a mixture of British and Commonwealth singers and international guest stars , but fostering the careers of singers from within the company was a consistent policy of the early years . Among the many guest performers have been Maria Callas , Plácido Domingo , Kirsten Flagstad , Hans Hotter , Birgit Nilsson , Luciano Pavarotti and Elisabeth Schwarzkopf . Among those who have risen to international prominence from the ranks of the company are Geraint Evans , Joan Sutherland , Kiri Te Kanawa and Jon Vickers .
The company 's growth under the management of David Webster from modest beginnings to parity with the world 's greatest opera houses was recognised by the grant of the title " The Royal Opera " in 1968 . Under Webster 's successor , John Tooley , appointed in 1970 , The Royal Opera prospered , but after his retirement in 1988 , there followed a period of instability and the closure of the Royal Opera House for rebuilding and restoration between 1997 and 1999 . The 21st century has seen a stable managerial regime once more in place . The company has had six music directors since its inception : Karl Rankl , Rafael Kubelík , Georg Solti , Colin Davis , Bernard Haitink and Antonio Pappano .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
From the mid @-@ 19th century , opera had been presented on the site of Covent Garden 's Royal Opera House , at first by Michael Costa 's Royal Italian Opera company . After a fire , the new building opened in 1858 with The Royal English Opera company , which moved there from the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . From the 1860s until the Second World War , various syndicates or individual impresarios presented short seasons of opera at the Royal Opera House ( so named in 1892 ) , sung in the original language , with star singers and conductors . Pre @-@ war opera was described by the historian Montague Haltrecht as " international , dressy and exclusive " . During the war , the Royal Opera House was leased by its owners , Covent Garden Properties Ltd , to Mecca Ballrooms who used it profitably as a dance hall . Towards the end of the war , the owners approached the music publishers Boosey and Hawkes to see if they were interested in taking a lease of the building and staging opera ( and ballet ) once more . Boosey and Hawkes took a lease , and granted a sub @-@ lease at generous terms to a not @-@ for @-@ profit charitable trust established to run the operation . The chairman of the trust was Lord Keynes .
There was some pressure for a return to the pre @-@ war regime of starry international seasons . Sir Thomas Beecham , who had presented many Covent Garden seasons between 1910 and 1939 confidently expected to do so again after the war . However , Boosey and Hawkes , and David Webster , whom they appointed as chief executive of the Covent Garden company , were committed to presenting opera all year round , in English with a resident company . It was widely assumed that this aim would be met by inviting the existing Sadler 's Wells Opera Company to become resident at the Royal Opera House . Webster successfully extended just such an invitation to the Sadler 's Wells Ballet Company , but he regarded the sister opera company as " parochial " . He was determined to set up a new opera company of his own . The British government had recently begun to give funds to subsidise the arts , and Webster negotiated an ad hoc grant of £ 60 @,@ 000 and an annual subsidy of £ 25 @,@ 000 , enabling him to proceed .
= = = Beginnings = = =
Webster 's first priority was to appoint a musical director to build the company from scratch . He negotiated with Bruno Walter and Eugene Goossens , but neither of those conductors was willing to consider an opera company with no leading international stars . Webster appointed a little @-@ known Austrian , Karl Rankl , to the post . Before the war , Rankl had acquired considerable experience in charge of opera companies in Germany , Austria and Czechoslovakia . He accepted Webster 's invitation to assemble and train the principals and chorus of a new opera company , alongside a permanent orchestra that would play in both operas and ballets .
The new company made its debut in a joint presentation , together with the Sadler 's Wells Ballet Company , of Purcell 's The Fairy @-@ Queen on 12 December 1946 . The first production by the opera company alone was Carmen , on 14 January 1947 . Reviews were favourable . The Times said :
It revealed in Mr. Karl Rankl a musical director who knew how to conduct opera . It conceded the claims of theatrical production without sacrificing the music . It proved that contrary to expectation English can even now be sung so that the words are intelligible . It confirmed what we knew already about the quality of the chorus .
All the members of the cast for the production were from Britain or the Commonwealth . Later in the season , one of England 's few pre @-@ war international opera stars , Eva Turner , appeared as Turandot . For the company 's second season , eminent singers from continental Europe were recruited , including Ljuba Welitsch , Elisabeth Schwarzkopf , Paolo Silveri , Rudolf Schock and Set Svanholm . Other international stars who were willing to re @-@ learn their roles in English for the company in its early years included Kirsten Flagstad and Hans Hotter for The Valkyrie . Nevertheless , even as early as 1948 , the opera in English policy was weakening ; the company was obliged to present some Wagner performances in German to recruit leading exponents of the main roles . At first Rankl conducted all the productions ; he was dismayed when eminent guest conductors including Beecham , Clemens Krauss and Erich Kleiber were later invited for prestige productions . By 1951 Rankl felt that he was no longer valued , and announced his resignation . In Haltrecht 's view , the company that Rankl built up from nothing had outgrown him .
In the early years , the company sought to be innovative and widely accessible . Ticket prices were kept down : in the 1949 season 530 seats were available for each performance at two shillings and sixpence . In addition to the standard operatic repertory , the company presented operas by living composers such as Britten , Vaughan Williams , Bliss , and , later , Walton . The young stage director Peter Brook was put in charge of productions , bringing a fresh and sometimes controversial approach to stagings .
= = = 1950s = = =
After Rankl 's departure the company engaged a series of guest conductors while Webster sought a new musical director . His preferred candidates , Erich Kleiber , John Barbirolli , Josef Krips , Britten and Rudolf Kempe , were among the guests but none would take the permanent post . It was not until 1954 that Webster found a replacement for Rankl in Rafael Kubelík . Kubelík announced immediately that he was in favour of continuing the policy of singing in the vernacular : " Everything that the composer has written should be understood by the audience ; and that is not possible if the opera is sung in a language with which they are not familiar " . This provoked a public onslaught by Beecham , who continued to maintain that it was impossible to produce more than a handful of English @-@ speaking opera stars , and that importing singers from continental Europe was the only way to achieve first @-@ rate results .
Despite Beecham 's views , by the mid @-@ 1950s the Covent Garden company included many British and Commonwealth singers who were already or were soon to be much sought after by overseas opera houses . Among them were Joan Carlyle , Marie Collier , Geraint Evans , Michael Langdon , Elsie Morison , Amy Shuard , Joan Sutherland , Josephine Veasey and Jon Vickers . Nevertheless , as Lords Goodman and Harewood put it in a 1969 report for the Arts Council , " [ A ] s time went on the operatic centre of British life began to take on an international character . This meant that , while continuing to develop the British artists , it was felt impossible to reach the highest international level by using only British artists or singing only in English " . Guest singers from mainland Europe in the 1950s included Maria Callas , Boris Christoff , Victoria de los Ángeles , Tito Gobbi and Birgit Nilsson . Kubelík introduced Janáček 's Jenůfa to British audiences , sung in English by a mostly British cast .
The verdict of the public on whether operas should be given in translation or the original was clear . In 1959 , the opera house stated in its annual report , " [ T ] he percentage attendance at all opera in English was 72 per cent ; attendance at the special productions marked by higher prices was 91 per cent … it is ' international ' productions with highly priced seats that reduce our losses " . The opera in English policy was never formally renounced . On this subject , Peter Heyworth wrote in The Observer in 1960 that Covent Garden had " quickly learned the secret that underlies the genius of British institutions for undisturbed change : it continued to pay lip service to a policy that it increasingly ignored " .
By the end of the 1950s , Covent Garden was generally regarded as approaching the excellence of the world 's greatest opera companies . Its sister ballet company had achieved international recognition and was granted a royal charter in 1956 , changing its title to " The Royal Ballet " ; the opera company was close to reaching similar eminence . Two landmark productions greatly enhanced its reputation . In 1957 , Covent Garden presented the first substantially complete professional staging at any opera house of Berlioz 's vast opera The Trojans , directed by John Gielgud and conducted by Kubelík . The Times commented , " It has never been a success ; but it is now " . In 1958 the present theatre 's centenary was marked by Luchino Visconti 's production of Verdi 's Don Carlos , with Vickers , Gobbi , Christoff , Gré Brouwenstijn and Fedora Barbieri , conducted by Carlo Maria Giulini . The work was then a rarity , and had hitherto been widely regarded as impossible to stage satisfactorily , but Visconti 's production was a triumph .
= = = 1960s = = =
Kubelík did not renew his contract when it expired , and from 1958 there was an interregnum until 1961 , covered by guest conductors including Giulini , Kempe , Tullio Serafin , Georg Solti and Kubelík himself . In June 1960 Solti was appointed musical director from the 1961 season onwards . With his previous experience in charge of the Munich and Frankfurt opera houses , he was at first uncertain that Covent Garden , not yet consistently reaching the top international level , was a post he wanted . Bruno Walter persuaded him otherwise , and he took up the musical directorship in August 1961 . The press gave him a cautious welcome , but there was some concern about a drift away from the company 's original policies :
[ A ] recent shift in policy towards engaging eminent singers and conductors from abroad , which is a reversion to what has been at once traditional and fatal to the establishment of a permanent organization , a kind of diffused grand season , has endangered the good work of the past fifteen years . ... The purpose of a subsidy from the Exchequer was to lay foundations for an English opera , such as is a feature of the culture of every other country in Europe .
Solti , however , was an advocate of opera in the vernacular , and promoted the development of British and Commonwealth singers in the company , frequently casting them in his recordings and important productions in preference to overseas artists . Among those who came to prominence during the decade were Gwyneth Jones and Peter Glossop . Solti demonstrated his belief in vernacular opera with a triple bill in English of L 'heure espagnole , Erwartung and Gianni Schicchi . Nevertheless , Solti and Webster had to take into account the complete opposition on the part of such stars as Callas to opera in translation . Moreover , as Webster recognised , the English @-@ speaking singers wanted to learn their roles in the original so that they could sing them in other countries and on record . Increasingly , productions were in the original language . In the interests of musical and dramatic excellence , Solti was a strong proponent of the stagione system of scheduling performances , rather than the traditional repertory system . By 1967 , The Times said , " Patrons of Covent Garden today automatically expect any new production , and indeed any revival , to be as strongly cast as anything at the Met in New York , and as carefully presented as anything in Milan or Vienna " .
The company 's repertory in the 1960s combined the standard operatic works and less familiar pieces . The five composers whose works were given most frequently were Verdi , Puccini , Wagner , Mozart and Richard Strauss ; the next most performed composer was Britten . Rarities performed in the 1960s included operas by Handel and Janáček ( neither composer 's works being as common in the opera house then as now ) , and works by Gluck ( Iphigénie en Tauride ) , Poulenc ( The Carmelites ) , Ravel ( L 'heure espagnole ) and Tippett ( King Priam ) . There was also a celebrated production of Schoenberg 's Moses and Aaron in the 1965 – 66 and 1966 – 67 seasons . In the mainstream repertoire , a highlight of the decade was Franco Zeffirelli 's production of Tosca in 1964 with Callas , Renato Cioni and Gobbi . Among the guest conductors who appeared at Covent Garden during the 1960s were Otto Klemperer , Pierre Boulez , Claudio Abbado and Colin Davis . Guest singers included Jussi Björling , Mirella Freni , Sena Jurinac , Irmgard Seefried and Astrid Varnay .
The company made occasional appearances away from the Royal Opera House . Touring within Britain was limited to centres with large enough theatres to accommodate the company 's productions , but in 1964 the company gave a concert performance of Otello at the Proms in London . Thereafter an annual appearance at the Proms was a regular feature of the company 's schedule throughout the 1960s . In 1970 , Solti led the company to Germany , where they gave Don Carlos , Falstaff and a new work by Richard Rodney Bennett . All but two of the principals were British . The public in Munich and Berlin were , according to the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , " beside themselves with enthusiasm " .
In 1968 , on the recommendation of the Home Secretary , James Callaghan , the Queen conferred the title " The Royal Opera " on the company . It was the third stage company in the UK to be so honoured , following the Royal Ballet and the Royal Shakespeare Company .
= = = 1970 to 1986 = = =
Webster retired in June 1970 . The music critic Charles Osborne wrote , " When he retired , he handed over to his successor an organization of which any opera house in the world might be proud . No memorial could be more appropriate " . The successor was Webster 's former assistant , John Tooley . One of Webster 's last important decisions had been to recommend to the board that Colin Davis should be invited to take over as musical director when Solti left in 1971 . It was announced in advance that Davis would work in tandem with Peter Hall , appointed director of productions . Peter Brook had briefly held that title in the company 's early days , but in general the managerial structure of the opera company differed markedly from that of the ballet . The latter had always had its own director , subordinate to the chief executive of the opera house but with , in practice , a great degree of autonomy . The chief executive of the opera house and the musical director exercised considerably more day @-@ to @-@ day control over the opera company Appointing a substantial theatrical figure such as Hall was an important departure . Hall , however , changed his mind , and did not take up the appointment , going instead to run the National Theatre . His defection , and the departure to Australian Opera of the staff conductor Edward Downes , a noted Verdi expert , left the company weakened on both production and musical sides .
Like his predecessors , Davis experienced hostility from sections of the audience in his early days in charge . His first production after taking over was a well @-@ received Le nozze di Figaro , in which Kiri Te Kanawa achieved immediate stardom , but booing was heard at a " disastrous " Nabucco in 1971 , and his conducting of Wagner 's Ring was at first compared unfavourably with that of his predecessor . The Covent Garden board briefly considered replacing him , but was dissuaded by its chairman , Lord Drogheda . Davis 's Mozart was generally admired ; he received much praise for reviving the little @-@ known La clemenza di Tito in 1974 . Among his other successes were The Trojans and Benvenuto Cellini .
Under Davis , the opera house introduced promenade performances , giving , as Bernard Levin wrote , " an opportunity for those ( particularly the young , of course ) who could not normally afford the price of stalls tickets to sample the view from the posher quarters at the trifling cost of £ 3 and a willingness to sit on the floor " . Davis conducted more than 30 operas during his 15 @-@ year tenure , but , he said , " people like [ Lorin ] Maazel , Abbado and [ Riccardo ] Muti would only come for new productions " . Unlike Rankl , and like Solti , Davis wanted the world 's best conductors to come to Covent Garden . He ceded the baton to guests for new productions including Der Rosenkavalier , Rigoletto and Aida . In The Times , John Higgins wrote , " One of the hallmarks of the Davis regime was the flood of international conductors who suddenly arrived at Covent Garden . While Davis has been in control perhaps only three big names have been missing from the roster : Karajan , Bernstein and Barenboim " . Among the high @-@ profile guests conducting Davis 's company were Carlos Kleiber for performances of Der Rosenkavalier ( 1974 ) , Elektra ( 1977 ) , La bohème ( 1979 ) and Otello ( 1980 ) , and Abbado conducting Un ballo in maschera ( 1975 ) , starring Plácido Domingo and Katia Ricciarelli .
In addition to the standard repertoire , Davis conducted such operas as Berg 's Lulu and Wozzeck , Tippett 's The Knot Garden and The Ice Break , and Alexander Zemlinsky 's Der Zwerg and Eine florentinische Tragödie .
Among the star guest singers during the Davis years were the sopranos Montserrat Caballé and Leontyne Price , the tenors Carlo Bergonzi , Nicolai Gedda and Luciano Pavarotti and the bass Gottlob Frick . British singers appearing with the company included Janet Baker , Heather Harper , John Tomlinson and Richard Van Allan . Davis 's tenure , at that time the longest in The Royal Opera 's history , closed in July 1986 not with a gala , but , at his insistence , with a promenade performance of Fidelio with cheap admission prices .
= = = 1987 to 2002 = = =
To succeed Davis , the Covent Garden board chose Bernard Haitink , who was then the musical director of the Glyndebourne Festival . He was highly regarded for the excellence of his performances , though his repertory was not large . In particular , he was not known as an interpreter of the Italian opera repertoire ( he conducted no Puccini and only five Verdi works during his music directorship at Covent Garden ) . His tenure began well ; a cycle of the Mozart Da Ponte operas directed by Johannes Schaaf was a success , and although a Ring cycle with the Russian director Yuri Lyubimov could not be completed , a substitute staging of the cycle directed by Götz Friedrich was well received . Musically and dramatically the company prospered into the 1990s . A 1993 production of Die Meistersinger , conducted by Haitink and starring John Tomlinson , Thomas Allen , Gösta Winbergh and Nancy Gustafson , was widely admired , as was Richard Eyre 's 1994 staging of La traviata , conducted by Solti and propelling Angela Gheorghiu to stardom .
For some time , purely musical considerations were overshadowed by practical and managerial crises at the Royal Opera House . Sir John Tooley retired as general director in 1988 , and his post was given to the television executive Jeremy Isaacs . Tooley later forsook his customary reticence and pronounced the Isaacs period a disaster , citing poor management that failed to control inflated manning levels with a consequent steep rise in costs and ticket prices . The uneasy relations between Isaacs and his colleagues , notably Haitink , were also damaging . Tooley concluded that under Isaacs " Covent Garden had become a place of corporate entertainment , no longer a theatre primarily for opera and ballet lovers " . Isaacs was widely blamed for the poor public relations arising from the 1996 BBC television series The House , in which cameras were permitted to film the day @-@ to @-@ day backstage life of the opera and ballet companies and the running of the theatre . The Daily Telegraph commented , " For years , the Opera House was a byword for mismanagement and chaos . Its innermost workings were exposed to public ridicule by the BBC fly @-@ on @-@ the @-@ wall series The House " .
In 1995 , The Royal Opera announced a " Verdi Festival " , of which the driving force was the company 's leading Verdian , Sir Edward Downes , by now returned from Australia . The aim was to present all Verdi 's operas , either on stage or in concert performance , between 1995 and the centenary of Verdi 's death , 2001 . Those operas substantially rewritten by the composer in his long career , such as Simon Boccanegra , were given in both their original and revised versions . The festival did not manage to stage a complete Verdi cycle ; the closure of the opera house disrupted many plans , but as The Guardian put it , " Downes still managed to introduce , either under his own baton or that of others , most of the major works and many of the minor ones by the Italian master . "
The most disruptive event of the decade for both the opera and the ballet companies was the closure of the Royal Opera House between 1997 and 1999 for major rebuilding . The Independent on Sunday asserted that Isaacs " hopelessly mismanaged the closure of the Opera House during its redevelopment " . Isaacs , the paper states , turned down the chance of a temporary move to the Lyceum Theatre almost next door to the opera house , pinning his hopes on a proposed new temporary building on London 's South Bank . That scheme was refused planning permission , leaving the opera and ballet companies homeless . Isaacs resigned in December 1996 , nine months before the expiry of his contract . Haitink , dismayed by events , threatened to leave , but was persuaded to stay and keep the opera company going in a series of temporary homes in London theatres and concert halls . A semi @-@ staged Ring cycle at the Royal Albert Hall gained superlative reviews and won many new admirers for Haitink and the company , whose members included Tomlinson , Anne Evans and Hildegard Behrens .
After Isaacs left , there was a period of managerial instability , with three chief executives in three years . Isaacs 's successor , Genista McIntosh , resigned in May 1997 after five months , citing ill @-@ health . Her post was filled by Mary Allen , who moved into the job from the Arts Council . Allen 's selection did not comply with the Council 's rules for such appointments , and following a critical House of Commons Select Committee report on the management of the opera house she resigned in March 1998 , as did the entire board of the opera house , including the chairman , Lord Chadlington . A new board appointed Michael Kaiser as general director in September 1998 . He oversaw the restoration of the two companies ' finances and the re @-@ opening of the opera house . He was widely regarded as a success , and there was some surprise when he left in June 2000 after less than two years to run the Kennedy Center in Washington , D.C.
The last operatic music to be heard in the old house had been the finale of Falstaff , conducted by Solti with the singers led by Bryn Terfel , in a joint opera and ballet farewell gala in July 1997 . When the house reopened in December 1999 , magnificently restored , Falstaff was the opera given on the opening night , conducted by Haitink , once more with Terfel in the title role .
= = = 2002 to date = = =
Following years of disruption and conflict , stability was restored to the opera house and its two companies after the appointment in May 2001 of a new chief executive , Tony Hall , formerly a senior executive at the BBC . The following year Antonio Pappano succeeded Haitink as music director of The Royal Opera . Following the redevelopment , a second , smaller auditorium , the Linbury Studio Theatre has been made available for small @-@ scale productions by The Royal Opera and The Royal Ballet , for visiting companies , and for work produced in the ROH2 programme , which supports new work and developing artists . The Royal Opera encourages young singers at the start of their careers with the Jette Parker Young Artists Programme ; participants are salaried members of the company and receive daily coaching in all aspects of opera .
In addition to the standard works of the operatic repertoire , The Royal Opera has presented many less well known pieces since 2002 , including Cilea 's Adriana Lecouvreur , Massenet 's Cendrillon , Prokofiev 's The Gambler , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's The Tsar 's Bride , Rossini 's Il turco in Italia , Steffani 's Niobe , and Tchaikovsky 's The Tsarina 's Slippers . Among the composers whose works were premiered were Thomas Adès , Harrison Birtwistle , Lorin Maazel , and Nicholas Maw .
Productions in the first five years of Pappano 's tenure ranged from Shostakovich 's Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk ( 2004 ) to Stephen Sondheim 's Sweeney Todd ( 2003 ) starring Thomas Allen and Felicity Palmer . Pappano 's Ring cycle , begun in 2004 and staged as a complete tetralogy in 2007 , was praised like Haitink 's before it for its musical excellence ; it was staged in a production described by Richard Morrison in The Times as " much derided for mixing the homely … the wacky and the cosmic " . During Pappano 's tenure , his predecessors Davis and Haitink have both returned as guests . Haitink conducted Parsifal , with Tomlinson , Christopher Ventris and Petra Lang in 2007 , and Davis conducted four Mozart operas between 2002 and 2011 , Richard Strauss 's Ariadne auf Naxos in 2007 and Humperdinck 's Hansel and Gretel in 2008 . In 2007 , Sir Simon Rattle conducted a new production of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande starring Simon Keenlyside , Angelika Kirchschlager and Gerald Finley .
The company visited Japan in 2010 , presenting a new production of Manon and the Eyre production of La traviata . While the main company was abroad , a smaller company remained in London , presenting Niobe , Così fan tutte and Don Pasquale at Covent Garden .
In 2010 , the Royal Opera House received a government subsidy of just over £ 27m , compared with a subsidy of £ 15m in 1998 . This sum was divided between the opera and ballet companies and the cost of running the building . Compared with opera houses in mainland Europe , Covent Garden 's public subsidy has remained low as a percentage of its income – typically 43 % , compared with 60 % for its counterpart in Munich .
In the latter part of the 2000s The Royal Opera gave an average of 150 performances each season , lasting from September to July , of about 20 operas , nearly half of which were new productions . Productions in the 2011 – 12 season included a new opera ( Miss Fortune ) by Judith Weir , and the first performances of The Trojans at Covent Garden since 1990 , conducted by Pappano , and starring Bryan Hymel , Eva @-@ Maria Westbroek and Anna Caterina Antonacci . From the start of the 2011 – 12 season Kasper Holten became Director of The Royal Opera , joined by John Fulljames as Associate Director of Opera . At the end of the 2011 @-@ 12 season ROH2 , the contemporary arm of The Royal Opera House , was closed . Responsibility for contemporary programming was split between the Studio programmes of The Royal Opera and The Royal Ballet .
Since the start of the 2012 – 13 season The Royal Opera has continued to mount around 20 productions and around seven new productions each season . The 2012 – 13 season opened with a revival of Der Ring des Nibelungen , directed by Keith Warner ; new productions that season included Robert le diable , directed by Laurent Pelly , Eugene Onegin , directed by Holten , La donna del lago , directed by Fulljames , and the UK premiere of Written on Skin , composed by George Benjamin and directed by Katie Mitchell . Productions by the Studio Programme included the world premiere of David Bruce 's The Firework @-@ Maker 's Daughter ( inspired by Philip Pullman 's novel of the same name ) , directed by Fulljames , and the UK stage premiere of Gerald Barry 's The Importance of Being Earnest , directed by Ramin Gray .
New productions in the 2013 – 14 season included Les vêpres siciliennes , directed by Stefan Herheim , Parsifal , directed by Stephen Langridge , Don Giovanni , directed by Holten , Die Frau ohne Schatten , directed by Claus Guth , and Manon Lescaut , directed by Jonathan Kent , and in the Studio Programme the world premiere of Luke Bedford 's Through His Teeth , and the London premiere of Luca Francesconi 's Quartett ( directed by Fulljames ) . This season also saw the first production of a three @-@ year collaboration between The Royal Opera and Welsh National Opera , staging Moses und Aron in 2014 , Richard Ayre 's Peter Pan in 2015 and a new commission in 2016 to celebrate WNO 's 70th anniversary . Other events this season included The Royal Opera 's first collaboration with Shakespeare 's Globe , Holten directing L 'Ormindo in the newly opened Sam Wanamaker Playhouse . In The Guardian , Tim Ashley wrote , " A more exquisite evening would be hard to imagine " ; Dominic Dromgoole , director of the playhouse expressed the hope that the partnership with the Royal Opera would become an annual fixture . The production was revived in February 2015 .
= = Managerial and musical heads , 1946 to date = =
|
= E ( mathematical constant ) =
The number e is an important mathematical constant that is the base of the natural logarithm . It is approximately equal to 2 @.@ 71828 , and is the limit of ( 1 + 1 / n ) n as n approaches infinity , an expression that arises in the study of compound interest . It can also be calculated as the sum of the infinite series
<formula>
The constant can be defined in many ways . For example , e can be defined as the unique positive number a such that the graph of the function y |
= ax has unit slope at x =
0 . The function f ( x ) |
= ex is called the exponential function , and its inverse is the natural logarithm , or logarithm to base e . The natural logarithm of a positive number k can also be defined directly as the area under the curve y =
1 / x between x |
= 1 and x =
k , in which case e is the number whose natural logarithm is 1 . There are alternative characterizations .
Sometimes called Euler 's number after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler , e is not to be confused with γ , the Euler – Mascheroni constant , sometimes called simply Euler 's constant . The number e is also known as Napier 's constant , but Euler 's choice of the symbol e is said to have been retained in his honor . The constant was discovered by the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli while studying compound interest .
The number e is of eminent importance in mathematics , alongside 0 , 1 , π and i . All five of these numbers play important and recurring roles across mathematics , and are the five constants appearing in one formulation of Euler 's identity . Like the constant π , e is irrational : it is not a ratio of integers . Also like π , e is transcendental : it is not a root of any non @-@ zero polynomial with rational coefficients . The numerical value of e truncated to 50 decimal places is
2 @.@ 71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995 ... ( sequence A001113 in the OEIS ) .
= = History = =
The first references to the constant were published in 1618 in the table of an appendix of a work on logarithms by John Napier . However , this did not contain the constant itself , but simply a list of logarithms calculated from the constant . It is assumed that the table was written by William Oughtred . The discovery of the constant itself is credited to Jacob Bernoulli , who attempted to find the value of the following expression ( which is in fact e ) :
<formula>
The first known use of the constant , represented by the letter b , was in correspondence from Gottfried Leibniz to Christiaan Huygens in 1690 and 1691 . Leonhard Euler introduced the letter e as the base for natural logarithms , writing in a letter to Christian Goldbach of 25 November 1731 . Euler started to use the letter e for the constant in 1727 or 1728 , in an unpublished paper on explosive forces in cannons , and the first appearance of e in a publication was Euler 's Mechanica ( 1736 ) . While in the subsequent years some researchers used the letter c , e was more common and eventually became the standard .
= = Applications = =
= = = Compound interest = = =
Jacob Bernoulli discovered this constant in 1683 by studying a question about compound interest :
An account starts with $ 1 @.@ 00 and pays 100 percent interest per year . If the interest is credited once , at the end of the year , the value of the account at year @-@ end will be $ 2 @.@ 00 . What happens if the interest is computed and credited more frequently during the year ?
If the interest is credited twice in the year , the interest rate for each 6 months will be 50 % , so the initial $ 1 is multiplied by 1 @.@ 5 twice , yielding $ 1 @.@ 00 × 1 @.@ 52 |
= $ 2 @.@ 25 at the end of the year . Compounding quarterly yields $ 1 @.@ 00 × 1 @.@ 254 =
$ 2 @.@ 4414 ... , and compounding monthly yields $ 1 @.@ 00 × ( 1 + 1 / 12 ) 12
= $ 2 @.@ 613035 ... If there are n compounding intervals , the interest for each interval will be 100 % / n and the value at the end of the year will be $ 1 @.@ 00 × ( 1 + 1 / n ) n .
Bernoulli noticed that this sequence approaches a limit ( the force of interest ) with larger n and , thus , smaller compounding intervals . Compounding weekly ( n =
52 ) yields $ 2 @.@ 692597 ... , while compounding daily ( n |
= 365 ) yields $ 2 @.@ 714567 ... , just two cents more . The limit as n grows large is the number that came to be known as e ; with continuous compounding , the account value will reach $ 2 @.@ 7182818 .... More generally , an account that starts at $ 1 and offers an annual interest rate of R will , after t years , yield eRt dollars with continuous compounding . ( Here R is the decimal equivalent of the rate of interest expressed as a percentage , so for 5 % interest , R =
5 / 100 = 0 @.@ 05 )
= = = Bernoulli trials = = =
The number e itself also has applications to probability theory , where it arises in a way not obviously related to exponential growth . Suppose that a gambler plays a slot machine that pays out with a probability of one in n and plays it n times . Then , for large n ( such as a million ) the probability that the gambler will lose every bet is ( approximately ) 1 / e . For n
= 20 it is already approximately 1 / 2 @.@ 79 .
This is an example of a Bernoulli trials process . Each time the gambler plays the slots , there is a one in one million chance of winning . Playing one million times is modelled by the binomial distribution , which is closely related to the binomial theorem . The probability of winning k times out of a million trials is ;
<formula>
In particular , the probability of winning zero times ( k =
0 ) is
<formula>
This is very close to the following limit for 1 / e :
<formula>
= = = Derangements = = =
Another application of e , also discovered in part by Jacob Bernoulli along with Pierre Raymond de Montmort , is in the problem of derangements , also known as the hat check problem : n guests are invited to a party , and at the door each guest checks his hat with the butler who then places them into n boxes , each labelled with the name of one guest . But the butler does not know the identities of the guests , and so he puts the hats into boxes selected at random . The problem of de Montmort is to find the probability that none of the hats gets put into the right box . The answer is :
<formula>
As the number n of guests tends to infinity , pn approaches 1 / e . Furthermore , the number of ways the hats can be placed into the boxes so that none of the hats are in the right box is n ! / e rounded to the nearest integer , for every positive n .
= = = Asymptotics = = =
The number e occurs naturally in connection with many problems involving asymptotics . A prominent example is Stirling 's formula for the asymptotics of the factorial function , in which both the numbers e and π enter :
<formula>
A particular consequence of this is
<formula> .
= = = Standard normal distribution = = =
The simplest case of a normal distribution is known as the standard normal distribution , described by this probability density function :
<formula>
The factor <formula> in this expression ensures that the total area under the curve ϕ ( x ) is equal to one [ proof ] . The 1 / 2 in the exponent ensures that the distribution has unit variance ( and therefore also unit standard deviation ) . This function is symmetric around x = 0 , where it attains its maximum value <formula> ; and has inflection points at + 1 and − 1 .
= = e in calculus = =
The principal motivation for introducing the number e , particularly in calculus , is to perform differential and integral calculus with exponential functions and logarithms . A general exponential function y
= ax has derivative given as the limit :
<formula>
The limit on the far right is independent of the variable x : it depends only on the base a . When the base is e , this limit is equal to 1 , and so e is symbolically defined by the equation :
<formula>
Consequently , the exponential function with base e is particularly suited to doing calculus . Choosing e , as opposed to some other number , as the base of the exponential function makes calculations involving the derivative much simpler .
Another motivation comes from considering the base @-@ a logarithm . Considering the definition of the derivative of loga x as the limit :
<formula>
where the substitution u =
h / x was made in the last step . The last limit appearing in this calculation is again an undetermined limit that depends only on the base a , and if that base is e , the limit is equal to 1 . So symbolically ,
<formula>
The logarithm in this special base is called the natural logarithm and is represented as ln ; it behaves well under differentiation since there is no undetermined limit to carry through the calculations .
There are thus two ways in which to select a special number a = e . One way is to set the derivative of the exponential function ax to ax , and solve for a . The other way is to set the derivative of the base a logarithm to 1 / x and solve for a . In each case , one arrives at a convenient choice of base for doing calculus . In fact , these two solutions for a are actually the same , the number e .
= = = Alternative characterizations = = =
Other characterizations of e are also possible : one is as the limit of a sequence , another is as the sum of an infinite series , and still others rely on integral calculus . So far , the following two ( equivalent ) properties have been introduced :
The number e is the unique positive real number such that
<formula>
The number e is the unique positive real number such that
<formula>
The following three characterizations can be proven equivalent :
The number e is the limit
<formula>
Similarly :
<formula>
The number e is the sum of the infinite series
<formula>
where n ! is the factorial of n .
The number e is the unique positive real number such that
<formula>
= = Properties = =
= = = Calculus = = =
As in the motivation , the exponential function ex is important in part because it is the unique nontrivial function ( up to multiplication by a constant ) which is its own derivative
<formula>
and therefore its own antiderivative as well :
<formula>
= = = Inequalities = = =
The number e is the unique real number such that
<formula>
for all positive x .
Also , we have the inequality
<formula>
for all real x , with equality if and only if x = 0 . Furthermore , e is the unique base of the exponential for which the inequality ax ≥ x + 1 holds for all x .
= = = Exponential @-@ like functions = = =
Steiner 's problem asks to find the global maximum for the function
<formula>
This maximum occurs precisely at x
= e . For proof , the inequality <formula> , from above , evaluated at <formula> and simplifying gives <formula> . So <formula> for all positive x .
Similarly , x =
1 / e is where the global minimum occurs for the function
<formula>
defined for positive x . More generally , for the function
<formula>
the global maximum for positive x occurs at x |
= 1 / e for any n < 0 ; and the global minimum occurs at x =
e − 1 / n for any n > 0 .
The infinite tetration
<formula> or <formula>
converges if and only if e − e ≤ x ≤ e1 / e ( or approximately between 0 @.@ 0660 and 1 @.@ 4447 ) , due to a theorem of Leonhard Euler .
= = = Number theory = = =
The real number e is irrational . Euler proved this by showing that its simple continued fraction expansion is infinite . ( See also Fourier 's proof that e is irrational . )
Furthermore , by the Lindemann – Weierstrass theorem , e is transcendental , meaning that it is not a solution of any non @-@ constant polynomial equation with rational coefficients . It was the first number to be proved transcendental without having been specifically constructed for this purpose ( compare with Liouville number ) ; the proof was given by Charles Hermite in 1873 .
It is conjectured that e is normal , meaning that when e is expressed in any base the possible digits in that base are uniformly distributed ( occur with equal probability in any sequence of given length ) .
= = = Complex numbers = = =
The exponential function ex may be written as a Taylor series
<formula>
Because this series keeps many important properties for ex even when x is complex , it is commonly used to extend the definition of ex to the complex numbers . This , with the Taylor series for sin and cos x , allows one to derive Euler 's formula :
<formula>
which holds for all x . The special case with x = π is Euler 's identity :
<formula>
from which it follows that , in the principal branch of the logarithm ,
<formula>
Furthermore , using the laws for exponentiation ,
<formula>
which is de Moivre 's formula .
The expression
<formula>
is sometimes referred to as cis ( x ) .
= = = Differential equations = = =
The general function
<formula>
is the solution to the differential equation :
<formula>
= = Representations = =
The number e can be represented as a real number in a variety of ways : as an infinite series , an infinite product , a continued fraction , or a limit of a sequence . The chief among these representations , particularly in introductory calculus courses is the limit
<formula>
given above , as well as the series
<formula>
given by evaluating the above power series for ex at x = 1 .
Less common is the continued fraction ( sequence A003417 in the OEIS ) .
<formula>
which written out looks like
<formula>
This continued fraction for e converges three times as quickly :
<formula>
which written out looks like
<formula>
Many other series , sequence , continued fraction , and infinite product representations of e have been developed .
= = = Stochastic representations = = =
In addition to exact analytical expressions for representation of e , there are stochastic techniques for estimating e . One such approach begins with an infinite sequence of independent random variables X1 , X2 ... , drawn from the uniform distribution on [ 0 , 1 ] . Let V be the least number n such that the sum of the first n observations exceeds 1 :
<formula>
Then the expected value of V is e : E ( V ) = e .
= = = Known digits = = =
The number of known digits of e has increased substantially during the last decades . This is due both to the increased performance of computers and to algorithmic improvements .
Since that time , the proliferation of modern high @-@ speed desktop computers has made it possible for amateurs to compute billions of digits of e .
= = In computer culture = =
In contemporary internet culture , individuals and organizations frequently pay homage to the number e .
For instance , in the IPO filing for Google in 2004 , rather than a typical round @-@ number amount of money , the company announced its intention to raise $ 2 @,@ 718 @,@ 281 @,@ 828 , which is e billion dollars rounded to the nearest dollar . Google was also responsible for a billboard that appeared in the heart of Silicon Valley , and later in Cambridge , Massachusetts ; Seattle , Washington ; and Austin , Texas . It read " { first 10 @-@ digit prime found in consecutive digits of e } .com " . Solving this problem and visiting the advertised ( now defunct ) web site led to an even more difficult problem to solve , which in turn led to Google Labs where the visitor was invited to submit a resume . The first 10 @-@ digit prime in e is 7427466391 , which starts at the 99th digit .
In another instance , the computer scientist Donald Knuth let the version numbers of his program Metafont approach e . The versions are 2 , 2 @.@ 7 , 2 @.@ 71 , 2 @.@ 718 , and so forth .
|
= HMS Royal Oak ( 1862 ) =
HMS Royal Oak was a Prince Consort @-@ class armoured frigate built for the Royal Navy in the 1860s . The lead ship of her class , she is sometimes described as a half @-@ sister to the other three ships because of her different engine and boiler arrangements . Like her sisters , she was converted into an ironclad from a wooden ship of the line that was still under construction .
The ship spent most of her career with the Mediterranean Fleet , only briefly serving with the Channel Fleet . Royal Oak returned home in 1871 for a refit , but was instead placed in reserve to save money . Fourteen years later , still in reserve , she was sold for scrap in 1885 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Royal Oak was 273 feet ( 83 @.@ 2 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 6 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship had a draught of 23 feet 11 inches ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) forward and 25 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 7 m ) aft . She displaced 6 @,@ 366 long tons ( 6 @,@ 468 t ) and had a tonnage of 4 @,@ 056 tons burthen .
Royal Oak had a low centre of gravity which meant that she rolled a lot and was an unsteady gun platform . She was , however , very handy and sailed well in all weathers under sail or steam . Her crew consisted of 585 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Royal Oak had a simple horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine , built by Maudslay , that drove a single propeller shaft using steam that was provided by six rectangular boilers . The engine produced 3 @,@ 704 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 762 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials on 15 June 1863 which gave the ship a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) under steam . She carried a maximum of 550 long tons ( 560 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 100 km ; 2 @,@ 500 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) .
The ship was initially barque @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) . Yards were added to the ship 's mizzenmast in June 1866 and Royal Oak was given a full ship rig which she retained for the rest of her career . Her propeller was designed to be disconnected and hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail , but this was rarely done because there was no bulkhead surrounding the hoisting holes which could have flooded the ship if their covers had been removed in even a moderate sea . To further reduce drag , the funnel was telescopic and could be lowered . Her best speed with the propeller disconnected and under sail alone was 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) , the fastest of any British ironclad , and she was the only ship to exceed her best speed using steam while under sail .
= = = Armament = = =
Royal Oak was initially armed with 24 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns on the main deck and 11 rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) Armstrong seven @-@ inch , 110 @-@ pounder guns . Eight of these were also on the main deck and the other three served as chase guns on the upper deck , two at the bow and one aft .
The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
The ship 's original armament was replaced during her 1867 refit with 20 seven @-@ inch and 8 eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns , four of the seven @-@ inch guns were chase guns . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre eight @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed nine long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre seven @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell that was able penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) of armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The entire side of the Prince Consort @-@ class ships , from the upper @-@ deck level downwards , was protected by wrought iron armour that tapered from 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) amidships . The armour extended 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline and was backed by the sides of the hull which were 29 @.@ 5 inches ( 749 mm ) thick .
= = Construction and service = =
Royal Oak , named for the English oak tree within which King Charles II hid to escape after his defeat at Battle of Worcester in 1651 , was laid down on 1 May 1860 at Chatham Dockyard as a 90 @-@ gun Bulwark @-@ class ship of the line . She was ordered to be converted to an ironclad on 14 May 1861 and was launched on 10 September 1862 . The ship was commissioned in April 1863 to run her trials and completed on 28 May , for the price of £ 245 @,@ 537 .
Royal Oak briefly served with the Channel Fleet before she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . She was paid off for a refit and re @-@ arming in 1867 , and then rejoined the Channel Fleet for six months . She was accidentally rammed by HMS Warrior in heavy weather at night on 14 August 1868 ; the impact sheared off the main and mizzen chainplates as well as all the boats on the starboard side . Three months later the ship returned to the Mediterranean , and was present at the opening of the Suez Canal in November 1869 where she grounded on an uncharted sandbank outside Port Said , Egypt , without sustaining any damage . She paid off for an extensive refit at Portsmouth at the end of 1871 , but was instead laid up as an economy measure . Royal Oak remained in fourth @-@ class reserve for 14 years until she was no longer worth repairing and was sold for breaking up on 30 September 1885 .
= = Memorials = =
A block of housing within the new development at " Rochester Riverside " has been named after this ship .
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= Stanisław Lem =
Stanisław Herman Lem ( Polish pronunciation : [ staˈɲiswaf ˈlɛm ] ; 12 September 1921 – 27 March 2006 ) was a Polish writer of science fiction , philosophy , and satire , and a trained physician . Lem 's books have been translated into forty @-@ one languages and have sold over forty @-@ five million copies . From the 1950s to 2000s , he published many books , both science fiction and philosophical / futurological . He is best known as the author of the 1961 novel Solaris , which has been made into a feature film three times . In 1976 , Theodore Sturgeon wrote that Lem was the most widely read science @-@ fiction writer in the world .
Lem 's works explore philosophical themes through speculation on technology , the nature of intelligence , the impossibility of mutual communication and understanding , despair about human limitations , and humanity 's place in the universe . They are sometimes presented as fiction , but others are in the form of essays or philosophical books .
Translations of his works are difficult due to passages with elaborate word formation , alien or robotic poetry , and puns .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Lem was born in 1921 in Lwów , Poland ( since 1945 Lviv , Soviet Union ) . He was the son of Sabina née Woller ( 1892 – 1979 ) and Samuel Lem ( 1879 – 1954 ) , a wealthy laryngologist and former physician in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army , and first cousin to Polish poet Marian Hemar ( Lem 's father and Hemar 's mother were brother and sister ) . Though in later years he sometimes claimed to have been raised a Roman Catholic , he went to Jewish religious lessons during his school years , and later became an atheist " for moral reasons . . . the world appears to me to be put together in such a painful way that I prefer to believe that it was not created . . . intentionally " . Lem called himself both an " agnostic " . and an atheist later in life . After the Soviet invasion and occupation of Eastern Poland , he was not allowed to study at the Polytechnic as he wished because of his " bourgeois origin , " and only due to his father 's connections was accepted to study medicine at Lwów University in 1940 . During the subsequent Nazi occupation ( 1941 – 1944 ) , Lem 's family , which had Jewish roots , avoided imprisonment in a ghetto , surviving with false papers . During that time , Lem earned a living as a car mechanic and welder . Lem declared :
During that period , I learned in a very personal , practical way that I was no “ Aryan ” . I knew that my ancestors were Jews , but I knew nothing of the Mosaic faith and , regrettably , nothing at all of Jewish culture . So it was , strictly speaking , only the Nazi legislation that brought home to me the realization that I had Jewish blood in my veins .
In 1945 , Polish eastern Kresy was annexed into Soviet Ukraine and the family , like many other Poles , was resettled to Kraków , where Lem , at his father 's insistence , took up medical studies at the Jagiellonian University . He did not take his final examinations on purpose , so as not to be obliged to become a military doctor . Earlier , he had started working as an assistant in a hospital and writing stories in his spare time .
= = = Rise to fame = = =
Lem made his literary debut in 1946 with a number of works of different genres , including poetry as well as a science fiction novel The Man from Mars ( Człowiek z Marsa ) serialized in Nowy Świat Przygód ( New World of Adventures ) . Between 1948 and 1950 Lem was working as a scientific research assistant at the Jagiellonian University , and published a number of short stories , poems , reviews and similar works , particularly at Tygodnik Powszechny . In 1951 , he published his first book , The Astronauts ( Astronauci ) . In 1954 , he published a short story anthology , Sesame and other stories ( Sezam i inne opowiadania ) . That year he also married Barbara Leśniak . The following year , 1955 , saw the publication of another science fiction novel , The Magellanic Cloud ( Obłok Magellana ) .
During the era of Stalinism , which had begun in Poland in the late ' 40s , all published works had to be directly approved by the communist regime . Thus Astronauci was not , in fact , the first novel Lem finished , just the first that made it past the censors . Going by the date of finished manuscript , Lem 's first book was a partly autobiographical novella Hospital of the Transfiguration ( Szpital Przemienienia ) , finished in 1948 . It would be published seven years later , in 1955 , as a trilogy under a title Czas nieutracony ( Time Not Lost ) . The experience of trying to push Czas .. through the censors was one of the major reasons Lem decided to focus on the less @-@ censored genre of science fiction . Nonetheless , most of Lem 's works published in the 1950s also contain — forced upon him by the censors and editors — various references to socialist realism as well as the " glorious future of communism " . Lem later criticized several of his early pieces as compromised by the ideological pressure .
Lem became truly productive after 1956 , when the de @-@ Stalinization period in the Soviet Union led to the " Polish October " , when Poland experienced an increase in freedom of speech . Between 1956 and 1968 , Lem authored seventeen books . His writing over the next three decades or so was split between science fiction ( primarily prose ) and essays about science and culture .
In 1957 , he published his first non @-@ fiction , philosophical book , Dialogues ( Dialogi ) , as well as a science @-@ fiction anthology , The Star Diaries ( Dzienniki gwiazdowe ) , collecting short stories about one of his most popular characters , Ijon Tichy . 1959 saw the publication of three books : Eden , Śledztwo and the short story anthology , Inwazja z Aldebarana . 1961 saw two more books , the first regarded as being among his top works : Pamiętnik znaleziony w wannie , Solaris , as well as Powrót z gwiazd . This was followed by a collections of his essays and non @-@ fiction prose , Wejście na orbitę ( 1962 ) , and a short @-@ story anthology Noc księżycowa ( 1963 ) . In 1964 , Lem published a large work on the border of philosophy and sociology of science and futurology , Summa Technologiae , as well as a novel , The Invincible ( Niezwyciężony ) .
1965 saw the publication of The Cyberiad ( Cyberiada ) . That year also saw the publication of a short @-@ story anthology , The Hunt ( Polowanie ) . 1966 is the year of " Wysoki Zamek " , and 1968 , " Głos Pana " and " Opowieści o pilocie Pirxie " . " Wysoki Zamek " was another of Lem 's autobiographical works , and touched upon a theme that usually was not favored by the censors : Lem 's youth in the pre @-@ war , then @-@ Polish , Lviv . 1967 and 1970 saw two more non @-@ fiction treatises , " Filozofia przypadku " and " Fantastyka i futurologia " . Ijon Tichy returns in 1971 's The Futurological Congress Kongres futurologiczny , the year of a genre @-@ mixing experiment , " Doskonała próżnia " ( a collection of reviews of non @-@ existent books ) . 1973 sees a similar work , " Wielkość urojona " . In 1976 , Lem published two novels : " Maska " and " Katar " . In 1980 , he published another set of reviews of non @-@ existent works , " Prowokacja " . The following year sees another Tichy novel , " Wizja lokalna " , and Golem XIV . Later in that decade , he published " Pokój na Ziemi " ( 1984 ) and " Fiasko " ( 1986 ) , Lem 's final science @-@ fiction novel .
In the late ' 70s and early ' 80s , Lem cautiously supported the Polish dissident movement , and started publishing essays in Paris @-@ based Kultura . In 1982 , with martial law in Poland declared , Lem moved to West Berlin , where he became a fellow of the Institute for Advanced Study , Berlin ( Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin ) . After that , he settled in Vienna . He returned to Poland in 1988 .
= = = Final years = = =
From the late 1980s onwards , he tended to concentrate on philosophical texts and essays , published in a number of Polish magazines ( Tygodnik Powszechny , Odra , Przegląd , and others ) . They were later collected in a number of anthologies .
In the early 1990s , Lem met with the literary scholar and critic Peter Swirski for a series of extensive interviews , published together with other critical materials and translations as A Stanislaw Lem Reader ( 1997 ) ; in the book , Lem speaks about a range of issues rarely touched on before in any interview . Moreover , the book includes Swirski 's translation of Lem 's retrospective essay " Thirty Years Later " , devoted to Lem 's legendary nonfictional treatise Summa Technologiae . During later interviews in 2005 , Lem expressed his disappointment with the genre of science fiction , and his general pessimism regarding technical progress . He viewed the human body as unsuitable for space travel , held that information technology drowns people in a glut of low @-@ quality information , and considered truly intelligent robots as both undesirable and impossible to construct . Subsequently , Peter Swirski has published a series of in @-@ depth studies of Lem as a writer , philosopher , and futurologist ; notable among them are the recent From Literature to Biterature : Lem , Turing , Darwin ( 2013 ) , Stanislaw Lem : Selected Letters to Michael Kandel ( 2014 ) , Lemography ( 2014 ) , and Stanislaw Lem : Philosopher of the Future ( 2015 ) .
In 1996 , Lem received the prestigious Polish award , the Order of the White Eagle .
Lem died from heart disease in Kraków on 27 March 2006 at the age of 84 .
= = Controversies = =
= = = SFWA = = =
Lem was awarded an honorary membership in the Science Fiction Writers of America ( SFWA ) in 1973 . SFWA Honorary membership is given to people who do not meet the publishing criteria for joining the regular membership , but who would be welcomed as members had their work appeared in the qualifying English @-@ language publications . Lem , however , never had a high opinion of American science fiction , describing it as ill @-@ thought @-@ out , poorly written , and interested more in making money than in ideas or new literary forms . After his eventual American publication , when he became eligible for regular membership , his honorary membership was rescinded , an action that some of the SFWA members apparently intended as a rebuke , and it seems that Lem interpreted it as such . Lem was invited to stay on with the organization with a regular membership , but declined . After many members ( including Ursula K. Le Guin ) protested Lem 's treatment by the SFWA , a member offered to pay his dues . Lem never accepted the offer .
= = = Philip K. Dick = = =
Lem singled out only one American SF writer for praise , Philip K. Dick — see the 1986 English @-@ language anthology of his critical essays , Microworlds . Dick thought that Stanisław Lem was probably a false name used by a composite committee operating on orders of the Communist party to gain control over public opinion , and wrote a letter to the FBI to that effect . Stanisław Lem was also responsible for Polish translation of Dick 's work , and when Dick felt monetarily short @-@ changed by the publisher , he held Lem personally responsible ( see Microworlds ) .
= = Significance = =
Lem has become one of the most highly acclaimed science @-@ fiction writers , hailed by critics as equal to such classic authors as H. G. Wells and Olaf Stapledon . In 1976 , Theodore Sturgeon wrote that Lem was the most widely read science @-@ fiction writer in the world .
In Poland , in the ' 60s and ' 70s , Lem remained under the radar of mainstream critics , who dismissed him as a " mass market " , low @-@ brow , youth @-@ oriented writer ; such dismissal might have given him a form of invisibility from censorship .
The total volume of his published works is over twenty @-@ eight million volumes . His works were widely translated abroad , appearing in over forty languages , though the bulk of them were in Eastern Bloc countries ( Poland , Germany , and the Soviet Union ) . Franz Rottensteiner , Lem 's former agent abroad , had this to say about Lem 's reception on international markets :
With [ number of translations and copies sold ] , Lem is the most successful author in modern Polish fiction ; nevertheless his commercial success in the world is limited , and the bulk of his large editions was due to the special publishing conditions in the Communist countries : Poland , the Soviet Union , and the German Democratic Republic ) . Only in West Germany was Lem really a critical and a commercial success [ . . . and everywhere . . . ] in recent years interest in him has waned .
But he is the only writer of European [ science fiction , most of whose ] books have been translated into English , and [ . . . ] kept in print in the USA . Lem 's critical success in English is due mostly to the excellent translations of Michael Kandel .
His best @-@ known novels include Solaris ( 1961 ) , His Master 's Voice ( Głos pana , 1968 ) , and the late Fiasco ( Fiasko , 1987 ) . Solaris was made into a film in 1968 by Russian director Boris Nirenburg , a film in 1972 by Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky — which won a Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival in 1972 — and an American re @-@ adaptation in 2002 by American director Steven Soderbergh , starring George Clooney .
Solaris is not the only work of Lem 's to be made into a movie . Over ten movie , film , and television adaptations of his work exist , such as adaptations of The Astronauts ( First Spaceship on Venus , 1960 ) and The Magellan Nebula ( Ikarie XB @-@ 1 , 1963 ) . Lem himself was , however , critical of most of the screen adaptations , with the sole exception of Przekładaniec in 1968 by Andrzej Wajda . More recently , in 2013 , the Israeli – Polish co @-@ production The Congress was released , inspired by Lem 's novel The Futurological Congress .
Lem 's works have been used in education , for example as teaching texts for philosophy students .
Lem 's works have influenced not only the realm of literature , but that of science as well . For example , Return from the Stars includes the " opton " , which is often cited as the first published appearance of the idea of electronic paper .
In 1981 , the philosophers Douglas R. Hofstadter and Daniel C. Dennett included three extracts from Lem 's fiction in their annotated anthology The Mind 's I , accompanied by Hofstadter 's comment , which says in part that Lem 's " literary and intuitive approach . . . does a better job of convincing readers of his views than any hard @-@ nosed scientific article . . . might do " .
Other influences exerted by Lem 's works include Will Wright 's popular city planning game SimCity , which was partly inspired by Lem 's short story The Seventh Sally .
= = Writings = =
= = = Science fiction = = =
Stanisław Lem works were influenced by such masters of Polish literature as Cyprian Norwid and Stanisław Witkiewicz . His prose show a mastery of numerous genres and themes .
One of Lem 's major recurring themes , beginning from his very first novel , The Man from Mars , was the impossibility of communication between profoundly alien beings , which may have no common ground with human intelligence , and humans . The best known example is the living planetary ocean in Lem 's novel Solaris . Other examples include swarms of mechanical insects ( in The Invincible ) , and strangely ordered societies of more human @-@ like beings in Fiasco and Eden , describing the failure of the first contact . In His Master 's Voice , Lem describes the failure of humanity 's intelligence to decipher and truly comprehend an apparent message from space .
Two overlapping arcs of short stories , Fables for Robots ( Bajki Robotów ) , translated in the collection Mortal Engines ) , and The Cyberiad ( Cyberiada ) provide a commentary on humanity in the form of a series of grotesque , humorous , fairytale @-@ like short stories about a mechanical universe inhabited by robots ( who have occasional contact with biological " slimies " and human " palefaces " ) .
" Śledztwo " and " Katar " are crime novels ( the latter without a murderer ) ; " Pamiętnik . . . " is a psychological drama inspired by Kafka . " Doskonała próżnia " and " Wielkość urojona " are collections of reviews of non @-@ existent books and introductions to them . Similarly , " Prowokacja " purports to review a Holocaust @-@ themed work .
= = = Essays = = =
Lem 's criticism of most science fiction surfaced in literary and philosophical essays Science Fiction and Futurology and interviews . In the 1990s , Lem forswore science fiction and returned to futurological prognostications , most notably those expressed in Blink of an Eye ( Okamgnienie ) . He became increasingly critical of modern technology in his later life , criticizing inventions such as the Internet .
Dialogi and Summa Technologiae ( 1964 ) are Lem 's two most famous philosophical texts . The Summa is notable for being a unique analysis of prospective social , cybernetic , and biological advances ; in this work , Lem discusses philosophical implications of technologies that were completely in the realm of science fiction at the time , but are gaining importance today — for instance , virtual reality and nanotechnology .
= = Honors = =
1957 – City of Kraków 's Prize in Literature ( Nagroda Literacka miasta Krakowa )
1965 – Prize of the Minister of Culture and Art , 2nd Level ( Nagroda Ministra Kultury i Sztuki II stopnia )
1972 – member of commission " Poland 2000 " of the Polish Academy of Sciences
1973
Prize of the Minister of Foreign Affairs for popularization of Polish culture abroad ( nagroda Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych za popularyzację polskiej kultury za granicą )
Literary Prize of the Minister of Culture and Art ( nagroda literacka Ministra Kultury i Sztuki ) and honorary member of Science Fiction Writers of America
1976 – State Prize 1st Level in the area of literature ( Nagroda Państwowa I stopnia w dziedzinie literatury )
1979
Grand Prix de Littérature Policière for his novel Katar .
A minor planet , 3836 Lem , discovered by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh in 1979 , is named after him .
1981 – Doctor honoris causa honorary degree from the Wrocław University of Technology
1986 – Austrian State Prize for European Literature
1991 – Austrian literary Franz Kafka Prize
1994 – member of the Polish Academy of Learning
1996 – recipient of the Order of the White Eagle
1997 – honorary citizen of Kraków
1998 – Doctor honoris causa : University of Opole , Lviv University , Jagiellonian University
2003 – Doctor honoris causa of the University of Bielefeld
2007 – A street in Kraków is to be named in his honour .
2009 – A street in Wieliczka was named in his honour
2011 – An interactive Google logo inspired by The Cyberiad was created and published in his honor for the 60th anniversary of his first published book : The Astronauts .
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= Volume 6 , Part 2 =
July 1979
Stanislaw Lem , Jeet Heer , Boston Globe Ideas , 15 December 2004
The writing of Stanislaw Lem – Reviews by Matt McIrvin
Stanislaw Lem Bibliography
" Less Predictable Realities , " translated by Joanna Zylinska , in the journal Scapegoat , issue 05 ( 2013 )
Tsalyk St. Creator of worlds
Lem , Stanisław . Encyclopædia Britannica . 2006 . Retrieved 30 June 2006 .
Obituaries
Life after Lem , Warsaw Voice 5 April 2006 ( cover story )
To Solaris and beyond , Philosopher 's Zone Australian Broadcasting Corporation discussion about Lem 's works ; MP3
Times Online obituary
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= Brigitte Boisselier =
Brigitte Boisselier ( born 1956 ) , also known as Brigitte Roehr , is a French chemist and Raëlian religious leader best known for her claim to have overseen the creation of the first human clone . A native of Champagne @-@ Ardenne , she studied chemistry in France and the United States , earning two PhDs . From 1984 to 1997 , she lived near Paris and worked as a research chemist and a sales manager for Air Liquide . She embraced Raëlism in 1992 ; the group was unpopular in France and her conversion led to tensions with those around her . Five years later , she joined Clonaid , a Raëlian organization that sought to clone a human . After her service as their scientific director was publicized , she lost her position with Air Liquide and focused on cloning full @-@ time .
In late 2000 , Clonaid announced that they had received a large donation to fund the cloning of a child , and that Boisselier supervised a team of scientists at a secret laboratory in the United States who would soon produce a human clone . For the next year , the project received media coverage — and regulatory suspicion — as Boisselier promised the imminent birth of a human clone . In late 2001 , she announced that one had been born and that public evidence would soon be offered . This declaration received significant press coverage in the United States , and Boisselier appeared on many television programs . After a court in Florida launched a child welfare investigation , she stated that the cloned child 's parents had withdrawn their offer to provide evidence of the cloning and would have no further public comment . No evidence of the cloning , or subsequent procedures reported by Clonaid , was ever offered , and the announcements were widely perceived to have been a hoax .
In 2003 , impressed with her management of Clonaid and public relations skill , Raël , the founder of Raëlism , announced that Boisselier would succeed him as the group 's leader upon his death . In subsequent years , she has devoted herself to lecturing about the group 's doctrines and serving as their spokesperson .
= = Early life and education = =
Brigitte Boisselier was born to a Catholic family in France in 1956 . She was reared on a farm in Champagne @-@ Ardenne and became interested in science while young . She attended the University of Dijon , earning a master 's degree in biochemistry and a PhD in chemistry . In the 1980s , she moved to Texas , where she received another PhD in chemistry from the University of Houston .
Boisselier returned to France in 1984 to work for Air Liquide , an industrial gas company , where she remained for 13 years . At that time , she lived in Les Loges @-@ en @-@ Josas and worked as a research chemist and a sales manager in Lyon . She married and had three children between the late 1970s and early 1990s .
= = Conversion and new career = =
In 1992 , Boisselier converted to Raëlism , a UFO religion founded by the French journalist Claude Vorilhon , usually known as Raël , in 1973 . After attending a meeting at which Raël spoke , she felt strongly that he was completely honest and joined his movement . She had left her husband , alleging violent behavior , shortly before her conversion ; afterwards , owing to her involvement with Raëlism , he gained sole custody of their youngest child . Boisselier believed that religious intolerance motivated a court to transfer the child 's custody . Although her faith led to tension with her parents , her eldest child converted . In the 1990s , Raëlism was seen as dangerous and viewed with disdain in France , resulting in loss of employment for prominent members . The hostility was fueled in part by public concerns about new religious movements after deaths caused by the Order of the Solar Temple in Europe during the mid @-@ 1990s .
Boisselier became the scientific director of Clonaid , an organization founded by Raël that sought to clone humans , in 1997 . That year , Boisselier was interviewed by Le Monde about her role in Clonaid , and she lost her position with Air Liquide after the company learned of this . Air Liquide stated that her termination was due to her holding dual employment , and that she was strained by her Clonaid service . She filed a lawsuit against Air Liquide , arguing that she was the victim of religious discrimination . Her suit was successful : in 1999 , she won a judgment of about US $ 30 @,@ 000 .
After losing her job , Boisselier moved with her middle child , a son , to Quebec , where her eldest daughter was a student . Boisselier began to travel to discuss Clonaid , eventually becoming a high @-@ profile speaker . Around that time , she reached the rank of Bishop within Raëlism . She was one of the 25 members closest to Raël and joined the group 's Order of Angels , which promoted free love and femininity . She moved to the United States and began teaching at State University of New York at Plattsburgh for a short time before moving to Hamilton College in 2000 to teach chemistry . Her association with Clonaid was publicized in the U.S. in February 2001 , and she resigned her academic position that May , although she had a three @-@ year contract . She was initially popular at Hamilton College , but she felt that she was disrespected after her association with Clonaid was publicized .
= = Cloning = =
= = = Clonaid origins = = =
Raël founded Clonaid in March 1997 , shortly after the Dolly the Sheep cloning , believing that the process was important because the human species had been created by an extraterrestrial cloning project . On a practical level , Raël promoted the practice as a way to develop more desirable genetics and eventually prolong memories in new bodies . Shortly after Clonaid 's launch , Boisselier began publicizing and managing its operations . In 1999 , she announced that she had set up cloning laboratories and had hired a team of six scientists . She said she had limited knowledge of cloning but was skilled in selecting experts .
In August 2000 , Mark Hunt , a politician from West Virginia , asked Boisselier to clone his late son , who had died as a child . Hunt paid Clonaid $ 500 @,@ 000 and helped them rent a science laboratory from a school . Boisselier said that the laboratory would initially be used to clone cattle , before moving on to humans . She planned to use a number of Raëlian surrogates , who were willing to abort abnormal pregnancies , to bear clones ; the high number of women would compensate for the low odds of a healthy child for each implantation . In September 2000 , Raël and Boisselier held a press conference with several aspiring surrogate mothers of clones . At the event , Boisselier announced the construction of a cloning laboratory and vaguely described Hunt , who wished to remain anonymous . Boisselier received significant media attention as an advocate of cloning . Some commentators initially accepted her work as a legitimate attempt at cloning ; Margaret Talbot of the New York Times described her as a more credible spokesperson than Raël , projecting what she described as " an air of cool , academic professionalism " . Boisselier 's striking physical appearance drew particular attention , and she developed an avant @-@ garde , stylish reputation , contrary to popular images of scientists .
= = = Announcements and media coverage = = =
In early 2001 , Boisselier promised the cloning of a human child within a year , drawing further attention to her work . A prosecutor in New York began investigating her compliance with local medical laws . Boisselier said that the Food and Drug Administration also surreptitiously investigated her , and Raël claimed that U.S. President George W. Bush was concerned about Clonaid 's work . The caretaker of the laboratory that Hunt had rented grew suspicious about their work and contacted law enforcement . They spoke with the FDA , who searched the site and persuaded Boisselier to suspend her cloning work pending legal clarification . After Hunt was asked by the laboratory 's caretaker to shut down the cloning operation , he broke with Boisselier and criticized her for seeking media attention . The caretaker also spoke publicly , saying that Boisselier was seldom at the laboratory . Boisselier then announced that she was moving her cloning operations overseas . Boisselier never faced any legal charges in connection with the laboratory .
In March 2001 , Boisselier was invited to speak at a U.S. Congress hearing on human cloning , and at her insistence Raël was permitted to speak as well . The event garnered public attention , in large part because of Raël 's unconventional appearance . On August 7 , 2001 , Boisselier attended a widely publicized human cloning symposium at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington , D.C. , Significant media attention was given to Boisselier , who , along with Severino Antinori and Panayiotis Zavos , was one of three participants actively engaged in efforts to produce a human clone . The rest of the attendees were renowned scientists and ethicists , one of whom , Arthur Caplan , dismissed Boisselier as part of the " loony cloning element " . By May 2002 , Boisselier said that she had facilitated 10 to 20 pregnancies but had been thwarted by miscarriages .
= = = = Claims of success = = = =
Boisselier confidently announced at a press conference in Florida in December 2002 that Clonaid had successfully produced a live @-@ born clone , named Eve , for an infertile couple . Canadian sociologist Susan J. Palmer notes that naming the cloned child " Eve " recalls Raël 's teachings that aliens created the first humans through cloning . After the announcement , Boisselier received abundant press , but the media , particularly late @-@ night comedy programs , criticized her glamorous appearance and mocked Raëlism . Around that time , Boisselier appeared on many U.S. network news broadcasts and on CNN . She did not provide details about the child or its family , although she was often asked to . She hired a science editor from ABC to supervise verification of the cloning . Many scientists doubted that the Raëlians could overcome the difficulties that human cloning posed , or that they would be able to produce a healthy child . Boisselier said a DNA test was forthcoming and announced that five more clones would be born later that winter . As Raël and Boisselier continued to seek media exposure , journalistic animosity towards them grew .
Bernard Siegel , an attorney from Florida , learned of the case and felt that a hearing should be held about Eve 's welfare . In January 2003 , he initiated legal proceedings , seeking to bring the clone 's parents to court so its health could be verified . Raël and Boisselier attacked the filing as an attempt to take a child from loving parents and announced that , in protest , they would not provide DNA for testing . An arraignment occurred on January 24 and was televised live on CNN ; Boisselier and Clonaid 's vice president , Thomas Kaenzig , were subpoenaed in lieu of the child 's parents . In courtroom testimony , the vice president of Clonaid said he knew very little about the clone , and that Boisselier controlled all the information . She did not attend the hearing , and Kaenzig provided little information , angering the judge , who threatened contempt of court charges . Boisselier attended a second hearing on January 29 , telling the court that the child was in Israel . The judge then ruled that the court had no jurisdiction . In late January , the science editor announced that he suspected the cloning announcements were a hoax . Around that time , Boisselier held a press conference at which she announced that the cloned baby 's parents had cut off contact with her and would never speak to the press .
In the following years , Boisselier claimed to have facilitated the cloning of several children in a variety of countries . As of June 2004 , she reported that Clonaid has successfully cloned 13 children . She did not provide evidence to verify the claims . She stated that the a machine called the RMX 2010 was used in the cloning attempts , and exhibited it publicly .
After Boisselier announced that no evidence of the cloning would be provided , journalists became very skeptical of her story . While discussing Boisselier 's management of Clonaid , Palmer notes that it is impossible to know why she stated that a clone was produced but then refused to provide evidence . She argues that her refusal to provide evidence may have been because she organized a hoax , did not wish to publicize the birth of an unhealthy child , or was taken advantage of by a scientist she had hired . American science journalist Steven S. Hall criticized the media for their coverage of Clonaid , believe that they were inarticulately represented as a credible group . He speculates that the coverage of Boisselier and other cloning adherents galvanized sentiment against cloning , leading to its banning in the U.S.
= = Later activism = =
In January 2003 , Raël held a ceremony at which he thanked Boisselier for her service and anointed her as his successor . He praised her for spreading the message of Raëlism internationally while publicizing the cloning . In the Raëlian hierarchy , she is one level below Raël and serves as a spokesperson for the movement . As a leader , she has attempted to rehabilitate the swastika , one of the group 's symbols . She maintains that it is valuable as an ancient symbol of peace , and that it has been unfairly associated with Nazi Germany .
In the mid @-@ 2000s , Boisselier often taught about the Raëlian perspective of the body and sexuality . She discussed these topics from a biological perspective , arguing that humans are essentially robots because they can be reprogrammed . Specifically , she maintained that hormones program the brain , and they provide humans the freedom to choose from many possibilities . Raëlians emphasize sexual stimulation as a way to positively change their members , and Boisselier has stated that she sees the pursuit of femininity as a method of spiritual growth . The group highly values feminine beauty , and Raël has applauded Boisselier for maintaining her appearance , casting her as a role model .
By 2007 , Boisselier had taken the name " Brigitte Roehr " and was living in Los Angeles . That year , she began leading a Raëlian project to fight female genital mutilation . She heads a Raëlian @-@ affiliated group known as Clitoraid , which raises funds to provide restorative surgery to women with damaged clitorises . The project , which has attracted criticism of its effectiveness , aims to build a hospital in Burkina Faso where women can received clitoral surgery .
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= Cyclone Manou =
Tropical Cyclone Manou was a relatively rare May tropical cyclone that affected southeastern Madagascar . The final named storm of the 2002 – 03 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Manou formed on May 2 to the southwest of Diego Garcia . It moved generally to the southwest for much of its duration , steered by a ridge to the southeast . Manou affected Saint Brandon and Mauritius with gusty winds . After an initial strengthening phase , the storm weakened but later re @-@ intensified as it approached Madagascar . Manou developed a well @-@ defined eye and reached peak winds only 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the eastern Madagascar coastline . For about 12 hours , the cyclone stalled before turning to the south and weakening . Manou became extratropical on May 10 and dissipated three days later .
Damage in Madagascar was heaviest near Vatomandry , where 85 % of buildings were destroyed and 23 people were killed . Manou destroyed about 24 @,@ 500 houses nationwide , leaving 114 @,@ 480 people homeless . The storm destroyed large areas of crops and disrupted transportation , including damaging the road between Vatomandry and Brickaville . Manou injured 85 and killed 89 people throughout Madagascar .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late April , an area of convection persisted southwest of Diego Garcia in the southern Indian Ocean . The system had a low @-@ level circulation and pulsating thunderstorm activity . Located in an area of weak to moderate wind shear , the convection gradually organized while developing outflow . On May 2 , a secondary area of convection , also with an accompanying circulation , formed to the northwest , and also showed signs of development . That day , the original disturbance organized enough for Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) to designate it Tropical Disturbance 16 at 1200 UTC . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued tropical cyclone formation alerts for both systems within a 14 ‑ hour period , and upgraded the original system to Tropical Cyclone 18S on May 3 about 980 km ( 610 mi ) northeast of Mauritius . Due to the disturbance to the northwest , as well as a building ridge to the northeast , the system continued to the southwest . On May 4 , MFR upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression and later Tropical Storm Manou .
According to the JTWC , the storm quickly reached 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . The secondary disturbance to the west weakened while approaching the storm . Manou also weakened due to ongoing shear , and the windspeeds dropped as the circulation became exposed from the convection . On May 6 , the storm re @-@ intensified and the thunderstorms redeveloped while passing north of Mauritius and Réunion . On May 8 while approaching Madagascar , Manou developed an eye , and as a result , MFR upgraded it to tropical cyclone status , with 10 @-@ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The JTWC also upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . After becoming a tropical cyclone , Manou intensified further , although its forward motion slowed significantly . MFR estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 155 km / h ( 95 mph ) on May 8 , and JTWC estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , with gusts to 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . This made Manou a rare May tropical cyclone in the basin ; only four other storms that formed in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean in May reached winds of over 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) since satellite coverage began , most recently Cyclone Kesiny in the previous year .
While maintaining its peak intensity and an eye 44 km ( 28 mi ) in diameter , Manou reached a position only 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the eastern Madagascar coastline . At that time , gale force winds extended over 150 km ( 90 mi ) from the center , and MFR estimated a minimum barometric pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) . For about 12 hours , Manou drifted off the eastern coast of Madagascar before turning to the south , moving around a ridge to its east . Land interaction and drier air weakened the eye , and on May 9 the cyclone weakened to tropical storm status . The next day Manou weakened to a tropical depression , and the JTWC issued its last advisory . MFR continued tracking the storm until it dissipated on May 13 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Early in its duration , Manou passed just north of Saint Brandon . There , sustained winds reached 74 mph ( 46 mph ) , with gusts to 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) . On Mauritius , the storm produced gusty winds across much of the island , peaking at 107 km / h ( 67 mph ) .
Before affecting Madagascar , officials in the country advised residents to evacuate to shelters , although the storm was not expected to be as severe as it was . When Manou stalled just offshore eastern Madagascar , it produced gusts as strong as 211 km / h ( 131 mph ) in Vatomandry . The same city reported 227 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall in a 15 ‑ hour period . Damage was heaviest in Vatomandry , where 85 % of buildings were destroyed , although the broader region also experienced severe damage and was largely isolated from the rest of the country . In Vatomandry , Manou severely damaged the main hospital , several schools , and the prison . The storm disrupted power and water networks . Strong winds blowing salt spray destroyed the coffee and cloves crops , and rice crops were also damaged , after 80 % of rice fields were flooded in Brickaville and Andevoranto . In those two towns , an official estimated that 95 % of houses were wrecked . The road between Vatomandry and Brickaville was washed out or otherwise blocked by landslides , and the village of Ilaka was isolated after the storm wrecked a bridge . Throughout Madagascar , Manou injured 85 and killed 89 people , including 23 people in Vatomandry and 2 in Brickaville . About 24 @,@ 500 houses were destroyed , leaving 114 @,@ 480 people homeless .
On May 12 , Malagasy Prime Minister Jacques Sylla issued an appeal to the international community for assistance . Due to the damage from Manou , the French Red Cross activated its office in Réunion , providing one ton of medicine . The Malagasy Red Cross had pre @-@ positioned emergency supplies earlier in the cyclone season , and after Manou struck , the agency distributed a water purification unit , medicine , and tents to the affected areas . Due to road damage , supplies had to be delivered by boat , which arrived in Vatomandry on May 13 . The delivery included 4 @,@ 500 kg ( 9 @,@ 900 lb ) of supplies . Workers quickly made repairs to power systems . The Malagasy government provided $ 147 @,@ 000 to restore health centers in Vatomandry and Andevoranto . Japan provided $ 80 @,@ 000 worth of supplies , including tents and jerrycans . Japan , the United States , Norway , and Germany donated about $ 1 @.@ 27 million to Madagascar for relief . The World Food Programme initially provided 90 tons of rice , although ongoing drought conditions and storms caused the agency to continue providing food to residents in southern Madagascar for several months .
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= Trial of Thomas Paine =
The trial of Thomas Paine for seditious libel was held on 18 December 1792 , in response to his publication of the second part of the Rights of Man . The government of William Pitt , worried by the possibility that the French Revolution might spread to England , had begun suppressing works that espoused radical philosophies . Paine 's work , which advocated the right of the people to overthrow their government , was duly targeted , with a writ for his arrest issued on 21 May . Paine fled to France in September , having been elected a member of the National Convention in France . He was instead represented in absentia by Thomas Erskine , a noted lawyer and orator who was severely criticised by government supporters in the months leading up to the trial .
At the trial , Archibald Macdonald , representing the prosecution , argued that Paine 's work served only to inflame the populace and distribute radical ideas to those without the experience to understand them in context . Erskine 's reply opened with a defence of the freedom of lawyers to represent whichever clients came to them , and followed with an exposition of his views on the nature of the freedom of the press — arguing that the publication of radical tracts served only to improve the government by highlighting its weaknesses , and could not be seditious if published in good faith . Despite Erskine 's speech later receiving a rapturous response , Paine was found guilty before Macdonald replied . The verdict was seen by the government as legitimising their repression of radicalism , and paved the way for the 1794 Treason Trials , in which Erskine played a prominent role .
= = Background = =
= = = French Revolution = = =
After involving itself in the Seven Years ' War and the American Revolutionary War , France found itself financially ruined . Attempts to pass an economic plan to alleviate this in the Estates @-@ General of 1789 led instead to the third estate — the commoners — forking to form the National Assembly . Succeeded in turn by the National Constituent Assembly and the Legislative Assembly , the various legislative bodies succeeded in rendering the monarchy constitutional , limited by democratic institutions . Attempts to remove the monarch entirely , although thwarted on 20 June 1792 , led to the effective overthrow of Louis XVI on 10 August . On 21 October , France was formally declared a republic .
Britain was initially sympathetic to the revolutionaries of France ; this sympathy dissolved with the execution of Louis XVI , and was replaced by hostility and a growing schism within the Whigs . While the Foxite branch argued for the Revolution as a source of general liberty , the administration of William Pitt became increasingly repressive , fearing the spread of Jacobinism to the United Kingdom and the overthrow of the government . This split was reflected in the behaviour of the people : while some joined societies dedicated to Parliamentary reform , others formed mobs under the banner of " Church and King " , attacking the homes of liberals and those who sympathised with the French revolution , including that of Joseph Priestley . The Association for Preserving Liberty and Property against Republicans and Levellers was formed , serving as " an organised body of private agents engaged in ferreting out sedition wherever it raised its inky head " .
= = = Paine and the Rights of Man = = =
Thomas Paine was a noted writer and political theorist whose work had influenced and helped drive the American Revolution . Having returned to England , he decided to write a book addressing the arguments of Edmund Burke , a prominent conservative strongly fearful of the French Revolution . This was simply titled Rights of Man . The first part was published in 1791 , and attracted no attention from Pitt 's administration . The second , published on 16 February 1792 , advocated , amongst other things , the right of the people to replace their government if they thought it appropriate . The work was an immediate success , selling a million and a half copies , and generated public support for various reform movements . It also brought Paine to the attention of the government and made him a subject to its crackdown . While Paine was visiting an aunt in Kent , Pitt had a writ issued against J.S. Jordan , Paine 's publisher , prosecuting him for seditious libel — a crime based on the concept that the executive was beyond reproach , that made it illegal to criticise the government . Paine returned to London and began to campaign for Jordan , finding him a lawyer and agreeing to pay his legal fees . Jordan , however , most likely frightened for his life , pleaded guilty and turned his files over to the court . With this additional evidence , a writ was issued for Paine on 21 May , charging him with the same crime . His trial date was set for 8 June , and later rescheduled for 18 December .
Paine left England before he could be tried , as he had been elected a member of the National Convention in France , tasked with writing a new constitution . He departed England on 13 September , never to return , although he further infuriated the government remotely by republishing the Rights of Man and writing Letter Addressed to the Addressors of the Late Proclamation , in which he defended his actions and beliefs against those who had chosen to side with the government . Paine was instead represented in absentia by Thomas Erskine , a famous lawyer and orator who served as Attorney General to the Prince of Wales . As the trial date approached , both Erskine and Paine were targeted by vicious personal attacks . Paine 's writ was followed by hundreds of loyal addresses , many of which targeted him , the burning of an effigy in Exeter , and the banning of the sale of any of his books in Chester . Pamphlets slandering him were widely published , and both Paine and Erskine had their personal lives dug into .
= = Trial = =
The trial was finally held on 18 December 1792 , in front of the Court of King 's Bench . Lord Kenyon presided , with Erskine representing the defence , and the government represented by Archibald Macdonald , John Scott and Spencer Perceval . Macdonald opened for the prosecution , expressing outrage at the publication of the Rights of Man , and his concern that it would be made available to so many members of the public who were unfamiliar with political philosophy . He also read excerpts from a letter Paine had written to him after his arrival in Paris , which contained " everything with which to inflame a jury " . He then presented various witnesses , starting with Thomas Haynes , to testify that the works had indeed been published , and following with Thomas Chapman , who had printed the first part of the Rights of Man . Chapman testified that he had intended to print the second part , until he came upon a passage that " appeared of a dangerous tendency " , and , after an argument with a drunken Paine , returned the book .
Erskine offered no evidence , admitting that Paine had written both the Rights of Man and the letter to Macdonald , and instead chose to begin speaking . He opened with a statement against those who had pressured him to refuse Paine 's case , stating , in a " brilliant exposition of the principles involved " , that :
I will for ever , at all hazards , assert the dignity , independence and integrity of the English Bar , without which impartial justice , the most valuable part of the English Constitution , can have no existence . From the moment that any advocate can be permitted to say that he will , or will not , stand between the Crown and the subject arraigned in the court where he daily sits to practise , from that moment the liberties of England are at an end . If the advocate refuses to defend , from what he may think of the charge or of the defence , he assumes the character of the Judge ; nay , he assumes it before the hour of judgment ; and in proportion to his rank and reputation , puts the heavy influence of , perhaps , a mistaken opinion into the scales against the accused , in whose favour the benevolent principle of English law makes all presumptions .
He then moved on to addressing the freedom of the press , and the limits on it , arguing that freedom of speech was necessary to identify the flaws in the structure of the government and the constitution — even if the author was mistaken about those flaws . As long as a writer intended only to enlighten others , prohibiting their speech would serve only to undermine the government by harming the opportunities to improve it . While Macdonald had argued that the book was problematic because it was circulated amongst all classes of society , Erskine argued that this was not the test of whether the Rights of Man was seditious . Instead , the test was whether Paine had exclusively dealt with what he believed to be in the best interests of England , its government , and its people . While Paine 's opinions ran counter to the existing system of government , Erskine argued that " opinion is free and ... conduct alone is amenable to the law " . For a libel claim to succeed , the Libel Act 1792 required that the prosecution show the publication was motivated by malice ; as Paine had intended only to help mankind , and this was a pure motive , he could not be guilty .
Despite this speech , the jury found Paine guilty before Macdonald replied to Erskine 's argument .
= = Aftermath = =
Although it failed to sway the jury , Erskine 's speech was given a rapturous response ; after he left the court , he was confronted by a mob who cheered him and shouted " Damn Tom Paine , but Erskine for ever , and the Liberty of the Press ; the King , the Constitution , and Erskine for ever " . The crowd proceeded to unhitch the horses from his carriage , and carry the carriage ( with him inside ) to his lodgings at Serjeant 's Inn . Over 30 transcripts or reports of the trial were printed , all of which contained Erskine 's speech , and many editions emphasised Erskine 's name and the theme of his speech on the title pages , using it to sell copies . Other reactions were less positive ; William Godwin wrote a letter to Erskine shortly after the trial arguing that his statement that individuals were free to publish works attacking or criticising the Constitution " had a considerable share in prosecuting the verdict of guilty " . Paine himself found Erskine 's speech and conduct during the trial disappointing , expecting him to do more to defend the principles in the Rights of Man than he had .
Pitt 's administration took the guilty verdict in Paine 's trial as a sign that further prosecutions for sedition were possible , and began many . In the 17 months following the trial , 11 publishers of the Rights of Man were prosecuted , receiving prison sentences of up to 4 years . These acted as a prelude to the 1794 Treason Trials , in which a dozen reformers were indicted for allegedly conspiring to bring about a revolution . Erskine played a prominent role in defending many of them , including Thomas Hardy , John Horne Tooke and John Thelwall , all three of whom were acquitted .
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= Ruma Maida =
Ruma Maida ( released internationally as Maida 's House ) is a 2009 Indonesian film written by Ayu Utami , directed by Teddy Soeriaatmadja and starring Atiqah Hasiholan , Yama Carlos , Nino Fernandez , and Frans Tumbuan . It details a woman 's struggle to save a historic house from a developer ; it also shows the life of the house 's original owner .
Work on what was to become Ruma Maida began in 2008 , when Utami was approached by Lamp Pictures and asked to write a nationalism @-@ themed script ; she completed the task in six months , with input from Soeriaatmadja . After three months of pre @-@ production , shooting began in Semarang , Central Java , and Kota , Jakarta . Editing took three months , after which the film – with a soundtrack by the band Naif and a song written by Utami – premiered on 28 October 2009 , the anniversary of the 1928 Youth Pledge ; it was later shown in film festivals in Singapore , Australia , and Italy .
Ruma Maida , which uses different filming styles for scenes in the past and present , deals with the importance of education , history , and pluralism . Critical reception to the film was mixed ; reviewers praised the visuals but disapproved of the plot and dialogue . It was nominated for twelve Citra Awards at the 2009 Indonesian Film Festival , of which it won one .
= = Plot = =
A young history student , Maida ( Atiqah Hasiholan ) , a Christian , runs a free school for street children in Jakarta . The school is in a house that once belonged to Ishak Pahing ( Nino Fernandez ) , a Christian Indo composer and pilot , and his Muslim wife Nani Kuddus ( Imelda Soraya ) ; Pahing wrote the song " Pulau Tenggara " ( " The South @-@ Eastern Island " ) , which inspired President Sukarno to help form the Non @-@ Aligned Movement , while living in the house . As Maida learns about Pahing , she decides to write her undergraduate thesis about his life .
One day her class is interrupted by the young Muslim architect Sakera ( Yama Carlos ) , who has been told to evict Maida 's school by his employer , the developer Dasaad Muchlisin ( Frans Tumbuan ) . As Maida and Sakera argue in the streets , rioting breaks out around them . Sakera protects the half @-@ Chinese Maida , then tells her that he will help her keep the house , although it is scheduled to be demolished within a week .
After attempts to persuade Muchlisin to keep the original design fail , Sakera overhears that the house is on disputed land . Maida uses the information , as well as feedback from a traditional musical group distantly related to Pahing , to discover that the house has a secret underground bunker , in which she and Sakera – with whom she has begun to fall in love – find documents showing the history of the house . With the help of her mother 's former lover Kuan ( Henky Solaiman ) , she discovers the true ownership of the house .
Pahing , who had grown up within the nascent independence movement and associated with several historical figures , was arrested for being half @-@ Dutch by the Japanese spy Maruyama ( Verdi Solaiman ) – a man who coveted Pahing 's wife . After being tortured , Pahing was released to discover that his wife had been raped and killed ; their newborn son Fajar had been kidnapped . Pahing later died on a flight carrying medical supplies over Yogyakarta when the flight was shot down . Meanwhile , his son was raised by Maruyama – the kidnapper – and had his name changed to Dasaad Muchlisin .
With this information , Maida , Sakera , and Kuan approach Muchlisin and tell him how the house features in his history . After a short silence , Muchlisin tells them to leave . Several months later , on Maida and Sakera 's wedding day – when they are married at both a mosque and a church – Muchlisin comes to the church and says that he has abandoned his plans to demolish the house . Instead , he renovates the building and dedicates it as a school for street children .
= = Production = =
The screenplay for Ruma Maida was written by Ayu Utami , her first such work ; mainly known for her novels , she had avoided screenplays as she thought they were generally too commercially oriented . She wrote the screenplay over a period of six months beginning in 2008 , when Lamp Pictures – which produced the film with Karuna Pictures – requested that she write a story about nationalism ; according to the director Teddy Soeriaatmadja , who was brought in while the screenplay was still on its first draft , he and Utami read seven drafts of the screenplay before they agreed on the story . Considering the screenplay a way to encourage the younger generation to study Indonesian history , which she said could be fun , Utami decided to focus on education , diversity , and history .
Pre @-@ production for Ruma Maida took three months . The characters were written without any particular actors in mind . Atiqah Hasiholan , who had previously starred in the Academy Award @-@ submitted Jamila dan Sang Presiden ( Jamila and the President , 2009 ) , was cast as Maida . Yama Carlos , who played Sakera , was initially cast for another role but received the leading male role after a last @-@ minute switch . The actor cast as Muchlisin , Frans Tumbuan , was the only one auditioned as Soeriaatmadja thought the role was perfect for him . Soeriaatmadja later recalled that , including extras , Ruma Maida had the largest cast of any film he had made to that point .
Shooting for the film was conducted in Kota , Jakarta , and Semarang , Central Java , over a period of one month . Soeriaatmadja later recalled that the most difficult scenes to shoot were those which happened in modern times , especially the riots ; for set design , however , Indra Tamoron Musu found those that occurred in the past to be the most difficult , owing to the research necessary . The scenes at the house were shot separately ; those occurring in 1998 were shot first and those occurring in the past were shot after the crew had spent a week renovating the house . Hasiholan later recalled that Soeriaatmadja was a controlling director who told the actors exactly what he wanted in a clear manner . However , cinematographer Ical Tanjung said that Soeriaatmadja was still open to feedback from the cast and crew . Editing , which was done by Waluyo Ichwandiardono , took another three months .
The Indonesian band Naif covered several songs for Ruma Maida 's soundtrack , including songs from the 1940s such as " Juwita Malam " ( " Beauty of the Night " , by Ismail Marzuki ) , " Di Bawah Sinar Bulan Purnama " ( " Under the Light of the Full Moon " , by R. Maladi ) , and " Ibu Pertiwi " ( " Motherland " ) . The covers were recorded over a period of five days . Utami wrote " Pulau Tenggara " , which was sung by Imelda Soraya .
= = Themes = =
Benny Benke , writing in Suara Merdeka , noted that the film was a " free interpretation of the formal Indonesian history , [ a history ] which is too arrogant , dominant , and dogmatic " . He wrote that at times the line between fact and fiction was thin . Utami stated that people from the revolutionary period " believed in dreams " and had a " strong sense of heroism and patriotism " , things which she believed Indonesia needed . Soeriaatmadja also noted that the film was meant to address issues of contemporary Indonesia , through the house 's history . Assistant director Azhar Lubis described the house as a microcosm of Indonesia , implying that , if the country was not maintained , it would fall apart .
In Media Indonesia , Yulia Permata Sari wrote that Soeriaatmadja seemed to be promoting the need to remember and respect history through the plot and characterisations . The film showed " Indonesia Raya " composer W.R. Supratman , Japanese admiral Maeda , Vice President Mohammad Hatta , President Sukarno , and Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir . Hasiholan considered the film a warning against repeating past mistakes .
Triwik Kurniasari , writing in The Jakarta Post , described the inclusion of the May 1998 riots and subsequent fall of Suharto as touching on pluralism issues . Utami , in an interview with the Jakarta Globe , stated that she had meant to show diversity by giving the characters different ethnic , religious , and socio @-@ economic backgrounds , and later explained that the film was meant to show Indonesia 's motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ( Unity in Diversity ) as it is applied in the country . Another reviewer , Dewi Anggraeni , wrote that Ruma Maida " paints a more realistic picture of Indonesia ’ s society , where people do not necessarily fit into neat social , racial or economic categories " , with its characters not fitting into any traditional stereotypes .
= = Style = =
Ruma Maida uses colours and shooting styles to indicate different time periods . Past events have a soft sepia overlay and are shot with a static camera , while those in 1998 have more natural tones and are shot with a handheld . The use of the handheld was meant to show the present in as " rough and non @-@ sterile " a manner possible , while the past was meant to have a sweet , beautiful , and clean feeling ; this played on the theme of romanticising the past . Events in Pahing 's life are shown in flashbacks interspersed throughout Maida 's struggle to retake the house . The film is paced slowly , and shots are taken from " unique " angles .
In Tempo magazine , Kurie Suditomo wrote that Ruma Maida intertwined several sub @-@ plots , including the depiction of the 1928 Youth Conference , the education of street children , and a scene where Sakera discusses architecture with Muchlisin ; the review stated that these detracted from the film 's comprehensibility . Jakarta Globe reviewer Armando Siahaan noted that several plot lines run parallel , including riots following the Japanese surrender in 1945 and those in May 1998 .
= = Release and reception = =
Ruma Maida premiered on 28 October 2009 , coinciding with events that celebrated the 1928 Youth Pledge – this release date was planned from early in production , because of the date 's historical significance . It received a wide release on the following day . The film was screened at the Singapore International Film Festival in April 2010 . That August Ruma Maida had three screenings in the " Education " category of the Indonesian Film Festival in Melbourne , Australia . In November it was screened at the Asiatica Film Mediale in Rome , Italy , under the title La Casa Di Maida .
Ruma Maida received mixed reception . Kurniasari described the film as " an enjoyable way to learn more about [ Indonesia 's ] long history . " Benke wrote that the film had good visuals , but the dialogue at times " went over viewers ' heads " . Sari called the cinematography well done , but found that the plot could confuse viewers . Suditomo thought that the film was well visualised but lost much of its impact owing to its extraneous subplots .
Anggraeni , covering the Indonesian Film Festival in Australia , described Ruma Maida as cleverly weaving the plot into Indonesia 's independence struggle , although she felt that several plot twists " rather stretch [ ed ] the audience 's imagination " . Siahaan wrote that the film " may have limitations in its execution and presentation , but is highly commendable for its ability to raise social questions and delve into the nation ’ s history . " The review in Republika suggested that the film may be too boring for the general public owing to its slow @-@ moving plot .
The film was released on VCD and DVD in Indonesia on 14 July 2010 by EZY Home Entertainment , after passing through the censorship board in February . The DVD featured English @-@ language subtitles and a behind the scenes documentary .
= = Awards = =
Ruma Maida was nominated for twelve Citra Awards at the 2009 Indonesian Film Festival , winning one .
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= New York State Route 9A =
New York State Route 9A ( NY 9A ) is a state highway in the vicinity of New York City in the United States . Its southern terminus is at the northern end of the Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel in New York City , where it intersects with both the unsigned Interstate 478 ( I @-@ 478 ) and FDR Drive . The northern terminus of NY 9A is at U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in Peekskill . It is predominantly an alternate route of US 9 between New York City and Peekskill ; however , in New York City , it is a major route of its own as it runs along the West Side Highway and Henry Hudson Parkway . In Westchester County , NY 9A follows the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway .
The origins of NY 9A date back to the 1920s when an alternate route of then @-@ NY 6 from Yonkers to Tarrytown was designated as New York State Route 6A . NY 6 was redesignated as US 9 in 1927 ; however , NY 6A was not renumbered to NY 9A until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 9A was extended south into New York City in 1934 and north to Ossining in the late 1930s . In 1933 , the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway opened as New York State Route 404 . All of NY 404 was incorporated into an extended NY 9A on January 1 , 1949 . NY 9A was extended northward to Peekskill in 1967 following the completion of the Croton Expressway and southward to the Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel in the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = Route description = =
NY 9A begins in Lower Manhattan at the north end of the Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel ( unsignedI @-@ 478 ) and heads north on the surface West Side Highway and Henry Hudson Parkway , crossing US 9 for the first time at the east end of the George Washington Bridge . After crossing into the Bronx via the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority @-@ owned Henry Hudson Bridge , NY 9A proceeds to leave the parkway at exit 23 , joining US 9 on Broadway . The portions of NY 9A between 34th and 72nd streets in Manhattan and from the Henry Hudson Parkway to the New York City line in the Bronx is maintained by the New York City Department of Transportation . The concurrency between US 9 and NY 9A runs for 2 @.@ 87 miles ( 4 @.@ 62 km ) within the city of Yonkers . All of NY 9A within Yonkers is maintained by the city .
NY 9A separates from US 9 along Ashburton Avenue and heads north as Saw Mill River Road . It parallels the Saw Mill River Parkway through Ardsley and Elmsford , to the west side of Hawthorne . The route meets the southbound New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) at a partial interchange and later meets I @-@ 287 ( the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway ) at a full interchange that provides a route to the northbound Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) . NY 100 merges with NY 9A to form a 3 @.@ 11 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 01 km ) concurrency carrying the names Saw Mill River Road and Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway , parallel to the Taconic State Parkway . NY 9A exits off this highway along the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway , while NY 100 continues straight as Saw Mill River Road . NY 9A merges to form a brief concurrency with US 9 as the Croton Expressway in Ossining just south of the Croton River .
The second concurrency between US 9 and NY 9A runs for 0 @.@ 65 miles ( 1 km ) , with NY 9A leaving the Croton Expressway at Croton Point Avenue in Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson . The highway heads north along Riverside Avenue and eventually joins old Albany Post Road . After crossing US 9 once more in Cortlandt , NY 9A ends at the Welcher Avenue interchange in southern Peekskill .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Prior to the establishment of the U.S. Highway System , US 9 was designated as NY 6 . An alternate route from Yonkers to Tarrytown was assigned the NY 6A designation by 1926 . This ran along the present alignment of NY 9A from Yonkers to north of Elmsford , where it turned west on Old Saw Mill River Road , Neperan Road , County House Road and Bedford Road to end at NY 6 in Tarrytown . NY 6 was redesignated as US 9 when U.S. Highways were first posted in New York in 1927 ; however , NY 6A was not renumbered at this time . It was finally renumbered to NY 9A as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
New York City initially did not mark numbered routes within its limits . In 1932 , the New York Automobile Club drafted a plan establishing alignments for several routes through the city . In this plan , NY 9A went south through the Bronx and into Manhattan on Broadway while US 9 used Riverdale Avenue north of 230th Street . As a result , the two routes would have had a short concurrency across Spuyten Duyvil Creek . NY 9A would have split to the south on Tenth Avenue at 218th Street in order to join the Harlem River Drive via Nagle Avenue and Dyckman Street . From there it would head west on 155th Street to Amsterdam Avenue , where it would head south to 79th Street , heading west there to rejoin US 9 at Riverside Drive . US 9 would have continued south through lower Manhattan to Staten Island via the Staten Island Ferry ; however , it is unclear whether NY 9A would have continued south with US 9 to lower Manhattan .
The New York Automobile Club released another plan in 1933 . This plan made no changes to NY 9A ; however , US 9 was changed to use Broadway all the way through the Bronx and to travel to New Jersey by way of the Holland Tunnel . In the final plan implemented in mid @-@ December 1934 , no route was assigned to the Harlem River Drive – Amsterdam Avenue corridor . Instead , NY 9A used what had been planned as US 9 , splitting at Broadway and Dyckman Street . NY 9A ran south along the west side of Manhattan on Riverside Drive and the West Side Elevated Highway ( detouring around an unfinished section via 57th Street , Eleventh Avenue and 48th Street ) to end at the entrance and exit plazas of the Holland Tunnel . US 9 was shifted northward to enter New Jersey via the George Washington Bridge .
= = = Westchester County = = =
In Westchester County , Saw Mill River Road originally followed the Saw Mill River Parkway corridor from Eastview to Hawthorne . This section of Saw Mill River Road gained a number c . 1931 , becoming part of NY 142 , a route that began at NY 100 on the Greenburgh – Mount Pleasant town line and followed Grasslands Road , NY 9A , and Saw Mill River Road north to Hawthorne , where it rejoined NY 100 . The route went unchanged until it was removed c . 1938 . Its former routing was split into two routes — an extended NY 141 north of NY 9A and the new NY 100C along Grasslands Road — by 1940 . NY 9A was extended northward c . 1939 from Tarrytown to Archville , a small hamlet midway between Tarrytown and Ossining , by way of Sleepy Hollow Road .
Farther north , a new highway was built around Ossining from Saw Mill River Road ( NY 100 ) in Briarcliff Manor to US 9 north of Ossining . The highway , known as the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway , was completed c . 1933 and initially designated as NY 404 . On January 1 , 1949 , NY 9A was altered to continue north along a slightly realigned Saw Mill River Road from NY 100C near Elmsford to the south end of the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway in Briarcliff Manor . At this point , NY 9A left Saw Mill River Road and followed the parkway to its end at US 9 , supplanting NY 404 . The realignment created a 3 @-@ mile ( 5 km ) overlap between NY 9A and NY 100 from Hawthorne to Briarcliff Manor and resulted in the truncation of NY 141 back to its previous terminus in Hawthorne .
Construction on the Croton Expressway , the only piece of the failed Hudson River Expressway project that was ever built , began in the mid @-@ 1960s . It became part of a realigned US 9 when it was completed by 1967 . The former surface routing of US 9 along Albany Post Road between Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson and Buchanan became a northward extension of NY 9A , which reached the old alignment by way of an overlap with US 9 from the north end of the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway to Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson .
= = = New York City = = =
As the Henry Hudson Parkway replaced Riverside Drive in the mid @-@ 1930s , NY 9A was moved onto it , eventually using the new parkway to where it crossed US 9 ( Broadway ) in the Bronx . Here , NY 9A exited the parkway and ran concurrent with US 9 to the split in Yonkers . The Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel connecting Manhattan 's Battery Park to Brooklyn was completed in 1950 . By 1960 , an extension of the West Side Elevated Highway south to the Manhattan tunnel portal became part of NY 27A , which had ended in Brooklyn prior to the construction of the tunnel . On January 1 , 1970 , NY 27A was truncated on its western end to eastern Nassau County while NY 27 was extended northward over NY 27A 's former routing through the Battery Tunnel and the West Side Elevated Highway .
However , by 1973 , NY 27 had been cut back to its interchange with the Gowanus Expressway in Brooklyn while unsigned I @-@ 478 was assigned to both the Battery Tunnel and all of the West Side Elevated Highway south of the Lincoln Tunnel . NY 9A was cut back to the Lincoln Tunnel as a result . The extension of I @-@ 478 into Manhattan was eliminated following the collapse of part of the Elevated Highway in 1973 , an event which led to the demolition of the highway south of 59th Street . Demolition was completed in 1989 . NY 9A was shifted onto 12th Avenue , one of the surface streets that the Elevated Highway had run atop of , but was otherwise unaffected as the route 's south end was initially kept at the Lincoln Tunnel .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , NY 9A was extended south to the Battery Tunnel by way of 12th Avenue and two other streets the Elevated Highway had previously run atop of , West Street and 11th Avenue . Construction began in early 1996 on a project to convert the section of NY 9A south of 59th Street into the West Side Highway , a six @-@ lane urban boulevard with a parkway @-@ style median and decorative lightposts . The first of the project 's seven segments — between Clarkson and Horatio streets in the Greenwich Village neighborhood — was completed in 1998 . Completion of the project was originally set for October 2001 ; however , it was delayed for years due to damage caused by the September 11 attacks . It is expected to be finished by the end of 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits on the Briarcliff – Peeksill Parkway and Croton Expressway are unnumbered .
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