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= Delaware Route 62 = Delaware Route 62 ( DE 62 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware in the United States . The route officially runs from Old Capitol Trail in Prices Corner east to a dead end near Newport ; however , DE 62 is signed from an intersection with DE 2 and the southern terminus of DE 41 in Prices Corner to the DE 4 intersection . The road runs through suburban areas along Newport Gap Pike and Boxwood Road , interchanging with DE 141 . The Newport Gap Pike portion of road was built as a state highway by 1925 and became part of DE 41 by 1936 . Boxwood Road was improved in 1946 . DE 62 was assigned to its current alignment by 1981 . = = Route description = = DE 62 heads southeast from Old Capitol Trail on the Newport Gap Pike , a two @-@ lane undivided road . Newport Gap Pike continues northwest past this intersection to DE 2 ( Kirkwood Highway ) , where the road becomes DE 41 . Signage has DE 62 follow Newport Gap Pike northwest to the DE 2 / DE 41 intersection . DE 62 heads through suburban residential and commercial developments , crossing the Wilmington and Western Railroad and CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision . The road passes more development and reaches the community of Belvedere , where it comes to a ramp from southbound DE 141 . At this point , the route turns east onto Boxwood Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway , with Newport Gap Pike continuing south to provide access to southbound DE 141 . DE 62 passes over the DE 141 freeway and intersects Centerville Road , which provides access to and from northbound DE 141 . Past this intersection , the road becomes two lanes and undivided , passing to the south of the former Wilmington Assembly plant used by General Motors and to the north of residential subdivisions . DE 62 continues through more residential neighborhoods , passing to the north of the Conrad Schools of Science , and reaches an intersection with DE 4 , where DE 62 signage ends . The route officially continues east on Middleboro Road through more neighborhoods , intersecting Dupont Road before coming to a dead end . DE 62 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 13 @,@ 544 vehicles at the DE 141 interchange to a low of 262 vehicles at the eastern terminus . None of DE 62 is part of the National Highway System . = = History = = What is now the Newport Gap Pike portion of DE 62 was originally chartered as the Gap and Newport Turnpike in 1808 , an extension of the 1807 @-@ chartered turnpike in Pennsylvania that was to run from Gap , Pennsylvania , southeast to Newport , Delaware . By 1920 , what is now DE 62 existed as a county road . The Newport Gap Pike portion of the route became a state highway by 1925 . This state highway became a part of DE 41 by 1936 , when Delaware designated its state highways . In 1946 , Boxwood Road was improved to provide access to the new General Motors plant along the road . By 1981 , DE 62 was designated onto its current alignment , with the Newport Gap Pike section replacing a portion of DE 41 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Graveyard Mountain Home = Graveyard Mountain Home is the third studio album released under the name Chroma Key by American keyboardist Kevin Moore . It was released on November 8 , 2004 by InsideOut Music . Moore originally started work on the album in 2003 , planning to release a less electronica @-@ influenced album than previous Chroma Key albums , but put it aside to work on the first OSI album . He then moved to Istanbul , Turkey , where he wrote Ghost Book , the soundtrack to the film Okul . Enjoying the experience of writing music to film , Moore scrapped his previous plans for the third Chroma Key album , instead writing an album as an alternate soundtrack to an already @-@ existing film . Moore found the social guidance film Age 13 in the Prelinger Archives , which served as his main inspiration . He slowed the film down to half its original playback speed to allow a full album to be written around the twenty @-@ five @-@ minute film . With complete creative control over the album , Moore was free to experiment , sometimes writing music " not necessarily to always match the images on the screen , but to sometimes play against it . " The deluxe edition of the album contains the film in its full length , played at half speed , with the album as a soundtrack in place of the original audio . Critical reception of Graveyard Mountain Home was generally positive . Critics noted that the album was a departure from Moore 's previous works , and that it was best experienced as an alternate soundtrack to Age 13 . Moore played songs from Graveyard Mountain Home live for the first time in a small club in Istanbul in 2007 , and planned to tour more extensively in the future . = = Background = = In an interview published in December 2003 , Kevin Moore revealed that he had started work on a third Chroma Key album , but had put it aside to work on the first OSI album , Office of Strategic Influence . When Moore stopped working on Chroma Key material , he had already recorded two songs . " The big difference with the new [ Chroma Key album ] is that there are more real instruments , " Moore said . " I 've hooked up with a bunch of friends that made hand drums and didgeridoos . And I did a lot of recording with that . This new Chroma Key is going to be more organic , and less digital . " Theron Patterson , a friend of Moore 's and former classmate at California Institute of the Arts , was working in Istanbul , Turkey and invited Moore to visit . Moore , who had been living in Costa Rica , stayed with him for two weeks , then decided to settle in Istanbul and record the third Chroma Key album there . Moore signed to InsideOut Records . " They 've been really great supporting this ; they sent me out to Turkey when I told them I wanted to record out there , basically supporting the whole process , " he said . The first project Moore worked on after he moved to Istanbul was Ghost Book , the soundtrack to the Turkish film Okul . Moore enjoyed the experience and decided to write the third Chroma Key album as an alternate soundtrack to an already @-@ existing film . Moore decided to use a film in the public domain to avoid any rights issues . He looked through the Prelinger Archives to find a film which matched the mood he wanted for the Chroma Key album . One of the first films he found was the social guidance film Age 13 . " It was kind of rich for musical accompaniment and the cinematography and everything is really beautiful , kind of surreal , " Moore said . The film served as Moore 's main inspiration and source of audio samples . When deciding on musicians to perform on the album , Moore said that he " picked people who were around " . His girlfriend , Bige Akdeniz , performed vocals , Theron Patterson did programming and Patterson 's drum teacher , Utku Ünal , performed the drums . The only musician Moore actively sought out was guitarist Erdem Helvacıoğlu , who performed on one track . Moore noted that none of the music was technically demanding , " it 's just more of a feel that we ’ re going for so it was just a matter of getting comfortable and getting in the mood and playing stuff together . " Moore ranked Graveyard Mountain Home as the most enjoyable project he had worked on up to that point . " I never felt like ' Oh fuck I have to finish this record , I have to do one more song , I have to do something to this song to make it better , ' " Moore said . He described the process of making the album as feeling " more like I was playing with this film and I was playing against it so it felt easy somehow " . = = Composition = = Moore wrote music to Age 13 slowed down to half its original playback speed . This allowed him to write an album 's worth of music around the twenty @-@ five minute film and " made [ the film ] flow better " . Moore primarily worked alone in his home studio , recording short song ideas . " I would place [ the ideas ] inside a theme in the film , just sort of audition things that might work , and something would click and I would develop the idea , " Moore said . In contrast to Moore 's original plan to record an " organic , and less digital " album , all of the sounds on Graveyard Mountain Home are digital . Unlike in a traditional film soundtrack , Moore often wrote music " not necessarily to always match the images on the screen , but to sometimes play against it . " Moore explained that a traditional soundtrack needs to convey the mood of the scene and advance the film 's storyline , but that he did not have to do that with Graveyard Mountain Home " because the director 's not around " . " I thought , well what would it be like if I did a totally different kind of mood than this scene is trying to convey ? When you put that music with that scene what happens there ? Sometimes it 's kind of interesting what happens , " Moore explained . = = Release and promotion = = Graveyard Mountain Home was released on November 8 , 2004 by InsideOut Music . A special edition of the album , including a DVD with the film Age 13 on it , was also released . Moore originally planned to tour in support of Graveyard Mountain Home , but nothing materialized . In a 2005 interview , Moore said he was still trying to organize a tour . He was optimistic that he would play " at least a couple shows " , but noted that getting the funding to tour made the process " a constant battle " . Moore performed his first solo show at a small club in Istanbul on March 23 , 2007 . The hour @-@ long show consisted primarily of material from Graveyard Mountain Home , which was accompanied by projections of the corresponding scenes from Age 13 . " I thought that it would be good for the first show to be sort of small and comfortable ... so I thought we [ could ] just have a hundred people , " Moore said . " Everybody can see , everybody can be comfortable and sort of enjoy themselves . And if something goes horribly wrong , it only happens in front of a hundred people . " Moore hoped the show would form the basis of more elaborate , longer shows . He planned on playing more shows in Turkey , before touring Europe and the rest of the world . = = Reception = = Graveyard Mountain Home was generally well received . Rick Anderson of Allmusic regarded the album as " a surprisingly affecting and powerful work . " Writing for Sea of Tranquility , Michael Popke noted that " If you listen to Graveyard Mountain Home as a stand @-@ alone piece of music ... you probably won 't be overly impressed . If , however , you hear this sophisticated mix of dark , ambient post @-@ rock and psychedelic sounds while viewing the 1955 public @-@ domain film Age 13 , you may consider multi @-@ instrumentalist Kevin Moore a small @-@ time genius . " Popke speculated that if Moore created more albums based on obscure films , " he might just alter the face of the genre . " Martien Koolen of DPRP described Graveyard Mountain Home as " a typical album for dark , wintry afternoons , " although conceded that " it is not [ his ] cup of tea . " Koolen described the music as having " absolutely no connection or Dream Theater influences whatsoever ... Kevin Moore mixes dark ambient , post @-@ rock and psychedelic music to create Chroma Key ’ s music . " He compared the album 's sound to that of Tortoise , Millenia Nova , Sigur Rós and early Pink Floyd . Anderson said that the album " sounds more like a twisted collaboration between Gábor Csupó and Muslimgauze than anything else you 're likely to hear on the InsideOut label . " Rachel Jablonski of Stream of Consciousness described the overall feel of the album as " somewhat calm and bleak . Yet throughout , a distant brightness prevails whether via musical tone or mental imagery in a very subtle way . " Anderson said that the music " at times is funky in a glitchy , herky @-@ jerky sort of way ... and at others is dark and meditative " . He noted that there were some " traditional " songs on the album , singling out " Sad Sad Movie " , which he described as " gorgeous " . Koolen considered " Human Love " and " Andrew Was Drowning His Stepfather " to be the " weirdest songs ... which can hardly be described as music " . Popke noted that although he saw little connection between the music and the film , Moore " expresses the mood of each scene brilliantly . " He found that watching Age 13 with Graveyard Mountain Home as the soundtrack enhanced the film : " Age 13 is not necessarily an enjoyable film to watch ... but viewing it with the Chroma Key soundtrack makes an odd experience even odder yet wholly compelling , with a mysterious filmstrip allure that freezes a bygone era . " Conversely , Jablonski considered Age 13 as an enhancement to the music . " Listening to the album stand alone for the first time you may not be much impressed , " she said . " The music is solemn and somewhat confusing as the tracks run from one to another without much build and in seemingly senseless patterns ... Having previously seen or simultaneously watching Age 13 most definitely would help the listener along . " = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Kevin Moore , except where noted . = = Personnel = = Kevin Moore – vocals , guitars , keyboard , programming Utku Ünal – drums Theron Patterson – programming on tracks 2 , 8 , and 14 ; bass Bige Akdeniz – additional vocals on tracks 9 and 13 Bob Nekrasov – monologue on track 8 Erdem Helvacıoğlu – additional guitar on track 3
= William S. Taylor = William Sylvester Taylor ( October 10 , 1853 – August 2 , 1928 ) was the 33rd Governor of Kentucky . He was initially declared the winner of the disputed gubernatorial election of 1899 , but the Kentucky General Assembly , dominated by the Democrats , reversed the election results , giving the victory to his Democratic Party ( United States ) opponent , William Goebel . Taylor served only 50 days as governor . A poorly educated but politically astute lawyer , Taylor began climbing the political ladder by holding local offices in his native Butler County . Though he was a Republican in an overwhelmingly Democratic state , divisions in the majority party resulted in his election as Attorney General of Kentucky on a ticket with the Commonwealth 's first Republican governor , William O. Bradley . Four years later , Taylor was elected in 1899 to the governorship . When the General Assembly reversed the election results after a dispute , incensed Republicans armed themselves and descended on Frankfort . Taylor 's Democratic opponent , William Goebel , was shot and died after being sworn in on his deathbed . Taylor exhausted his finances in a legal battle with Goebel 's running mate J. C. W. Beckham over the governorship . Taylor ultimately lost the battle , and was implicated in Goebel 's assassination . He fled to neighboring Indiana . Despite eventually being pardoned for any wrongdoing , he seldom returned to Kentucky . Taylor died in Indianapolis , Indiana in 1928 . = = Early life = = William Taylor was born October 10 , 1853 in a log cabin on the Green River , about five miles from Morgantown , Kentucky . He was the first child of Sylvester and Mary G. ( Moore ) Taylor . He spent his early years working on the family farm , and did not attend school until age fifteen ; thereafter , he attended the public schools of Butler County and studied at home . In 1874 , he began teaching , specializing in mathematics , history , and politics . He taught until 1882 , and later became a successful attorney , but continued to operate a farm . On February 10 , 1878 , Taylor married Sara ( " Sallie " ) Belle Tanner . The couple had nine children , including six daughters and a son that survived infancy . = = Political career = = Taylor 's political career began in 1878 with an unsuccessful bid to become county clerk of Butler County . In 1880 , he was an assistant presidential elector for Greenback candidate James Weaver . Two years later , he was elected county clerk of Butler County . He was the first person in the history of the county to successfully challenge a Democrat for this position . Taylor became a member of the Republican Party in 1884 . In 1886 , he was chosen to represent the third district on the Republican state central committee . That same year , the party nominated a full slate of candidates for county offices , including Taylor as the nominee for county judge . In the ensuing elections , the full Republican slate was elected . Taylor was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1888 . He was re @-@ elected as county judge in 1890 . In 1895 , Taylor was elected Attorney General of Kentucky , and served until 1899 . During his term , state senator William Goebel proposed an election law that created a state Board of Elections which was empowered to appoint all election officers in every county and certify all election results . The Board was to be appointed by the General Assembly , and there were no requirements that its composition be bi @-@ partisan . The law was widely seen as a power play by Goebel , designed to ensure Democratic victories in state elections , including Goebel 's own anticipated run for governor . The law passed the General Assembly , but was vetoed by Republican governor William O. Bradley . The General Assembly promptly overrode the veto . As attorney general , Taylor opined that the bill was unconstitutional . The measure was adjudicated by the Kentucky Court of Appeals and found to be constitutional . = = = Gubernatorial election of 1899 = = = Bradley 's election in 1895 had marked the first time in Kentucky 's history that the Commonwealth had elected a Republican governor . Angry Democrats , who had controlled the governorship since the fall of the Whig Party , sought to regain what they had lost . Bitter divisions in the party led to a contentious convention that nominated William Goebel as the party candidate . A faction of the Democratic Party held a second nominating convention and chose former governor John Y. Brown as their nominee . The Republicans were initially no less divided than the Democrats . Senator William J. Deboe backed Taylor for governor . Governor Bradley backed Judge Clifton J. Pratt of Hopkins County , and the Republicans of Central Kentucky backed state auditor Sam H. Stone . Taylor organized a strong political machine and seemed in a solid position to obtain the nomination . Bradley was incensed that the party would not unite behind his candidate and boycotted the convention . Taylor unsuccessfully tried to woo him back with a promise to make his nephew , Edwin P. Morrow , secretary of state . Because Taylor represented the western part of the state , the so @-@ called " lily white " branch of the Republican Party , black leaders also threatened not to support him ; Taylor responded by hiring one of the black leaders his permanent secretary , and promised to appoint other black leaders to office if he won the election . Seeing that Taylor 's nomination was likely , all the other candidates withdrew , and Taylor won the nomination unanimously . During the campaign , Taylor was attacked by Democratic opponents because of his party 's support from black voters and its ties to big business , including the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . They also charged that Governor Bradley had run a corrupt administration . Republicans answered with charges of factionalism and use of political machinery by Democrats . In particular , they derided the Goebel Election Law , which Taylor claimed subverted the will of the people . Ex @-@ Confederates were usually a safe voting bloc for the Democrats , but many of them deserted Goebel because he had , in 1895 , killed former Confederate general John Sanford in a duel . On the other hand , blacks had historically been a safe bloc for the Republicans , but Taylor had alienated many of them by not strongly opposing the Separate Coach Bill , which would have racially segregated railroad facilities . Goebel also risked losing support to minor party candidates . Besides John Y. Brown , the dissenting Democrats ' nominee , the Populist Party nominated a candidate , drawing votes from Goebel 's populist base . To unite his traditional base , Goebel convinced William Jennings Bryan , a hero to most populists and Democrats , to campaign for him . As soon as Bryan finished his tour of the state , Governor Bradley reversed course and began speaking in favor of Taylor . While Bradley insisted that his motives were to defend his administration , journalist Henry Watterson believed Taylor had promised to support Bradley 's senatorial bid if elected . = = = Governorship and later life = = = In the general election , Taylor secured just 2 @,@ 383 more votes than Goebel . The Democrat @-@ controlled General Assembly challenged the election results . Under the Goebel Election Law , a three @-@ man Board of Elections ( dominated by Democrats ) were to review the results and certify the winner in the contest . Two of the members of the board had openly campaigned for Goebel , and all three owed their appointments to him , but in a surprising decision , the Board voted 2 — 1 to certify Taylor as the winner . The Board claimed that the Goebel Election Law did not give them the power to hear proof of vote fraud or call witnesses , although the wording of their decision implied that they would have invalidated Taylor votes if they had been empowered to do so . Taylor was inaugurated on December 12 , 1899 . Days later , the Democratic @-@ dominated General Assembly convened in Frankfort . They claimed the power to decide disputed elections , and formed a partisan commission ( ten Democrats and one Republican ) to examine the election results . Fearing Democrats in the Assembly would " steal " the election , armed men came to Frankfort from various areas of the state , primarily Eastern Kentucky , which was heavily Republican . On January 30 , Goebel was shot while entering the state capitol building . Taylor declared a state of emergency and called out the militia . He called a special session of the legislature , holding it in heavily Republican London , Kentucky rather than the capital . Democrats refused to heed the call , and met in Democratic @-@ dominated Louisville instead . They certified the election commission 's report that disqualified enough Taylor votes for Goebel to be declared the winner of the election . Shortly after being sworn in as governor , Goebel died from the gunshot wound he had received days earlier . With Goebel dead , Democrats and Republicans met jointly and drafted a proposal to bring peace . Under terms of the proposal , Taylor and his lieutenant governor , John Marshall , would step down from their offices and be granted immunity from prosecution in the events surrounding the election and Goebel 's assassination . The Goebel Election Law would be repealed , and the militia would disperse from Frankfort . Prominent leaders on both sides signed the agreement , but on February 10 , 1900 , Taylor announced he would not . The legislature convened on February 19 , 1900 and agreed to put the election in the hands of the courts . On March 10 , 1900 , the circuit court of Jefferson County upheld the General Assembly 's actions that certified Goebel as governor . The case was appealed to the Kentucky Court of Appeals , then the court of last resort in Kentucky . On April 6 , 1900 , the Court of Appeals ruled 6 — 1 that Taylor had been legally unseated . Taylor appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States , and on May 21 , 1900 , the Court refused to hear the case . Only Kentuckian John Marshall Harlan dissented from this refusal . With Taylor 's legal options exhausted , Goebel 's lieutenant governor , J. C. W. Beckham , ascended to the governorship . During his short term as governor , Taylor had done little beyond making a few appointments and issuing a few pardons . Taylor was indicted as an accessory in the assassination of Goebel . He fled to Indianapolis , where the governor refused to extradite him . At least one attempt to abduct him by force failed in 1901 . Despite being pardoned in 1909 by Republican Governor Augustus E. Willson , Taylor seldom returned to Kentucky . Financially strapped by the costs of challenging the election , Taylor became an insurance executive and practiced law . Shortly after arriving in Indiana , his wife died . In 1912 , he briefly returned to Kentucky to marry Nora A. Myers . The couple returned to Indianapolis and had a son together . Taylor died of heart disease on August 2 , 1928 , and was buried at the Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis .
= Dave Arneson = David Lance " Dave " Arneson ( October 1 , 1947 – April 7 , 2009 ) was an American game designer best known for co @-@ developing the first published role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) , Dungeons & Dragons , with Gary Gygax , in the early 1970s . Arneson 's early work was fundamental to the development of the genre , developing the concept of the RPG using devices now considered to be archetypical , such as adventuring in " dungeons " , using a neutral judge , and having conversations with imaginary characters to develop the storyline . Arneson discovered wargaming as a teenager in the 1960s , and began combining these games with the concept of role @-@ playing . He was a University of Minnesota student when he met Gygax at the Gen Con gaming convention in the late 1960s . In 1970 Arneson created the game and fictional world that became Blackmoor , writing his own rules and basing the setting on medieval fantasy elements . Arneson showed the game to Gygax the following year , and the pair co @-@ developed a set of rules that became Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) . Gygax subsequently founded TSR , Inc. to publish the game in 1974 . Arneson worked briefly for the company . Arneson left TSR in 1976 , and filed suit in 1979 to retain credits and royalties on the game . He continued to work as an independent game designer , briefly worked for TSR again in the 1980s , and continued to play games for his entire life . Arneson also did some work in computer programming , and taught computer game design and game rules design at Full Sail University from the 1990s until shortly before his death in 2009 . = = Experience with miniature wargaming = = Arneson 's role @-@ playing game design work grew from his interest in wargames . His parents bought him the board wargame Gettysburg by Avalon Hill in the early 1960s . After Arneson taught his friends how to play , the group began to design their own games and tried out new ways to play existing games . Arneson was especially fond of naval wargames . Exposure to role @-@ playing influenced his later game designs . In college history classes he role @-@ played historical events , and preferred to deviate from recorded history in a manner similar to " what if " scenarios recreated in wargames . In the late 1960s Arneson joined the Midwest Military Simulation Association ( MMSA ) , a group of miniature wargamers and military figurine collectors in the Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul area that included among its ranks future game designer David Wesely . Wesely asserts that it was during the Braunstein games he created and refereed , and in which other MMSA members participated , that Arneson helped develop the foundations of modern role @-@ playing games on a 1 : 1 scale basis by focusing on non @-@ combat objectives — a step away from wargaming towards the more individual play and varied challenges of later RPGs . Arneson was a participant in Wesely 's wargame scenarios , and as Arneson continued to run his own scenarios he eventually expanded them to include ideas from The Lord of the Rings and Dark Shadows . Arneson took over the Braunsteins when Wesely was drafted into the Army , and often ran them in different eras with different settings . Arneson had also become a member of the International Federation of Wargamers by this time . In 1969 Arneson was a history student at the University of Minnesota and working part @-@ time as a security guard . He attended the second Gen Con gaming convention in August 1969 ( at which time wargaming was still the primary focus ) and it was at this event that he met Gary Gygax , who had founded the Castle & Crusade Society within the International Federation of Wargamers in the 1960s at Lake Geneva , Wisconsin , not far from Arneson 's home in Minnesota . Arneson and Gygax also shared an interest in sailing ship games and they co @-@ authored the Don 't Give Up The Ship ! naval battle rules , serialized from June 1971 and later published as a single volume in 1972 by Guidon Games with a revised edition by TSR , Inc. in 1975 . = = Blackmoor = = Following the departure of David Wesely to armed service duty in October 1970 , Arneson began to imagine a medieval fantasy style Braunstein wherein the players explored the dungeons of a castle inhabited by fantastic monsters . Arneson adjusted his Braunsteins to allow players to play themselves in the Barony of Blackmoor , where they would escort caravans , fight against the forces of evil , and delve into the sewers beneath Castle Blackmoor - which originated in a plastic kit that Arneson had of a Sicilian castle . Originally Arneson played his own mix of rules and used rock , paper , scissors to resolve combat , but later adapted elements from his naval wargame rules which had an armor class system like that later used in D & D. " I had spent the previous two days watching about five monster movies on channel 5 ’ s ' Creature Feature ' weekend , reading several Conan books ( I cannot recall which ones , but I always thought they were all pretty much the same ) , and stuffing myself with popcorn , doodling on a piece of graph paper . At the time , I was quite tired of my Nappy ( Napoleonic ) campaign with all its rigid rules and was rebelling against it . " The Fantasy combat system appearing in the Chainmail rules , written by Gygax and Jeff Perren and published in the spring of 1971 , were also applied for a short time . Finding those lacking , Arneson wrote modified rules to apply to his role @-@ playing game scenarios . The game that evolved from those modifications to Chainmail was the game Blackmoor , which modern players of D & D would describe as a campaign setting rather than a " complete game . " The gameplay would be recognizable to modern D & D players , featuring the use of fixed hit points , armor class , character development , and dungeon crawls . This setting was fleshed out over time and continues to be played to the present day . Arneson described Blackmoor as " roleplaying in a non @-@ traditional medieval setting . I have such things as steam power , gunpowder , and submarines in limited numbers . There was even a tank running around for a while . The emphasis is on the story and the roleplaying . " Details of Blackmoor and the original campaign , which was by then established on the map of the Castle & Crusade Society 's " Great Kingdom " , were first brought to print briefly in issue # 13 of the Domesday Book , the newsletter of the Castle & Crusade Society in July 1972 , and later in much @-@ expanded form as The First Fantasy Campaign , published by Judges Guild in 1977 . Although much of what was later deemed to be " Tolkien @-@ influenced " in D & D and the concept of adventuring in " dungeons " originated with Blackmoor , as a setting it was not purely fantasy @-@ oriented , as it incorporated recent history and science fiction elements . These are visible much later in the DA module series published by TSR ( particularly City of the Gods ) , but were also present from the early to mid @-@ 1970s in the original campaign and parallel and intertwined games run by John Snider , whose ruleset developed from these adventures and was intended for publication by TSR from 1974 as the first science fiction RPG . = = Dungeons & Dragons = = In November 1972 , Arneson and David Megarry traveled to Lake Geneva to meet with Gary Gygax . Arneson thought that Gygax would be interested in Megarry 's Dungeon ! boardgame , which Megarry had developed as a player in Blackmoor , and Gygax had expressed a desire to play a game of Blackmoor itself . After playing in the Blackmoor game Arneson refereed , Gygax almost immediately began a similar campaign of his own which he called Greyhawk and asked Arneson for a draft of his playing rules . The two then collaborated by phone and mail , and playtesting carried out by their various groups and other contacts . Gygax and Arneson wanted to publish the game , but Guidon Games and Avalon Hill rejected it . Arneson could not afford to invest in the venture . Gygax felt that there was a need to publish the game as soon as possible , since similar projects were being planned elsewhere , so rules were hastily put together and Arneson 's own final draft was never used . Despite all this , Brian Blume eventually provided the funding required to publish the original Dungeons & Dragons set in 1974 , with the initial print run of 1 @,@ 000 selling out within a year and sales increasing rapidly in subsequent years . Further rules and a sample dungeon from Arneson 's original campaign ( the first published RPG scenario in a professional publication ) were released in 1975 in the Blackmoor supplement for D & D , named after the campaign setting . The supplement offered little in the way of details from Arneson 's actual campaign , however . Blackmoor showed D & D as Arneson imagined it ; as he had not been able to work with the final proofs of the original game , this was his first opportunity to present his take on the game . He included new classes for monks and assassins , more monsters , and " The Temple of the Frog " , the first published RPG adventure for other people to run . Although the book bore the setting 's name , it focused more on Arneson 's house rules rather than background material . Arneson formally joined TSR as their Director of Research at the beginning of 1976 but left at the end of the year to pursue a career as an independent game designer . = = After TSR = = In 1977 , despite the fact that he was no longer at TSR , Arneson published Dungeonmaster 's Index , a 38 @-@ page booklet that indexed all of TSR 's D & D properties to that point in time , including Chainmail , the original 3 @-@ book set of D & D , the five D & D supplements ( Greyhawk ; Blackmoor ; Eldritch Wizardry ; Gods , Demi @-@ gods & Heroes ; and Swords & Spells ) , and all seven issues of The Strategic Review . TSR had agreed to pay Arneson royalties on all D & D products , but when the company came out with Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) in 1977 , it claimed that this was a significantly different product and did not pay him royalties . In response , Arneson filed the first of five lawsuits against Gygax and TSR in 1979 . In March 1981 , as part of a confidential agreement , Arneson and Gygax resolved the suits out of court by agreeing that they would both be credited as " co @-@ creators " on the packaging of D & D products from that point on , but the court ruled that Arneson was not due monies for the AD & D game . This did not end the lingering tensions between them . ( Twenty years later , Wizards of the Coast ( WotC ) bought TSR and wanted to drop the word " Advanced " from its planned third edition of D & D. WotC CEO Peter Adkison approached Arneson to resolve the two @-@ decade @-@ old issue and Arneson released all claims to D & D for an undisclosed sum of money . ) Arneson wrote up the Blackmoor setting for Judges Guild in The First Fantasy Campaign ( 1977 ) . In 1979 Arneson and Richard L. Snider , an original Blackmoor player , co @-@ authored Adventures in Fantasy , a role @-@ playing game that attempted to recapture the " original spirit of the Role Playing Fantasy Game " that Arneson had envisioned in the early 1970s , instead of what D & D had become . In the early 1980s he established his own game company , Adventure Games - staffed largely by Arneson 's friends , most of whom were also members of a Civil War reenactment group - that produced the miniatures games Harpoon ( 1981 ) and Johnny Reb ( 1983 ) , as well as a new edition of his own Adventures in Fantasy role @-@ playing game ( 1981 ) . The company also put out about a half @-@ dozen Tékumel related books , due to Arneson 's friendship with M. A. R. Barker . Adventure Games was profitable , but Arneson found the workload to be excessive and finally sold the company to Flying Buffalo . Flying Buffalo picked up the rights to Adventure Games in 1985 ; because Arneson owned a portion of Flying Buffalo , he let them take care of the rest of the company 's stock and IP when he shut the company down . While Gary Gygax was president of TSR in the mid @-@ 1980s , he and Arneson reconnected , and Arneson briefly relinked Blackmoor to D & D with the " DA " ( Dave Arneson ) series of modules set in Blackmoor ( 1986 – 1987 ) . The four modules , three of which were written by Arneson , detailed Arneson 's campaign setting for the first time . When Gygax was forced out of TSR , Arneson was removed from the company before a planned fifth module could be published . Gygax and Arneson again went their separate ways . In 1986 Arneson wrote a new D & D module set in Blackmoor called " The Garbage Pits of Despair " , which was published in two parts in Different Worlds magazine issues # 42 and # 43 . In 1988 Arneson stated his belief that RPGs , whether paper or computer , were still " hack and slash " and did not teach novices how to play , and that games like Ultima IV " have stood pretty much alone as quirks instead of trend setters " as others did not follow their innovations . He hoped that computer RPGs would teach newcomers how to role play while offering interesting campaigns , and said that SSI 's Gold Box games did not innovate on the genre as much as he had hoped . Arneson stepped into the computer industry and founded 4D Interactive Systems , a computer company in Minnesota that is still in business today . He also did some computer programming and worked on several games . He eventually found himself consulting with computer companies . Living in California in the late 1980s , Arneson had a chance to work with special education children . Upon returning to Minnesota , he pursued teaching and began speaking at schools about educational uses of role @-@ playing and using multi @-@ sided dice to teach math . In the 1990s he began working at Full Sail , a private university that teaches multimedia subjects , and continued there as a professor of computer game design until 2008 . In 1997 , after Wizards of the Coast purchased TSR , Peter Adkison wrote a check to Arneson to free up D & D from royalties owed to Arneson ; this allowed Wizards to retitle Advanced Dungeons & Dragons to simply Dungeons & Dragons . Around 2000 , Arneson was working with videographer John Kentner on Dragons in the Basement , a video documentary on the early history of role @-@ playing games . Arneson describes the documentary : " Basically it is a series of interviews with original players ( ' How did D & D affect your life ? ' ) and original RPG designers like Marc Miller ( Traveller ) and M.A.R. Barker ( Empire of the Petal Throne ) . " He also made a cameo appearance in the Dungeons & Dragons movie as one of many mages throwing fireballs at a dragon , although the scene was deleted from the completed movie . Arneson and Dustin Clingman founded Zeitgeist Games to produce an updated d20 System version of the Blackmoor setting . Goodman Games published and distributed Dave Arneson 's Blackmoor in 2004 , and Goodman produced a few more Blackmoor products in the next year . Code Monkey Publishing released Dave Arneson 's Blackmoor : The First Campaign ( 2009 ) for 4th edition D & D. = = Personal life = = Arneson married Frankie Ann Morneau in 1984 ; they had one daughter , Malia , and two grandchildren . Arneson continued to play games his entire life , including D & D and military miniature games , and regularly attended an annual meeting to play the original Blackmoor in Minnesota . At Full Sail University he taught the class " Rules of the Game " , a class in which students learned how to accurately document and create rule sets for games that were balanced between mental challenges for the players and " physical " ones for the characters . He retired from the position on June 19 , 2008 . Arneson died on April 7 , 2009 , after battling cancer for two years . According to his daughter , Malia Weinhagen , " The biggest thing about my dad 's world is he wanted people to have fun in life ... I think we get distracted by the everyday things you have to do in life and we forget to enjoy life and have fun . " = = Honors and tributes = = Arneson received numerous industry awards for his part in creating Dungeons & Dragons and other role @-@ playing games . In 1984 he was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design 's Hall of Fame and in 1999 was named by Pyramid magazine as one of The Millennium 's Most Influential Persons , " at least in the realm of adventure gaming " . He was honored as a " famous game designer " by being featured on the king of hearts in Flying Buffalo 's 2008 Famous Game Designers Playing Card Deck . Three days after his death , Wizards of the Coast temporarily replaced the front page of the Dungeons & Dragons section of their web site with a tribute to Arneson . Other tributes in the gaming world included Order of the Stick # 644 , and Dork Tower for April 8 , 2009 . Video game publisher Activision Blizzard posted a tribute to Arneson on their website and on April 14 , 2009 , released patch 3 @.@ 1 of the online role @-@ playing game World of Warcraft , The Secrets of Ulduar , dedicated to Arneson . Turbine 's Dungeons and Dragons Online added an in @-@ game memorial altar to Arneson in the Ruins of Threnal location in the game . They also created an in @-@ game item named the " Mantle of the Worldshaper " that is a reward for finishing the Threnal quest chain that is narrated by Arneson himself . The Mantle 's description reads : " A comforting and inspiring presence surrounds you as you hold this cloak . Arcane runes run along the edges of the fine cape , and masterfully drawn on the silken lining is an incredibly detailed map of a place named ' Blackmoor ' . " On October 30 , 2010 , Full Sail University dedicated the student game development studio space as " Dave Arneson 's Blackmoor Studios " in Arneson 's honor . = = Partial bibliography = = Dungeons & Dragons ( 1974 ) ( with Gary Gygax ) Blackmoor ( 1975 ) Dungeonmaster 's Index ( 1977 ) The First Fantasy Campaign ( 1977 ) Adventures in Fantasy ( 1979 ) ( with Richard L. Snider ) Robert Asprin 's Thieves ' World ( 1981 ) ( co @-@ author ) Citybook II – Port o ' Call ( 1984 ) ( co @-@ author ) Adventures in Blackmoor ( D & D Module : DA1 ) ( 1986 ) ( with David J. Ritchie ) Temple of the Frog ( D & D Module : DA2 ) ( 1986 ) ( with David J. Ritchie ) City of the Gods ( D & D Module : DA3 ) ( 1987 ) ( with David J. Ritchie ) DNA / DOA ( 1989 ) The Case of the Pacific Clipper ( 1991 ) The Haunted Lighthouse ( Dungeon Crawl Classics Module # 3 @.@ 5 ) ( 2003 ) Dave Arneson 's Blackmoor ( 2004 ) ( lead designer ) Player 's Guide to Blackmoor ( 2006 )
= HMS Ocean ( 1862 ) = HMS Ocean was the last of the Royal Navy 's four Prince Consort @-@ class ironclads to be completed in the mid @-@ 1860s . She was originally laid down as a 91 @-@ gun second @-@ rate ship of the line , and was converted during construction to an armoured frigate . The ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station and served as flagship there for a time . Upon her return to Great Britain in 1872 her hull was found to be partly rotten and she was placed in reserve until she was sold for scrap in 1882 . = = Design and description = = HMS Ocean was 273 feet 1 inch ( 83 @.@ 2 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 5 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship had a draught of 24 feet 5 inches ( 7 @.@ 4 m ) forward and 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) aft . She displaced 6 @,@ 832 long tons ( 6 @,@ 942 t ) . Ocean had a metacentric height of 6 @.@ 01 feet ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) which meant that she rolled a lot and was an unsteady gun platform . Her hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling . Her crew consisted of 605 officers and enlisted men . = = = Propulsion = = = Ocean had a simple horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single propeller shaft using steam was provided by eight rectangular boilers . The engine produced 4 @,@ 244 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 165 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials in June 1864 which gave the ship a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 9 knots ( 23 @.@ 9 km / h ; 14 @.@ 8 mph ) . Ocean carried a maximum of 570 long tons ( 580 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 700 km ; 2 @,@ 300 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . She was barque @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) . Her best speed with the propeller disconnected and under sail alone was 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ; 13 @.@ 2 mph ) . Yards were added to the ship 's mizzenmast by 1866 and Ocean was given a full ship rig which she retained for the rest of her career . = = = Armament = = = Ocean was initially armed with twenty @-@ four seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . Four of these guns were mounted on the upper deck as chase guns , two each fore and aft . The 16 @-@ calibre seven @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 inches ( 196 mm ) of armour . In 1867 four of these guns were replaced by eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loaders . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre eight @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed nine long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . = = = Armour = = = The entire side of the Prince Consort @-@ class ships , from the upper @-@ deck level downwards , was protected by wrought iron armour that tapered from 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) amidships . The armour extended 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline . One small conning tower was fitted on each side of the upper deck amidships , but these proved to be untenable when the ship 's guns were fired . The armour was backed by the sides of the ship which were 29 @.@ 5 inches ( 749 mm ) thick . = = Service history = = HMS Ocean was laid down on 23 August 1860 as a wooden two @-@ deck , 90 @-@ gun ship of the line by Devonport Dockyard . The Admiralty ordered on 5 June 1861 that she be lengthened 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) , cut down one deck , and converted to an armoured frigate for the price of £ 298 @,@ 851 . The ship was launched on 19 March 1863 and commissioned in July 1866 , but was not completed until 6 September 1866 . Ocean initially served with the Channel Fleet , but she was almost immediately transferred to the Mediterranean , and from there to the Far East ; she arrived in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) on 15 October 1867 . She was the only armoured ship ever to double the Cape of Good Hope under canvas alone . During this voyage Ocean set a record in having sailed 243 nautical miles ( 450 km ; 280 mi ) on 26 August 1867 with cold boilers , the greatest distance ever covered under sail power by a British ironclad . Ocean served on the China Station for five years , 1867 – 1872 , without docking once . The ship relieved the old two @-@ decker HMS Rodney as station flagship in 1869 when Vice @-@ Admiral Henry Kellett took command ; a new crew was carried out by HMS Donegal and Captain William Hewett , VC assumed command of the ship . Ocean was relieved in turn by HMS Iron Duke in 1872 , but drew too much water to pass through the Suez Canal . The Admiralty therefore ordered that she return home via the Cape of Good Hope using steam . The ship 's bottom was very foul and she averaged only 4 @.@ 5 knots ( 8 @.@ 3 km / h ) during the voyage . Ocean had lost a lot of sheathing during her time in the Far East and much of her planking was in a bad state . The ship was therefore relegated to dockyard reserve until sold in 1882 .
= Máscara Dorada = Máscara Dorada ( born November 3 , 1988 ) is a Mexican luchador enmascarado , currently signed to WWE and best known for his decade long stint in Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre . Máscara Dorada 's real name has not been officially documented , a tradition in Mexican Lucha Libre where masked wrestler 's real names often are not a matter of public record . The wrestler currently known as Máscara Dorada made his debut in 2005 and has worked under other names , but achieved most success as Máscara Dorada . His ring name is Spanish for " Golden Mask " . At one time , Máscara Dorada was a quadruple CMLL champion , holding the Mexican National Trios Championship , the CMLL World Trios Championship , the CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship and the CMLL World Welterweight Championship at the same time . He is also the wrestler who has held the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , having held it four times in total . After a decade of working for CMLL in his native Mexico , Dorada signed with the Japanese promotion New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) in January 2015 . After a year with NJPW , Dorada returned to CMLL in January 2016 . He made his in ring debut in 2005 , originally using the masked persona Plata II and later on would use the ring name " Metallik " where he held the local Occidente Welterweight Championship , but abandoned it when he was given the Máscara Dorada character . The " Máscara Dorada " was the first instance of a regular luchador being given a character based on a Mini @-@ Estrella as he was introduced after CMLL introduced Mascarita Dorada in 2007 . = = Professional wrestling career = = = = = Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( 2005 – 2016 ) = = = The luchador who would later be known as Máscara Dorada made his debut on July 14 , 2005 , after training with Gran Cochisse and El Satánico . His initial ring persona was that of Plata II , a copy of the original Plata that wrestled in the early to mid 1990s . His run at Plata II was short lived as he was quickly repackage as Metalik , a variation of the " Metal based " look that he also used as " Plata II " . As Metalik he worked mainly for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre 's ( CMLL ) Guadalajara branch , getting experience while working on a local level . On April 13 , 2008 Metalik defeated wrestler Depredador for the Occidente Welterweight Championship , the local Welterweight title . About a month later Metalik won his first ever Luchas de Apuestas match , winning the hair of Jeque . The title win and hair win indicated that CMLL had plans for Metalik 's future . Metalik was entered in the 2008 Torneo Gran Alternativa , where a newcomer teams up with a veteran , Metalik teamed up with Dos Caras , Jr. and made it all the way to the finals before losing to Último Guerrero and Dragón Rojo , Jr . In 2007 CMLL signed Mascarita Sagrada 2000 , but were not allowed to call him that as a rival promotion owned the copyright to the name . Instead CMLL chose to repackage the Mini luchador as Mascarita Dorada . The gimmick and the wrestler proved so successful , that in the fall of 2008 , CMLL announced that they were creating a " Large " version of Mascarita Dorada . Traditionally the minis were often patterned after existing Luchadors , but this time the mini was created before the " Regular " . On November 7 , 2008 Metalik was repackaged and made his debut as Máscara Dorada , helping his team defeat the trio of Averno , Mephisto and Ephesto . Máscara Dorada kept working mid @-@ card tag team matches throughout the spring of 2008 with general success . On April 4 , 2009 CMLL announced that they had stripped Rocky Romero of the CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship and announced that a tournament to crown the new champion would take place on April 7 , 2009 , one of the announced participants was Máscara Dorada . On the night Máscara Dorada won a Tornero Cibernetico outlasting nine other wrestlers to become the CMLL Super Lightweight Champion Since he held a CMLL title Dorada was entered into CMLL 's inargual " Universal Championship " tournament , but was eliminated in the first round by Black Warrior . On December 19 , 2009 it was announced by the Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F. that Poder Mexica had been stripped of the Mexican National Trios Championship title because Black Warrior had left CMLL , breaking up the team . At the same time they announced an eight team tournament to crown a new trios champion . The top half of the bracket took place on December 22 , 2009 and the bottom half of the bracket took place on December 29 . In the top bracket Máscara Dorada teamed with Stuka , Jr. and Metro for the first time ever and defeated Los Guerreros Tuareg ( Arkangel de la Muerte , Loco Max and Skándalo ) in the first round and Los Cancerberos del Infierno ( Virus , Euforia and Pólvora ) in the second round to qualify for the finals . The bottom bracket took place on December 29 , 2009 and saw the team of Poder Mexica ( Sangre Azteca , Dragón Rojo , Jr. and Misterioso , Jr . ) qualify for the final . On January 6 , 2010 Máscara Dorada , Stuka , Jr. and Metro defeated Poder Mexica to become the new Mexican National Trios Champions , making Máscara Dorada a double champion . On January 22 , 2010 Máscara Dorada teamed up with Atlantis to participate in CMLL 's Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles ( " National Amazing Pairs tournament " ) , a tournament where CMLL teams up a Tecnico ( Dorada ) and a Rudo ( Atlantis ) for a tournament . The two defeated Dragón Rojo , and La Sombra in the opening round , Mr. Niebla and Máximo in the second round and Místico and Averno in the semi @-@ final to earn a spot in the final of the tournament . During the tournament Atlantis wore his old Tecnico white mask , acting and wrestling a tecnico style . On February 5 , 2010 Dorada and Atlantis defeated Negro Casas and La Máscara in the finals to win the tournament . On May 14 , 2010 Máscara Dorada teamed up with La Sombra and La Máscara to defeat the then CMLL World Trios Champions La Ola Amarilla ( Hiroshi Tanahashi , Okumura and Taichi ) in a non @-@ title match to earn a shot at the titles the following week . One week later the trio defeated Ola Amarilla again , ending the Japanese trios title reign after just two weeks . By virtue of holding three CMLL championships Máscara Dorada participated in the 2010 Universal Championship tournament . Stuka , Jr. was part of " Block A " that competed on the July 30 , 2010 Super Viernes show . He was the first wrestler eliminated in the seeding battle royal and then defeated his Mexican National Trios Championship partner Stuka , Jr. in the first round of the actual tournament . Máscara Dorada was eliminated in the second round , losing to Último Guerrero . On September 7 , 2010 Máscara Dorada defeated Negro Casas to win the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , making him a quadruple CMLL champion , the first ever in the history of the promotion . On November 18 , 2010 , Dorada announced that he was relinquishing his hold of the Mexican National Trios Championship , which Metro and Stuka , Jr. will continue to hold with a new partner . On January 22 , 2011 , Dorada lost the CMLL World Welterweight Championship to Ryusuke Taguchi at Fantastica Mania 2011 , a CMLL and New Japan Pro Wrestling co – promoted event in Tokyo , Japan . On February 25 , 2011 , Máscara Dorada and Atlantis defeated Blue Panther and Dragón Rojo , Jr. in the finals to win the Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles for the second year in a row . On April 7 Dorada vacated the CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship , stating that he was moving up to the middleweight division . After Dorada returned from Japan with the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , La Generación Dorada lost the CMLL World Trios Championship to Los Hijos del Averno ( Averno , Ephesto and Mephisto ) on July 15 , 2011 . On November 11 , 2012 , Dorada lost the CMLL World Welterweight Championship to Pólvora during CMLL 's Sunday night event in Arena Mexico . On June 2 , 2013 , Dorada defeated Negro Casas to win the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship for the first time . On June 16 , Dorada and his new Los Estetas del Aire ( " Air Aesthetes " ) stable , formed with Místico and Valiente , won the CMLL World Trios Championship . On November 19 , Dorada lost the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship to Volador Jr . On March 28 , 2014 , Los Estetas del Aire also lost the CMLL World Trios Championship . On January 2 , 2015 , Dorada defeated Negro Casas in the finals of a tournament to win the CMLL World Welterweight Championship for the third time . Later in the month , through CMLL 's relationship with NJPW , Dorada signed a one @-@ year contract with NJPW , leaving his Mexican home promotion . He returned to CMLL and hand his first match in Mexico for over a year on February 1 , 2016 . On May 3 , 2016 his fourth reign as the CMLL World Welterweight Champion was ended as Mephisto defeated him for the championship . = = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2010 – 2016 ) = = = In April 2010 it was announced that Máscara Dorada and Valiente would travel to Japan in early May to participate in New Japan Pro Wrestling 's first ever Super J Tag Team tournament . In the first round of the tournament they lost to former IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions Ryusuke Taguchi and Prince Devitt in just under eight minutes . In November 2010 Máscara Dorada and La Sombra took part in New Japan 's five @-@ day @-@ long Super J Tag League . After winning two out of their four matches in the group stage , Sombra and Dorada finished third in their block , missing the finals of the tournament . Dorada and Sombra returned to New Japan on January 4 , 2011 , at Wrestle Kingdom V in Tokyo Dome , where they defeated Jushin Thunder Liger and Héctor Garza in a tag team match . Dorada returned to New Japan on April 16 , teaming with Tama Tonga to defeat Liger and King Fale in a tag team match . Dorada worked a majority of the tour as a rudo , teaming with members of the Chaos stable . On May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2011 , Dorada unsuccessfully challenged Liger for the CMLL World Middleweight Championship . Dorada 's extended tour of New Japan also included participation in the 2011 Best of the Super Juniors tournament in late May @-@ early June . Dorada managed to win four out of his eight matches in the round robin stage of the tournament , which included wins over Liger and CMLL World Welterweight Champion Ryusuke Taguchi , and finished sixth out of the nine wrestlers in his block . On June 18 at New Japan 's Dominion 6 @.@ 18 show , Dorada defeated Taguchi to regain the CMLL World Welterweight Championship . Three days later Dorada entered the J Sports Crown Openweight 6 Man Tag Tournament , teaming with IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi and KUSHIDA , with the team defeating Brian Kendrick , Gedo and Jado in their first round match . The following day the trio was eliminated from the tournament in the second round by Giant Bernard , Jushin Thunder Liger and Karl Anderson . Dorada 's tour of New Japan ended the following day , when he , Tanahashi , Hiroyoshi Tenzan , Tiger Mask and Wataru Inoue were defeated in a ten man tag team match by Chaos ( Dick Togo , Gedo , Jado , Masato Tanaka and Yujiro Takahashi ) . On January 4 , 2012 , Dorada returned to New Japan at Wrestle Kingdom VI in Tokyo Dome , where he teamed with Jushin Thunder Liger , KUSHIDA and Tiger Mask to defeat Atlantis , Taichi , Taka Michinoku and Valiente in an eight man tag team match . Dorada returned to Japan on January 21 to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2012 events , teaming with Rush losing to the team of Hirooki Goto and KUSHIDA on the first night . The second night , Dorada successfully defended the CMLL World Welterweight Championship against KUSHIDA . On September 7 , 2012 , Dorada returned to Japan for another two @-@ week tour with New Japan Pro Wrestling . In January 2013 , Dorada returned to Japan to take part in the three @-@ day Fantastica Mania 2013 event . During the first night on January 18 , he teamed with La Máscara and Máximo in a six man tag team match , where they were defeated by Taichi , Taka Michinoku and Volador Jr . The following night , Dorada and Diamante were defeated in a tag team match by Mephisto and Okumura . During the third and final night , Dorada took part in a twelve @-@ man torneo cibernetico , from which he was the eighth man eliminated by Yoshi @-@ Hashi and which was eventually won by Tomohiro Ishii . Dorada returned to New Japan on September 23 , 2013 , working the entire tour opposite the Bullet Club stable , which also included his fellow CMLL worker Rey Bucanero . Dorada 's tour concluded on September 29 at the Destruction pay @-@ per @-@ view , where he pinned Bucanero in an eight @-@ man tag team match , where he teamed with Captain New Japan , Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma against Bucanero , Bad Luck Fale , Karl Anderson and Tama Tonga . Dorada returned to Japan in January 2014 , when he took part in the five @-@ day Fantastica Mania 2014 tour . The tour concluded on January 19 with a main event , where Dorada unsuccessfully challenged Volador Jr. for the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship . From April to July 2014 , Dorada worked an extended tour with New Japan , which included a two @-@ day tour of Taiwan , the Wrestling Dontaku 2014 tour , the 2014 Best of the Super Juniors , where he finished with a record of three wins and four losses and thus missed the semifinals of the tournament , and the Kizuna Road 2014 tour . On October 25 , 2014 , Dorada returned to NJPW , teaming up with Bushi for the 2014 Super Junior Tag Tournament . The team lost to reDRagon ( Bobby Fish and Kyle O 'Reilly ) in the first round . Dorada remained with NJPW until November 8 . In January 2015 , Dorada returned to Japan to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2015 tour , during which he and Atlantis won the Fantastica Mania 2015 Tag Tournament . Dorada 's participation in the tour was built around a rivalry with La Sombra , which culminated in a singles match between the two on January 19 , where La Sombra was victorious . During the final event , Dorada announced he had signed a one @-@ year contract with NJPW . After doing interviews suggesting the unification of his CMLL World Welterweight Championship and the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship , Dorada entered the IWGP title picture by challenging reigning champion Kenny Omega on February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka . He received his title shot on April 5 at Invasion Attack 2015 , but was defeated by Omega . The following month , Dorada entered the 2015 Best of the Super Juniors . He finished third in his block with a record of five wins and two losses , failing to advance to the finals of the tournament . On December 19 , Dorada lost the CMLL World Welterweight Championship to Bushi following outside interference from Bushi 's Los Ingobernables de Japón stablemate Evil . He regained the title from Bushi on January 22 , 2016 , at Fantastica Mania 2016 . Dorada 's final match under his NJPW contract took place two days later . = = = WWE ( 2016 – present ) = = = On June 13 , 2016 , WWE announced Dorada , under the ring name " Gran Metalik " , as a participant in the upcoming Cruiserweight Classic tournament . In a subsequent interview he revealed that he was only working the Cruiserweight Classic matches with WWE and was still full time with CMLL beyond that . He credited Finn Bálor , who worked as Prince Devitt in NJPW as being the reason he was invited to the tournament . He wanted to use " Metalik " as his ring name but WWE decided to go with " Gran Metalik " instead . The tournament kicked off on June 23 with Metalik defeating Alejandro Saez in his first round match . On July 14 , Metalik defeated Tajiri in his second round match . The following day , it was reported that Metalik had signed with WWE . = = Personal life = = During a 2016 interview with Lucha World , Máscara Dorada revealed that he was the father of two young girls . His immediate family still resides in Guadalajara , Jalisco . He has relatives living in Los Angeles , California while Dorada himself lives in Mexico City . = = In wrestling = = Finishing moves Corkscrew somersault senton bomb Dorada Screwdriver ( Modified sitout scoop slam driver ) Springboard dragonrana Signature moves Brillo Dorada ( Topé con Giro , after springboarding off the tope rope ) Double jump springboard victory roll Multiple hurricanrana variations Dorada runs down the ramp , jumps over the ropes and executes a hurricanrana Double jump springboard Slingshot Topé con Giro Sunset flip powerbomb Nicknames " El Joven Maravilla " ( Spanish for " The Boy Wonder " ) Entrance themes " El Son de la Negra " by Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán " Tornado " by May 's = = Championships and accomplishments = = Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship ( 1 time ) CMLL World Trios Championship ( 2 times ) – with La Sombra and La Máscara ( 1 ) and Místico and Valiente ( 1 ) CMLL World Welterweight Championship ( 4 times ) Mexican National Trios Championship ( 1 time ) – with Metro and Stuka , Jr . NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship ( 1 time ) CMLL Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles ( 2010 , 2011 ) – with Atlantis Torneo Corona - with La Sombra CMLL Trio of the Year ( 2010 ) – with La Sombra and La Máscara CMLL Guadalajara Occidente Welterweight Championship ( 1 time ) New Japan Pro Wrestling Fantastica Mania Tag Tournament ( 2015 ) – with Atlantis Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI ranked him # 152 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2013 = = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= The Falcon and the D 'ohman = " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " is the season premiere of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 25 , 2011 . In the episode , the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant hires a new security guard named Wayne and Homer soon becomes friends with him . " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " also reveals the fate of the relationship between the characters Ned Flanders and Edna Krabappel that was initiated in the previous episode of the series , " The Ned @-@ Liest Catch " , that aired in May 2011 . Actor Kiefer Sutherland guest starred in the episode as the voice of Wayne . This was the third time he appeared on The Simpsons . The episode also features a guest appearance by American chef and Top Chef judge Tom Colicchio as himself in a segment in which Marge dreams about being a contestant in a show similar to Top Chef . " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " has received mixed reviews from television critics , with criticism directed at the plot and the cultural references featured . However , a reference in the episode to the computer animated re @-@ enactments of news stories done by the Taiwan @-@ based Next Media Animation has been particularly praised . = = Background = = " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " features a reference to the previous episode of the series , the twenty @-@ second season finale " The Ned @-@ Liest Catch " that aired on May 22 , 2011 . In that episode , the characters Ned Flanders and Edna Krabappel start dating . The episode ends with Homer and Marge Simpson giving viewers a link to the official The Simpsons website , TheSimpsons.com , and encouraging them to go on the website and vote over the 2011 summer on whether Ned and Edna should stay together . The result of the poll was revealed in " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " — a majority had voted for the couple to remain in a relationship . According to executive producer Al Jean , the poll was " very strong in one direction " . In an interview before the result was presented , Jean guaranteed that the poll was authentic and that the writers would not undo the viewers ' decision , adding " What our fans have joined together , let no writer tear asunder . " = = Plot = = Comic Book Guy opens the season premiere by telling the viewers that there will be hints in the episode as to the conclusion of the romance between Ned and Edna . After the revised introduction , where Homer sneaks late into work , sings to the tune of The Police 's " Walking on the Moon " , and marks up his time card to make it seem like he was on time and had put in some overtime hours , Homer is surprised to find that a new security guard named Wayne has been hired at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . He repeatedly tries to befriend Wayne , only to be coldly shunned at every attempt . Meanwhile , while making crackers for Bart and Lisa , Marge daydreams that she has become a contestant on a cooking show called Master Chef . The show is judged by Tom Colicchio and he praises her crackers , awarding her the prize of a new kitchen . However , when Marge stops daydreaming and gives the crackers to her children , they tell her they do not like them because they do not like change . One day while Wayne is walking home in the rain and hail , Homer sees Wayne and he reluctantly agrees to let Homer drive him to Moe 's Tavern for a drink . While Wayne is in the bathroom , Snake Jailbird dramatically crashes through the door on his motorcycle to rob everyone . As soon as Wayne comes out , he soundly beats up Snake . The story spreads quickly and a news segment that features an interview with Wayne by Kent Brockman and a computer animated Taiwanese dramatization of the incident soon airs on television . It is discovered that Wayne is a highly trained former CIA black ops agent , who decided to go into hiding in Springfield . He is plagued by recurring flashbacks from his previous missions , which cause him to act or shout them out , as evidenced when he unintentionally attacks Mr. Burns , the boss of the power plant , which results in Wayne being fired . Homer allows Wayne to stay in Bart 's treehouse because Wayne can no longer afford his apartment . One night , Wayne speaks loudly about a past mission in his sleep , causing the couples in the nearby houses to lose sleep . Ned and Edna are one of these couples , and they are shown holding each other in bed . News of what happened to Mr. Burns is leaked onto YouTube and is seen by one of Wayne 's gangster enemies , Viktor , in Kiev , Ukraine . Apparently , Wayne accidentally killed Viktor 's wife with a stray bullet on a previous mission . Thus , the Ukrainian gangster and his henchmen kidnap and torture Homer as bait to lure Wayne . Wayne tracks Homer down through tracking devices he unknowingly ate , frees him and kills all of the Ukrainian gangsters . Afterwards , Wayne decides to leave Springfield , but not before giving Homer the fist pound Homer wanted when they first met . However , Marge suggests that Wayne get a job at the Springfield Department of Motor Vehicles ( DMV ) , and he does . At the DMV , he has a flashback to the time he was a prisoner in North Korea and was forced to write a ridiculous musical play paying tribute to Kim Jong @-@ il . During the closing credits of the episode , Ned and Edna thank the fans for voting for their relationship to continue . = = Production = = " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " was written by Justin Hurwitz and directed by Matthew Nastuk . The storyline of the episode resembles David Cronenberg 's film A History of Violence . " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " features several references to popular culture . For example , in a sequence at the beginning of the episode , Homer sings about working at the power plant to the melody of The Police 's song " Walking on the Moon " . According to Chris Ledesma , music editor on The Simpsons , the staff was " very fortunate to have obtained the original master tracks from The Police without vocals . This is a rare instance . When we need to do our own lyrics to an established hit song , [ composer Alf Clausen ] usually arranges and records a ' sound @-@ alike ' that tries to capture all the spirit and nuance of the original so that the audience immediately identifies the track , but allows us to add our own vocals . " The episode also made frequent use of the sequence " Dance of the Knights " from the ballet Romeo and Juliet by Sergei Prokofiev . The sequence had to be licensed , as it was under copyright in most parts of the world . Another cultural reference appears in one of Wayne 's flashbacks , in which he is seen receiving special training against enemies such as Chucky of the Child 's Play film series and basketball player Kobe Bryant . The Taiwanese dramatization of Wayne 's fight with Snake at Moe 's Tavern parodies the humorous computer animated re @-@ enactments of news stories done by the Taiwan @-@ based Next Media Animation . One YouTube clip that Viktor sees is a reference to The Gregory Brothers , the creators of the popular online Auto @-@ Tune the News series , in that a news segment featuring a lady who has lost her cat has been autotuned into a song . Marge 's dream of becoming a contestant in a cooking competition parodies the American reality competition series Top Chef . American chef Tom Colicchio , who is a judge on that show , guest starred in " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " as himself . Canadian actor Kiefer Sutherland guest starred in " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " as the security guard Wayne . This was the third episode of The Simpsons that he appeared in , the first being the 2006 episode " G.I. ( Annoyed Grunt ) " ( playing a colonel ) and the second being the 2007 episode " 24 Minutes " ( playing his character Jack Bauer from the television series 24 ) . As noted by Rick Porter of the website Zap2it , Sutherland 's appearance in " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " makes him " one of the relatively few Simpsons guest stars who 've appeared more than once and voiced different characters rather than recurring residents of Springfield . " Other guest stars to have done this are Albert Brooks , Jon Lovitz , and Phil Hartman , all of whom have played one @-@ time characters and recurring parts . The character Wayne is partly based on Sutherland 's 24 character Jack Bauer , who , according to Christopher Hooton of Metro , is also a " po @-@ faced anti @-@ terrorism agent constantly finding his loved ones kidnapped by megalomaniacs . " After the episode had aired in the United States , the Ukrainian press reported that the mafioso Viktor bears a resemblance to the Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych . = = Release = = The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 25 , 2011 , as the premiere of the twenty @-@ third season of The Simpsons . It was watched by approximately 8 @.@ 08 million people during this broadcast . It received a 3 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 ( up three percent from the last season 's premiere ) , and a ten percent share . The Simpsons became the second highest @-@ rated program in the 18 – 49 demographic in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night , finishing with a higher rating than The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! but a lower rating than Family Guy . The Simpsons was , however , the most @-@ watched show in the lineup in terms of total viewers . = = = Critical reception = = = Since airing , " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " has received mixed reviews from critics . The plot of the episode has been criticized by some reviewers . Kyle Lemmon of Under the Radar gave the episode a three out of ten rating , concluding that " this new episode is rarely grounded in any kind of reality . The best examples of The Simpsons center the situational humor in somewhat plausible scenarios within the town . I guess after so many years , they 've completely run out of ideas . " Similarly , Television Blend 's Jesse Carp wrote that the plot shows " essentially what is wrong with the show and why I stopped watching . Because of the endless amount of material needed to keep a series running for twenty three years , they have to resort to outlandish plots and endless cameos to stay interesting . The best episodes , ... definitely have some absurd elements but they 're all firmly grounded in a fairly real world of Springfield , USA and its colorful cast of characters . I 'd like to see more of that . I miss them . " The cultural references featured in the episode have attracted both criticism and praise . The parody of Next Media Animation has been commended by several reviewers . Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club commented that the episode " features a couple of quite funny sight gags , like the fresco on Moe 's ceiling and the delightful Taiwanese dramatization of certain events " , but further wrote that the " rest of the jokes and references clang away without being too funny or too insulting , and that is probably the best that any viewers can ask of The Simpsons in its advanced age . " Television Blend 's Steve West commented that the episode was the worst of the Animation Domination lineup that week and further elaborated that the cultural references " are always a year behind , and the smart writers who used classic American culture to bring wit to the series have been replaced by those who want to mimic South Park and Family Guy . They fail miserably , and it 's gotten so bad that I now no longer care about the relationship between Marge and Homer . " Matt Roush of TV Guide wrote more positively about the episode , noting that " Fox 's eternal The Simpsons kicks off a night of all @-@ new animation , welcoming Kiefer Sutherland in a very clever guest role as a security guard trying without much success to escape his violent past . A nod to Taiwanese animation is just one of the highlights in this homage to 24 @-@ style mayhem . " Similarly , Umika Pidaparthy of CNN 's The Marquee Blog commented that " there were a lot of light laughs in this episode , like when Wayne walks through the Ukrainian part of Springfield ( Tsarbucks , anyone ? ) . Pop culture references like the Taiwanese animation of the robbery were hilarious . I was disappointed , though , to see that Marge 's daydream about being on Top Chef didn 't become a side story . " Mike Hughes of the Lansing State Journal commented that the episode was " inconsistent , but [ had ] great moments " , and that it was " much better than Fox 's other season @-@ openers " that premiered on the same day .
= Sieges of Taunton = The sieges of Taunton were a series of three blockades during the First English Civil War . The town of Taunton , in Somerset , was considered to be of strategic importance because it controlled the main road from Bristol to Devon and Cornwall . Robert Blake commanded the town 's Parliamentarian defences during all three sieges , from September 1644 to July 1645 . The first siege was laid by Edmund Wyndham on 23 September , and was primarily composed of Royalist troops from local Somerset garrisons . After initial assaults drove Blake and his troops back into Taunton Castle , the blockade was conducted from 1 – 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 2 km ) away , and concentrated more on starving the garrison than continued attacks . The town was relieved by a force under James Holborne on 14 December . Over the next three months , Blake was able to establish a network of earthen defences in Taunton , including a basic perimeter and a number of forts . The Royalists began the second , and bloodiest , siege in late March 1645 , initially under Sir Richard Grenville . A series of disputes between the Royalist commanders allowed Taunton some respite at the start of the siege , but in May the attacks were fierce under the command of Sir Ralph Hopton . After five days of intense fighting , which had once again driven the defending army back to a small central perimeter including the castle , the Royalists retreated in the face of a Parliamentarian relief army commanded by Ralph Weldon . Lord Goring , who had proposed the second siege , renewed the blockade for a third time in mid @-@ May , after engaging Weldon 's departing army and forcing it back into Taunton . Goring 's siege was lax and allowed provisions into the town , diminishing its effectiveness . The Parliamentarian defence tied up Goring and his 10 – 15 @,@ 000 troops , who would have otherwise been available to fight for the King at Naseby , where historians believe they could have tipped the battle in favour of the Royalists . Instead , after securing a Parliamentarian victory at Naseby , Thomas Fairfax marched his army to relieve Taunton on 9 July 1645 . = = Background = = Loyalties in Somerset were divided at the start of the First English Civil War ; many of the prominent landowners and those living in the countryside favoured King Charles I , but most of the towns , including Taunton , were Parliamentarian , predominantly due to their Puritan beliefs . By August 1642 , the town was held by a small Parliamentarian force . In June the following year , Sir Ralph Hopton led his Royalist army , consisting of eighteen regiments equally split between foot and cavalry , out of Cornwall and into Somerset . He forced the surrender of Taunton to the King without engaging in battle , and established a garrison in Taunton Castle . In mid @-@ 1644 , Robert Devereux , 3rd Earl of Essex , the Chief Commander of the Parliamentary army , decided to reclaim the West Country . He moved through Dorset , retaking Dorchester and Weymouth , and then left the coast and headed towards Chard . At the time , Taunton was held by a garrison of 800 men commanded by Colonel John Stawell , but the proximity of the Earl of Essex 's army led the town to be abandoned , leaving only 80 men to defend the castle . The historian Robert Morris , in The Sieges of Taunton 1644 – 1645 , suggests that Stawell and his men retreated to Bridgwater , but in The History of the Rebellion , the 17th @-@ century historian Edward Hyde claims that the troops were requisitioned by Prince Maurice during his retreat from Lyme Regis to Plymouth . On 8 July 1644 , the Earl of Essex sent a Parliamentarian force , led by Colonel Sir Robert Pye with Lieutenant Colonel Robert Blake as his second in command , to reclaim Taunton . They took the town without a fight , and surrounded the castle . The Royalist forces under Major William Reeve that were garrisoned at Taunton Castle surrendered and retreated to Bridgwater . Pye left Taunton shortly after the capture , leaving Blake to hold the town . Blake had an army of about 1 @,@ 000 men , and was charged with trying to blockade the roads to support the Earl of Essex 's campaign in Devon and Cornwall . = = Sieges = = = = = First siege = = = The Earl of Essex 's campaign failed , suffering a total defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in early September 1644 . His remaining forces retreated back to Dorset , leaving only Plymouth , Lyme Regis and Taunton under Parliamentarian control in the South West . Blake was aware of the vulnerability of Taunton , which , unlike many towns and cities of the time , did not have any town walls . On the eastern side of the town , which was the most vulnerable , he dug trenches outside the Eastern gate and erected a barricade across the street within it . At least three earthen forts were also built in that end of town . King Charles I held council in Chard , and shortly after ordered a Royalist force numbering 3 @,@ 000 troops to set up the first siege of Taunton . Initially , Sir Francis Dodington was going to command the attack , but the only available men were those in Bridgwater under the command of Colonel Edmund Wyndham . The siege began on 23 September 1644 . Wyndham was assisted in the attack by his brother , Francis Wyndham , who brought his garrison from Dunster Castle , and Edward Rodney , who commanded an infantry regiment . The Royalist forces initially set themselves up around the town , where they were able to use their artillery to bombard the castle from the west and the town from the east . In his record of the siege , Morris claims that the besieging forces were unable to establish a presence in the town , and set up a wide perimeter roughly 1 – 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 2 km ) away . However , almost all other sources agree that after initial skirmishes , the Royalists broke through the eastern defences and forced Blake 's troops back into the castle itself . During the siege , Edmund Wyndham and Blake exchanged letters ; Wyndham initially wrote to explain that he felt the siege was a gentle method of attack , rather than using " fire and sword " . He offered generous terms for surrender , and signed the letter " Your well @-@ wishing Neighbour and Country @-@ man " ; the pair had served as members of parliament together for Bridgwater in 1640 . Blake was unmoved , and wrote back to unequivocally reject the offer . Blake sent skirmishing parties out against the attackers with some success , though food and ammunition began to run out for the defending troops . To further this , Wyndham heavily rationed the town 's population to prevent them smuggling food to the garrison . A petition to Parliament for help was answered when Sir William Waller , who commanded the Parliamentarian army in Wiltshire , sent a force of 3 @,@ 000 men under the command of his deputy , Major General James Holborne , in support of the town . Wyndham had initially planned to attack Holborne 's forces at Chard , but instead retreated back to his garrison at Bridgwater on 14 December . He recorded that during his retreat , " the enemy sallied upon me but they were so hungry that they could not follow me . " The day after the arrival of Holborne , a supply caravan containing food , 2 @,@ 000 muskets and 40 barrels of gunpowder restocked the town . Fearing further Royalist assaults , Holborne provided 1 @,@ 000 of his own men as reinforcements for the town 's defence . = = = Second siege = = = In early 1645 , Blake sent raiding parties out from Taunton that , according to Hyde , controlled a large area and disrupted activities throughout Somerset . Around that time , Lord Goring , the lieutenant @-@ general of the south @-@ eastern counties in the Royalist army , requested troops from the King so that he could mount a " large @-@ scale southeastern campaign " . His request was rejected , and he was despatched to the South West instead . He duly changed his focus , electing to target first Weymouth , and then Taunton , both Parliamentarian strongholds in the area . He took Weymouth , but was unable to hold it in the face of Parliamentarian reinforcements . In a letter he received from the King shortly after that loss , he was ordered to gather the Royalist forces of the area together in order to " [ clear ] those parts of the rebels ' forces . " The King sent orders for Sir Richard Grenville and John Berkeley to support Goring in the attack on Taunton . Goring arrived outside Taunton on 11 March , and a sizeable part of Berkeley 's garrison from Exeter arrived soon after . Grenville did not leave his siege of Plymouth and , coupled with the threat from a Parliamentarian force formed by Waller and Oliver Cromwell combining their armies in Hampshire , the attack on Taunton was postponed . After further urging from the King and the Prince of Wales , Grenville did eventually travel up towards Taunton and was ordered to follow Goring to support the King in the north , as Grenville 's force of 3 @,@ 000 men was considered too small to assault Taunton . He refused , claiming that " he had promised the commissioners of Devon and Cornwall , that he would not advance beyond Taunton " , while also boasting that he could claim the town in ten days . He was delegated command of the siege , and arrived outside Taunton on 2 April . Only a day after his arrival , Grenville was injured while attacking Wellington House , and as the wound was serious , he was carried to Exeter . The blockade set by Grenville was initially some distance from the town , and did not prevent Blake from sending and receiving messages . The besieging army was reinforced soon after with Goring 's infantry and artillery units , and so , with a large force , the attackers closed in on the town , establishing entrenchments within musket @-@ shot of Taunton 's defences . Command of the siege passed to Berkeley , though Grenville 's troops often failed to follow the new commander 's orders , and some of them deserted . Despite Grenville 's retirement from the battle due to injury , he and Berkeley clashed ; Grenville complained to the Prince of Wales that Berkeley was conducting the siege badly , while Berkeley claimed that Grenville had given his men orders to desert . These disagreements led Hopton , by now the commander of the Royalist forces in the West Country , to be given command of the siege . As the siege continued , supplies once again began to run out for the defending army , and Parliament identified the relief of Taunton as being a priority . On 28 April , they ordered Thomas Fairfax , the Commander in Chief of the recently established New Model Army , to relieve the town . Fairfax marched with the whole of his army towards Taunton ; the Royalists considered sending their own army to meet him before he could reach London , but Prince Rupert convinced them instead to focus on conquering the north of England . In response to the Royalist movement north , Fairfax split his own army in two , sending a force of between 6 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 000 on to Taunton under Colonel Ralph Weldon , while Fairfax led the rest north . Aware that the Parliamentarians under Fairfax were on their way , Hopton increased the attacks on the town on 6 May . Further attacks the following day focused on the east side of the town , first bombarding it with cannon shot , and then storming the earthen redoubt that Blake had established . After some early success in which they captured one of the earthen forts , the attackers were forced back by a combination of musket shot , stones and boiling water . The next day , after yet more attacks made little impact , Hopton staged a battle on the south side of the town between two parties of his own army in an attempt to make Blake believe the Parliamentarian army had arrived . Hopton hoped that Blake would send out some of his own men to support the relieving force , but the feint failed . That evening , at around 7 pm , the Royalist force , which consisted of around 4 @,@ 200 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry , launched an all @-@ out assault against the town . In heavy fighting , the attackers captured two of the earthen forts on the eastern side of town , and broke through the defences . Once inside Blake 's outer perimeter , the besieging army discovered that there were Parliamentarian musketeers within every house , which prevented them advancing any further , though they did set fire to a number of buildings , hoping to force the defenders to retreat . The tactic failed when the wind blew the flames back towards the Royalists , halting their attack . The attack was renewed around 11 am on 9 May , and over the next seven hours , Hopton 's army advanced slowly through the town . His forces pushed the Parliamentarian troops back one building at a time , until they were left with only a small area of land in the middle of the town . Within the perimeter was the castle , an entrenchment in the market square , St Mary Magdalene Church and an earthen defence known as " Maiden 's fort " . By this time , a combination of artillery and arson attacks had set most of the east side of town on fire . An attempt by three people — two men and a woman — to set fires inside the remaining defences was quashed , and the culprits lynched . Further assaults were made on 10 May , along with a demand for Blake and his men to surrender , to which Blake responded that he " had four pairs of boots left and would eat three of them before he yielded . " Weldon 's relieving force had met with small parties of the Royalist army around Chard and Pitminster , and they sent an advance party ahead of them , which reached Orchard Portman , roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Taunton , on 10 May . Fearing that they were facing the entirety of Fairfax 's army , Hopton ordered his forces to abandon their attacks and retreat to Bridgwater . As they left , they felled trees across roads to slow the Parliamentarian advance . Weldon 's army arrived in Taunton on 11 May , relieving and restocking the town . Accounts of Taunton 's losses vary between 50 and 200 killed , with 200 or more casualties on top of that , while two thirds of the houses in the town had been razed . Having relieved Taunton , Weldon and his army left the following day and marched eastwards . = = = Third siege = = = Over the course of the siege , Lord Goring had been with the King in Oxford , and on 10 May he returned to Bristol with a royal warrant pronouncing him the Commander of the Royalist Army in the West Country , replacing Hopton . Goring began his operations by harrying Weldon 's army , and forcing them to retreat back to Taunton . Goring , commanding about 10 @,@ 000 men , established a third siege of the town in under a year . He ignored orders from the King for him to support the Royalist efforts in the Midlands , claiming that " Taunton would be taken in a few days . " Despite his promises , he soon discovered that his army was too small to enact a rapid takeover of the town , and he established a loose blockade . Hyde , who is frequently scathing of Goring in his description of the Civil War , recalls that " Goring was so far from making any advance upon Taunton , that he grew much more negligent in it than he had been ; suffered provisions , in great quantities , to be carried into the town . " As well as being lax in his siege , Goring was often drunk and — reminiscent of the earlier siege — was deserted by many of his troops . The regional commander of the Parliamentarian forces , Colonel Edward Massey , was ordered to relieve Taunton in June , but he could only raise 3 @,@ 000 men ; far less than was needed to dispel Goring 's army . The New Model Army , with Fairfax at their head , were busy in the Midlands defeating the bulk of the Royalist army at the Battle of Naseby , described by modern sources as " the decisive clash of the English Civil War " . Goring had been ordered by the King to abandon his siege and join the Royalist forces at Naseby , and it has been suggested by modern historians that with his forces , and his leadership , the Royalists might have won the battle . Immediately after securing that victory , Fairfax led his army down towards Taunton once again . Aware of the approaching army , Lord Goring mounted a final assault on the town , hoping to catch Blake unaware by sending his cavalry towards the town on 9 July . The attack was neutralised by a section of Fairfax 's army in Ilminster , and Goring withdrew from Taunton to meet Fairfax at the Battle of Langport , relieving the third and final siege of Taunton during the English Civil War . = = Aftermath = = In his history of Taunton , H. J. Wickenden suggests that over half of the town was burned or destroyed during the three sieges , while Diane Purkiss claims that it was as high as two thirds of the town . Several compensation payouts were made to the town and some of its residents , funded by fines against those who had fought for the Royalists , such as Sir William Portman , who had been the Member of Parliament for Taunton at the outbreak of the war and was fined £ 7 @,@ 000 . Although the Parliamentarians destroyed many of the castles that had featured in the Civil War , Taunton Castle was considered a Parliamentarian stronghold , and remained intact . In 1647 , only two years after the end of the sieges , the castle was sold as part of the estate of Taunton Manor . In 1660 , shortly after taking the throne , Charles II stripped Taunton of its town charter for its part in the Civil War , and had the castle 's outer walls removed . After commanding the defence of Taunton , Blake was ordered to capture Dunster Castle , which he achieved after a nine @-@ month siege . After the war , he was honoured by Parliament for his efforts and rewarded with £ 500 , while a further £ 2 @,@ 000 was split amongst his men . He took no side during the Second Civil War and , three years later , under the Commonwealth of England , he became a general at sea , as one of the three commissioners of the navy , and spent the rest of his life as a naval commander , for which he remains best known .
= Zooropa = Zooropa / zuːˈroʊpɑː / is the eighth studio album by Irish rock band U2 . Produced by Flood , Brian Eno , and The Edge , it was released on 5 July 1993 on Island Records . Inspired by the band 's experiences on the Zoo TV Tour , Zooropa expanded on many of the tour 's themes of technology and media oversaturation . The record was a continuation of the group 's experimentation with alternative rock , electronic dance music , and electronic sound effects that began with their previous album , Achtung Baby , in 1991 . U2 began writing and recording Zooropa in Dublin in February 1993 , during a six @-@ month break between legs of the Zoo TV Tour . The record was originally intended as an EP to promote the " Zooropa " leg of the tour that was to begin in May 1993 , but during the sessions , the group decided to extend the record to a full @-@ length LP . Pressed for time , U2 wrote and recorded at a rapid pace , with songs originating from many sources , including leftover material from the Achtung Baby sessions . The album was not completed in time for the tour 's resumption , forcing the band to travel between Dublin and their tour destinations in May to complete mixing and recording . Zooropa received generally favourable reviews from critics . Despite none of its three singles — " Numb " , " Lemon " , and " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " — being hits consistently across regions , the record sold well upon release and peaked at number one in multiple countries . The album 's charting duration and lifetime sales of 7 million copies , however , were less than those of Achtung Baby . In 1994 , Zooropa won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album . Although the record was a success and music journalists view the album as one of the group 's most creative works , the band regard it with mixed feelings . = = Background = = U2 regained critical favour with their commercially successful 1991 album Achtung Baby and the supporting Zoo TV Tour in 1992 . The record was a musical reinvention for the group , incorporating influences from alternative rock , industrial music , and electronic dance music into their sound . The tour was an elaborately staged multimedia event that satirised television and the viewing public 's over @-@ stimulation by attempting to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . The band finished 1992 with one of their most successful years , selling 2 @.@ 9 million concert tickets and reaching 10 million copies sold for Achtung Baby . Their 73 North American concerts from the year grossed US $ 67 million , easily the highest amount for any touring artist in 1992 . The group concluded the North American " Outside Broadcast " leg of the tour on 25 November 1992 , leaving them with a six @-@ month break before the tour resumed in Europe in May 1993 with the " Zooropa " leg . Rather than use the time to rest , lead vocalist Bono and guitarist The Edge were keen to record new material . Following a hectic year of touring , the two did not want to settle back into domestic life . Bono said , " We thought we could live a normal life and then go back on the road [ in May 1993 ] . But it turns out that your whole way of thinking , your whole body has been geared toward the madness of Zoo TV ... So we decided to put the madness on a record . Everybody 's head was spinning , so we thought , why not keep that momentum going ... ? " The Edge also wished to distract himself from the emotions he was feeling after separating from his wife during the Achtung Baby sessions in 1991 . The other members , bassist Adam Clayton and drummer Larry Mullen , Jr . , ultimately agreed to join them for recording . = = Recording and production = = After handling audio engineering for the recording of Achtung Baby , Robbie Adams was invited by U2 to manage sound mixing on the Zoo TV Tour . Adams also recorded the group 's tour soundchecks . In January 1993 , the band asked him to compile these recordings and create loops of interesting parts that they could play to in the studio . After Adams spent a few weeks assembling loops , the group entered The Factory in Dublin that February to begin composing rough demos . Bono and The Edge were most involved during this initial demoing process , which lasted six weeks . The group employed Brian Eno and his assisting partner Mark " Flood " Ellis — both of whom worked on Achtung Baby — to produce the sessions ; long @-@ time Eno collaborator Daniel Lanois was busy promoting his solo album and was unavailable . Similar to the Achtung Baby sessions , Eno worked two @-@ week shifts . The group often gave him in @-@ progress songs to adjust and to which he could add his own personality . Initially , the band did not have a clear plan for how they would release the material being written . At the time , Clayton said , " I don 't know if what we 're doing here is the next U2 album or a bunch of rough sketches that in two years will turn into the demos for the next U2 album . " The Edge was a proponent of making an EP of new material to promote the upcoming leg of the tour , describing his mentality as thus : " We 've got a bit of time off . We 've got some ideas hanging around from the last record , let 's do an EP , maybe four new songs to spice the next phase of the tour up a bit . It 'll be a fan thing . It 'll be cool . " Soon after the sessions commenced , Bono pushed for the band to work towards a full @-@ length LP . The Edge was initially hesitant , but saw the opportunity as a challenge to quickly record an album before returning to tour and prove the band had not become spoiled by the luxury of ample recording time . Additionally , Bono and band manager Paul McGuinness had discussed the possibility of releasing a " one @-@ two punch " of records since the beginning of the Achtung Baby sessions . In early March , U2 reached a consensus to work towards an LP . Much like they had for the Achtung Baby sessions , the band split work between two studios at once ; Adams operated a Soundtracs mixing console at The Factory , while Flood used an SSL console at the newly relocated Windmill Lane Studios . Due to the time limit , U2 were forced to write and record songs at a more rapid pace . They continued their long @-@ time practice of jamming in the studio . Eno and Flood edited together song sections they liked and then discussed the arrangements with the group . U2 suggested alterations and added lyrics and melodies , before performing to the edited arrangements . Eno used an eraseable whiteboard to give instructions and cues to the band while they jammed ; he pointed at chords and various commands , such as " hold " , " stop " , " change " , and " change back " , to direct their performances . To record all of the band 's material and test different arrangements , the engineers utilised a technique they called " fatting " , which allowed them to achieve more than 48 tracks of audio by using a 24 @-@ track analogue recording , a DAT machine , and a synchroniser . The production crew faced issues with audio spill at The Factory , as all group members recorded in the same room as the mixing desk and Bono frequently sang in @-@ progress lyrics that would need to be replaced . Flightcases and wood booths were built to separate the performers ' sounds as much as possible . Songs originated from and were inspired by a variety of sources . " Zooropa " was the result of combining two separate pieces of music together , one of which the band discovered while reviewing recordings of tour soundchecks . The verse melody to " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " and an instrumental backing track that became " Numb " were originally from the Achtung Baby sessions . " Babyface " , " Dirty Day " , " Lemon " , and " The Wanderer " were written during the Zooropa sessions . Country singer Johnny Cash recorded vocals for " The Wanderer " during a visit to Dublin , and although Bono recorded his own vocals for the song , he preferred Cash 's version . The production crew and the band debated which version to include on the record . Throughout the sessions , U2 were undecided on a unifying musical style for the release , and as a result , they maintained three potential track listings — one for the best songs , one for " vibes " , and one for a soundtrack album . Bono suggested editing the best segments of songs together to create a montage . As May 's " Zooropa " tour leg approached , U2 continued to record while simultaneously rehearsing for the tour . Their time limit prevented them from working on live arrangements for any of the new songs . Despite the sessions ' rapid pace , the album was not completed by the time they had to resume touring . Moreover , Flood and Eno had to begin work on other projects . The Edge remembers everyone was telling the group , " Well , it 's an EP . You did good but there 's a lot more work needed to finish some of these songs . " However , the band did not want to shelve the project , as they believed they were on a " creative roll " and that they would be in a completely different frame of mind if they revisited the material six months later . The group 's solution was to fly back and forth between Dublin and their concert destinations for about ten days to finish recording and mixing at night and during their off @-@ days . Clayton called the process " about the craziest thing you could do to yourself " , while Mullen said of it , " It was mad , but it was mad good , as opposed to mad bad . " McGuinness later said the band had nearly wrecked themselves in the process . The group simultaneously used three separate rooms at Windmill Lane to mix , overdub , and edit . Adams said the hectic approach meant " there was never anybody sitting around waiting or doing nothing " . Flood called the period one of " absolute lunacy " . Eschewing console automation , the engineers adopted a " live performance " attitude to mixing , based on past experiences with Lanois . The band and production crew sat in on the mixing and offered encouragement , creating , as Adams put it , " a kind of cheerleader thing . It all induces a nervous energy in you and creates a lot of pressure , and gives the whole thing a performance feel . " Recording concluded on 14 May 1993 . In the final weeks , the band decided to exclude the traditional rock songs and guitar @-@ driven tracks they had written in favour of an " album of disjointed , experimental pop " . The Edge received a production credit — his first on a U2 record — for the extra level of responsibility he assumed for the album . Twenty songs were recorded during the sessions , but ultimately 10 were chosen for the final track listing . One piece that was left off the record was " In Cold Blood " , which featured somber lyrics written by Bono in response to the Bosnian War and was previewed prior to the album 's release . Other tracks that were left off the album included " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " , " If God Will Send His Angels " , " If You Wear That Velvet Dress " , and " Wake Up Dead Man " . The first was later released as a single from the Batman Forever soundtrack in 1995 , and the latter three were included on the band 's following studio album , Pop , in 1997 . = = Composition = = = = = Music = = = With an even more " European " musical aesthetic than Achtung Baby , Zooropa is a further departure from the group 's " rootsy " sound of the late 1980s . Much like how the group embraced technology for the Zoo TV Tour , they utilized technology as a musical resource to a greater extent on Zooropa . The record exhibits additional influences from alternative rock , electronic dance music , and industrial music — it is more synthesised than U2 's past work , featuring various sound effects , audio loops , and use of synthesisers . In addition to The Edge playing synthesiser , Brian Eno received credit for the instrument on six tracks . The Edge 's guitar playing on Zooropa marks a further shift away from his trademark style , highlighted by a heavier reliance on guitar effects and the songs ' reduced emphasis on his guitar parts . The danceable " Lemon " , called a " space @-@ age German disco " by Stephen Thomas Erlewine , features a guitar part played with rhythmic gated reverb effect . The distorted " Daddy 's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car " was described by Bono as " industrial blues " . The instrumentation of the closing song , " The Wanderer " , consists primarily of a synthesised bassline and was described by the group as resembling the " ultimate Holiday Inn band from hell " . The song was sequenced as the final track because U2 wanted to end the album on a " musical joke " . Similar to how the Zoo TV Tour display screens sampled video footage from television programming , a number of songs from Zooropa sample audio . The introduction to the title track , " Zooropa " , contains a noisy collage of indecipherable human voices from radio signals — credited to the " advertising world " — played over sustained synthesiser chords . The industrial @-@ influenced " Numb " features a noisy backdrop of sampled , rhythmic noises , including " arcade sounds " , a Walkman rewinding , and a Hitler Youth boy banging a bass drum in the 1935 propaganda film Triumph of the Will . " Daddy 's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car " begins with a snippet of fanfare from Lenin 's Favourite Songs and samples MC 900 Ft . Jesus ' song " The City Sleeps " . The vocals on Zooropa are a further departure from U2 's previous style . As Jon Pareles described , Bono " underplays his lung power " throughout the record , in contrast to his impassioned , belting vocals from past work . Additionally , in songs such as " Lemon " and " Numb " , Bono sings in an operatic falsetto he calls the " Fat Lady " voice . Two tracks feature other people on lead vocals : for " Numb " , The Edge provides lead vocals in the form of a droning , monotonous list of " don 't " commands ; for " The Wanderer " , country musician Johnny Cash sings lead vocals , juxtaposing the electronic nature of the song with his haggard voice . = = = Lyrics = = = Bono is credited as the sole lyricist for eight of the ten songs , while The Edge received sole credit for " Numb " . The duo share credits for the lyrics to " Dirty Day " . Technology is a common theme on Zooropa , inspired by the group 's experiences on the Zoo TV Tour . Jon Pareles wrote that the songs are about how " media messages infect characters ' souls " , while music journalist David Browne said the songs are concerned with " emotional fracturing in the techno @-@ tronic age " . Critic Robert Hilburn interpreted the album as U2 probing into what they saw as the " disillusionment of the modern age " . " Zooropa " is set amongst neon signs of a brightly lit futuristic city . In the song 's introduction , background voices ask , " What do you want ? " In response to the question , the lyrics in the first three verses consist of various advertising slogans , including , " Better by design " , " Be all that you can be " , and " Vorsprung durch technik " . Critic Parry Gettelman interpreted these lines as meaning to " signify the emptiness of modern , godless life " . In the song 's second half , the theme of moral confusion and uncertainty is introduced , particularly in the lines " I have no compass / And I have no map " . " Babyface " is about a man practicing his obsessive love for a celebrity by manipulating her image on a TV recording . " Lemon " , inspired by an old video of Bono 's late mother in a lemon @-@ coloured dress , describes man 's attempts to preserve time through technology . This is reflected in lines such as , " A man makes a picture / A moving picture / Through the light projected he can see himself up close " . The lyrics to " Numb " are a series of " don 't " commands , amidst a noisy backdrop of sounds . The Edge notes that the song was inspired by one of the themes of Zoo TV , " that sense that you were getting bombarded with so much that you actually were finding yourself shutting down and unable to respond because there was so much imagery and information being thrown at you " . In contrast to the technology @-@ inspired lyrics of many songs , others had more domestic themes . " The First Time " was Bono 's interpretation of the story of the Prodigal son , but in his version , the son decides not to return home . Similarly , " Dirty Day " was written about a character who abandons his family and returns years later to meet his son . Many of the track 's lyrics are taken from phrases that Bono 's father commonly used , such as " No blood is thicker than ink " and " It won 't last kissing time " . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " is a love song written for an abused woman . Bono based his lyrics to " The Wanderer " on the Old Testament 's Book of Ecclesiastes , and he modeled the song 's character after the book 's narrator , " The Preacher " . In the song , the narrator wanders through a post @-@ apocalyptic world " in search of experience " , sampling all facets of human culture and hoping to find meaning in life . Bono described the song as an " antidote to the Zooropa manifesto of uncertainty " , and he believes it presents a possible solution to the uncertainty expressed earlier on the album . = = Packaging and title = = The sleeve was designed by Works Associates of Dublin under the direction of Steve Averill , who had created the majority of U2 's album covers . Brian Williams was the graphic designer and created the digital images and layout . Inspired by the Zoo TV Tour 's " highly charged electronic TV images in all of their saturated colours and fizz " , Works Associates conceived a " kind of electronic flag " for Zooropa . The cover features a sketch of the circle of stars from the Flag of Europe with an " astrobaby " drawing in the center . The illustration , created by Shaughn McGrath , was an alteration of the " graffiti babyface " by Charlie Whisker that was originally on the face of the Achtung Baby compact disc / vinyl record . The cover 's drawing was meant to represent an urban legend of a Soviet cosmonaut supposedly left floating in orbit for weeks after the collapse of the Soviet Union . In the background is a montage of blurred images , similar to the arrangement of images on Achtung Baby 's sleeve . The images include shots of a woman 's face and mouth , as well as photographs of European leaders , including Vladimir Lenin , Benito Mussolini , and Nicolae Ceauşescu . These images are obscured by distorted purple text comprising the names of songs planned for the record that were provided to Works Associates during the sleeve design process . However , the album 's track listing was eventually changed and the titles of several songs withheld from the album were accidentally left in the cover image ; the songs include " Wake Up Dead Man " , " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " , and " If You Wear That Velvet Dress " . Author Višnja Cogan described this text as giving the impression of a " torn veil " . Zooropa was named for the " Zooropa " leg of the Zoo TV Tour , which began in May 1993 while the band completed the record . The name is a portmanteau of " zoo " ( from Zoo TV Tour and " Zoo Station " ) and " Europa " . During the album 's production , one of the proposed titles was Squeaky . The Album cover won multiple awards for the artwork including Best Cover voted by Music Maker magazine . = = Release = = Zooropa completed U2 's contractual obligation to Island Records , and to PolyGram , the multinational that purchased Island in 1989 . Although the group were free to sign a new contract elsewhere , their strong relationship with the label and its founder Chris Blackwell prompted the band to remain with Island / Polygram by signing a long @-@ term , six @-@ album deal . The Los Angeles Times estimated that the deal was worth US $ 60 million to U2 , making them the highest @-@ paid rock group ever . At the time , the group were cognizant of several emerging technologies that would potentially impact the delivery and transmission of music to consumers in the following years . Author Bill Flanagan speculated , " Record stores could become obsolete as music is delivered over cable , telephone wires , or satellite transmissions directly into consumers ' homes . " With uncertainty over the future of these technologies and the implications of entertainment and telecommunications companies merging , the band negotiated with Island that the division of their earnings from future transmission systems would be flexible and decided upon at a relevant time . U2 toyed with the idea of releasing Zooropa as an interactive audio @-@ video presentation in lieu of conventional physical formats , but the deadline imposed by the Zoo TV Tour prevented the band from realising this idea . U2 's delivery of Zooropa in late May caught PolyGram somewhat off @-@ guard , because they were not expecting a new album by the group for several years . With Achtung Baby , PolyGram had approximately six months to market the record and plan its release strategy , but the sudden completion of Zooropa necessitated a more hurried promotional plan . PolyGram president / CEO Rick Dobbis explained : " For the last one , we prepared for six months . It was like a marathon . But this is like a sprint , and that is the spirit it was made in . The band was so excited about it , they sprinted to complete the album before the ... tour . We want to bring it to the street with that same spirit . " Island / PolyGram 's and U2 's marketing for Zooropa was intended to focus less on singles and more on the record as a whole , and ultimately , only three singles were released , compared to Achtung Baby 's five singles . The first single " Numb " was released in June 1993 exclusively on VHS as a " video single " . The music video was directed by Kevin Godley . The song peaked at number seven in Australia and number nine in Canada , while reaching number two on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . However , it failed to chart on the singles charts in the UK or US . Zooropa was released on 5 July 1993 , during the Zooropa leg of the Zoo TV Tour . An initial shipment of 1 @.@ 6 million copies was made available in stores at the time of release . The album performed very well commercially , debuting at number one in the United States , United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , France , Germany , Austria , Sweden , and Switzerland . It also reached number one in the Netherlands , Italy , Japan , Norway , Denmark , Ireland , and Iceland . In the US , the album spent its first two weeks on the Billboard 200 at the top spot , staying in the top 10 for seven weeks . In its first week on sale , Zooropa sold 377 @,@ 000 copies in the US , the group 's best debut in the country to that point . The album reached the top 10 in 26 countries . Despite reaching impressive peak positions , it had a shorter stay on the music charts than Achtung Baby did . In total , Zooropa spent 40 weeks on the Billboard 200 , 60 fewer weeks than Achtung Baby . Similarly , the album 's stay of 31 weeks on the UK Albums Chart was a decrease of 56 weeks from its predecessor . Two additional commercial singles were released from the album . " Lemon " received a limited commercial release in North America , Australia , and Japan in September 1993 . The single peaked at number six in Australia and number three on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . The final commercial single was " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " , released worldwide on 22 November 1993 . It was the album 's most successful single , topping the Irish Singles Chart and peaking at number five in Australia , number six in New Zealand , number four in the UK , and number 61 in the US — making it the record 's only single to chart on the UK Singles Chart and Hot 100 . " Zooropa " was released as a promotional single in Mexico and the United States . By the end of 1993 , Zooropa had sold 1 @.@ 8 million copies in the US . = = Reception = = Zooropa received generally favourable reviews from critics . Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone wrote in his four @-@ star review that the album was " a daring , imaginative coda to Achtung Baby " and that " it is varied and vigorously experimental , but its charged mood of giddy anarchy suffused with barely suppressed dread provides a compelling , unifying thread " . Spin wrote a positive review , commenting that the record " sounds mostly like a band shedding its skin , trying on different selves for size " . The review said the album " has the feel of real collectivity " , praising the cohesiveness of the individual band members ' playing . The review concluded by saying Zooropa " indicates U2 might be worthy of whatever absurd mutations the ' 90s throw our way " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the group for transforming themselves and becoming " raucous , playful and ready to kick its old habits " . Pareles enjoyed the sonics and electronic effects that made the " sound of a straightforward four @-@ man band ... hard to find " , and he commented that " The new songs seem destined not for stadiums ... but for late @-@ night radio shows and private listenings through earphones . " The Orlando Sentinel gave the record a rating of three @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five stars , commenting , " Although U2 leans heavily on the electronic sound of contemporary dance music , the rhythm tracks on Zooropa are less than propulsive . " The review said that Brian Eno 's production and the electronic flourishes made the album interesting , but that ultimately , " there 's nothing especially hummable " and " the songs are not very memorable " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave Zooropa an " A " , calling it " harried , spontaneous @-@ sounding , and ultimately exhilarating album " . Browne noted that it sounds " messy " and " disconnected " , but clarified " that sense of incoherence is the point " in the context of the record 's technology themes . He concluded , " For an album that wasn 't meant to be an album , it 's quite an album . " Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times gave the record a maximum score of four stars . In two separate articles , he said that it " captured the anxious , even paranoid tone of the Zoo TV Tour " so much so that " it stands as the first tour album that doesn 't include any of the songs from the tour " and yet sounds like a " souvenir " of Zoo TV . In a positive review , Jim Sullivan of The Boston Globe called the album a " creative stretch " , noting that the band experiments more yet retains their recognizable sound . He commented that the group 's " yearning anthemic reach " and " obvious , slinky pop charm " are replaced with " darker corners , more disruptive interjections , more moodiness " . Paul Du Noyer of Q gave Zooropa a score of four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five stars , finding a " freewheeling feel of going with the flow " throughout the album and calling it " rootless and loose , restless and unsettled " . For Du Noyer , U2 sounded " monstrously tight as a performing unit and fluidly inventive as composers , so the results transcend the merely experimental " . A review from The New Zealand Herald was more critical , noting that the album started as an EP and " just got longer but not necessarily better " . The publication called it " more perplexing than challenging " and commented that it " sounds like the biggest band in the world having one of the biggest , strangest mid @-@ life crises " . Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun Times gave the record a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star review , calling it " inconsistent " , but admitting " it 's satisfying and surprising to hear a band of U2 's status being so playful , experimental , and downright weird " . Robert Christgau gave the album a B − , calling it " half an Eno album " in the same manner that David Bowie 's Eno @-@ produced albums Low and " Heroes " were , but saying , " The difference is that Bowie and Eno were fresher in 1977 than Bono and Eno are today . " The Irish media was most consistently negative in their reviews of the album ; George Byrne of the Irish Independent said , " The songs sound like they were knocked up in double @-@ quick time and with about as much thought put into the lyrics as goes into a DJ 's timecheck " . Byrne remarked that the record resembles " a lot of mickey @-@ taking over a variety of drum patterns " . In a retrospective , four @-@ star review , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that " most of the record is far more daring than its predecessor " . For him , although there were moments that the album was " unfocused and meandering ... the best moments of Zooropa rank among U2 's most inspired and rewarding music " . Zooropa finished in 9th place on the " Best Albums " list from The Village Voice 's 1993 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . At the 36th Annual Grammy Awards , it won the award for Best Alternative Music Album . In his acceptance speech , Bono sarcastically mocked the " alternative " characterisation the album received and used a profanity on live television : " I think I 'd like to give a message to the young people of America . And that is : We shall continue to abuse our position and fuck up the mainstream . " = = Zoo TV Tour = = The band began the Zoo TV Tour in February 1992 in support of Achtung Baby . In contrast to the austere stage setups of previous U2 tours , Zoo TV was an elaborate multimedia event . It satirised television and the viewing public 's over @-@ stimulation by attempting to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . The stage featured large video screens that showed visual effects , random video clips from pop culture , and flashing text phrases . Live satellite link @-@ ups , channel surfing , crank calls , and video confessionals were incorporated into the shows . The Zooropa album was released in July 1993 , halfway through the Zooropa leg of the tour . Of the 157 shows the band played during the Zoo TV Tour , approximately 30 of them were after the release of Zooropa . Many of the album 's songs found permanent places in the shows ' setlists . " Lemon " and " Daddy 's Gonna Pay for Your Crashed Car " were performed with Bono in his MacPhisto persona , during encores of the Zoomerang Leg of the tour . " Dirty Day " was also played on this leg after the acoustic set . " Numb " was performed with The Edge playing guitar and on lead vocals , with Mullen performing backing vocals while drumming . " Zooropa " was played only three times and " Babyface " twice more at the same shows on the Zooropa leg , but they were cut out of the setlist after the band were displeased with how they sounded live . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was performed acoustically for the Zooropa and Zoomerang legs . = = Legacy = = Zooropa is certified 2 × Platinum in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America , 3 × Platinum in Australia , Platinum in the UK , and 4 × Platinum in both New Zealand and Canada . To date , it has sold more than 7 million copies . After the release of the record , David Bowie praised the band , writing , " [ U2 ] might be all shamrocks and deutsche marks to some , but I feel that they are one of the few rock bands even attempting to hint at a world which will continue past the next great wall — the year 2000 . " Although the record was a success , in the years following its release , the group have regarded it with mixed feelings and rarely play its material in live performances . Bono said , " I thought of Zooropa at the time as a work of genius . I really thought our pop discipline was matching our experimentation and this was our Sgt. Pepper . I was a little wrong about that . The truth is our pop disciplines were letting us down . We didn 't create hits . We didn 't quite deliver the songs . And what would Sgt. Pepper be without the pop songs ? " The Edge said that he did not think the songs were " potent " , further stating , " I never thought of Zooropa as anything more than an interlude ... but a great one , as interludes go . By far our most interesting . " Clayton said , " It 's an odd record and a favourite of mine . " Neil McCormick wrote about Zooropa , " It feels like a minor work , and generally U2 don 't do minor . But if you 're not going to make the Big Statement , you 're maybe going to come up with something that has the oxygen of pop music . " In 1997 , Spin wrote , " Zooropa took U2 as far from the monastic mysticism of The Joshua Tree as they could go . It freed U2 from itself . " Edna Gundersen of USA Today said in 2002 , " the alien territory of Achtung Baby and Zooropa cemented U2 's relevance and enhanced its cachet as intrepid explorers " . In 2011 , Rolling Stone ranked the record at number 61 on its list of " 100 Best Albums of the Nineties " . = = Track listing = = All music composed by U2 . After " The Wanderer " fades out , a " hidden track " , consisting of a ringing alarm used to alert disc jockeys of " dead air " , plays for 30 seconds . = = Personnel = = U2 Bono – vocals , guitar The Edge – guitar , piano , synthesisers , vocals Adam Clayton – bass guitar Larry Mullen , Jr . – drums , percussion , backing vocals Additional performers Brian Eno – synthesisers , piano , arcade sounds , backing vocals , loops , strings , harmonium Des Broadbery – loops ( tracks 2 , 6 , 7 ) Flood – loops ( tracks 6 , 10 ) Johnny Cash – lead vocals ( track 10 ) Technical Production – Flood , Brian Eno , The Edge Mixing – Flood , Robbie Adams Engineering – Flood , Robbie Adams Engineering and mixing assistance – Willie Mannion , Rob Kirwan , Mary McShane Digital editing – Stewart Whitmore Mastering – Arnie Acosta = = Charting and certifications = =
= Born This Way ( Glee ) = " Born This Way " is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the fortieth episode overall . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on April 26 , 2011 . The episode was written by Brad Falchuk and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , and is a tribute to Lady Gaga , the second such tribute to the artist in the show 's history ; the first one was " Theatricality " . Most of the major plots of the episode center on the topic of homosexuality , as Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) lays the groundwork for his longtime bully Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) to come to terms with his sexuality , and Santana ( Naya Rivera ) plots to run for school prom queen in the hopes of winning her love interest Brittany ( Heather Morris ) from Artie ( Kevin McHale ) . " Born This Way " attracted mostly positive reception from most critics of the show , as many felt that it was one of the better episodes of the season . However , the episode came under scrutiny by several conservative media critics who criticized the show 's depiction of homosexuality . This episode featured cover versions of seven songs , notably a cover of " Born This Way " by Lady Gaga . Other musical works featured in the episode include cover versions of the Keane song " Somewhere Only We Know " and " I 've Gotta Be Me " from the 1968 Broadway production Golden Rainbow . The musical covers and performances were met with generally positive reception from critics , with several noting that it contained the best musical selection in a while . With the exception of " Barbra Streisand " , all cover versions were released as singles available for digital download . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 62 million American viewers , and garnered a 3 @.@ 4 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , the lowest ratings and total viewership of the season . The episode 's ratings and total viewership significantly declined from the previous episode , " Night of Neglect " , which had previously been the low point in viewership . = = Plot = = During dance rehearsals for the upcoming Nationals competition , New Directions glee club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) accidentally breaks Rachel Berry 's ( Lea Michele ) nose . Her doctor ( George Wyner ) recommends septoplasty and elective rhinoplasty ; Rachel considers modelling her nose after Finn 's current girlfriend Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) , and the two girls duet on the mash @-@ up " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " . Both Finn and Puck ( Mark Salling ) oppose her planned transformation . Puck tries to help her accept her nose as part of her Jewish heritage , and recruits Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , who convinces her to look to her idol Barbra Streisand , who refused to succumb to pressure to alter her nose . Ultimately , Rachel decides against having surgery . Club member Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) uses Rachel 's broken nose as a launching point to highlight the other group members ' physical flaws . Aiming to help them achieve self @-@ acceptance , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) urges them to embrace their perceived flaws by printing them on T @-@ shirts to be worn during a group performance of Lady Gaga 's " Born This Way " . He also encourages school guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) to confront her OCD ; she begins treatment with a psychiatrist , Dr. Shane ( Kathleen Quinlan ) . Santana , who is a closeted lesbian , decides to run for school prom queen in the hope that she can win the love of her best friend Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , who is dating Artie ( Kevin McHale ) . She realizes that popular jock Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) is also in the closet , after noticing him checking out Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , and hatches an elaborate scheme to attain her goals : she threatens to out Karofsky unless he agrees to stop the bullying that drove Kurt from McKinley and the glee club . The pair form an anti @-@ bullying club to make the school safer in order to entice Kurt back and bolster the glee club 's chance at Nationals , though mostly to boost Santana 's popularity before the prom . They also become one another 's " beard " to bolster their heterosexual facades . Karofsky issues an apology to Kurt at a group meeting involving Will , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , and their fathers . Though Kurt wants to transfer back to McKinley from Dalton Academy , he is hesitant until Karofsky admits privately that Santana 's prom queen scheme is behind his change of heart and the anti @-@ bullying movement ; Kurt agrees to return , but only if Karofsky will start a school PFLAG club with him . As Kurt arrives back at McKinley , the Dalton Academy Warblers glee club that he had joined while he was away — fronted by his boyfriend Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) — serenades him in farewell with a rendition of Keane 's " Somewhere Only We Know " . Kurt marks his re @-@ entry to New Directions with a solo performance of " As If We Never Said Goodbye " from Sunset Boulevard . As the race for prom queen intensifies , Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) begins campaigning against Quinn . She discovers that Quinn 's first name is Lucy , and that she used to be an overweight outcast who had rhinoplasty before re @-@ inventing herself and transferring to McKinley . Lauren attempts to sabotage Quinn 's campaign by revealing her former image to the other students , but it backfires when Quinn 's popularity actually increases amongst the girls like Lauren . Lauren apologizes to Quinn , but Quinn commends her for her confidence and pride . Brittany shows off her shirt to Santana , and gives Santana a shirt reading " Lebanese " , believing that it reads " Lesbian " . Santana balks at wearing it , and the two argue ; Brittany finally storms off saying that if Santana loved herself as much as Brittany loved her , she would put on the shirt and dance with her . The episode closes with the club , minus Santana , embracing their identities and performing " Born This Way " . During the song , Emma arrives wearing a T @-@ shirt that acknowledges her own problems — it reads " OCD " — and she and Will join the performance . Karofsky and Santana watch from the audience , with Santana wearing her " Lebanese " shirt . = = Production = = The episode was extended and ran for 90 minutes , as opposed to the usual 60 minutes . Michael Ausiello of TVLine reported that the producers included two extra musical performances to fill the extended time slot . Series creator Ian Brennan stated that he believed the extension was granted as there were two songs which would otherwise have been cut for length . He welcomed the additional 24 minutes of screen time , and commented : " We 're always desperately cutting down our episodes . Even when we write them , and then in the editing room we 're always throwing away stuff that I really love to get it down to time . [ ... ] It will be just really interesting content @-@ wise for us [ to have an extension ] . " The focus of the episode is Lady Gaga 's song " Born This Way " , which she approved for use in Glee before the song premiered . This will be the second episode to highlight Gaga 's music , the first one being season one 's " Theatricality " . According to Monteith , the focus of " Born This Way " is the characters " embracing the things about [ them ] selves that [ they ] don 't like and tailoring [ their ] performances around that . " It features homophobic Dave Karofsky starting to come to terms with his homosexuality . The plot arc , which began in the season 's sixth episode , " Never Been Kissed " , is intended by series creator Ryan Murphy to have a happy ending . He explained that , while someone like Karofsky could turn to drugs or alcohol or commit suicide , Glee is " by nature optimistic " , so he plans to conclude the storyline positively . For fellow closeted character Santana , " Born This Way " set up the final three episodes of the season , which will increase focus on her love for her best friend Brittany . The episode additionally marked the first appearance of guest star Dr. Shane , " a very smart , cool and kind psychiatrist " who may become a recurring character . Other characters seen in " Born This Way " include glee club members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Sam Evans and Lauren Zizes , Kurt 's boyfriend Blaine Anderson , school bully Azimio ( James Earl ) , Principal Figgins , and Karofsky 's father , Paul ( Daniel Roebuck ) . In addition to " Born This Way " , the other songs covered in the episode were Keane 's " Somewhere Only We Know " , " As If We Never Said Goodbye " from the musical Sunset Boulevard , a mash @-@ up of " I Feel Pretty " from West Side Story and " Unpretty " by TLC , " I 've Gotta Be Me " from the musical Golden Rainbow , and Duck Sauce 's " Barbra Streisand " . All but " Barbra Streisand " were released as digital singles for the episode . " Somewhere Only We Know " was included on the series ' seventh soundtrack , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers , and " As If We Never Said Goodbye " , " Born This Way " and " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " were included on the series ' eighth soundtrack , Glee : The Music , Volume 6 . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Born This Way " was first broadcast on April 26 , 2011 , in the United States . It averaged a 3 @.@ 4 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also averaged nearly 8 @.@ 62 million American viewers during its initial airing . The first hour of the show garnered 8 @.@ 3 million American viewers and a 3 @.@ 3 / 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , despite airing simultaneously with a rerun of NCIS on CBS , The Biggest Loser on NBC , No Ordinary Family on ABC , and One Tree Hill on The CW . The last half @-@ hour of the episode had 8 @.@ 5 million American viewers , as well as a 3 @.@ 4 / 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , despite airing alongside a rerun of NCIS : Los Angeles on CBS , Dancing with the Stars on ABC , The Voice on NBC , and Hellcats on The CW . The total viewership and ratings were the lowest of the second season of Glee , and was down from those of the previous episode , " Night of Neglect " , which was watched by 9 @.@ 80 million American viewers and acquired a 3 @.@ 8 / 11 rating / share upon first airing . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 52 million viewers ( 2 @.@ 087 million on E4 , and 433 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week . = = = Critical response = = = " Born This Way " was given a positive reception by many critics of the show . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone and Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly both considered it to be an improvement from the previous episode . Futterman wrote that it " gave us the charm , wit and just @-@ zany @-@ enough @-@ to @-@ be @-@ plausible plot lines we were sorely missing after last week 's predictable " episode , and added , " Even better : the episode didn 't feel as long as the 90 minutes it clocked in at . " IGN 's Robert Canning gave the episode a " great " rating of 8 out of 10 . While he said the episode was entertaining , he felt that it did not need to be an hour and a half . Emily Yahr of The Washington Post agreed about the extended length , and did not like what she called " lame attempts to fill time " , which she said " detracted from what started as a decent episode " . She did , however , cite several " promising storylines " , including Rachel 's , and noted , " Usually , New Directions leader Rachel Berry is a caricature of all things annoying — but this episode , we see her genuinely struggling with wanting to love herself the way she is " . The Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson summed it up as follows : " Not an epic episode , just sort of … meh . " Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times reacted more positively and wrote , " The 90 @-@ minute episode had a lot of laughs , a lot of heart , some good lessons , character development , a few good numbers and more than a few surprises . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave it a " B " , and wrote that he " finally got a sense that , yes , this second season has been building toward something and has been trying to tell an emotional story , as well as a humorous one . ' Born This Way ' , for the first time in a long time , made me feel like I could say I was a fan of Glee without a million qualifiers . " Gary Mills of the Florida Times @-@ Union felt that the episode didn 't live up to its hype , but also said that he wasn 't disappointed . Brett Berk of Vanity Fair reacted positively , and noted that by " focusing on what makes these lovable dorks , well , lovable dorks — and not pop , or high @-@ school , superstars — tonight 's episode , if a bit tidily , reminded us that these are supposed to be kids " . Matt Zoller Seitz of Salon thought that " Born This Way " was " the show 's best episode to date " , and " an epic about a hero returning from a long journey , walking serenely through halls that once scared him , and performing with such skill and sincerity that his friends stared at him with love and awe . " Aly Semigran of MTV had mixed emotions . She criticized the abrupt changes of the storylines in the episode , and thought that the episode " was a noble effort " but " it didn 't quite work the way it was supposed to . " Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal stated that the episode " sounded just the perfect notes " and called it " the best episode yet " . He continued : " The night held wonderful gems : A clear message . Witty repartee ( … ) . Great character build up . And tailored songs that carried emotional heft . " Several critics praised the development of Santana . Hankinson wrote , " My goodness , Santana . It 's as if all the writers sat around a room , identified the best lines of tonight 's episode and then decided to give them all to Santana . Fantastic . " VanDerWerff called Santana the highlight of the episode : " The best thing about this episode is Naya Rivera 's work as Santana and the story the three writers have cooked up for her . Rivera 's really come into her own this season , going from just a generic bitchy cheerleader to an actual character who has motivations and might be a better villain for the show than Sue . " He added , " the storyline of Santana realizing she was in love with Brittany and , thus , is probably a lesbian has been nicely plotted and surprisingly deep . The reveal about Santana hasn 't washed away her less savory qualities ; indeed , it 's heightened them , to a degree , as she struggles to be true to herself and still maintain her status as the hottest girl in school . " Jenna Mullins of E ! Online wrote of Santana , " This episode just cemented my love for her . The insult spew in the beginning of the episode was awesomely mean . " She also said that Santana 's " inner monologue is often more entertaining than other characters ' outer monologues " . CNN 's Lisa Respers France considered Santana the episode 's highlight , and went on to write , " She embraced her inner lesbian ( sort of ) and rattled off the best [ lines ] like ' the only straight I am is straight @-@ up [ bitch ] . ' You gotta love that . " Some critics reacted negatively to the episode . Scott Pierce of The Salt Lake Tribune felt that the show has jumped the shark starting from this episode . He felt that the Kurt storyline had some major flaws , and that the messages being sent have been mixed . The episode garnered criticism from a number of conservatives , who found the depiction of homosexuality abrasive . In an interview with ABC News , conservative media critic Dan Gainor felt that it was Ryan Murphy 's " latest depraved initiative to promote his gay agenda . " He added : " This is clearly Ryan Murphy 's vision of what growing up should be , not most of America 's . It 's a high school most parents would not want to send their kids to . " = = = Music and performances = = = The musical performances and cover versions in the episode received generally positive commentary . Gonzalez stated that she loved the song choices , and Meghan Brown of The Atlantic felt that this episode carried the best selection of music of a Glee episode in a long time . Flandez commended that they are " tailored songs that carried emotional heft " . Critics mostly reacted with acclaim for the mash @-@ up of " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " . Gonzalez gave the performance an " A " and commented : " While part of me would have said that pairing Rachel and Quinn for a duet would vocally be like putting a pit bull in a cage match with a Maltipoo , it actually worked ! There was a surprisingly balanced and incredibly lovely tone . " All three writers of The Atlantic 's review praised the mash @-@ up : Patrick Burns said it was beautiful , and noted that " the arrangement was clever , the ladies sounded great , and the song was placed perfectly into the plot of two characters who were restored a bit of their depth in this episode " , Brown stated that the song was lovely , and Kevin Fallon felt that it was " unexpectedly gorgeous and haunting " , and noted that it was " yet another example of how skilled the music directors are at these mash @-@ ups . " Semigran felt that it was the best performance of the night , and TV Line 's Michael Slezak gave the piece an " A " , and said that it was a " vocally and visually stunning set piece for the unlikeliest of duet partners . " Flandez commented that the song " floated like gossamer between Rachel and Quinn as they beautifully poured the sentiments of ugly ducklings " , and Futterman wrote , " It 's a poignant moment , and the inclusion of West Side Story 's ' I Feel Pretty ' makes for a great pop / theater mash @-@ up that reminds us of what Glee is at its heart . " Kurt 's performance of " As If We Never Said Goodbye " was also met with critical acclaim . Brown stated that the song was " absolutely stunning in every conceivable way . " She thought that he had the emotional connection , the musicality , and the storytelling ability " down pat " . Gonzalez gave the song an " A − " and wrote , " Kurt apparently picked up a few helpful notes ... from his Warbler brothers and emerged an even better solo singer than I recall . ... Most enjoyable , however , was a tenderness Kurt added to the song that I don 't think could have been duplicated by any other member of this ensemble . " Slezak commended Kurt 's voice , gave the song an " A " , and said , " I feel like we haven 't had too many strong musical moments from Kurt this season , but this number , which pushed Chris Colfer 's falsetto to impressive heights , went a long way to erase the deficit . " Futterman thought that it was " a sweeter moment than last season 's ' Rose 's Turn ' , but the high notes and big vocals are still there . " Berk gave it three out of five stars and called it " lovely , and properly sentimental " . Zoller Seitz called the performance " spellbinding " and concluded , " Chris Colfer turns ' As if We Never Said Goodbye ' into a valentine to self @-@ knowledge and self @-@ improvement — and a young , gay singer 's dream of treating the world as a stage and commanding it like a star . " The New Directions ' rendition of " Born This Way " was strongly approved by Lady Gaga . On her Twitter account , she wrote , " I really loved Glee 's Born This Way episode . I admire the show for being brave + fighting for such modern social messaging . Never back down . " Gonzalez gave the performance a " B + " , and commented that it wasn 't her favorite group number , mostly because she felt the song " wasn 't [ Lady Gaga 's ] best effort " . Berk was less kind about the song , and called it a " crappy but thematically admirable Gaga tune " , though he gave it three stars out of five . Slezak gave it an " A − " and approved of the rendition : " it was nice to see and hear Tina , Mercedes and Kurt on lead vocals — instead of , say , Blaine , Rachel , and Mr. Schue . " The duet of " I Gotta Be Me " by Finn and Mike was considered to be " shockingly adorable " by Berk , who gave it four stars out of five . Slezak was less impressed : " The jazz band arrangement and the Mike @-@ teaches @-@ Finn @-@ some @-@ moves choreography was cute , I guess , but it 's not a good sign that I spent half the number focusing on Mike 's matching green t @-@ shirt and shoe laces . " He went on to question the song 's inclusion — " In an episode about confronting one 's greatest teenage insecurities , I wonder if there might have been a better choice for a solo than the popular football player with the cheerleader girlfriend lamenting his inability to dance " — and ultimately gave the performance a " B − " . Futterman also commented on the song 's selection , though from a slightly different angle : " In theory it 's charming — and there are definitely moments of the ' I can dance / You can 't dance ' exchange that were enjoyable — but we couldn 't ever imagine this song as something Finn would have voluntarily picked . " " Somewhere Only We Know " , as performed by Blaine and the Warblers , received an " A + " from Gonzalez , who loved the song and commented that she was " going to miss the Warblers " . Slezak gave the performance a " B " , and said that he " can 't be too mad at another pretty song sung well by Darren Criss . " The performance was acclaimed by Futterman , who wrote , " While the rest of the Warblers maintain their stoic facade , Blaine shows enough emotion to make this bittersweet Keane tune a simple , yet powerful , performance . " The flash @-@ mob mall performance of " Barbra Streisand " was deemed to be pointless by Gonzalez , and she gave it a " C " , her lowest grade of the episode . Futterman enjoyed the performance , thinking that it was " the episode 's most fun moment and beats out last year 's ' Safety Dance ' for Glee numbers done in a mall . " Slezak also reacted positively to the performance , giving it a " B + " . = = = Chart history = = = Several of the cover versions featured debuted on numerous musical charts . The show 's rendition of " Born This Way " debuted at number forty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot 100 , on an issue dated for May 4 , 2011 . It sold 73 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week of release as a digitally downloadable single . The mash @-@ up of " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " was the highest charted single featured in the episode , debuting at number twenty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also peaked at number thirteen on the Digital 100 charts and sold 112 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States in its first week of release . It was the highest charting Glee single on the Billboard charts since " Loser Like Me " , which debuted at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over 210 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . " Somewhere Only We Know " peaked at number forty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 charts , and it sold over 75 @,@ 000 copies within its first week . The fourth single , " As If We Never Said Goodbye " , charted at number eighty . In Ireland , two of the songs debuted on the Irish Singles Charts on an issue dated May 5 , 2011 . The mash @-@ up peaked at number thirty @-@ seven , while the cover version of " Somewhere Only We Know " trailed behind at number forty @-@ seven . On May 6 , three of the singles appeared on the Canadian Hot 100 . The " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " mash @-@ up peaked the highest out of all the singles , debuting at twenty @-@ eight . It was followed by " Born This Way " and " Somewhere Only We Know " , which debuted at number thirty @-@ one and fifty @-@ two on the charts , respectively .
= Antoni Gaudí = Antoni Gaudí i Cornet ( Catalan pronunciation : [ ənˈtɔni ɣəwˈði ] ; 25 June 1852 – 10 June 1926 ) was a Spanish Catalan architect from Reus and the best known practitioner of Catalan Modernism . Gaudí 's works reflect an individualized and distinctive style . Most are located in Barcelona , including his magnum opus , the Sagrada Família . Gaudí 's work was influenced by his passions in life : architecture , nature , and religion . Gaudí considered every detail of his creations and integrated into his architecture such crafts as ceramics , stained glass , wrought ironwork forging and carpentry . He also introduced new techniques in the treatment of materials , such as trencadís which used waste ceramic pieces . Under the influence of neo @-@ Gothic art and Oriental techniques , Gaudí became part of the Modernista movement which was reaching its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . His work transcended mainstream Modernisme , culminating in an organic style inspired by natural forms . Gaudí rarely drew detailed plans of his works , instead preferring to create them as three @-@ dimensional scale models and molding the details as he conceived them . Gaudí 's work enjoys global popularity and continuing admiration and study by architects . His masterpiece , the still @-@ incomplete Sagrada Família , is the most @-@ visited monument in Spain . Between 1984 and 2005 , seven of his works were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO . Gaudí 's Roman Catholic faith intensified during his life and religious images appear in many of his works . This earned him the nickname " God 's Architect " and led to calls for his beatification . = = Biography = = = = = Birth , childhood and studies = = = Antoni Gaudi was born in 1852 in Riudoms or Reus , to the coppersmith Francesc Gaudí i Serra ( 1813 – 1906 ) and Antònia Cornet i Bertran ( 1819 – 1876 ) . He was the youngest of five children , of whom three survived to adulthood : Rosa ( 1844 – 1879 ) , Francesc ( 1851 – 1876 ) and Antoni . Gaudí 's family originated in the Auvergne region in southern France . One of his ancestors , Joan Gaudí , a hawker , moved to Catalonia in the 17th century ; possible origins of Gaudí 's family name include Gaudy or Gaudin . Gaudí 's exact birthplace is unknown because no supporting documents have been found , leading to a controversy about whether he was born in Reus or Riudoms , two neighbouring municipalities of the Baix Camp district . Most of Gaudí 's identification documents from both his student and professional years gave Reus as his birthplace . Gaudí stated on various occasions that he was born in Riudoms , his paternal family 's village . Gaudí was baptised in the church of Sant Pere Apòstol in Reus the day after his birth under the name " Antoni Plàcid Guillem Gaudí i Cornet " . Gaudí had a deep appreciation for his native land and great pride in his Mediterranean heritage . He believed Mediterranean people to be endowed with creativity , originality and an innate sense for art and design . Gaudí reportedly described this distinction by stating , " We own the image . Fantasy comes from the ghosts . Fantasy is what people in the North own . We are concrete . The image comes from the Mediterranean . Orestes knows his way , where Hamlet is torn apart by his doubts . " Time spent outdoors , particularly during summer stays in the Gaudí family home Mas de la Calderera , afforded Gaudí the opportunity to study nature . Gaudí 's enjoyment of the natural world led him to join the Centre Excursionista de Catalunya in 1879 at the age of 27 . The organisation arranged expeditions to explore Catalonia and southern France , often riding on horseback or walking ten kilometres a day . Young Gaudí suffered from poor health , including rheumatism , which may have contributed to his reticent and reserved character . These health concerns and the hygienist theories of Dr. Kneipp contributed to Gaudí 's decision to adopt vegetarianism early in his life . His religious faith and strict vegetarianism led him to undertake several lengthy and severe fasts . These fasts were often unhealthy and occasionally , as in 1894 , led to life @-@ threatening illness . Gaudí attended a nursery school run by Francesc Berenguer , whose son , also called Francesc , later became one of Gaudí 's main assistants . He enrolled in the Piarists school in Reus where he displayed his artistic talents via drawings for a seminar called El Arlequín ( the Harlequin ) . During this time he worked as an apprentice in the " Vapor Nou " textile mill in Reus . In 1868 he moved to Barcelona to study teaching in the Convent del Carme . In his adolescent years Gaudí became interested in utopian socialism and , together with his fellow students Eduard Toda i Güell and Josep Ribera i Sans , planned a restoration of the Poblet Monastery that would have transformed it into a Utopian phalanstère . Between 1875 and 1878 , Gaudí completed his compulsory military service in the infantry regiment in Barcelona as a Military Administrator . Most of his service was spent on sick leave , enabling him to continue his studies . His poor health kept him from having to fight in the Third Carlist War , which lasted from 1872 to 1876 . In 1876 Gaudí 's mother died at the age of 57 , as did his 25 @-@ year @-@ old brother Francesc , who had just graduated as a physician . During this time Gaudí studied architecture at the Llotja School and the Barcelona Higher School of Architecture , graduating in 1878 . To finance his studies , Gaudí worked as a draughtsman for various architects and constructors such as Leandre Serrallach , Joan Martorell , Emili Sala Cortés , Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano and Josep Fontserè . In addition to his architecture classes , he studied French , history , economics , philosophy and aesthetics . His grades were average and he occasionally failed courses . When handing him his degree , Elies Rogent , director of Barcelona Architecture School , said : " We have given this academic title either to a fool or a genius . Time will show . " Gaudí , when receiving his degree , reportedly told his friend , the sculptor Llorenç Matamala , with his ironical sense of humour , " Llorenç , they 're saying I 'm an architect now . " = = = Adulthood and professional work = = = Gaudí 's first projects were the lampposts he designed for the Plaça Reial in Barcelona , the unfinished Girossi newsstands , and the Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense ( Workers ' Cooperative of Mataró ) building . He gained wider recognition for his first important commission , the Casa Vicens , and subsequently received more significant proposals . At the Paris World 's Fair of 1878 Gaudí displayed a showcase he had produced for the glove manufacturer Comella . Its functional and aesthetic modernista design impressed Catalan industrialist Eusebi Güell , who then commissioned some of Gaudí 's most outstanding work : the Güell wine cellars , the Güell pavilions , the Palau Güell ( Güell palace ) , the Park Güell ( Güell park ) and the crypt of the church of the Colònia Güell . Gaudí also became a friend of the marquis of Comillas , the father @-@ in @-@ law of Count Güell , for whom he designed " El Capricho " in Comillas . In 1883 Gaudí was put in charge of the recently initiated project to build a Barcelona cathedral called Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família ( Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family , or Sagrada Família ) . Gaudí completely changed the initial design and imbued it with his own distinctive style . From 1915 until his death he devoted himself entirely to this project . Given the number of commissions he began receiving , he had to rely on his team to work on multiple projects simultaneously . His team consisted of professionals from all fields of construction . Several of the architects who worked under him became prominent in the field later on , such as Josep Maria Jujol , Joan Rubió , Cèsar Martinell , Francesc Folguera and Josep Francesc Ràfols . In 1885 , Gaudí moved to rural Sant Feliu de Codines to escape the cholera epidemic that was ravaging Barcelona . He lived in Francesc Ullar 's house , for whom he designed a dinner table as a sign of his gratitude . The 1888 World Fair was one of the era 's major events in Barcelona and represented a key point in the history of the Modernisme movement . Leading architects displayed their best works , including Gaudí , who showcased the building he had designed for the Compañía Trasatlántica ( Transatlantic Company ) . Consequently he received a commission to restructure the Saló de Cent of the Barcelona City Council , but this project was ultimately not carried out . In the early 1890s Gaudí received two commissions from outside of Catalonia , namely the Episcopal Palace , Astorga , and the Casa Botines in León . These works contributed to Gaudí 's growing renown across Spain . In 1891 , he travelled to Málaga and Tangiers to examine the site for a project for the Franciscan Catholic Missions that the 2nd marquis of Comillas had requested him to design . In 1899 Gaudí joined the Cercle Artístic de Sant Lluc ( Saint Luke artistic circle ) , a Catholic artistic society founded in 1893 by the bishop Josep Torras i Bages and the brothers Josep and Joan Llimona . He also joined the Lliga Espiritual de la Mare de Déu de Montserrat ( spiritual league of Our lady of Montserrat ) , another Catholic Catalan organisation . The conservative and religious character of his political thought was closely linked to his defence of the cultural identity of the Catalan people . At the beginning of the century , Gaudí was working on numerous projects simultaneously . They reflected his shift to a more personal style inspired by nature . In 1900 , he received an award for the best building of the year from the Barcelona City Council for his Casa Calvet . During the first decade of the century Gaudí dedicated himself to projects like the Casa Figueras ( Figueras house , better known as Bellesguard ) , the Park Güell , an unsuccessful urbanisation project , and the restoration of the Cathedral of Palma de Mallorca , for which he visited Majorca several times . Between 1904 and 1910 he constructed the Casa Batlló ( Batlló house ) and the Casa Milà ( Milá house ) , two of his most emblematic works . As a result of Gaudí 's increasing fame , in 1902 the painter Joan Llimona chose Gaudí 's features to represent Saint Philip Neri in the paintings for the aisle of the Sant Felip Neri church in Barcelona . Together with Joan Santaló , son of his friend the physician Pere Santaló , he unsuccessfully founded a wrought iron manufacturing company the same year . After moving to Barcelona , Gaudí frequently changed his address : as a student he lived in residences , generally in the area of the Gothic Quarter ; when he started his career he moved around several rented flats in the Eixample area . Finally , in 1906 , he settled in a house in the Güell Park that he owned and which had been constructed by his assistant Francesc Berenguer as a showcase property for the estate . It has since been transformed into the Gaudí Museum . There he lived with his father ( who died in 1906 at the age of 93 ) and his niece Rosa Egea Gaudí ( who died in 1912 at the age of 36 ) . He lived in the house until 1925 , several months before his death , when he began residing inside the workshop of the Sagrada Família . An event that had a profound impact on Gaudí 's personality was Tragic Week in 1909 . Gaudí remained in his house in Güell Park during this turbulent period . The anticlerical atmosphere and attacks on churches and convents caused Gaudí to worry for the safety of the Sagrada Família , but the building escaped damage . In 1910 , an exhibition in the Grand Palais of Paris was devoted to his work , during the annual salon of the Société des Beaux @-@ Arts ( Fine Arts Society ) of France . Gaudí participated on the invitation of count Güell , displaying a series of pictures , plans and plaster scale models of several of his works . Although he participated hors concours , he received good reviews from the French press . A large part of this exposition could be seen the following year at the I Salón Nacional de Arquitectura that took place in the municipal exhibition hall of El Buen Retiro in Madrid . During the Paris exposition in May 1910 , Gaudí spent a holiday in Vic , where he designed two basalt lampposts and wrought iron for the Plaça Major of Vic in honor of Jaume Balmes 's centenary . The following year he resided as a convalescent in Puigcerdà while suffering from tuberculosis . During this time he conceived the idea for the facade of the Passion of the Sagrada Família . Due to ill health he prepared a will at the office of the notary Ramon Cantó i Figueres on 9 June , but later completely recovered . The decade from 1910 was a hard one for Gaudí . During this decade , the architect experienced the deaths of his niece Rosa in 1912 and his main collaborator Francesc Berenguer in 1914 ; a severe economic crisis which paralysed work on the Sagrada Família in 1915 ; the 1916 death of his friend Josep Torras i Bages , bishop of Vic ; the 1917 disruption of work at the Colonia Güell ; and the 1918 death of his friend and patron Eusebi Güell . Perhaps because of these tragedies he devoted himself entirely to the Sagrada Família from 1915 , taking refuge in his work . Gaudí confessed to his collaborators : My good friends are dead ; I have no family and no clients , no fortune nor anything . Now I can dedicate myself entirely to the Church . Gaudí dedicated the last years of his life entirely to the " Cathedral of the Poor " , as it was commonly known , for which he took alms in order to continue . Apart from his dedication to this cause , he participated in few other activities , the majority of which were related to his Catholic faith : in 1916 he participated in a course about Gregorian chant at the Palau de la Música Catalana taught by the Benedictine monk Gregori M. Sunyol . = = = Personal life = = = Gaudí devoted his life entirely to his profession , remaining single . He is known to have been attracted to only one woman — Josefa Moreu , teacher at the Mataró Cooperative , in 1884 — but this was not reciprocated . Thereafter Gaudí took refuge in the profound spiritual peace his Catholic faith offered him . Gaudí is often depicted as unsociable and unpleasant , a man of gruff reactions and arrogant gestures . However , those who were close to him described him as friendly and polite , pleasant to talk to and faithful to friends . Among these , his patrons Eusebi Güell and the bishop of Vic , Josep Torras i Bages , stand out , as well as the writers Joan Maragall and Jacint Verdaguer , the physician Pere Santaló and some of his most faithful collaborators , such as Francesc Berenguer and Llorenç Matamala . Gaudí 's personal appearance — Nordic features , blond hair and blue eyes — changed radically over the course of time . As a young man , he dressed like a dandy in costly suits , sporting well @-@ groomed hair and beard , indulging gourmet taste , making frequent visits to the theatre and the opera and visiting his project sites in a horse carriage . The older Gaudí ate frugally , dressed in old , worn @-@ out suits , and neglected his appearance to the extent that sometimes he was taken for a beggar , such as after the accident that caused his death . Gaudí left hardly any written documents , apart from technical reports of his works required by official authorities , some letters to friends ( particularly to Joan Maragall ) and a few journal articles . Some quotes collected by his assistants and disciples have been preserved , above all by Josep Francesc Ràfols , Joan Bergós , Cèsar Martinell and Isidre Puig i Boada . The only written document Gaudí left is known as the Manuscrito de Reus ( Reus Manuscript ) ( 1873 – 1878 ) , a kind of student diary in which he collected diverse impressions of architecture and decorating , putting forward his ideas on the subject . Included are an analysis of the Christian church and of his ancestral home , as well as a text about ornamentation and comments on the design of a desk . Gaudí was always in favour of Catalonian culture but was reluctant to become politically active to campaign for its autonomy . Politicians , such as Francesc Cambó and Enric Prat de la Riba , suggested that he run for deputy but he refused . In 1920 he was beaten by police in a riot during the Floral Games celebrations . On 11 September 1924 , National Day of Catalonia , he was beaten at a demonstration against the banning of the Catalan language by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera . Gaudí was arrested by the Civil Guard , resulting in a short stay in prison , from which he was freed after paying 50 pesetas bail . = = = Death = = = On 7 June 1926 , Gaudí was taking his daily walk to the Sant Felip Neri church for his habitual prayer and confession . While walking along the Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes between Girona and Bailén streets , he was struck by a passing tram and lost consciousness . Assumed to be a beggar because of his lack of identity documents and shabby clothing , the unconscious Gaudí did not receive immediate aid . Eventually a police officer transported him in a taxi to the Santa Creu Hospital , where he received rudimentary care . By the time that the chaplain of the Sagrada Família , Mosén Gil Parés , recognised him on the following day , Gaudí 's condition had deteriorated too severely to benefit from additional treatment . Gaudí died on 10 June 1926 at the age of 73 and was buried two days later . A large crowd gathered to bid farewell to him in the chapel of Our Lady of Mount Carmel in the crypt of the Sagrada Família . His gravestone bears this inscription : Antonius Gaudí Cornet . Reusensis . Annos natus LXXIV , vitae exemplaris vir , eximiusque artifex , mirabilis operis hujus , templi auctor , pie obiit Barcinone die X Junii MCMXXVI , hinc cineres tanti hominis , resurrectionem mortuorum expectant . R.I.P. ( Antoni Gaudí Cornet . From Reus . At the age of 74 , a man of exemplary life , and an extraordinary craftsman , the author of this marvelous work , the church , died piously in Barcelona on the tenth day of June 1926 ; henceforward the ashes of so great a man await the resurrection of the dead . May he rest in peace . ) = = Style = = = = = Gaudí and Modernisme = = = Gaudí 's professional life was distinctive in that he never ceased to investigate mechanical building structures . Early on , Gaudí was inspired by oriental arts ( India , Persia , Japan ) through the study of the historicist architectural theoreticians , such as Walter Pater , John Ruskin and William Morris . The influence of the Oriental movement can be seen in works like the Capricho , the Güell Palace , the Güell Pavilions and the Casa Vicens . Later on , he adhered to the neo @-@ Gothic movement that was in fashion at the time , following the ideas of the French architect Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . This influence is reflected in the Teresian College , the Episcopal Palace in Astorga , the Casa Botines and the Bellesguard house as well as in the crypt and the apse of the Sagrada Família . Eventually , Gaudí embarked on a more personal phase , with the organic style inspired by nature in which he would build his major works . During his time as a student , Gaudí was able to study a collection of photographs of Egyptian , Indian , Persian , Mayan , Chinese and Japanese art owned by the School of Architecture . The collection also included Moorish monuments in Spain , which left a deep mark on him and served as an inspiration in many of his works . He also studied the book Plans , elevations , sections and details of the Alhambra by Owen Jones , which he borrowed from the School 's library . He took various structural and ornamental solutions from nazarí and mudéjar art , which he used with variations and stylistic freedom in his works . Notably , Gaudí observed of Islamic art its spatial uncertainty , its concept of structures with limitless space ; its feeling of sequence , fragmented with holes and partitions , which create a divide without disrupting the feeling of open space by enclosing it with barriers . Undoubtedly the style that most influenced him was the Gothic Revival , promoted in the latter half of the 19th century by the theoretical works of Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . The French architect called for studying the styles of the past and adapting them in a rational manner , taking into account both structure and design . Nonetheless , for Gaudí the Gothic style was " imperfect " , because despite the effectiveness of some of its structural solutions it was an art that had yet to be " perfected " . In his own words : Gothic art is imperfect , only half resolved ; it is a style created by the compasses , a formulaic industrial repetition . Its stability depends on constant propping up by the buttresses : it is a defective body held up on crutches . ( ... ) The proof that Gothic works are of deficient plasticity is that they produce their greatest emotional effect when they are mutilated , covered in ivy and lit by the moon . After these initial influences , Gaudí moved towards Modernisme , then in its heyday . Modernisme in its earlier stages was inspired by historic architecture . Its practitioners saw its return to the past as a response to the industrial forms imposed by the Industrial Revolution 's technological advances . The use of these older styles represented a moral regeneration that allowed the bourgeoisie to identify with values they regarded as their cultural roots . The Renaixença ( rebirth ) , the revival of Catalan culture that began in the second half of the 19th century , brought more Gothic forms into the Catalan " national " style that aimed to combine nationalism and cosmopolitanism while at the same time integrating into the European modernizing movement . Some essential features of Modernisme were : an anticlassical language inherited from Romanticism with a tendency to lyricism and subjectivity ; the determined connection of architecture with the applied arts and artistic work that produced an overtly ornamental style ; the use of new materials from which emerged a mixed constructional language , rich in contrasts , that sought a plastic effect for the whole ; a strong sense of optimism and faith in progress that produced an emphatic art that reflected the atmosphere of prosperity of the time , above all of the esthetic of the bourgeoisie . = = = Quest for a new architectural language = = = Gaudí is usually considered the great master of Catalan Modernism , but his works go beyond any one style or classification . They are imaginative works that find their main inspiration in nature . Gaudí studied organic and anarchic geometric forms of nature thoroughly , searching for a way to give expression to these forms in architecture . Some of his greatest inspirations came from visits to the mountain of Montserrat , the caves of Mallorca , the saltpetre caves in Collbató , the crag of Fra Guerau in the Prades Mountains behind Reus , the Pareis mountain in the north of Mallorca and Sant Miquel del Fai in Bigues i Riells . = = = = Geometrical forms = = = = This study of nature translated into his use of ruled geometrical forms such as the hyperbolic paraboloid , the hyperboloid , the helicoid and the cone , which reflect the forms Gaudí found in nature . Ruled surfaces are forms generated by a straight line known as the generatrix , as it moves over one or several lines known as directrices . Gaudí found abundant examples of them in nature , for instance in rushes , reeds and bones ; he used to say that there is no better structure than the trunk of a tree or a human skeleton . These forms are at the same time functional and aesthetic , and Gaudí discovered how to adapt the language of nature to the structural forms of architecture . He used to equate the helicoid form to movement and the hyperboloid to light . Concerning ruled surfaces , he said : Paraboloids , hyperboloids and helicoids , constantly varying the incidence of the light , are rich in matrices themselves , which make ornamentation and even modelling unnecessary . Another element widely used by Gaudí was the catenary arch . He had studied geometry thoroughly when he was young , studying numerous articles about engineering , a field that praised the virtues of the catenary curve as a mechanical element , one which at that time , however , was used only in the construction of suspension bridges . Gaudí was the first to use this element in common architecture . Catenary arches in works like the Casa Milà , the Teresian College , the crypt of the Colònia Güell and the Sagrada Família allowed Gaudí to add an element of great strength to his structures , given that the catenary distributes the weight it regularly carries evenly , being affected only by self @-@ canceling tangential forces . Gaudí evolved from plane to spatial geometry , to ruled geometry . These constructional forms are highly suited to the use of cheap materials such as brick . Gaudí frequently used brick laid with mortar in successive layers , as in the traditional Catalan vault , using the brick laid flat instead of on its side . This quest for new structural solutions culminated between 1910 and 1920 , when he exploited his research and experience in his masterpiece , the Sagrada Família . Gaudí conceived the interior of the church as if it were a forest , with a set of tree @-@ like columns divided into various branches to support a structure of intertwined hyperboloid vaults . He inclined the columns so they could better resist the perpendicular pressure on their section . He also gave them a double @-@ turn helicoidal shape ( right turn and left turn ) , as in the branches and trunks of trees . This created a structure that is now known as fractal . Together with a modulation of the space that divides it into small , independent and self @-@ supporting modules , it creates a structure that perfectly supports the mechanical traction forces without need for buttresses , as required by the neo @-@ Gothic style . Gaudí thus achieved a rational , structured and perfectly logical solution , creating at the same time a new architectural style that was original , simple , practical and aesthetic . = = = = Surpassing the Gothic = = = = This new constructional technique allowed Gaudí to achieve his greatest architectural goal ; to perfect and go beyond Gothic style . The hyperboloid vaults have their centre where Gothic vaults had their keystone , and the hyperboloid allows for a hole in this space to let natural light in . In the intersection between vaults , where Gothic vaults have ribs , the hyperboloid allows for holes as well , which Gaudí employed to give the impression of a starry sky . Gaudí complemented this organic vision of architecture with a unique spatial vision that allowed him to conceive his designs in three dimensions , unlike the flat design of traditional architecture . He used to say that he had acquired this spatial sense as a boy by looking at the drawings his father made of the boilers and stills he produced . Because of this spatial conception , Gaudí always preferred to work with casts and scale models or even improvise on site as a work progressed . Reluctant to draw plans , only on rare occasions did he sketch his works , in fact only when required by authorities . Another of Gaudí 's innovations in the technical realm was the use of a scale model to calculate structures : for the church of the Colònia Güell , he built a 1 : 10 scale model with a height of 4 metres ( 13 ft ) in a shed next to the building . There , he set up a model that had strings with small bags full of birdshot hanging from them . On a drawing board that was attached to the ceiling he drew the floor of the church , and he hung the strings ( for the catenaries ) with the birdshot ( for the weight ) from the supporting points of the building — columns , intersection of walls . These weights produced a catenary curve in both the arches and vaults . At that point , he took a picture that , when inverted , showed the structure for columns and arches that Gaudí was looking for . Gaudí then painted over these photographs with gouache or pastel . The outline of the church defined , he recorded every single detail of the building : architectural , stylistic and decorative . Gaudí 's position in the history of architecture is that of a creative genius who , inspired by nature , developed a style of his own that attained technical perfection as well as aesthetic value , and bore the mark of his character . Gaudí 's structural innovations were to an extent the result of his journey through various styles , from Doric to Baroque via Gothic , his main inspiration . It could be said that these styles culminated in his work , which reinterpreted and perfected them . Gaudí passed through the historicism and eclecticism of his generation without connecting with other architectural movements of the 20th century that , with their rationalist postulates , derived from the Bauhaus school , and represented an antithetical evolution to that initiated by Gaudí , given that it later reflected the disdain and the initial lack of comprehension of the work of the modernista architect . Among other factors that led to the initial neglect of the Catalan architect 's work was that despite having numerous assistants and helpers , Gaudí created no school of his own and never taught , nor did he leave written documents . Some of his subordinates adopted his innovations , above all Francesc Berenguer and Josep Maria Jujol ; others , like Cèsar Martinell , Francesc Folguera and Josep Francesc Ràfols graduated towards Noucentisme , leaving the master 's trail . Despite this , a degree of influence can be discerned in some architects that either formed part of the Modernista movement or departed from it and who had had no direct contact with him , such as Josep Maria Pericas ( Casa Alòs , Ripoll ) , Bernardí Martorell ( Olius cemetery ) and Lluís Muncunill ( Masia Freixa , Terrassa ) . Nonetheless , Gaudí left a deep mark on 20th @-@ century architecture : masters like Le Corbusier declared themselves admirers , and the works of other architects like Pier Luigi Nervi , Friedensreich Hundertwasser , Oscar Niemeyer , Félix Candela , Eduardo Torroja and Santiago Calatrava were inspired by Gaudí . Frei Otto used Gaudí 's forms in the construction of the Munich Olympic Stadium . In Japan , the work of Kenji Imai bears evidence of Gaudí 's influence , as can be seen in the Memorial for the Twenty @-@ six Martyrs of Japan in Nagasaki ( Japanese National Architecture Award in 1962 ) , where the use of Gaudí 's famous " trencadís " stands out . = = = Design and craftsmanship = = = During his student days , Gaudí attended craft workshops , such as those taught by Eudald Puntí , Llorenç Matamala and Joan Oñós , where he learned the basic aspects of techniques relating to architecture , including sculpture , carpentry , wrought ironwork , stained glass , ceramics , plaster modelling , etc . He also absorbed new technological developments , integrating into his technique the use of iron and reinforced concrete in construction . Gaudí took a broad view of architecture as a multifunctional design , in which every single detail in an arrangement has to be harmoniously made and well @-@ proportioned . This knowledge allowed him to design architectural projects , including all the elements of his works , from furnishings to illumination to wrought ironwork . Gaudí was also an innovator in the realm of craftsmanship , conceiving new technical and decorative solutions with his materials , for example his way of designing ceramic mosaics made of waste pieces ( " trencadís " ) in original and imaginative combinations . For the restoration of Mallorca Cathedral he invented a new technique to produce stained glass , which consisted of juxtaposing three glass panes of primary colours , and sometimes a neutral one , varying the thickness of the glass in order to graduate the light 's intensity . This was how he personally designed many of the Sagrada Família 's sculptures . He would thoroughly study the anatomy of the figure , concentrating on gestures . For this purpose , he studied the human skeleton and sometimes used dummies made of wire to test the appropriate posture of the figure he was about to sculpt . In a second step , he photographed his models , using a mirror system that provided multiple perspectives . He then made plaster casts of the figures , both of people and animals ( on one occasion he made a donkey stand up so it would not move ) . He modified the proportions of these casts to obtain the figure 's desired appearance , depending on its place in the church ( the higher up , the bigger it would be ) . Eventually , he sculpted the figures in stone . = = = = Urban spaces and landscaping = = = = Gaudí also practiced landscaping , often in urban settings . He aimed to place his works in the most appropriate natural and architectural surroundings by studying the location of his constructions thoroughly and trying to naturally integrate them into those surroundings . For this purpose , he often used the material that was most common in the nearby environment , such as the slate of Bellesguard and the grey Bierzo granite in the Episcopal Palace , Astorga . Many of his projects were gardens , such as the Güell Park and the Can Artigas Gardens , or incorporated gardens , as in the Casa Vicens or the Güell Pavilions . Gaudí 's harmonious approach to landscaping is exemplified at the First Mystery of the Glory of the Rosary at Montserrat , where the architectural framework is nature itself — here the Montserrat rock — nature encircles the group of sculptures that adorned the path to the Holy Cave . = = = = Interiors = = = = Equally , Gaudí stood out as interior decorator , decorating most of his buildings personally , from the furnishings to the smallest details . In each case he knew how to apply stylistic particularities , personalising the decoration according to the owner 's taste , the predominant style of the arrangement or its place in the surroundings — whether urban or natural , secular or religious . Many of his works were related to liturgical furnishing . From the design of a desk for his office at the beginning of his career to the furnishings designed for the Sobrellano Palace of Comillas , he designed all furnishing of the Vicens , Calvet , Batlló and Milà houses , of the Güell Palace and the Bellesguard Tower , and the liturgical furnishing of the Sagrada Família . It is noteworthy that Gaudí studied some ergonomy in order to adapt his furnishings to human anatomy . Many of his furnishings are exhibited at Gaudí Museum . Another aspect is the intelligent distribution of space , always with the aim of creating a comfortable , intimate , interior atmosphere . For this purpose , Gaudí would divide the space into sections , adapted to their specific use , by means of low walls , dropped ceilings , sliding doors and wall closets . Apart from taking care of every detail of all structural and ornamental elements , he made sure his constructions had good lighting and ventilation . For this purpose , he studied each project 's orientation with respect to the cardinal points , as well as the local climate and its place in its surroundings . At that time , there was an increasing demand for more domestic comfort , with piped water and gas and the use of electric light , all of which Gaudí expertly incorporated . For the Sagrada Família , for example , he carried out thorough studies on acoustics and illumination , in order to optimise them . With regard to light , he stated : Light achieves maximum harmony at an inclination of 45 ° , since it resides on objects in a way that is neither horizontal nor vertical . This can be considered medium light , and it offers the most perfect vision of objects and their most exquisite nuances . It is the Mediterranean light . Lighting also served Gaudí for the organisation of space , which required a careful study of the gradient of light intensity to adequately adapt to each specific environment . He achieved this with different elements such as skylights , windows , shutters and blinds ; a notable case is the gradation of colour used in the atrium of the Casa Batlló to achieve uniform distribution of light throughout the interior . He also tended to build south @-@ facing houses to maximise sunlight . = = Works = = Gaudí 's work is normally classed as modernista , and it belongs to this movement because of its eagerness to renovate without breaking with tradition , its quest for modernity , the ornamental sense applied to works , and the multidisciplinary character of its undertakings , where craftsmanship plays a central role . To this , Gaudí adds a dose of the baroque , adopts technical advances and continues to use traditional architectural language . Together with his inspiration from nature and the original touch of his works , this amalgam gives his works their personal and unique character in the history of architecture . Chronologically , it is difficult to establish guidelines that illustrate the evolution of Gaudí 's style faithfully . Although he moved on from his initially historicist approach to immerse himself completely in the modernista movement which arose so vigorously in the last third of the 19th century in Catalonia , before finally attaining his personal , organic style , this process did not consist of clearly defined stages with obvious boundaries : rather , at every stage there are reflections of all the earlier ones , as he gradually assimilated and surpassed them . One of the best descriptions of Gaudí 's work was made by his disciple and biographer Joan Bergós , according to plastic and structural criteria . Bergós establishes five periods in Gaudí 's productions : preliminary period , mudéjar @-@ morisco ( Moorish / mudéjar art ) , emulated Gothic , naturalist and expressionist , and organic synthesis . = = = Early works = = = Gaudís first works both from his student days and the time just after his graduation stand out for the precision of their details , the use of geometry and the prevalence of mechanical considerations in the structural calculations . = = = = University years = = = = During his studies , Gaudí designed various projects , among which the following stand out : a cemetery gate ( 1875 ) , a Spanish pavilion for the Philadelphia World Fair of 1876 , a quay @-@ side building ( 1876 ) , a courtyard for the Diputació de Barcelona ( 1876 ) , a monumental fountain for the Plaça Catalunya in Barcelona ( 1877 ) and a university assembly hall ( 1877 ) . Antoni Gaudí started his professional career while still at university . To pay for his studies , he worked as a draughtsman for some of the most outstanding Barcelona architects of the time , such as Joan Martorell , Josep Fontserè , Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano , Leandre Serrallach and Emili Sala Cortés . Gaudí had a long @-@ standing relationship with Josep Fontserè , since his family was also from Riudoms and they had known each other for some time . Despite not having an architecture degree , Fontserè received the commission from the city council for the Parc de la Ciutadella development , carried out between 1873 and 1882 . For this project , Gaudí was in charge of the design of the Park 's entrance gate , the bandstand 's balustrade and the water project for the monumental fountain , where he designed an artificial cave that showed his liking for nature and the organic touch he would give his architecture . Gaudí worked for Francisco de Paula del Villar on the apse of the Montserrat monastery , designing the niche for the image of the Black Virgin of Montserrat in 1876 . He would later substitute Villar in the works of the Sagrada Família . With Leandre Serrallach , he worked on a tram line project to Villa Arcadia in Montjuïc . Eventually , he collaborated with Joan Martorell on the Jesuit church on Carrer Casp and the Salesian convent in Passeig de Sant Joan , as well as the Villaricos church ( Almería ) . He also carried out a project for Martorell for the competition for a new facade for Barcelona cathedral , which was never accepted . His relationship with Martorell , whom he always considered one of his main and most influential masters , brought him unexpected luck ; he later recommended Gaudí for the Sagrada Família . = = = = Early post @-@ graduation projects = = = = After his graduation as an architect in 1878 , Gaudí 's first work was a set of lampposts for the Plaça Reial , the project for the Girossi newsstands and the Mataró cooperative , which was his first important work . He received the request from the city council of Barcelona in February 1878 , when he had graduated but not yet received his degree , which was sent from Madrid on 15 March of the same year . For this commission he designed two types of lampposts : one with six arms , of which two were installed in the Plaça Reial , and another with three , of which two were installed in the Pla del Palau , opposite the Civil Government . The lampposts were inaugurated during the Mercè festivities in 1879 . Made of cast iron with a marble base , they have a decoration in which the caduceus of Mercury is prominent , symbol of commerce and emblem of Barcelona . The Girossi newsstands project , which was never carried out , was a commission from the tradesman Enrique Girossi de Sanctis . It would have consisted of 20 newsstands , spread throughout Barcelona . Each would have included a public lavatory , a flower stand and glass panels for advertisements as well as a clock , a calendar , a barometer and a thermometer . Gaudí conceived a structure with iron pillars and marble and glass slabs , crowned by a large iron and glass roof , with a gas illumination system . The Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense ( Mataró Workers ' Cooperative ) was Gaudí 's first big project , on which he worked from 1878 to 1882 , for Salvador Pagès i Anglada . The project , for the cooperative 's head office in Mataró , comprised a factory , a worker 's housing estate , a social centre and a services building , though only the factory and the services building were completed . In the factory roof Gaudí used the catenary arch for the first time , with a bolt assembly system devised by Philibert de l 'Orme . He also used ceramic tile decoration for the first time in the services building . Gaudí laid out the site taking account of solar orientation , another signature of his works , and included landscaped areas . He even designed the Cooperative 's banner , with the figure of a bee , symbol of industriousness . In May 1878 Gaudí designed a display cabinet for the Esteban Comella glove factory , which was exhibited in the Spanish pavilion at the Paris World Exhibition that year . It was this work that attracted the attention of the entrepreneur Eusebi Güell , visiting the French capital ; he was so impressed that he wanted to meet Gaudí on his return , beginning a long friendship and professional collaboration . Güell became Gaudí 's main patron and sponsor of many of his large projects . = = = = First Güell projects = = = = Güell 's first task for Gaudí , that same year , was the design of the furniture for the pantheon chapel of the Palacio de Sobrellano in Comillas , which was then being constructed by Joan Martorell , Gaudí 's teacher , at the request of the Marquis of Comillas , Güell 's father in law . Gaudí designed a chair , a bench and a prayer stool : the chair was upholstered with velvet , finished with two eagles and the Marquis 's coat of arms ; the bench stands out with the motif of a dragon , designed by Llorenç Matamala ; the prayer stool is decorated with plants . Also in 1878 he drew up the plans for a theatre in the former town of Sant Gervasi de Cassoles ( now a district of Barcelona ) ; Gaudí did not take part in the construction of the theatre , which no longer exists . The following year he designed the furniture and counter for the Gibert Pharmacy , with marquetry of Arab influence . The same year he made five drawings for a procession in honour of the poet Francesc Vicent Garcia i Torres in Vallfogona de Riucorb , where this celebrated 17th @-@ century writer and friend of Lope de Vega was the parish priest . Gaudí 's project was centred on the poet and on several aspects of agricultural work , such as reaping and harvesting grapes and olives ; however , as a result of organisational problems Gaudí 's ideas were not carried out . Between 1879 and 1881 he drew up a proposal for the decoration of the church of Sant Pacià , belonging to the Colegio de Jesús @-@ María in Sant Andreu del Palomar : he created the altar in a Gothic style , the monstrance with Byzantine influence , the mosaics and the lighting , as well as the school 's furniture . The church caught fire during the Tragic Week of 1909 , and now only the mosaics remain , of " opus tesselatum " , probably the work of the Italian mosaicist Luigi Pellerin . He was given the task of decorating the church of the Colegio de Jesús @-@ María in Tarragona ( 1880 – 1882 ) : he created the altar in white Italian marble , and its front part , or antependium , with four columns bearing medallions of polychrome alabaster , with figures of angels ; the ostensory with gilt wood , the work of Eudald Puntí , decorated with rosaries , angels , tetramorph symbols and the dove of the Holy Ghost ; and the choir stalls , which were destroyed in 1936 . In 1880 he designed an electric lighting project for Barcelona 's Muralla de Mar , or seawall , which was not carried out . It consisted of eight large iron streetlamps , profusely decorated with plant motifs , friezes , shields and names of battles and Catalan admirals . The same year he participated in the competition for the construction of the San Sebastián social centre ( now town hall ) , won by Luis Aladrén Mendivi and Adolfo Morales de los Ríos ; Gaudí submitted a project that synthesised several of his earlier studies , such as the fountain for the Plaça Catalunya and the courtyard of the Provincial Council . = = = = Collaboration with Martorell = = = = A new task of the Güell @-@ López 's for Comillas was the gazebo for Alfonso XII 's visit to the Cantabrian town in 1881 . Gaudí designed a small pavilion in the shape of a Hindu turban , covered in mosaics and decorated with an abundance of small bells which jingled constantly . It was subsequently moved into the Güell Pavilions . In 1882 he designed a Benedictine monastery and a church dedicated to the Holy Spirit in Villaricos ( Cuevas de Vera , Almeria ) for his former teacher , Joan Martorell . It was of neo @-@ Gothic design , similar to the Convent of the Salesians that Gaudí also planned with Martorell . Ultimately it was not carried out , and the project plans were destroyed in the looting of the Sagrada Família in 1936 . The same year he was tasked with constructing a hunting lodge and wine cellars at a country residence known as La Cuadra , in Garraf ( Sitges ) , property of baron Eusebi Güell . Ultimately the wine cellars , but not the lodge , were built some years later . With Martorell he also collaborated on three other projects : the church of the Jesuit School in Carrer Caspe ; the Convent of the Salesians in Passeig de Sant Joan , a neo @-@ Gothic project with an altar in the centre of the crossing ; and the facade project for Barcelona cathedral , for the competition convened by the cathedral chapter in 1882 , ultimately won by Josep Oriol Mestres and August Font i Carreras . Gaudí 's collaboration with Martorell was a determining factor in Gaudí 's recommendation for the Sagrada Família . The church was the idea of Josep Maria Bocabella , founder of the Devotees of Saint Joseph Association , which acquired a complete block of Barcelona 's Eixample district . The project was originally entrusted to Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano , who planned the construction of a neo @-@ Gothic church , on which work began in 1882 . However , the following year Villar resigned due to disagreements with the construction board , and the task went to Gaudí , who completely redesigned the project , apart from the part of the crypt that had already been built . Gaudí devoted the rest of his life to the construction of the church , which was to be the synthesis of all of his architectural discoveries . = = = Orientalist period = = = During these years Gaudí completed a series of works with a distinctly oriental flavour , inspired by the art of the Middle and Far East ( India , Persia , Japan ) , as well as Islamic @-@ Hispanic art , mainly Mudejar and Nazari . Gaudí used ceramic tile decoration abundantly , as well as Moorish arches , columns of exposed brick and pinnacles in the shape of pavilions or domes . Between 1883 and 1888 he constructed the Casa Vicens , commissioned by stockbroker Manuel Vicens i Montaner . It was constructed with four floors , with facades on three sides and an extensive garden , including a monumental brick fountain . The house was surrounded by a wall with iron gates , decorated with palmetto leaves , work of Llorenç Matamala . The walls of the house are of stone alternated with lines of tile , which imitate yellow flowers typical of this area ; the house is topped with chimneys and turrets . In the interior the polychrome wooden roof beams stand out , adorned with floral themes of papier maché ; the walls are decorated with vegetable motifs , as well as paintings by Josep Torrescasana ; finally , the floor consists of Roman @-@ style mosaics of " opus tesselatum " . One of the most original rooms is the smoking room , notable the ceiling , decorated with Moorish honeycomb @-@ work , reminiscent of the Generalife in the Alhambra in Granada . In the same year , 1883 , Gaudí designed the Santísimo Sacramento chapel for the parish church of San Félix de Alella , as well as some topographical plans for the Can Rosell de la Llena country residence in Gelida . He also received a commission to build a small annex to the Palacio de Sobrellano , for the Baron of Comillas , in the Cantabrian town of the same name . Known as El Capricho , it was commissioned by Máximo Díaz de Quijano and constructed between 1883 and 1885 . Cristòfor Cascante i Colom , Gaudí 's fellow student , directed the construction . In an oriental style , it has an elongated shape , on three levels and a cylindrical tower in the shape of a Persian minaret , faced completely in ceramics . The entrance is set behind four columns supporting depressed arches , with capitals decorated with birds and leaves , similar to those that can be seen at the Casa Vicens . Notable are the main lounge , with its large sash window , and the smoking room with a ceiling consisting of a false Arab @-@ style stucco vault . Gaudí carried out a second commission from Eusebi Güell between 1884 and 1887 , the Güell Pavilions in Pedralbes , now on the outskirts of Barcelona . Güell had a country residence in Les Corts de Sarrià , consisting of two adjacent properties known as Can Feliu and Can Cuyàs de la Riera . The architect Joan Martorell had built a Caribbean @-@ style mansion , which was demolished in 1919 to make way for the Royal Palace of Pedralbes . Gaudí undertook to refurbish the house and construct a wall and porter 's lodge . He completed the stone wall with several entrances , the main entrance with an iron gate in the shape of a dragon , with symbology allusive to the myths of Hercules and the Garden of the Hesperides . The buildings consist of a stable , covered longeing ring and porter 's lodge : the stable has a rectangular base and catenary arches ; the longeing ring has a square base with a hyperboloid dome ; the porter 's lodge consists of three small buildings , the central one being polygonal with a hyperbolic dome , and the other two smaller and cubic . All three are topped by ventilators in the shape of chimneys faced with ceramics . The walls are of exposed brick in various shades of reds and yellows ; in certain sections prefabricated cement blocks are also used . The Pavilions are now the headquarters of the Real Cátedra Gaudí , of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia . In 1885 Gaudí accepted a commission from Josep Maria Bocabella , promotor of the Sagrada Família , for an altar in the oratory of the Bocabella family , who had obtained permission from the Pope to have an altar in their home . The altar is made of varnished mahogany , with a slab of white marble in the centre for relics . It is decorated with plants and religious motifs , such as the Greek letters alpha and omega , symbol of the beginning and end , gospel phrases and images of Saint Francis of Paola , Saint Teresa of Avila and the Holy Family and closed with a curtain of crimson embroidery . It was made by the cabinet maker Frederic Labòria , who also collaborated with Gaudí on the Sagrada Família . Shortly after , Gaudí received an important new commission from Güell : the construction of his family house , in the Carrer Nou de la Rambla in Barcelona . The Palau Güell ( 1886 – 1888 ) continues the tradition of large Catalan urban mansions such as those in Carrer Montcada . Gaudí designed a monumental entrance with a magnificent parabolic arch above iron gates , decorated with the Catalan coat of arms and a helmet with a winged dragon , the work of Joan Oñós . A notable feature is the triple @-@ height entrance hall ; it is the core of the building , surrounded by the main rooms of the palace , and it is remarkable for its double dome , parabolic within and conical on the outside , a solution typical of Byzantine art . For the gallery on the street facade Gaudí used an original system of catenary arches and columns with hyperbolic capitals , a style he used only here . He designed the interior of the palace with a sumptuous Mudejar @-@ style decoration , where the wood and iron coffered ceilings stand out . The chimneys on the roof are a remarkable feature , faced in vividly coloured ceramic tiles , as is the tall spire in the form of a lantern tower , which is the external termination of the dome within , and is also faced with ceramic tiles and topped with an iron weather vane . On the occasion of the World Expo held in Barcelona in 1888 , Gaudí constructed the pavilion for the Compañía Trasatlántica , property of the Marquis of Comillas , in the Maritime Section of the event . He created it in a Granadinian Nazari style , with horseshoe arches and stucco decoration ; the building survived until the Passeig Marítim was opened up in 1960 . In the wake of the event he received a commission from Barcelona Council to restore the Saló de Cent and the grand stairs in Barcelona City Hall , as well as a chair for the queen Maria Cristina ; only the chair was made , and Mayor Francesc Rius i Taulet presented it to the Queen . = = = Neo @-@ Gothic period = = = During this period Gaudí was inspired above all by mediaeval Gothic art , but wanted to improve on its structural solutions . Neo @-@ gothic was one of the most successful historicist styles at that time , above all as a result of the theoretical studies of Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . Gaudí studied examples in Catalonia , the Balearic Islands and Roussillon in depth , as well as Leonese and Castillian buildings during his stays in León and Burgos , and became convinced that it was an imperfect style , leaving major structural issues only partly resolved . In his works he eliminated the need of buttresses through the use of ruled surfaces , and abolished crenellations and excessive openwork . The first example was the Teresian College ( Col · legi de les Teresianes ) ( 1888 – 1889 ) , in Barcelona 's Carrer Ganduxer , commissioned by San Enrique de Ossó . Gaudí fulfilled the wish of the order that the building should be austere , in keeping with their vows of poverty . He designed a simple building , using bricks for the exterior and some brick elements for the interior . Wrought ironwork , one of Gaudí 's favourite materials , appeared on the facades . The building is crowned by a row of merlons which suggest a castle , a possible reference to Saint Teresa 's Interior Castle . The corners have brick pinnacles topped by helicoidal columns and culminate in a four @-@ armed cross , typical of Gaudí 's works , and with ceramic shields bearing various symbols of the order . The interior includes a corridor which is famous for the series of catenary arches that it contains . These elegant arches are decorative and support the ceiling and the floor above . For Gaudí , the catenary arch was an ideal constructional element , capable of supporting great loads with slender masonry . Gaudí received his next commission from a clergyman who had been a boyhood friend in his native Reus . When he was appointed bishop of Astorga , Joan Baptista Grau i Vallespinós asked Gaudí to design a new episcopal palace for the city , as the previous building had caught fire . Constructed between 1889 and 1915 , in a neo @-@ Gothic style with four cylindrical towers , it was surrounded by a moat . The stone with which it was built ( grey granite from the El Bierzo area ) is in harmony with its surroundings , particularly with the cathedral in its immediate vicinity , as well as with the natural landscape , which in late 19th @-@ century Astorga was more visible than today . The porch has three large flared arches , built of ashlar and separated by sloping buttresses . The structure is supported by columns with decorated capitals and by ribbed vaults on pointed arches , and topped with Mudejar @-@ style merlons . Gaudí resigned from the project in 1893 , at the death of Bishop Grau , due to disagreements with the Chapter , and it was finished in 1915 by Ricardo García Guereta . It currently houses a museum about the Way of Saint James , which passes through Astorga Another of Gaudí 's projects outside of Catalonia was the Casa de los Botines , in León ( 1891 – 1894 ) , commissioned by Simón Fernández Fernández and Mariano Andrés Luna , textile merchants from Leon , who were recommended Gaudí by Eusebi Güell , with whom they did business . Gaudí 's project was an impressive neo @-@ Gothic style building , which bears his unmistakable modernista imprint . The building was used to accommodate offices and textile shops on the lower floors , as well as apartments on the upper floors . It was constructed with walls of solid limestone . The building is flanked by four cylindrical turrets surmounted by slate spires , and surrounded by an area with an iron grille . The Gothic facade style , with its cusped arches , has a clock and a sculpture of Saint George and the Dragon , the work of Llorenç Matamala . As of 2010 it was the headquarters of the Caja España . In 1892 Gaudí was commissioned by Claudio López Bru , second Marquis of Comillas , with the Franciscana Catholic Missions for the city of Tangier , in Morocco ( at the time a Spanish colony ) . The project included a church , hospital and school , and Gaudí conceived a quadrilobulate ground @-@ plan floor structure , with catenary arches , parabolic towers , and hyperboloid windows . Gaudí deeply regretted the project 's eventual demise , always keeping his design with him . In spite of this , the project influenced the works of the Sagrada Família , in particular the design of the towers , with their paraboloid shape like those of the Missions . In 1895 he designed a funerary chapel for the Güell family at the abbey of Montserrat , but little is known about this work , which was never built . That year , construction finally began on the Bodegas Güell , the 1882 project for a hunting lodge and some wineries at La Cuadra de Garraf ( Sitges ) , property of Eusebi Güell . Constructed between 1895 and 1897 under the direction of Francesc Berenguer , Gaudí 's aide , the wineries have a triangular end facade , a very steep stone roof , a group of chimneys and two bridges that join them to an older building . It has three floors : the bottom one for a garage , an apartment and a chapel with catenary arches , with the altar in the centre . It was completed with a porter 's lodge , notable for the iron gate in the shape of a fishing net . In the township of Sant Gervasi de Cassoles ( now a district of Barcelona ) , the widow of Jaume Figueras commissioned Gaudí to renovate the Torre Bellesguard ( 1900 – 1909 ) , former summer palace of King Martin I the Humane . Gaudí designed it in a neo @-@ Gothic style , respecting the former building as much as possible , and tried as always to integrate the architecture into the natural surroundings . This influenced his choice of local slate for the construction . The building 's ground @-@ plan measures 15 x 15 meters , with the corners oriented to the four cardinal points . Constructed in stone and brick , it is taller than it is wide , with a spire topped with the four @-@ armed cross , the Catalan flag and the royal crown . The house has a basement , ground floor , first floor and an attic , with a gable roof . = = = Naturalist period = = = During this period Gaudí perfected his personal style , inspired by the organic shapes of nature , putting into practise a whole series of new structural solutions originating from his deep analysis of ruled geometry . To this he added a great creative freedom and an imaginative ornamental style . His works acquired a great structural richness , with shapes and volumes devoid of rational rigidity or any classic premise . = = = = 1898 – 1900 = = = = Commissioned by the company Hijos de Pedro Mártir Calvet , Gaudí built the Casa Calvet ( 1898 – 1899 ) , in Barcelona 's Carrer Casp . The facade is built of Montjuïc stone , adorned with wrought iron balconies and topped with two pediments with wrought iron crosses . Another notable feature of the facade is the gallery on the main floor , decorated with plant and mythological motifs . For this project , Gaudí used a Baroque style , visible in the use of Solomonic columns , decoration with floral themes and the design of the terraced roof . In 1900 , he won the award for the best building of the year from Barcelona City Council . A virtually unknown work by Gaudí is the Casa Clapés ( 1899 – 1900 ) , at 125 Carrer Escorial , commissioned by the painter Aleix Clapés , who collaborated on occasion with Gaudí , such as in decorating the Palau Güell and the Casa Milà . It has a ground floor and three apartments , with stuccoed walls and cast @-@ iron balconies . Due to its lack of decoration or original structural solutions its authorship was unknown until 1976 , when the architect 's signed plans by Gaudí were discovered . In 1900 , he renovated the house of Dr. Pere Santaló , at 32 Carrer Nou de la Rambla , a work of equally low importance . Santaló was a friend of Gaudí 's , whom he accompanied during his stay in Puigcerdà in 1911.It was he who recommended him to do manual work for his rheumatism . Also in 1900 , he designed two banners : for the Orfeó Feliuà ( of Sant Feliu de Codines ) , made of brass , leather , cork and silk , with ornamental motifs based on the martyrdom of San Félix ( a millstone ) , music ( a staff and clef ) and the inscription " Orfeó Feliuà " ; and Our Lady of Mercy of Reus , for the pilgrimage of the Reus residents of Barcelona , with an image of Isabel Besora , the shepherdess to whom the Virgin appeared in 1592 , work of Aleix Clapés and , on the back , a rose and the Catalan flag . In the same year , for the shrine of Our Lady of Mercy in Reus , Gaudí outlined a project for the renovation of the church 's main facade , which ultimately was not undertaken , as the board considered it too expensive . Gaudí took this rejection quite badly , leaving some bitterness towards Reus , possibly the source of his subsequent claim that Riudoms was his place of birth . Between 1900 and 1902 Gaudí worked on the Casa Miralles , commissioned by the industrialist Hermenegild Miralles i Anglès ; Gaudí designed only the wall near the gateway , of undulating masonry , with an iron gate topped with the four @-@ armed cross . Subsequently , the house for Señor Miralles was designed by Domènec Sugrañes , associate architect of Gaudí . Gaudí 's main new project at the beginning of the 20th century was the Park Güell ( 1900 – 1914 ) , commissioned by Eusebi Güell . It was intended to be a residential estate in the style of an English garden city . The project was unsuccessful : of the 60 plots into which the site was divided only one was sold . Despite this , the park entrances and service areas were built , displaying Gaudí 's genius and putting into practice many of his innovative structural solutions . The Park Güell is situated in Barcelona 's Càrmel district , a rugged area , with steep slopes that Gaudí negotiated with a system of viaducts integrated into the terrain . The main entrance to the park has a building on each side , intended as a porter 's lodge and an office , and the site is surrounded by a stone and glazed @-@ ceramic wall . These entrance buildings are an example of Gaudí at the height of his powers , with Catalan vaults that form a parabolic hyperboloid . After passing through the gate , steps lead to higher levels , decorated with sculpted fountains , notably the dragon fountain , which has become a symbol of the park and one of Gaudí 's most recognised emblems . These steps lead to the Hypostyle Hall , which was to have been the residents ' market , constructed with large Doric columns . Above this chamber is a large plaza in the form of a Greek theatre , with the famous undulating bench covered in broken ceramics ( " trencadís " ) , the work of Josep Maria Jujol . The park 's show home , the work of Francesc Berenguer , was Gaudí 's residence from 1906 to 1926 , and currently houses the Casa @-@ Museu Gaudí . During this period Gaudí contributed to a group project , the Rosary of Montserrat ( 1900 – 1916 ) . Located on the way to the Holy Cave of Montserrat , it was a series of groups of sculptures that evoked the mysteries of the Virgin , who tells the rosary . This project involved the best architects and sculptors of the era , and is a curious example of Catalan Modernism . Gaudí designed the First Mystery of Glory , which represents the Holy Sepulcher . The series include a statue of Christ Risen , the work of Josep Llimona , and the Three Marys sculpted by Dionís Renart . Another monumental project designed by Gaudí for Montserrat was never carried out : it would have included crowning the summit of El Cavall Bernat ( one of the mountain peaks ) with a viewpoint in the shape of a royal crown , incorporating a 20 metres ( 66 ft ) high Catalan coat of arms into the wall . = = = = 1901 – 03 = = = = In 1901 Gaudí decorated the house of Isabel Güell López , Marchioness of Castelldosrius , and daughter of Eusebi Güell . Situated at 19 Carrer Junta de Comerç , the house had been built in 1885 and renovated between 1901 and 1904 ; it was destroyed by a bomb during the Civil War . The following year Gaudí took part in the decoration of the Bar Torino , property of Flaminio Mezzalana , located at 18 Passeig de Gràcia ; Gaudí designed the ornamentation of el Salón Árabe of that establishment , made with varnished Arabian @-@ style cardboard tiles ( which no longer exist ) . A project of great interest to Gaudí was the restoration of the Cathedral of Santa Maria in Palma de Mallorca ( 1903 – 1914 ) , commissioned by the city 's bishop , Pere Campins i Barceló . Gaudí planned a series of works including removing the baroque altarpiece , revealing the bishop 's throne , moving the choir @-@ stalls from the centre of the nave and placing them in the presbytery , clearing the way through chapel of the Holy Trinity , placing new pulpits , fitting the cathedral with electrical lighting , uncovering the Gothic windows of the Royal Chapel and filling them with stained glass , placing a large canopy above the main altar and completing the decoration with paintings . This was coordinated by Joan Rubió i Bellver , Gaudí 's assistant . Josep Maria Jujol and the painters Joaquín Torres García , Iu Pascual and Jaume Llongueras were also involved . Gaudí abandoned the project in 1914 due to disagreements with the Cathedral chapter . = = = = 1904 = = = = One of Gaudí 's largest and most striking works is the Casa Batlló ( 1904 – 1906 ) . Commissioned by Josep Batlló i Casanovas to renovate an existing building erected in 1875 by Emili Sala Cortés , Gaudí focused on the facade , the main floor , the patio and the roof , and built a fifth floor for the staff . For this project he was assisted by his aides Domènec Sugrañes , Joan Rubió and Josep Canaleta . The facade is of Montjuïc sandstone cut to create warped ruled surfaces ; the columns are bone @-@ shaped with vegetable decoration . Gaudí kept the rectangular shape of the old building 's balconies — with iron railings in the shape of masks — giving the rest of the facade an ascending undulating form . He also faced the facade with ceramic fragments of various colours ( " trencadís " ) , which Gaudí obtained from the waste material of the Pelegrí glass works . The interior courtyard is roofed by a skylight supported by an iron structure in the shape of a double T , which rests on a series of catenary aches . The helicoidal chimneys are a notable feature of the roof , topped with conical caps , covered in clear glass in the centre and ceramics at the top , and surmounted by clear glass balls filled with sand of different colours . The facade culminates in catenary vaults covered with two layers of brick and faced with glazed ceramic tiles in the form of scales ( in shades of yellow , green and blue ) , which resemble a dragon 's back ; on the left side is a cylindrical turret with anagrams of Jesus , Mary and Joseph , and with Gaudí 's four @-@ armed cross . In 1904 , commissioned by the painter Lluís Graner , he designed the decoration of the Sala Mercè , in the Rambla dels Estudis , one of the first cinemas in Barcelona ; the theatre imitated a cave , inspired by the Coves del Drac ( Dragon 's Caves ) in Mallorca . Also for Graner he designed a detached house in the Bonanova district of Barcelona , of which only the foundations and the main gate were built , with three openings : for people , vehicles and birds ; the building would have had a structure similar to the Casa Batlló or the porter 's lodge of the Park Güell . The same year he built a workshop , the Taller Badia , for Josep and Lluís Badia Miarnau , blacksmiths who worked for Gaudí on several of his works , such as the Batlló and Milà houses , the Park Güell and the Sagrada Família . Located at 278 Carrer Nàpols , it was a simple stone building . Around that time he also designed hexagonal hydraulic floor tiles for the Casa Batlló , they were eventually used instead for the Casa Milà ; they were a green colour and were decorated with seaweed , shells and starfish . These tiles were subsequently chosen to pave Barcelona 's Passeig de Gràcia . Also in 1904 he built the Chalet de Catllaràs , in La Pobla de Lillet , for the Asland cement factory , owned by Eusebi Güell . It has a simple structure though very original , in the shape of a pointed arch , with two semi @-@ circular flights of stairs leading to the top two floors . This building fell into ruin when the cement works closed , and when it was eventually restored its appearance was radically altered , the ingenious original staircase being replaced with a simpler metal one . In the same area he created the Can Artigas Gardens between 1905 and 1907 , in an area called Font de la Magnesia , commissioned by the textile merchant Joan Artigas i Alart ; men who had worked the Park Güell were also involved on this project , similar to the famous park in Barcelona . = = = = 1906 = = = = In 1906 he designed a bridge over the Torrent de Pomeret , between Sarrià and Sant Gervasi . This river flowed directly between two of Gaudí 's works , Bellesguard and the Chalet Graner , and so he was asked to bridge the divide . Gaudí designed an interesting structure composed of juxtaposed triangles that would support the bridge 's framework , following the style of the viaducts that he made for the Park Güell . It would have been built with cement , and would have had a length of 154 metres ( 505 ft ) and a height of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ; the balustrade would have been covered with glazed tiles , with an inscription dedicated to Santa Eulàlia . The project was not approved by the Town Council of Sarrià . The same year Gaudí apparently took part in the construction of the Torre Damià Mateu , in Llinars del Vallès , in collaboration with his disciple Francesc Berenguer , though the project 's authorship is not clear or to what extent they each contributed to it . The style of the building evokes Gaudí 's early work , such as the Casa Vicens or the Güell Pavilions ; it had an entrance gate in the shape of a fishing net , currently installed in the Park Güell . The building was demolished in 1939 . Also in 1906 he designed a new banner , this time for the Guild of metalworkers and blacksmiths for the Corpus Christi procession of 1910 , in Barcelona Cathedral . It was dark green in colour , with Barcelona 's coat of arms in the upper left corner , and an image of Saint Eligius , patron of the guild , with typical tools of the trade . The banner was burned in July 1936 . Another of Gaudí 's major projects and one of his most admired works is the Casa Milà , better known as La Pedrera ( 1906 – 1910 ) , commissioned by Pere Milà i Camps . Gaudí designed the house around two large , curved courtyards , with a structure of stone , brick and cast @-@ iron columns and steel beams . The facade is built of limestone from Vilafranca del Penedès , apart from the upper level , which is covered in white tiles , evoking a snowy mountain . It has a total of five floors , plus a loft made entirely of catenary arches , as well as two large interior courtyards , one circular and one oval . Notable features are the staircases to the roof , topped with the four @-@ armed cross , and the chimneys , covered in ceramics and with shapes that suggest mediaeval helmets . The interior decoration was carried out by Josep Maria Jujol and the painters Iu Pascual , Xavier Nogués and Aleix Clapés . The facade was to have been completed with a stone , metal and glass sculpture with Our lady of the Rosary accompanied by the archangels Michael and Gabriel , 4m in height . A sketch was made by the sculptor Carles Mani , but due to the events of the Tragic Week in 1909 the project was abandoned . = = = = 1907 – 08 = = = = In 1907 , to mark the seventh centenary of the birth of King James I , Gaudí designed a monument in his memory . It would have been situated in the Plaça del Rei , and would have also meant the renovation of the adjacent buildings : new roof for the cathedral , as well as the completion of its towers and cupola ; placement of three vases above the buttresses of the Chapel of Santa Àgada , dedicated to the Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary , as well as the figure of an angel on top of the chapel 's tower ; finally , the opening of a large square next to the walls ( now the Plaça Ramon Berenguer el Grand ) . The project was not executed because the city council disliked it . In 1908 Gaudí devised a project for a skyscraper hotel in New York , the Hotel Attraction , commissioned by two American entrepreneurs whose names are unknown . It would have been 360 metres ( 1 @,@ 180 ft ) high ( taller than the Empire State Building ) , with a taller parabolic central section , topped with a star , and flanked by four volumes containing museums , art galleries and concert halls , with shapes similar to the Casa Milà . Inside it would have had five large rooms , one dedicated to every continent . The final project for his great patron Eusebi Güell was the church for the Colònia Güell , an industrial village in Santa Coloma de Cervelló ( 1890 – 1918 ) . The project began in 1890 , and the factory , service buildings and housing for the workers were constructed . What would have been the colony 's church was designed by Gaudí in 1898 , though the first stone was not laid until 4 October 1908 . Unfortunately only the crypt ( known today as Crypt of the Colònia Güell ) was built , as Güell 's sons abandoned the project after his death in 1918 . Gaudí designed an oval church with five aisles , one central aisle and two at either side . He conceived it as fully integrated into nature . A porch of hyperbolic paraboloid vaults precedes the crypt , the first time that Gaudí used this structure and notably the first use of paraboloid vaults in the history of architecture . In the crypt the large hyperboloid stained glass windows stand out , with the shapes of flower petals and butterfly wings . Inside , circular brick pillars alternate with slanted basalt columns from Castellfollit de la Roca . = = = Final period = = = During the last years of his career , dedicated almost exclusively to the Sagrada Família , Gaudí reached the culmination of this naturalistic style , creating a synthesis of all of the solutions and styles he had tried until then . Gaudí achieved perfect harmony between structural and ornamental elements , between plastic and aesthetic , between function and form , between container and content , achieving the integration of all arts in one structured , logical work . The first example of his final stage can be seen in a simple but very ingenious building , the Sagrada Família schools , a small school for the workers ' children . Built in 1909 , it has a rectangular ground plan of 10 by 20 metres ( 33 ft × 66 ft ) , and contained three classrooms , a vestibule and a chapel . It was built of exposed brick , in three overlapping layers , following the traditional Catalan method . The walls and roof have an undulating shape , giving the structure a sense of lightness but also strength . The Sagrada Família schools have set an example of constructive genius and have served as a source of inspiration for many architects , such is their simplicity , strength , originality , functionality and geometric excellence . In May 1910 Gaudí paid a short visit to Vic , where he was tasked to design the lampposts for the city 's Plaça Major , in commemoration of the first centenary of the birth of Jaume Balmes . They were obelisk @-@ shaped lamps , with basalt rock bases from Castellfollit de la Roca and wrought iron arms , topped with the four @-@ armed cross ; they were decorated with vegetable themes and included the birth and death dates of Balmes . They were demolished in 1924 due to poor maintenance . The same year , on the occasion of Eusebi Güell 's obtaining the title of count , Gaudí designed a coat of arms for his patron . He devised a shield with the lower part in a catenary shape typical of Gaudí . He divided it into two parts : the lantern of Palau Güell features a dove and a gear @-@ wheel on the right in allusion to the Colònia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló ( coloma is Catalan for dove ) , with the phrase ahir pastor ( yesterday Shepherd ) . On the left is an owl perched on a half @-@ moon — symbol of prudence and wisdom — with the words avuy senyor ( today Lord ) . The shield is surmounted by a helmet with the count 's coronet and the dove symbol of the Holy Spirit . In 1912 he built two pulpits for the church of Santa Maria in Blanes : the pulpit on the Gospel side had a hexagonal base , decorated with the dove of the Holy Spirit and the names in Latin of the four evangelists and the seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit ; the pulpit of the Epistle side had the names of the apostles who wrote epistles ( Saint Peter , Saint Paul , Saint John the Evangelist , Saint Judas Thadeus and Saint James the Great ) , with the three theological virtues and the flames of Pentecost . These pulpits were burned in July 1936 . = = = = Sagrada Família = = = = From 1915 Gaudí devoted himself almost exclusively to his magnum opus , the Sagrada Família , a synthesis of his architectural evolution . After completion of the crypt and the apse , still in Gothic style , the rest of the church is conceived in an organic style , imitating natural shapes with their abundance of ruled surfaces . He intended the interior to resemble a forest , with inclined columns like branching trees , helicoidal in form , creating a simple but sturdy structure . Gaudí applied all of his previous experimental findings in this project , from works such as the Park Güell and the crypt of the Colònia Güell , creating a church that is at once structurally perfect , harmonious and aesthetically satisfying . The Sagrada Família has a cruciform plan , with a five @-@ aisled nave , a transept of three aisles , and an apse with seven chapels . It has three facades dedicated to the birth , passion and glory of Jesus , and when completed it will have eighteen towers : four at each side making a total of twelve for the apostles , four on the transept invoking the evangelists and one on the apse dedicated to the Virgin , plus the central tower in honour of Jesus , which will reach 170 metres ( 560 ft ) in height . The church will have two sacristies adjacent to the apse , and three large chapels : one for the Assumption in the apse , and the Baptism and Penitence chapels at the west end ; also , it will be surrounded by a cloister designed for processions and to isolate the building from the exterior . Gaudí used highly symbolic content in the Sagrada Família , both in architecture and sculpture , dedicating each part of the church to a religious theme . During Gaudí 's life only the crypt , apse and part of the Nativity facade were completed . Upon his death his assistant Domènec Sugrañes took over the construction ; thereafter it was directed by various architects . Jordi Bonet i Armengol assumed responsibility in 1987 and continued as of 2011 . Artists such as Llorenç and Joan Matamala , Carles Mani , Jaume Busquets , Joaquim Ros i Bofarull , Etsuro Sotoo and Josep Maria Subirachs ( creator of the Passion facade ) have worked on the sculptural decoration . Completion is not expected until at least 2027 . = = = = Minor , late projects = = = = During the last years of his life , apart from his devotion to the Sagrada Família , Gaudí participated only in minor projects which were not completed : in 1916 , on the death of his friend bishop Josep Torras i Bages , he designed a monument in his honour , which he wanted to place in front of the Passion facade of the Sagrada Família . He made a sketch of the project , which ultimately was not carried out , and made a plaster bust of the bishop , the work of Joan Matamala under the instruction of Gaudí . It was put in the Sagrada Família , where it would have formed part of the church , but it was destroyed in 1936 . Another commemorative monument project , also not carried out , was dedicated to Enric Prat de la Riba , which would have been situated in Castellterçol , birthplace of this Catalan politician . The project dates from 1918 , and would have consisted of a tall tower with two porticos and a spire topped with an iron structure flying the Catalan flag . The sketch of the project was done by Lluís Bonet i Garí , Gaudí 's assistant . In 1922 Gaudí was commissioned , by the Franciscan Padre Angélico Aranda , to construct a church dedicated to the Assumption in the Chilean city of Rancagua . Gaudí apologised and said that he was occupied exclusively with the Sagrada Família , but sent some sketches of the Assumption chapel which he had designed for the apse of the Sagrada Família , which more or less coincided with what Padre Aranda had asked for . Unfortunately this project was not carried out , though there are currently plans by the Chilean architect Christian Matzner to take up the project . The President of Chile , Michelle Bachelet , has announced that building will begin in 2015 , with an expected completion in 2017 and at a cost of $ 7 million . Once completed it will become the first of Gaudí 's works to be constructed in the Americas . The same year Gaudí was consulted about the construction of a monumental train station for Barcelona ( the future Estació de França ) . Gaudí suggested an iron structure in the form of a large suspended awning , a solution quite ahead of its time ; perhaps for this reason , it put the head engineers off , and they declined Gaudí 's offer . The last known projects by the architect are the chapel for the Colónia Calvet in Torelló , of 1923 , and a pulpit for Valencia ( the exact location is unknown ) , of 1924 . From then on , Gaudí worked exclusively on the Sagrada Família until his death . = = Collaborators = = The enormous task which Gaudí faced , not in terms of the number of works , but in terms of their complexity , required the collaboration of a large number of assistants , artists , architects and craftsmen . Gaudí always led the way , but allowed expression of the individual abilities of all of his collaborators . A test of his expertise both in his field and in interpersonal communication was demonstrated in bringing together a large number of diverse professionals and creating an integrated team . Among his collaborators were : Architects : Francesc Berenguer , Josep Maria Jujol , Cristòfor Cascante i Colom , Josep Francesc Ràfols , Cèsar Martinell , Joan Bergós , Francesc Folguera , Josep Canaleta , Joan Rubió , Domènec Sugrañes , Francesc Quintana , Isidre Puig i Boada , Lluís Bonet i Garí . Sculptors : Carles Mani , Joan Flotats , Llorenç Matamala , Joan Matamala , Josep Llimona . Painters : Ricard Opisso , Aleix Clapés , Iu Pascual , Xavier Nogués , Jaume Llongueras , Joaquín Torres García . Builders and foremen : Agustí Massip , Josep Bayó i Font , Claudi Alsina i Bonafont , Josep Pardo i Casanova and his nephew Julià Bardier i Pardo . Craftsmen : Eudald Puntí ( carpenter and forger ) , Joan Oñós ( forger ) , Lluís y Josep Badia i Miarnau ( forger ) , Joan Bertran ( plasterer ) , Joan Munné ( cabinet maker ) , Frederic Labòria ( cabinet maker ) , Antoni Rigalt i Blanch ( glazier ) , Josep Pelegrí ( glazier ) , Mario Maragliano ( mosaic artist ) , Jaume Pujol i Bausis and his son Pau Pujol i Vilà ( ceramicists ) . = = Legacy = = After his death , Gaudí 's works suffered a period of neglect and were largely unpopular among international critics , who regarded them as baroque and excessively imaginative . In his homeland he was equally disdained by Noucentisme , the new movement which took the place of Modernisme . In 1936 , during the Spanish Civil War , Gaudí 's workshop in the Sagrada Família was ransacked and a great number of his documents , plans and scale models were destroyed . Gaudí 's reputation was beginning to recover by the 1950s , when his work was championed not only by Salvador Dalí but also by architect Josep Lluís Sert . In 1952 , the centenary year of the architect 's birth , the Asociación de Amigos de Gaudí ( Friends of Gaudí Association ) was founded with the aim of disseminating and conserving his legacy . Four years later , a retrospective was organised at the Saló del Tinell in Barcelona , and the Gaudí Chair at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia was created with the purpose of deepening the study of the Gaudí 's works and participating in their conservation . These events were followed in 1957 by Gaudí 's first international exhibition , held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City . In 1976 , on the 50th anniversary of his death , the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs organised an exhibition about Gaudí and his works that toured the globe . Between 1950 and 1960 , research and writings by international critics like George R. Collins , Nikolaus Pevsner and Roberto Pane spread a renewed awareness of Gaudí 's work , while in his homeland it was admired and promoted by Alexandre Cirici , Juan Eduardo Cirlot and Oriol Bohigas . Gaudí 's work has since gained widespread international appreciation , such as in Japan where notable studies have been published by Kenji Imai and Tokutoshi Torii . International recognition of Gaudí 's contributions to the field of architecture and design culminated in the 1984 listing of Gaudí 's key works as UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Gaudí 's style have subsequently influenced contemporary architects such as Santiago Calatrava and Norman Foster . Due to Gaudí 's profoundly religious and ascetic lifestyle , the archbishop of Barcelona , Ricard Maria Carles proposed Gaudí 's beatification in 1998 . His beatification was approved by the Vatican in 2000 . In 1999 , American composer Christopher Rouse wrote the guitar concerto Concert de Gaudí , which was inspired by Gaudí 's work ; it went on to win the 2002 Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition . On the occasion of the 150th anniversary of Gaudí 's birth , a number of official ceremonies , concerts , shows and conferences were held , and several books were published . On 24 September of the same year , the musical Gaudí had its premiere in the Palau dels Esports de Barcelona . The authors of the piece were Jordi Galceran , Esteve Miralles and Albert Guinovart . In 2008 the Gaudí Awards were launched in his honour , organised by the Catalan Film Academy to award the best Catalan films of the year . An Iberia Airbus A340 @-@ 642 , EC @-@ INO is named after Gaudí . = = = World Heritage = = = Several of Gaudí 's works have been granted World Heritage status by UNESCO : in 1984 the Park Güell , the Palau Güell and the Casa Milà ; and in 2005 the Nativity facade , the crypt and the apse of the Sagrada Família , the Casa Vicens and the Casa Batlló in Barcelona , together with the crypt of the Colònia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló . The declaration of Gaudí 's works as World Heritage aims to recognise his outstanding universal value . According to the citation : * The work of Antoni Gaudí represents an exceptional and outstanding creative contribution to the development of architecture and building technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Gaudí 's work exhibits an important interchange of values closely associated with the cultural and artistic currents of his time , as represented in el Modernisme [ sic ] of Catalonia . It anticipated and influenced many of the forms and techniques that were relevant to the development of modern construction in the 20th century . Gaudí 's work represents a series of outstanding examples of the building typology in the architecture of the early 20th century , residential as well as public , to the development of which he made a significant and creative contribution .
= Mistle thrush = The mistle thrush ( Turdus viscivorus ) is a bird common to much of Europe , Asia and North Africa . It is a year @-@ round resident in much of its range , but northern and eastern populations migrate south for the winter , often in small flocks . It is a large thrush with pale grey @-@ brown upperparts , a greyish @-@ white chin and throat , and black spots on its pale yellow and off @-@ white underparts . The sexes are similar in plumage , and its three subspecies show only minimal differences . The male has a loud , far @-@ carrying song which is delivered even in wet and windy weather , earning the bird the old name of " stormcock " . Found in open woods , parks , hedges and cultivated land , the mistle thrush feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates , seeds and berries . Its preferred fruits including those of the mistletoe , holly and yew . Mistletoe is favoured where it is available , and this is reflected in the thrush 's English and scientific names ; the plant , a parasitic species , benefits from its seeds being excreted by the thrush onto branches where they can germinate . In winter , a mistle thrush will vigorously defend mistletoe clumps or a holly tree as a food reserve for when times are hard . The open cup nest is built against a trunk or in a forked branch , and is fearlessly defended against potential predators , sometimes including humans or cats . The clutch , typically of three to five eggs , is incubated for 12 – 15 days , mainly by the female . The chicks fledge about 14 – 16 days after hatching . There are normally two broods . There was a large range expansion in the 18th and early 19th centuries , although there has been a small decline in recent decades , perhaps due to changes in agricultural practices . Given its high numbers and very large range , this thrush is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . = = Taxonomy = = The mistle thrush was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 under its current scientific name . The bird 's liking for mistletoe berries is indicated by both its English and scientific names . Turdus is the Latin for " thrush " , and viscivorus , " mistletoe eater " , comes from viscum " mistletoe " and vorare , " to devour " . There are more than 60 species of medium to large thrushes in the genus Turdus , characterised by rounded heads , longish pointed wings , and usually melodious songs . A mitochondrial DNA study identified the mistle thrush 's closest relatives as the similarly plumaged song and Chinese thrushes , all three species being early offshoots from the main Turdus radiation , and hence more distantly related to other European thrushes such as the common blackbird . At least eight subspecies have been proposed , but the differences are mainly clinal , with birds of the nominate subspecies becoming paler and less densely spotted in the east of the range . The currently accepted subspecies are : Turdus viscivorus viscivorus , Linnaeus , 1758 . The nominate subspecies . T. v. bonapartei , Cabanis , 1860 . T. v. deichleri , Erlanger , 1897 . An isolated population in Crimea has sometimes been separated as T. v. tauricus , but this is not considered to be a valid form . Mistle thrush fossils have been found in Pleistocene deposits from Poland and Sicily . = = Description = = The mistle thrush is the largest thrush native to Europe . The nominate subspecies measures 27 – 28 cm ( 11 – 11 in ) in length , with a 45 cm ( 18 in ) wingspan . It weighs 93 to 167 g ( 3 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 9 oz ) , with an average of around 130 g ( 4 @.@ 6 oz ) . It has a stocky upright posture when on the ground . It has pale grey @-@ brown upperparts , the chin and throat are greyish @-@ white , and the yellowish @-@ buff breast and off @-@ white belly are marked with round black spots . The spotting becomes denser on the lower chest , giving the appearance of a breast @-@ band . The long tail has white tips on the outer feathers , and the underwing coverts are white . The eyes are dark brown and the bill is blackish with a yellowish base to the lower mandible . The legs and feet are yellowish @-@ brown . There are no plumage differences between the sexes . Juveniles are similar to adults , but they have paler upperparts with creamy centres to many of the feathers and smaller spots on the yellowish underparts . By their first winter they are very similar to adults , but the underparts are usually more buff @-@ toned . The eastern subspecies T. v. bonapartei is 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length , and therefore slightly larger than the nominate form . It is paler grey above and whiter below , with fewer black spots . Birds of intermediate appearance are seen west of the Ob River where the range overlaps with viscivorus . The southern race T. v. deichleri resembles bonapartei in appearance , but is closer in size to the nominate viscivorus , although it has a more slender bill . Adults have a full moult after breeding , beginning between late May and the end of June , and completed by early October . Juvenile birds have a partial moult , replacing their head , body , and covert feathers ; this is completed by October , although the start of the moult depends on when the chicks hatched . The mistle thrush is much larger , paler and longer @-@ tailed than the sympatric song thrush . In the western Himalayas it could be confused with both the plain @-@ backed and the long @-@ tailed thrushes . These are similar to the mistle thrush , but the plain – backed thrush lacks obvious wing bars , is more rufous above than its relative , and is barred rather than spotted below . The long @-@ tailed thrush has olive @-@ toned upperparts , bars on its breast and two wing bars . Juvenile mistle thrushes are superficially similar to White 's thrush , but that species has golden @-@ yellow plumage , scalloped underparts and a distinctive underwing pattern . = = = Voice = = = The male mistle thrush has a loud melodious song with fluted whistles , sounding like chewee @-@ trewuu ... trureetruuruu or similar , repeated three to six times , and used to advertise his territory , attract a mate and maintain the pair bond . The tone resembles that of the song thrush or blackbird , but compared to its relatives the mistle thrush 's repertoire is less varied and the delivery is slower . The song is , however , much louder , often audible up to 2 km ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) away . The song is given from a treetop or other elevated position mainly from November to early June . The male is most vocal in the early morning , and its tendency to sing after , and sometimes during , wet and windy weather led to the old name " stormcock " . The song may be heard in any month , although it is uncommon from July to August while the thrush is moulting . The main call , given by both sexes , is a dry chattering krrrr , louder when it is alarmed or excited . It is often likened to the sound of a football rattle , a form of musical ratchet . There is also a squeaky tuk contact call . = = Distribution and habitat = = The mistle thrush breeds in much of Europe and temperate Asia , although it is absent from the treeless far north , and its range becomes discontinuous in southeast Europe , Turkey and the Middle East . In these warmer southern areas , it tends to be found in the milder uplands and coastal regions . Nominate T. v. viscivorus breeds in Europe and in Asia east to the Ob , beyond which it is replaced by T. v. bonapartei . The southern form T. v. deichleri is resident in North Africa , Corsica and Sardinia . The mistle thrush is a partial migrant : birds from the north and east of the range wintering in the milder areas of Europe and North Africa . Scandinavian and Russian birds start moving south from mid @-@ September onwards , most birds wintering in Europe , western Turkey and the Middle East . Between mid @-@ October and November , large numbers cross the Strait of Gibraltar and others pass through Cyprus , but there is hardly any migration across the North Sea . Breeding birds in the British Isles and north @-@ west Europe are resident or move only short distances . In the Himalayas , the breeding population moves to nearby lower @-@ altitude sites in winter . Return migration starts mainly from late March , although it can be a month earlier in the Middle East , and northern breeders may not arrive back on their territories until late April or early May . Migration may be by day or night , and typically involves individuals or small groups . Vagrant birds have occurred in the Azores , China , Crete , Faroe Islands , Iceland , Japan , Oman , Saudi Arabia , Sikkim and the United Arab Emirates . The mistle thrush is found in a wide range of habitats containing trees , including forests , plantations , hedges and town parks . In the south and east of its range , it inhabits upland coniferous woodland and the range extends above the main tree line where dwarf juniper is present . Breeding occurs at up to 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) in the mountains of North Africa , and occasionally much higher , to 1 @,@ 700 m ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) . In the highlands of Europe , its preferred altitude is from 800 – 1 @,@ 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 – 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . More open habitats , such as agricultural land , moors and grassy hills , are extensively used in winter or on migration . There is evidence that this species has changed its natural habitat in at least parts of its range . In Germany and elsewhere in central Europe , it was found only in coniferous forest until the mid @-@ 1920s when its range rapidly expanded , first into farmland , and then to suburbs and urban parks . The reasons for this expansion are unclear . In areas of intensive farming , such as eastern England , arable land has in turn largely been abandoned in favour of built @-@ up areas with their greater variety of green habitats . = = Behaviour = = Mistle thrushes are found as individuals or pairs for much of the year , although families forage together in late summer , and groups may merge to form flocks of several tens of birds ; it is not uncommon for up to 50 thrushes to feed together at that time of year . They roost at night in trees or bushes , again typically as individuals or pairs , but with families roosting together in autumn . The mistle thrush is quite terrestrial , hopping with its head held up and body erect ; when excited , it will flick its wings and tail . The flight consists of undulating bounds interspersed with glides . = = = Breeding = = = Mistle thrushes breed in the year subsequent to their hatching ; they are monogamous and stay as a pair throughout the year in areas where they are not migratory . Their territories are much larger than those of blackbirds or song thrushes ; although the nest territory is only about 0 @.@ 6 hectares ( 1 @.@ 5 acres ) , around 15 – 17 ha ( 37 – 42 acres ) is used for feeding . Territories are normally reoccupied in subsequent years . Territories are larger in woods than in farmland . The male will attack intruders into its breeding area , including birds of prey and corvids , and sometimes cats or humans . Courtship feeding of the female by her partner has sometimes been observed . Breeding typically commences in mid @-@ March in the south and west of Europe ( late February in Britain ) , but not till early May in Finland . The nest is usually built in a tree in the fork of a branch or against the trunk , although hedges , ledges on buildings and cliff faces may also be used . The nest site may be up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) above the ground , although 2 – 9 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 29 @.@ 5 ft ) is more typical . The common chaffinch often nests close to a mistle thrush , the vigilance of the finch and the aggressive behaviour of the thrush benefiting both species . The thrush 's nest is a large cup of sticks , dry grass , roots and moss , coated on the inside with a layer of mud and lined with fine grass and leaves . The nest is built by the female , although the male may help . Nests built early in the breeding season may be destroyed by bad weather . The clutch is typically three to five eggs ( range two to six ) , which are usually whitish @-@ buff or greenish @-@ blue and are spotted with red , purple or brown . The average size of the egg is 30 mm × 22 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in × 0 @.@ 87 in ) , and weighs 7 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 28 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . The eggs are incubated for 12 – 15 days , mainly by the female . The chicks are altricial and downy , and are fed by both parents . They fledge about 14 – 16 days after hatching . There are normally two broods , except in Siberia , where there is only one , the male feeding the fledglings from the first brood while the female sits on the second clutch . Sometimes the same nest is reused for both broods . The young are dependent on their parents for 15 – 20 days after fledging . In a study carried out in Britain , the survival rate for juveniles in their first year is 57 per cent , and the adult annual survival rate is 62 per cent . Life expectancy is typically three years , but the maximum age recorded from bird ringing recoveries is 21 years and 3 months for a bird shot in Switzerland . = = = Feeding = = = Mistle thrushes feed mainly on invertebrates , fruit and berries . Animal prey include earthworms , insects and other arthropods , slugs and snails . Snails are sometimes smashed on a stone " anvil " , a technique also used by the song thrush . The mistle thrush has been known to kill slow worms and the young of the song thrush , blackbird and dunnock . Plant food includes the fruits and seeds of bushes and trees , mainly holly , yew , ivy and mistletoe , but also , for example , blackberry , cherry , elder , hawthorn , olive and rose . It may eat the flowers and shoots of grasses and other plants , and will take fallen apples and plums . It forages within its breeding habitat and in open fields , sometimes sharing these feeding areas with redwings or fieldfares . Young birds are initially mainly fed on invertebrates , often collected from low foliage or under bushes rather than in the grassland preferred by the adults . Adults will roam up to 1 km ( 1000 yd ) from the nest on pasture or ploughed land . After fledging the young may accompany their parents until the onset of winter . Individuals or pairs will defend one or more fruit @-@ bearing trees throughout the winter , mistletoe being preferred where available , with holly as the first choice elsewhere . Although the thrush normally feeds on the ground or other trees , the defence of this resource conserves the fruit for later in the season when other food items are becoming scarce . The trees are defended against conspecifics , other thrushes and species such as the bullfinch and great spotted woodpecker . In years when there is an abundance of winter fruit , this strategy may be abandoned , with the mistle thrushes foraging in flocks . Conversely , in hard winters , the defender may be overwhelmed by large flocks of fieldfares , redwings or Bohemian waxwings . As its name implies , the mistle thrush is important in propagating the mistletoe , an aerial parasite , which needs its seeds to be deposited on the branches of suitable trees . The highly nutritious fruits are favoured by the thrush , which digests the flesh leaving the sticky seeds to be excreted , possibly in a suitable location for germination . = = Predators and parasites = = The mistle thrush is hunted by birds of prey including the boreal owl , short @-@ eared owl , tawny owl , Ural owl , Eurasian eagle @-@ owl , golden eagle , kestrel , common buzzard , red kite , northern goshawk , peregrine falcon , and sparrowhawk . The eggs and chicks may be targeted by cats and corvids , although the adults are fearless in defence of their nests , occasionally even attacking humans . The mistle thrush is not normally a host of the common cuckoo , a brood parasite . External parasites of the mistle thrush include the hen flea , the moorhen flea , the castor bean tick and the brightly coloured harvest mite . Internally , the thrush may be hosting tapeworms , nematodes , and Syngamus merulae a relative of the gapeworm . Blood parasites include Trypanosoma and Plasmodium species . = = Status = = The mistle thrush has an extensive distribution in Europe and western Asia , and its European breeding population is estimated at 9 – 22 @.@ 2 million birds . When Asian breeders are added , this gives a global total of 12 @.@ 2 – 44 @.@ 4 million . The species was formerly more restricted in range , and rarely bred even in northern England in the 1700s . It expanded rapidly into lowland and coastal areas of Europe during the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century , colonising areas where it was formerly rare or absent , such as Ireland ( where it first bred in 1807 ) , Scotland and the Netherlands . The range also increased in Denmark , Norway , Hungary and Austria . Although the population now appears to be declining , the decrease is not rapid or large enough to trigger conservation vulnerability criteria . Given its high numbers and very large range , this thrush is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . The perceived decline may be due to the loss of invertebrate @-@ rich pastures and mixed farms through conversion to arable agriculture or more intensively managed grassland . Adult survival , clutch size and fledging success are all lower in arable landscapes than in areas with extensive pasture . In Finland , the loss of ancient forests is thought to have led to a local decline . = = In culture = = Desiderius Erasmus 's early sixteenth @-@ century collection of Latin proverbs included Turdus malum sibi ipse cacat , ( the thrush himself excretes his own trouble ) , which refers to the use of the sticky berries favoured by this species to make birdlime for trapping birds . The thrush is literally spreading the seeds of his own destruction . Giovanni da Udine painted in Raphael 's workshop in the 16th century . His Mistle Thrush and Alpine Chough was a sketch for his Bird with Garland and Fruit , and this in turn was the basis for a Raphael fresco in the Apostolic Palace . The early Renaissance poem " The Harmony of Birds " had the thrusshe ( mistle thrush ) sing " sanctus , sanctus " , and distinguished it from the song thrush , the mauys or throstle . The song is also described in Thomas Hardy 's " Darkling Thrush " and Edward Thomas 's " The Thrush " . The loud call of this common and conspicuous bird also led to many old or local names , including " screech " , " shrite " and " gawthrush " . Other names , including " stormcock " referred to its willingness to sing in wind and rain . " Holm thrush " , " hollin cock " and " holm cock " are based on obsolete names for the holly tree , which may be defended by the thrush in winter for its berries .
= Science and technology of the Han dynasty = The Han dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) of ancient China , divided between the eras of Western Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD , when the capital was at Chang 'an ) , Xin dynasty of Wang Mang ( r . 9 – 23 AD ) , and Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD , when the capital was at Luoyang , and after 196 AD at Xuchang ) , witnessed some of the most significant advancements in premodern Chinese science and technology . There were great innovations in metallurgy . In addition to Zhou @-@ dynasty China 's ( c . 1050 BCE – 256 BC ) previous inventions of the blast furnace and cupola furnace to make pig iron and cast iron , respectively , the Han period saw the development of steel and wrought iron by use of the finery forge and puddling process . With the drilling of deep boreholes into the earth , the Chinese used not only derricks to lift brine up to the surface to be boiled into salt , but also set up bamboo @-@ crafted pipeline transport systems which brought natural gas as fuel to the furnaces . Smelting techniques were enhanced with inventions such as the waterwheel @-@ powered bellows ; the resulting widespread distribution of iron tools facilitated the growth of agriculture . For tilling the soil and planting straight rows of crops , the improved heavy @-@ moldboard plough with three iron plowshares and sturdy multiple @-@ tube iron seed drill were invented in the Han , which greatly enhanced production yields and thus sustained population growth . The method of supplying irrigation ditches with water was improved with the invention of the mechanical chain pump powered by the rotation of a waterwheel or draft animals , which could transport irrigation water up elevated terrains . The waterwheel was also used for operating trip hammers in pounding grain and in rotating the metal rings of the mechanical @-@ driven astronomical armillary sphere representing the celestial sphere around the Earth . The quality of life was improved with many Han inventions . The Han Chinese had hempen @-@ bound bamboo scrolls to write on , yet by the 2nd century AD had invented the papermaking process which created a writing medium that was both cheap and easy to produce . The invention of the wheelbarrow aided in the hauling of heavy loads . The maritime junk ship and stern @-@ mounted steering rudder enabled the Chinese to venture out of calmer waters of interior lakes and rivers and into the open sea . The invention of the grid reference for maps and raised @-@ relief map allowed the Chinese to better navigate their terrain . In medicine , they used new herbal remedies to cure illnesses , calisthenics to keep physically fit , and regulated diets to avoid diseases . Authorities in the capital were warned ahead of time of the direction of sudden earthquakes with the invention of the seismometer that was tripped by a vibration @-@ sensitive pendulum device . To mark the passing of the seasons and special occasions , the Han Chinese used two variations of the lunisolar calendar , which were established due to efforts in astronomy and mathematics . Han @-@ era Chinese advancements in mathematics include the discovery of square roots , cube roots , the Pythagorean theorem , Gaussian elimination , the Horner scheme , improved calculations of pi , and negative numbers . Hundreds of new roads and canals were built to facilitate transport , commerce , tax collection , communication , and movement of military troops . The Han @-@ era Chinese also employed several types of bridges to cross waterways and deep gorges , such as beam bridges , arch bridges , simple suspension bridges , and pontoon bridges . Han ruins of defensive city walls made of brick or rammed earth still stand today . = = Modern perspectives on science and technology during Han = = Jin Guantao , a professor of the Institute of Chinese Studies at the Chinese University of Hong Kong , Fan Hongye , a research fellow with the Chinese Academy of Sciences ' Institute of Science Policy and Managerial Science , and Liu Qingfeng , a professor of the Institute of Chinese Culture at the Chinese University of Hong Kong , assert that the latter part of the Han dynasty was a unique period in the history of premodern Chinese science and technology . They compare it to the incredible pace of scientific and technological growth during the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 AD ) . However , they also argue that without the influence of proto @-@ scientific precepts in the ancient philosophy of Mohism , Chinese science continued to lack a definitive structure : From the middle and late Eastern Han to the early Wei and Jin dynasties , the net growth of ancient Chinese science and technology experienced a peak ( second only to that of the Northern Song dynasty ) ... Han studies of the Confucian classics , which for a long time had hindered the socialization of science , were declining . If Mohism , rich in scientific thought , had rapidly grown and strengthened , the situation might have been very favorable to the development of a scientific structure . However , this did not happen because the seeds of the primitive structure of science were never formed . During the late Eastern Han , disastrous upheavals again occurred in the process of social transformation , leading to the greatest social disorder in Chinese history . One can imagine the effect of this calamity on science . Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) , a late Professor from the University of Cambridge and author of the groundbreaking Science and Civilisation in China series , stated that the " Han time ( especially the Later Han ) was one of the relatively important periods as regards the history of science in China . " He noted the advancements during Han of astronomy and calendrical sciences , the " beginnings of systematic botany and zoology " , as well as the philosophical skepticism and rationalist thought embodied in Han works such as the Lunheng by the philosopher Wang Chong ( 27 – 100 CE ) . = = Writing materials = = The most common writing mediums found in archaeological digs from ancient sites predating the Han period are shells and bones as well as bronzewares . In the beginning of the Han period , the chief writing mediums were bamboo ( Chinese : 竹簡 ) and clay tablets , silk cloth , and rolled scrolls made of strips of bamboo sewn together with hempen string passed through drilled holes ( 册 ) and secured with clay stamps . The written characters on these narrow flat strips of bamboo were arranged into vertical columns . While maps drawn in ink on flat silk cloths have been found in the tomb of the Marquess of Dai ( interred in 168 BCE at Mawangdui , Hunan province ) , the earliest known paper map found in China , dated 179 – 41 BC and located at Fangmatan ( near Tianshui , Gansu province ) , is incidentally the oldest known piece of paper . Yet Chinese hempen paper of the Western Han and early Eastern Han eras was of a coarse quality and used primarily as wrapping paper . The papermaking process was not formally introduced until the Eastern Han court eunuch Cai Lun ( 50 – 121 AD ) created a process in 105 AD where mulberry tree bark , hemp , old linens , and fish nets were boiled together to make a pulp that was pounded , stirred in water , and then dunked with a wooden sieve containing a reed mat that was shaken , dried , and bleached into sheets of paper . The oldest known piece of paper with writing on it comes from the ruins of a Chinese watchtower at Tsakhortei , Alxa League , Inner Mongolia , dated precisely 110 AD when the Han garrison abandoned the area following a nomadic Xiongnu attack . By the 3rd century , paper became one of China 's chief writing mediums . = = Ceramics = = The Han ceramics industry was upheld by private businesses as well as local government agencies . Ceramics were used in domestic wares and utensils as well as construction materials for roof tiles and bricks . Han dynasty grey pottery — its color derived from the clay that was used — was superior to earlier Chinese grey pottery due to the Han people 's use of larger kiln chambers , longer firing tunnels , and improved chimney designs . Kilns of the Han dynasty making grey pottery were able to reach firing temperatures above 1 @,@ 000 ° C ( 1 @,@ 830 ° F ) . However , hard southern Chinese pottery made from a dense adhesive clay native only in the south ( i.e. Guangdong , Guangxi , Hunan , Jiangxi , Fujian , Zhejiang , and southern Jiangsu ) was fired at even higher temperatures than grey pottery during the Han . Glazed pottery of the Shang ( c . 1600 – c . 1050 BC ) and Zhou ( c . 1050 – 256 BCE ) dynasties were fired at high temperatures , but by the mid Western Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD ) , a brown @-@ glazed ceramic was made which was fired at the low temperature of 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 470 ° F ) , followed by a green @-@ glazed ceramic which became popular in the Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 CE ) . Wang Zhongshu states that the light @-@ green stoneware known as celadon was thought to exist only since the Three Kingdoms ( 220 – 265 AD ) period onwards , but argues that ceramic shards found at Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) sites of Zhejiang province can be classified as celadon . However , Richard Dewar argues that true celadon was not created in China until the early Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) when Chinese kilns were able to reach a minimum furnace temperature of 1 @,@ 260 ° C ( 2 @,@ 300 ° F ) , with a preferred range of 1 @,@ 285 to 1 @,@ 305 ° C ( 2 @,@ 345 to 2 @,@ 381 ° F ) for celadon . = = Metallurgy = = = = = Furnaces and smelting techniques = = = A blast furnace converts raw iron ore into pig iron , which can be remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron . The earliest specimens of cast iron found in China date to the 5th century BC during the late Spring and Autumn period , yet the oldest discovered blast furnaces date to the 3rd century BC and the majority date to the period after Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) established a government monopoly over the iron industry in 117 BCE ( most of the discovered iron works sites built before this date were merely foundries which recast iron that had been smelt elsewhere ) . Iron ore smelted in blast furnaces during the Han was rarely if ever cast directly into permanent molds ; instead , the pig iron scraps were remelted in the cupola furnace to make cast iron . Cupola furnaces utilized a cold blast traveling through tuyere pipes from the bottom and over the top where the charge of charcoal and pig iron was introduced . The air traveling through the tuyere pipes thus became a hot blast once it reached the bottom of the furnace . Although Chinese civilization lacked the bloomery , the Han Chinese were able to make wrought iron when they injected too much oxygen into the cupola furnace , causing decarburization . The Han @-@ era Chinese were also able to convert cast iron and pig iron into wrought iron and steel by using the finery forge and puddling process , the earliest specimens of such dating to the 2nd century BCE and found at Tieshengguo near Mount Song of Henan province . The semisubterranean walls of these furnaces were lined with refractory bricks and had bottoms made of refractory clay . Besides charcoal made of wood , Wang Zhongshu states that another furnace fuel used during the Han were " coal cakes " , a mixture of coal powder , clay , and quartz . = = = Use of steel , iron , and bronze = = = Donald B. Wagner writes that most domestic iron tools and implements produced during the Han were made of cheaper and more brittle cast iron , whereas the military preferred to use wrought iron and steel weaponry due to their more durable qualities . During the Han dynasty , the typical 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) bronze sword found in the Warring States period was gradually replaced with an iron sword measuring roughly 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in length . The ancient dagger @-@ axe ( ge ) made of bronze was still used by Han soldiers , although it was gradually phased out by iron spears and iron ji halberds . Even arrowheads , which were traditionally made of bronze , gradually only had a bronze tip and iron shaft , until the end of the Han when the entire arrowhead was made solely of iron . Farmers , carpenters , bamboo craftsmen , stonemasons , and rammed earth builders had at their disposal iron tools such as the plowshare , pickaxe , spade , shovel , hoe , sickle , axe , adze , hammer , chisel , knife , saw , scratch awl , and nails . Common iron commodities found in Han dynasty homes included tripods , stoves , cooking pots , belt buckles , tweezers , fire tongs , scissors , kitchen knives , fish hooks , and needles . Mirrors and oil lamps were often made of either bronze or iron . Coin money minted during the Han was made of either copper or copper and tin smelted together to make the bronze alloy . = = Agriculture = = = = = Tools and methods = = = Modern archaeologists have unearthed Han iron farming tools throughout China , from Inner Mongolia in the north to Yunnan in the south . The spade , shovel , pick , and plow were used for tillage , the hoe for weeding , the rake for loosening the soil , and the sickle for harvesting crops . Depending on their size , Han plows were driven by either one ox or two oxen . Oxen were also used to pull the three @-@ legged iron seed drill ( invented in Han China by the 2nd century BCE ) , which enabled farmers to plant seeds in precise rows instead of casting them out by hand . While artwork of the Wei ( 220 – 265 CE ) and Jin ( 265 – 420 CE ) periods show use of the harrow for breaking up chunks of soil after plowing , it perhaps first appeared in China during the Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 CE ) . Irrigation works for agriculture included the use of water wells , artificial ponds and embankments , dams , canals , and sluice gates . = = = Alternating fields = = = During Emperor Wu 's ( r . 141 – 87 BCE ) reign , the Grain Intendant Zhao Guo ( 趙過 ) invented the alternating fields system ( daitianfa 代田法 ) . For every mou of land — i.e. a thin but elongated strip of land measuring 1 @.@ 38 m ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) wide and 331 m ( 1 @,@ 086 ft ) long , or an area of roughly 457 m2 ( 0 @.@ 113 acres ) — three low @-@ lying furrows ( quan 甽 ) that were each 0 @.@ 23 m ( 0 @.@ 75 ft ) wide were sowed in straight lines with crop seed . While weeding in the summer , the loose soil of the ridges ( long 壟 ) on either side of the furrows would gradually fall into the furrows , covering the sprouting crops and protecting them from wind and drought . Since the position of the furrows and ridges were reversed by the next year , this process was called the alternating fields system . This system allowed crops to grow in straight lines from sowing to harvest , conserved moisture in the soil , and provided a stable annual yield for harvested crops . Zhao Guo first experimented with this system right outside the capital Chang 'an , and once it proved successful , he sent out instructions for it to every commandery administrator , who were then responsible for disseminating these to the heads of every county , district , and hamlet in their commanderies . Sadao Nishijima speculates that the Imperial Counselor Sang Hongyang ( d . 80 BCE ) perhaps had a role in promoting this new system . Rich families who owned oxen and large heavy moldboard iron plows greatly benefited from this new system . However , poorer farmers who did not own oxen resorted to using teams of men to move a single plow , which was exhausting work . The author Cui Shi ( 催寔 ) ( d . 170 CE ) wrote in his Simin yueling ( 四民月令 ) that by the Eastern Han Era ( 25 – 220 AD ) an improved plow was invented which needed only one man to control it , two oxen to pull it , had three plowshares , a seed box for the drills , a tool which turned down the soil , and could sow roughly 45 @,@ 730 m2 ( 11 @.@ 30 acres ) of land in a single day . = = = Pit fields = = = During the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han ( r . 33 – 7 BCE ) , Fan Shengzhi wrote a manual ( i.e. the Fan Shengzhi shu 氾勝之書 ) which described the pit field system ( aotian 凹田 ) . In this system , every mou of farmland was divided into 3 @,@ 840 grids which each had a small pit that was dug 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) deep and 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) wide and had good quality manure mixed into the soil . Twenty seeds were sowed into each pit , which allegedly produced 0 @.@ 6 L ( 20 oz ) of harvested grain per pit , or roughly 2 @,@ 000 L ( 67 @,@ 630 oz ) per mou . This system did not require oxen @-@ driven plows or the most fertile land , since it could be employed even on sloping terrains where supplying water was difficult for other methods of farming . Although this farming method was favored by the poor , it did require intensive labor , thus only large families could maintain such a system . = = = Rice paddies = = = Han farmers in the Yangzi River region of southern China often maintained paddy fields for growing rice . Every year , they would burn the weeds in the paddy field , drench it in water , sow rice by hand , and around harvest time cut the surviving weeds and drown them a second time . In this system , the field lays fallow for much of the year and thus did not remain very fertile . However , Han rice farmers to the north around the Huai River practiced the more advanced system of transplantation . In this system , individual plants were given intensive care ( perhaps in the same location as the paddy field ) , their offshoots separated so that more water could be conserved , and the field could be heavily fertilized since winter crops were grown while the rice seedlings were situated nearby in a plant nursery . = = Mechanical and hydraulic engineering = = = = = Literary sources and archaeological evidence = = = Evidence of Han @-@ era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes disinterested Confucian scholars . Professional artisan @-@ engineers ( jiang 匠 ) did not leave behind detailed records of their work . Han scholars , who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering , sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described . Nevertheless , some Han literary sources provide crucial information . As written by Yang Xiong in 15 BCE , the belt drive was first used for a quilling device which wound silk fibers onto the bobbins of weaver shuttles . The invention of the belt drive was a crucial first step in the development of later technologies during the Song dynasty , such as the chain drive and spinning wheel . The inventions of the artisan @-@ engineer Ding Huan ( 丁緩 ) are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital . The official and poet Sima Xiangru ( 179 – 117 BC ) once hinted in his writings that the Chinese used a censer in the form of a gimbal , a pivot support made of concentric rings which allow the central gimbal to rotate on an axis while remaining vertically positioned . However , the first explicit mention of the gimbal used as an incense burner occurred around 180 CE when the artisan Ding Huan created his ' Perfume Burner for use among Cushions ' which allowed burning incense placed within the central gimbal to remain constantly level even when moved . Ding had other inventions as well . For the purpose of indoor air conditioning , he set up a large manually operated rotary fan which had rotating wheels that were 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in diameter . He also invented a lamp which he called the ' nine @-@ storied hill @-@ censer ' , since it was shaped as a hillside . When the cylindrical lamp was lit , the convection of rising hot air currents caused vanes placed on the top to spin , which in turn rotated painted paper figures of birds and other animals around the lamp . When Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) came upon the treasury of Qin Shi Huang ( r . 221 – 210 BC ) at Xianyang following the downfall of the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) , he found an entire miniature musical orchestra of puppets 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) tall who played mouth organs if one pulled on ropes and blew into tubes to control them . Zhang Heng wrote in the 2nd century AD that people could be entertained by theatrical plays of artificial fish and dragons . Later , the inventor Ma Jun ( fl . 220 – 265 AD ) invented a theater of moving mechanical puppets powered by the rotation of a hidden waterwheel . From literary sources it is known that the collapsible umbrella was invented during Wang Mang 's reign , although the simple parasol existed beforehand . This employed sliding levers and bendable joints that could be protracted and retracted . Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources . This includes the crank handle . Han pottery tomb models of farmyards and gristmills possess the first known depictions of crank handles , which were used to operate the fans of winnowing machines . The machine was used to separate chaff from grain , but the Chinese of later dynasties also employed the crank handle for silk @-@ reeling , hemp @-@ spinning , flour @-@ sifting , and drawing water from a well using the windlass . To measure distance traveled , the Han @-@ era Chinese also created the odometer cart . This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century CE , yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century CE . The wheels of this device rotated a set of gears which in turn forced mechanical figures to bang gongs and drums that alerted the travelers of the distance traveled ( measured in li ) . From existing specimens found at archaeological sites , it is known that Han @-@ era craftsmen made use of the sliding metal caliper to make minute measurements . Although Han @-@ era calipers bear incised inscriptions of the exact day of the year they were manufactured , they are not mentioned in any Han literary sources . = = = Uses of the waterwheel and water clock = = = By the Han dynasty , the Chinese developed various uses for the waterwheel . An improvement of the simple lever @-@ and @-@ fulcrum tilt hammer device operated by one 's foot , the hydraulic @-@ powered trip hammer used for pounding , decorticating , and polishing grain was first mentioned in the Han dictionary Jijiupian of 40 BC . It was also mentioned in the Regional Speech ( Fangyan ) dictionary written by Yang Xiong ( 53 BC – 18 AD ) in 15 BC , the philosophical Xinlun 新論 written by Huan Tan ( 43 BC – 28 AD ) in 20 AD , the poetry of Ma Rong ( 79 – 166 CE ) , and the writings of Kong Rong ( 153 – 208 CE ) . In his Balanced Discourse ( Lunheng ) , the philosopher Wang Chong ( 27 – 100 AD ) was the first in China to describe the square @-@ pallet chain pump used to lift water ( and other substances ) . Although some models were operated manually by foot pedals , some chain pumps were powered by a horizontal waterwheel which rotated large toothed gears and a horizontal axis beam . Their primary use was for lifting water into irrigation ditches , but chain pumps were also used in public works programs , such as when Zhang Rang ( d . 189 CE ) had an engineer build several of them to lift water into pipes that provided the capital Luoyang and its palaces with clean water . While acting as administrator of Nanyang in 31 CE , Du Shi ( d . 38 CE ) invented a water @-@ powered reciprocator which worked the bellows of the blast furnace and cupola furnace in smelting iron ; before this invention , intensive manual labor was required to work the bellows . Although the astronomical armillary sphere ( representing the celestial sphere ) existed in China since the 1st century BCE , the mathematician and court astronomer Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 CE ) provided it with motive power by using the constant pressure head of an inflow water clock to rotate a waterwheel that acted on a set of gears . Zhang Heng was also the first to address the problem of the falling pressure head in the inflow water clock ( which gradually slowed the timekeeping ) by setting up an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel . = = = Seismometer = = = The Han court was responsible for the major efforts of disaster relief when natural disasters such as earthquakes devastated the lives of commoners . To better prepare for calamities , Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction . Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest , a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 to 500 km ( 250 to 310 mi ) northwest of Luoyang ( in what is now modern Gansu ) . Zhang called his device the ' instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth ' ( Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪 ) , so @-@ named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air . As described in the Book of the Later Han , the frame of the seismometer was a domed bronze vessel in the shape of a wine jar , although it was 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in diameter and decorated with scenes of mountains and animals . The trigger mechanism was an inverted pendulum ( which the Book of the Later Han calls the " central column " ) that , if disturbed by the ground tremors of earthquakes located near or far away , would swing and strike one of eight mobile arms ( representing the eight directions ) , each with a crank and catch mechanism . The crank and a right angle lever would raise one of eight metal dragon heads located on the exterior , dislodging a metal ball from its mouth that dropped into the mouth of one of eight metal toads below arranged like the points on a compass rose , thus indicating the direction of the earthquake . The Book of the Later Han states that when the ball fell into any one of eight toad mouths , it produced a loud noise which gained the attention of those observing the device . While Wang Zhenduo ( 王振铎 ) accepted the idea that Zhang 's seismometer had cranks and levers which were disturbed by the inverted pendulum , his contemporary Akitsune Imamura ( 1870 – 1948 ) argued that the inverted pendulum could have had a pin at the top which , upon moving by force of the ground vibrations , would enter one of eight slots and expel the ball by pushing a slider . Since the Book of the Later Han states that the other seven dragon heads would not subsequently release the balls lodged up into their jaws after the first one had dropped , Imamura asserted that the pin of the pendulum would have been locked into the slot it had entered and thus immobilized the instrument until it was reset . = = Mathematics and astronomy = = = = = Mathematical treatises = = = One of the earliest surviving mathematical treatises of ancient China is the Book on Numbers and Computation ( Suan shu shu ) , part of the Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts dated 202 to 186 BCE and found in Jiangling County , Hubei . Another mathematical text compiled during the Han was The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven ( Zhoubi suanjing ) , dated no earlier than the 1st century BCE ( from perhaps multiple authors ) and contained materials similar to those described by Yang Xiong in 15 BCE , yet the zhoubi school of mathematics was not explicitly mentioned until Cai Yong 's ( 132 – 192 CE ) commentary of 180 CE . A preface was added to the text by Zhao Shuang 趙爽 in the 3rd century CE . There was also the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art ( Jiuzhang Suanshu ) ; its full title was found on two bronze standard measurers dated 179 CE ( with speculation that its material existed in earlier books under different titles ) and was provided with detailed commentary by Liu Hui ( fl . 3rd century CE ) in 263 CE . It is worth noting in this context that many of the documents excavated from Qin and Han sites contain evidence of the practical mathematics used by administrators for inventories and taxes , as well as for calculating labor needed for public works projects , just as described in the mathematical treatises . = = = Innovations in the treatises = = = The Suan shu shu presents basic mathematics problems and solutions . It was most likely a handbook for day @-@ to @-@ day business transactions or affairs of government administration . It contains problems and solutions for field measurements of area , proportional exchange rates for agricultural millet and rice , distribution by proportion , short width division , and excess and deficiency . Some of the problems found in the Suan shu shu appear in the later text Jiuzhang suanshu ; in five cases , the titles are exact matches . However , unlike the Jiuzhang suanshu , the Suan shu shu does not deal with problems involving right @-@ angle triangles , square roots , cube roots , and matrix methods , which demonstrates the significant advancements made in Chinese mathematics between the writings of these two texts . The Zhoubi suanjing , written in dialogue form and with regularly presented problems , is concerned with the application of mathematics to astronomy . In one problem which sought to determine the height of the Sun from the Earth and the diameter of the Sun , Chen Zi ( 陳子 ) instructs Rong Fang ( 榮方 ) to wait until the shadow cast by the 8 chi tall gnomon is 6 chi ( one chi during the Han was 33 cm ) , so that a 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 right @-@ angle triangle can be constructed where the base is 60 @,@ 000 li ( one li during the Han was the equivalent of 415 m or 1362 ft ) , the hypotenuse leading towards the sun is 100 @,@ 000 li , and the height of the sun is 80 @,@ 000 li . Like the Jiuzhang suanshu , the Zhoubi suanjing also gives mathematical proof for the " Gougu Theorem " ( 勾股定理 ; i.e. where c is the length of the hypotenuse and a and b are the lengths of the other two sides , respectively , a2 + b2 = c2 ) , which is known as the Pythagorean theorem in the West after the Greek mathematician Pythagoras ( fl . 6th century BCE ) . The Jiuzhang suanshu was perhaps the most groundbreaking of the three surviving Han treatises . It is the first known book to feature negative numbers , along with the Bakhshali manuscript ( 200 CE ? – 600 CE ? ) of India and the book of the Greek mathematician Diophantus ( fl . 3rd century ) written in about 275 CE . Negative numbers appeared as black counting rods , while positive numbers appeared as red counting rods . Although the decimal system existed in China since the Shang dynasty ( c . 1600 – c . 1050 BCE ) , the earliest evidence of a decimal fraction ( i.e. the denominator is a power of ten ) is an inscription on a standard volume @-@ measuring vessel dated 5 CE and used by the mathematician and astronomer Liu Xin ( 46 BCE – 23 CE ) . Yet the first book to feature decimal fractions was the Jiuzhang suanshu , as a means to solve equations and represent measurements . Gaussian elimination , an algorithm used to solve linear equations , was known as the Array Rule in the Jiuzhang suanshu . While the book used continued fractions to find the roots of equations , Liu Hui built on this idea in the 3rd century when he increased the decimals to find the cube root of 1 @,@ 860 @,@ 867 ( yielding the answer 123 ) , the same method used in the Horner scheme named after William George Horner ( 1786 – 1837 ) . = = = Approximations of pi = = = For centuries , the Chinese had simply approximated the value of pi as 3 , until Liu Xin approximated it at 3 @.@ 154 sometime between 1 – 5 CE , although the method he used to reach this value is unknown to historians . Standard measuring vessels dating to the reign of Wang Mang ( 9 – 23 CE ) also showed approximations for pi at 3 @.@ 1590 , 3 @.@ 1497 , and 3 @.@ 167 . Zhang Heng is the next known Han mathematician to have made an approximation for pi . Han mathematicians understood that the area of a square versus the area of its inscribed circle had an approximate ratio of 4 : 3 , and also understood that the volume of a cube and the volume of its inscribed sphere would be 42 : 32 . With D as diameter and V as volume , D3 : V = 16 : 9 or V = 9 ⁄ 16D3 , a formula Zhang found fault with since he realized the value for diameter was inaccurate , the discrepancy being the value taken for the ratio . To fix this , Zhang added 1 ⁄ 16D3 to the formula , thus V
= 9 ⁄ 16D3 + 1 ⁄ 16D3 = 5 ⁄ 8D3 . Since he found the ratio of the volume of the cube to the inscribed sphere at 8 : 5 , the ratio of the area of a square to the inscribed circle is √ 8 : √ 5 . With this formula , Zhang was able to approximate pi as the square root of 10 , or 3 @.@ 162 . After the Han , Liu Hui approximated pi as 3 @.@ 14159 , while the mathematician Zu Chongzhi ( 429 – 500 CE ) approximated pi at 3 @.@ 141592 ( or 355 ⁄ 113 ) , the most accurate approximation the ancient Chinese would achieve . = = = Musical tuning and theory = = = Mathematics were also used in musical tuning and music theory . The 2nd @-@ century @-@ BCE Huainanzi , compiled by eight scholars under the patronage of King Liu An ( 179 – 122 BCE ) , outlined the use of twelve tones on a musical scale . Jing Fang ( 78 – 37 BCE ) , a mathematician and music theorist , expanded these to create a scale of 60 tones . While doing so , Jing Fang realized that 53 just fifths is approximate to 31 octaves . By calculating the difference at 177147 ⁄ 176776 , Jing reached the same value of 53 equal temperament duly discovered by the German mathematician Nicholas Mercator ( 1620 – 1687 ) ( i.e. 353 / 284 , known as Mercator 's comma ) . Later , the prince Zhu Zaiyu ( 1536 – 1611 CE ) in Ming China and Simon Stevin ( 1548 – 1620 CE ) of the Flemish Region in Europe would simultaneously ( but separately ) discover the mathematical formula for equal temperament . = = = Astronomical observations = = = The ancient Chinese made careful observations of heavenly bodies and phenomena since observations of the cosmos were used for astrology and prognostication . The astronomer Gan De ( fl . 4th century BCE ) from the State of Qi was the first in history to acknowledge sunspots as genuine solar phenomena ( and not obstructing natural satellites as thought in the West after Einhard 's observation in 807 CE ) , while the first precisely dated sunspot observation in China occurred on May 10 , 28 BCE during the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han ( r . 33 – 7 BCE ) . Among the Mawangdui Silk Texts dated no later than 168 BCE ( when they were sealed in a tomb at Mawangdui , Changsha , Hunan province ) , the Miscellaneous Readings of Cosmic Patterns and Pneuma Images ( Tianwen qixiang zazhan 天文氣象雜占 ) manuscript illustrates in writings and ink drawings roughly three @-@ hundred different climatic and astronomical features including clouds , mirages , rainbows , stars , constellations , and comets . Another silk text from the same site reports the times and locations of the rising and setting of planets in the night sky from the years 246 – 177 BCE . The Han @-@ era Chinese noted the passage of the same comet seen in Persia for the birth of Mithridates II of Parthia in 135 BCE , the same comet the Romans observed close to the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE , Halley 's comet in 12 BCE , the same comet noted by Roman historian Cassius Dio ( c . 155 – c . 229 CE ) for 13 CE , and ( what is now known to have been ) a supernova in 185 CE . For various comets discussed in the Han @-@ era history books Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han , details are given for their position in the sky and direction they were moving , the length of time they were visible , their color , and their size . The Han @-@ era Chinese also made star catalogues , such as historian Sima Qian 's ( 145 – 86 BCE ) A Monograph on Celestial Officials ( Tianguanshu 天官書 ) and Zhang Heng 's 2nd @-@ century @-@ CE star catalogue which featured roughly 2 @,@ 500 stars and 124 constellations . To create a three @-@ dimensional representation of such observations , Astronomer Geng Shouchang ( 耿壽昌 ) provided his armillary sphere with an equatorial ring in 52 BCE . By 84 CE the elliptical ring was added to the armillary sphere , while Zhang Heng 's model of 125 CE added the celestial horizon ring and meridian ring . = = = Han calendars = = = The Han Chinese used astronomical studies mainly to construct and revise their calendar . In contrast to the Julian calendar ( 46 BCE ) and Gregorian calendar ( 1582 CE ) of the West ( but like the Hellenic calendars of Classical Greece ) , the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar , meaning that it uses the precise movements of the Sun and Moon as time @-@ markers throughout the year . In the 5th century BCE during the Spring and Autumn period , the Chinese established the Sifen calendar ( 古四分历 ) , which measured the tropical year at 3651 ⁄ 4 days ( like the Julian calendar of Rome ) . Emperor Wu replaced this with the new Taichu calendar ( 太初历 ) in 104 BCE which measured the tropical year at 365385 ⁄ 1539 days and the lunar month at 2943 ⁄ 81 days . Since the Taichu calendar had become inaccurate over two centuries , Emperor Zhang of Han ( r . 75 – 88 CE ) halted its use and revived use of the Sifen calendar . Later , astronomer Guo Shoujing ( 1233 – 1316 CE ) would set the tropical year at 365 @.@ 2425 days for his Shoushi calendar ( 授時曆 ) , the same value used in the Gregorian calendar . Besides the use of the calendar for regulating agricultural practices throughout the seasons , it was also used to mark important dates in the Sexagenary cycle — constructed by celestial stems ( gan 干 ) and Earthly Branches ( zhi 支 ) , each of the latter associated with an animal of the Chinese zodiac . = = = Astronomical theory = = = Zhao Shaung 's 3rd @-@ century commentary in the Zhoubi suanjing describes two astronomical theories : in one , the heavens are shaped as a hemi @-@ spherical dome extending over the earth , while the other compares the earth to the central yolk of an egg , where the heavens are shaped as a celestial sphere around the earth . The latter astronomical theory was mentioned by Yang Xiong in his Model Sayings ( Fayan 法言 ) and expounded on by Zhang Heng in his Spiritual Constitution of the Universe ( Lingxian 靈憲 ) of 120 CE . Thus , the Han @-@ era Chinese believed in a geocentric model for the immediate solar system and greater universe , as opposed to a heliocentric model . The Han @-@ era Chinese discussed the illumination and shapes of heavenly bodies : were they flat and circular , or were they rounded and spherical ? Jing Fang wrote in the 1st century BCE that Han astronomers believed the Sun , Moon , and planets were spherical like balls or crossbow bullets . He also wrote that the Moon and planets produce no light of their own , are viewable to people on Earth only because they are illuminated by the Sun , and those parts not illuminated by the Sun would be dark on the other side . For this , Jing compared the Moon to a mirror illuminating light . In the 2nd century CE , Zhang Heng drew a similar comparison to Jing 's by stating that the Sun is like fire and the Moon and planets are like water , since fire produces light and water reflects it . He also repeated Jing 's comment that the side of the moon not illuminated by the Sun was left in darkness . However , Zhang noted that sunlight did not always reach the Moon since the Earth obstructs the rays during a lunar eclipse . He also noted that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon and Sun crossed paths to block sunlight from reaching earth . In his Balanced Discourse ( Lunheng ) , Wang Chong ( 27 – 100 CE ) wrote that some Han thinkers believed that rain fell from the Heavens ( i.e. where the stars were located ) . Wang argued that , although rain fell from above , this common theory was false . He agreed with another theory that stated clouds were formed by the evaporation of water on earth , and that since clouds disperse rain , clouds and rain are in fact one and the same ; in essence , he accurately described the water cycle . = = Structural engineering and public works = = = = = Materials and construction = = = Timber was the chief building material in Han architecture . It was used for grand palace halls , multi @-@ story towers , multi @-@ story residential halls , and humble abodes . However , due to wood 's rapid decay over time and susceptibility to fire , the oldest wooden buildings found in China ( i.e. several temple halls of Mount Wutai ) date no earlier than the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 CE ) . Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp describes the scarcity of Han @-@ era archaeological remains , as well as the often unreliable Han @-@ era literary and artistic sources used by historians for clues about non @-@ existent Han architecture . What remains of Han @-@ dynasty architecture are ruins of brick and rammed earth walls ( including aboveground city walls and underground tomb walls ) , rammed earth platforms for terraced altars and halls , funerary stone or brick pillar @-@ gates , and scattered ceramic roof tiles that once adorned timber halls . Sections of the Han @-@ era rammed earth Great Wall still exist in Gansu province , along with the Han frontier ruins of thirty beacon towers and two fortified castles with crenellations . Han walls of frontier towns and forts in Inner Mongolia were typically constructed with stamped clay bricks instead of rammed earth . Thatched or tiled roofs were supported by wooden pillars , since the addition of brick , rammed earth , or mud walls of these halls did not actually support the roof . Stone and plaster were also used for domestic architecture . Tiled eaves projecting outward were built to distance falling rainwater from the walls ; they were supported by dougong brackets that were sometimes elaborately decorated . Molded designs usually decorated the ends of roof tiles , as seen in artistic models of buildings and in surviving tile pieces . = = = Courtyard homes = = = Valuable clues about Han architecture can be found in Han artwork of ceramic models , paintings , and carved or stamped bricks discovered in tombs and other sites . The layout of Han tombs were also built like underground houses , comparable to the scenes of courtyard houses found on tomb bricks and in three @-@ dimensional models . Han homes had a courtyard area ( and some had multiple courtyards ) with halls that were slightly elevated above it and connected by stairways . Multi @-@ story buildings included the main colonnaded residence halls built around the courtyards as well as watchtowers . The halls were built with intersecting crossbeams and rafters that were usually carved with decorations ; stairways and walls were usually plastered over to produce a smooth surface and then painted . = = = Chang 'an and Luoyang , the Han capitals = = = The ruins of the walls of Han 's first capital Chang 'an still stand today at 12 m ( 39 ft ) in height with a base width of 12 to 16 m ( 39 to 52 ft ) . Modern archaeological surveys have proven that the eastern wall was 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) long , the southern wall was 7 @,@ 600 m ( 24 @,@ 900 ft ) long , the western wall was 4 @,@ 900 m ( 16 @,@ 100 ft ) long , and the northern wall was 7 @,@ 200 ( 23 @,@ 622 ft ) long . Overall the total length of walls equalled 25 @,@ 700 m ( 84 @,@ 300 ft ) , and formed a roughly square layout ( although the southern and northern walls had sections which zigzagged due to topographical concerns : rough terrain existed along the southern wall and the course of the Wei River obstructed the straight path of the northern wall ) . The city 's moat was 8 m ( 26 ft ) wide and 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep ; the remains of what were wooden bridges have been discovered along the moat . Chang 'an had twelve gatehouses leading into the city , three for each side of the wall , and acted as terminus points for the main avenues . Every gatehouse had three gateway entrances that were each 6 m ( 20 ft ) wide ; Han @-@ era writers claimed that each gateway could accommodate the traffic of four horse @-@ drawn carriages at once . The drainage system included many drainholes that were dug under these gates and lined with bricks that form arches , where ceramic water pipes have been found that once connected to the ditches built alongside the major streets . Only some wall sections and platform foundations of the city 's once lavish imperial palaces remain . Likewise , the stone foundations of the armory were also discovered , but its wooden architecture had long since disappeared . Some sections of the wall ruins of Han 's second capital Luoyang still stand at 10 m ( 33 ft ) in height and 25 m ( 82 ft ) in width at the base . The eastern wall was 3 @,@ 900 m ( 12 @,@ 800 ft ) long , the western wall was 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 200 ft ) long , and the northern wall was 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) long , yet the southern wall was washed away when the Luo River changed its course centuries ago ; by using the terminus points of the eastern and western walls , historians estimate that the southern wall was 2 @,@ 460 m ( 8 @,@ 070 ft ) long . The overall walled enclosure formed a rectangular shape , yet with some disruptive curves due to topographical obstructions . Like Chang 'an , Luoyang had twelve gatehouses , three for each side of the wall , while each gatehouse had three gateway entrances which led to major avenues within the city . The rammed earth foundational platforms of religious altars and terraces still stand today outside of the walled perimeter of Luoyang , dedicated to the worship of deities and where state sacrifices were conducted . They were approached by long ramps and once had timber halls built on top with verandas on the lower levels . = = = Underground tombs = = = By the 1980s , over ten thousand brick @-@ and @-@ stone underground Han tombs had been discovered throughout China . Earlier Chinese tombs dating to the Warring States were often vertically dug pits lined with wooden walls . In digging the tomb sites , Han workers would first build vertical pits and then dig laterally , hence the name " horizontal pits " for Han tombs ; this method was also used for tomb sites dug into the sides of mountains . The walls of most Western Han tombs were built of large hollow bricks while the smaller , non @-@ hollow brick type that dominated Eastern Han tomb architecture ( with some made out of stone ) appeared in the late Western Han . The smaller brick type was better @-@ suited for Han tomb archways at entrances , vaulted chambers , and domed roofs . Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits . The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown . The layout of tombs dug into the sides of mountains typically had a front chamber , side chambers , and a rear chambers designed to imitate a complex of aboveground halls . The tomb of King Liu Sheng ( d . 113 BCE ) in Hebei province not only had a front hall with window drapes and grave goods , carriages and horses in the southern separate side chamber , and storage goods in the northern side chamber , but also the remains of real timber houses with tiled roofs erected within ( along with a house made of stone slabs and two stone doors in the rear chamber ) . Doors made completely out of stone were found in many Han tombs as well as tombs in later dynasties . A total of twenty @-@ nine monumental brick or stone @-@ carved pillar @-@ gates ( que ) from the Han dynasty have survived and can be found in the aboveground areas around Han tomb and shrine sites . They often formed part of outer walls , usually flanking an entry but sometimes at the corners of walled enclosures . Although they lack wooden and ceramic components , they feature imitation roof tiles , eaves , porches , and balustrades . = = = Boreholes and mining shafts = = = On Han tomb brick reliefs of Sichuan province , scenes of borehole drilling for mining projects are shown . They show towering derricks lifting liquid brine through bamboo pipes to the surface so that the brine could be distilled in evaporation pans over the heat of furnaces and produce salt . The furnaces were heated by natural gas brought by bamboo pipes , yet gas brought up from 610 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) below the surface could cause an explosion if it was not properly mixed with oxygen first , so the Han @-@ era Chinese built underground carburetor chambers and siphoned some of the gas off with exhaust pipes . The drill bit for digging boreholes was operated by a team of men jumping on and off a beam while the boring tool was rotated by a draft animal , usually oxen or water buffaloes . Han boreholes dug for collecting brine could reach hundreds of meters ( feet ) beneath the Earth 's surface . Mining shafts dating to the Han dynasty have been found which reach depths of hundreds of meters ( feet ) beneath the earth , complete with spacious underground rooms structured by timber frames along with ladders and iron tools left behind . = = = Ceramic model buildings = = = There are Han @-@ era literary references to tall towers found in the capital cities ; they often served as watchtowers , astronomical observatories , and religious establishments meant to attract the favor of immortals . The court eunuchs Zhao Zhong and Zhang Rang discouraged the aloof Emperor Ling of Han ( r . 168 – 189 CE ) from ascending to the top floors of tall towers ( claiming it would cause bad luck ) , in order to conceal from him the enormous palatial mansions the eunuchs built for themselves in Luoyang . It is not known for certain whether or not miniature ceramic models of residential towers and watchtowers found in Han @-@ dynasty tombs are completely faithful representations of such timber towers , yet they reveal vital clues about lost timber architecture . There are only a handful of existing ceramic models of multi @-@ story towers from pre @-@ Han and Western Han eras ; the bulk of the hundreds of towers found so far were made during the Eastern Han period . Model towers could be fired as one piece in the kiln or assembled from several different ceramic pieces to create the whole . No one tower is a duplicate of the other , yet they share common features . They often had a walled courtyard at the bottom , a balcony with balustrades and windows for every floor , roof tiles capping and concealing the ceiling rafters , human figures peering out the windows or standing on the balconies , door knockers , and pets such as dogs in the bottom courtyard . Perhaps the most direct pieces of evidence to suggest that miniature ceramic tower models are faithful representations of real @-@ life Han timber towers are tile patterns . Artistic patterns found on the circular tiles that cap the eave @-@ ends on the miniature models are exact matches of patterns found on real @-@ life Han roof tiles excavated at sites such as the royal palaces in Chang 'an and Luoyang , and even the tiles of the original White Horse Temple . The ceramic model towers featured below come from tombs of the Han dynasty : Besides towers , other ceramic models from the Han reveal a variety of building types . This includes multi @-@ story storehouses such as granaries , courtyard houses with multi @-@ story halls , kiosks , walled gate towers , mills , manufactories and workshops , animal pens , outhouses , and water wells . Even models of single @-@ story farmhouses show a great amount of detail , including tiled roofs , courtyards , steps leading to walkways , farmyards with troughs and basins , parapets , and privies . Models of granaries and storehouses had tiled rooftops , dougong brackets , windows , and stilt supports raising them above ground level . Han models of water wells sometimes feature tiny tiled roofs supported by beams that house the rope pulley used for lifting the bucket . The ceramic models featured below come from tombs of the Han dynasty : = = = Roads , bridges , and canals = = = In order to facilitate commerce and communication as well as speed the process of tax collection and movement of military troops , the Han government sponsored the building of new roads , bridges , and canal waterways . These include repairs and renovation work on the Dujiangyan Irrigation System of Sichuan and Zhengguo Canal of Shaanxi , both of which were built by the previous State of Qin . Accepting the proposal of Ni Kuan ( zh : 兒寬 ) , in 111 BCE Emperor Wu commissioned Er to lead the project of creating extensions to the Zhengguo Canal that could irrigate nearby terrain elevated above the main canal . Since a large amount of silt had built up over time at the bottom of the Zhengguo Canal ( causing flooding ) , in 95 BCE another project was initiated to tap irrigation waters from further up the Jing River , requiring the dredging of a new 100 km ( 62 mi ) long canal following a contour line above the Zhengguo . The Han state also maintained a system of dikes to protect farmland from seasonal floods . Roadways , wooden bridges , postal stations , and relay stations were occasionally repaired , while many new facilities such as these were established . As written by Han authors , roads built during the Han were tamped down with metal rammers , yet there is uncertainty over the materials used ; Joseph Needham speculates that they were rubble and gravel . The widths of roads ranged from narrow footpaths where only a single horse or oxen could pass at once to large highways that could accommodate the simultaneous passage of nine horse @-@ drawn chariots abreast . Fortified Han roadways were built as far west as Shanshan ( Loulan ) near the Lop Desert , while Han forces utilized routes that traversed north of the Taklamakan Desert towards Kashgar . A vast network of roads , fortified passes , and wooden bridges built over rushing torrents in steep gorges of the Qin Mountains was consolidated during the Han , known as the gallery roads . During the reign of Emperor Wu , roads were built to connect newly conquered territories in what is now Yunnan in the far southwest as well as the Korean Peninsula in the far northeast . One of the most common bridge @-@ types built during the Han was the wooden @-@ trestle beam bridge , described by literary sources and seen in reliefs carved on tomb bricks . Evidence for arch bridges is elusive : one outside of Chengdu 's south gate is claimed to date to the Han period , while that built by Ma Xian ( 馬賢 ) ( fl . 135 CE ) was certainly a beam bridge . In artwork , a relief sculpture from a Han tomb in Sichuan province shows an arch bridge with a gradual curve , suggesting that it is segmental , although the use of such bridges are not entirely confirmed . Although there are rare references to simple suspension bridges in Han sources , these are only mentioned in connection with travels to foreign countries in the Himalaya , Hindukush and Afghanistan , demonstrating the antiquity of the invention there . Floating pontoon bridges made of boats secured by iron chains were built during the Han ( some even spanning the Yellow River and Yangzi River ) and were most often employed for military purposes since they could be easily assembled and then disassembled . = = Medicine = = Much of the beliefs held by Han @-@ era physicians are known to modern historians through such texts as the Yellow Emperor 's Inner Canon ( Huangdi neijing ) medical corpus , which was compiled from the 3rd to 2nd century BCE and was mentioned in the Book of Later Han . It is clear from this text and others that their metaphysical beliefs in the five phases and yin and yang dictated their medical decisions and assumptions . The Han @-@ era Chinese believed that each organ in the body was associated with one of the five phases ( metal 金 , wood 木 , water 水 , fire 火 , earth 土 ) and had two circulatory qi channels ( 任督二脉 ) . If these channels were disrupted , Han medical texts suggest that one should consume an edible material associated with one of these phases that would counteract the organ 's prescribed phase and thus restore one 's health . For example , the Chinese believed that when the heart — associated with the fire phase — caused one to become sluggish , then one should eat sour food because it was associated with the wood phase ( which promoted fire ) . The Han Chinese also believed that by using pulse diagnosis , a physician could determine which organ of the body emitted " vital energy " ( qi ) and what qualities the latter had , in order to figure out the exact disorder the patient was suffering . Despite the influence of metaphysical theory on medicine , Han texts also give practical advice , such as the proper way to perform clinical lancing to remove an abscess . The Huangdi neijing noted the symptoms and reactions of people with various diseases of the liver , heart , spleen , lung , or kidneys in a 24 @-@ hour period , which was a recognition of circadian rhythm , although explained in terms of the five phases . In his Essential Medical Treasures of the Golden Chamber ( Jinkui yaolue ) , Zhang Zhongjing ( c . 150 – c . 219 CE ) was the first to suggest a regulated diet rich in certain vitamins could prevent different types of disease , an idea which led Hu Sihui ( fl . 1314 – 1330 CE ) to prescribe a diet rich in Vitamin B1 as a treatment for beriberi . Zhang 's major work was the Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders ( Shanghan zabing lun ) . His contemporary and alleged associate Hua Tuo ( d . 208 CE ) was a physician who had studied the Huangdi neijing and became knowledgeable in Chinese herbology . Hua Tuo used anesthesia on patients during surgery and created an ointment that was meant to fully heal surgery wounds within a month . In one diagnosis of an ill woman , he deciphered that she bore a dead fetus within her womb which he then removed , curing her of her ailments . Historical sources say that Hua Tuo rarely practiced moxibustion and acupuncture . The first mentioning of acupuncture in Chinese literature appeared in the Huangdi neijing . Acupuncture needles made of gold were found in the tomb of the Han King Liu Sheng ( d . 113 BCE ) . Some stone @-@ carved depictions of acupuncture date to the Eastern Han Era ( 25 – 220 CE ) . Hua Tuo also wrote about the allegedly life @-@ prolonging exercises of calisthenics . In the 2nd @-@ century @-@ BCE medical texts excavated from the tombs of Mawangdui , illustrated diagrams of calisthenic positions are accompanied by descriptive titles and captions . Vivienne Lo writes that the modern physical exercises of taijiquan and qigong are derived from Han @-@ era calisthenics . = = Cartography = = Map @-@ making in China preceded the Han dynasty . Since two 4th @-@ century @-@ BCE silk maps from the State of Qin ( found in Gansu , displaying the region about the Jialing River ) show the measured distance between timber @-@ gathering sites , Mei @-@ ling Hsu argues that these are to be considered the first known economic maps ( as they predate the maps of the Roman geographer Strabo , c . 64 BCE – 24 CE ) . Maps from the Han period have also been uncovered by modern archaeologists , such as those found with 2nd @-@ century @-@ BCE silk texts at Mawangdui . In contrast to the Qin maps , the Han maps found at Mawangdui employ a more diverse use of map symbols , cover a larger terrain , and display information on local populations and even pinpoint locations of military camps . One of the maps discovered at Mawangdui shows positions of Han military garrisons which were to attack Nanyue in 181 BCE . In Chinese literature , the oldest reference to a map comes from the year 227 BCE , when the assassin Jing Ke was to present a map to Ying Zheng 嬴政 , King of Qin ( ruling later as Qin Shi Huang , r . 221 – 210 BCE ) on behalf of Crown Prince Dan of Yan . Instead of presenting the map , he pulled out a dagger from his scroll , yet was unable to kill Ying Zheng . The Rites of Zhou ( Zhouli ) , compiled during the Han and commented by Liu Xin in the 1st century CE , mentioned the use of maps for governmental provinces and districts , principalities , frontier boundaries , and locations of ores and minerals for mining facilities . The first Chinese gazetteer was written in 52 CE and included information on territorial divisions , the founding of cities , and local products and customs . Pei Xiu ( 224 – 271 CE ) was the first to describe in detail the use of a graduated scale and geometrically plotted reference grid . However , historians Howard Nelson , Robert Temple , and Rafe de Crespigny argue that there is enough literary evidence that Zhang Heng 's now lost work of 116 CE established the geometric reference grid in Chinese cartography ( including a line from the Book of Later Han : " [ Zhang Heng ] cast a network of coordinates about heaven and earth , and reckoned on the basis of it " ) . Although there is speculation fueled by the report in Sima 's Records of the Grand Historian that a gigantic raised @-@ relief map representing the Qin Empire is located within the tomb of Qin Shi Huang , it is known that small raised @-@ relief maps were created during the Han dynasty , such as one made out of rice by the military officer Ma Yuan ( 14 BCE – 49 CE ) . = = Nautics and vehicles = = In 1975 , an ancient shipyard discovered in Guangzhou is now dated to the late 3rd century BCE , made during either the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BCE ) or early Western Han dynasty . It had three large platforms capable of building wooden ships that were 30 m ( 98 ft ) long , 8 m ( 26 ft ) wide , and had a weight capacity of 60 metric tons . Another Han shipyard in what is now Anhui province had a government @-@ operated maritime workshop where battle ships were assembled . The widespread use of iron tools during the Han dynasty was essential for crafting such vessels . The southward expansion of the Han dynasty led to new trade routes and diplomatic contact with foreign kingdoms . In 111 BCE , Emperor Wu conquered the Kingdom of Nanyue in what is now modern northern Vietnam and Guangdong , Guangxi , Yunnan ; thereafter he opened up maritime trade to both Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean , as foreign merchants brought lapis lazuli , pearls , jade , and glasswares to the Han Empire from this southern sea route . When a group of travelers from the Roman Empire ( allegedly diplomats of Marcus Aurelius but most likely Roman merchants ) came to the Han court in 166 CE , they allegedly came from this southern trade route . By at least the 1st century CE — as proven by Eastern Han ceramic miniature models of ships found in various tombs — the Chinese would have been able to brave distant waters with the new steering invention of the stern @-@ mounted rudder . This came to replace the less efficient steering oar . While ancient China was home to various ship designs , including the layered and fortified tower ship meant for calm waters of lakes and river , the junk design ( jun 船 ) created by the 1st century CE was China 's first seaworthy sailing ship . The typical junk has a square @-@ ended bow and stern , a flat @-@ bottomed hull or carvel @-@ shaped hull with no keel or sternpost , and solid transverse bulkheads in the place of structural ribs found in Western seacrafts . Since the Chinese junk lacked a sternpost , the rudder was attached to the back of the ship by use of either socket @-@ and @-@ jaw or block and tackle ( which differed from the later European pintle and gudgeon design of the 12th century ) . As written by a 3rd @-@ century author , junks had for @-@ and @-@ aft rigs and lug sails . Although horse and ox @-@ drawn carts and spoke @-@ wheeled chariots had existed in China long before the Han dynasty , it was not until the 1st century BCE that literary evidence pointed to the invention of the wheelbarrow , while painted murals on Han tomb walls of the 2nd century CE show the wheelbarrow in use for hauling goods . While the ' throat @-@ and @-@ girth ' harness was still in use throughout much of the ancient world ( placing an excessive amount of pressure on horses ' necks ) , the Chinese were placing a wooden yoke across their horses ' chests with traces to the chariot shaft by the 4th century BCE in the State of Chu ( as seen on a Chu lacquerware ) . By Han times , the Chinese replaced this heavy yoke with a softer breast strap , as seen in Han stamped bricks and carved tomb reliefs . In the final stage of evolution , the modern horse collar was invented in China by the 5th century CE , during the Northern Wei period . = = Weaponry and war machines = = The pivot catapult , known as the traction trebuchet , had existed in China since the Warring States period ( as evidenced by the Mozi ) . It was regularly used in sieges during the Han dynasty , by both besiegers and the besieged . The most common projectile weapon used during the Han dynasty was the small handheld , trigger @-@ activated crossbow ( and to a lesser extent , the repeating crossbow ) , first invented in China during the 6th or 5th century BCE . Although the nomadic Xiongnu were able to twist their waists slightly while horse @-@ riding and shoot arrows at targets behind them , the official Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BCE ) deemed the Chinese crossbow superior to the Xiongnu bow . The Han Chinese also employed chemical warfare . In quelling a peasant revolt near Guiyang in 178 CE , the imperial Han forces had horse @-@ drawn chariots carrying bellows that were used to pump powdered lime ( calcium oxide ) at the rebels , who were dispersed . In this same instance , they also lit incendiary rags tied to the tails of horses , so that the frightened horses would rush through the enemy lines and disrupt their formations . To deter pursuits of marching infantry or riding cavalry , the Han Chinese made caltrops ( barbed iron balls with sharp spikes sticking out in all directions ) that could be scattered on the ground and pierce the feet or hooves of those who were unaware of them .
= Chickasaw Turnpike = The Chickasaw Turnpike is a short two @-@ lane toll road in the rural south central region of the U.S. state of Oklahoma . It stretches for 13 @.@ 3 miles ( 21 @.@ 4 km ) from north of Sulphur to just south of Ada . The Oklahoma Turnpike Authority ( OTA ) owns , maintains , and collects tolls on the turnpike . The first section of the Chickasaw Turnpike opened on September 1 , 1991 . The Chickasaw resulted from a compromise between urban and rural legislators . Originally , it was part of a now @-@ canceled plan to connect southern and eastern Oklahoma with a longer turnpike . It was also intended to link Ada to the Interstate system . A four @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) segment of the turnpike was transferred to the Oklahoma Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) , making it a toll @-@ free road , in 2011 . = = Route description = = The Chickasaw Turnpike takes a southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast route , passing through only two counties , Murray and Pontotoc . The turnpike begins in Murray County at U.S. Highway 177 ( US @-@ 177 ) north of Sulphur ; west of this interchange , the road becomes State Highway 7 Spur ( SH @-@ 7 Spur ) . The turnpike continues northeast into Pontotoc County . Just north of the county line is a barrier toll plaza , the only plaza along the route . Beyond the tollbooth lies an interchange serving the town of Roff . This is a partial interchange , providing access to Roff for eastbound travelers and access to the westbound lanes from Roff . The Chickasaw Turnpike then ends at SH @-@ 1 . The Chickasaw Turnpike has only two lanes for the majority of its length ; however , there is a short eastbound passing lane . The Chickasaw is the only two @-@ lane turnpike in Oklahoma . Lightly traveled , the road is used by about 2 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . = = History = = The Chickasaw Turnpike was originally envisioned as a corridor running from Interstate 35 ( I @-@ 35 ) near Davis to I @-@ 40 near Henryetta . Proposed by southern Oklahoma politicians , the turnpike was intended to promote economic development by connecting Ada to the Interstate Highway System . It was proposed at the same time as three other turnpikes , which would become the Kilpatrick Turnpike in Oklahoma City , the Creek Turnpike in Tulsa , and the Cherokee Turnpike , which bypassed a mountainous section of US @-@ 412 in eastern Oklahoma . Rural legislators objected to the Kilpatrick and Creek Turnpikes , and moved to block them unless the Chickasaw Turnpike was built . Urban legislators relented and allowed the Chickasaw to be built as part of a compromise , with legislation requiring that the Chickasaw be built before work on the other two turnpikes could begin . The turnpike was authorized in 1987 . Governor Henry Bellmon opposed the Chickasaw Turnpike , arguing it would be a money loser . Bellmon had the turnpike built with only two lanes and shortened it to its current termini . Dewey F. Bartlett , Jr . , an OTA board member ( and future mayor of Tulsa ) , was later quoted as saying " I think it stinks . We never wanted to build it . It was not anything we thought was appropriate . But in order to build the three turnpikes that were necessary , that is the only way they would build it . " Bonds for the first section were approved in 1989 . The bonds specifically permitted the turnpike to be transferred to the Oklahoma Department of Transportation and become a free road , the only turnpike in Oklahoma eligible for this type of transfer . At the time , however , ODOT director Bobby Green said that his agency could not buy the turnpike due to a lack of funds . The Chickasaw cost nearly $ 44 million to build ( equivalent to $ 64 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) . Its first section opened on September 1 , 1991 . Originally , the turnpike began at SH @-@ 7 west of Sulphur , proceeding northeast to the US @-@ 177 junction , then continuing northeast on its present @-@ day alignment . As part of his 1994 turnpike package , Governor David Walters proposed expanding the Chickasaw Turnpike to four lanes and extending it to Henryetta . The Chickasaw improvements were eventually cut from the package , which ultimately died when a commission overseeing the sale of bonds by state agencies voted against it . The OTA voted on November 11 , 2002 , to open discussions about transferring the Chickasaw to ODOT . The transfer would also include a one @-@ time payment of $ 14 million ( equivalent to $ 20 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) for maintenance . The turnpike had deteriorated since its original construction ; ODOT director Gary Ridley said that recurrent pavement problems necessitated constant repairs . He also mentioned that there were other issues , such as right @-@ of @-@ way problems , that could endanger ODOT 's ability to draw from the federal highway trust fund . House Speaker Pro Tempore @-@ designate Danny Hilliard opposed the transfer on the grounds of the road 's poor condition , as well as objecting to the partial interchanges . The lawmaker called the Chickasaw Turnpike " an albatross " and said " I told them that unless the Turnpike Authority brought that turnpike up to ODOT specifications , and completed the interchanges at Roff and US @-@ 177 north at Sulphur [ sic ] , we 're not interested in having that thing dumped on the taxpayers . " To address these concerns , OTA began a $ 12 @.@ 8 @-@ million ( equivalent to $ 15 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) pavement rehabilitation project on February 9 , 2006 . Construction constraints required the entire turnpike to be closed in March , causing traffic problems in Sulphur . The turnpike reopened on September 29 , 2006 . The Oklahoma Transportation Commission , which oversees ODOT , voted on August 6 , 2007 , to begin feasibility and cost – benefit analysis studies towards accepting the four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of the turnpike between SH @-@ 7 and US @-@ 177 . On August 1 , 2011 , the Transportation Commission voted to transfer the section of the turnpike west of US @-@ 177 to ODOT , designating it SH @-@ 7 Spur . The commission noted that OTA had raised the new SH @-@ 7 Spur to meet ODOT standards , and that expansion of the US @-@ 177 interchange to full access was the responsibility of ODOT . This was the first time that a turnpike had been transferred from OTA to ODOT . Transferring the turnpike was considered an inexpensive way to solve the problem of excessive truck traffic in Sulphur . = = Tolls = = As of 2009 , passengers of two @-@ axle vehicles ( such as cars and motorcycles ) pay tolls of 65 ¢ in cash or 55 ¢ if Pikepass is used . Drivers in vehicles with more than two axles , such as truckers , pay higher tolls . Tolls are collected at the single barrier toll plaza between the US @-@ 177 and Roff interchanges . Due to the partial interchanges , it is not possible to legally use the turnpike without passing through this toll plaza . The toll is the same regardless of the point of entry or exit . The Chickasaw Turnpike has been fully automated since shortly after it opened . As Governor Bellmon predicted , it has been a consistent money loser since opening . Improvements are funded largely through proceeds from the more profitable Turner and Will Rogers Turnpikes . = = Exit list = = All exits are unnumbered .
= Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook in Australian service = The Australian Defence Force has operated Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook heavy @-@ lift helicopters for most of the period from 1974 . Twelve CH @-@ 47C Chinooks were acquired initially , entering service with the Royal Australian Air Force in December 1974 . The eleven surviving aircraft were retired in 1989 as a cost @-@ saving measure , but it was found that the Australian Defence Force 's other helicopters could not emulate their capabilities . As a result , four of the CH @-@ 47Cs were upgraded to CH @-@ 47D status , and returned to service in 1995 with the Australian Army . The Army acquired two more CH @-@ 47Ds in 2000 and another pair in 2012 . The CH @-@ 47Ds were replaced with seven new CH @-@ 47F aircraft during 2015 , and another three were delivered in 2016 . The Chinooks have mainly been used to support Army units in Australian service , though they have performed a wide range of other tasks . Three Chinooks took part in the Iraq War during 2003 , when they supported Australian special forces . A detachment of two Chinooks was also deployed to Afghanistan during the northern spring and summer months for each year between 2006 and 2013 , when they saw extensive combat . Two of the CH @-@ 47s deployed to Afghanistan were destroyed as a result of crashes . = = Acquisition = = During the early years of the 1960s the Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) considered new types of tactical transport aircraft to replace the RAAF 's obsolete Douglas Dakotas . The Army wanted a simple and rugged aircraft that could be purchased immediately for this role , and pressed for the acquisition of de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribous . However , the RAAF regarded the Caribou as inadequate for this role and preferred to acquire a more sophisticated aircraft type , leading to delays in the selection process . This disagreement came to an end in September 1962 , when as part of the expansion of the military in response to Indonesia 's policy of " confrontation " with its neighbours , the RAAF was directed by the government to conduct an urgent evaluation of short takeoff and landing aircraft and heavy @-@ lift helicopters , which could be purchased to improve the Army 's tactical mobility . A team of seven RAAF officers headed by Group Captain Charles Read , the director of operational requirements , was dispatched to the United States and assessed the Sikorsky S @-@ 61 , Vertol 107 @-@ II and CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters . The team judged the Chinook to be clearly the most suitable of these types , and recommended that several be acquired ; this was in line with the Army 's preference . The government subsequently accepted a recommendation made by the RAAF to acquire a package of twelve Caribou fixed @-@ wing aircraft and eight Chinooks , and placed an order for these aircraft within weeks of the evaluation being ordered . The Chinook order was subsequently cancelled by the government when it was learned that it would take several years for the helicopters to be delivered , and the RAAF 's orders of Caribous and Bell UH @-@ 1 Iroquois tactical transport helicopters were instead expanded . The Australian military continued to consider the acquisition of a heavy @-@ lift helicopters throughout the 1960s , and a formal program was launched by the RAAF in 1969 . Another team of RAAF officers travelled to the United States , and evaluated the Sikorsky CH @-@ 53 and the Chinook . The team leader , Group Captain Peter Raw , ultimately recommended that CH @-@ 53s be ordered . Senior RAAF officers and the Army were not pleased with this outcome , and the Air Board rejected Raw 's report . Read , who was now an air vice @-@ marshal and deputy chief of the air staff , was directed to review the choice of helicopters , and again recommended that Chinooks be acquired . He justified this choice on the grounds that the Chinook could carry more cargo than the CH @-@ 53 and was better suited for operations in the mountains of the Australian @-@ administered Territory of Papua and New Guinea . Read 's recommendation was accepted by the government , and an order for twelve CH @-@ 47C Chinooks was placed in August 1970 . It was planned to rotate the helicopters in and out of service , with six being available at any time . The order was suspended later in 1970 when a series of engine problems affected the United States Army 's CH @-@ 47Cs , but was reinstated in March 1972 after these issues were resolved . The total cost of the purchase was $ A37 million . The order made Australia the first export customer for the CH @-@ 47 . It was decided to station the Chinooks at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , located at the midpoint between the Army 's main field formations based in the outskirts of Sydney in New South Wales and the north Queensland city of Townsville . Construction began on support facilities for the helicopters at Amberley shortly after the order for them was confirmed in 1972 . = = Operational service = = = = = Royal Australian Air Force = = = No. 12 Squadron was re @-@ raised at Amberley on 3 September 1973 to operate the Chinooks . This unit had previously flown bombers between 1939 and 1948 before being renumbered as No. 1 Squadron . The twelve CH @-@ 47s were transported from the United States to Australia on board the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne , and were unloaded at Brisbane on 28 March 1974 . In April that year it was reported that six of the helicopters were to be placed in storage as a cost @-@ saving measure ; as of 1979 these aircraft had still not been flown . No. 12 Squadron began conducting training flights on 8 July 1974 , and the unit was declared operational in December the next year . The Chinooks ' main role in RAAF service was to support the Army . The helicopters were used to transport troops , artillery guns , ammunition , fuel and other supplies . They also provided part of the aeromedical evacuation capability available to the Army . While the Chinooks generally operated in Northern Australia , they made frequent deployments to other parts of Australia , and No. 12 Squadron conducted an annual high @-@ altitude flying training exercise in Papua New Guinea . The CH @-@ 47Cs had a crew of four , comprising two pilots , a loadmaster and one other , and could transport up to 33 passengers or 11 @,@ 129 kilograms ( 24 @,@ 535 lb ) of cargo . In August 1980 , a CH @-@ 47 was flown from Amberley to Malaysia , and used to recover a Royal Malaysian Air Force S @-@ 61 helicopter that had crashed in a remote location . This was believed to have been the longest distance a helicopter had flown up to that time , and remains the longest flight to have been conducted by a RAAF helicopter . During their RAAF service , the Chinooks also undertook a range of non @-@ military tasks . The helicopters frequently formed part of the Australian Defence Force 's response to natural disasters , including delivering food for people and livestock cut off by floods . They were also used for civilian construction tasks such as emplacing lighthouses and carrying air conditioning plants to the top of tall buildings . On two occasions Chinooks supported Queensland Police Service drug eradication efforts in remote parts of the state by transporting fuel for RAAF Iroquois helicopters and carrying seized narcotics . In August 1981 , two CH @-@ 47s lifted containers from the cargo ship Waigani Express to enable the vessel to be refloated after it ran aground in the Torres Strait . A similar operation was undertaken to free the Anro Asia when it ran aground near Caloundra , Queensland , in November the same year . Another unusual task was conducted in December 1981 when a Chinook transported two bulldozers onto a grounded iron ore carrier near Port Hedland , Western Australia , so that they could be used to reposition the ship 's load . The RAAF 's Chinook fleet suffered two serious accidents . On 26 June 1975 , A15 @-@ 011 crashed when one of its engine turbines disintegrated . No. 3 Aircraft Depot was assigned responsibility for repairing the helicopter , but it did not reenter service until 21 May 1981 as the maintenance unit lacked experience with major helicopter repairs . On 4 February 1985 , A15 @-@ 001 crashed into Perseverance Dam near Toowoomba , Queensland , after striking power wires . The helicopter 's pilot , an exchange officer from the Royal Air Force , was killed and the other three aircrew suffered minor injuries . The helicopter was written off and used as a fire training aid at Amberley . In November 1986 the Chiefs of Staff Committee and Minister for Defence Kim Beazley decided to transfer all of the RAAF 's Iroquois and Sikorsky S @-@ 70 Black Hawk battlefield helicopters to the Army ; the Chinooks remained with the RAAF at this time . In May 1989 the RAAF and Army jointly decided to withdraw the Chinooks from service . This decision was made to reduce costs , the Army believing that the Black Hawks would provide sufficient air lift capability . Due to the Chinooks ' high operating costs , only six of the helicopters were in service at the time . No. 12 Squadron ceased flying on 30 June 1989 , and was disbanded on 25 August that year . = = = Australian Army = = = While it was intended to sell the Chinooks after they were withdrawn from service , experience soon demonstrated that the Black Hawks were unable to fully replace them . In particular , it was found that heavy @-@ lift helicopters were needed to transport fuel supplies for the Black Hawks during exercises and operations . As a result , plans to sell the Chinooks were put on hold in late 1989 , and the Army and RAAF began investigating options to reactivate them . The 1991 Force Structure Review recommended that between four and six Chinooks be reintroduced to service to support the Black Hawks , with the helicopters preferably being upgraded to CH @-@ 47D standard . A deal to upgrade several of the Chinooks was reached in May 1991 . Under this arrangement , seven of the surviving CH @-@ 47Cs were sold to the US Army for $ A40 million , with these funds being used to partly cover the cost of upgrading the remaining four to CH @-@ 47D status . The total cost of the project was $ A62 million , of which $ A42 million was required to upgrade the four helicopters and the remainder to cover the cost of spare parts , administration and new facilities for the Chinooks at Townsville . All eleven Chinooks were shipped to the United States in September 1993 , and the upgraded helicopters returned to Australia in 1995 . It was decided to transfer the Chinooks to the Australian Army , as by this time the RAAF no longer had significant expertise in operating the type . The four CH @-@ 47Ds were assigned to C Squadron of the 5th Aviation Regiment , which was based at Townsville , and also comprised two squadrons equipped with Black Hawks and six Iroquois helicopters used as gunships . Two newly built CH @-@ 47Ds were ordered in 1998 , and joined the other four in 2001 . Following their transfer to the Army , the Chinooks were used in similar roles to those they had undertaken in RAAF service . The first operational deployment of the Army Chinooks began in November 1997 , when two of the helicopters and three Black Hawks departed for Papua New Guinea . This force was used to transport food supplies in the highlands of the country following a severe drought , and returned to Australia in March 1998 . In 2003 a detachment of three CH @-@ 47Ds was deployed to the Middle East as part of the Australian contribution to the invasion of Iraq . The detachment formed part of the Special Operations Task Group , and operated from Jordan to transport supplies and personnel to Australian special forces units operating in Western Iraq throughout the initial stage of the conflict . One of the tasks undertaken by the detachment was flying commandos from the 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment to Al Asad Airbase after the facility was captured by Special Air Service Regiment units . This deployment was the first time Australian military helicopters had participated in combat since the Vietnam War . From 2006 to 2013 a detachment of two Chinooks operated in Afghanistan as part of the Australian forces deployed to the country . The initial detachment arrived at Kandahar International Airport in March 2006 , and was tasked with supporting the Australian Special Forces Task Group in the country . After the Special Forces Task Group was withdrawn in September 2013 the helicopters remained in the country and were used to support Coalition forces , with a particular emphasis on the Australian units which were located in Urozgan Province . The detachment was withdrawn to Australia during the Afghan winters , but redeployed to the country each spring . By the end of the final rotation on 14 September 2013 the helicopters had flown more than 6 @,@ 000 hours in combat and transported almost 40 @,@ 000 personnel . Two Australian CH @-@ 47Ds were destroyed in Afghanistan . On 30 May 2011 , A15 @-@ 102 crashed in Zabul Province , resulting in the death of an Army unmanned aerial vehicle pilot who was travelling on board as a passenger . As it was impractical to recover the helicopter , it was destroyed by Coalition forces . The official inquiry into the crash found that it was caused by a known issue in which Chinooks suffered uncommanded pitch oscillations while flying through dense altitudes , and that the aircrew had not been adequate trained to prevent such incidents . Another Chinook was written off following a hard landing in Kandahar Province on 22 June 2012 , resulting in minor injuries to one of its aircrew . Both of the Chinooks at Kandahar International Airport also suffered significant damage in April 2013 , when the airport was struck by a severe hail storm . Two CH @-@ 47Ds were purchased in December 2011 to replace A15 @-@ 102 . In February 2010 the Australian Government gave final approval for the Army to purchase seven CH @-@ 47F Chinooks to replace the CH @-@ 47Ds . A contract for these helicopters was signed on 19 March that year . The total cost of the CH @-@ 47F project , including the construction of new facilities and the acquisition of two flight simulators , was $ 631 million . The Australian CH @-@ 47Fs are fitted with equipment to better enable them to operate from the Royal Australian Navy 's Canberra class landing helicopter dock vessels , but are otherwise identical to the aircraft operated by the US Army . Australia 's first two CH @-@ 47Fs entered service with the 5th Aviation Regiment on 5 May 2015 . At this time it was planned for C Squadron to be fully operational with the new Chinooks by January 2017 . The seventh CH @-@ 47F was delivered three weeks ahead of schedule in September 2015 . A further three CH @-@ 47Fs were ordered in December 2015 for $ US150 million , including spare parts , related equipment and some support costs . These helicopters were delivered two and half months earlier than planned in June 2016 . The 2016 Defence White Paper and its supporting documentation stated that the CH @-@ 47Fs will receive modifications to better enable them to perform aeromedical evacuation tasks by the 2025 – 26 financial year , and that it is intended to regularly upgrade the helicopters so that they can continue to be supported through the US military 's logistics system . = = = Works consulted = = = Australian Army Flying Museum , Oakey ( 2015 ) . " Army aviation in Australia 1970 – 2015 " ( PDF ) . Australian Army . Australian Government ( 2016 ) . 2016 Defence White Paper . Canberra : Department of Defence . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9941680 @-@ 5 @-@ 4 . Clarke , Chris ( 2011 ) . 90 Years of the RAAF : A Snapshot History . Canberra : Air Power Development Centre . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 920800 @-@ 56 @-@ 7 . Department of Defence ( 1991 ) . Force Structure Review 1991 : Report to the Minister for Defence ( PDF ) . Canberra : Department of Defence . ISBN 0 @-@ 644 @-@ 14453 @-@ X. Department of Defence ( 2004 ) . " The war in Iraq : ADF operations in the Middle East in 2003 " ( PDF ) . Department of Defence . Retrieved 26 June 2016 . Department of Defence ( 2016 ) . 2016 Integrated Investment Program ( PDF ) . Canberra : Department of Defence . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9941680 @-@ 6 @-@ 1 . Eather , Steve ( 1995 ) . Flying Squadrons of the Australian Defence Force . Weston Creek , Australian Capital Territory : Aerospace Publications . ISBN 1 @-@ 875671 @-@ 15 @-@ 3 . McPhedran , Ian ( 2005 ) . The Amazing SAS : the inside story of Australia 's special forces . Pymble , New South Wales : HarperCollins . ISBN 0 @-@ 7322 @-@ 7981 @-@ X. RAAF Historical Section ( 1995 ) . Units of the Royal Australian Air Force : A Concise History . Volume 3 : Bomber Units . Canberra : Australian Government Publishing Service . ISBN 0 @-@ 644 @-@ 42795 @-@ 7 . Ripley , Tim ( 2004 ) . Air War Iraq . Barnsley : Pen and Sword Aviation . ISBN 1 @-@ 84415 @-@ 069 @-@ 0 . Sharp , Martin ( 1998 ) . Command and Control of Battlefield Helicopters : The Search for a Joint Approach ( PDF ) . Canberra : Air Power Studies Centre . ISBN 0642265318 . OCLC 9924581 . CS1 maint : Ignored ISBN errors ( link ) Stephens , Alan ( 1995 ) . Going Solo : The Royal Australian Air Force 1946 – 1971 . Canberra : Australian Government Publishing Service . ISBN 0 @-@ 644 @-@ 42803 @-@ 1 . Wilson , Stewart ( 1994 ) . Military Aircraft of Australia . Weston Creek , Australian Capital Territory : Aerospace Publications . ISBN 1 @-@ 875671 @-@ 08 @-@ 0 .
= Panavia Tornado = The Panavia Tornado is a family of twin @-@ engine , variable @-@ sweep wing multirole combat aircraft , which was jointly developed and manufactured by Italy , the United Kingdom , and West Germany . There are three primary Tornado variants : the Tornado IDS ( interdictor / strike ) fighter @-@ bomber , the suppression of enemy air defences Tornado ECR ( electronic combat / reconnaissance ) and the Tornado ADV ( air defence variant ) interceptor aircraft . The Tornado was developed and built by Panavia Aircraft GmbH , a tri @-@ national consortium consisting of British Aerospace ( previously British Aircraft Corporation ) , MBB of West Germany , and Aeritalia of Italy . It first flew on 14 August 1974 and was introduced into service in 1979 – 1980 . Due to its multirole nature , it was able to replace several different fleets of aircraft in the adopting air forces . The Royal Saudi Air Force ( RSAF ) became the only export operator of the Tornado in addition to the three original partner nations . A tri @-@ nation training and evaluation unit operating from RAF Cottesmore , the Tri @-@ National Tornado Training Establishment , maintained a level of international co @-@ operation beyond the production stage . The Tornado was used by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , Italian Air Force and RSAF during the 1991 Gulf War , in which the Tornado conducted many low @-@ altitude penetrating strike missions . The Tornados of various operators were also used in conflicts in the former Yugoslavia during the Bosnian War and Kosovo War , the Iraq War , Libya during the Libyan civil war , as well as smaller roles in Afghanistan , Yemen , and Syria . Including all variants , 992 aircraft were built . = = Development = = = = = Origins = = = During the 1960s , aeronautical designers looked to variable @-@ geometry wing designs to gain the manoeuvrability and efficient cruise of straight wings with the speed of swept wing designs . The United Kingdom had cancelled the procurement of the TSR @-@ 2 and subsequent F @-@ 111K aircraft , and was still looking for a replacement for its Avro Vulcan and Blackburn Buccaneer strike aircraft . Britain and France had initiated the AFVG ( Anglo French Variable Geometry ) project in 1965 , but this had ended with French withdrawal in 1967 . Britain continued to develop a variable @-@ geometry aircraft similar to the proposed AFVG , and sought new partners to achieve this . In 1968 , West Germany , the Netherlands , Belgium , Italy and Canada formed a working group to examine replacements for the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter , initially called the Multi Role Aircraft ( MRA ) , later renamed as the Multi Role Combat Aircraft ( MRCA ) . The participating nations all had ageing fleets that required replacing ; but , as the requirements were so diverse , it was decided to develop a single aircraft that could perform a variety of missions that were previously undertaken by a fleet of different aircraft . Britain joined the MRCA group in 1968 , represented by Air Vice @-@ Marshal Michael Giddings , and a memorandum of agreement was drafted between Britain , West Germany , and Italy in May 1969 . By the end of 1968 , the prospective purchases from the six countries amounted to 1 @,@ 500 aircraft . Canada and Belgium had departed before any long @-@ term commitments had been made to the programme ; Canada had found the project politically unpalatable ; there was a perception in political circles that much of the manufacturing and specifications were focused on Western Europe . France had made a favourable offer to Belgium on the Dassault Mirage 5 , which created doubt as to whether the MRCA would be worthwhile from Belgium 's operational perspective . = = = Panavia Aircraft GmbH = = = On 26 March 1969 , four partner nations – United Kingdom , Germany , Italy and the Netherlands , agreed to form a multinational company , Panavia Aircraft GmbH , to develop and manufacture the MRCA . The project 's aim was to produce an aircraft capable of undertaking missions in the tactical strike , reconnaissance , air defence , and maritime roles ; thus allowing the MRCA to replace several different aircraft then in use by the partner nations . Various concepts , including alternative fixed @-@ wing and single @-@ engine designs , were studied while defining the aircraft . The Netherlands pulled out of the project in 1970 , citing that the aircraft was too complicated and technical for the RNLAF 's preferences , which had sought a simpler aircraft with outstanding manoeuvrability . An additional blow was struck by the German requirement reduced from an initial 600 aircraft to 324 in 1972 . When the agreement was finalised , the United Kingdom and West Germany each had a 42 @.@ 5 % stake of the workload , with the remaining 15 % going to Italy ; this division of the production work was heavily influenced by international political bargaining . The front fuselage and tail assembly was assigned to BAC ( now BAE Systems ) in the United Kingdom ; the centre fuselage to MBB ( now EADS ) in West Germany ; and the wings to Aeritalia ( now Alenia Aeronautica ) in Italy . Similarly , tri @-@ national worksharing was used for engines , general and avionic equipment . A separate multinational company , Turbo @-@ Union , was formed in June 1970 to develop and build the RB199 engines for the aircraft , with ownership similarly split 40 % Rolls @-@ Royce , 40 % MTU , and 20 % FIAT . At the conclusion of the project definition phase in May 1970 , the concepts were reduced to two designs ; a single seat Panavia 100 which West Germany initially preferred , and the twin @-@ seat Panavia 200 which the RAF preferred ( this would become the Tornado ) . The aircraft was briefly called the Panavia Panther , and the project soon coalesced towards the two @-@ seat option . In September 1971 , the three governments signed an Intention to Proceed ( ITP ) document , at which point the aircraft was intended solely for the low @-@ level strike mission , where it was viewed as a viable threat to Soviet defences in that role . It was at this point that Britain 's Chief of the Defence Staff announced " two @-@ thirds of the fighting front line will be composed of this single , basic aircraft type " . = = = Prototypes and testing = = = The first of more than a dozen Tornado prototypes took flight on 14 August 1974 at Manching , Germany ; the pilot , Paul Millett stated of the occasion : " Aircraft handling was delightful ... the actual flight went so smoothly that I did begin to wonder whether this was not yet another simulation " . Flight testing led to the need for minor modifications . Airflow disturbances were responded to by re @-@ profiling the engine intakes and the fuselage to minimise surging and buffeting experienced at supersonic speeds . Testing revealed that a nose @-@ wheel steering augmentation system , connecting with the yaw damper , was necessary to counteract the destabilising effect produced by deploying the thrust reverser during landing rollouts . In August 1976 , Soviet espionage activities were exposed trying to obtain information on the aircraft . Two prototypes were lost in accidents , both of which had been primarily caused by poor piloting decisions and errors leading to two ground collision incidents ; a third Tornado prototype was seriously damaged by an incident involving pilot @-@ induced pitch oscillation . During the type 's development , aircraft designers of the era were beginning to incorporate features such as more sophisticated stability augmentation systems and autopilots . Aircraft such as the Tornado and the General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon made use of these new technologies . Failure testing of the Tornado 's triplex analogue command and stability augmentation system ( CSAS ) was conducted on a series of realistic flight control rigs ; the variable @-@ sweep wings in combination with varying , and frequently very heavy , payloads complicated the clearance process . = = = Production = = = The contract for the Batch 1 aircraft was signed on 29 July 1976 . The first aircraft were delivered to the RAF and German Air Force on 5 and 6 June 1979 respectively . The first Italian Tornado was delivered on 25 September 1981 . On 29 January 1981 , the Tri @-@ national Tornado Training Establishment ( TTTE ) officially opened at RAF Cottesmore , remaining active in training pilots from all operating nations until 31 March 1999 . The 500th Tornado to be produced was delivered to West Germany on 19 December 1987 . Export customers were sought after West Germany withdrew its objections to exporting the aircraft ; Saudi Arabia was the only export customer of the Tornado . The agreement to purchase the Tornado was part of the controversial Al @-@ Yamamah arms deal between BAE Systems and the Saudi government . Oman had committed to purchasing Tornados and the equipment to operate them for a total value of £ 250 million in the late 1980s , but cancelled the order in 1990 due to financial difficulties . During the 1970s , Australia considered joining the MRCA programme to find a replacement for their ageing Dassault Mirage IIIs ; ultimately the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet was selected to meet the requirement . Canada similarly opted for the F / A @-@ 18 after considering the Tornado . Japan considered the Tornado in the 1980s , along with the General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon and F / A @-@ 18 ; before selecting the Mitsubishi F @-@ 2 , a domestically produced design based on the F @-@ 16 . In the 1990s , both Taiwan and South Korea expressed interest in acquiring a small number of Tornado ECR aircraft . In 2001 , EADS proposed a Tornado ECR variant with a greater electronic warfare capability for Australia . Production came to an end in 1998 ; the last batch of aircraft being produced going to the Royal Saudi Air Force , who had ordered a total of 96 IDS Tornados . In June 2011 , it was announced that the RAF 's Tornado fleet had flown collectively over one million flying hours . Aviation author John Lake noted that : " The Trinational Panavia Consortium produced just short of 1 @,@ 000 Tornados , making it one of the most successful postwar bomber programs " . In 2008 , AirForces Monthly said of the Tornado : " For more than a quarter of a century ... the most important military aircraft in Western Europe . " = = Design = = = = = Overview = = = The Panavia Tornado is a multirole , twin @-@ engined aircraft designed to excel at low @-@ level penetration of enemy defences . The mission envisaged during the Cold War was the delivery of conventional and nuclear ordnance on the invading forces of the Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern Europe ; this dictated several significant features of the design . Variable wing geometry , allowing for minimal drag during the critical low @-@ level dash towards a well @-@ prepared enemy , had been desired from the project 's start . Advanced navigation and flight computers , including the then @-@ innovative fly @-@ by @-@ wire system , greatly reduced the workload of the pilot during low @-@ level flight and eased control of the aircraft . For long range bombing missions , the Tornado has a retractable refuelling probe . As a multirole aircraft , the Tornado is capable of undertaking more mission profiles than the anticipated strike mission ; various operators replaced multiple aircraft types with the Tornado as a common type – the use of dedicated single role aircraft for specialist purposes such as battlefield reconnaissance , maritime patrol duties , or dedicated electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) were phased out – either by standard Tornados or modified variants , such as the Tornado ECR . The most extensive modification from the base Tornado design was the Tornado ADV , which was stretched and armed with long range anti @-@ aircraft missiles to serve in the interceptor role . The Tornado operators have chosen to undertake various life extension and upgrade programmes to keep their Tornado fleets as viable frontline aircraft for the foreseeable future . The RAF and RSAF have upgraded their Tornados to the GR4 standard to increase combat effectiveness , while German Tornados have been undergoing periodic upgrades under the multi @-@ stage ASSTA ( Avionics System Software Tornado in Ada ) programme . With these upgrades , as of 2011 , it is projected that the Tornado shall be in service until 2025 , more than 50 years after the first prototype took flight . = = = Variable @-@ sweep wing = = = In order for the Tornado to perform well as a low @-@ level supersonic strike aircraft , it was considered necessary for it to possess good high @-@ speed and low @-@ speed flight characteristics . To achieve high @-@ speed performance , a swept or delta wing is typically adopted , but these wing designs are inefficient at low speeds . To operate at both high and low speeds with great effectiveness , the Tornado uses a variable @-@ sweep wing . This approach had been adopted by earlier aircraft , such as the American General Dynamics F @-@ 111 Aardvark strike fighter , and the Soviet Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 23 fighter . The F @-@ 111 has many similarities with the smaller Tornado ; however , the Tornado differs in being a multi @-@ role aircraft with more advanced onboard systems and avionics . The level of wing sweep , the angle of the wings in relation to the fuselage , can be altered in flight at the pilot 's control . The variable wing can adopt any sweep angle between 25 degrees and 67 degrees , with a corresponding speed range for each angle ; some Tornado ADVs were outfitted with an automatic wing @-@ sweep system to reduce pilot workload . When the wings are swept back , the exposed wing area is lowered and drag is significantly decreased , which is conducive to performing high @-@ speed low @-@ level flight . The weapons pylons pivot with the angle of the variable @-@ sweep wings so that the stores point in the direction of flight and do not hinder any wing positions . In development , significant attention was given to the Tornado 's short @-@ field take @-@ off and landing ( STOL ) performance . Germany , in particular , encouraged this design aspect . For shorter take @-@ off and landing distances , the Tornado can sweep its wings forwards to the 25 @-@ degree position , and deploy its full @-@ span flaps and leading edge slats to allow the aircraft to fly at slower speeds . These features , in combination with the thrust reverser @-@ equipped engines , give the Tornado excellent low @-@ speed handling and landing characteristics . = = = Avionics = = = The Tornado features a tandem @-@ seat cockpit , crewed by a pilot and a navigator / weapons officer ; both electromechanical and electro @-@ optical controls are used to fly the aircraft and manage its systems . An array of dials and switches are mounted on either side of a centrally placed CRT monitor , controlling the navigational , communications , and weapons @-@ control computers . BAE Systems developed the Tornado Advanced Radar Display Information System ( TARDIS ) , a 32 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) multi @-@ function display , to replace the rear cockpit 's Combined Radar and Projected Map Display ; the RAF began installing TARDIS on the GR4 fleet in 2004 . The primary flight controls of the Tornado are a fly @-@ by @-@ wire hybrid , consisting of an analogue quadruplex Command and Stability Augmentation System ( CSAS ) connected to a digital Autopilot & Flight Director System ( AFDS ) ; in addition a level of mechanical reversion capacity was retained to safeguard against potential failure . To enhance pilot awareness , artificial feel was built into the flight controls , such as the centrally located stick ; because of the Tornado 's variable wings enabling the aircraft to drastically alter its flight envelope , the artificial responses adjust automatically to wing profile changes and other changes to flight attitude . As a large variety of munitions and stores can be outfitted , the resulting changes to the aircraft 's flight dynamics are routinely compensated for by the flight stability system . The Tornado incorporates a combined navigation / attack Doppler radar that simultaneously scans for targets and conducts fully automated terrain @-@ following for low @-@ level flight operations ; being readily able to conduct all @-@ weather hands @-@ off low @-@ level flight was considered one of the core advantages of the Tornado . The Tornado ADV has a different radar system to other variants , designated AI.24 Foxhunter , as it is designed for air defence operations ; it is capable of continuously keeping track of up to 20 targets at ranges of up to 160 kilometres ( 100 mi ) . The Tornado was one of the earliest aircraft to fitted with a digital data bus for data transmission . A link 16 JTIDS integration on the F3 variant enabled the exchange of radar and other sensory information with nearby friendly aircraft . Some Tornado variants carry different avionics and equipment , depending on their mission . The Tornado ECR is devoted to Suppression of Enemy Air Defences ( SEAD ) missions , operated by Germany and Italy . The Tornado ECR is equipped with an emitter @-@ locator system ( ELS ) to spot radar use . German ECRs have a Honeywell infrared imaging system for reconnaissance flights . RAF and RSAF Tornados have the Laser Range Finder and Marked Target Seekers ( LRMTS ) for targeting laser @-@ guided munitions . In 1991 , the RAF introduced TIALD , allowing Tornado GR1s to laser @-@ designate their own targets . The GR1A and GR4A were equipped with TIRRS ( Tornado Infrared Reconnaissance System ) , consisting of one SLIR ( Sideways Looking Infra Red ) sensor on each side of the fuselage forward of the engine intakes to capture oblique images , and a single IRLS ( InfrarRed LineScan ) sensor mounted on the fuselage 's underside to provide vertical images . TIRRS recorded images on six S @-@ VHS video tapes . The newer RAPTOR reconnaissance pod has replaced the built @-@ in TIRRS system . = = = Armament and equipment = = = The Tornado is cleared to carry the majority of air @-@ launched weapons in the NATO inventory , including various unguided and laser @-@ guided bombs , anti @-@ ship and anti @-@ radiation missiles , as well as specialised weapons such as anti @-@ personnel mines and anti @-@ runway munitions . To improve survivability in combat , the Tornado is equipped with onboard countermeasures , ranging from flare and chaff dispensers to electronic countermeasure pods that can be mounted under the wings . Underwing fuel tanks and a buddy store aerial refuelling system that allows one Tornado to refuel another are available to extend the aircraft 's range . In the decades since the Tornado 's introduction , all of the Tornado operators have undertaken various upgrade and modification programmes to allow recently introduced weapons to be used by their squadrons . Amongst the new armaments that the Tornado has been adapted to deploy are the enhanced Paveway and Joint Direct Attack Munition bombs , and modern cruise missiles such as the Taurus and Storm Shadow missiles ; these upgrades have increased the Tornado 's capabilities and combat accuracy . Precision weapons such as cruise missiles have replaced older munitions such as cluster bombs . Strike variants have a limited air @-@ to @-@ air capability with AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder or AIM @-@ 132 ASRAAM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( AAMs ) ; additionally the Tornado ADV is outfitted with beyond visual range AAMs such as the Skyflash and AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missiles . The Tornado is armed with two 27 mm ( 1 @.@ 063 in ) Mauser BK @-@ 27 revolver cannon internally mounted underneath the fuselage ; the Tornado ADV was only armed with one cannon . When the RAF GR1 aircraft were converted to GR4 , the FLIR sensor replaced the left hand cannon , leaving only one ; the GR1A reconnaissance variant gave up both its guns to make space for the sideways looking infra @-@ red sensors . The Mauser BK @-@ 27 was developed specifically for the Tornado , but has since been used on several other European fighters , such as the Dassault / Dornier Alpha Jet , Saab JAS 39 Gripen , and Eurofighter Typhoon . The Tornado is capable of delivering air @-@ launched nuclear weapons . In 1979 , Britain considered replacing its Polaris submarines with either the Trident submarines or alternatively the Tornado as the main bearer of its nuclear deterrent . Although the UK proceeded with Trident , several Tornado squadrons based in Germany were assigned to SACEUR to deter a major Soviet offensive with both conventional and nuclear weapons , namely the WE.177 nuclear bomb , which was retired in 1998 . German and Italian Tornados are capable of delivering US B61 nuclear bombs , which are made available through NATO . = = = Engine = = = Britain considered the selection of Rolls @-@ Royce to develop the advanced engine for the MRCA to be essential , and was strongly opposed to adopting an engine from an American manufacturer , to the point where the UK might have withdrawn over the issue . In September 1969 , Rolls @-@ Royce 's RB 199 engine was selected to power the MRCA . One advantage over the US competition was that a technology transfer between the partner nations had been agreed ; the engine was to be developed and manufactured by a joint company , Turbo @-@ Union . The programme was delayed by Rolls @-@ Royce 's entry into receivership in 1971 ; the nature of the multinational collaboration process helped avoid major disruption of the Tornado programme . Research from the supersonic airliner Concorde contributed to the development and final design of the RB.199 and of the engine control units . To provide the desired performance , several features were used in the RB.199. To operate efficiently across a wide range of conditions and speeds up to Mach 2 , the RB.199 and several other engines make use of variable intake ramps to control the air flow . The hydraulic system is pressurised by syphoning power from both or either operational engine ; the hydraulics are completely contained within the airframe rather than integrating with the engine to improve safety and maintainability . In case of double @-@ engine , or double @-@ generator , failure , the Tornado has a single @-@ use battery capable of operating the fuel pump and hydraulics for up to 13 minutes . Relatively rare amongst fighter aircraft , the RB.199 is fitted with thrust reversers to decrease the distance required to safely land . To fully deploy the thrust reverser during landings , the yaw damper is connected to the steering of the nosewheel to provide greater stability . In August 1974 , the first RB.199 powered flight of a prototype Tornado occurred ; the engine completed its qualification tests in late 1978 . The final production standard engine met both reliability and performance standards , though the development cost had been higher than predicted , in part due to the ambitious performance requirements . At the time of the Tornado 's introduction to service , the turbine blades of the engine suffered from a shorter life span than desired , which was rectified by the implementation of design revisions upon early @-@ production engines . Several uprated engines were developed and used on both the majority of Tornado ADVs and Germany 's Tornado ECRs . The DECU ( Digital Engine Control Unit ) is the current engine control unit for RB 199 engines superseding the analogue MECU ( Main Engine Control Unit ) also known as CUE . = = = Upgrades = = = Being designed for low @-@ level operations , the Tornado required modification to perform in medium level operations that the RAF adopted in the 1990s . The RAF 's GR1 fleet was extensively re @-@ manufactured as Tornado GR4s . Upgrades on Tornado GR4s included a Forward looking infrared , a wide @-@ angle HUD ( Head @-@ up display ) , improved cockpit displays , NVG ( Night vision devices ) capabilities , new avionics , and a Global Positioning System receiver . The upgrade eased the integration of new weapons and sensors which were purchased in parallel , including the Storm Shadow cruise missile , the Brimstone anti @-@ tank missile , Paveway III laser @-@ guided bombs and the RAPTOR reconnaissance pod was integrated . The first flight of a Tornado GR4 was on 4 April 1997 , on 31 October 1997 the RAF accepted the first delivery and deliveries were completed in 2003 . In 2005 , the RSAF opted to have their Tornado IDSs undergo a series of upgrades to become equivalent to the RAF 's GR4 configuration . On 21 December 2007 BAE signed a £ 210m contract for CUSP , the Capability Upgrade Strategy ( Pilot ) . This project would see RAF GR4 / 4A improved in two phases , starting with the integration of the Paveway IV bomb and a communications upgrade , followed by a new tactical datalink in Phase B. Beginning in 2000 , German IDS and ECR Tornados received the ASSTA 1 ( Avionics System Software Tornado in Ada ) upgrade . ASSTA 1 involved a replacement weapons computer , new GPS and Laser Inertial navigation systems . The new computer allowed the integration of the HARM III , HARM 0 Block IV / V and TAURUS KEPD 350 missiles , the Rafael Litening II Laser Designator Pod and GBU @-@ 24 Paveway III laser @-@ guided bombs . The ASSTA 2 upgrade began in 2005 , primarily consisting of several new digital avionics systems , a new ECM suite and provision for the Taurus cruise missile ; these upgrades are to be only applied to 85 Tornados ( 20 ECRs and 65 IDSs ) , as the Tornado is in the process of being replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon . The ASSTA 3 upgrade programme , started in 2008 , will introduce support for the laser @-@ targeted Joint Direct Attack Munition along with further software changes . = = = = Test platform for 3 @-@ D printed parts = = = = BAE Systems announced that , in December 2013 , the company had test flown a Tornado equipped with parts that were made with 3D printing equipment . The parts included a protective cover for the radio , a landing @-@ gear guard and air @-@ intake door support struts . The test demonstrated the feasibility of making replacement parts quickly and cheaply at the air base hosting the Tornado . The company claims that , with some of the parts costing less than £ 100 per piece to manufacture , 3D printing has already resulted in savings of more than £ 300 @,@ 000 and will offer further potential cost savings of more than £ 1 @.@ 2 million between now and 2017 . = = Operational history = = = = = German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) = = = The first Tornado prototype made its first flight on 14 August 1974 from Manching airbase , in what was then West Germany . Deliveries of production Tornados began on 27 July 1979 . The total number of Tornados delivered to the German Air Force numbered 247 , including 35 ECR variants . Originally Tornados equipped five fighter @-@ bomber wings ( Geschwader ) , with one tactical conversion unit and four front line wings , replacing the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter . When one of the two Tornado wings of the German Navy was disbanded in 1994 , its aircraft were used to re @-@ equip a Luftwaffe 's reconnaissance wing formerly equipped with RF @-@ 4E Phantoms . As many as 15 German Tornados undertook combat operations as a part of NATO 's campaign during the Bosnian War ; this was the first combat operation for the Luftwaffe since World War II . The Tornados , operating from in Piacenza , Italy , flew reconnaissance missions to survey damage inflicted by previous strikes and to scout targets for other aircraft to strike . These reconnaissance missions were reportedly responsible for a significant improvement in target selection throughout the campaign . In 1999 , German and Italian Tornados participated in Operation Allied Force , NATO 's military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War . The ECR aircraft would escort various allies ' aircraft while carrying several AGM @-@ 88 HARM missiles to counter attempted use of radar against the allied aircraft . During the Kosovo hostilities , Germany 's IDS Tornados would routinely conduct reconnaissance flights to identify both enemy ground forces and civilian refugees within Yugoslavia . In June 2007 , a pair of Luftwaffe Tornado were controversially used to fly reconnaissance flights over an anti @-@ globalisation demonstration during the 33rd G8 summit in Heiligendamm . Following the mission , the German Defence Ministry admitted one aircraft had broken the minimum flying altitude and that mistakes were made in the handling of security of the summit . In 2007 , a detachment of six Tornados of the Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 " Immelmann " ( 51st reconnaissance wing ) were deployed to Mazar @-@ i @-@ Sharif , Northern Afghanistan , to support NATO forces . The decision to send Tornados to Afghanistan was a controversial decision , including one political party launching an unsuccessful legal bid to block the deployment as unconstitutional . In support of the Afghanistan mission , improvements in the Tornado 's reconnaissance equipment were accelerated ; improving the Tornado 's ability to detect hidden improvised explosive devices ( IEDs ) . The German Tornados were withdrawn from Afghanistan in November 2010 . Defence cuts announced in March 2003 resulted in the decision to retire 90 Tornados from Luftwaffe service . This led to a reduction in its Tornado strength to four wings by September 2005 . On 13 January 2004 , the then German Defence Minister Peter Struck announced further major changes to the German armed forces . A major part of this announcement is the plan to cut the German fighter fleet from 426 in early 2004 to 265 by 2015 . The German Tornado force is to be reduced to 85 , with the type expected to remain in service with the Luftwaffe until 2020 . The aircraft being retained have been undergoing a service life extension programme . Currently , the Luftwaffe operates Tornados with Tactical Wings Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 33 in Cochem / Büchel , Rhineland @-@ Palatinate and with Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 51 " Immelmann " in Jagel , Schleswig @-@ Holstein . Aircrew training takes place at Fliegerisches Ausbildungszentrum der Luftwaffe , based on Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico , US . = = = German Navy ( Marineflieger ) = = = In addition to the order made by the Luftwaffe , the German Navy 's Marineflieger also received 112 of the IDS variant in the anti @-@ shipping and marine reconnaissance roles , again replacing the Starfighter . These equipped two wings , each with a nominal strength of 48 aircraft . The principal anti @-@ ship weapon was the AS.34 Kormoran anti @-@ ship missile , which were initially supplemented by unguided bombs and BL755 cluster munitions , and later by AGM @-@ 88 HARM anti @-@ radar missiles . Pods fitted with panoramic optical cameras and an infrared line scan were carried for the reconnaissance mission . The end of the Cold War and the signing of the CFE Treaty gave rise to a requirement for Germany to reduce the size of its armed forces , including the number of combat aircraft . To meet this need , one of the Marineflieger 's Tornado wings was disbanded on 1 January 1994 ; its aircraft replaced the Phantoms of a Luftwaffe reconnaissance wing . The second wing was enlarged and continued in the anti @-@ shipping , reconnaissance and anti @-@ radar roles until it was disbanded in 2005 with its aircraft and duties passed on to the Luftwaffe . = = = Italian Air Force ( Aeronautica Militare ) = = = The first Italian prototype made its maiden flight on 5 December 1975 from Turin , Italy . The Aeronautica Militare received a total of 100 Tornado IDS . 16 IDSs were subsequently converted to the ECR configuration ; the first Italian Tornado ECR was delivered on 27 February 1998 . As a stop @-@ gap measure for 10 years , the Aeronautica Militare additionally operated 24 Tornado ADVs in the air defence role , which were leased from the RAF to cover the service gap between the retirement of the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter and the introduction of the Eurofighter Typhoon . In 2000 , with major delays hampering the Eurofighter , the Aeronautica Militare began a search for another interim fighter . While the Tornado itself was considered , any long term extension to the lease would have involved upgrade to RAF CSP standard and thus was not considered cost effective . In February 2001 , Italy announced its arrangement to lease 35 F @-@ 16s from the United States . The Aeronautica Militare returned its Tornado ADVs to the RAF , with the final aircraft arriving at RAF Saint Athan on 7 December 2004 . One aircraft was retained for static display purposes . Italian Tornados , along with RAF Tornados , took part in the first Gulf War in 1991 . Operation Locusta saw eight Tornado IDS interdictors deployed from Gioia del Colle , Italy , to Al Dhafra , Abu Dhabi , as a part of Italy 's contribution to the coalition . During the conflict , one aircraft was lost to Iraqi anti @-@ aircraft fire , the pilots ejected safely and were captured by Iraqi forces . A total of 22 Italian Tornados were deployed in the NATO @-@ organised Operation Allied Force over Kosovo in 1999 , the IDS variant was used in the bombing role while the ECR variants patrolled the combat region , acting to suppress enemy anti @-@ aircraft radars , firing 115 AGM @-@ 88 HARM missiles . In response to anticipated violence during the 2010 Afghanistan elections , Italy , along with several other nations , increased its military commitment in Afghanistan , dispatching four IDS Tornados to the region . Italian Tornado IDS and ECR aircraft participated in the enforcement of a UN no @-@ fly zone during the 2011 military intervention in Libya . Various coalition aircraft operated from bases in Italy , including RAF Tornados . Italian military aircraft delivered a combined 710 guided bombs and missiles during the strikes against Libyan targets . Of these Aeronautica Militare Tornados and AMX fighter @-@ bombers released 550 guided bombs and missiles , and Italian Navy AV @-@ 8Bs delivered 160 guided bombs . Italian Tornados launched 20 to 30 Storm Shadow cruise missiles with the rest consisting of Paveway and JDAM guided bombs . In July 2002 , Italy signed a contract with the Tornado Management Agency ( NETMA ) and Panavia for the upgrading of 18 IDSs , the first of which was received in 2003 . The upgrade introduced improved navigation systems ( integrated GPS and laser INS ) and the ability to carry new weapons , including the Storm Shadow cruise missile , Joint Direct Attack Munition and Paveway III laser @-@ guided bombs . Italy has opted to extend the Tornado 's service life at the expense of alternative ground @-@ attack aircraft such as the AMX International AMX ; in 2010 a major upgrade and life extension program was initiated , which will provide new digital displays , Link 16 communications capability , night @-@ vision goggles compatibility , and several other upgrades . In the long term , it is planned to replace the Tornado IDS / ECR fleet in Italian service with the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , with the final Italian Tornado scheduled to be phased out in 2025 . On 14 November 2014 , Italy announced it was sending four Tornado aircraft with 135 support staff to Ahmed Al Jaber Air Base in Kuwait in participation of coalition operations against the Islamic State . The four aircraft will be used for reconnaissance missions only . = = = Royal Air Force = = = Nicknamed the " Tonka " by the British , the Tornado made its combat debut as part of the British contribution to the Gulf War in 1991 . Operation Granby saw nearly 60 RAF GR1s deploy to air bases at Muharraq in Bahrain and Tabuk and Dhahran in Saudi Arabia . Several Tornado ADVs were deployed to provide air cover , the threat of their long range missiles being a significant deterrent to Iraqi pilots , who would deliberately avoid combat when approached . Early on in the conflict , the GR1s targeted military airfields across Iraq , deploying a mixture of 450 kg ( 1 @,@ 000 lb ) unguided bombs in loft @-@ bombing attacks and specialised JP233 runway denial weapons . Six RAF Tornados were lost in the conflict , four were lost while delivering unguided bombs , one was lost after delivering JP233 , and one trying to deliver laser @-@ guided bombs . On 17 January 1991 , the first Tornado to be lost was shot down by an Iraqi SA @-@ 16 missile following a failed low @-@ level bombing run . On 19 January , another RAF Tornado was shot down during an intensive raid on Tallil Air Base . The impact of the Tornado strikes upon Iraqi air fields is difficult to determine . In an emergency deployment , the UK sent out a detachment of Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft equipped with the Pave Spike laser designator , allowing Tornado GR1s to drop precision guided weapons . A further crash programme in support of the sudden military action saw multiple GR1s outfitted with the TIALD laser designation system ; author Claus @-@ Christian Szejnmann declared that the TIALD pod enabled the GR1 to " achieve probably the most accurate bombing in the RAF 's history " . Although laser designation proved effective in the Gulf War , only 23 TIALD pods were purchased by 2000 ; shortages hindered combat operations over Kosovo . Following the initial phase of the war , the GR1s switched to medium level strike missions , typical targets for these strikes included munition depots and oil refining facilities . Only the reconnaissance Tornado GR1As continued to operate at the low @-@ altitude high @-@ speed profile throughout the war , the GR1A emerged unscathed despite the inherent danger posed by missions such as conducting pre @-@ attack reconnaissance . In the war 's aftermath , Britain maintained a military presence in the Gulf , around half a dozen GR1s were based at Ali Al Salem airbase in Kuwait for operations over the southern no fly zone as part of Operation Southern Watch ; another half a dozen GR1s participated in missions over Northern Iraq in Operation Provide Comfort . In March 1993 , a Mid @-@ Life Upgrade ( MLU ) project of the Tornado was launched to upgrade the GR1 / GR1A to GR4 / GR4A standard . The Tornado GR4 made its operational debut in Operation Southern Watch ; patrolling Iraq 's southern airspace from bases in Kuwait . Both Tornado GR1s and GR4s based at Ali Al Salem , Kuwait , took part in coalition strikes at Iraq 's military infrastructure during Operation Desert Fox in 1998 . In December 1998 , an Iraqi anti @-@ aircraft battery fired six to eight missiles at a patrolling Tornado , the battery was later attacked in retaliation , no aircraft were lost during the incident . It was reported that during Desert Fox RAF Tornados had successfully destroyed 75 % of allotted targets , and out of the 36 missions planned , 28 had been successfully completed . The GR1 participated in the Kosovo War in 1999 . The Tornados initially operated from RAF Bruggen , Germany ; they later moved to Solenzara Air Base , Corsica . Experience from fighting in Kosovo led to the RAF procuring AGM @-@ 65 Maverick missiles and Enhanced Paveway smart bombs for the Tornado fleet . Following the Kosovo War , the GR1 was phased out as more aircraft were upgraded to GR4 standard . The final GR1 was upgraded and returned to the RAF on 10 June 2003 . The GR4 was heavily used in Operation Telic , the British contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq . RAF Tornados flew in the opening phase of the war , flying alongside American strike aircraft to rapidly attack key installations . Following an emphasis on minimising casualties , Tornados of No. 617 Squadron deployed the new Storm Shadow precision cruise missile for the first time in the Iraq conflict ; while 25 % of the UK 's air @-@ launched weapons in Kosovo were precision @-@ guided , four years later in Iraq this ratio increased to 85 % . On 23 March 2003 , a Tornado GR4 was shot down over Iraq by friendly fire from a US Patriot missile battery , killing both crew members . In July 2003 , a US board of inquiry exonerated the battery 's operators , observing the Tornado 's " lack of functioning IFF ( Identification Friend or Foe ) " as a factor in the incident . Problems with Patriot were also suggested as a factor , multiple incidents of mis @-@ identification of friendly aircraft have occurred , including the fatal shootdown of a US Navy McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet a few weeks after the loss of the Tornado . Britain withdrew the last of its Tornados from Iraq in June 2009 . In early 2009 , several GR4s arrived at Kandahar airfield , Afghanistan to replace the Harrier GR7 / 9 aircraft deployed there since November 2004 . In 2009 , Paveway IV guided bombs were brought into service on the RAF 's Tornados , having been previously used in Afghanistan by the Harrier II fleet . In Summer 2010 , extra Tornados were dispatched to Kandahar for the duration of the 2010 Afghan election . British Tornados ended their operations in Afghanistan in November 2014 . They flew over 5 @,@ 000 pairs sorties over 33 @,@ 500 hours , including 600 " shows of force " to deter Taliban attacks . During more than 70 engagements , some 140 Brimstone missiles and Paveway IV bombs were deployed in total ( roughly half each ) and over 3 @,@ 000 27 mm cannon shells were fired . Prior to the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review ( SDSR ) ' s publication , the retirement of the entire Tornado fleet was under consideration , savings of £ 7 @.@ 5 billion were anticipated . The SDSR announced the Tornado would be retained at the expense of the Harrier II , although Tornado numbers are to decline in transition to the Eurofighter Typhoon , and later on , the F @-@ 35 Lightning II . On 18 March 2011 , British Prime Minister David Cameron announced the deployment of Tornados and Typhoons to enforce a no @-@ fly zone in Libya . In March 2011 , several Tornados flew 3 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 4 @,@ 800 km ) strike missions against targets inside Libya in what were , according to Defence Secretary Liam Fox , " the longest range bombing mission conducted by the RAF since the Falklands conflict " . A variety of weapons were used in operations over Libya , including Laser @-@ guided bombs and Brimstone missiles . 59 RAF aircraft are receiving the CUSP avionics upgrade which achieved Initial Service Date ( ISD ) in March 2013 and the type will be withdrawn from RAF service on 31 March 2019 . On 11 August 2014 , a Cabinet Office Briefing Room ( COBR ) emergency meeting concluded that the RAF would deploy Tornado GR4s to RAF Akrotiri , Cyprus in support of refugees sheltering from Islamic State militants in the Mount Sinjar region of Iraq . The decision came three days after the United States began conducting air attacks against the Islamic State . Tornados were pre @-@ positioned to use their surveillance capabilities to gather situational awareness to help with humanitarian efforts . On 29 September 2014 , three days after Parliament approved of airstrikes against Islamic State forces inside Iraq , two Tornados conducted their first armed reconnaissance mission over the country , in conjunction with other coalition aircraft , and were cleared to conduct airstrikes if needed . Britain 's first airstrike was conducted the next day , when two Tornados hit a heavy weapons post and an armored vehicle in the process of supporting Kurdish forces in northwest Iraq . By 1 March 2015 , eight RAF Tornados had been deployed to Akrotiri and conducted 159 airstrikes against IS targets in Iraq . On the 2 December 2015 , the British Parliament voted to begin air strikes in Syria as well as Iraq , to combat the growing threat of ISIS . Tornados began their bombing that evening . = = = Royal Saudi Air Force = = = On 25 September 1985 , the UK and Saudi Arabia signed the Al Yamamah I contract including , amongst other things , the sale of 48 IDS and 24 ADV model Tornados . The first flight of a RSAF Tornado IDS was on 26 March 1986 , and the first Saudi ADV was delivered on 9 February 1989 . Saudi Tornados undertook operations during the Gulf War . In June 1993 the Al Yamamah II contract was signed , the main element of which was 48 additional IDSs . Following experience with both the Tornado and the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle , the RSAF discontinued low @-@ level mission training in the F @-@ 15E in light of the Tornado 's superior low @-@ altitude flight performance . In addition , 10 of the Saudi Tornados were outfitted with equipment for performing reconnaissance missions . The 22 Tornado ADVs were replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon ; the retired aircraft were being purchased back by the UK as of 2007 . By 2007 , both the Sea Eagle anti @-@ ship missile and the ALARM anti @-@ radiation missile that previously equipped the RSAF 's Tornados had been withdrawn from service . As of 2010 , Saudi Arabia has signed several contracts for new weapon systems to be fitted to their Tornado and Typhoon fleets , such as the short range air @-@ to @-@ air IRIS @-@ T missile , and the Brimstone and Storm Shadow cruise missiles . In September 2006 , the Saudi government signed a contract worth £ 2 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 4 @.@ 7 billion ) with BAE Systems to upgrade up to 80 RSAF Tornado IDS aircraft to keep them in service until 2020 . RSAF Tornado 6612 was returned to BAE Systems Warton in December 2006 for upgrade under the " Tornado Sustainment Programme " ( TSP ) , which will " equip the IDS fleet with a range of new precision @-@ guided weapons and enhanced targeting equipment , in many cases common with those systems already fielded by the UK 's Tornado GR4s . " In December 2007 , the first RSAF aircraft to complete modernisation was returned to Saudi Arabia . Starting from the first week of November 2009 , Saudi Air Force Tornados , along with Saudi F @-@ 15s performed air raids during the Shia insurgency in north Yemen . It was the first time since Operation Desert Storm in 1991 that the Royal Saudi Air Force participated in a military operation over hostile territory . = = Variants = = = = = Tornado IDS = = = Tornado GR1 RAF IDS variants were initially designated the Tornado GR1 with later modified aircraft designated Tornado GR1A , Tornado GR1B , Tornado GR4 and Tornado GR4A . The first of 228 GR1s was delivered on 5 June 1979 , and the type entered service in the early 1980s . A total of 142 aircraft were upgraded to GR4 standard from 1997 to 2003 . Tornado GR1B The Tornado GR1B was a specialised anti @-@ shipping variant of the GR1 . A total of 26 were converted , which were based at RAF Lossiemouth , Scotland , replacing the Blackburn Buccaneer . Each aircraft was equipped to carry up to four Sea Eagle anti @-@ ship missiles . At first the GR1B lacked the radar capability to track shipping , instead relying on the missile 's seeker for target acquisition , later updates allowed target data to be fed from aircraft to missile . Tornado GR4 In 1984 , the UK Ministry of Defence began studies for a GR1 Mid @-@ Life Update ( MLU ) . The update to GR4 standard , approved in 1994 , would improve capability in the medium @-@ altitude role based on lessons learned from the GR1 's performance in the 1991 Gulf War . British Aerospace ( later BAE Systems ) upgraded 142 Tornado GR1s to GR4 standard , beginning in 1996 and finished in 2003 . 59 RAF aircraft are receiving the CUSP avionics package which integrates the Paveway IV bomb and installs a new secure communications module from Cassidian in Phase A , followed by the Tactical Information Exchange ( TIE ) datalink from General Dynamics in Phase B. Tornado GR1A / GR4A The GR1A is the reconnaissance variant used by the RAF and RSAF , fitted with the TIRRS ( Tornado Infra @-@ Red Reconnaissance System ) , replacing the cannon . The RAF ordered 30 GR1As , 14 as GR1 rebuilds and 16 as new @-@ builds . When the Tornado GR1s were upgraded to become GR4s , GR1A aircraft were upgraded to GR4A standard . The switch from low @-@ level operations to medium / high @-@ level operations means that the internal TIRRS is no longer in use . As the GR4A 's internal sensors are no longer essential , the RAF 's Tactical Reconnaissance Wing operate both GR4A and GR4 aircraft . = = = Tornado ECR = = = Operated by Germany and Italy , the ECR is a Tornado variant devoted to Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses ( SEAD ) missions . It was first delivered on 21 May 1990 . The ECR has sensors to detect radar usage and is equipped with anti @-@ radiation AGM @-@ 88 HARM missiles . The Luftwaffe 's 35 ECRs were delivered new , while Italy received 16 converted IDSs . Italian Tornado ECRs differ from the Luftwaffe aircraft as they lack built @-@ in reconnaissance capability and use RecceLite reconnaissance pods , also only Luftwaffe ECRs are equipped with RB199 Mk.105 engine , which has a slightly higher thrust rating . The German ECRs do not carry a cannon . The RAF uses the IDS version in the SEAD role instead of the ECR . It also modified several of its Tornado F.3s to undertake the mission . = = = Tornado ADV = = = The Tornado ADV ( air defence variant ) was an interceptor variant of the Tornado , developed for the RAF ( designated Tornado F2 or F3 ) and also operated by Saudi Arabia and Italy . The ADV had inferior agility to fighters like the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 15 Eagle , but it was not intended as a dog @-@ fighter , instead it was a long @-@ endurance interceptor to counter the threat from Cold War bombers . Although the ADV had 80 % parts commonality with the Tornado IDS , the ADV had greater acceleration , improved RB199 Mk.104 engines , a stretched body , greater fuel capacity , the AI.24 Foxhunter radar , and software changes . It had only one cannon to accommodate a retractable inflight refuelling probe . = = Operators = = Germany German Air Force had 64 IDS and 29 ECR aircraft in service in December 2015 . Italy Italian Air Force had 62 IDS and 16 ECR aircraft in operation in December 2011 . Saudi Arabia Royal Saudi Air Force had 82 IDS in operation in December 2011 . United Kingdom Royal Air Force had 102 GR4 / GR4A aircraft in service in March 2014 . = = Aircraft on display = = Bulgaria 44 + 13 Tornado IDS on display at the National Museum of Military History , Sofia Germany D @-@ 9591 Tornado Prototype P.01 on display at Militärhistorisches Museum Flugplatz Berlin @-@ Gatow XX948 Tornado Prototype P.06 on display at Hermeskeil 43 + 01 Tornado IDS ( first series aircraft ) at Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 33 in Cochem / Büchel 43 + 96 Tornado gate guard at the German air base in Jagel , near Schleswig , Schleswig @-@ Holstein 44 + 97 Tornado IDS of the Einsatzgeschwader ( Expeditionary Air Wing ) Mazar @-@ i @-@ Sharif at the Deutsches Museum Flugwerft Schleissheim , Oberschleißheim 44 + 31 Tornado IDS ( Blue Lightning paint scheme ) of the 31st Fighter Bomber Wing " Boelcke " at Nörvenich AB Tornado IDS on display at the Luftwaffenmuseum , in Berlin Tornado IDS on display at the Technikmuseum Speyer 43 + 86 Tornado ( MTU corporate design paint scheme ) at MTU Aero Engines , in Munich Italy MM7210 Tornado F3 on display at the Italian Air Force Museum , Vigna di Valle Saudi Arabia Tornado ADV on display at King Abdul @-@ Aziz Air Base , Dhahran Tornado ADV on display at the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum in Riyadh Tornado IDS on display the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum in Riyadh Tornado IDS on display at King Abdul @-@ Aziz Air Base , Dhahran United Kingdom XX946 Tornado Prototype P.02 on display at the RAF Museum Cosford , England XX947 Tornado Prototype P.03 , was gate guardian at Shoreham Airport in West Sussex , England but was for sale in September 2014 . XZ631 Tornado GR4 Prototype P.15 on display at Yorkshire Air Museum , Elvington , England ZA319 Tornado GR1T Gate Guard , MoD DSDA Arncott , Bicester , Oxfordshire , England ZA326 Tornado GR1 on display at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome , Leicestershire , England . ZA354 Tornado GR1 on display at Yorkshire Air Museum , Elvington , England ZA361 Tornado GR1 on display at RNAS Can Florit , Calvia , Palma Mallorca , Spain - not on public display ZA362 Tornado GR1 on display at Highland Aviation Museum , Inverness , Scotland ZA452 Tornado GR4 on display at Midland Air Museum , Coventry , England . ZA457 Tornado GR1B on display at RAF Museum , Hendon , England ZA465 Tornado GR1 on display at Imperial War Museum , Duxford , England ZA475 Tornado GR1 on the gate at RAF Lossiemouth , Scotland . ZA549 Tornado GR4 on display at RAF Marham , Norfolk , England . ZE760 Tornado F3 on the gate at RAF Coningsby , Lincolnshire , England ZE887 Tornado F3 on display at RAF Museum , Hendon , England . ZE934 Tornado F3 on display at National Museum of Flight , East Fortune , Scotland ZH552 Tornado F3 on display at RAF Leeming , North Yorkshire , England United States ZA374 Tornado GR1 on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force , Wright Patterson AFB , Ohio 43 + 74 Tornado IDS of the German Navy , Marinefliegergeschwader 1 at the Pima Air & Space Museum , Tucson , AZ = = Specifications ( Tornado GR4 ) = = Data from International Warbirds : An Illustrated Guide to World Military Aircraft , 1914 – 2000 , Tornado , Modern Fighting Aircraft General characteristics Crew : 2 Length : 16 @.@ 72 m ( 54 ft 10 in ) Wingspan : 13 @.@ 91 m at 25 ° wing sweep , 8 @.@ 60 m at 67 ° wing sweep ( 45 @.@ 6 ft / 28 @.@ 2 ft ) Height : 5 @.@ 95 m ( 19 @.@ 5 ft ) Wing area : 26 @.@ 6 m2 ( 286 ft2 ) Empty weight : 13 @,@ 890 kg ( 30 @,@ 620 lb ) Loaded weight : 20 @,@ 240 kg ( 44 @,@ 620 lb ) Max. takeoff weight : 28 @,@ 000 kg ( 61 @,@ 700 lb ) Powerplant : 2 × Turbo @-@ Union RB199 @-@ 34R Mk 103 afterburning turbofans Dry thrust : 43 @.@ 8 kN ( 9 @,@ 850 lbf ) each Thrust with afterburner : 76 @.@ 8 kN ( 17 @,@ 270 lbf ) each Performance Maximum speed : Mach 2 @.@ 2 ( 2 @,@ 400 km / h , 1 @,@ 490 mph ) at 9 @,@ 000 m ( 30 @,@ 000 ft ) altitude ; 800 knots , 1 @,@ 482 km / h , 921 mph indicated airspeed near sea level Range : 1 @,@ 390 km ( 870 mi ) for typical combat mission Ferry range : 3 @,@ 890 km ( 2 @,@ 417 mi ) with four external drop tanks Service ceiling : 15 @,@ 240 m ( 50 @,@ 000 ft ) Rate of climb : 76 @.@ 7 m / s ( 15 @,@ 100 ft / min ) Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 77 Armament Guns : 1 × 27 mm ( 1 @.@ 06 in ) Mauser BK @-@ 27 revolver cannon internally mounted under starboard side of fuselage with 180 rounds Hardpoints : 4 × light duty + 3 × heavy duty under @-@ fuselage and 4 × swivelling under @-@ wing pylon stations with a capacity of 9 @,@ 000 kg ( 19 @,@ 800 lb ) of payload , the two inner wing pylons have shoulder launch rails for 2 × Short @-@ Range AAM ( SRAAM ) each and provisions to carry combinations of : Missiles : AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder or AIM @-@ 132 ASRAAM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles for self @-@ defence 6 × AGM @-@ 65 Maverick ; or 12 × Brimstone missile ; or 2 × Storm Shadow 9 × ALARM anti @-@ radiation missile Bombs : 5 × 500 lb Paveway IV ; or 3 × 1000 lb ( UK Mk 20 ) Paveway II / Enhanced Paveway II ; or 2 × 2000 lb Paveway III ( GBU @-@ 24 ) / Enhanced Paveway III ( EGBU @-@ 24 ) ; or BL755 cluster bombs ; or Up to 2 × JP233 or MW @-@ 1 munitions dispensers ( for runway cratering operations ) Up to 4 × B61 or WE.177 tactical nuclear weapons Other : Up to 4 × drop tanks for ferry flight / extended range / flight time Avionics RAPTOR aerial reconnaissance pod Rafael LITENING targeting pod ; or TIALD laser designator pod BAE Systems Sky Shadow electronic countermeasure pod = = Popular culture = =
= Franklin Peale = Benjamin Franklin Peale ( born Aldrovand Peale ; October 15 , 1795 – May 5 , 1870 ) , usually Franklin Peale , was an employee and officer of the Philadelphia Mint from 1833 to 1854 . Although Peale introduced many innovations to the Mint of the United States , he was eventually dismissed amid allegations he had used his position for personal gain . Peale was the son of painter Charles Willson Peale , and was born in the museum of curiosities that his father ran in Philadelphia . For the most part , Franklin Peale 's education was informal , though he took some classes at the University of Pennsylvania . He became adept in machine making . In 1820 , he became an assistant to his father at the museum , and managed it after Charles Peale 's death in 1827 . In 1833 , Peale was hired by the Mint , and was sent for two years to Europe to study and report back on coining techniques . He returned with plans for improvement , and designed the first steam @-@ powered coinage press in the United States , installed in 1836 . Peale was made Melter and Refiner of the Philadelphia Mint that year , and Chief Coiner three years later upon the retirement of the incumbent , Adam Eckfeldt , who continued in his work without pay . Eckfeldt 's labor allowed Peale to run a medal business using Mint property . This sideline eventually caused Peale 's downfall : conflicts with Engraver James B. Longacre and Melter and Refiner Richard Sears McCulloh led to Peale being accused of misconduct , and he was dismissed by President Franklin Pierce in 1854 . In retirement , Peale continued his involvement in and leadership of many civic organizations ; he died in 1870 . Numismatic author Q. David Bowers suggests that the facts of Peale 's career allow writers to draw very different conclusions about him . = = Early life and career = = Benjamin Franklin Peale was born October 15 , 1795 , to painter Charles Willson Peale and his second wife , the former Elizabeth de Peyster . As well as pursuing his art , Charles Peale ran a museum of curiosities housed in Philosophical Hall in Philadelphia , home of the American Philosophical Society . The boy was born in the family quarters in the museum . He was given the name Aldrovand , after the Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi . Charles Peale recorded family births on the flyleaf of a copy of Matthew Pilkington 's Dictionary of Painters , rather than in a Bible , and after recording " Aldrovand " added the notation , " if he likes that name when he comes of age " . The father was a member of the American Philosophical Society , and in February 1796 brought his young son to a meeting , and asked the members to select another name for the child . They decided on Benjamin Franklin Peale , naming the boy after the Society 's founder , Benjamin Franklin . Society legend holds that the boy was given the name while placed in the chair of the president of the Society , which had been donated by Franklin . Franklin Peale was one of sixteen children his father would have by his three wives . Elizabeth Peale died when Franklin was eight years old , but his father soon remarried , and the child was thereafter cared for by his stepmother . He was given little classroom education , though he did spend some time at a local school in nearby Bucks County , as well as at Germantown Academy and the University of Pennsylvania . For the most part , his education was informal , as was usual in the Peale family , with the student given the means to study what interested him , or what he appeared to be good at . In Franklin Peale 's case , he made toys as a boy , and surveyed his father 's farm near Germantown . Although he lacked the artistic talent of some of his brothers , such as Titian Peale , he proved mechanically inclined . At age 17 , Peale began to work for the Delaware cotton factory of William Young , on the Brandywine River , learning the making of machines . He was an apt student , becoming adept as a turner , founder , and draftsman . He was tolerated in his desire for a mechanical career by his father , who considered it a foolish whim . Within a year , one of the Hodgson brothers , who ran a nearby machine shop , described Peale as highly capable with tools . At age 19 Peale returned to Germantown , where , having designed and supervised the installation of the machinery for a cotton factory there , he was put in charge , and continued to manage the factory for several years . He then moved to nearby Philadelphia , and worked for the firm of John & Coleman Sellers , which made machinery for card sticking . On April 24 , 1815 , Peale , still a minor at age 19 , married Eliza Greatrake without his father 's consent . Almost immediately , it became evident she had mental problems . Although Eliza bore Peale a child within the first year of the marriage ( a daughter , Anna ) , she thereafter left him , returning to live with her mother , who had her committed to Pennsylvania Hospital as a " lunatic " . The Peale family began a lengthy effort to show that Eliza Peale was mad when she married Franklin , a ground for annulment . With aid from the testimony of Captain Allen McLane , they were successful , and the annulment was granted on March 22 , 1820 . Franklin Peale was required to post assets as security for the support of his former wife ; his sister Sophy lent him some of her stock in the museum for that purpose . In 1820 , Peale left factory management to assist his aging father in running the museum , and remained there for over a decade . When Charles Willson Peale died in 1827 , Franklin became the manager of the museum , and like his siblings , inherited stock in it . He not only maintained the exhibits , but added to them , contributing a " curious speaking toy " as well as the model for an early locomotive , which was used to draw two small cars in the museum , with seating for four people . At the time , the museum was located in the Old State House ( today , Independence Hall ) , and Peale worked out a system for using the State House bell to inform fire companies of the location of a blaze . Peale was one of the founders of The Franklin Institute in 1824 , one of several mechanics ' institutes that came into being in the early 1820s to provide working men with technical education . It quickly became important and influential , organizing an exhibition of American manufactured goods that October , one of at least 26 such shows that it put on in the first 34 years of its existence . Peale taught natural history , mechanics ( illustrating his lectures with models and drawings ) , and chemistry , livening the talks with experiments . He was for many years actively involved with The Franklin Institute , writing articles for its Journal and serving on key committees . = = Mint employee and officer ( 1833 – 1854 ) = = = = = Hiring and Europe tour = = = The second building to house the Philadelphia Mint opened in 1833 , with up @-@ to @-@ date technology except in the coining process . For this , it used the transplanted machinery of its predecessor , using human muscle power to strike coins . Although the Mint wanted all coins to be identical to others of the same denomination , the use of the screw press was an impediment to this , as the force used to impress the design on the coins was not uniform . Additionally , the coinage dies were made by hand , leading to differences between coins struck from different dies . This state of affairs was unsatisfactory to the director , Samuel Moore , who had for several years contemplated purchasing a modern set of steam machinery for the production of coins from the Soho Mint in Birmingham , England , founded by coining pioneer Matthew Boulton . Moore instead decided to engage a new employee and send him on a special tour of European mints and refineries , in order to learn the best features of each and bring the knowledge home for use at the Philadelphia facility . The individual would be given the title of Assistant to the Assayer , Jacob R. Eckfeldt . Moore obtained the approval of Treasury Secretary Louis McLane and an appropriation of $ 7 @,@ 000 for the purpose . Moore , in a letter to McLane , noted that sending an agent to Europe to gather technology had been discussed in the past , but proposals had foundered over the difficulty of finding a person both competent enough to undertake the trip successfully and not too busy to spend a year or more in Europe . At the recommendation of the director 's first cousin , Robert M. Patterson , Moore hired Peale for the position . According to Patterson , " I do not know any man more likely to succeed in such a mission . His skill , his perseverance , his address all fit him for the errand . " Peale was willing to go , writing , " a variety of circumstances render me very desirous of vacating the situation that I have held for many years as Manager of the Phila Museum , it will therefore be agreeable to change even at a pecuniary sacrifice . " Peale departed from New York for Le Havre on May 8 , 1833 , arriving in Paris late in the month . At this time , it was only certain that Peale would visit Paris — a visit to England , with instruction at local mints and refineries , was still under discussion . Peale had been instructed to learn " parting , " a newly developed method for separating gold and silver . This process , also dubbed refining , is necessary because nuggets that contain gold also contain some silver , and the latter metal must be removed before the gold can be alloyed with copper for coining . The older method of removing silver involved the use of nitric and sulphuric acids , and was dangerous and expensive . Director Moore also instructed Peale to gain the method of assaying silver by the " humid process " ( titration ) , and to learn everything he could of coining technology and how it was powered by steam . Moore warned , " a very material object of your mission is to be regarded as unaccomplished , until you have become familiar with everything requisite for directing the formation of an establishment de novo [ from nothing ] ... and until you shall have acquired a good share of adroitness in the actual manipulations ... Whatever can be added to our information in regard to the treatment of the precious metals , and Mint processes and machinery is within the scope of your inquiries . " Moore asked that , if Peale had any time remaining , to look into other technologies that might be useful to the United States , such as the gas illumination of cities . With the aid of the United States Minister to France , Edward Livingston , Peale gained permission to study closely the workings of the Monnaie de Paris . The staff there was cooperative , and Peale was able to learn the " humid " method from watching the assayer as he verified the silver content of the coins from the French branch mints . Peale 's notes were supplemented by detailed engravings of all the fixtures used in the process , published and sold by the Paris mint at an expense of 98 francs 50 centimes , which Peale deemed worth the purchase on the US government 's behalf . Peale also purchased a set of the apparatus for the humid method , made and sold by the mint ; Peale paid 500 francs for this . Some of the machinery that would be installed on Peale 's return to Philadelphia was based on what he saw in Paris . He sketched the Monnaie de Paris 's Thonnelier model coin presses . He also copied the Paris facility 's Tour á portrait reducing lathe . He could not learn parting there as the facility contracted the process to private refineries ; attempts to gain permission to learn the process at these facilities failed when their owners demanded huge sums , believing that Peale , as a government agent , was flush with money . Peale journeyed to London , hoping that Moore 's connections could get him instruction in the parting process . Although he visited the Royal Mint , he found officials there unhelpful and unwilling to teach him . In England , Peale studied the method of assaying via the humid process at Percival N. Johnson 's refinery , and in 1835 introduced it to the Philadelphia Mint , replacing assaying by cupellation . Peale wrote that he " cannot speak in too high terms of Mr. Percival Johnson ... I have derived much useful information in his refinery particularly his method of separating silver , gold and paladium [ palladium ] by a shortened process " . While in London , Peale ordered a delicate balance scale from his friend , expatriate American Joseph Saxton , and later induced Saxton to return to the United States and work for the Philadelphia Mint . Peale returned to France where , as the refiners wanted payment for teaching him the French method of parting , he learned it by observing the assayer at the branch mint in Rouen . He was not completely happy with this , as he was not allowed to practice it himself , or to experiment , but felt that he could reproduce what he had seen on his return to Philadelphia . Peale also visited the German mints of Dresden , Stuttgart , and Karlsruhe . In Germany , parting was done in iron vessels ; although Peale noted these were cheaper than platinum ones , he preferred the latter , writing in December 1834 that use of iron " sometimes leads to losses that are embarrassing . " He also visited Freiberg , in Saxony , observing the smelting and refining of lead ore . = = = Return and results = = = On June 17 , 1835 , Peale submitted his report to Moore , 276 pages of his observations at the various European mints he had visited , and his comments and recommendations . He warned , " in the organization of Mints in both France and England that there are offices and incumbents , that are useless , and who render no services of importance for their appointment " . He recommended favorably the French practice of not appointing a coin designer , but having competitions judged jointly by Mint officers and by artists . Peale also urged the passage of a single , comprehensive Mint Act , to replace the scattered bits of legislation passed over the years ; this was done in 1837 . One recommendation submitted by Peale , but not adopted , was to have the Mint set up a guaranty department , to hallmark items made of gold or silver by the private sector as public assurance of their quality , as done by the Goldsmiths Company in London . He also recommended that the Philadelphia Mint strike medals , as did its French counterpart . He suggested that the Mint establish a museum of coins and coining , as the Paris facility had . Peale returned from Europe with plans he had drawn for a steam @-@ powered coinage press , borrowing the steam machinery design from English mints and the toggle joint technology from French ones . In September , Patterson , by then Mint Director in place of the retired Moore , wrote to Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury , " we have just completed under the superintendence of Mr. Peale , a model of a coining press from plans which he saw in successful operation in France and in Germany , and possessing many very manifest advantages over the Screw press now applied at the Mint . Among these one of the most important is that [ it ] admits the immediate and easy application of steam power . " Director Patterson called March 23 , 1836 " an epoch in our coinage " . To take advantage of the new press 's increased production capacity , Peale designed a new machine to cut planchets , or blanks , from metal strips . This machine remained in use , almost unmodified , until 1902 . Another of the steam @-@ powered machines Peale had installed on his return was a milling machine , which was used to " upset " the coin — to form a rim around it . A Contamin portrait lathe was imported from France and installed at the Philadelphia Mint in 1837 . Prior to this time , all coin dies for American coins had to be made individually , by hand at Philadelphia . Once the lathe was installed , they could be reproduced mechanically by the pantograph @-@ like device . The first pieces produced by steam power at the Philadelphia Mint , commemorative medals , were struck on March 23 , 1836 . The first steam press there then began minting cents , with silver and gold coinage first struck there by steam towards the end of the year . Built by the Philadelphia firm of Merrick , Agnew , and Taylor to Peale 's design , the press was able to coin 100 pieces per minute . After being retired from government service , the press was used at The Franklin Institute to strike miniature medals for many years , and in 2000 was moved to the American Numismatic Association 's Money Museum in Colorado Springs . Patterson wrote , The performance of the press , in which the power of the lever is substituted for that of the screw , has answered all our expectations . Since that time , all the copper coins have been struck by this press , and it has been lately used with success for coining half dollars . The workmen are now engaged in making other steam presses ; and as these are completed , the coining by human labor be abandoned , and the work that can be executed in ... the Mint will be greatly increased . Numismatist Roger Burdette notes , " in most respects , Peale seems to have selected the best from European examples , and discarded all unnecessary complexity and ineffective motion . " Although minor improvements were made from time to time , these machines struck the nation 's coinage for the remainder of Peale 's life . According to numismatist David Lange , " the fact @-@ finding journey of [ future ] Philadelphia Mint Melter and Refiner Franklin Peale through the mints of Europe from 1833 to 1835 assured that United States coins would be second to none in terms of technology . " Lange , in his history of the Mint , notes that though Peale ended his career by being fired amid accusations of impropriety , upon his return from Europe , " he was the bearer of many innovations devised in the mints of Europe and now made available to the United States Mint at Philadelphia " . Robert Patterson III , son of the Mint Director under whom Peale served for many years , wrote that through Peale 's report , " our Mint was placed in full possession of all that was then worthy to be known " from foreign mints and refineries . Patterson indicated that he had often thought , as he passed through the Philadelphia Mint 's coining department , that a plaque should be set up to Peale reproducing the tribute to Sir Christopher Wren in London 's St. Paul 's Cathedral , Si Monumentum Requiris , Circumspice ( if you seek his monument , look around you ) . = = = Melter and Refiner = = = Joseph Cloud had held the position of Melter and Refiner of the Philadelphia Mint since 1797 . The Washington administration appointee resigned , effective at the start of 1836 . Peale was nominated as Cloud 's replacement by President Andrew Jackson on December 21 , 1835 , and was confirmed by the Senate on January 5 , 1836 . On taking office as Melter and Refiner , Peale implemented the changes he had recommended based on what he had seen in Europe . He also wanted additional mechanization in the mint 's Coining Department , headed by Chief Coiner Adam Eckfeldt , whose son Jacob was the Philadelphia Mint 's Assayer . Adam Eckfeldt had helped strike some of the first federal coins in 1792 and had been in his office since 1814 . Eckfeldt was reluctant to adopt all Peale 's recommendations , telling Peale 's nephew , engineer George Sellers , " If Mr. Peale had full swing he would turn everything upside down ... he wants something better and no doubt he would have it if we were starting anew . " As improvements crept in despite Eckfeldt 's caution , the Chief Coiner saw their value and became more enthusiastic , noting the savings in working time afforded by the Contamin lathe , which had been imported from France after being seen by Peale there . To help deal with the increased output from the Philadelphia Mint , Peale invented a piling @-@ box , allowing planchets or coins to be quickly stacked , and a counting board , speeding the work of the clerks . The counting board remained in use until the mints installed mechanical counters in 1934 . One of the innovations that Peale introduced as Melter and Refiner was the use of salt in parting , using it to recover the silver dissolved in nitric acid when gold bullion was being purified . Previously , this could only be done by using copper , a process that generated dangerous and offensive fumes . Table salt ( sodium chloride ) , dissolved in nitric acid , caused silver chloride to precipitate , which could be recovered as metallic silver through the use of zinc and sulfuric acid . This was a further refinement of the parting process ; the director of the Monnaie de Paris , Joseph Louis Gay @-@ Lussac , had first used a salt solution as an easy , accurate means of assaying silver . A Senate report in 1873 stated that Peale 's advancement of this process " attests to his genius , enterprise , and high attainments " . When there were calls in Congress in 1836 for a two @-@ cent piece to be made of debased silver , or billon , Patterson had Peale , working with Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht , strike pattern coins to show that the coins would be easily counterfeited using base metals . In 1835 , Congress had authorized branch mints at Charlotte , North Carolina , Dahlonega , Georgia , and New Orleans , Louisiana , to strike into American coin the gold being mined in or entering the country through the South . Despite the rich gold deposits nearby , both Charlotte and Dahlonega were in areas lacking men with technical training ; accordingly trained personnel would have to be sent from Philadelphia . New buildings were to be constructed . In August 1837 , Mint Director Patterson received word of problems at both sites , including a partial collapse of the Dahlonega building . He wrote to Treasury Secretary Levi Woodbury , proposing " to send , to both the Gold mints , a confidential & skillful person , who may ... give instructions as to correcting the errors , that have been committed ... I know of no one competent to this task , except our Melter & Refiner , Mr. Peale . " Woodbury agreed , informing Patterson , " you are authorized to send Mr. Peak . [ sic ] " Peale , accompanied by his daughter Anna , arrived in Charlotte on September 23 , 1837 . He found that necessary equipment had not yet arrived , and without it he could do little . Peale ordered a search made , and reported to Patterson that he was " in a trap " in " this fag end of creation " in a town where " the only active beings are the hogs " . Peale spent time visiting the mines on which the Charlotte Mint would rely for bullion . He proposed to Patterson that he continue to New Orleans after Dahlonega , to which the Mint Director replied that he would " exercise my veto upon your proposed long delay " and " your presence [ in Philadelphia ] cannot be dispensed with " . On October 27 , much of the missing equipment arrived in Charlotte , and Peale was able to complete his mission there and leave for Dahlonega on November 10 . Following a difficult journey over primitive mountain roads , Franklin and Anna Peale arrived there on November 15 . After assessing the problems at the nascent Dahlonega Mint , Peale reported to Patterson , The workmanship of the Mint edifice is abominable , a letter might be three times filled with the details of errors and intentional mal construction , the first and greatest of which might be traced to Philada , in ordering a brick building in a country where there is no clay , the material employed for the brick making being the red soil of the Gold region , a decomposed granite … put into brick by men who certainly deserve diplomas for Botching . Nevertheless , Peale recommended that construction on the building continue , as he deemed Congress unlikely to pass another appropriation for construction . The Peales left Dahlonega at the end of November . On their way north , Anna was slightly injured when the train in which they were riding though Virginia derailed . Peale was back at his desk at the Philadelphia Mint on December 23 , 1837 . Roger Burdette discusses the influence Peale had on the Mint in the 1830s : In mid @-@ 1835 we find Philadelphia engineer / machinist Benjamin Franklin Peale discarding most of the complexity and tradition attendant to press design work of Thonnelier in Paris , Uhlhorn in Karlsruhe , and Boulton in London . Peale went to basic principles of equipment used at these great mints , and adapted it to the American model of efficiency . Equipment had to be robust and easy to repair . The vast distances of North America made it impossible to have mechanical experts at each mint , sitting , waiting for something to break ... The Mint Bureau of 1839 had to insist on similar ways of processing gold and silver [ at the four mints ] , even if these processes were not the most efficient or inexpensive . As with equipment , we can again see Franklin Peale borrowing from the Royal Mint and Paris Mint such production methods that worked well , and discarding those of questionable utility in the American mints . = = = Chief Coiner = = = = = = = Appointment and early years = = = = When Adam Eckfeldt retired in 1839 , he recommended Peale as his successor . As the Senate was not sitting , Peale was given a recess appointment as Chief Coiner of the Philadelphia Mint by President Martin Van Buren on March 27 , 1839 . On January 23 , 1840 , after the Senate reconvened , Van Buren nominated Peale ; the Senate gave its approval on February 17 . Despite his retirement , Eckfeldt continued to come to the mint every day until shortly before his death in February 1852 , performing the function of Chief Coiner and leaving Peale with time on his hands . Soon after his appointment , Peale began to engage in a private business on the Mint 's premises . He did this by designing , striking and selling medals for private commission , using government property and labor , and the Philadelphia Mint 's facilities . Peale 's enterprise was very profitable , as his expenses were minimal . This activity took place with the knowledge of the other officers of the Philadelphia Mint , most of whom were Peale 's friends and relatives . Clients included corporations as well as one couple celebrating a 50th wedding anniversary . According to Robert E. Wright in his history of Philadelphia as an early financial center , the legality of Peale 's business was unclear , but " the uncertainty of the situation made it almost inevitable that someone would make a stink on [ Philadelphia 's ] Chestnut Street . " This activity has been variously characterized by numismatic writers . According to coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers , " Peale started to abuse his position and privileges , in effect stealing services from the government " . Burdette notes , " Overall , it appears that Peale used mint equipment and employees to make medals as instructed by Congress and the mint director , and to produce copies from private and official dies for sale to anyone who was interested . In the case of private sales , Peale seems to have used government metal , then reimbursed the bullion accounts when he collected for the medal . Profits were not accounted for in mint ledgers and it is unknown how much went to Peale , others at the mint or into the mint 's Cabinet of Coins . The total amount was probably not large . " After scalemaker Saxton left the Mint Service in 1844 , much of the work of maintaining and modifying the sensitive balances for which Saxton was responsible fell to Peale . The Chief Coiner made a number of improvements to the scales , which he wrote up for an article in the Journal of The Franklin Institute in 1847 . These balances , sensitive to .0001 troy ounces ( 0 @.@ 00011 oz ; 0 @.@ 0031 g ) , were protected by plate glass from air currents and dust . = = = = Conflict with Longacre = = = = In 1844 , Engraver Gobrecht died , and was replaced by James B. Longacre . The new incumbent had obtained his appointment through the influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun . He had no relationship to the families that dominated the Philadelphia Mint , such as the Pattersons and Eckfeldts , and the connection with the Southerner Calhoun was objectionable to Peale , Patterson , and their associates . They would have preferred no replacement for Gobrecht , with the New York engraver Charles Cushing White or others they knew and trusted brought in on contract as necessary . This would ensure Peale 's highly profitable medal business was not threatened . Additionally , Longacre had no training , prior to his appointment , in coin or medal design , being a successful plate engraver , and Lange states that the Mint officers were " understandably " prejudiced against him . Peale sometimes worked on medals for the government , taking care to exclude Longacre from the process . During the Mexican @-@ American War , Congress voted a gold medal to Major General Zachary Taylor for his victories at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma . Peale engraved the design from a portrait by William Carl Brown and a model by John T. Battin . After Taylor became president , Peale designed his Indian Peace Medal ; Peale also engraved Indian Peace Medals for presidents John Tyler and James Polk , working from designs or models by other men . In 1846 , Peale designed and engraved the Coast Survey Medal ( also called the George M. Bache medal ) . Peale believed that all national commemorative medals , those authorized by Congress , should have their dies lodged at the Philadelphia Mint , and be struck there , and with Patterson 's support urged the issuance of medals for presidents for whom no Indian Peace Medal had been designed , such as John Adams and William Henry Harrison . This was done , but not in Peale 's time — for example , the William Henry Harrison medal was designed by later Assistant and Chief Engraver George T. Morgan . These works , like Peale 's Indian Peace Medals , form part of the Mint 's Presidential series , which continues to the present day . Peale 's improvements had made it possible for dies to be reproduced mechanically , relieving the Mint 's Engraver of much of his routine duties . In the absence of a need for new designs or denominations , Longacre had little to do but add the dates to dies . Some of these insertions were blundered , and modern @-@ day numismatic scholars , such as R. W. Julian , have wondered if , as Peale and those who worked under him also sometimes inserted dates into dies , these mistakes were done intentionally in an attempt to bring discredit on Longacre . Nevertheless , Longacre 's first few years at the Philadelphia Mint passed without serious conflict with Peale . All this changed in 1849 , when Congress authorized a gold dollar and a double eagle ( $ 20 piece ) . This made Longacre the center of attention at the mint , as he would be responsible for producing the new designs and dies . It also brought him into direct conflict with Peale : the Engraver would need to use the Contamin lathe , which was necessary to Peale 's medal business . Peale sought to sabotage Longacre 's attempts , with the goal of having him dismissed , and such work contracted for outside the government , allowing the medal business to continue undisturbed . In this , Peale had the support of Director Patterson . As Longacre worked to complete the two new coins , he had to deal with interference from Peale . In early 1849 , according to a letter written by Longacre the following year , the Engraver was approached by a member of the Mint staff , warning him that another officer ( plainly Peale ) sought to have the engraving work done outside the Mint , making Longacre redundant . Longacre 's response to the information was to spend much of March 1849 preparing the dies for the gold dollar , at some cost to his health , as he later related . Longacre proceeded with work on the double eagle through late 1849 , and described the obstacles set in his path by Peale : The plan of operation selected for me was to have an electrotype mould made from my model , in copper , to serve as a pattern for a cast in iron . The operations of the galvanic battery for this purpose were conducted in the apartments of the chief coiner . The galvanic process failed , my model was destroyed in the operation . I had , however , taken the precaution to make a cast in plaster ... From this cast , as the only alternative , I procurred [ sic ] a metallic one which , however , was not perfect ; but I thought I should be able to correct the imperfections in the engraving of the die ... this was a laborious task , but seasonably completed , entirely by my own hand . The die then had to be hardened in the coining department ; it unluckily split in the process . According to numismatic historian Don Taxay , " under the circumstances , Peale 's adoption of a process not normally used at the Mint , together with its catastrophic failure , seems more than coincidental . " When Longacre completed the double eagle dies , they were rejected by Peale , who stated that the design was engraved too deeply to fully impress the coin , and the pieces would not stack properly . Taxay , however , noted that the one surviving 1849 double eagle displays no such problems , and by appearance would be level in a stack . Peale complained to Patterson , who wrote to Treasury Secretary William M. Meredith asking for Longacre 's removal on December 25 , 1849 , on the ground he could not make proper dies . Meredith was apparently willing to have Longacre fired , but relented after the Engraver journeyed to Washington and met with him personally . Beginning in 1849 , there were calls for a silver three @-@ cent piece , and pattern coins were struck at the Philadelphia Mint . Longacre 's design featured a shield within a six @-@ pointed star on one side . Peale offered a competing design , showing a Liberty cap , very similar to one Gobrecht had made in 1836 when a gold dollar had been proposed . Patterson preferred Peale 's design , but reluctantly endorsed Longacre 's , since it was in lower relief and could be struck more easily , and Treasury Secretary Thomas Corwin approved the Engraver 's work . The three @-@ cent piece went into circulation in 1851 . In 1850 , with the Mint faced with a vast increase in gold deposits due to the California Gold Rush , Peale suggested that the Mint hire women to supplement the staff assigned to weigh and adjust gold planchets , or coin blanks , describing the work as " being entirely suited to their capacity " . The Mint did hire 40 women , who were ( as of 1860 ) paid $ 1 @.@ 10 per ten @-@ hour day , a sum considered generous . The Mint 's hiring of women was the first time the American government had employed women to fill specific jobs at regular wages . In 1851 , Peale designed a new steam engine for the Philadelphia Mint , using a " steeple " design without exterior pipes . Although designed to generate 100 horsepower , wear soon reduced its capacity . American journals of engineering mentioned Peale 's latest work without comment ; British journals pointed out the defects and suggested that time had passed Peale by . = = = = Downfall = = = = Not all of Peale 's innovations were successful . He caused the Mint to purchase a large lathe for turning heavy metal rolls , which cost the government at least $ 2 @,@ 000 and that Peale conceded had never worked and likely never would . He bought from his nephew , George Sellers , a set of molds for casting ingots and accompanying equipment , which proved unusable as they were not adapted to the Mint 's machinery . A drawbench made by Peale at the cost of at least $ 1 @,@ 500 proved dangerous as the piston would drive with tremendous force against the end of its cylinder , causing a concussion and endangering those nearby . " Peale 's machine gun " was put aside by Mint staff as useless soon after its introduction . An 1853 attempt by Peale to convert the Philadelphia Mint 's wood @-@ burning annealing furnaces to use anthracite coal destroyed the furnaces , cost the government several thousand dollars , and led to Peale being ordered to undertake no more such projects . One invention that worked well was the " noisy sofa " — sitting on it set off a trumpet blast . Constructed at the cost of about $ 200 in government funds , it graced in turn the offices of Peale and Patterson . These activities were financed through a provision of the Mint Act of 1837 that Patterson interpreted to allow the Mint to decline to give credit for small amounts of silver in gold deposits . This practice was twice approved by the then @-@ Secretary of the Treasury , in 1837 and 1849 . Small deposits of bullion were rounded down to be divisible by $ 5 , with the surplus kept and used at the discretion of Mint officials . This , and similar practices whereby officials financed activities without an appropriation from Congress , were brought to an end after Peale proposed a $ 20 @,@ 800 renovation of part of the Philadelphia Mint building in 1850 , and ran over budget by $ 12 @,@ 000 . To pay this , Patterson used the profits , or seignorage , projected to be made from the new three @-@ cent pieces . When Congress heard of this , it passed the Act of February 21 , 1853 , requiring the Mint Director to regularly pay the seignorage into the Treasury . One flaw in Peale 's medal business was his need to acquire gold and silver bullion within the Mint . This was paid for once the medal sold , and there was no problem while the Melter and Refiner of the Philadelphia Mint was Peale 's friend Jonas R. McClintock . But in 1846 , McClintock resigned and was replaced by Richard Sears McCulloh . At first , McCulloh gave Peale whatever gold and silver he needed without question , but came to object to doing so . Peale and McCulloh made a deal whereby the struck medal would remain in McCulloh 's custody until Peale had replaced the bullion , but Peale objected that the procedure was " inconvenient " . Beginning in August 1849 , McCulloh refused further requests from Peale for bullion , and Peale instead gained it from the Mint 's Treasurer . Peale did his best to make McCulloh 's position difficult , such as refusing to accept bullion for coins except from McCulloh personally . In 1850 , McCulloh resigned . In November of that year , the former official published an article in the New York Evening Express alleging that those employed at the Mint had transformed " it into a workshop for their gain " . President Millard Fillmore sent the article to Secretary of the Treasury Corwin for an explanation ; Corwin forwarded it to Patterson , who confirmed that Peale was running a private medal business on the premises , but stated that there was no interference with the performance of Peale 's duties as Chief Coiner . Taxay noted that this was only true because the retired Adam Eckfeldt was still performing the duties of that office without salary , and this ceased in February 1852 when Eckfeldt died after a brief illness . The death of his predecessor caused Peale to write " a frantic letter " to the new Mint Director ( Patterson had retired ) , George N. Eckert , stating that he urgently needed an assistant . McCulloh 's campaign had continued ; on August 1 , 1851 , he wrote directly to President Fillmore , accusing Peale of " lavish and unnecessary expenditure of public money " , and stating that Peale was unfit to hold office . He alleged that Mint workmen had been detailed to make repairs to Peale 's house while being paid for their time by the government . One man subsequently stated that he and another Mint employee spent two days working on Peale 's house ; another alleged that whenever the archery club of which Peale was a member met , Mint employees were sent to help with the arrangements . McCulloh also accused Peale of having Mint workers make furniture for his use when they would otherwise be idle . Corwin ordered an investigation , which dragged on for the next year and a half . Peale entered a statement in April 1852 , alleging that McCulloh was accusing the Director and the accounting staff of " gross neglect of duty " , and that McCulloh 's attack on Peale 's medal business was a slight on " the late venerable and much loved Adam Eckfeldt " , whose precedent Peale stated he was following . Peale wrote in his defense , " I boldly claim to have done for the Mint and my country , much that will entitle me gratitude . " Eckert was friendly towards Peale , and worked to discredit the accusations . McCulloh urged Corwin to review the correspondence himself , and the Secretary agreed , but both Corwin and Eckert left office in early 1853 with no action having been taken against Peale . McCulloh that summer published a pamphlet , The Proceedings of the Late Director of the Mint in Relation to the Official Misconduct of Franklin Peale Esq . , Chief Coiner and Other Abuses in the Mint , printing much of the correspondence . This tract was reviewed by the new Mint Director , James Ross Snowden ; he and the new Treasury Secretary , James Guthrie , decided to forbid private enterprises on the Mint 's property . In August 1854 , Guthrie issued regulations banning the practice . Taxay recorded that the new policy " seem [ s ] to have been ill @-@ received in certain quarters of the Mint " but that as not all records are extant , the specifics are uncertain . According to Taxay , It is clear , however , that Snowden wrote to Guthrie preferring charges against Peale , and that Guthrie in turn wrote to the President [ Franklin Pierce ] who , having no one else to write to , dismissed Peale at once ... Peale left the Mint on December 2 , [ 1854 , ] never again to return . The reasons for Peale 's firing were not publicly announced , and his friends and allies , such as William DuBois ( Adam Eckfeldt 's son @-@ in @-@ law and the Assistant Assayer ( later Assayer ) of the Philadelphia Mint ) stated that it was so President Pierce could have the position to fill from the Democratic Party . Taxay noted that this explanation ignored the fact that Martin Van Buren , under whose administration Peale had been appointed Chief Coiner , was also a Democrat as president . Nevertheless , an 1873 Senate report on Peale 's request for compensation after being dismissed stated , " why such a valuable officer was displaced does not appear " . = = Later years , death , and assessment = = After his departure from the Philadelphia Mint , Peale initially retired from all employment . In 1864 , he returned to the private sector as president of the Hazelton Coal and Rail Road Company , in which he had long been involved , remaining in that position through 1867 . Civic organizations of which he was president included the Musical Fund Society of Pennsylvania and the Institution for Instruction to the Blind . He had been elected a manager of the latter organization in 1839 , served on many important committees , and was elected its president in 1863 , still holding the office at his death in 1870 . A member of the American Philosophical Society since 1833 , he served as one of its curators from 1838 to 1845 and from 1847 until 1870 . A longtime member of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts , which his father had helped to found , he served as one of its directors through much of his retirement . He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1865 . In his later years , Peale spent some of his autumns at the Delaware Water Gap north of Philadelphia , searching for Stone Age artifacts and amassing a major collection . Peale catalogued his finds and added narrative descriptions , bequeathing the collection to the American Philosophical Society . An adept archer , he helped found the United Bowmen club , members of whom carried his casket to his grave , at his instructions . He was also , at his death , president of the Skater 's Club . He was a lifelong skater , and developed a method for extracting a skater who broke through the ice that saved many lives . Peale was among those consulted in 1870 by Treasury Secretary George Boutwell in preparing the legislation to reform the Mint that became the Coinage Act of 1873 . Peale advocated for the office of the Mint Director to be moved from Philadelphia to Washington ; this was enacted . He supported the abolition of the gold dollar and the three @-@ dollar piece , but these coins were not ended by Congress until 1890 . He denigrated recent coin issues ( many designed by Longacre , who had died in 1869 ) , saying that their designs have , " hitherto been lamentably , if not disgracefully deficient " . Peale married twice ; his first marriage to Eliza Greatrake , contracted in 1815 while he was still a minor , produced one daughter , Anna , who survived him . His second , childless , marriage was to Caroline Girard Haslam , a widow , and the niece of the wealthy Stephen Girard ; it lasted from 1839 to his death . He enjoyed the company of children , making toys by his own hand for them . Peale was in declining health in his final months , but was still able to continue his activities , and only a short illness preceded his death at his home at 1131 Girard Street in Philadelphia , on May 5 , 1870 . His final words were , " If this is death , it is as I wished , perfect peace , perfect comfort , perfect joy . " Mint Director Henry Linderman stated in 1873 of Peale , " Although Mr. Peale undoubtedly received the cooperation of [ Patterson and others ] , the inventions and improvements were peculiarly Mr. Peale 's . I have no doubt whatever on that point . They were of almost incalculable value to the public service . " George G. Evans , in his late 19th century history of the Mint , described Peale , " his mildness , integrity , gentlemanly bearing and high moral and mental culture constituted him a model officer " . Walter Breen deemed Peale , " brilliant but unscrupulous " . Burdette writes of Peale and his effect on the Mint , " during the generation from about 1830 to 1855 , the greatest influence to operations and production came from one man : Benjamin Franklin Peale . He was the consummate ' machinist ' of the day at a time when this term encompassed imaginative design , planning , construction and improvement of working processes ... While he had the complete support of mint directors Moore and Patterson , he was also held in high esteem by the common mint workers and Philadelphia 's scientific elite . Results of many of his ideas lasted a century or more , until growth in population made nineteenth century engineering insufficient for modern coinage needs . " According to Bowers , " today Peale is one of several Mint people who can be viewed from many different angles , each perspective sometimes leading certain writers to draw widely differing conclusions . " After his dismissal , Peale petitioned Congress for $ 30 @,@ 000 as payment for improvements and inventions he had made for the government . The Senate twice , in 1858 and 1860 , passed legislation to pay Peale $ 10 @,@ 000 , but the House of Representatives declined to vote on it . In 1870 , it was introduced in the Senate again , but did not pass . Legislation to compensate Peale in the amount of $ 10 @,@ 000 was enacted on March 3 , 1873 , after his death — the act was , according to its title , in relief of Anna E. Peale , Franklin Peale 's daughter . The following month , Caroline Peale , Franklin 's widow , gave the Mint a marble bust of her late husband , " to be set upon a pedestal , in some position , where it may be open to the inspection of visitors and preserve his memory to future generations . " Taxay , writing in 1966 , stated that he had been unable to ascertain the bust 's whereabouts .
= Jocko Thompson = John Samuel " Jocko " Thompson ( January 17 , 1917 – February 3 , 1988 ) was a professional baseball pitcher . He played all or part of four seasons for the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball from 1948 to 1951 . He also served in the Army of the United States as a first lieutenant in the European theater during World War II . Thompson played in Major League Baseball during the Whiz Kids era during a career which spanned 12 seasons ( 1940 – 1941 , 1946 – 1955 ) . After attending Northeastern University , Thompson appeared as a situational pitcher and spot starter during the 1948 , 1949 , and 1950 seasons with the Phillies , and went 4 – 8 in his only season as a regular member of the team 's starting rotation . After demotion to the minors in 1952 , Thompson retired from baseball after the 1955 season . Before his major league career , Thompson entered the military and participated in Operation Market Garden , where he led a platoon to secure a bridge over the Maas River . He served in the Army from 1941 to 1945 . In 2004 , the bridge that his platoon captured was renamed in his honor . = = Early career = = Described as a " fast ball specialist " , Thompson played three seasons for the baseball team at Northeastern University , one of six Major League Baseball players to attend the school . During his tenure ( 1938 – 1940 ) , the Huskies won 31 games and lost 14 , accumulating a .689 winning percentage . After the 1940 college season , Thompson was signed by Major League Baseball 's Boston Red Sox as an amateur free agent . The Red Sox assigned Thompson to their D @-@ level affiliate , the Centreville Red Sox , where he posted an 18 – 5 record and a 1 @.@ 56 earned run average ( ERA ) in 27 games . He also played in seven games for the Canton Terriers , winning one and losing one and compiling a 3 @.@ 41 ERA . Under manager Heinie Manush , Thompson played for the Greensboro Red Sox in the Piedmont League during the 1941 season ; he amassed an 8 – 13 record and a 3 @.@ 56 ERA in 162 innings pitched . = = Military service = = Thompson entered the Army of the United States in 1941 and was assigned to the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment , a part of the 82nd Airborne Division . In 1944 , as a first lieutenant , Thompson led his men during an air raid as part of Operation Market Garden . The light in the jump bay of the platoon 's C @-@ 47 Skytrain was later than expected , moving their landing zone from its intended location near Grave , Netherlands ; the plane was passing over buildings when the paratroopers were signalled to leave the aircraft , and Thompson decided to wait until reaching several approaching fields . Thompson led his platoon in an attack against the nearby bridge spanning the Maas River , which was defended by German forces supplemented by two 20 mm flak guns , one on the close side of the bridge and one across the river . The platoon opened fire on the German forces , killing four . Two trucks of German soldiers arrived on the scene , but they " showed no desire to fight ... [ and ] ran away " . Thompson 's platoon destroyed " electrical equipment and cables that they expected were hooked up to demolitions " , and their bazooka operator destroyed the nearer flak gun , permitting the establishment of a roadblock on the bridge while waiting for the remainder of the 82nd Airborne . After the battle at the Maas bridge , Thompson also participated in the Battle of the Bulge , where he was given a field commission , and during the Allied occupation of Berlin , where he served as an aide to General James M. Gavin . Thompson was wounded twice during the war , for which he received two Purple Hearts ; fellow pitcher Robin Roberts later wrote that his Phillies teammates " understood that Jocko still carried around a considerable amount of shrapnel in his body " . Other decorations included the Bronze Star with cluster , the Silver Star , and various awards from the Belgian , French , and Dutch governments . = = Return to baseball = = Thompson returned to baseball with the Scranton Red Sox of the Eastern League for the 1946 season . He was second on the team in innings pitched ( 180 ) and finished with a 13 – 7 record in 26 games ( 20 starts ) . For the season , Thompson allowed 164 hits — the most on the team — and 97 walks . The following year , he was promoted to the Toronto Maple Leafs , one of Boston 's two Triple @-@ A @-@ level affiliates . After he posted a 6 – 12 record — the team 's worst mark among starters with 30 or more appearances — the Red Sox did not retain Thompson 's rights when their working agreement with the Maple Leafs ended . He remained with Toronto and his rights became the property of the Philadelphia Phillies when those two teams established a new agreement . In 1948 , Thompson went 12 – 8 for the Maple Leafs , the second @-@ best win – loss record among the team 's regular starting pitchers ( 20 or more starts ) . He was third on the team with 161 innings pitched , allowed the most earned runs ( 91 ) , and posted a 5 @.@ 09 ERA . At the end of the season , manager Eddie Sawyer called Thompson and Jim Konstanty up to the major league level . As per the working agreement between the teams , the major league club paid Toronto for the rights to each Maple Leafs player it called up : $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 246 @,@ 000 in current terms ) for the first player , and $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 49 @,@ 000 currently ) for each player thereafter . Sawyer recalled that Pete Campbell , Toronto 's owner , and Konstanty " didn 't get along ... [ because ] they were both the same " . Although Campbell was " glad to get rid of Konstanty " , he told Sawyer to take Thompson as the $ 25 @,@ 000 player because he did not want Konstanty to think he was worth the larger fee . = = Major league career = = = = = 1948 – 1949 = = = Thompson made his major league debut in the second game of a doubleheader on September 21 , 1948 . He pitched a complete game against the Cincinnati Reds , allowing one run on five hits , striking out five , and walking five batters to collect the first win of his major league career . He appeared in one other game during the 1948 season , pitching four innings in the second game of a doubleheader against the New York Giants on September 28 , allowing three runs in a 6 – 3 Philadelphia victory . Thompson wore the uniform number 9 during his brief call @-@ up . Thompson began the 1949 season in the Phillies ' starting rotation with Roberts , Ken Heintzelman , Russ Meyer , and Curt Simmons , and the Phillies " hoped for contributions " from him and some of his teammates , like Schoolboy Rowe and Blix Donnelly . However , Thompson lost his first two starts , both against the Boston Braves . He was sent down to Toronto , amassing a 14 – 5 record there for the 1949 season , and was later described as the team 's " top pitcher " for that year . His 2 @.@ 73 ERA was second on the team to right @-@ handed starter Bubba Church ; Thompson allowed 44 earned runs in 145 innings . He made a spot start in midseason for the Phillies against the Brooklyn Dodgers , but the Phillies lost 8 – 4 . Thompson did not get his first win in the majors that year until September 19 , when he defeated the St. Louis Cardinals behind Howie Pollet , 4 – 3 . He made his final start of the season for the Phillies on September 24 , against Don Newcombe and the Dodgers ; the Phillies lost , 8 – 1 . Thompson finished 1949 with a 1 – 3 record at the major league level , with a career @-@ high ERA of 6 @.@ 89 , 12 strikeouts and 11 walks in 31 1 ⁄ 3 innings . For his 1949 appearance , Thompson 's uniform number was 37 . = = = 1950 – 1951 = = = Although Thompson was expected to contribute during the 1950 Phillies season and the Whiz Kids ' " improbable " run to the pennant , he spent most of the season with Toronto . On June 8 , he defeated the Jersey City Giants , 5 – 3 , turning in a four @-@ hit performance and striking out eleven batters . He also took a late @-@ game loss in a doubleheader against the Baltimore Orioles , as they staged a five @-@ run rally in the ninth inning to defeat Toronto . Again described as the team 's top pitcher , he amassed 10 wins and 14 losses , a 4 @.@ 57 ERA , and led the team with 201 innings pitched . As a batter , Thompson hit two doubles , two triples , and batted in nine runs . He was called up late in the season to reinforce a team that Roberts described as " depleted " ; within one week 's time , the Phillies had lost Church to injury , Simmons to military service , and Bob Miller to a recurring back injury . Thompson appeared in relief of Church after his return on September 15 , but the Phillies lost , 5 – 0 , due in part to a Bobby Thomson inside @-@ the @-@ park grand slam . In his 1950 major league appearances , he played in two games , pitching four innings and allowing one run . Although Thompson was on the playoff roster , he made no postseason appearances with the team . His uniform number for the rest of his Phillies career was 33 . 1951 was Thompson 's only full season as a regular in the major leagues , when he beat out Leo Cristante in spring training to make the team . During the preseason , he and Ken Johnson combined for a 1 – 0 shutout of the Cardinals . In the regular season , Thompson amassed a 4 – 8 record in 14 starts . He made a total of 29 appearances on the season , notching a 3 @.@ 85 ERA . He won his first game of the year against the New York Giants , 8 – 4 , on April 23 ; it was the Giants ' fifth straight loss . His first loss of the season came in April in the first game of a doubleheader against the Braves , losing 1 – 0 though he held the Braves to two hits . At the plate , Thompson batted .103 with one double and one triple , the latter of which came on June 2 in a 7 – 3 defeat of St. Louis . The Phillies and the Reds split a doubleheader in July , with Thompson earning the victory in the nightcap ; the Phillies won , 10 – 0 . In August , Thompson entered in relief in the first inning of a game against the Pittsburgh Pirates after Russ Meyer was knocked out of the contest , staging a " respectable duel " with Mel Queen to the eighth inning in a 12 – 7 Phillies victory ; later in the month , he shut out the Reds on three hits to complete a series sweep by the Phillies . Thompson also defeated St. Louis late in the pennant race when the Cardinals were battling the Dodgers for the top position in the league . = = After the majors = = = = = Minor leagues = = = Thompson returned to the minor leagues for the 1952 season , playing for the Baltimore Orioles , now affiliated with Philadelphia . He led the Orioles in innings pitched ( 231 ) and strikeouts ( 119 ) as he compiled a 13 – 14 record and a 2 @.@ 49 ERA , third @-@ best on the team . After the season , he played winter baseball in Havana , Cuba , pitching 14 1 ⁄ 3 innings in 5 games . Thompson 's .714 winning percentage ( ten wins and four losses ) was best on the 1953 Orioles among pitchers who made 20 or more starts , and he pitched seven complete games . His 1953 ERA was 3 @.@ 80 , and he allowed 16 home runs in 154 innings . When the minor league Orioles moved to Richmond , Virginia , to make room for the transplanted St. Louis Browns of the American League , Thompson left the Phillies ' system and remained with the old franchise , the unaffiliated Richmond Virginians , who began play in the 1954 season . Thompson posted an 8 – 14 record for the Virginians in 1954 ; his ERA totaled 5 @.@ 00 in 29 starts and he placed third on the team in innings pitched ( 198 ) . His 112 strikeouts led Richmond , as did his 232 hits allowed . After a 6 – 16 season and a 5 @.@ 17 ERA in 1955 , Thompson retired from baseball . = = = Post @-@ baseball = = = After his playing days ended , Thompson worked as a sales manager in Maryland . He died at age 71 on February 3 , 1988 , and was interred at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Silver Spring , Maryland . In 2004 , the bridge over the Maas River which Thompson 's platoon secured 60 years earlier was renamed the John S. Thompsonbrug ( " John S. Thompson Bridge " ) . Many veterans of World War II , as well as Thompson 's wife , attended the ceremony .
= Mangalore = Mangalore ( / ˈmæŋɡəlɔːr / ) , officially known as Mangaluru , is the chief port city of the Indian state of Karnataka . It is known as Kudla in Tulu , Mangaluru in Kannada , Kodial in Konkani , Maikāla in Beary . It is located about 352 kilometres ( 220 mi ) west of the state capital , Bangalore between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghat mountain ranges . It is the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada ( formerly South Canara ) district in south western Karnataka . It developed as a port on the Arabian Sea — remaining , to this day , a major port of India . Lying on the backwaters of the Netravati and Gurupura rivers , Mangalore is often used as a staging point for sea traffic along the Malabar Coast . The city has a tropical climate and lies in the path of the Arabian Sea branch of the South @-@ West monsoons . Mangalore 's port handles 75 per cent of India 's coffee and cashew exports . Mangalore was ruled by several major powers , including the Kadambas , Alupas , Vijayanagar Empire , Keladi Nayaks and the Portuguese . The city was a source of contention between the British and the Mysore rulers , Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan . Eventually annexed by the British in 1799 , Mangalore remained part of the Madras Presidency until India 's independence in 1947 . The city was unified with the state of Mysore ( now called Karnataka ) in 1956 . Mangalore is demographically diverse with several languages , including Tulu , Konkani , Kannada , English , Urdu and Beary commonly spoken , and is the largest city in Dakshina Kannada district . Mangalore is one of the most cosmopolitan non @-@ metro cities of India . It is also the largest city in the Coastal and Malnad regions of Karnataka , besides being a leading commercial , industrial , educational and healthcare hub on the West Coast . Mangalore city urban agglomeration extends from Ullal in the south to mulki in the north , covering a distance of over 40 km . The city 's landscape is characterised by rolling hills , coconut palms , freshwater streams and hard red @-@ clay tiled @-@ roof buildings . Mangalore ranks amongst the cleanest cities in India . The city was ranked India 's 13th and Karnataka 's second most favourable destination for business . Mangalore was selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modi 's flagship Smart Cities Mission . = = Etymology = = Mangalore was named after the Hindu deity Mangaladevi , the presiding deity of the Mangaladevi temple or a synonym of Tara Bhagvati of the Vajrayana Buddhist sect . According to local legend , a princess from Malabar named Parimala or Premaladevi renounced her kingdom and became a disciple of Matsyendranath , the founder of the Nath tradition . Having converted Premaladevi to the Nath sect , Matsyendranath renamed her Mangaladevi . She arrived in the area with Matsyendranath , but had to settle near Bolar in Mangalore as she fell ill on the way . Eventually she died , and the Mangaladevi temple was consecrated in her honour at Bolar by the local people after her death . The city got its name from the temple . One of the earliest references to the city 's name was made in 715 CE by the Pandyan King Chettian , who called the city Mangalapuram . The city and the coastal region was a part of the Pandyan Kingdom . According to K.V. Ramesh , President of the Place Names Society of India , Mangaluru was first heard in 1345 CE during the Vijayanagar rule . Many shilashasanas ( stones ) of Vijayanagar period refer the city as Mangalapura . Even before that , during the Alupas period , it was referred to as Mangalapura ( ' Mangala ' means ' auspicious ' ) . The city is well known as Mangaluru in Kannada , a reference to Mangaladevi ( the suffix uru means town or city ) . During the British occupation from 1799 , Mangalore ( anglicised from Mangaluru ) , stuck as the official appellation . However , according to historian George M. Moraes , the word " Mangalore " is the Portuguese corruption of Mangaluru . The name of this town also appears in maps as early as the 1652 Sanson Map of India . Mangalore 's diverse communities have different names for the city in their languages . In Tulu , the primary spoken language , the city is called Kuḍla , meaning " junction " , since the city is situated at the confluence of the Netravati and Gurupura rivers . In Konkani , Mangalore is referred to as Koḍiyāḷ , while the Beary name for the city is Maikala . = = History = = Mangalore 's historical importance is highlighted by the many references to the city by foreign travellers . During the first century CE , Pliny the Elder , a Roman historian , made references to a place called Nitrias , as a very undesirable place for disembarkation , on account of the pirates which frequent its vicinity , while Greek historian Ptolemy in the second century CE referred to a place called Nitra . Ptolemy 's and Pliny the Elder 's references were probably made to the Netravati River , which flows through Mangalore . Cosmas Indicopleustes , a Greek monk , in his 6th century work Christian Topography mentions Malabar as the chief seat of the pepper trade , and Mangarouth ( port of Mangalore ) as one of the five pepper marts which exported pepper . Mangalore is the heart of a distinct multilinguistic — cultural region : Tulu Nadu , the homeland of the Tulu @-@ speaking people , which was nearly coterminous with the modern district of South Canara . In the third century BCE , the town formed part of the Maurya Empire , ruled by the Buddhist emperor , Ashoka of Magadha . From the third century CE to sixth century CE , the Kadamba dynasty , whose capital was based in Banavasi in North Canara , ruled over the entire Canara region as independent rulers . From the middle of the seventh century to the end of the 14th century , the South Canara region was ruled by its own native Alupa rulers . The Alupas ruled over the region as feudatories of major regional dynasties like the Chalukyas of Badami , Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta , Chalukyas of Kalyani , and Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra . During the reign of the Alupa king Kavi Alupendra ( c . 1110 – c.1160 ) , the city was visited by the Tunisian Jewish merchant Abraham Ben Yiju , who travelled between the Middle East and India during the 12th century . The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta , who had visited the town in 1342 , referred to it as Manjarur , and stated that the town was situated on a large estuary , called the " estuary of the wolf , " and was the greatest estuary in the country of Malabar . By 1345 , the Vijayanagara rulers brought the region under their control . During the Vijayanagara period ( 1345 – 1550 ) , South Canara was divided into Mangalore and Barkur rajyas ( provinces ) , and two governors were appointed to look after each of them from Mangalore and Barkur . But many times only one governor ruled over both Mangalore and Barkur rajyas , and when the authority passed into the hands of Keladi rulers ( c . 1550 – 1763 ) , they had a governor at Barkur alone . In 1448 , Abdur Razzaq , the Persian ambassador of Sultan Shah Rukh of Samarkand , visited Mangalore , en route to the Vijayanagara court . The Italian traveller , Ludovico di Varthema , who visited India in 1506 says that he witnessed nearly sixty ships laden with rice ready for sail in the port of Mangalore . European influence in Mangalore can be traced back to 1498 , when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed at St Mary 's Island near Mangalore . In the 16th century , the Portuguese came to acquire substantial commercial interests in Canara . Krishnadevaraya ( 1509 – 1529 ) , the then ruler of the Vijaynagara empire maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese . The Portuguese trade was gradually gathering momentum and they were striving to destroy the Arab and Moplah trade along the coast . In 1524 , when Vasco da Gama heard that the Muslim merchants of Calicut had agents at Mangalore and Basrur , he ordered the rivers to be blockaded . In 1526 , the Portuguese under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio took possession of Mangalore . The coastal trade passed out of Muslim hands into Portuguese hands . In 1550 , the Vijayanagara ruler , Sadashiva Raya , entrusted the work of administering the coastal region of Canara to Sadashiv Nayaka of Keladi . By 1554 , he was able to establish political authority over South Canara . The disintegration of the Vijaynagara Empire in 1565 gave the rulers of Keladi greater power in dealing with the coastal Canara region . They continued the Vijayanagara administrative system . The two provinces of Mangalore and Barkur continued to exist . The Governor of Mangalore also acted as the Governor of the Keladi army in his province . In 1695 , the town was torched by Arabs in retaliation to Portuguese restrictions on Arab trade . Hyder Ali , the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore , conquered Mangalore in 1763 , consequently bringing the city under his administration until 1767 . Mangalore was ruled by the British East India Company from 1767 to 1783 , but was subsequently wrested from their control in 1783 by Hyder Ali 's son , Tipu Sultan ; who renamed it Jalalabad . The Second Anglo – Mysore War ended with the Treaty of Mangalore , signed between Tipu Sultan and the British East India Company on 11 March 1784 . After the defeat of Tipu at the Fourth Anglo – Mysore War , the city remained in control of the British , headquartering the Canara district under the Madras Presidency . According to the Scottish physician Francis Buchanan who visited Mangalore in 1801 , Mangalore was a rich and prosperous port with flourishing trading activity . Rice was the grand article of export , and was exported to Muscat , Bombay , Goa and Malabar . Supari or Betel @-@ nut was exported to Bombay , Surat and Kutch . Pepper and Sandalwood were exported to Bombay . Turmeric was exported to Muscat , Kutch , Surat and Bombay , along with Cassia Cinnamon , Sugar , Iron , Saltpeter , Ginger , Coir and Timber . The British colonial government did not support industrialisation in the region , and local capital remained invested mostly in land and money lending , which led to the later development of banking in the region . With the arrival of European missionaries in the early 19th century , the region saw the development of educational institutions and a modern industrial base , modelled on European industries . The opening of the Lutheran Swiss Basel Mission in 1834 was central to the industrialisation process . Printing press , cloth @-@ weaving mills and tile factories manufacturing the famed Mangalore tiles were set up by the missionaries . When Canara ( part of the Madras Presidency until this time ) was bifurcated into North Canara and South Canara in 1859 , Mangalore was transferred into South Canara and became its headquarters . South Canara remained under Madras Presidency , while North Canara was detached from Madras Presidency and transferred to Bombay Presidency in 1862 . The enactment of the Madras Town Improvement Act ( 1865 ) mandated the establishment of the Municipal council on 23 May 1866 , which was responsible for urban planning and providing civic amenities . The Italian Jesuits , who arrived in Mangalore in 1878 , played an important role in education , economy , health , and social welfare of the city . The linking of Mangalore in 1907 to the Southern Railway , and the subsequent proliferation of motor vehicles in India , further increased trade and communication between the city and the rest of the country . By the early 20th century , Mangalore had become a major supplier of educated manpower to Bombay , Bangalore , and the Middle East . As a result of the States Reorganisation Act ( 1956 ) , Mangalore ( part of the Madras Presidency until this time ) was incorporated into the dominion of the newly created Mysore State ( now called Karnataka ) . Mangalore is the sixth largest city of Karnataka , and ninth largest port of India , providing the state with access to the Arabian Sea coastline . Mangalore experienced significant growth in the decades 1970 – 80 , with the opening of New Mangalore Port in 1974 and commissioning of Mangalore Chemicals & Fertilizers Limited in 1976 . Today , the Mangalore region is a nationally known higher education hub with a flourishing service sector , particularly in medical services , a small but growing IT regional hub , and a booming real estate and banking industry . = = Geography and climate = = Mangalore is located at 12 @.@ 87 ° N 74 @.@ 88 ° E / 12 @.@ 87 ; 74 @.@ 88 in the Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka . It has an average elevation of 22 metres ( 72 ft ) above mean sea level . It is the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada district , the largest urban coastal centre of Karnataka , and the fourth largest city in terms of population in the state . Mangalore is situated on the west coast of India , and is bounded by the Arabian Sea to its west and the Western Ghats to its east . Mangalore city , as a municipal entity , spans an area of 184 @.@ 45 km2 ( 71 @.@ 22 sq mi ) . Mangalore experiences moderate to gusty winds during day time and gentle winds at night . The topography of the city is plain up to 30 km ( 18 @.@ 64 mi ) inside the coast and changes to undulating hilly terrain sharply towards the east in Western Ghats . There are four hilly regions with natural valleys within the city . The geology of the city is characterised by hard laterite in hilly tracts and sandy soil along the seashore . The Geological Survey of India has identified Mangalore as a moderately earthquake @-@ prone urban centre and categorised the city in the Seismic III Zone . Mangalore lies on the backwaters of the Netravati and Gurupura rivers . These rivers effectively encircle the city , with the Gurupura flowing around the north and the Netravati flowing around the south of the city . The rivers form an estuary at the south @-@ western region of the city and subsequently flow into the Arabian sea . The city is often used as a staging point for traffic along the Malabar Coast . The coastline of the city is dotted with several beaches , such as Mukka , Panambur , Tannirbavi , Suratkal , and Someshwara . Coconut trees , palm trees , and Ashoka trees comprise the primary vegetation of the city . Under the Köppen climate classification , Mangalore has a tropical monsoon climate and is under the direct influence of the Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon . It receives about 95 per cent of its total annual rainfall within a period of about six months from May to October , while remaining extremely dry from December to March . The average annual precipitation in Mangalore is 3 @,@ 796 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 149 in ) . Humidity is approximately 75 per cent on average , and peaks during May , June and July . The maximum average humidity is 93 per cent in July and average minimum humidity is 56 per cent in January . The most pleasant months in Mangalore are from December to February , during which time the humidity and heat are at their lowest . During this period , temperatures during the day stay below 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) and drop to about 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) at night . The lowest recorded temperature at Panambur is 15 @.@ 6 ° C ( 60 ° F ) on January 8 , 1992 , and at Bajpe it is 15 @.@ 9 ° C ( 61 ° F ) on November 19 , 1974 . This season is soon followed by a hot and humid summer , from March to May . In Mangalore , the temperature has never touched 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) , according to the IMD . The highest ever recorded temperature in Mangalore is 38 @.@ 1 ° C ( 101 ° F ) on March 13 , 1985 . The summer gives way to the monsoon season , when the city experiences the highest precipitation among all urban centres in India , due to the influence of the Western Ghats . Rainfall up to 4 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 157 in ) could be recorded during the period from June to September . The rains subside in September , with the occasional rainfall in October . The highest rainfall recorded in a 24 @-@ hour period is 330 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 13 in ) on 22 June 2003 . In the year 1994 , Mangalore received very heavy annual rainfall of 5 @,@ 018 @.@ 52 millimetres ( 198 in ) . = = Economy = = Mangalore is the second largest city in Karnataka in terms of economy . It is also the second largest highest revenue generating city of Karnataka . Mangalore 's economy is dominated by the industrial , commercial , agricultural processing and port @-@ related activities . One of the largest SEZs in India , the MSEZ is in Mangalore . Karnataka 's 2nd biggest industrial area @-@ Baikampady IE is in Mangalore . The New Mangalore Port is India 's seventh largest port , in terms of cargo handling . It handles 75 per cent of India 's coffee exports and the bulk of its cashew nuts . During 2000 – 01 , Mangalore generated a revenue of ₹ 33 @.@ 47 crore ( US $ 4 @.@ 97 million ) to the state . The city 's major enterprises include Mangalore Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd . ( MCF ) , Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Ltd . ( KIOCL ) , Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd . ( MRPL ) , BASF , Bharati Shipyard Limited and Total Oil India Limited ( ELF Gas ) . The leaf spring industry has an important presence in Mangalore , with Canara Workshops Ltd. and Lamina Suspension Products Ltd. in the city . The Baikampady and Yeyyadi Industrial areas harbour several small @-@ scale industries . Imports through Mangalore harbour include crude oil , edible oil , LPG , and timber . The city along with Tuticorin is also one of two points for import of wood to South India . Major information technology ( IT ) and outsourcing companies like Infosys , Cognizant Technology Solutions , MphasiS BPO , Thomson Reuters , Endurance International Group have established a presence in Mangalore . Plans to create three dedicated I.T. parks are underway , with two parks ( Export Promotion Industrial park ( EPIP ) at Ganjimutt and Special Economic Zone ( SEZ ) near Mangalore University ) currently under construction . A third IT SEZ is being proposed at Ganjimutt . Another IT SEZ , sponsored by the BA group , is under construction at Thumbe and spans 2 million square feet ( 180 @,@ 000 m ² ) . The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation ( ONGC ) plans to invest over ₹ 35 @,@ 000 crore ( US $ 5 @.@ 20 billion ) in a new 15 million tonne refinery , petrochemical plant and power , as well as LNG plants at the Mangalore Special Economic Zone . Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Ltd , a special purpose vehicle under the Oil Industry Development Board , is developing strategic crude oil reserves in Mangalore and two other places in India . Out of the proposed 5 million metric tonnes ( MMT ) storage , 1 @.@ 5 MMT would be at Mangalore . According to an International edition of India Today ( 28 November – 4 December 2006 ) , Mangalore is the fastest growing non @-@ metro in South India . Corporation Bank , Canara Bank , and Vijaya Bank were the three nationalised banks established in Mangalore during the first half of the 20th century . Karnataka Bank , founded in Mangalore , was one of the largest banks to have not been taken over by the Government . The Mangalore Catholic Co @-@ operative Bank ( MCC Bank ) Ltd. and SCDCC Bank were the scheduled banks established in Mangalore . The boat building and fishing industry have been core businesses in Mangalore for generations . The Old Mangalore Port is a fishing port located at Bunder in Mangalore , where a large number of mechanised boats anchor . The traffic at this port was 122 @,@ 000 tonnes during the years 2003 – 04 . The fishing industry employs thousands of people , their products being exported to around the region . Mangalorean firms have a major presence in the tile , beedi , coffee , and cashew nut industry , although the tile industry has declined due to concrete being preferred in modern construction . The Albuquerque tile factory in Mangalore is one of India 's oldest red roof tile manufacturing factories . Cotton industries also flourish in Mangalore . The Ullal suburb of Mangalore produces hosiery and coir yarns , while beedi rolling is an important source of revenue to many in the city . The process of making Mangalore City Corporation into ‘ Greater Mangalore ’ has almost begun and steps are being initiated to embrace 33 villages around the MCC . In this regard , the meeting of the Gram Panchayat , Town Municipal council and Gram Panchayat Presidents and Secretaries has been convened . = = Demographics = = Mangalore city has a population of 684 @,@ 785 per the 2011 census of India . While the Mangalore city metropolitan area has a population of 684 @,@ 785 ( 2011 ) . The number of males was 240 @,@ 651 , constituting 50 per cent of the population , while the number of females were 244 @,@ 134 . The decadal growth rate was 45 @.@ 90 . Mangalore has the highest literacy rate in karnataka . Male literacy was 96 @.@ 49 per cent , while female literacy was 91 @.@ 63 per cent . About 8 @.@ 5 per cent population was under six years of age . Mangalore 's literacy rate is 94 @.@ 03 per cent — significantly higher than the national average of 59 @.@ 5 per cent . The Human Development Index ( HDI ) of Mangalore city is 0 @.@ 83 . Birth rate was 13 @.@ 7 per cent , while death rate and infant mortality rate were at 3 @.@ 7 per cent and 1 @.@ 2 per cent respectively . The Mangalore urban area had 32 recognised slums , and nearly 22 @,@ 000 migrant labourers lived in slums within the city limits . According to the Crime Review Report ( 2006 ) by the Dakshina Kannada Police , Mangalore registered a drop in the crime rate in 2005 , compared with 2003 . The four main languages in Mangalore are Tulu , Kannada , Konkani , and Beary ; with Tulu being the mother tongue of the majority . English , Hindi and Urdu are also widely spoken in the city . A resident of Mangalore is known as a Mangalorean in English , Kuḍlada in Tulu , Mangalurna in Kannada , Koḍiyāḷci in Goud Saraswat Brahmin Konkani , Koḍiyāḷco in Catholic Konkani and Maikalta in Beary basse . Hinduism is the majority religion in Mangalore , with Devadiga , Mogaveera , Bunts , Goud Saraswat Brahmins ( GSBs ) , Billavas , Ganigas , Kota Brahmins , Shivalli Brahmins , Havyaka Brahmins , Sthanika Brahmins , Chitpavan , Brahmins , Kulal 's , Gatty 's are the major communities in Hindus . Christians form a sizeable section of Mangalorean society , with Mangalorean Catholics accounting for the largest Christian community . Protestants in Mangalore typically speak Kannada . Mangalore has one of the highest percentage of Muslims as compared to other cities in Karnataka . Most Muslims in Mangalore are Bearys , who speak a dialect of Kannada and Tulu called Beary language . Majority of them follow the Shafi 'i school of Fiqh ( Islamic Jurisprudence ) . There is also a small community of local Jains , and Gujarati traders . = = Culture = = Many classical dance forms and folk art are practised in the city . The Yakshagana , a night @-@ long dance and drama performance , is held in Mangalore , while Pilivesha ( literally , tiger dance ) , a folk dance unique to the city , is performed during Dasara and Krishna Janmashtami . Karadi Vesha ( bear dance ) is another well known dance performed during Dasara . Paddanas ( Ballad @-@ like epics passed on through generations by word of mouth ) are sung by a community of impersonators in Tulu and are usually accompanied by the rhythmic drum beats . The Bearys ' unique traditions are reflected in such folk songs as kolkai ( sung during kolata , a valour folk @-@ dance during which sticks used as props ) , unjal pat ( traditional lullaby ) , moilanji pat , and oppune pat ( sung at weddings ) . The Evkaristik Purshanv ( Konkani : Eucharistic procession ) is an annual Catholic religious procession led on the first Sunday of each New Year . The Shreemanti Bai Memorial Government Museum in Bejai is the only museum of Mangalore . Most of the popular Indian festivals are celebrated in the city , the most important being Dasara , Diwali , Christmas , Easter , Eid , and Ganesh Chaturthi . Kodial Theru , also known as Mangaluru Rathotsava ( Mangalore Car Festival ) is a festival unique to the Goud Saraswat Brahmin community , and is celebrated at the Sri Venkatramana Temple . The Mangalorean Catholics community 's unique festivals include Monti Fest ( Mother Mary 's feast ) , which celebrates the Nativity feast and the blessing of new harvests . The Jain Milan , a committee comprising Jain families of Mangalore , organises the Jain food festival annually , while festivals such as Mosaru Kudike , which is part of Krishna Janmashtami festival , is celebrated by the whole community . Aati , a festival worshiping Kalanja , a patron spirit of the city , occurs during the Aashaadha month of Hindu calendar . Festivals such as Karavali Utsav and Kudlostava are highlighted by national and state @-@ level performances in dance , drama and music . Bhuta Kola ( spirit worship ) , is usually performed by the Tuluva community at night . Nagaradhane ( snake worship ) is performed in the city in praise of Naga Devatha ( the serpent king ) , who is said to be the protector of all snakes . An ancient ritual associated with the ' daivasthanams ' ( temples ) in rural areas , Hindu kori katta , a religious and spiritual cockfight , is held at the temples and also allowed if organised as part of religious or cultural events . Mangalorean cuisine is largely influenced by the South Indian cuisine , with several cuisines being unique to the diverse communities of the city . Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most Mangalorean Curry , as are ginger , garlic and chili . Mangalorean Fish Curry is a popular dish in Kanara . The Tuluva community 's well @-@ known dishes include Kori Rotti ( dry rice flakes dipped in chicken gravy ) , Bangude Pulimunchi ( silver @-@ grey mackerels ) , Beeja @-@ Manoli Upkari , Neer dosa ( lacy rice @-@ crêpes ) , Boothai Gasi ( sardines curry ) , Kadubu , Garige , Golibaje ( Mangalore Bajji ) and Patrode . The Konkani community 's specialities include Daali thoy , beebe @-@ upkari ( cashew based ) , val val , avnas ambe sasam , Kadgi chakko , paagila podi , and chana gashi . Vegetarian cuisine in Mangalore , also known as Udupi cuisine , is known and liked throughout the state and region . Since Mangalore is a coastal city , fish forms the staple diet of most people . Mangalorean Catholics ' Sanna @-@ Dukra Maas ( Sanna — idli fluffed with toddy or yeast ; Dukra Maas — Pork ) , Pork Bafat , Sorpotel and the Mutton Biryani of the Muslims are well @-@ known dishes . Pickles such as happala , sandige and puli munchi are unique to Mangalore . Shendi ( toddy ) , a country liquor prepared from coconut flower sap , is popular . = = Civic administration = = The Mangalore City Corporation ( MCC ) is the municipal corporation in charge of the civic and infrastructural assets of the city . Mangalore has the city area of 184.45sqkm. It is the third largest city corporation of karnataka next to bangalore and hubli . Municipal limits begin with Mukka in the north , to Netravati river bridge in the south and western sea shore to Vamanjoor in the east . The MCC council comprises 60 elected representatives , called corporators , one from each of the 60 wards ( localities ) of the city . Elections to the council are held once every five years , with results being decided by popular vote . A corporator from the majority party is selected as a Mayor . The headquarters of Mangalore City Corporation is at Lalbagh . Its sub @-@ offices are at Surathkal and Bikarnakatta . Until the revision of Lok Sabha and the legislative constituencies by the Delimitation commission , Mangalore contributed two members to the Lok Sabha , one for the southern part of the city which fell under the Mangalore Lok Sabha Constituency , and another for the northern part of the city which fell under the Udupi Lok Sabha Constituency . Additionally , Mangalore sent three members to the Karnataka State Legislative Assembly . With the revision , the entire Mangalore taluk now falls under the Dakshina Kannada Lok Sabha constituency , resulting in Mangalore contributing only one Member of Parliament ( MP ) . The Mangalore City Police is responsible for the law and order maintenance in Mangalore . The department is headed by a Commissioner of Police . Mangalore is also the headquarters of the Western Range Police , covering the western districts of Karnataka , which is headed by an Inspector General of Police ( IGP ) . = = Education = = Mangalore is considered as an educational hub of southern India because students from all over India pursue various professional courses in and around the city adding to its cosmopolitan look and appeal . The pre @-@ collegiate medium of instruction in schools is predominantly English and Kannada , and medium of instruction in educational institutions after matriculation in colleges is English . Additionally , other media of instruction exist in Mangalore . Recently , a committee of experts constituted by the Tulu Sahitya Academy recommended the inclusion of Tulu ( in Kannada script ) as a medium of instruction in education . Schools and colleges in Mangalore are either government @-@ run or run by private trusts and individuals . The schools are affiliated with either the Karnataka State Board , Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( ICSE ) , the Central Board for Secondary Education ( CBSE ) and the National Institute of Open Schooling ( NIOS ) boards . After completing 10 years of schooling in secondary education , students enroll in Higher Secondary School , specialising in one of the three streams – Arts , Commerce or Science . Since the 1980s , there have been a large number of professional institutions established in a variety of fields including engineering , medicine , homoeopathic medicine , dentistry , business management and hotel management . The earliest schools established in Mangalore were the Canara High School ( 1891 ) , Basel Evangelical School ( 1838 ) and Milagres School ( 1848 ) . The Kasturba Medical College established in 1953 , was India 's first private medical college . Popular educational institutions in the city are National Institute of Technology ( Karnataka ) , Srinivas Institute of Technology , Sahyadri Educational Institutions – College of Engineering & Management , Adyar , KS Hegde Medical Academy , A. J. Institute of Medical Science , Father Muller Medical College , Father Muller Homeopathic Medical College , Yenepoya Medical College , Srinivas Medical College , Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering ( MITE ) , Bearys Institute of Technology , St. Joseph Engineering College , P.A. College of Engineering , St.Agnes , St. Aloysius College ( 1879 ) , Sharada Vidyalaya , Canara High School , Canara College , Canara Engineering College , KVG College of Engineering Alvas Education foundation , Dr. M. V. Shetty Institute of Technology , S.D.M. College , Sri Sathya Sai Loka Seva Educational Institutions , Alike and Delhi Public School . A public library run by the Corporation Bank , is located at Mannagudda in Mangalore . Mangalore University was established on 10 September 1980 . It caters to the higher educational needs of Dakshina Kannada , Udupi and Kodagu districts and is a National Assessment and Accreditation Council ( NAAC ) accredited four @-@ star level institution . = = Transport = = Mangalore 's location makes it accessible via all forms of transport – Air , Road , Rail and Sea . Transport systems in Mangalore city include private buses , KSRTC buses , trains , taxis and autorickshaws . Mangalore International Airport ( IATA : IXE ) is near Bajpe / Kenjar , and is located about 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) north @-@ east of the city centre . It operates regular scheduled flights to Major cities in India and international destinations , mainly to the Middle East . It is the second largest and second busiest airport in the state of Karnataka . The new terminals and runways at the airport accommodate both cargo and passenger requirements . State run government buses Vajra Volvo ply between the city and the airport . Four National Highways pass through Mangalore . NH @-@ 66 ( previously known as NH @-@ 17 till April 2011 ) , which runs from Panvel ( in Maharashtra ) to Edapally Junction ( near Cochin in Kerala ) , passes through Mangalore in a north – south direction , while NH @-@ 48 ( presently known as NH @-@ 75 ) runs eastward to Bangalore . NH @-@ 13 ( presently known as NH @-@ 50 ) runs north @-@ east from Mangalore to Solapur.NH @-@ 234 , a 715 @-@ km long National Highway connects Mangalore to Viluppuram . National Highways Authority of India ( NHAI ) is upgrading the national highways connecting New Mangalore Port to Surathkal on NH @-@ 66 and BC Road junction on NH @-@ 48 . Under the port connectivity programme of the National Highways Development Project ( NHDP ) , a 37 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 23 @.@ 3 mi ) stretch of these highways will be upgraded from two @-@ lane to four @-@ lane roads . Mangalore 's city bus service is operated by private operators and provides access within city limits and beyond . Two distinct sets of routes for the buses exist — city routes are covered by city buses , while intercity routes are covered by service and express buses . Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation ( KSRTC ) operates long distance bus services from Mangalore to other parts of the state . The other key players who run bus services from Mangalore are the Dakshina Kannada Bus Operators Association ( DKBOA ) and the Canara Bus Operators Association ( CBOA ) . These buses usually ply from the Mangalore Bus Station . There are also KSRTC JnNurm green colour city buses from statebank bus stand . These buses travel to different parts of the city and its suburbs . White coloured taxis also traverse most of the city . Another mode for local transport is the autorickshaw . Rail connectivity in Mangalore was established in 1907 . Mangalore was also the starting point of India 's longest rail route . The city has two railway stations — Mangalore Central ( at Hampankatta ) and Mangalore Junction ( at Kankanadi ) . A metre gauge railway track , built through the Western Ghats , connects Mangalore with Hassan . The broad gauge track connecting Mangalore to Bangalore via Hassan was opened to freight traffic in May 2006 and passenger traffic in December 2007 . Mangalore is also connected to Chennai , Trivandrum , Kochi , Kollam ( Quilon ) through the Southern Railway and to Mumbai via the Konkan Railway . The Mangalore Harbour has shipping , storage , and logistical services , while the New Mangalore Port handles dry , bulk , and fluid cargoes . The New Mangalore Port is also well equipped to handle petroleum oil lubricants , crude products and LPG containers . It is also the station for the coast guard . This artificial harbour is India 's ninth largest port , in terms of cargo handling , and is the only major port in Karnataka . = = Sports = = Traditional sports like Kambala ( buffalo race ) , contested in water filled paddy fields , and Korikatta ( cockfight ) are very popular in the city . Cricket is the most popular sport in the city . Dakshina Kannada 's only full @-@ fledged cricket stadium , the Mangala Stadium , is in Mangalore . The Sports Authority of India ( SAI ) has also set up a sports training centre at the stadium . The Central Maidan in Mangalore is another important venue hosting domestic tournaments and many inter @-@ school and collegiate tournaments . The Mangalore Sports Club ( MSC ) is a popular organisation in the city and has been elected as the institutional member for the Mangalore Zone of the Karnataka State Cricket Association ( KSCA ) . Football is also quite popular in the city and is usually played in the maidans ( grounds ) , with the Nehru Maidan being the most popular venue for domestic tournaments . Chess is also a popular indoor sport in the city . Mangalore is headquarters to the South Kanara District Chess Association ( SKDCA ) , which has hosted two All India Open Chess tournaments . Other sports such as tennis , squash , billiards , badminton , table tennis and golf are played in the numerous clubs and gymkhanas . Pilikula Nisargadhama , an integrated theme park , has a fully functional nine @-@ hole golf course at Vamanjoor . Lokesh Rahul , commonly known as KL Rahul and Budhi Kunderan , a former Indian wicket keeper was from Mangalore . Ravi Shastri , who represented India for several years in international cricket as an all @-@ rounder and captained the team , is of Mangalorean descent . = = Media = = Major national English language newspapers such as Times of India , The Hindu , The New Indian Express and Deccan Herald publish localised Mangalore editions . The Madipu , Mogaveera , Samparka ( Contact ) and Saphala ( Fulfillment ) are well @-@ known Tulu periodicals in Mangalore . Popular Konkani language periodicals published in the city are Raknno ( Guardian ) , Konknni Dirvem ( Konkani Treasure ) , and Kannik ( Offering ) . Beary periodicals like Jyothi ( Light ) and Swatantra Bharata ( Independent India ) are also published from Mangalore . Among Kannada newspapers , Udayavani ( Morning Voice ) , Vijaya Karnataka ( Victory of Karnataka ) , Prajavani ( Voice of the People ) , Kannada Prabha and Varthabharathi ( Indian News ) are popular . Evening newspapers such as Karavali Ale ( Waves from the Coast ) , Mangalooru Mitra ( Friend of Mangalore ) , Sanjevani ( Evening Voice ) , and Jayakirana ( Rays of Victory ) are also published in the city . The Konkani language newspaper kodial Khabbar is released fortnightly . The first Kannada language newspaper Mangalore Samachara ( News of Mangalore ) was published from Mangalore in 1843 . The state run , nationally broadcast Doordarshan provides both national and localised television coverage . Cable television also provides broadcast cable channels of independently owned private networks . Canara TV transmits daily video news channels from Mangalore . Mangalore is not covered by the Conditional access system ( CAS ) ; however , a proposal to provide CAS to television viewers in Mangalore sometime in the future has been initiated by V4 Media , the local cable service provider . Direct @-@ to @-@ Home ( DTH ) services are available in Mangalore via Dish TV , Tata Sky , Sun Direct DTH , Airtel digital TV , Reliance BIG TV and Videocon D2h . All India Radio ( AIR ) has a studio at Kadri ( with frequency 100 @.@ 3 MHz ) that airs program during scheduled hours . Mangalore 's private FM stations include Radio Mirchi 98 @.@ 3 FM , Big 92 @.@ 7 FM and Red 93 @.@ 5 FM . Mangalore is home to the Tulu Film Industry , which releases one film per month , on average . Popular Tulu films include Kadala Mage ( Son of the Sea ) and Suddha ( The Cleansing Rites ) . Tulu dramas , mostly played in the Town Hall at Hampankatta , are very popular . In 2006 , a Tulu film festival was organised in Mangalore . = = Utility services = = Electricity in Mangalore is regulated by the Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited ( KPTCL ) and distributed through Mangalore Electricity Supply Company ( MESCOM ) . Mangalore experiences scheduled and unscheduled power cuts , especially during the summer , due to excess consumption demands . Major industries like Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals ( MRPL ) and Mangalore Chemicals & Fertilizers ( MCF ) operate their own captive power plants . Potable water to the city is supplied by Mangalore City Corporation . Almost all water is from the vented dam constructed across the Netravati River at Thumbe , 14 kilometres ( 9 mi ) from Mangalore . The Karnataka Urban Development and Coastal Environment Management Project ( KUDCEMP ) aim to improve safe water supply systems and reduce leakage and losses in the distribution system in Mangalore . The official garbage dumping ground of Mangalore is in Vamanjoor . The city generates an average of 175 tons per day of waste , which is handled by the health department of the Mangalore City Corporation . The city has developed and maintains public parks such as Pilikula Nisargadhama , Kadri Park at Kadri , Tagore Park at Light House Hill , Gandhi Park at Gandhinagar , and Corporation Bank Park at Nehru Maidan . Pilikula is also famous for the zoo , botanical garden , lake , water park ( Manasa ) and a golf course ( Pilikula golf course ) which is a set in an area of 35 acres . Fixed Line telecom services are offered alongside GSM and Code division multiple access ( CDMA ) mobile services . Mangalore is the headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada Telecom District , the second largest telecom district in Karnataka . Prominent broadband internet service providers in the city include Tata , Airtel and DataOne by BSNL . Recently Bharti Airtel has also launched 4G LTE service in the city . = = Sister cities = = Mangalore is twinned with two Canadian cities :
= Hoopoe starling = The hoopoe starling , also known as the Réunion starling or Bourbon crested starling ( Fregilupus varius ) , is a species of starling which lived on the Mascarene island of Réunion , and became extinct in the 1850s . Its closest relatives were the Rodrigues starling and the Mauritius starling from nearby islands , and the three apparently originated in Southeast Asia . The bird was first mentioned during the 17th century and was long thought to be related to the hoopoe , from which its name is derived . Although a number of affinities have been proposed , it was confirmed as a starling in a DNA study . The hoopoe starling was 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length . Its plumage was primarily white and grey , with its back , wings and tail a darker brown and grey . It had a light , mobile crest , which curled forwards . The bird is thought to have been sexually dimorphic , with males larger and having more curved beaks . The juveniles were more brown than the adults . Little is known about hoopoe starling behaviour . Reportedly living in large flocks , it inhabited humid areas and marshes . The hoopoe starling was omnivorous , feeding on plant matter and insects . Its pelvis was robust , its feet and claws large , and its jaws strong , indicating that it foraged near the ground . The birds were hunted by settlers on Réunion , who also kept them as cagebirds . Nineteen specimens exist in museums around the world . The hoopoe starling was reported to be in decline by the early 19th century , and was probably extinct before the 1860s . A number of factors have been proposed , including competition and predation by introduced species , disease , deforestation and persecution by humans , who hunted it for food and as an alleged crop pest . = = Taxonomy = = The first account thought to mention the hoopoe starling is a 1658 list of birds of Madagascar written by French governor Étienne de Flacourt . Although he mentioned a black @-@ and @-@ grey " tivouch " or hoopoe , later authors have wondered whether this referred to the hoopoe starling or the Madagascan subspecies of hoopoe ( Upupa epops marginata ) , though that bird resembles the Eurasian subspecies . The hoopoe starling was first noted on the Mascarene island of Réunion ( then called " Bourbon " ) by Père Vachet in 1669 , but was not described in detail until Sieur Dubois 's 1674 account : Hoopoes or ' Calandres ' , having a white tuft on the head , the rest of the plumage white and grey , the bill and the feet like a bird of prey ; they are a little larger than the young pigeons . This is another good game [ i.e. , to eat ] when it is fat . Early settlers on Réunion referred to the bird as " huppe " , due to the similarity of its crest and curved bill with that of the hoopoe . Little was recorded about the hoopoe starling during the next 100 years , but specimens began to be brought to Europe during the 18th century . Although the species was first scientifically described by French naturalist Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard in the 1779 edition of Comte de Buffon 's Histoire Naturelle , it did not receive its scientific name until its designation by Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert for the book 's 1783 edition . Boddaert named the bird Upupa varia ; its genus name is that of the hoopoe , and its specific name means " variegated " , describing its black @-@ and @-@ white colour . Boddaert provided Linnean binomial names for plates in Buffon 's works , so the accompanying 1770s plate of the hoopoe starling by François @-@ Nicolas Martinet is considered the holotype or type illustration . Though the plate may have been based on a specimen in the National Museum of Natural History in Paris , this is impossible to determine today ; the Paris museum originally had five hoopoe starling skins , some which only arrived during the 19th century . The possibly female specimen MNHN 2000 @-@ 756 , one of the most @-@ illustrated skins , has an artificially trimmed crest resulting in an unnaturally semi @-@ circular shape , unlike its appearance in life ; the type illustration has a similarly shaped crest . De Flacourt 's " tivouch " led early writers to believe that variants of the bird were found on Madagascar and the Cape of Africa ; they were thought to be hoopoes of the Upupa genus , which received names such as Upupa capensis and Upupa madagascariensis . A number of authors also allied the bird with groups such as birds @-@ of @-@ paradise , bee @-@ eaters , cowbirds , Icteridae , and choughs , resulting in its reassignment to other genera with new names , such as Coracia cristata and Pastor upupa . In 1831 , René @-@ Primevère Lesson placed the bird in its own monotypic genus , Fregilipus , a composite of Upupa and Fregilus , the latter a defunct genus name of the chough . Auguste Vinson established in 1868 that the bird was restricted to the island of Réunion and proposed a new binomial , Fregilupus borbonicus , referring to the former name of the island . Hermann Schlegel first proposed in 1857 that the species belonged to the starling family ( Sturnidae ) , reclassifying it as part of the Sturnus genus S. capensis . This reclassification was observed by other authors ; Carl Jakob Sundevall proposed the new genus name Lophopsarus ( " crested starling " ) in 1872 , yet Fregilupus varius — the oldest name — remains the bird 's binomial , and all other scientific names are synonyms . In 1874 , after a detailed analysis of the only known skeleton ( held at the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology ) , James Murie agreed that it was a starling . Richard Bowdler Sharpe said in 1890 that the hoopoe starling was similar to the starling genus Basilornis , but did not note any similarities other than their crests . In 1941 , Malcolm R. Miller found the bird 's musculature similar to that of the common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) after he dissected a specimen preserved in spirits at the Cambridge Museum , but noted that the tissue was very degraded and the similarity did not necessarily confirm a relationship with starlings . In 1957 , Andrew John Berger cast doubt on the bird 's affinity with starlings due to subtle anatomical differences , after dissecting a spirit specimen at the American Museum of Natural History . Some authors proposed a relationship with vangas ( Vangidae ) , but Hiroyuki Morioka rejected this in 1996 , after a comparative study of skulls . In 1875 , British ornithologist Alfred Newton attempted to identify a black @-@ and @-@ white bird mentioned in an 18th @-@ century manuscript describing a marooned sailor 's stay on the Mascarene island of Rodrigues in 1726 – 27 , hypothesising that it was related to the hoopoe starling . Subfossil bones later found on Rodrigues were correlated with the bird in the manuscript ; in 1879 , these bones became the basis for a new species , Necropsar rodericanus ( the Rodrigues starling ) , named by ornithologists Albert Günther and Edward Newton . Although they found the Rodrigues bird closely related to the hoopoe starling , Günther and Newton kept it in a separate genus due to " present ornithological practice " . American ornithologist James Greenway suggested in 1967 that the Rodrigues starling belonged in the same genus as the hoopoe starling , due to their close similarity . Subfossils found in 1974 confirmed that the Rodrigues bird was a distinct genus of starling ; primarily , its stouter bill warrants generic separation from Fregilupus . In 2014 , British palaeontologist Julian P. Hume described a new extinct species , the Mauritius starling ( Cryptopsar ischyrhynchus ) , based on subfossils from Mauritius , which was closer to the Rodrigues starling than to the hoopoe starling in its skull , sternal , and humeral features . = = = Evolution = = = In 1943 , Dean Amadon suggested that Sturnus @-@ like species could have arrived in Africa and given rise to the wattled starling ( Creatophora cinerea ) and the Mascarene starlings . According to Amadon , the Rodrigues and hoopoe starlings were related to Asiatic starlings — such as some Sturnus species — rather than to the glossy starlings ( Lamprotornis ) of Africa and the Madagascan starling ( Saroglossa aurata ) , based on their colouration . A 2008 study analysing the DNA of a variety of starlings confirmed that the hoopoe starling belonged in a clade of Southeast Asian starlings as an isolated lineage , with no close relatives . The following cladogram shows its position : An earlier attempt by another team could not extract viable hoopoe starling DNA . The authors of the successful study suggested that ancestors of the hoopoe starling reached Réunion from Southeast Asia by using island chains as " stepping stones " across the Indian Ocean , a scenario also suggested for other Mascarene birds . Its lineage diverged from that of other starlings four million years ago ( about two million years before Réunion emerged from the sea ) , so it may have first evolved on landmasses now partially submerged . Extant relations , such as the Bali myna ( Leucopsar rothschildi ) and the white @-@ headed starling ( Sturnia erythropygia ) , have similarities in colouration and other features with the extinct Mascarene species . Since the Rodrigues and Mauritius starlings seem morphologically closer to each other than to the hoopoe starling — which appears closer to Southeast Asian starlings — there may have been two separate migrations of starlings from Asia to the Mascarenes , with the hoopoe starling the latest arrival . Except for Madagascar , the Mascarenes were the only islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean with native starlings , probably due to their isolation , varied topography , and vegetation . = = Description = = The hoopoe starling was 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length . The bird 's culmen was 41 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long , its wing 147 mm ( 5 @.@ 8 in ) , its tail 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) , and its tarsus about 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) long . It was the largest of the three Mascarene starlings . A presumed adult male ( NHMUK 1889 @.@ 5 @.@ 30 @.@ 15 ) in the Paris museum has a light ash @-@ grey head and back of the neck ( lighter on the hind @-@ neck ) , with a long crest the same colour with white shafts . Its back and tail are ash @-@ brown , its wings darker with a greyish wash , and its uppertail covert feathers and rump have a rufous wash . Its primary coverts are white with brown tips , although the bases ( instead of the tips ) are brown in other specimens . The superciliary stripe , lore , and most of the specimen 's underside is white , with a pale rufous wash on the flanks and undertail coverts . The extent of light rufous on the underside varies by specimen . The beak and legs are lemon @-@ yellow , with yellow @-@ brown claws . It has a bare , triangular area of skin around the eye , which may have been yellow in life . Though the species ' iris was described as bluish @-@ brown , it has been depicted as brown , yellow or orange . There has been confusion about which characteristics that were sexually dimorphic in the species . Only three specimens were sexed ( all males ) , with age and individual variation not considered . The male is thought to have been largest with a longer , curvier beak . In 1911 , Réunion resident Eugène Jacob de Cordemoy recalled his observations of the bird about 50 years before , suggesting that only males had a white crest , but this is thought to be incorrect . A presumed female ( MNHN 2000 @-@ 756 ) in the Paris museum appears to have a smaller crest , a smaller and less @-@ curved beak , and smaller primary coverts . A juvenile specimen has a smaller crest and primary coverts , with a brown wash instead of ash grey on the crest , lore , and superciliary stripe , and a light @-@ brown ( instead of ash @-@ brown ) back . The juveniles of some southeast Asian starlings are also browner than adults . Vinson , who observed live hoopoe starlings when he lived on Réunion , described the crest as flexible , disunited and forward @-@ curled barbs of various lengths , highest in the centre , and able to be erected at will . He compared the bird 's crest to that of a cockatoo and to the tail feathers of a bird @-@ of @-@ paradise . Most mounted specimens have an erect crest , indicating its natural position . The only illustration of the hoopoe starling now thought to have been made from life was drawn by Paul Philippe Sauguin de Jossigny during the early 1770s . Jossigny instructed engravers under the drawing that for accuracy , they should depict the crest angled forward from the head ( not straight up ) . Hume believes that Martinet did this when he made the type illustration , and it was derivative of Jossigny 's image rather than a life drawing . Jossigny also made the only known life drawing of the now @-@ extinct Newton 's parakeet ( Psittacula exsul ) after a specimen sent to him from Rodrigues to Mauritius , so this is perhaps also where he drew the hoopoe starling . Murie suggested that only the illustrations by Martinet and Jacques Barraband were " original " , since he was unaware of Jossigny 's drawing , but noted a crudeness and stiffness in them which made neither appear lifelike . = = Behaviour and ecology = = Little is known about the behaviour of the hoopoe starling . According to François Levaillant 's 1807 account of the bird ( which included observations from a Réunion resident ) it was abundant , with large flocks inhabiting humid areas and marshes . In 1831 , Lesson , without explanation , described its habits as similar to those of a crow . Vinson 's 1877 account relates his experiences with the bird more than 50 years earlier : Now these daughters of the wood , when they were numerous , flew in flocks and went thus in the rain forests , while deviating little from one another , as good companions or as nymphs taking a bath : they lived on berries , seeds and insects , and the créoles , disgusted by the latter fact , held them for an impure game . Sometimes , coming from the woods to the littoral [ coast ] , always flying and leaping from tree to tree , branch to branch , they often alighted in swarms on coffee trees in bloom , and there was in the past the testimony of an inhabitant of the Island of Bourbon , said the naturalist Levaillant , that they caused big damage in coffee trees by making the flowers fall prematurely . But it is not the white flowers of coffee that the hoopoes were searching for and thus behaving so , it was for the caterpillars and insects that devoured them ; and in this they made an important service to the silviculture of the Island of Bourbon and the rich coffee plantations , with which this land was then covered , the golden age of the country ! Like most other starlings , the hoopoe starling was omnivorous , feeding on fruits , seeds , and insects . Its tongue — long , slender , sharp , and frayed — may have been able to move rapidly , helpful when feeding on fruit , nectar , pollen , and invertebrates . Its pelvic elements were robust and its feet and claws large , indicating that it foraged near the ground . Its jaws were strong ; Morioka compared its skull to that of the hoopoe , and it may have foraged in a similar way , probing and opening holes in substrate by inserting and opening its beak . De Montbeillard was informed of the stomach contents of a dissected specimen , consisting of seeds and the berries of " Pseudobuxus " ( possibly Eugenia buxifolia , a bush with sweet , orange berries ) . He noted that the bird weighed 4 ounces ( 110 g ) , and was fatter around June and July . Several accounts suggest that the hoopoe starling migrated on Réunion , spending six months in the lowlands and six months in the mountains . Food may have been easier to obtain in the lowlands during winter , with the birds breeding in the mountain forests during summer . The hoopoe starling probably nested in tree cavities . Its song was described as a " bright and cheerful whistle " and " clear notes " , indicating a similarity to the songs of other starlings . Many other endemic species on Réunion became extinct after the arrival of humans and the resulting disruption of the island 's ecosystem . The Mascarene parrot lived with other now @-@ extinct birds , such as the Réunion ibis , the Mascarene parrot , the Réunion parakeet , the Réunion swamphen , the Réunion owl , the Réunion night heron , and the Réunion pink pigeon . Extinct Réunion reptiles include the Réunion giant tortoise and an undescribed Leiolopisma skink . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Réunion and Mauritius before vanishing from both islands . = = Relationship with humans = = The hoopoe starling was described as tame and easily hunted . In 1704 , Jean Feuilley explained how the birds were caught by humans and cats : Hoopoes and merles [ Hypsipetes borbonicus ] are the same fatness as those in France , and are of a marvellous taste , which are fat at the same time as parrots , living on the same foods . In order to catch them , hunting was done with staffs or long thin poles from six to seven feet in length , though this hunt is infrequently seen . The marrons [ escaped ] cats destroy many . These birds allow themselves to be approached very closely , so the cats take them without leaving their places . The hoopoe starling was kept as a cagebird on Réunion and Mauritius , and although the bird was becoming scarcer , a number of specimens were obtained during the early 19th century . It is unknown whether any live specimens were ever transported from the Mascarenes . Cordemoy recalled that captive birds could be fed a wide variety of food , such as bananas , potatoes , and chayote , and wild birds would never enter inhabited areas . Many individuals survived on Mauritius after escaping there , and it was thought that a feral population could be established . However , the Mauritian population lasted less than a decade ; the final specimen on the island ( the last definite record of a live specimen anywhere ) was taken in 1836 . Specimens could still be collected on Réunion during the 1830s and , possibly , the early 1840s . There are 19 surviving hoopoe starling specimens in museums around the world ( including one skeleton and two specimens preserved in spirit ) , two in the Paris museum and four in Troyes . Additional skins in Turin , Livorno , and Caen were destroyed during World War II , and four skins have disappeared from Réunion and Mauritius ( which now have one each ) . Specimens were sent to Europe beginning in the second half of the 18th century , with most collected during the first half of the 19th century . It is unclear when each specimen was acquired , and specimens were frequently moved between collections . It is also unclear which specimens were the basis for which descriptions and illustrations . The only known subfossil hoopoe starling specimen is a femur , discovered in 1993 in a Réunion grotto . = = = Extinction = = = Several causes for the decline and sudden disappearance of the hoopoe starling have been proposed , all connected to the activities of humans on Réunion , who it survived alongside for two centuries . An oft @-@ repeated suggestion is that the introduction of the common myna ( Acridotheres tristis ) led to competition between these two starling species . The myna was introduced to Réunion in 1759 to combat locusts , and became a pest itself . However , the hoopoe starling coexisted with the myna for nearly 100 years and they may not have shared habitat . The black rat ( Rattus rattus ) arrived on Reunion in the 1670s , and the brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) in 1735 , multiplying rapidly and threatening agriculture and native species . Like the hoopoe starling , the rats inhabited tree cavities and would have preyed on eggs , juveniles , and nesting birds . During the mid @-@ 19th century the Réunion slit @-@ eared skink ( Gongylomorphus borbonicus ) became extinct due to predation by the introduced wolf snake ( Lycodon aulicum ) , which may have deprived the bird of a significant food source . Hoopoe starlings may have contracted diseases from introduced birds , a factor known to have triggered declines and extinctions in endemic Hawaiian birds . According to ecologist Anthony S. Cheke , this was the chief cause of the hoopoe starling 's extinction ; the species had survived for generations despite other threats . Beginning in the 1830s , Réunion was deforested for plantations . Former slaves joined white peasants in cultivating pristine areas after slavery was abolished in 1848 , and the hoopoe starling was pushed to the edges of its former habitat . According to Hume , over @-@ hunting was the final blow to the species ; with forests more accessible , hunting by the rapidly growing human population may have driven the remaining birds to extinction . In 1821 , a law mandating the extermination of grain @-@ damaging birds was implemented , and the hoopoe starling had a reputation for damaging crops . During the 1860s , various writers noted that the bird had almost disappeared , but it was probably already extinct by this time ; in 1877 , Vinson lamented that the last individuals might have been killed by recent forest fires . No attempts to preserve the species in captivity seem to have been made . The hoopoe starling survived longer than many other extinct Mascarene species , and was the last of the Mascarene starling species to become extinct . The Rodrigues and Mauritius species probably disappeared with the arrival of rats ; at least five species of Aplonis starlings have disappeared from the Pacific Islands , with rats contributing to their extinction . The hoopoe starling may have survived longer due to Réunion 's rugged topography and highlands , where it spent much of the year .
= Delaware Route 279 = Delaware Route 279 ( DE 279 ) is a 1 @.@ 05 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 69 km ) long state highway located in northern New Castle County , Delaware . It runs from the Maryland state line southwest of Newark , where it continues as Maryland Route 279 ( MD 279 ) , northeast to DE 4 and DE 896 in Newark . DE 279 follows a four @-@ lane divided highway called Elkton Road and serves as part of the route connecting Elkton , Maryland with Newark . The roadway is maintained by the Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) . DE 279 was originally the westernmost portion of DE 2 , designated in the 1930s . This portion of road was widened into a divided highway in 1972 . In 2013 , DE 2 was truncated from the Maryland border to east of Newark to simiplify the route designations through Newark , resulting in DE 279 being designated to its current alignment . = = Route description = = DE 279 begins at the Maryland border southwest of Newark . The road continues southwest into that state as MD 279 , which heads towards Elkton . From the state line , the route heads northeast on Elkton Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway . DE 279 heads through commercial areas of Newark , where it comes to an intersection with Otts Chapel Road ( Road 397 ) . The road continues past more commercial development and comes to an intersection with the western terminus of DE 4 and DE 896 ( Christiana Parkway ) . Here , DE 279 ends and Elkton Road continues northeast as part of DE 896 towards downtown Newark . The entire length of the route is located in New Castle County . The route passes through flat to gently rolling terrain at an elevation of about 100 feet ( 30 m ) . DE 279 has an annual average daily traffic count of 33 @,@ 231 vehicles west of Otts Chapel Road and 31 @,@ 069 vehicles east of Otts Chapel Road . The entire length of DE 279 is part of the National Highway System . = = History = = What is now DE 279 was originally an unimproved county road by 1920 . By 1924 , the road was paved . In 1925 , suggestions were made for the state to take over maintenance of the highway connecting the Maryland border to Newark . In 1927 , the state took over maintenance of the highway between the Maryland border and Newark . When Delaware designated its state highways by 1936 , the current alignment of DE 279 was designated as the westernmost part of DE 2 , which ran from the Maryland border through Newark east to Wilmington . The portion of DE 2 along Elkton Road between the Maryland border and Newark was widened into a divided highway in 1972 . In 2013 , DelDOT proposed the renumbering of routes in and around Newark , which involved truncating DE 2 from the Maryland border to the eastern edge of Newark and the removal of DE 2 Bus. through downtown Newark . As a result of these changes , the portion of Elkton Road between the Maryland border and the Christiana Parkway was to be designated as DE 279 . The goal of the project was to " simplify the route designations in Newark , reduce sign clutter , and reduce sign maintenance costs . " The changes were completed in summer 2013 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Newark , New Castle County .
= Something ( Beatles song ) = " Something " is a song by the Beatles , written by George Harrison and released on the band 's 1969 album Abbey Road . It was also issued on a double A @-@ sided single with another track from the album , " Come Together " . " Something " was the first Harrison composition to appear as a Beatles A @-@ side , and the only song written by him to top the US charts before the band 's break @-@ up in April 1970 . The single was also one of the first Beatles singles to contain tracks already available on an LP album . The song drew high praise from the band 's primary songwriters , John Lennon and Paul McCartney ; Lennon stated that " Something " was the best song on Abbey Road , while McCartney considered it the best song Harrison had written . As well as critical acclaim , the single achieved commercial success , topping the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States and making the top five in the United Kingdom . The song has been covered by over 150 artists , making it the second @-@ most covered Beatles song after " Yesterday " . Artists who have covered the song include Phish , Elvis Presley , Frank Sinatra , Ray Charles , James Brown , Shirley Bassey , Tony Bennett , Andy Williams , Smokey Robinson , Ike & Tina Turner , Eric Clapton , Joe Cocker , Isaac Hayes , Julio Iglesias and Neil Diamond . Harrison said his favourite version of the song was James Brown 's , which he kept in his personal jukebox . = = Background and inspiration = = George Harrison began writing " Something " in September 1968 , during a session for the Beatles ' self @-@ titled double album , commonly known as " the White Album " . In his autobiography , I , Me Mine , he recalls working on the melody on a piano , while Paul McCartney carried out overdubs in a neighbouring studio at London 's Abbey Road Studios . Harrison put the composition " on ice " at first , believing that with the tune having come to him so easily , it might have been the melody from another song . In I , Me , Mine , he adds that the middle eight for " Something " " took some time to sort out " . The song 's opening lyric was taken from the title of " Something in the Way She Moves " , a track by Harrison 's fellow Apple Records artist James Taylor . While musically Harrison imagined the composition in the style of Ray Charles , his inspiration for " Something " was his wife , Pattie Boyd . In her 2007 autobiography , Wonderful Today , Boyd recalls : " He told me , in a matter @-@ of @-@ fact way , that he had written it for me . I thought it was beautiful ... " Boyd discusses the song 's subsequent popularity among other recording artists and concludes : " My favourite [ version ] was the one by George Harrison , which he played to me in the kitchen at Kinfauns . " Having begun to write love songs that were directed at both God and a woman , with his White Album track " Long , Long , Long " , Harrison later cited alternative sources for his inspiration for " Something " . In early 1969 , according to author Joshua Greene , Harrison told his friends from the Hare Krishna Movement that the song was about the Hindu deity Krishna ; in an interview with Rolling Stone magazine in 1976 , he said of his approach to writing love songs : " all love is part of a universal love . When you love a woman , it 's the God in her that you see . " By 1996 , Harrison had denied writing " Something " for Boyd , adding that " everybody presumed I wrote it about Pattie " because of the promotional film accompanying the release of the Beatles ' recording , which showed each member of the band with his respective wife . = = Composition = = In the version issued on the Beatles ' 1969 album Abbey Road , which was the first release for the song , " Something " runs at a speed of around 66 beats per minute and is in common time throughout . It begins with a five @-@ note guitar figure , which functions as the song 's chorus , since it is repeated before each of the verses and also closes the track . The melody is in the key of C major until the eight @-@ measure @-@ long bridge , or middle eight , which is in the key of A major . Harrison biographer Simon Leng identifies " harmonic interest ... [ in ] almost every line " of the song , as the melody follows a series of descending half @-@ steps from the tonic over the verses , a structure that is then mirrored in the new key , through the middle eight . The melody returns to C major for the guitar solo , the third verse , and the outro . While Leng considers that , lyrically and musically , " Something " reflects " doubt and striving to attain an uncertain goal " , author Ian Inglis writes of the confident statements that Harrison makes throughout regarding his feelings for Boyd . Referring to lines in the song 's verses , Inglis writes : " there is a clear and mutual confidence in the reciprocal nature of their love ; he muses that [ Boyd ] ' attracts me like no other lover ' and ' all I have to do is think of her , ' but he is equally aware that she feels the same , that ' somewhere in her smile , she knows . ' " Similarly , when Harrison sings in the middle eight that " You 're asking me will my love grow / I don 't know , I don 't know " , Inglis interprets the words as " not an indication of uncertainty , but a wry reflection that his love is already so complete that it may simply be impossible for it to become any greater " . Richie Unterberger of AllMusic describes " Something " as " an unabashedly straightforward and sentimental love song " written at a time " when most of the Beatles ' songs were dealing with non @-@ romantic topics or presenting cryptic and allusive lyrics even when they were writing about love " . = = Pre @-@ Abbey Road recording history = = = = = The Beatles ' Get Back rehearsals = = = Harrison first introduced " Something " at a Beatles session on 19 September 1968 , when he played it to George Martin 's stand @-@ in as producer of The Beatles , Chris Thomas , while the latter was working out the harpsichord part for Harrison 's track " Piggies " . Despite Thomas 's enthusiasm for the new composition , Harrison chose to focus on " Piggies " . He told Thomas that he intended to offer " Something " to singer Jackie Lomax , whose debut album Harrison was producing for Apple Records . " Something " was not among the tracks released on Lomax 's album , however , much of which was recorded in Los Angeles following the completion of the White Album . After Harrison rejoined the Beatles in January 1969 for their Get Back film project ( later released as Let It Be ) , " Something " was one of many recent compositions that he offered to the group . Leng describes this period as a prolific one for Harrison as a songwriter , comparing it with John Lennon 's peak of creativity over 1963 – 64 , yet Harrison 's songs received little interest from Lennon and McCartney amid the tense , uncooperative atmosphere within the band . Martin was also unimpressed by " Something " at first , considering it " too weak and derivative " , according to music journalist Mikal Gilmore . The Beatles rehearsed the song at Apple Studio on 28 January . With the proceedings being recorded by director Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg for the planned documentary film , tapes reveal Harrison discussing his unfinished lyrics for " Something " with Lennon and McCartney , since he had been unable to complete the song 's second line , which begins " Attracts me ... " To serve as a temporary filler , Lennon suggested " like a cauliflower " , which Harrison then altered to " like a pomegranate " . In their study of the available tapes , Doug Sulpy and Ray Schweighardt write that the Beatles gave the song two run @-@ throughs that day , which was the only occasion that they attempted it during the Get Back / Let It Be project . = = = Harrison solo demo = = = Following the Beatles ' brief efforts with " Something " on 28 January , Harrison talked with Lennon and Yoko Ono about recording a solo album of his unused songs , since he had already stockpiled enough compositions " for the next ten years " , given his usual allocation of two tracks per album , and in order to " preserve this , the Beatle bit , more " . Lennon offered his support for the idea , similarly keen that his and Ono 's recording projects outside the Beatles could continue without jeopardising the band 's future . On 25 February 1969 – his 26th birthday – Harrison entered Abbey Road Studios and taped solo demos of " Something " , " Old Brown Shoe " and " All Things Must Pass " , the last two of which had also been rejected recently by Lennon and McCartney . With Ken Scott serving as his engineer , he recorded a live take of " Something " , featuring just electric guitar and vocal . By this point , Harrison had completed the lyrics , although he included an extra verse , sung to a counter @-@ melody , over the section that would comprise his guitar solo on the Beatles ' subsequent official recording . This demo version of " Something " remained unreleased until its inclusion on the Beatles ' outtake collection Anthology 3 in 1996 . = = = Joe Cocker demo = = = In March 1969 , Harrison gave " Something " to Joe Cocker to record , having decided that it was more likely to become a hit with Cocker than with Lomax . Referring to this and similar examples where Harrison placed his overlooked songs with other recording artists , Ken Scott has refuted the idea that he lacked confidence as a songwriter in the Beatles , saying : " I think he was totally confident about the songs . The insecurity may have been , if the Beatles kept going , ' How many songs am I going to be able to get on each album ? ' , and with the backlog sort of mounting up ... [ to ] get it out there , and get something from it . " Assisted by Harrison , Cocker recorded a demo of the song at Apple . While musicologist Walter Everett suggests that this was the same recording of " Something " that appeared on the Joe Cocker ! album in November 1969 , Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes that Cocker subsequently remade the track . = = Recording and production = = The Beatles undertook the recording of Abbey Road with a sense of discipline and cooperation that had largely been absent while making the White Album and Let It Be . Having temporarily left the group in January 1969 partly as a result of McCartney 's criticism of his musicianship , Harrison exhibited a greater level of assertiveness regarding his place in the band , particularly while they worked on his compositions " Something " and " Here Comes the Sun " . In addition , like Lennon and McCartney , Martin had come to fully appreciate Harrison as a songwriter , later saying : " I first recognised that he really had a great talent when we did ' Here Comes the Sun . ' But when he brought in ' Something , ' it was something else ... It was a tremendous work – and so simple . " The group recorded " Something " on 16 April before Harrison decided to redo the song , a new basic track for which was then completed at Abbey Road on 2 May . The line @-@ up was Harrison on Leslie @-@ effected rhythm guitar , Lennon on piano , McCartney on bass , Ringo Starr on drums , and guest musician Billy Preston playing Hammond organ . On 5 May , at Olympic Sound Studios , McCartney re @-@ recorded his bass part and Harrison added lead guitar . At this point , the song ran to eight minutes , due to the inclusion of an extended coda led by Lennon 's piano . After taking a break from recording , the band returned to " Something " on 11 July , when Harrison overdubbed what would turn out to be a temporary vocal . With the resulting reduction mix , much of the coda , along with almost all of Lennon 's playing on the main part of the song , was cut from the recording . The piano can be heard only in the middle eight , specifically during the descending run that follows each pair of " I don 't know " vocal lines . Lennon later reprised the piano chords from the discarded coda in his 1970 song " Remember " . On 16 July , Harrison recorded a new vocal , with McCartney overdubbing his harmony vocal over the middle eight and Starr adding both a second hi @-@ hat part and a cymbal . Following another reduction mix , at which point the remainder of the coda was excised from the track , Martin @-@ arranged string orchestration was overdubbed on 15 August , as Harrison , working in the adjacent studio at Abbey Road , re @-@ recorded his lead guitar part live . Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , David Fricke described the Beatles ' version of " Something " as " actually two moods in one : the pillowy yearning of the verses ... and the golden thunder of the bridge , the latter driven by Ringo Starr 's military flourish on a high @-@ hat cymbal " . Leng highlights Harrison 's guitar solo on the recording as " a performance that is widely regarded as one of the great guitar solos " , and one in which Harrison incorporates the gamaks associated with Indian classical music , following his study of the sitar in 1965 – 68 , while also foreshadowing the expressive style he would adopt on slide guitar as a solo artist . = = Release = = Apple Records issued Abbey Road on 26 September 1969 , with " Something " sequenced as the second track , following Lennon 's " Come Together " . Lennon considered " Something " to be the best song on the album ; having ensured that " Old Brown Shoe " was chosen as the B @-@ side for the Beatles ' single " The Ballad of John and Yoko " , according to his later recollection , Lennon now pushed Allen Klein to release " Something " as a single from Abbey Road . Coupled with " Come Together " , the double A @-@ side single was issued on 6 October in America ( as Apple 2654 ) and 31 October in Britain ( as Apple R5814 ) . The release marked the first time that a Harrison composition had been afforded A @-@ side treatment on a Beatles single , as well as the only time during their career that a single was issued in the UK featuring tracks already available on an album . In a 1990 letter to Mark Lewisohn , Klein refuted a claim made by Lewisohn in his book The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions , that the single was intended as a money @-@ making exercise ; Klein said it was purely a mark of Lennon 's regard for " Something " and " to point out George as a writer , and give him courage to go in and do his own LP . Which he did . " Following the Beatles ' break @-@ up in April 1970 , Harrison 's ascendancy as a songwriter would continue with his triple album All Things Must Pass , building on the promise of White Album tracks such as " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and his two contributions to Abbey Road . = = = Commercial success = = = Although its commercial impact was lessened by the ongoing success of the parent album , " Something " / " Come Together " was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 27 October . During the single 's chart run on Billboard in the US , " Something " peaked at number 3 until the magazine changed its practice of counting sales and airplay separately for each song ; following this change on 29 November , the single topped the Billboard Hot 100 , for one week . " Something " / " Come Together " thereby became the Beatles ' eighteenth number 1 single in the US , surpassing Elvis Presley 's record of seventeen . As the preferred side , " Something " was number 1 in Canada ( for five weeks ) , Australia ( five weeks ) , West Germany ( two weeks ) , New Zealand and Singapore . In the other US national charts , Record World listed " Something " / " Come Together " at number 1 , while in Cash Box magazine , which continued to rank each song separately , " Something " peaked at number 2 and " Come Together " spent three weeks at number 1 . The combined sides reached number 4 in Britain . There , the release was highly unusual , given the traditional preference for non @-@ album singles ; in addition , according to former Mojo editor Paul Du Noyer , " so enormous were sales of Abbey Road that demand for the single was inevitably dampened . " On 17 February 1999 , " Something " was certified double Platinum by the RIAA . In its 2014 list titled " The Beatles ' 50 Biggest Billboard Hits " , Billboard places the double A @-@ side single in sixth place , immediately after " Let It Be " and ahead of " Hello , Goodbye " . Additionally , " Something " is placed again at number 30 , representing the song 's performance before the November 1969 Hot 100 rule change . = = = Promotional video = = = The promotional video for " Something " was shot shortly after Lennon had privately announced that he was leaving the band . By this time , the individual Beatles had drawn apart and so the film consisted of separate clips of each Beatle walking around his home , accompanied by his wife , edited together . The film was directed by Neil Aspinall . The promo film is included in the Beatles ' 2015 video compilation 1 . = = Critical reception , awards and legacy = = Among contemporary reviews , Time magazine declared " Something " to be the best track on Abbey Road , while John Mendelsohn wrote in Rolling Stone : " George 's vocal , containing less adenoids and more grainy Paul tunefulness than ever before , is one of many highlights on his ' Something , ' some of the others being more excellent drum work , a dead catchy guitar line , perfectly subdued strings , and an unusually nice melody . Both his and Joe Cocker 's version will suffice nicely until Ray Charles gets around to it . " Writing in Saturday Review magazine , Ellen Sander described " Something " as " certainly one of the most beautiful songs George Harrison has ever written " and added : " He feels his way through the song , instinctively cutting through its body and into the core , emoting so clearly and so gracefully that at the moment he peals ' I don 't know , I don 't know , ' it is shown that even what is not known can be understood . " In his review of the single , Derek Johnson of the NME lauded the track as " a real quality hunk of pop " with a " strident lead guitar which exudes a mean and moody quality " . Johnson stated his regret that Harrison " isn 't featured more regularly as a singer " , and concluded of " Something " : " It 's a song that grows on you , and mark my words , it will – in a big way ! " Writing in his book Revolution in the Head , critic and author Ian MacDonald described " Something " as " the acme of Harrison 's achievement as a writer " . MacDonald highlighted the song 's " key @-@ structure of classical grace and panoramic effect " , and cited the lyrics to verse two as " its author 's finest lines – at once deeper and more elegant than almost anything his colleagues ever wrote " . Like Lennon , both McCartney and Starr held the song in high regard . In the 2000 book The Beatles Anthology , Starr paired " Something " with " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " as " Two of the finest love songs ever written " , adding , " they 're really on a par with what John and Paul or anyone else of that time wrote " ; McCartney said it was " George 's greatest track – with ' Here Comes the Sun ' and ' While My Guitar Gently Weeps ' " . Among Harrison 's other peers , Paul Simon described " Something " as a " masterpiece " and Elton John said : " ' Something ' is probably one of the best love songs ever , ever , ever written ... It 's better than ' Yesterday , ' much better ... It 's like the song I 've been chasing for the last thirty @-@ five years . " In a 2002 article for The Morning News , Kenneth Womack included Harrison 's guitar solo on the track among his " Ten Great Beatles Moments " . Describing the instrumental break as " the song 's greatest lyrical feature – even more lyrical , interestingly enough , than the lyrics themselves " , Womack concluded : " A masterpiece in simplicity , Harrison 's solo reaches toward the sublime , wrestles with it in a bouquet of downward syncopation , and hoists it yet again in a moment of supreme grace . " Guitar World included the performance as the magazine 's featured solo in June 2011 . Later that year , " Something " was one of the two " key tracks " highlighted by Rolling Stone when the magazine placed Harrison at number 11 on its list of the " 100 Greatest Guitarists " . In July 1970 , " Something " received the Ivor Novello Award for " Best Song Musically and Lyrically " of 1969 . In 2005 , the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) named it as the 64th @-@ greatest song ever . According to the BBC , the song " shows more clearly than any other song in The Beatles ' canon that there were three great songwriters in the band rather than just two " . The Beatles ' official website states that " Something " " underlined the ascendance of George Harrison as a major songwriting force " . With more than 150 versions , " Something " is the second most covered Beatles song after " Yesterday " . In 1999 , Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) named " Something " as the 17th @-@ most performed song of the twentieth century , with 5 million performances . In 2004 , the track was ranked at number 278 on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . In 2010 , " Something " appeared at number 6 on the magazine 's " 100 Greatest Beatles Songs " list . Four years before this , Mojo placed it 7th in a similar list of the Beatles ' best songs . = = Cover versions = = = = = Shirley Bassey = = = Among the song 's many cover versions , Welsh singer Shirley Bassey recorded a successful version of " Something " . It was released in 1970 as the title track to her album of the same name . Also issued as a single , it became Bassey 's first top @-@ ten hit in the UK since " I ( Who Have Nothing ) " in 1963 , peaking at number 4 and spending 22 weeks on the chart . The single also reached the top twenty in other European countries and peaked at number 6 on Billboard 's Easy Listening ( later Adult Contemporary ) chart . Although she had been unaware of the song 's origins when recording " Something " , Bassey later suggested that she and Harrison could become a singer @-@ and @-@ songwriter pairing on the scale of Dionne Warwick and Burt Bacharach . After reading these comments in 1970 , Harrison wrote " When Every Song Is Sung " with Bassey in mind , although it was not a composition that she ever recorded . = = = Frank Sinatra = = = Frank Sinatra was particularly impressed with " Something " , calling it " the greatest love song of the past 50 years " . According to Du Noyer , he " especially admired the way the lyric evokes a girl who isn 't even present " . Aside from performing " Something " numerous times in concert , Sinatra recorded the song twice : in October 1970 as a single for Reprise Records ( a version that later appeared on Frank Sinatra 's Greatest Hits , Vol . 2 ) , and for his 1980 triple album Trilogy : Past Present Future . With the sides flipped to favour the B @-@ side , " Bein ' Green " , the 1970 single peaked at number 22 on Billboard 's Easy Listening chart . During his live performances , Sinatra was known to mistakenly introduce " Something " as a Lennon – McCartney composition . By 1978 , however , he had begun correctly citing Harrison as its author . Harrison went on to adopt Sinatra 's minor lyrical change ( in the song 's middle eight , singing " You stick around , Jack ... " ) in his live performances over 1991 – 92 . In The Beatles Anthology , Harrison says he viewed Sinatra as being part of " the generation before me " and so only later came to appreciate the American singer 's adoption of the song . = = = Other artists = = = Harrison 's composition began accumulating cover versions almost immediately after the release of Abbey Road . In addition to Joe Cocker , Peggy Lee and Tony Bennett each issued recordings of the song at the end of 1969 . Lena Horne recorded " Something " in the jazz style for her 1970 album with guitarist Gabor Szabo , titled Lena & Gabor . An instrumental version by Booker T. & the M.G. ' s , from their Abbey Road tribute album McLemore Avenue , peaked at number 76 on the Billboard Hot 100 in August 1970 . Other artists who released covers of the song that year include Della Reese , Perry Como , Duane Eddy , the Ray Conniff Singers , Jerry Butler , Johnny Mathis , Engelbert Humperdinck , Isaac Hayes , King Curtis , Martha Reeves & the Vandellas and the Shadows . Ray Charles issued his version on the album Volcanic Action of My Soul in 1971 , the same year that recordings appeared by Andy Williams and Junior Walker & the All Stars , while Buddy Rich , Blue Mink and Ike & Tina Turner were among the acts who covered it in 1972 . Referring to the song 's popularity among easy @-@ listening artists , Harrison later said : " When even Liberace covered it [ in 1970 ] , you know that it 's one of them that ends up in an elevator ... " " Something " was one of the rare Beatles songs that Elvis Presley chose to play , when he introduced it into the setlist for his third season at the International Hotel in Las Vegas , in August 1970 . He also performed it on his 1973 Aloha from Hawaii TV special , the recording from which appeared on the accompanying bestselling album . A live version from the 1970 Las Vegas concerts subsequently appeared on the Presley box sets Walk a Mile in My Shoes : The Essential ' 70s Masters ( 1995 ) and Live in Las Vegas ( 2001 ) . Other versions of " Something " include recordings by James Brown , Peggy Lee , Willie Nelson , Smokey Robinson , Julio Iglesias and Musiq Soulchild . Harrison referred to James Brown 's recording as his favourite cover of the song , saying : " It was one of his B sides . I have it on my jukebox at home . It 's absolutely brilliant . " Ray Stevens covered the song in 1970 in addition to covering another Beatles composition , She Came In Through the Bathroom Window , both on the same LP , Everything Is Beautiful . A version by country singer Johnny Rodriguez reached the top ten of the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in the spring of 1974 . Barbara Mandrell covered the song on her 1974 album This Time I Almost Made It . Norwegian country music singer Teddy Nelson covered it for his 1989 top @-@ selling album American Dreamer , one of his few ventures into rock music . In 1999 , Power Metal band Helloween released a single of covers titled Lay All Your Love on Me in which they remade " Something " in the heavy metal style . English actor @-@ singer Jimmy Nail performed " Something " on ukulele , an instrument that Harrison championed from the 1980s onwards , as honorary president of the George Formby Appreciation Society . Nail 's recording on his 2001 album 10 Great Songs and an OK Voice eschewed the ukulele backing for a brass band arrangement , however . In 2013 Nancy Sinatra covered " Something " on her album Shifting Gears . = = = Harrison tributes = = = Bruce Springsteen opened his first show after Harrison 's death on 29 November 2001 by playing an acoustic version of " Something " with violinist Soozie Tyrell , followed by a rendition of Harrison 's solo hit " My Sweet Lord " . Elton John gave a solo performance of the song at New York 's Carnegie Hall in April 2002 , as part of a one @-@ hour Harrison tribute during the eleventh annual Rainforest Foundation concert . In honour of Harrison 's fondness for the instrument , Paul McCartney played a ukulele rendition of " Something " throughout his 2002 – 03 world tour and included the track on his Back in the U.S. live album . At the Concert for George , held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 29 November 2002 , he and Eric Clapton performed a version that begins with McCartney alone , on ukulele , and then reverts to the familiar , rock arrangement , with Clapton taking over as lead singer and backing from Starr , Preston and others . Following its appearance in David Leland 's film Concert for George ( 2003 ) and on the accompanying live album , this performance of " Something " was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals . Bob Dylan also played the song live during his November 2002 concerts , as a tribute to Harrison . McCartney has continued to perform " Something " , adopting the Concert for George mix of ukulele and rock backing ; a version with this musical arrangement was included on his 2009 album Good Evening New York City . = = Live performances by Harrison = = Harrison played " Something " at the two Concert for Bangladesh shows , held at Madison Square Garden in New York on 1 August 1971 . His first live performance as a solo artist , he was backed by a large band that included Starr , Preston , Clapton and Leon Russell . The version used on the live album and in the 1972 concert film was taken from the evening show that day , when Harrison played it as the final song before returning to perform " Bangla Desh " as an encore . Harrison included " Something " in all of his subsequent , and rare , full @-@ length concert appearances . For his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar , he had been reluctant to feature any material from the Beatles ' catalogue , but at the urging of Shankar and Preston during rehearsals , he added " Something " to the setlist . To the disappointment of many fans , however , he chose to alter some of the song 's lyrics ( such as changing the first line to " If there 's something in the way , remove it " ) . Further distancing himself from the Beatles ' legacy , Harrison told journalists at the start of the tour that he would join a group with Lennon " any day " but rejected the idea of working again with McCartney , since he preferred Willie Weeks as a bassist . MacDonald comments that this statement was likely in reference to McCartney 's " too fussily extemporised " bass part on the Beatles ' 1969 recording . With Boyd having left Harrison for Clapton earlier in 1974 , Larry Sloman of Rolling Stone described the reworked " Something " as " a moving diary of his love life " . A version from Harrison 's December 1991 tour of Japan with Clapton – Harrison 's only other tour as a solo artist – appears on the Live in Japan double album ( 1992 ) . Inglis writes of the track having " extra poignancy " by this time , " in that the woman for whom it was written had been married to , and divorced from , Harrison and Clapton in turn " . Inglis adds : " It is not a new interpretation of the song , but it does suggest a new perspective , in which words and music are used by two close friends to reflect on the lives they have led . " = = Personnel = = The Beatles George Harrison – lead vocal , lead guitar , rhythm guitar Paul McCartney – bass guitar , backing vocal John Lennon – piano Ringo Starr – drums Additional personnel Billy Preston – Hammond organ George Martin – string arrangement Personnel per Walter Everett . = = Charts and certifications = =
= Otto Kittel = Otto " Bruno " Kittel ( 21 February 1917 – 14 or 16 February 1945 ) was a World War II Luftwaffe flying ace . He flew 583 combat missions on the Eastern Front , claiming 267 aerial victories , making him the fourth highest scoring ace in aviation history . Kittel claimed all of his victories flying the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 against the Red Air Force . Kittel joined the Luftwaffe in 1939 , at the age of 22 and flew his first combat missions in 1941 . In spring 1941 , he joined Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 ) supporting Army Group North on the Eastern Front . Kittel claimed his first victory on 22 June 1941 , the opening day of Operation Barbarossa . Kittel took time to amass his personal tally of aerial victories . By February 1943 , he reached 39 kills , relatively insignificant when compared with some other German aces . In 1943 , his tally began to increase when JG 54 began to operate the Fw 190 . Kittel earned the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 29 October 1943 , for reaching 120 aerial victories . By the time he was awarded the decoration he had a tally of 123 victories . Many of the Soviet aircraft shot down by Kittel were IL @-@ 2 Shturmoviks . During the remainder of World War II , Kittel was credited with 144 more aerial victories and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords . On 14 or 16 February 1945 , flying his 583rd combat mission , Kittel was shot down and killed by the air gunner of a Shturmovik . Kittel was the most successful German fighter pilot to be killed in action . = = Personal life = = Kittel was born on 21 February 1917 in Kronsdorf ( Krasov ) near Krnov in Sudeten Silesia , Austria @-@ Hungary . His father was Eduard Kittel , a farmer . Contrary to the public perception of fighter pilots , author Franz Kurowski describes Kittel as reserved and soft @-@ spoken . Fascinated with flight at an early age , after working briefly as an auto mechanic Kittel joined the Luftwaffe in 1939 at the age of 22 . After completing his training on 12 February 1941 , Kittel was posted to JG 54 based at Jever , Germany . He was assigned to 2 Staffel ( Squadron ) JG 54 at the rank of Unteroffizier . During his training he was described as a good comrade on account of his calm demeanour , presence of mind and sense of duty . Owing to these attributes , his superior officers treated him with respect . During his training and early career Hannes Trautloft became a role model and offered Kittel advice about his techniques . Kittel formed a friendship with German ace Hans Philipp , who often shared advice about aerial combat . Philipp later served as a pastor when Kittel married his fiancé , Edith , in June 1942 at Krasnogvardeysk , after she had travelled into occupied Soviet territory to be with him . The couple had a son , Manfred , who was born in 1945 . = = World War II = = Kittel 's first operations were air superiority missions during the Balkans Campaign . Assigned to support the German invasion of Yugoslavia and the bombing of Belgrade , Kittel 's Geschwader ( Wing ) was credited with 376 aerial victories by the time of the Yugoslavian surrender on 17 April 1941 . During the course of the campaign Kittel acted as wingman for his staffel leader , who was the first to engage any enemy aircraft , and Kittel saw only limited air combat . His only combat actions were during strafing missions against Yugoslav Army forces . On 12 May 1941 , JG 54 handed over its old Bf 109E fighters to Jagdgeschwader 77 ( Fighter Wing 77 ) , and Kittel began intensive training on the new Bf 109F . = = = Operation Barbarossa = = = Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , began on 22 June 1941 . In the fortnight prior , JG 54 had been moved to an airfield in Lindenthal near Rautenberg , East Prussia , present @-@ day Uslowoje in Kaliningrad Oblast . Tasked with supporting Army Group North in its advance through the Baltic states towards Leningrad , the unit began combat operations shortly afterwards . On 24 June 1941 , Kittel claimed his first two aerial victories , two Tupolev SB @-@ 2 bombers , shot down during an early morning mission . On 30 June 1941 , he downed his first Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 Shturmovik . His third victory earned him the Iron Cross , Second Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ) . By that time , the German advance had taken JG 54 to Staraya Russa , just south of Leningrad , and they would remain there for nearly two years . By winter 1941 – 1942 , he had 11 victories and was awarded the Iron Cross First Class ( Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse ) in October 1941 . In mid @-@ March , Kittel claimed two Shturmoviks for his 13 – 14 aerial victories but his Bf 109 suffered damage and Kittel returned to base , resisting the urge to chase more and risk his life . His motto was to get back in one piece and avoid risks : " Take the safe route and avoid ill @-@ considered and wild offensive tactics " . In the end that alone produced success , risking himself for a single victory was not Kittel 's way . Within two months , his tally had risen to 17 and in May 1942 , Kittel claimed two more victories : a bomber and a fighter , in one sortie . During the combat , he became involved in a dogfight with two experienced opponents ; the Soviet pilots tried to force him into a trap , one chasing the other in an attempt to cut him off . Kittel 's aircraft was fired on several times and hit but he managed to shoot down one of the Soviet fighters and make his escape . = = = Leningrad Front = = = During the summer of 1942 , aerial victories were rare ; operating in the northern sector of the front usually meant little action as all the Soviet air activity was combating Army Group South 's summer offensive , codenamed Case Blue . Kurowski recounts that Kittel became frustrated at this time , although his ground crew worked to keep up his spirits . On 19 February 1943 , Feldwebel Kittel achieved his 39th victory , which was also JG 54 's 4,000th of the war . JG 54 Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) Hannes Trautloft congratulated Kittel , and decreed that he was no longer to be assigned the role of wingman , but would instead be allowed to conduct lone combat patrols . In early 1943 , JG 54 was withdrawn from the frontline to convert to the Fw 190 . With a stronger undercarriage for the harsher conditions on the Eastern Front , greater firepower , speed and agility , the fighter was popular among pilots . Kittel , in particular , was pleased . The Fw 190 was an ideal interceptor against the tough and heavily armoured Shturmovik , his favourite target . At this point , after returning to combat , Kittel 's victory tally climbed rapidly . By mid @-@ March 1943 , Kittel had reached 46 victories , encompassing all types of aircraft . On 14 or 15 March 1943 while on a mission over the Demyansk pocket , Kittel 's Fw 190 suffered engine failure . He was 80 kilometers ( 50 mi ) behind Soviet lines . He removed his precision board clock , an intricately engineered instrument which he was under orders to secure , and landed his Fw 190 which slid 150 meters ( 490 ft ) to a stop in a snow @-@ covered field . During the landing , fellow pilot Herbert Broennle , who had been shot down under similar circumstances , advised Kittel over the radio to hide after landing , to travel only by night and to march compass bearing of 255 degrees ( north @-@ west ) which would take him to Staraya Russa , towards JG 54 's base behind German lines . After exiting his aircraft , Kittel ran for the nearest forest after landing as several locals began emerging from nearby houses . When Kittel got to the forest , he found he had left his emergency rations behind , having only a chocolate bar with him . He continued through the forest . In the dense vegetation , he was able to move during the day unseen . Resting often , he raided several empty houses and found clothes but no food . Determined to find food , and dressed as a Russian peasant , he passed through several Soviet checkpoints looking for something to eat . Kittel spoke Czech and some Russian and managed to evade detection . En route , he stopped at several points and was given food , and eventually Kittel made it to the edge of Lake Ilmen . After nightfall he crossed the frozen lake and made it to German lines , three days after his crash landing . Following his return , Kittel was promoted to Oberfeldwebel ( staff sergeant ) on 18 March 1943 . Kittel took leave in March / April 1943 . By the time he returned Walter Nowotny had taken over the Gruppe ( Group ) . Philipp had left to take command of Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 ) in Germany , and was later killed in action on 8 October 1943 . On 3 May 1943 , Kittel scored his first aerial victories since his return , claiming three Soviet aircraft in an operation before machine gun fire from a bomber 's rear gunner damaged his aircraft and forced him to crash land . On 10 June 1943 , Kittel achieved another aerial victory , taking his total to 50 . = = = Kursk and the Baltic = = = During the fighting in mid @-@ 1943 , JG 54 took part in many of the spring battles over the Crimea Peninsula , Vyazma @-@ Bryansk , Vitebsk , Kharkov , Orsha and Orel regions . As the spring battles ended , the Germans prepared for Operation Citadel , which led to the Battle of Kursk . During the air battles that followed Kittel 's unit escorted Junkers Ju 87 Stukas of III . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 ( Third Group , StG 2 , or Dive Bomber Wing 2 ) , commanded by Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel . On 5 July 1943 , the Germans launched their attack . By this date , Kittel had claimed 56 victories . During the first day of Citadel , Kittel became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " claiming six victories . The next day he shot down three more Soviet aircraft . It was at this point Kittel achieved recognition as one of the most prominent German aces . After the German defeat at Kursk , Kittel 's combat career continued as the German Army retreated to the Dnieper River . Kittel had achieved a one kill per day average to reach 94 victories on 4 September 1943 . Just 10 days later , on 14 September 1943 , Kittel claimed his 100th aerial victory , a Yakovlev Yak @-@ 9 fighter . The 53rd Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark , he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 29 October 1943 . By the time he was awarded it on 29 October , his tally was 123 aerial victories . The presentation was made by Oberst Franz Reuß . On 1 November 1943 , Kittel was promoted to the rank of Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) . From then until January 1944 Kittel served a the chief instructor of the Ergänzungs @-@ Jagdgruppe Ost ( Training Group East ) in Biarritz , France , providing instructor to trainee fighter pilots . Unhappy in a teaching role , Kittel filed several applications to return to combat , and in March 1944 his request was approved . Kittel subsequently returned to JG 54 on the Eastern Front . In early April , achieved his 150th aerial victory . On April 14 , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) for his 152nd aerial victory , claimed on 12 April . Kittel received the Oak Leaves from Adolf Hitler at the Berghof , Obersalzberg on 5 May 1944 , becoming the 449th German to receive the award . In May 1944 , 2 . Staffel was transferred to augment III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of JG 54 fighting on the Western Front to provide air defense for the Reich amidst increasing Allied aerial attacks . In August 1944 , a new 2 . Staffel was formed from remnants of 3 . Staffel , and Kittel was appointed its Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) . Kittel continued to increase his tally , shooting down another 50 aircraft by 26 August 1944 , bringing his overall total to 200 . By this time , Kittel had converted to flying a Fw 190A @-@ 6 , designated " Yellow 5 " . By the 27 October 1944 , Kittel had achieved 254 victories , a total of 102 in just six months . He earned the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) on 25 November 1944 for 264 victories , only the 113th German serviceman to receive the award . Kittel flew to Hitler 's headquarters to receive the award and then continued to Germany to spend his leave there . When he returned in January 1945 , he took JG 54 's second squadron , 2 Staffel . Kittel added a further three victories during his time as the Staffel 's leader . By 13 February 1945 , Kittel had a personal total of 266 aerial victories . At 12 : 06 on 14 or 16 February 1945 , Kittel took off with his Geschwader ( Wing ) flying Fw 190 A @-@ 8 " Black 1 " ( Werknummer — factory number — 690 282 ) to engage a formation of 14 Shturmovik aircraft over the Courland Pocket . His wingman , Oberfähnrich Renner , later reported : At 12 : 13 he made contact with the formation at low altitude , no more than 100 – 150 meters ( 330 – 490 ft ) . Kittel attacked , firing at and damaging several Shturmovik . Kittel damaged one aircraft and chased it . As he closed in for the kill , his Focke @-@ Wulf was hit by return fire from a rear gunner , and descended towards the ground on fire . Kittel , probably incapacitated and unable to use his parachute , did not bail out and the Fw 190 crashed in flames . The site of the crash is believed to have been 6 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) south @-@ west of Džūkste in Latvia . Witnesses from Kittel 's formation reported that a Shturmovik had been shot down by Kittel before he himself was killed during the air battle having scored his 267th and final victory . = = Awards = = Wound Badge in Black Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe on 21 December 1942 as Feldwebel and pilot Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 500 " Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge German Cross in Gold on 18 March 1943 as Feldwebel in the 2 . / JG 54 Iron Cross ( 1939 ) 2nd Class ( 30 June 1941 ) 1st Class ( October 1941 ) Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords Knight 's Cross on 29 October 1943 as Oberfeldwebel ( Master Sergeant or First Sergeant ) and pilot in the 2 . / JG 54 449th Oak Leaves on 11 April 1944 as Leutnant ( Second Lieutenant ) pilot in the 1 . / JG 54 113th Swords on 25 November 1944 as Oberleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) ( war officer ) and Staffelkapitän of the 2 . / JG 54
= Hey Good Lookin ' ( film ) = Hey Good Lookin ' is a 1982 American adult animated coming of age comedy film written , directed , and produced by Ralph Bakshi . The film takes place in Brooklyn , New York , during the 1950s and focuses on Vinnie , the leader of a gang named " the Stompers , " his friend , Crazy Shapiro , and their girls , Roz and Eva . It features the voices of Richard Romanus , David Proval , Tina Bowman , and Jesse Welles . Hey Good Lookin ' was first completed in 1975 as a live @-@ action / animated combination , in which only the main characters were animated and the rest were portrayed by live actors , but the film 's release was pushed back , and later postponed indefinitely . Warner Bros. claimed that this version of the film was unsatisfactory ; concerns over controversy as the result of the backlash against the film Coonskin were also cited . In 1982 , a very different version of the film was released ; much of the live @-@ action sequences were replaced by animated ones , and dialogue was heavily rewritten and reedited . This version was distributed in a limited release in the United States and went largely unnoticed by the American public ; it performed respectably in foreign markets , and developed a cult following on cable television and home video . The original version of the film remains unreleased . = = Story = = The film opens on a Trash can talking to a pile of Garbage , debating over the existence of Heaven . The Garbage hears a rumbling and declares that God has arrived , and is then scooped into a garbage truck and driven away calling " Fuck this city ! " The camera reveals Brooklyn during the 1980s . A heavyset , middle @-@ aged woman walks alone in the streets , and meets a mysterious man who greets her and shows her the remains of a black leather jacket . The woman sobs at the sight of it , and the man begins his story ... In Brooklyn during the 1950s , Vinnie serves as the leader of a gang named " the Stompers " . His best friend , Crazy Shapiro , is subject to multiple murder attempts by Crazy 's detective father , Solly . While in an old basketball court , Vinnie reunites with an old flame named Rozzie , but their reunion is abruptly interrupted by Rozzie 's protective Jewish father , who chains her to her bed so she won 't meet with Vinnie . Vinnie and Crazy spend the evening drinking , meet up with two prostitutes and go to sleep on the beach , waking up to find themselves close to a group of showering women and their mobster husbands . While Crazy inches over to the ladies , Vinnie finds a dead body buried in the sand . The screams of Vinnie and the women alert the mobsters , who beat up Crazy . It 's later seen that Crazy has killed off the mobsters . Vinnie runs off , finding himself on the black area of the beach where he bumps into rival gang leader Boogaloo Jones and his gang , the Chaplains . Boogaloo sets up a rumble between his gang and the Stompers . Vinnie later meets up with Roz and the girl Crazy dates , Eva ; Crazy has meanwhile beaten all the mobsters . The four head out to a party , where Vinnie tells the Stompers that they are going to fight with the Chaplains , to which the gang responds with negativity . Much of the gang and their girls head out to a rock and roll show . Vinnie is horrified at the idea of Crazy and himself having to fight the Chaplains alone . One of the Stompers named Sal and his girl have a run @-@ in with Boogaloo while driving , and wind up in a car crash on the stage of the show . Vinnie finally persuades the Stompers to rumble with the Chaplains . At a drive @-@ in fast food restaurant , Vinnie and Crazy make out with their girls . When Roz spots a car that she thinks Boogaloo is in , Crazy is quick to drive off after it . Crazy ends up shooting two of the black gang members in an alley , much to Vinnie 's shock . Solly investigates the death of the two black gang members . He questions Boogaloo , who tells him that he should be looking for the Stompers . Crazy and Roz are then seen at a pier . Rozzie tells him that Vinnie is ditching town , her and the rumble , which makes Crazy the leader of the Stompers . Disgusted with Vinnie 's cowardice , Roz allows Crazy to make love to her in an abandoned warehouse . Solly interrupts their time together , and fights boxer @-@ style with Crazy to get him to talk . As he is losing , Crazy lies to his father that Vinnie killed the gang members . Vinnie packs up his things and tries to avoid the rumble , but bumps into the Stompers and is unfortunately in time for the rumble . As the two gangs wait for Boogaloo to show up , Solly drives up , ready to arrest Vinnie . On the rooftop of a nearby building , Crazy begins shooting randomly towards the street , causing both gangs to begin shooting at each other , and fights against his own hallucinations — including garbage can monsters and giant naked women . Vinnie tries to run and is shot at by Solly . Crazy jumps off the rooftop , landing on Solly , killing himself and Solly at the same time — perhaps to save Vinnie . As Roz calls up a radio station to make a memorial request in honor of Vinnie 's apparent demise , he stands up and walks away , leaving Brooklyn . The scene returns to Long Island in the 1980s . As the mysterious man finishes his story , he claims he left because he was heartbroken over the death of Crazy . The woman knows he is lying . She reveals that she is Roz , and that the man is Vinnie , returned after 30 years . Roz angrily berates him for abandoning her and the gang just to save his own skin . Roz tells him that her husband will soon come looking for her , and he hates to see her with any other man . She gives Vinnie a second chance , if he will fight for her like she wished he did before . But she 's bluffing . At first Vinnie imagines himself walking out on her again , but then embraces Roz telling her " I 've been waiting for you . " The lovers reunite . = = Cast = = Richard Romanus as Vinnie Genzianna David Proval as Crazy Shapiro Tina Bowman as Rozzie Featherschneid Jesse Welles as Eva Philip Michael Thomas as Boogaloo and Chaplin ( credited as Philip M. Thomas ) Frank DeKova as Old Vinnie Genzianna Angelo Grisanti as Solly Candy Candido as Sal Danny Wells as Stomper # 1 Larry Bishop as Stomper # 2 Tabi Cooper as Stomper # 3 Bernie Massa as Stomper # 4 Gelsa Palao as Stomper # 5 Paul Roman as Stomper # 6 Juno Dawson as Waitress Shirley Jo Finney as Chaplin Martin Garner as Yonkel Terry Haven as Alice Allen Joseph as Max Ed Peck as Italian Man Lillian Adams as Italian Woman # 1 Mary Dean Lauria as Italian Woman # 2 Donna Ponterotto as Gelsa Vincent Di Paolo as Gang Member at Beach ( uncredited ) Chris Eann as Gangster ( uncredited ) = = Production = = After production concluded on Harlem Nights , Bakshi wanted to distinguish himself artistically by producing a film in which live action and animated characters would interact . Bakshi began writing the screenplay for Hey Good Lookin ' while editing Coonskin , and storyboarding a proposed series for ABC . The characters of Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro were based upon Bakshi 's high school friends , Norman Darrer and Allen Schechterman . Warner Bros. had previously agreed to distribute Fritz the Cat before pulling their funding from that film , but were eager to option the screenplay for Hey Good Lookin ' , and greenlit the film in 1973 . Several African American animators , including graffiti artists , were hired by Bakshi 's studio , at a time when black animators were not widely employed by major animation studios . Following controversy over the film Coonskin , some black animators left Bakshi 's studio in embarrassment , resulting in production problems for Hey Good Lookin ' . Principal photography began in 1974 . The budget was $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Pre @-@ production lasted one week , including casting . Grittier sequences were shot on the streets of New York City , while less serious locations were shot on Warner Bros. ' sound stages in Los Angeles . According to Bakshi , " What I would do is dress guys up , live @-@ action guys . Very strange dudes ! The weirdest guys I could find . Having them talk to animated characters in front of candy stores , discussing girlfriends and such . It was very surrealistic . " Yaphet Kotto and the glam punk band New York Dolls were cast in the live action sequences , with the New York Dolls playing homosexuals . Mean Streets actors Richard Romanus and David Proval were cast as the voices of Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro . Much of the shooting of live action sequences and recording of animated dialogue involved improvisation , with Bakshi setting up the premise of the scene and allowing his actors to create their own dialogue . During the " rumble " sequence , the actors playing the Chaplains were filmed popping and performing styles of dance which later evolved into breakdancing , dance styles which were unheard of in the 1970s studio system . Bakshi had selected a number of songs from his own record collection for the film 's soundtrack , which were not used in the film due to the high costs of licensing the songs . The film was initially scored by singer Dan Hicks , who became involved with the production of the film in 1974 . Because the release of the delay of the film 's release , Hicks ' label released the material from these sessions under the title It Happened One Bite . When the film was released in 1982 , it had been rescored by John Madara . Much of the cinematography was shot at night , because Bakshi felt that the daylight made the scenes less believable . Bakshi recounts that during the first day of shooting , the actors were unable to play their roles naturally , but began casually talking and acting the way he wanted their characters to act when the cameras were off , including flirting with an actress . However , the camera man was not around to capture these events , so Bakshi filmed them himself . When Bakshi excitedly told William A. Fraker about this , Fraker quit the production , and was replaced by a young cinematographer who had never worked in film before . = = Post @-@ production and release = = During the post @-@ production of the film , Bakshi found that the cost of the optical effect required to complete live @-@ action scenes with animated characters was larger than the film 's budget . In order to complete these scenes cost effectively , Bakshi and his camera man Ted C. Bemiller purchased a 35 mm camera to project the footage onto the glass under the animation camera , which was reflected onto where the animation was shot . The same technique was used for the rotoscoped scenes in The Lord of the Rings . According to Bakshi , " The illusion I attempted to create was that of a completely live @-@ action film . Making it work almost drove us crazy . " A three @-@ minute promo of the live @-@ action version of Hey Good Lookin ' was screened at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival ; a print of this promo is owned by the UCLA Film and Television Archive . The film was initially scheduled for a Christmas 1975 release , but was moved to the summers of 1976 and later 1977 , before ultimately being postponed indefinitely . Warner Bros. was concerned about any controversy the film would encounter controversy as a result of the backlash over the film Coonskin , despite the fact that Hey Good Lookin ' did not contain any political content . The studio also felt that the film was " unreleasable " because of its combination of live @-@ action and animation , but would not spend further money on the project . Bakshi financed the film 's completion himself out of the director 's fees for other projects he headed from 1976 until 1982 , such as : Wizards , The Lord of the Rings , and American Pop . Warner Bros. president Frank Wells told film trades that Hey Good Lookin ' needed to be " fine @-@ tuned " , claiming that Bakshi needed to revamp the dialogue and reshoot some scenes because they had not tested well with market research audiences . During production meetings , Wells told Bakshi that he had not fulfilled his contractual obligations and had used more live @-@ action than he said he would ; Bakshi 's lawyer was able to convince the studio not to sue him . The majority of the live action footage was deleted ; because Bakshi wanted to keep the breakdancing sequences , he used rotoscoping to animate the footage , but did not animate all of the movements for budgetary reasons . Little dialogue from the 1974 cut of the film was retained in the animated version , which instead featured newly recorded dialogue by Proval , Romanus , and Philip Michael Thomas , who had starred in Coonskin . Following the success of Heavy Metal and American Pop , Warner Bros. became excited about the second version of Hey Good Lookin ' , forming a specialty division for the film 's distribution . The film opened in New York City on October 1 , 1982 , and was released in Los Angeles in January 1983 . Although it went largely unnoticed by the American public , it received respectable business in foreign markets . = = Response = = In a brief review , Vincent Canby wrote that it was " not exactly incoherent , but whatever it originally had on its mind seems to have slipped away " . Leonard Maltin wrote that the film is " more interesting visually than Bakshi 's other later films , [ ... ] but as entertainment it 's vulgar and pointless . " Animation historian Jerry Beck wrote that " the beginning of the film is quite promising , with a garbage can discussing life on the streets with some garbage . This is an example of what Bakshi did best — - using the medium of animation to comment on society . Unfortunately , he doesn 't do it enough in this film . There is a wildly imaginative fantasy sequence during the climax , when the character named Crazy starts hallucinating during a rooftop shooting spree . This scene almost justifies the whole film . But otherwise , this is a rehash of ideas better explored in Coonskin , Heavy Traffic , and Fritz the Cat . " = = Legacy = = Hey Good Lookin ' developed a cult following through cable television airings and home video . Quentin Tarantino stated that he preferred Hey Good Lookin ' to Ralph Bakshi 's Heavy Traffic . The 1975 version of the film remains unreleased , although Warner Bros. owns a complete print . Though a soundtrack album was not originally released at the time of the film 's theatrical distribution , a compact disc release of music from the film was produced in 2006 and released through the independent record label That Philly Sound . The film is available to buy and rent on iTunes or as a manufacture @-@ on @-@ demand DVD release through the Warner Archive Collection .
= Galveston Bay Area = The Galveston Bay Area ( known as the Bay Area ) is a region that surrounds the Galveston Bay estuary of Southeast Texas in the United States , within Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land metropolitan area . Normally the term refers to the mainland communities around the bay and excludes Galveston as well as most of Houston . Originally part of the pirate kingdom of Jean Lafitte , this area played a role in the early history of Texas having been the site of some early rebellions against Mexican rule and the site of the victory of the Texas army over the Mexican army during the Texas Revolution . Ranching interests became early economic drivers around the bay . As the nearby cities of Galveston and Houston developed as commercial centers , the Bay Area communities became part of a principal commercial corridor between the cities . The Bay Area is also the location of NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center which houses the Christopher C. Kraft Jr . Mission Control Center . The City of Houston 's official nickname as " Space City " is derived from this . In addition , a large tourist attraction for area visitors is Space Center Houston . The landscape around the bay features a mix of swamps , beaches , industrial facilities , tourist attractions , and historic sites . The area 's developing population is ethnically diverse with a growing international community . The communities host cultural events ranging from ballet and musical theater to fairs and rodeos . The bay itself supports a commercial fishing industry and features one of the highest concentrations of marinas in the nation . On land the area holds numerous historic sites such as the San Jacinto Monument , and many parks and nature preserves such as the Armand Bayou Nature Center . = = Boundaries = = The shores of Galveston Bay are home to many different municipalities and communities . The region is part of the larger Houston – Sugar Land – Baytown Metropolitan Area . Though the term Bay Area in its broadest sense refers to all communities near the shoreline , some sources , such as the Bay Area Houston Economic Partnership ( BAHEP ) , use more limited definitions , often referring more specifically to the clusters of communities nearest to Houston . = = = Municipalities = = = The following communities lie on the shores of Galveston Bay proper and Trinity Bay , the two main components of the Galveston Bay complex ( excluding those along the Gulf of Mexico ) : Anahuac , Bacliff , Baytown , Beach City , Kemah , La Porte , Morgan 's Point , Seabrook , Shoreacres , Pasadena , Texas City The BAHEP and the Clear Lake Area Chamber of Commerce ( CLACC ) include the following additional communities in their membership : Clear Lake superneighborhood of Houston ( which includes Clear Lake City and JSC ) , Clear Lake Shores , Deer Park , Dickinson , El Lago , Friendswood , League City , Nassau Bay , Taylor Lake Village , Webster . Some additional communities such as La Marque , adjacent to Texas City , are treated as bayside communities by some sources . = = = Subdivisions = = = The Bay Area can be sub @-@ divided based on the histories and economic connections of the different communities . The Pasadena – Baytown area , including Deer Park and La Porte , straddles the Houston Ship Channel and has since the world wars been defined by the heavy industry along its shores . The two towns have distinct histories with Baytown having become tied to the oil industry earlier and Pasadena having a longer history tied to ranching and agriculture before petrochemicals came to dominate . But in modern times their fortunes have been closely tied by their cores of heavy industry . The Clear Lake Area includes numerous communities and municipalities surrounding Clear Lake between Pasadena , Houston , and the bay . This area largely owes its recent growth and prosperity directly and indirectly to the Johnson Space Center , and has been traditionally characterized by a large white collar workforce and its prolific middle- and upper @-@ middle @-@ class neighborhoods . The area is sometimes seen as the heart of the Bay Area in spite of the relative youth of its history . The Texas City area includes Texas City and La Marque and surrounding communities . Until recently this area and Galveston together were treated by the federal government as a metro area distinct from Houston . The area 's prosperity revolves to a great degree around the Port of Texas City and the heavy industry around it . The bayside region of Chambers County encompasses the shoreline of Trinity Bay ( and East Bay ) , on the northeast side of the bay complex . This area includes Anahuac as its largest community . Some of the area remains semi @-@ rural and oriented to agriculture and commercial fishing but petroleum and chemical processing are significant industries as well . Urban development is more limited giving the area a more small @-@ town and rural atmosphere . This area 's history is somewhat distinct from the other areas around the bay as it is not part of the once crucial commercial corridor between Galveston and Houston . = = History = = = = = Spain , Mexico , and the Republic of Texas = = = Prior to European settlement the area around Galveston Bay was settled by the Karankawa and Atakapan tribes , who lived throughout the Gulf coast region . Spanish explorers such as the Rivas @-@ Iriarte expedition and José Antonio de Evia charted the bay and gave it its name . In 1816 the pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury established a settlement on Galveston Island but was soon succeeded by the pirate Jean Lafitte . Lafitte transformed Galveston and the bay into a pirate kingdom establishing bases and hide @-@ outs at locations such as Trinity Bay , Clear Lake , and Eagle Point . In 1821 , however , the United States Navy ousted Lafitte and the colony was largely abandoned . Following its declaration of independence from Spain the new nation of Mexico moved to colonize its northern territory of Texas by offering land grants to settlers both from within Mexico and from the nearby United States . Small settlements such as Lynchburg and San Jacinto were gradually established around the bay and in 1830 Mexican authorities created a customs and garrison post at Anahuac commanded by Juan Davis Bradburn . Conflicts between Bradburn and the settlers in the region led to the Anahuac Disturbances , a prelude to the larger Texas rebellion that was to come . Following a coup in the Mexican government many freedoms previously enjoyed by the Texans were revoked causing Texas to revolt and declare its independence in 1835 . After a number of battles the Texas army , under the leadership of General Sam Houston , finally defeated the Mexican Army in the Battle of San Jacinto , near modern Pasadena . The new Republic of Texas grew rapidly . The shores of the bay were initially mostly home to farms and ranches such as the famed Allen Ranch . New communities such as Goose Creek ( modern Baytown ) were established . = = = U.S. annexation = = = Texas succeeded in its bid to join the United States in 1845 which helped launch the Mexican @-@ American War . Texas ' annexation brought more people to Texas and ranching interests around the bay began to grow . Throughout the 19th century Galveston remained Texas ' dominant metropolis and the communities around the bay were strongly tied economically and culturally to the city though , as Houston began to develop , so did the Bay Area 's ties to it . The construction of the Galveston , Houston and Henderson Railroad further spurred growth in the area . During the American Civil War , during which Texas seceded from the United States , the area served a limited role in the conflict as new fortifications like Fort Chambers , near Anahuac , were constructed to ward off a mainland invasion by Union forces and to protect supply routes to and from Galveston . The Bay Area sat in the middle of the conflict as the most important battles in Texas occurred at Galveston with the conflict moving through the area on to Harrisburg and Houston after Galveston 's fall . In the aftermath of the war the Texas economy declined for a period . Nevertheless , ranching interests became major economic drivers in the area spawning many other economic enterprises such as hide processing plants and shipping concerns . The success of these enterprises and the growth of Galveston as one of the prime commercial centers in the South and Southwest helped promote the construction of the Gulf , Colorado and Santa Fe Railway ; and the La Porte , Houston and Northern Railroad through the area over the course of the 19th century . These railroads running along the southwest shore of the bay would spawn new communities such as Clear Creek ( League City ) , Webster , and later Texas City . Some of these new communities would develop initially as stop @-@ over points for travelers on the rail lines . Toward the end of the century , as ranching 's profitability declined , many communities turned increasingly to agriculture . The farming community of Pasadena was established during this time . The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 devastated the city of Galveston and heavily damaged communities around the bay ( according to some estimates the Bay Area death toll may have been as high as 2000 ) . Bridges between Galveston and the mainland were destroyed . Communities along the shoreline declined for some time as economic growth moved inland and Houston became the dominant economic center in the region . The region received a population boost from some Galveston refugees who relocated to the mainland following the catastrophe . = = = 20th century = = = The sparsely populated Bay Area transformed during the 20th century . Following the hurricane , donations by the newly established Red Cross helped revive area farming communities . The newly established community of Texas City opened its port and railroad junctions shipping cotton and grain . Commercial fishing , particularly for oysters and shrimp , grew as a significant area industry . In the early 1900s the Goose Creek Oil Field was discovered launching an oil boom at Galveston Bay . In 1915 Goose Creek acquired the first offshore oil drilling site in the state and soon after refineries opened in Texas City , Baytown and Pasadena . The Humble Oil refinery in Baytown became the largest in the Houston area . The wealth brought on by the boom transformed the region and population surged . Manufacturing and refining expanded rapidly . During the Roaring 20s , tourism and resort communities developed around Clear Lake and the bay shoreline in communities such as Morgan 's Point , Seabrook , Kemah . The World Wars created new manufacturing opportunities for factories around the bay and the area 's population grew even faster than Houston . Ellington Air Force Base was built becoming a major air field and flight training center during the wars . After the war area economic diversification brought on by the war effort helped in the transition to a peacetime economy . NASA 's Johnson Space Center was established in 1963 helping to spur explosive growth in the mid @-@ 20th century , especially the 1970s and 1980s . The remainder of the communities on the southwestern shore urbanized and development connected the area to Houston . Tourism and recreation re @-@ emerged and blossomed particularly around the Clear Lake area and the nearby shoreline . Hurricane Ike struck the Bay Area in 2008 causing substantial damage both environmentally and economically , the most destructive event since 1900 . As of 2009 a proposal to build a levee system , the Ike Dike , to protect the bay is under discussion . = = Geography = = The Galveston Bay Area is located on the gulf coastal plain , and its vegetation is classified as temperate grassland and marshes . The municipalities have been built on reclaimed marshes , swamps , and prairies , which are all still visible in undeveloped areas . Flatness of the local terrain and proximity to the Bay and the Gulf have made flooding a recurring problem for the area . The region once relied on groundwater for its needs , but land subsidence has forced much of the region to turn to ground @-@ level water sources . = = = Geology = = = The land beneath the Bay Area consists of layers of sand and clay to great depths . These layers were created by millennia of river @-@ borne sediments which gradually incorporated plant and animal matter creating the petroleum deposits for which the Gulf Coast is known . The region has numerous faults , many considered active , but none has produced significant earthquakes in recorded history . These faults tend to move at a smooth rate in what is termed fault creep , which reduces the risk of an earthquake . = = = Bay and coastline = = = Galveston Bay is an estuary along the Texas Gulf Coast . The bay as a whole is composed of four major sub @-@ bays : Galveston Bay proper , Trinity Bay , East Bay , and West Bay . Other smaller bays and lakes connecting to this complex of waterways in the Bay Area include San Jacinto Bay , Burnet Bay , Scott Bay , Crystal Bay , Goose Lake , Clear Lake , Dickinson Bay , and Moses Lake . Galveston Bay is mostly shallow with an average depth of 7 – 9 feet . It is fed by the Trinity River and the San Jacinto River , numerous local bayous and incoming tides from the Gulf of Mexico . This unique and complex mixing of waters from different sources supports many types of marine life including crabs , shrimp , oysters , and many varieties of fish thereby supporting a substantial fishing industry . Additionally the system of bayous , rivers , and marshes that ring the Bay support their own ecosystems allowing for diverse wildlife and enabling freshwater farming of crawfish . The areas near the bay shore in fact have a higher diversity of habitats than the nearby Gulf coast . The bay receives the fourth highest level of toxic chemicals in the state from bayside industrial discharge , in addition to pollutants washing in from the Houston Ship Channel . Although contaminants from the major industrial complexes along the bay contribute substantially to bay pollution , most is the result of storm run @-@ off from various commercial , agricultural , and residential sources . In recent decades , conservation efforts have been enacted which have improved water quality in the bay . = = = Climate = = = The Bay Area 's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa in Köppen climate classification system ) . Spring supercell thunderstorms sometimes create tornados ( but not to the extent found in tornado alley ) . Prevailing winds from the south and southeast bring heat from the deserts of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Summer temperatures regularly exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . The area 's proximity to the bay and the winds that it generates moderate the area 's temperatures and ease the effects of the humidity creating a more pleasant climate than inland communities like Houston ( e.g. the average July high in Texas City is 89 ° F ( 32 ° C ) with 9 @.@ 8 mph ( 15 @.@ 8 km / h ) winds vs. 94 ° F ( 34 ° C ) with 6 @.@ 7 mph ( 10 @.@ 8 km / h ) winds in Houston ) . Winters in the area are temperate with typical January highs above 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and lows are near 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) . Snowfall is rare . Annual rainfall averages can range from 40 to 50 inches ( 100 to 130 cm ) depending on the community . Excessive ozone levels can occur due to industrial activities ; nearby Houston is ranked among the most ozone @-@ polluted cities in the United States . The industries located along the ship channel and the bay are a major cause of the pollution . Hurricanes are a substantial concern during the fall season . Though Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula provide some shielding , the Bay Area still faces more danger than Houston and other inland communities , particularly because of storm surge . = = Economy = = The Bay Area has a diverse economy with much of it built around aerospace , petrochemicals , and high tech industries . The region 's economy is closely tied to the rest of the Houston area though the mix of local businesses is somewhat unique . In 2005 , the median household income for the Clear Lake area was $ 62 @,@ 061 compared to $ 50 @,@ 868 for the Houston area as whole and $ 45 @,@ 472 for all of Texas . = = = Overview = = = The Bay Area 's four major employment sectors are aerospace , petrochemicals and chemical processing , high @-@ tech ( software , biotechnology , electronics , etc . ) , and tourism . Most other employment in the region is supported by these industries although some smaller , independent industries exist as well . The most widespread economic activities in the area revolve around petroleum and petrochemicals , largely centered in Baytown , Pasadena / La Porte , and Texas City . These industries in Houston and the Bay Area account for nearly half of the U.S. petrochemical manufacturing and approximately one third of the U.S. petroleum refining capacity . The Bay Area is home to the largest refineries and petrochemical complexes in the Greater Houston area and to the majority of the processing capacity . NASA 's Johnson Space Center ( JSC ) is an important pillar of the Bay Area economy . Businesses around this core include a broad range of high @-@ tech development enterprises from aerospace engineering to software and electronics . The tourism industry attracts millions of visitors each year with attractions ranging from Space Center Houston to the bay itself . Ecotourism , in particular , is a growing sector with destinations such as the Armand Bayou Nature Center . Biotechnology , which already employs nearly 3000 workers in the area , is a smaller but growing industry in the area enabled in large part by JSC and the Texas Medical Center in Houston . Commercial fishing is one the older industries in the region and is still a significant economic sector . Some outlying areas around the bay remain semi @-@ rural . Cattle ranching and agriculture remain staples of some local economies as well as shrimp fishing and oyster farming . = = = Economic hubs = = = Major Bay Area economic hubs include the following : Bayport Industrial District - A large complex of chemical processing facilities comprising 57 companies with a business impact of over $ 829 million . Johnson Space Center - The central facility of NASA , this site manages more than $ 4 billion annually in aerospace contracts , and together with numerous private companies involved in space programs and related ventures gives the Bay Area one of the highest concentrations of aerospace businesses and expertise in the nation . Additionally , JSC 's research in bioastronautics has helped create a growing biotechnology industry in the area . The Galveston Bay area is home to 92 % of the Houston @-@ Galveston area aerospace jobs . ExxonMobil Baytown Complex — One of the world 's largest petrochemical industrial complexes , this complex is Baytown 's largest employer and one of the largest in the area . For its part the Baytown Refinery located on this site is the largest refinery in the United States and is capable of processing 572 @,@ 000 barrels of oil per day . Texas City Industrial Complex — This petrochemical complex includes the BP Texas City Refinery , the state 's second largest . Barbours Cut Terminal - This shipping terminal , the largest of the terminals operated by the Port of Houston Authority , handles in excess of 3 million tons of cargo annually . Ellington Airport - This mixed @-@ use ( military @-@ civilian ) airport is part of the Houston Airport System and home to the 147th Reconnaissance Wing of the Texas Air National Guard . The airfield has traditionally been a major contributor to the local economy though government realignments have scaled back the base 's military role through the years . = = Demographics = = Home to a diverse set of communities , the Bay Area has a demographic distribution that varies greatly among these individual communities . Based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau and the City of Houston ( 2008 , where available , and 2000 otherwise ) , the area demographic statistics are as follows ( see table for more details ) . The total population was approximately 566 @,@ 850 . The median household income was $ 56 @,@ 827 . The white population was 72 @.@ 9 % , the African American population was 8 @.@ 3 % , and the Asian population was 3 @.@ 9 % . The most populous community in the region is Pasadena ( though Houston is a much larger city , the portion within this region is smaller than Pasadena ) . Taylor Lake Village has ( by far ) the highest median household income ; and Bacliff and San Leon have the lowest . Texas City and La Marque have the largest African @-@ American populations . La Porte and the Clear Lake area of Houston have the largest Asian populations . = = Education = = = = = Colleges and universities = = = The Bay Area contains several institutions of higher education . The largest is the University of Houston – Clear Lake ( UHCL ) located adjacent to Clear Lake City . UHCL is separate and distinct from the University of Houston ( UH ) , but it is part of the larger University of Houston System . The university offers a wide spectrum of programs including what it touts as the most complete biotechnology graduate programs in the state . Texas Chiropractic College in Pasadena , one of only two schools of chiropractics in Texas and one of a handful in the nation , provides training for students from around the state . Several community colleges serve communities in the area as well , including San Jacinto College , College of the Mainland , Lee College , and Houston Community College . = = = Primary and secondary schools = = = The Bay Area covers multiple municipalities with multiple school districts . Most of the communities in the Clear Lake Area are served by Clear Creek Independent School District though some nearby areas are served by Dickinson and Houston Independent School Districts . Communities in the Pasadena / Baytown area are served by Deer Park , Goose Creek Consolidated , La Porte , and Pasadena Independent School Districts . The Friendswood area is served by the Friendswood Independent School District . The Texas City area is served by La Marque and Texas City Independent School Districts . The communities in Chambers County near Anahuac are served by Anahuac Independent School District and Barbers Hill Independent School District . As of 2009 these 11 districts , excluding Houston ISD , have a total of 190 primary and secondary schools . Of these Clear Creek , Deer Park , Goose Creek , Barbers Hill and Anahuac ISD were evaluated as " recognized " districts ( the second highest ranking ) by the Texas Education Agency , or TEA . All of the others were evaluated as " academically acceptable " with the exception of Texas City ISD , which was evaluated as " academically unacceptable " . 67 ( 35 % ) of the schools were ranked as " exemplary " ( the highest ranking ) ; 62 ( 33 % ) were ranked as " recognized " ; 39 ( 21 % ) were ranked as " academically acceptable " ; 2 ( 1 % ) were ranked as " academically unacceptable " ; and 20 ( 11 % ) were not rated by the TEA . Notably 100 % of Friendswood ISD schools and 65 % of Clear Creek ISD schools were " exemplary " , the highest percentages of these 10 districts . Overall , of the schools that were rated , 37 % of the schools in these 10 districts were " exemplary " , compared with 29 % for the entire state . = = Transportation = = The Bay Area Houston Transportation Partnership ( BayTran ) coordinates planning for the transportation needs of the Bay Area . Collaborative efforts by the local communities have helped push forward development of regional infrastructure . = = = Ground transportation = = = The Bay Area 's two interstate freeways act as linear backbones connecting the communities on either side of the ship channel . The few other freeways in the region provide access into the centers of heavy industry within the region . Connectivity within other communities mostly relies on uncontrolled , surface highways . Interstate 45 ( the Gulf Freeway ) is the major freeway for the core areas of the Bay Area linking them with Houston and Galveston . Highway 146 ( Bayport Blvd . ) is a coastal highway linking the waterfronts of the communities . The Gulf Freeway and Bayport Blvd. together are the main arteries linking the Clear Lake Area communities and Pasadena , though Highway 225 , East Beltway 8 , Highway 3 and others are important as well . The Fred Hartman Bridge on Highway 146 crosses the ship channel connecting Baytown and Pasadena , while the Galveston Causeway on the Gulf Freeway crosses the bay connecting Texas City and Galveston Island . In the outlying north Bay Area , Interstate 10 links Anahuac and other communities nearby connecting them to Houston and the rest of the Bay Area . Highway 124 provides access to the Bolivar Peninsula . The Houston Metro bus system provides service to the southeast Houston and Pasadena connecting the communities with central Houston . The remaining communities in the Bay Area communities are not served by mass transit . Greyhound Bus Lines , which provides service to cities nationwide , has stations at Baytown and La Marque / Texas City . = = = Air travel = = = Houston Hobby Airport ( HOU ) is the nearest airport providing regular domestic service . It is in southeast Houston near the Bay Area and provides service to U.S. destinations . International service is provided by Bush Intercontinental Airport ( IAH ) in north Houston . Ellington Airport , the other branch of the Houston Airport System ( HAS ) , is a mixed @-@ use airport . It acts as a reliever airport for Hobby , in addition to use by NASA , the military , and public aviation . The system has performed significant expansion of the airport in recent years expecting significant growth in its usage in coming years . La Porte Municipal Airport in Pasadena and Chambers County Airport near Anahuac provide public air access to their respective communities . = = = Shipping = = = For seagoing shipping the Barbours Cut and Bayport terminals ( administered by the Port of Houston Authority ) , and the Port of Texas City are the major freight shipping points . For railway shipping the Union @-@ Pacific Webster station , the Union @-@ Pacific Deer Park station , the Union @-@ Pacific Baytown station , and the Texas City Terminal Railway Company , are major access points . = = Healthcare and medicine = = The Bay Area Houston Healthcare Network ( BAHHN ) is a collaboration of health care providers coordinating health care services in many of the west bay communities and Galveston . The hubs of the network include Memorial Hermann Southeast Hospital in the Clear Lake City area , Bayshore Medical Center in Pasadena , and the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston . Numerous other health care facilities exist in the region as well . Notable facilities outside the area covered by BAHHN include San Jacinto Methodist Hospital ( Baytown ) and Mainland Medical Center ( Texas City ) . = = Culture = = The Bay Area is a racially and ethnically diverse region . The industrial centers of Pasadena and Baytown in particular have large international communities . Multicultural events such as the Grito Fest ( Baytown ) celebrate the area 's diversity . Many other annual events take place in the Bay Area as well . The Strawberry Festival in Pasadena celebrates the role the iconic fruit played in rescuing the town 's economy following the 1900 Hurricane . The Blessing of the Fleet boat parade in Kemah is an annual event that celebrates Kemah 's history as a shrimp fishing town . The Gulf Coast Film Festival annually showcases independent films from local , regional and international artists in various categories ranging from short films to documentaries . Other annual events include the Wings over Houston Air Fest ( Ellington Field ) , the Music Fest by the Bay ( Texas City ) , the Ballunar Festival , the Oak Tree Festival ( League City ) , and the South Shore Dockside Food & Wine Festival ( League City ) . In Anahuac the annual Gatorfest celebrates the semi @-@ rural culture of Chambers County . And , of course , in the spirit of the state to which the area belongs , the annual Pasadena Livestock Show and Rodeo features traditional rodeo events for area spectators . = = = Arts and theatre = = = The Bay Area has a substantial community of artists and artistic programs . The Bay Area Houston Ballet and Theatre group and the League City Ballet offer performances in genres ranging from ballet to American musicals . The Clear Lake Symphony , the Pasadena Philharmonic Orchestra , and the Baytown Symphony Orchestra offer multiple performances each year ranging from classical to " pops " performances . Other arts and theatre programs exist in the area as well . The Arts Alliance at Clear Lake , a group of 50 area arts organizations , regularly schedules arts exhibits , musical performances , and other arts programs . Community theater groups such as the Pasadena Little Theatre , the Clear Creek Country Theatre ( Nassau Bay ) , the Harbour Playhouse ( Dickinson ) , and the Baytown Little Theater offer a variety of regularly scheduled performances . Regular free concerts and other cultural events take place in venues such as the Pasadena Fairgrounds and League Park Plaza ( League City ) . = = = Parks and landmarks = = = The Bay Area contains parks and landmarks . One of the oldest landmarks is the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site in La Porte which marks the site of the Battle of San Jacinto and holds the San Jacinto Monument and the USS Texas . Nearby , the Sterling Mansion , a former Governor 's residence , at Morgan 's Point marks the edge of the former Gold Coast of Texas . The Armand Bayou Nature Center in Pasadena is the largest urban wilderness preserve in the nation . It features a boardwalk through the marshes , numerous nature trails , and boat tours offering views of natural habitats for animals ranging from bison to seagulls to butterflies . The Baytown Nature Center , located on two peninsulas along the ship channel , and the Texas City Prairie Preserve , located along Moses Lake and the bay , are largely undeveloped nature preserves with views of wetlands and coastal wildlife in addition to a variety of park facilities . The Seabrook Trail System which includes Robinson and Pine Gully parks offers primitive access to natural habitats for numerous species . These sites are all part of the larger Great Texas Coastal Birding Trail . Further from the core on the northeast side of the bay sits the Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge , a 34 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 140 km2 ) federal nature preserve . The coastal habitats in the park offer opportunities for viewing species ranging from the American alligator and bobcat to bird species such as the fulvous whistling @-@ duck and the yellow rail . Other major area parks include Clear Creek Nature Park ( League City ) , Chandler Arboretum ( Baytown ) , Challenger 7 Memorial Park ( Webster ) , and Sylvan Beach Park ( La Porte ) . = = = Urban attractions = = = Space Center Houston is the tourist arm of the Johnson Space Center and one of the most visited tourist attractions in Texas . Visitors can tour the Space Center grounds , view space capsules and artifacts , and find numerous educational activities including an IMAX theater . The Kemah Boardwalk is a waterfront attraction featuring a variety of rides , restaurants , shops , and other entertainment venues . It is next to the Kemah Marina and hosts annual events such as the Boardwalk Wine Festival . The Eddie V. Gray Wetlands Education and Recreation Center in Baytown offers indoor and outdoor educational exhibits featuring wetlands wildlife and habitats . The exhibits range from aquariums to science labs . The site also includes hiking trails through primitive habitats . Museums in the area include the San Jacinto Museum of History , the Bay Area Museum ( Seabrook ) , the Pasadena Historical Museum , the West Bay Common School Museum ( League City ) , the Baytown Historical Museum , the Texas City Museum , the Buttler Longhorn Museum ( League City ) and the Dickinson Railroad Museum . Farmers markets in the area , including the Nassau Bay Farmers Market and the Farmers Market at Clear Lake Shores , provide opportunities for area residents to connect with local growers , producers , and other businesses . Historic districts such as the Goose Creek Historic District ( Baytown ) , the Morgan 's Point Historic District , and the League City Historic District are available providing views of early area architecture in addition to unique shopping venues . The area contains many marinas for boating and fishing enthusiasts such the Bayland Park Marina ( Baytown ) and the Watergate Yachting Center ( Clear Lake Shores ) . The shoreline of Clear Lake itself has the greatest concentration of recreational boats in Texas and ranks third nationwide ( Watergate even claims to be the nation 's largest ) . = = = Sports = = = The Bay Area Toros are the area 's minor @-@ league baseball team . The Toros play their home games at Robinson Stadium in Texas City . The Texas City Rangers are a minor @-@ league basketball team that plays its home games at La Marque High School . The Houston Raceway Park in Baytown holds regular drag racing and speedway motorsport events through the year . The park has a seating capacity of 30 @,@ 000 with VIP suites . The Galveston Bay Cruising Association holds regular regatta events on the bay such as the Bay Cup ( Lakewood Yacht Club , Seabrook ) and the Performance Cup . The 2009 season had 22 events throughout the year offering entertainment for sportsmen and spectators . The Gulf Greyhound Park in LaMarque is a stadium complex offering dog racing exhibitions . The park is the largest of its kind and features the state 's largest restaurant among its amenities . = = = Media = = = Major daily newspapers serving the area include the Galveston County Daily News , the Baytown Sun , and the Houston Chronicle . Several smaller local newspapers serving the communities are available including the Bay Area Observer , the Bay Area Citizen , the Pasadena Citizen , and the Deer Park Progress . The Bay Area Observer , Bay Area Houston Magazine and the Bay Area Houston .Directory are online publications providing area interest stories and information . The area receives many radio stations including some licensed within the area , such as KKBQ ( country , Pasadena ) , KWWJ ( gospel , Baytown ) , and KFTG and KLVL ( Spanish religious , Pasadena ) . Among the many television stations received in the area stations licensed in the area include KUBE @-@ TV ( TuVisión , Spanish language , Baytown ) .
= Kennedy half dollar = The Kennedy half dollar , first minted in 1964 , is a fifty @-@ cent coin currently issued by the United States Mint . Intended as a memorial to the assassinated President John F. Kennedy , it was authorized by Congress just over a month after his death . Use of existing works by Mint sculptors Gilroy Roberts and Frank Gasparro allowed dies to be prepared quickly , and striking of the new coins began in January 1964 . The silver coins vanished from circulation upon their release in March 1964 due to collectors , hoarders , and those interested in a memento of the late president . Although the Mint greatly increased production , the denomination was seldom seen in circulation . Continued rises in the price of silver increased the hoarding — many early Kennedy half dollars have been melted for their silver . Starting with 1965 @-@ dated pieces , the percentage of fine silver was reduced from 90 % to 40 % ( silver clad ) , but even with this change the coin saw little circulation . In 1971 , silver was eliminated entirely from the coins . A special design for the reverse of the half dollar was issued for the United States Bicentennial and was struck in 1975 and 1976 . In addition to business strikes , special collector coins were struck for the Bicentennial in silver clad ; silver proof sets in which the dime , quarter and half dollar were struck in 90 % silver were first minted in 1992 . In 2014 a special edition of the Kennedy half dollar was also struck in 99 @.@ 99 % gold . Even though ample supplies of circulating half dollars are readily available from banks , their circulation is extremely limited . Since 2002 , Kennedy half dollars have only been struck to satisfy the demand from collectors , and are available at a premium through the Mint . = = Inception = = Within hours of the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22 , 1963 , Mint Director Eva Adams called Chief Engraver Gilroy Roberts , informing him that serious consideration was being given to depicting Kennedy on one of the larger silver coins : either the silver dollar , half dollar , or quarter dollar . Adams called Roberts again on November 27 and authorized the project , stating that the late president 's widow , Jacqueline Kennedy preferred that he be depicted on the half dollar , replacing the previous design of Benjamin Franklin . Mrs. Kennedy 's reasoning was that she did not want to replace George Washington on the quarter . In the interest of time ( the striking of the new coin was to begin in January 1964 ) , Roberts modified the existing bust of Kennedy he had created for use on the Kennedy medal in the Mint 's Presidential series , while Frank Gasparro began modifications to the reverse he had created for the same medal . Both Roberts ' and Gasparro 's designs had been approved by Kennedy . Roberts had met with Kennedy in person to show him early models of the design ; although the President expressed no opinion regarding the depiction , Roberts decided to make some changes after meeting him . After the Mint produced trial strikes , Jacqueline and Robert Kennedy were invited to view them . Mrs. Kennedy viewed the designs favorably , but suggested that the hair be altered slightly . It was also suggested that a full or half figure of the president be used instead of the profile , but Roberts noted that there was not enough time to produce an entirely new design because of the project 's time constraints , and also that he believed the left profile would give a more attractive appearance . Frank Gasparro 's reverse design of the Kennedy half dollar was also influenced by the experience he gained from designing the President John . F. Kennedy appreciation medal . In 1962 , President Kennedy had three hundred appreciation medals struck by the United States Mint in Philadelphia that were later presented during his June 23 , 1963 through July 2 , 1963 trip to the nations of Federal Republic of Germany , Germany ( West Berlin ) , Ireland , United Kingdom , Italy , and the Vatican City State . The reverse design of the Kennedy appreciation medal depicts a larger and more detailed Presidential Seal than the one he designed on the Mint 's Presidential series ( Bureau of the Mint Presidential series stock medal # 135 known as the John F. Kennedy Presidential inauguration medal ) . Gasparro 's placement of his initials FG is also similarly located ( under the right leg of the eagle ) on both the Kennedy appreciation medal and Kennedy half dollar . Congressional approval was required for any design change within 25 years of the last . In early December , Representative Henry Gonzalez ( Democrat @-@ Texas ) introduced a bill for Kennedy to appear on the half dollar . On December 10 , the new President , Lyndon Johnson , endorsed the call for a Kennedy half dollar , asking Congress to pass the legislation promptly to allow striking of the new piece to begin early in 1964 . President Johnson stated that he had been moved by letters from many members of the public to agree with the plan . The bill to authorize the Kennedy half dollar passed on December 30 , 1963 . Work was already underway on coinage dies ; the use of the already @-@ available designs allowed for the completion of the first dies on January 2 , 1964 . Only proof coins were initially struck . The first Kennedy half dollars intended for circulation were struck at the Denver Mint on January 30 , 1964 , followed by the Philadelphia Mint the next week . A ceremonial first strike was held at both Philadelphia and Denver on February 11 , 1964 . = = Release = = = = = Initial popularity = = = The Treasury Department made the coins available to the public beginning on March 24 , 1964 . A line a block long formed at the department 's windows in Washington to purchase the 70 @,@ 000 coins initially allocated for public sale . Although the department limited sales to 40 per customer , by the end of the day , the coins were gone , but the line had not shortened . Banks in Boston and Philadelphia quickly rationed supplies , but still sold out by noon . Sales in New York did not begin until the following day , and rationing was imposed there as well , to the disgruntlement of the head of the coin department at Gimbels , the largest dealer in the city , which had hoped to sell the coins at a premium . The coins were popular overseas as well . U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs G. Mennen Williams distributed plastic @-@ encased specimens to presidents and foreign ministers of African nations and to the U.S. ambassadors serving there " to win friends for the United States in Africa " . Shortly after the coin 's release , the Denver Mint began receiving complaints that the new coin depicted a hammer and sickle on the bottom of Kennedy 's truncated bust . In response , Roberts stated that the portion of the design in question was actually his monogram , a stylized " GR " . The Mint struck Kennedy half dollars in large numbers in an attempt to meet the overwhelming demand . The Treasury had initially planned to issue 91 million half dollars for 1964 , but raised the number to 141 million . However , a public announcement of the increase failed to cause more coins to actually circulate or to decrease the prices on the secondary market . By late November , the Mint had coined approximately 160 million pieces , yet the coin was almost never seen in circulation . Silver prices were rising , and many coins were being hoarded . Hopeful that issuing more 1964 @-@ dated coins would counter the speculation in them , the Treasury requested and received Congressional authorization to continue striking 1964 @-@ dated coins into 1965 . Eventually , almost 430 million half dollars dated 1964 were struck , a sum greater than the total struck for circulation in the sixteen years of the Franklin half dollar series . These minting operations were rapidly depleting the Treasury 's stock of silver . Prices for the metal were rising to such an extent that , by early June , a dime contained 9 @.@ 33 cents ' worth of silver at market prices . On June 3 , 1965 , President Johnson announced plans to eliminate silver from the dime and quarter in favor of a clad sandwich with layers of copper @-@ nickel on each side of a layer of pure copper . The half dollar was changed from 90 % silver to 40 % . Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1965 in July . The new half dollars retained their silvery appearance , due to the outer layer being 80 % silver and 20 % copper . The coin was also minted with an inner layer of 21 % silver and 79 % copper . The first clad half dollars were struck at the Denver Mint on December 30 , 1965 . They bore the date 1965 ; the date would not be changed for US coins until the coin shortage was eased . Beginning on August 1 , 1966 , the Mint began to strike 1966 @-@ dated pieces , and thereafter it resumed the normal practice of striking the current year 's date on each piece . Despite the proclaimed end to the coin shortage , Kennedy half dollars circulated little , a scarcity caused by continued hoarding and a dip in production , with the Treasury reluctant to expend more of the nation 's silver holdings on a coin which did not circulate . According to coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers , Where the hundreds of millions of them went remains somewhat of a mystery today . In the meantime , Washington quarters , the same design used since 1932 , became the highest value coin of the realm , in terms of circulation use . These were particularly popular for vending machines , arcade games , and the like . Today , this continues to be the case , and Kennedy half dollars as well as the later mini @-@ dollar coins , are almost never encountered . " = = = Switch to base metal = = = In May 1969 , the Treasury sought authorization to eliminate the half dollar 's silver content , changing it to the same copper @-@ nickel clad composition as the dime and quarter . The Treasury also sought approval to strike base @-@ metal dollar coins , which would fill a need for gaming tokens in Western casinos . Former president Dwight Eisenhower had died recently , and there was discussion of placing Eisenhower 's portrait on the dollar . The Treasury hoped that with the removal of the silver content , the coin would cease to be hoarded and again circulate . Despite the support of President Richard Nixon , some Republicans in the House of Representatives initially scuttled the legislation , disliking the idea of putting Eisenhower on a base metal coin . The dispute dragged on for over a year before Nixon signed a bill on December 31 , 1970 which authorized the Eisenhower dollar and eliminated silver from the half dollar . As a result of the delay , in 1970 non @-@ proof half dollars were only made in Denver and released solely in mint sets . With a mintage of 2 @.@ 1 million the 1970 @-@ D Kennedy is considered the " key " to the series , although enough were produced to keep prices modest . The Mint did not announce that 1970 half dollars would not be struck for circulation until after mint set ordering had closed . By the time silver was eliminated from the half dollar , it had been out of circulation for so long that banks had eliminated the slot for the denomination from machines . The Mint anticipated a comeback for the denomination , but in July 1971 , Mint Director Mary Brooks disclosed that the Treasury was holding 200 million of the new base metal half dollars , as commercial banks expressed little interest in ordering them . " I can 't understand the population . They 're not using them . " According to Brooks , most of the over one billion Kennedy half dollars containing silver had been hoarded by the public . Brooks theorized that because the silver Kennedy half dollar never circulated much and few half dollars were struck in 1970 in anticipation of the authorization to eliminate silver , the public had become accustomed to not seeing the half dollar in trade . Brooks suggested , " If the country knew there were plenty of them around , they 'd probably start hoarding them , too . " On March 5 , 1973 , Brooks announced that the Mint would be soliciting new reverse designs for the half dollar and dollar to commemorate the 1976 United States Bicentennial . On October 18 , President Nixon signed Public Law 93 @-@ 127 , which provided for new reverse designs for the quarter , half dollar , and dollar . The designs were to be emblematic of the Bicentennial era . The Mint announced a competition open to all American sculptors . Seth G. Huntington 's design depicting Independence Hall was selected for the half dollar . All half dollars struck in 1975 and 1976 bore the double date 1776 – 1976 on the obverse and Huntington 's design on the reverse . Over 521 million Bicentennial half dollars were struck for circulation . Following the high mintage of the Bicentennial piece , the number of pieces struck per year declined . However , in 1979 , Mint Director Stella B. Hackel indicated that the Mint would continue to strike them . " We really don 't think many half dollars are being used in commerce . They do go somewhere , though , so someone must want them . " By then , more than 2 @.@ 5 billion Kennedy half dollars had been struck , more than all previously struck half dollars combined . The New York Times numismatic columnist Ed Reiter suggested that hoarding had continued even into the base @-@ metal era , accounting for the shortage of pieces in commerce . The late 1970s saw the destruction of many early Kennedy half dollars , as high silver prices caused extensive melting for the metal content . The coin continued to be struck through the remainder of the twentieth century , and mintage numbers remained relatively steady in both the Philadelphia and Denver mints until 1987 , a year in which no half dollars were struck for circulation ; the Treasury had accumulated a two @-@ year supply of the pieces , making further production unncessary . Demand for half dollars dropped , and casinos ( where they were commonly used ) increasingly began producing fifty cent tokens to use in place of the coins . With mintage numbers remaining low , beginning in 2002 , the Kennedy half dollar ceased to be struck for general circulation . Rolls and bags of the current year 's pieces may be purchased from the Mint , at a premium above face value . In January 2014 , a private firm , on behalf of the Mint , began surveying customers on possible options for a special issue of the half dollar in commemoration of its 50th anniversary . In June , the Mint announced plans to issue seven special 2014 Kennedy half dollars in commemoration of the series ' fiftieth anniversary : two in clad , from Philadelphia and Denver , four in silver from Philadelphia , Denver , San Francisco , and the West Point Mint , and one in .9999 gold , from West Point . The clad and silver versions bear the normal date ; the gold coin has the double date 1964 – 2014 . All have higher relief than the usual issues . The gold coins were released in conjunction with the American Numismatic Association convention in Rosemont , Illinois on August 5 , 2014 . = = Collecting = = With the exception of 1965 through 1967 , proofs have been struck each year in the same metallic composition as regular issue pieces . The first Kennedy half dollar proofs were struck in early January 1964 . Early strikes depicted Kennedy with heavily accented hair ; an estimated 100 @,@ 000 coins were struck with this feature . This was altered for the remainder of the mintage of nearly four million proof coins . Due to the coin shortage , the Treasury Department announced that no proof sets would be struck in 1965 . Instead , Special Mint Sets would be struck to satisfy collector demand . Coins for these sets , minted at the San Francisco Assay Office , were struck with no mint marks early in 1966 with heavily polished dies dated 1965 . Similar sets bearing the dates 1966 and 1967 were also struck . A few of the 1966 halves from the Special Mint Sets are known with Gasparro 's initials " FG " missing from the reverse , apparently because of an overpolished die . The first year 's production was sold in soft plastic packaging ; the 1966 and 1967 issues were sonically sealed in hard plastic cases . In 1968 , regular proof coinage was resumed , although production of proof coins was shifted to San Francisco , the " S " mintmark added and sets were encapsulated in hard plastic . In 1973 , Congress authorized silver @-@ clad collector versions of the Bicentennial coins ; in April 1975 , the Mint began to strike them . The coins were issued in both proof and uncirculated quality . Copper @-@ nickel clad Bicentennial coins were placed in both the 1975 and 1976 proof sets , while their silver clad counterparts were sold in three coin sets . Since 1992 , the Mint has struck Kennedy half dollars in 90 % silver for inclusion in special silver proof sets . 1964 proofs were struck in Philadelphia , and since 1968 , proof coins have been struck in San Francisco only . In 1998 , some silver proof pieces were struck to a matte finish for inclusion in a set along with a Robert Kennedy commemorative silver dollar . From 2005 – 2010 , uncirculated pieces included in mint sets received a matte finish , which differentiates them from the pieces sold in bags and rolls .
= Macedonia ( terminology ) = The name " Macedonia " is used in a number of competing or overlapping meanings to describe geographical , political and historical areas , languages and peoples in a part of south @-@ eastern Europe . It has been a major source of political controversy since the early 20th century . The situation is complicated because different ethnic groups use different terminology for the same entity , or the same terminology for different entities , with different political connotations . Historically , the region has presented markedly shifting borders across the Balkan peninsula . Geographically , no single definition of its borders or the names of its subdivisions is accepted by all scholars and ethnic groups . Demographically , it is mainly inhabited by four ethnic groups , three of which self @-@ identify as Macedonians : two , a Bulgarian and a Greek one at a regional level , while a third ethnic Macedonian one at a national level . Linguistically , the names and affiliations of languages and dialects spoken in the region are a source of controversy . Politically , the rights to the extent of the use of the name Macedonia and its derivatives has led to a diplomatic dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia . Despite mediation of the United Nations , the dispute is still pending resolution since 1993 , but as a result it was admitted under the provisional reference of the " former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia " , sometimes abbreviated as FYROM . = = Etymology = = The name Macedonia derives from the Greek Μακεδονία ( Makedonía ) , a kingdom ( later , region ) named after the ancient Macedonians . Their name , Μακεδόνες ( Makedónes ) , is cognate to the Ancient Greek adjective μακεδνός ( makednós ) , meaning " tall , slim " . It was traditionally derived from the Indo @-@ European root * mak- , meaning ' long ' or ' slender ' ( attested in Homer , and recorded by Hesychius of Alexandria as a Doric word meaning " large " ) , or makros ( ' long , large ' ) , as well as related words in other Indo @-@ European languages . It is commonly explained as having originally meant ' the tall ones ' or ' highlanders ' . However , according to modern research by Robert S. P. Beekes , both terms are of Pre @-@ Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo @-@ European morphology . = = History = = The region of Macedonia has been home to several historical political entities , which have used the name Macedonia ; the main ones are given below . The borders of each of these entities were different . = = = Early history = = = = = = = Ancient Macedonia = = = = Macedonia or Macedon , the ancient kingdom , was centered on the fertile plains west of the Gulf of Salonica ; the first Macedonian state emerged in the 8th or early 7th century BC . Its extent beyond the center varied ; some Macedonian kings could not hold their capital ; Philip II expanded his power until it reached from Epirus , across Thrace to Gallipoli , and from Thermopylae to the Danube . His son Alexander the Great conquered most of the land in southwestern Asia stretching from what is currently Turkey in the west to parts of India in the east . However , while Alexander 's conquests are of major historical importance as having launched the Hellenistic Age , Macedon as a state had no significant territorial gains due to them . Alexander 's kingdom fell apart after his death in 323 BC ; several of his Successors attempted to form a kingdom for themselves in Macedonia ; the kingdom formed by Antigonus Gonatas contained all the land Philip II had started with and controlled much of what is now modern Greece ; it lasted until the Romans divided it into four republics in 168 BC . = = = = Roman Macedonia = = = = The ancient Romans had two different entities called Macedonia , at different levels . Macedonia was established as a Roman province in 146 BC . Its boundaries were shifted from time to time for administrative convenience , but during the Roman Republic and the Principate it extended west to the Adriatic and south to Central Greece . Under Diocletian , Thessaly , including parts of West Macedonia , was split off to form a new province , and the central and southern Balkan provinces were grouped into the Diocese of Moesia . At some point in the 4th century ( first securely attested in 370 ) this was divided into two new dioceses , the mostly Latin @-@ speaking Diocese of Dacia in the north and the mostly Greek @-@ speaking Diocese of Macedonia in the south . Under Constantine the Great , the western part of the province of Macedonia was also split off to form the new province of Epirus nova . After Constantine 's death , the western Balkans , Macedonia included , became part of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum . With the exception of a short @-@ lived division between Macedonia Prima in the south and Macedonia Salutaris in the north towards the end of the 4th century ( attested only in the Notitia Dignitatum ) , Macedonia formed a single province until re @-@ divided into southern and northern parts sometime in the late 5th century ( the division is first securely attested in 482 ) , although the province seems to have been reunified by 535 . According to the 6th @-@ century Synecdemus , Macedonia Prima , with Thessalonica as its capital and governed by a consularis , counted 32 cities , and Macedonia Secunda in the north , with Stobi as its capital and governed by a praeses , only eight . The approximate boundary between the two ran on a rough line from north of Bitola ( which belonged to Macedonia Prima ) to the area of Demir Kapija . = = = = Byzantine Macedonia = = = = During the 7th century , most of the Balkans were overrun by Slavic invasions , which left only the fortified towns and the coasts in the hands of the Greek @-@ speaking Byzantine Empire . " Macedonia " was then used for a new theme in the late 8th century under Irene of Athens . Geographically however it was located in Thrace and not in Macedonia , which was under the themes of Thessalonica , Strymon and other smaller commands such as Boleron or Drougoubiteia . Themes were not named geographically and the original sense was " army " . They became districts during the military and fiscal crisis of the seventh century , when the Byzantine armies were instructed to find their supplies from the locals , wherever they happened to be . Thus the Armeniac theme was considerably west of Armenia ; the Thracesian Theme was in Asia Minor , not in Thrace . The Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire acquired its name from its founder , Basil I the Macedonian , an Armenian by descent , who was born in the theme of Macedonia . The interior of Macedonia remained in Slavic and later Bulgarian hands until the campaigns of Basil II , which ended the existence of the Bulgarian state and extended Byzantine authority across the central and northern Balkans . Thereafter Macedonia remained under Byzantine control until the Fourth Crusade ( 1204 ) . A short @-@ lived Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica was established which survived until 1224 , when it was captured by Epirus . Most of Macedonia then came under the control of the Empire of Nicaea in 1246 , although its northern regions remained disputed with the Serbs and the Bulgarians . Most of the region was conquered by the Serbs under Stephen Dushan during the Byzantine civil war of 1341 – 1347 . Only Thessalonica and its environs remained in Byzantine hands . By the late 14th century , the Ottoman Turks in turn had conquered the region , although Thessalonica held out under Byzantine and later Venetian control until 1430 . = = = = Ottoman Macedonia = = = = The Ottomans did not keep Macedonia as an administrative unit : since 1864 parts of geographical Macedonia lay in three vilayets , which also comprised some non @-@ Macedonian areas . Northern Macedonia was part of the Kosovo vilayet and then of Skopje ; the Thessaloniki ( south Macedonia ) , and the Monastir ( Central Macedonia ) vilayet were also created . This administrative division lasted until 1912 – 13 , when Macedonia was divided among the Balkan states . = = = Modern history = = = Since the early stages of the Greek Revolution , the provisional government of Greece claimed Macedonia as part of Greek national territory , but the Treaty of Constantinople ( 1832 ) , which established a Greek independent state , set its northern boundary between Arta and Volos . When the Ottoman Empire started breaking apart , Macedonia was claimed by all members of the Balkan League ( Serbia , Montenegro , Greece and Bulgaria ) , and by Romania . Under the Treaty of San Stefano that ended the Russo @-@ Turkish War , 1877 – 78 the entire region , except Thessaloniki , was included in the borders of Bulgaria , but after the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the region was returned to the Ottoman Empire . The armies of the Balkan League advanced and occupied Macedonia in the First Balkan War in 1912 . Because of disagreements between the allies about the partition of the region , the Second Balkan War erupted , and in its aftermath the arbitrary region of Macedonia was split into the following entities , that existed or still exist in this region : Macedonia ( as a region of Greece ) refers to three regions in northern Greece , incorporated in 1913 , as a result of the Balkan Wars between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League . Macedonia ( as a People 's Republic within Yugoslavia ) used to refer to the People 's Republic of Macedonia established in 1946 , later known as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia , one of the constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , renamed in 1963 . Between 1929 and 1941 this region was part of Vardar Banovina province in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Macedonia ( as a contemporary sovereign state ) refers to the conventional short form name of the Republic of Macedonia , which held a referendum and established its independence from Yugoslavia on 8 September 1991 . = = Geography = = Macedonia ( as a current geographical term ) refers to a region of the Balkan peninsula in south @-@ eastern Europe , covering some 60 @,@ 000 or 70 @,@ 000 square kilometers . Although the region 's borders are not officially defined by any international organization or state , in some contexts , the territory appears to correspond to the basins of ( from west to east ) the Haliacmon ( Aliákmonas ) , Vardar / Axios and Struma / Strymónas rivers , and the plains around Thessaloniki and Serres . In a historic context , the term Macedonia was used in various ways . Macedonia was not an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire ; its entire territory was part of the beylerbeylik of Rumelia . The geographer H. R. Wilkinson suggests that the region " defies definition " but that many mappers agree " on its general location " . Macedonia was well enough defined in 1897 for Gladstone to propose " Macedonia for the Macedonians " ; philhellenes argued that the phrase could not be used by a man of impartiallity , while Turcophiles asserted that there are six different kinds of Macedonians , and only Turkish rule could prevail total anarchy in the region . The Balkan nations began to proclaim their rights to it after the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 and its revision at the Congress of Berlin . Many ethnographic maps were produced in this period of controversy ; these differ primarily in the areas given to each nationality within Macedonia . This was in part a result of the choice of definition : an inhabitant of Macedonia might well have different nationalities depending on whether the basis of classification was denomination , descent , language , self @-@ identification or personal choice . In addition , the Ottoman census , taken on the basis of religion , was misquoted by all sides ; descent , or " race " , was largely conjectural ; inhabitants of Macedonia might speak a different language at the market and at home , and the same Slavic dialect might be called Serbian " with Bulgarian influences " , Macedonian , or West @-@ Bulgarian . These maps also differed somewhat in the boundaries given to Macedonia . Its only inarguable limits were the Aegean Sea and the Serbian and Bulgarian frontiers ( as of 1885 ) ; where it bordered Old Serbia , Albania , and Thrace ( all parts of Ottoman Rumelia ) was debatable . The Greek ethnographer Nicolaides , the Austrian Meinhard , and the Bulgarian Kǎnčev placed the northern boundary of Macedonia at the Šar Mountains and the Crna hills , as had scholars before 1878 . The Serb Gopčevič preferred a line much further south , assigning the entire region from Skopje to Strumica to " Old Serbia " ; and some later Greek geographers have defined a more restricted Macedonia . In addition , maps might vary in smaller details : as to whether this town or that was Macedonian . One Italian map included Prizren , where Nicolaides and Meinhard had drawn the boundary just south of it . On the south and west , Grevena , Korçë , and Konitsa varied from map to map ; on the east , the usual line is the lower Mesta / Nestos river and then north or northwest , but one German geographer takes the line so far west as to exclude Bansko and Nevrokop / Gotse Delchev . = = = Subregions = = = The region of Macedonia is commonly divided into three major and two minor sub @-@ regions . The name Macedonia appears under certain contexts on the major regions , while the smaller ones are traditionally referred to by other local toponyms : = = = = Major regions = = = = The region of Macedonia is commonly split geographically into three main sub @-@ regions , especially when discussing the Macedonian Question . The terms are used in non @-@ partisan scholarly works , although they are also used in ethnic Macedonian literature of an irredentist nature . Aegean Macedonia ( or Greek Macedonia ) is a term that refers to an area in the south of the Macedonia region . The borders of the area are , overall , those of ancient Macedonia in Greece . It covers an area of 34 @,@ 200 square kilometres ( 13 @,@ 200 sq mi ) ( for discussion of the reported irredentist origin of this term , see Aegean Macedonia ) . Pirin Macedonia ( or Bulgarian Macedonia ) is an area in the east of the Macedonia region . The borders of the area approximately coincide with those of Blagoevgrad Province in Bulgaria . It covers an area of 6 @,@ 449 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 490 sq mi ) . Vardar Macedonia ( formerly Yugoslav Macedonia ) is an area in the north of the Macedonia region . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia . It covers an area of 25 @,@ 333 square kilometres ( 9 @,@ 781 sq mi ) . = = = = Minor regions = = = = In addition to the above named sub @-@ regions , there are also two smaller regions , in Albania and Serbia respectively . These regions are also considered geographically part of Macedonia . They are referred to by ethnic Macedonians as follows , but typically are not so referred to by non @-@ partisan scholars . Mala Prespa and Golo Brdo is a small area in the west of the Macedonia region in Albania , mainly around Lake Ohrid . It includes parts of the Korçë , Pogradec and Devoll districts . These districts in whole occupy about 3 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 158 sq mi ) , but the area concerned is significantly smaller . Gora ( part of the municipality of Dragaš ) and Prohor Pčinjski are minor parts in the north of the Macedonia region in Serbia . = = Demographics = = The region , as defined above , has a total population of about 5 million . The main disambiguation issue in demographics is the self @-@ identifying name of two contemporary groups . The ethnic Macedonian population of the Republic of Macedonia self @-@ identify as Macedonian on a national level , while the Greek Macedonians self @-@ identify as both Macedonian on a regional , and Greek on a national level . According to the Greek arguments , the ancient Macedonians ' nationality was Greek and thus , the use of the term on a national level lays claims to their history . This disambiguation problem has led to a wide variety of terms used to refer to the separate groups , more information of which can be found in the terminology by group section . The self @-@ identifying Macedonians ( collectively referring to the inhabitants of the region ) that inhabit or inhabited the area are : As an ethnic group , Macedonians refers to the majority ( 64 @.@ 7 % , 2002 ) of the population of the Republic of Macedonia . Statistics for 2002 indicate the population of ethnic Macedonians within the country as c . 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 . On the other hand , as a legal term , it refers to all the citizens of the Republic of Macedonia , irrespective of their ethnic or religious affiliation . However , the preamble of the constitution distinguishes between " the Macedonian people " and the " Albanians , Turks , Vlachs , Romanics and other nationalities living in the Republic of Macedonia " , but for whom " full equality as citizens " is provided . As of 2002 the total population of the country is 2 @,@ 022 @,@ 547 . As a regional group in Greece , Macedonians refers to ethnic Greeks ( 98 % , 2001 ) living in regions referred to as Macedonia , and particularly Greek Macedonia . This group composes the vast majority of the population of the Greek region of Macedonia . The 2001 census for the total population of the Macedonia region in Greece shows 2 @,@ 625 @,@ 681 . The same term in antiquity described the inhabitants of the kingdom of Macedon , including their notable rulers Philip II and Alexander the Great who self @-@ identified as Greeks . As a regional group in Bulgaria , Macedonians refers to the inhabitants of Bulgarian Macedonia , who in their vast majority self @-@ identify as Bulgarians at a national level and as Macedonians at a regional , but not ethnic level . As of 2001 , the total population of Bulgarian Macedonia is 341 @,@ 245 , while the ethnic Macedonians living in the same region are 3 @,@ 117 . The Bulgarian Macedonians also self @-@ identify as Piriners ( пиринци , pirintsi ) to avoid confusion with the neighboring ethnic group . Macedo @-@ Romanians can be used as an alternative name for Aromanians , people living throughout the southern Balkans , especially in northern Greece , Albania , the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria , and as an emigrant community in Northern Dobruja , Romania . According to Ethnologue , their total population in all countries is 306 @,@ 237 . This not very frequent appellation is the only one with the disambiguating portmanteau , both within the members of the same ethnic group and the other ethnic groups in the area . To make matters more confusing , Aromanians are often called " Machedoni " by Romanians , as opposed to the citizens of Macedonia , who are called " Macedoneni " . The ethnic Albanians living in the region of Macedonia , as defined above , are mainly concentrated in the Republic of Macedonia ( especially in the northwestern part that borders Kosovo and Albania ) , and less in the Albanian minor sub @-@ region of Macedonia around the Lake Ohrid . As of 2002 , the total population of Albanians within the republic is 509 @,@ 083 or 25 @.@ 2 % of the country 's total population . = = Linguistics = = As language is one of the elements tied in with national identity , the same disputes that are voiced over demographics are also found in linguistics . There are two main disputes about the use of the word Macedonian to describe a linguistic phenomenon , be it a language or a dialect : The origins of the Ancient Macedonian language are currently debated . At this time it is not conclusively determined whether the language / dialect was a Greek dialect related to Doric Greek and / or Aeolic Greek dialects among others , a sibling language of ancient Greek forming a Hellenic ( i.e. Greco @-@ Macedonian ) supergroup , or viewed as an Indo @-@ European language which is a close cousin to Greek ( and perhaps somewhat related to Thracian and / or Phrygian languages ) . The scientific community generally agrees that , although sources are available ( e.g. Hesychius ' lexicon , Pella curse tablet ) there is no decisive evidence to exclude any of the above hypotheses . Modern Macedonian language , a south Slavic language , is unrelated to the Ancient Macedonian language . It is currently the subject of two major disputes . The first is over the name ( alternative ways of referring to this language can be found in the terminology by group section and in the article Macedonian language naming dispute ) . The second dispute is over the existence of a Macedonian language distinct from Bulgarian , the denial of which is a position supported by nationalist groups , Bulgarian and other linguists and also by many ordinary Bulgarians . Macedonian is also the name of a dialect of Modern Greek , a language of the Indo @-@ European family . Additionally , Macedo @-@ Romanian is an Eastern Romance language , spoken in Southeastern Europe by the Aromanians . = = Politics = = The controversies in geographic , linguistic and demographic terms , are also manifested in international politics . Among the autonomous countries that were formed as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s , was the ( until then ) subnational entity of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , by the official name of " Socialist Republic of Macedonia " , the others being Serbia , Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro . The peaceful break @-@ away of that nation resulted in the change of its name to " Republic of Macedonia " . Republic of Macedonia is the constitutional name of the sovereign state which occupies the northern part of the geographical region of Macedonia , which roughly coincides with the geographic subregion of Vardar Macedonia . The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia ( FYROM ) is a term used to refer to this state by the main international organisations , including United Nations , European Union , NATO , IMF , WTO , IOC , World Bank , EBRD , OSCE , FIFA , and FIBA . The term was introduced in 1993 by the United Nations , following a naming dispute with Greece . Some countries use this term as a stop @-@ gap measure , pending resolution of the naming dispute . Greece and the Republic of Macedonia each consider this name a compromise : it is opposed by some Greeks for containing the Greek self @-@ identifying name Macedonia , and by many in the Republic of Macedonia for not being the short self @-@ identifying name . Greece uses it in both the abbreviated ( FYROM or ΠΓΔΜ ) and spellout form ( Πρώην Γιουγκοσλαβική Δημοκρατία της Μακεδονίας ) . Macedonia refers also to a geographic region in Greece , which roughly coincides with the southernmost major geographic subregion of Macedonia . It is divided in the three administrative sub @-@ regions ( regions ) of West , Central , and East Macedonia and Thrace . The region is overseen by the Ministry for Macedonia – Thrace . The capital of Greek Macedonia is Thessaloniki , which is the largest city in the region of Macedonia ; Greeks often call it the " co @-@ capital " of Greece . = = = Ethnic Macedonian nationalism = = = Ethnic Macedonian irredentists following the idea of a " United Macedonia " have expressed claims to what they refer to as " Aegean Macedonia " ( in Greece ) , " Pirin Macedonia " ( in Bulgaria ) , " Mala Prespa and Golo Bardo " ( in Albania ) , and " Gora and Prohor Pčinjski " ( in Serbia ) . Loring Danforth , a professor of anthropology at Bates College , asserts that ethnic Macedonian nationalists , who are concerned with demonstrating the continuity between ancient and modern Macedonians , deny they are Slavs and claim to be the direct descendants of Alexander the Great and the ancient Macedonians . Danforth stresses , however , that the more moderate Macedonian position , publicly endorsed by Kiro Gligorov , the first president of the Republic of Macedonia , is modern Macedonians have no relation to Alexander the Great , but are a Slavic people whose ancestors arrived in Macedonia in the sixth century AD . Proponents of both the extreme and the moderate Macedonian positions stress that the ancient Macedonians were a distinct non @-@ Greek people . In addition to affirming the existence of the Macedonian nation , Macedonians are concerned with affirming the existence of a unique Macedonian language as well . They thus emphasize that the Macedonian language has a history dating to the Old Church Slavonic used by Saints Cyril and Methodius in the ninth century . Although ethnic Macedonians agree Macedonian minorities exist in Bulgaria and Greece and these minorities have been subjected to harsh policies of forced assimilation , there are two different positions with regard to what their future should be . These were summarized by Danforth : The goal of more extreme Macedonian nationalists is to create a " free , united , and independent Macedonia " by " liberating " the parts of Macedonia " temporarily occupied " by Bulgaria and Greece . More moderate Macedonian nationalists recognize the inviolability of the Bulgarian and Greek borders and explicitly renounce any territorial claims against the two countries . They do , however , demand that Bulgaria and Greece recognize the existence of Macedonian minorities in their countries and grant them the basic human rights they deserve . Schoolbooks and official government publications in the Republic have shown the country as part of an " unliberated " whole , although the constitution of the Republic , especially after its amendment in 1995 , does not include any territorial claims . = = = Greek nationalism = = = Danforth describes the Greek position on Macedonia as follows : because Alexander the Great and the ancient Macedonians were Greeks , and because ancient and modern Greece are bound in an unbroken line of racial and cultural continuity , it is only Greeks who have the right to identify themselves as Macedonians . According to Danforth , this is why Greeks generally refer to Ethnic Macedonians as " Skopians " , a practice comparable to calling Greeks " Athenians " . Danforth asserts that the negation of Macedonian identity in Greek nationalist ideology focuses on three main points : the existence of a Macedonian nation , a Macedonian language , and a Macedonian minority in Greece . More specifically , Danforth says : From the Greek nationalist perspective there cannot be a Macedonian nation since there has never been an independent Macedonian state : the Macedonian nation is an " artificial creation " , an " invention " , of Tito , who " baptized " a " mosaic of nationalities " with the Greek name " Macedonians " . Similarly Greek nationalists claim that because the language spoken by the ancient Macedonians was Greek , the Slavic language spoken by the " Skopians " cannot be called " the Macedonian language . " Greek sources generally refer to it as " the linguistic idiom of Skopje " and describe it as a corrupt and impoverished dialect of Bulgarian . Finally , the Greek government denies the existence of a Macedonian minority in northern Greece , claiming that there exists only a small group of " Slavophone Hellenes " or " bilingual Greeks " , who speak Greek and " a local Slavic dialect " but have a " Greek national consciousness " . Thus from the Greek nationalist perspective the use of the term " Macedonian " by the " Slavs of Skopje " constitutes a " felony " , an " act of plagiarism " against the Greek people . Greek nationalists believe that , by calling themselves " Macedonians " , the ethnic Macedonians are " stealing " a Greek name , " embezzling " Greek cultural heritage , and " falsifying " Greek history . Greek fears that the use of the name " Macedonia " by the ethnic Macedonians will inevitably lead to the assertion of irredentist claims to territory in Greek Macedonia are heightened by fairly recent historical events . From a different point of view , Demetrius Andreas M.-A. Floudas , of Hughes Hall , Cambridge , a leading commentator on the naming dispute from the Greek side , sums up this nationalistic reaction as follows : the Republic of Macedonia was accused of usurping the historical and cultural patrimony of Greece " in order to furnish a nucleus of national self @-@ esteem for the new state and provide its citizens with a new , distinct , non @-@ Bulgarian , non @-@ Serbian , non @-@ Albanian identity " . The Republic emerged thus to Greek eyes as a country with a personality crisis , " a nondescript parasitic state " that lived off the history of its neighbours , because it allegedly lacked an illustrious past of its own , for the sake of achieving cohesion for what Greeks regarded as an " unhomogeneous little new nation " . Floudas criticizes Greek stance as follows : What appeared to go unquestioned in Greece nevertheless was whether there was indeed substance in the claims of FYROM that their citizens do feel members of a distinct ' Macedonian ' nationality . To answer this appropriately , neither the decades of persistent indoctrination [ during Tito 's time ] should be left out of consideration , nor Greece 's violent struggle since 1991 in contrast to her complacency for the 45 years before this . If it was a common bond that the people in Skopje wanted , they found it by claiming this name and rallying the whole population in a united resistance front under a common cause against pugnacious Greece . After this bitter and protracted struggle , even the ones in FYROM who might have not initially been infused with any distinct Macedonian ethnic identity must be feeling very Macedonian now , thanks to Greece As of early 2008 , the official position of Greece , adopted unanimously by the four largest political parties , has made a more moderate shift towards accepting a " composite name solution " ( i.e. the use of the name " Macedonia " plus some qualifier ) , so as to disambiguate the former Yugoslav Republic from the Greek region of Macedonia and the wider geographic region of the same name . = = Names in the languages of the region = = Albanian : Maqedonia Armenian : Մակեդոնիա ( Makedonia ) Aromanian : Machidunia / Machedonia Bulgarian : Македония ( Makedonia ) Georgian : მაკედონია ( Makedonia ) Greek : Μακεδονία ( Makedonia ) Ladino : Makedonia , מקדוניה Macedonian : Македонија ( Makedonija ) Romany : Makedoniya Serbian : Македонија , Makedonija Serbian ( archaic ) : Маћедонија , Maćedonija Turkish : Makedonya = = Terminology by group = = All these controversies have led ethnic groups in Macedonia to use terms in conflicting ways . Despite the fact that these terms may not always be used in a pejorative way , they may be perceived as such by the ethnic group to which they are applied . Both Greeks and ethnic Macedonians generally use all terms deriving from Macedonia to describe their own regional or ethnic group , and have devised several other terms to disambiguate the other side , or the region in general . Bulgarians and ethnic Macedonians seek to deny the self @-@ identification of the Slavic speaking minority in northern Greece , which mostly self @-@ identifies as Greek . Extremists on all sides have been known to fabricate and reproduce falsified information , along with denying genuine information and propagating unscientific and pseudoscientific theories . Certain terms are in use by these groups as outlined below . Any denial of self @-@ identification by any side , or any attribution of Macedonia related terms by third parties to the other side , can be seen as highly offensive . General usage of these terms follows : = = = Bulgarian = = = Gărkomani ( Гъркомани ) is a derogatory term used to refer to the largest portion of the Slavic @-@ speaking minority of Macedonia in Greece who self @-@ identify as Greeks . Macedonian ( Македонец ) is a person originating from the region of Macedonia – the term has only regional , not ethnic meaning , and it usually means a Bulgarian , or a clarification is made ( Greek , Albanian ... ) . Macedonian ( Македонски ) and the Slavic dialects of Greece are considered dialects of Bulgarian by Bulgarian linguists ; not independent languages or dialects of other languages ( e.g. Serbian ) . This is also the popular view in Bulgaria . The Bulgarian government , therefore , has officially recognized the language merely as " the constitutional language of the Republic of Macedonia " . Translations are officially called " adaptations " . Macedonism ( Македонизъм ) is a term referring to the political ideology or simply views that the Slavs of Macedonia are an ethnic group separate from Bulgarians , with their own separate language , history and culture . It is also used to describe what Bulgarians view as the falsification of their history whether by Macedonian or foreign scholars who subscribe to the Macedonist point of view . It carries strong negative connotations . Macedonistics ( Македонистика ) is a term , generally synonymous with disciplines such as study of the origins of the Macedonian language and history of the Macedonian people conducted in the Republic of Macedonia and in former Yugoslavia . It is generally considered in Bulgaria to be a kind of pseudoscience . Macedonist ( Македонист ) is a term for a person ( typically Macedonian Slav ) who believes that Macedonian Slavs are not ethnic Bulgarians but a separate ethnic group , directly descended from the ancient Macedonians . It is a more negatively charged synonym of " Macedonian nationalist " . More rarely it is used for someone associated with the study of the origins of the Macedonian language and history of the Macedonian people ( not necessarily from the Republic of Macedonia or Yugoslavia ) , whose studies support the official historical doctrine of the Republic of Macedonia or former Yugoslavia . Sărbomani ( Сърбомани ) is a derogatory term used to refer to people in the Republic of Macedonia self @-@ identifying as Serbian , or having a pro @-@ Serb orientation . It is also used pejoratively by Bulgarians to refer to Macedonians who refuse the Bulgarian national idea . Old Bulgarian ( Старобългарски ) is the name Bulgarians give to the Old Church Slavonic language used in the Ohrid Literary School among others . In contrast , Old Church Slavonic is rarely referred to by ethnic Macedonians as " Old Macedonian " or " Old Slavic " . = = = Greek = = = Macedonia ( Μακεδονία ) can refer to the region of Macedonia or to Macedonia in Greece depending on the context — usually the first being disambiguated . Macedonian ( Μακεδόνας ) refers to an ethnically Greek Macedonian . Ancient Macedonian ( Αρχαίος Μακεδόνας ) refers to an Ancient Macedonian . Macedonian Slav , Slavic Macedonian or Slavomacedonian ( Σλαβομακεδόνας ) refers to a member of the Macedonian ethnic group . Macedonian Slavic , Slavic Macedonian or Slavomacedonian ( Σλαβομακεδονικά ) refers to the Macedonian language . Republic of Skopje ( Δημοκρατία των Σκοπίων ) refers to the Republic of Macedonia . State of Skopje ( Κράτος των Σκοπίων ) refers to the Republic of Macedonia . Skopje , or Skopia ( Σκόπια ) refers to either the Republic of Macedonia or its capital city of Skopje . Skopjan , or Skopian ( Σκοπιανός ) refers to a member of the ethnic Macedonian ethnic group living in the Republic or outside it , but not to any group native to Greece . Skopiana or Skopianika ( Σκοπιανά or Σκοπιανικά ) refers to the Macedonian language . Slavophone ( Σλαβόφωνος ) refers to a member of the Slavic speaking minority in Greece . Bulgaroskopian ( Βουλγαροσκοπιανός ) is a term used to refer to ethnic Macedonians , implying Bulgarians ethnic affiliation . Pseudomacedonian ( Ψευδομακεδόνας ) is a term used to refer to ethnic Macedonians , and asserts their nationhood is contrived . The last eight terms are often considered offensive in the Republic of Macedonia . = = = Ethnic Macedonian = = = Macedonia ( Македонија ) can refer to either the region of Macedonia or the Republic of Macedonia . Macedonians ( Македонци ) generally refers to the Macedonian ethnic group associated with the Republic of Macedonia , neighbouring countries and abroad . Aegean Macedonia ( Егејска Македонија – Egejska Makedonija ) refers to Macedonia in Greece ( as defined by the administrative division of Greece ) . Pirin Macedonia ( Пиринска Македонија – Pirinska Makedonija ) refers to the Blagoevgrad Province of Bulgaria ( as defined by the administrative division of Bulgaria ) . Bugarashi ( бугараши ) or bugarofili ( бугарофили ) are derogatory terms used to refer to people in the Republic of Macedonia self @-@ identifying as Bulgarian , or having a pro @-@ Bulgarian orientation . Egejci ( Егејци ) refers to people living in the Republic of Macedonia and abroad that are originating from Aegean Macedonia ( Greek Macedonia ) , mainly refugees from the Greek Civil War , also knowns as Aegean Macedonians . Grkomani ( гркомани ) is a derogatory term used to refer to the largest portion of the Slavic @-@ speaking minority of Macedonia in Greece who self @-@ identify as Greeks . Srbomani ( србомани ) or srbofili ( србофили ) are derogatory terms used to refer to people in the Republic of Macedonia self @-@ identifying as Serbian , or having a pro @-@ Serb orientation . The first three terms are often considered offensive in Greece .
= Battle of Šibenik = The Battle of Šibenik ( Croatian : Bitka za Šibenik ) , also known as the September War ( Rujanski rat ) , was an armed conflict fought between the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) , supported by the Croatian Serb @-@ established Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina ( SAO Krajina ) , and the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor Narodne Garde – ZNG ) , supported by the Croatian Police . The battle was fought to the north and west of the city of Šibenik , Croatia on 16 – 22 September 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The JNA 's initial orders were to relieve Croatian siege of their barracks in the city and isolate the region of Dalmatia from the rest of Croatia . The JNA 's advance was supported by the Yugoslav Air Force and the Yugoslav Navy . Fighting stopped following a Croatian counter @-@ attack that pushed the JNA back from the outskirts of Šibenik . Although some ground was lost to the Yugoslavs , especially around the town of Drniš , northeast of Šibenik , the ZNG captured several JNA and Yugoslav Navy facilities in the city , including dozens of navy vessels and several coastal artillery batteries . The captured batteries were used to support defence of the city . The JNA Šibenik garrison was evacuated following an agreement between the Croatian officials and the JNA , except for several comparably small JNA posts in the city which were captured by the ZNG . The September – October fighting caused three Croatian military and seven civilian deaths , as well as more than a hundred wounded . JNA bombarded Šibenik , causing damage to numerous structures , including the Cathedral of St. James , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The New York Times judged the bombardment to be a part of calculated assaults on the heritage of Croatia . Artillery bombardment of the city continued over the following 100 days . The battle is commemorated in Šibenik each year . = = Background = = In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia , largely fueled by recollections of the Serbs of the genocide to which they had been subjected in the Independent State of Croatia during World War II , and their resultant unwillingness to be minorities in an independent Croatia . After two unsuccessful attempts by Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval of a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces in January 1991 , and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March , the JNA itself , supported by Serbia and its allies , asked the federal Presidency to give it wartime authorities and declare a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March , and the JNA came under control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than preservation of Yugoslavia , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to gradually abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expansion of Serbia . By the end of the month , the conflict had escalated to the first fatalities . The JNA stepped in , supporting the insurgents , and preventing Croatian police from intervening . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention of integration of the area under their control , viewed by the Government of Croatia as a breakaway region with Serbia . In the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . In an effort to bolster its defence , Croatia doubled police personnel to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was 3 @,@ 000 special police , deployed in twelve battalions adopting military unit organization . In addition , there were 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organized reserve police . The reserve police were set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but the reserve force lacked weapons . In May , the Croatian government responded by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde ) , but its development was hampered by a United Nations arms embargo introduced in September 1991 . = = Prelude = = By late June and throughout July , northern Dalmatia saw daily armed skirmishes but no actual combat . Nonetheless , the increasing intensity of the conflict in the region and elsewhere in Croatia led to the preparation of bomb shelters in Zadar by city officials . Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina ( SAO Krajina ) authorities called up three Territorial Defence units in the Zadar hinterland on 11 July , one day after another fatal shooting of a Croatian police patrol in the Zadar area , while the JNA 9th ( Knin ) Corps conscripted the local Serb population in Benkovac to strengthen its ranks by the end of the month . In late July , a paramilitary group , led by Miro Barešić and formally subordinated to the Croatian Ministry of Defence , conducted several sabotages in the Benkovac area . On 1 August , Croatia deployed two battalions of the ZNG 4th Guards Brigade to Kruševo near Obrovac . Two days later they engaged in combat against the SAO Krajina Territorial Defence and police forces , marking the first such engagement of the Croatian War of Independence in the region . On 26 August , the JNA 9th ( Knin ) Corps openly sided with the SAO Krajina forces as they jointly attacked Kijevo , expelling all Croats from the village . Another significant setback for Croatia in the region was JNA capture of the Maslenica Bridge on 11 September . That severed the last overland road link between Dalmatia and the rest of Croatia . On 11 – 13 September , an attack in the area of Skradin cut water and power supply to Šibenik . On 14 September , the ZNG and the Croatian police blockaded and cut utilities to all JNA facilities located in Croatian @-@ controlled territory , beginning the Battle of the Barracks . The move blockaded 33 large JNA garrisons in Croatia and numerous smaller facilities , including border posts , weapons and ammunition storage depots . The blockade forced the JNA to amend its planned campaign in Croatia to accommodate the new development . The same day , a coastal artillery battery on the Žirje Island was captured by Croatian forces , after JNA Senior Sergeant Željko Baltić , battery commanding officer , switched his allegiance . The battery consisted of twelve Ansaldo 90 / 53 guns which were once armament of the Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto . = = Order of battle = = The JNA 's planned campaign included an advance in the Šibenik area by the 9th ( Knin ) Corps , which was tasked with isolating Dalmatia from the rest of Croatia . As it was fully mobilised and prepared for deployment , the corps began operations against the ZNG on 16 September . Its main axis of attack was directed at Vodice , with supporting advances towards Zadar , Drniš and Sinj . The push was designed to create favourable circumstances to attack Zadar , Šibenik and Split . With support from a corps @-@ level battalion of M @-@ 84 tanks and the SAO Krajina Territorial Defence , the JNA 221st Mechanised Brigade ( without its battalion of T @-@ 34 tanks ) , was committed to the main axis of the attack . The secondary advance , towards Biograd na Moru on the right flank , was assigned to the 180th Mechanised Brigade , supported by the armoured battalion removed from the 221st Brigade , the 557th Mixed Antitank Artillery Regiment and the SAO Krajina Territorial Defence . Offensive support was provided by the 9th Mixed Artillery Regiment and the 9th Military Police Battalion . The 221st Brigade was commanded by Colonel Borislav Đukić . Elements the 46th Partisan Division , drawn from the 24th ( Kragujevac ) Corps , also provuded support for the corps . The JNA garrison in Šibenik barracks included the 11th Marine Infantry Brigade — one of a handful of units regularly maintained at full combat readiness . In opposition to the JNA , the ZNG 113th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Milivoj Petković , defended the city of Šibenik together with police forces , under overall control of the Šibenik crisis centre headed by Josip Juras . The 4th Battalion of the 113th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Josip Jukica , as well as the 4th Battalion of the 4th Guards Brigade , commanded by Ivan Zelić , defended the Drniš area , 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) northeast of Šibenik , supported by a company of police . The 600 @-@ strong 4th Battalion of the 4th Guards Brigade represented the strongest ZNG unit in the area , while the JNA is estimated by Croatian sources to have deployed approximately 1 @,@ 500 troops against Drniš . On 20 September , all Croatian combat troops in Drniš area were subordinated to Luka Vujić . The western bank of the Krka River and approaches to Vodice were controlled by the 3rd Battalion of the 113th Infantry Brigade . While small arms were sufficient to arm a part of the battalion at a time , the battalion did not have any heavy weapons . = = Timeline = = The offensive commenced at 16 : 00 on 16 September . On the left flank , the JNA advanced towards Drniš , capturing the villages of Maljkovo and Kričke , and interdicting the Drniš – Split , east of the Krka River . On the opposite river bank , the JNA advanced towards Vodice and Šibenik , threatening the city from the west , reaching the western side of the 390 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 280 ft ) Šibenik Bridge on the Adriatic Highway . The advance was so rapid it cut off the 1st Company of the 3rd Battalion of the ZNG 113th Infantry Brigade from the rest of the ZNG force . That day , the ZNG captured a 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) coastal artillery battery near village of Zečevo . By 17 September , the commanding officer of the JNA 9th ( Knin ) Corps , Major General Vladimir Vuković , modified the initial deployment plan , because of strong resistance offered by the ZNG and the Croatian police , relying on populated areas and terrain features to hold back the JNA forces north of Vodice . The changes involved diverting a part of the force to attack Drniš and Sinj directly , while the remainder of the attacking force rested . The Yugoslav Navy started a blockade of Šibenik and the entire Croatian Adriatic coast . On the night of 17 / 18 September , the JNA was ordered to trap and destroy the ZNG force in Drniš and the Miljevci Plateau area , while holding positions achieved elsewhere . In the morning , the JNA resumed its offensive towards Vodice , on the right flank of the attack , while the ZNG abandoned Drniš and pulled back to village of Unešić . On 19 September , the ZNG captured a 88 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) JNA coastal artillery battery on the Smokvica Island and the " Krušćica " barracks near Rogoznica . Weapons retrieved from the captured barracks , a shipment received from Gospić following capture of JNA facilities in the town , as well as use of the captured artillery pieces , significantly improved ZNG 's capabilities . The JNA advance south from Drniš was effectively halted that day , following three successful ambush attacks by the ZNG in Unešić , Pakovo Selo and south of Žitnić . The JNA orders were changed again on 20 September , when the JNA 9th ( Knin ) Corps orders were supplanted by the Military @-@ Maritime District order , issued by Vice Admiral Mile Kandić , for the corps to reorient the JNA force north of Vodice towards Šibenik and Split . This required crossing the Šibenik Bridge spanning the Krka River ria . The eastward advance — with close air support from the Yugoslav Air Force — failed , and cost the air force four aircraft shot down by the ZNG . On 22 September , a Croatian counter @-@ attack , supported by recently acquired artillery , pushed back the JNA from the bridge by 10 : 00 , extending the ZNG @-@ controlled bridgehead to the area of Gaćelezi , 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 miles ) to the northwest . Four guns of the Žirje battery were used as anti @-@ tank guns in support of the counter @-@ attack . On 22 September , the Croatian forces captured the JNA " Kuline " barracks in Šibenik itself along with the 15 Yugoslav Navy vessels based there . In addition , 19 vessels undergoing various stages of overhaul were captured in the " Velimir Škorpik " shipyard . The ships , comprising approximately a quarter of the Yugoslav Naval assets , included : Vlado Ćetković ( RTOP @-@ 402 ) Končar @-@ class fast attack craft ( renamed Šibenik ( RTOP @-@ 21 ) later on ) , Velimir Škorpik ( RČ @-@ 310 ) Osa @-@ class missile boat , Partizan II ( TČ @-@ 222 ) Shershen @-@ class torpedo boat and Biokovo ( PČ @-@ 171 ) , Cer ( PČ @-@ 180 ) and Durmitor ( PČ @-@ 181 ) Mirna @-@ class patrol boats . On 23 September , the JNA fully secured Drniš and its surroundings . At the same time , it shifted its focus to the Battle of Zadar , away from Šibenik . The Yugoslav naval blockade was lifted unilaterally the same day . Even though a number of JNA facilities in the city were captured by the ZNG , several major JNA posts remained in Šibenik . Those included " Rade Končar " barracks housing the 11th Marine Infantry Brigade , " Ante Jonić " barracks , " Minerska " depot where naval mines were stored , " Jamnjak " depot and the " Ražine " artillery battery containing confiscated Croatian Territorial Defence weapons and " Duboka " fuel storage . The " Duboka " depot consisted of three 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 000 @-@ litre ( 310 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 370 @,@ 000 US gal ) storage tanks . = = Aftermath = = The JNA was defeated in the battle , subsequently nicknamed the " September War " ( Rujanski rat ) . Its total losses in the battle were not reported . The ZNG and the Croatian police sustained losses of three killed and 49 wounded troops in the battle . At the same time seven civilians were killed and 64 wounded . JNA artillery continued intermittent bombardment of Šibenik over the following 100 days resulting in further casualties and damage . The damaged structures included the Cathedral of St. James , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . An editorial in The New York Times labeled bombardment of the cathedral as a part of the " calculated assaults " on treasures of Croatia . During the fighting , electrical substations in Bilice and Konjsko were destroyed , disrupting electric power distribution in Dalmatia . Evacuation of the JNA facilities and surrender of the confiscated Territorial Defence weapons stored in the Šibenik – Split area was agreed on 21 November . Throughout the process , tensions remained high , and the JNA made contingency plans to break through from Knin to Šibenik and Split to relieve the siege of its forces there — codenamed Operation Coast @-@ 91 ( Operacija Obala @-@ 91 ) and Operation Hurricane @-@ 91 ( Operacija Orkan @-@ 91 ) respectively . All of the JNA facilities in Šibenik , along with the confiscated Territorial Defence weapons , were handed over to the Croatian authorities by 10 December . News coverage of the battle produced television footage of ZNG air defence artillery at Zečevo firing at a Yugoslav Air Force Soko J @-@ 21 Jastreb and scoring a hit on another J @-@ 21 using a guided missile . The footage , ending in shouts claiming that both of the planes were downed , became one of the most significant pieces of material in terms of propaganda and morale in Croatia . Nonetheless , the footage proved controversial , since the first plane is not shown falling to the ground or into the sea , but diving towards the horizon after giving away a puff of smoke — variously interpreted as smoke caused by the plane 's cannon fire or anti @-@ aircraft fire damage . While the first J @-@ 21 downing remains unconfirmed , the second J @-@ 21 , piloted by Croat Valter Juršić of the 240th Fighter @-@ Bomber Aviation Squadron , was shot down by Neven Livajić using a 9K38 Igla and wreckage of the plane was retrieved . Another controversy which arose in the aftermath of the battle pertains to the Žirje Island coastal artillery battery . Extent of the role played by the battery was disputed between Brigadier General Rahim Ademi , who claimed the bridge was beyond range of the guns , and thirteen ZNG and police officers , who held various posts in Šibenik at the time , who claimed Ademi was wrong in his assessment . After the war , the guns were removed from Žirje . As of 2010 two were refurbished in preparation for return to Žirje , as museum exhibits . The battle is commemorated annually in Šibenik each September . There are two documentary films covering Šibenik and its surroundings during the battle : My city will be happy too ( I moj će grad biti sretan ) by Matea Šarić and September War 1991 , Šibenik – Vodice ( Rujanski rat 1991 . Šibenik – Vodice ) by Šime Strikoman .
= Italian Heavy Draft = The Italian Heavy Draft , or Rapid Heavy Draft , is a breed of draft horse from Italy . The full Italian name of the breed is Cavallo Agricolo Italiano da Tiro Pesante Rapido , " Italian Rapid Heavy Draft Farm Horse " , and the abbreviation TPR ( Italian pronunciation : [ tipiˈerre ] ) ) is often used . Generally chestnut in color , the breed is known for its combination of strength and speed . Its development traces to 1860 and continued through the late 19th and early 20th centuries as breeders utilized a mix of foundation bloodstock that included native Italian stock and imported horses , all mainly of draft type . Its versatility has led to its use in both agricultural and military capacities , as well as for the production of mules . In 1926 , a stud book was formed , and population numbers continued to rise until the beginning of World War II . Breeding programs suffered during the war , and despite care afterward , population numbers continued to dwindle as increasing mechanization decreased the need for draft horses . In the 1970s , selective breeding goals were changed to produce a horse suitable for meat production , which today remains the primary use of the Italian Heavy Draft . = = Breed characteristics = = The Italian Heavy Draft generally stands between 14 @.@ 2 and 15 @.@ 3 hands ( 58 and 63 inches , 147 and 160 cm ) high , and weighs between 1 @,@ 320 and 1 @,@ 540 pounds ( 600 and 700 kg ) . They are generally chestnut ( usually with flaxen mane and tail ) , although they may be red roan , or bay . The head is light for a draft breed , with a straight or slightly convex profile , and it is set on a short , broad and muscular neck . The withers are fairly pronounced and muscular , the chest broad and deep , and the shoulders sloping . The back is straight and short , the flanks short and rounded , with a sloping croup . The legs are short , with broad joints and smallish , though well @-@ formed , hooves . It closely resembles the Breton breed , which was used heavily in the creation of the Italian Heavy Draft . Although larger , it also bears a resemblance to the Haflinger , also developed in northern Italy . Horses that meet the breed conformation standards set by the breed registry are branded with a design of a ladder with five pegs enclosed by a shield . Foals are examined twice , at between two and seven months and again two and a half years . Horses passing the first evaluation are branded on the left hindquarter ; those that pass the second are marked again on the left side of the neck . = = History = = Selection for what eventually became the Italian Heavy Draft was begun in 1860 at the Deposito Cavalli Stalloni ( military stud ) of Ferrara , Italy . The breed was originally developed by crossing native stock with large Brabant horses . While the resulting horses were strong , they were not light or fast enough for the farm work required of them by the Italians . To make the breed lighter and faster , Percheron and Boulonnais blood were added . However , the resulting horse was still not exactly what its creators were looking for , and in the 19th century they added more Breton blood to the mix , bringing the breed to its current conformation and gaits . In 1926 , a stud book was begun , and selection processes were developed to select horses for use in draft capacities . The breeding programs suffered during World War II , but a careful crossbreeding program with Ardennes , Percheron and Breton horses after the war brought the Italian Heavy Draft to its current state . Despite the Italian Heavy Draft 's early popularity as a strong but fast draft horse , increasing mechanization in the farming and military sectors reduced the need for all draft horses , and population numbers declined . In the 1970s , selection processes were changed to focus on the production of animals for horse meat , and that has continued to be the primary focus through the present time . In 1976 , a breed association was formed in Italy to preserve and promote the Italian Heavy Draft . The association is charged with maintaining the stud book , evaluating breeding stock , granting equine passports , maintaining genetic databases , and exhibiting the breed . The main breeding areas for the Italian Heavy Draft are in the plains and hills around Verona , Padova , Vicenza , Venice , Treviso and Udine . In 2005 , it was estimated that there were just under 6 @,@ 500 Italian Heavy Drafts , about half of which were mares . The registered population at the end of 2010 was 6304 , with the largest numbers in Lazio and Umbria ; the number of unregistered Heavy Drafts is not reported . No modern trace remains of the slower Italian Slow Heavy Draft Horse , the Cavallo Italiano da Tiro Pesante Lento , subject of a biometric and morphological study in 1939 . = = Uses = = The Italian Heavy Draft was originally bred to be a versatile horse used in agriculture , urban settings , and military capacities , as well as for the production of large mules for the military . The breed 's docility , size , strength , and speed made it extremely useful for Italian farmers before the introduction of mechanization . It is still used for farming in a few areas where mechanization is impractical . The mares are also still used for the production of mules , although most horses today are bred for meat . Italy is one of the top global consumers of horse meat ; consumption jumped by 31 percent between 2001 and 2006 . Eleven- to eighteen @-@ month @-@ old foals are preferred for slaughter .
= Matthew Charlton = Matthew Charlton ( 15 March 1866 – 8 December 1948 ) was an Australian Labor Party politician . Charlton was born at Linton in rural Victoria but moved to Lambton , New South Wales at the age of five . He worked as a coal miner after only a primary education and then married Martha Rollings in 1889 . Charlton had an interest in politics from his early middle age , and joined union strikes against wage reductions in 1896 . After a two @-@ year stint in Kalgoorlie , Western Australia , Charlton returned to Lambton and rejoined the local colliery workers ' union , becoming its treasurer in 1901 . He won a by @-@ election for the NSW seat of Waratah in 1903 and transferred to Northumberland in 1904 . In 1910 Charlton won the seat of Hunter and rose through the ranks of Andrew Fisher 's government , then staying with the Australian Labor Party during its period in opposition . Charlton rose through the ranks to become party leader in 1922 . He lost his first election campaign , partly because he was hospitalised with illness during its course . In 1924 Charlton was invited to a meeting of the League of Nations ( now United Nations ) but was unsuccessful in getting Australia to adopt the Geneva Protocol , established during the meeting . Due to union strikes in 1925 , Charlton and his party lost the election held that year and he resigned in 1928 . He died on 8 December 1948 . = = Early life = = Little is recorded about Charlton 's early life , as he grew up in a relatively unknown mining district . It is known , however , that Charlton was born on 15 March 1866 in Linton , Victoria , a small town near Ballarat that today has less than 500 residents . He was born to Matthew Charlton , an English miner from Durham , and Mabel ( née Foard ) . In 1871 , the five @-@ year @-@ old Charlton 's father moved with his family to Lambton , a suburb of Newcastle , New South Wales . After primary education at Lambton Public School , Charlton began work at Lambton Colliery as a coal trapper ; a children 's @-@ only job opening trapdoors for coal carts . When too old for the job , Charlton was given a job at the coal @-@ face . At 23 he married Martha Rollings at nearby New Lambton . = = Emerging interest in politics = = In 1896 plans to reduce coal workers ' wages led to strike action . Charlton supported the struggle against wage reductions , but the effort failed and , along with many other miners , he moved to the goldfields near Kalgoorlie , Western Australia . After two years there , Charlton returned to Lambton and became an official in the Colliery Employees ' Federation , becoming treasurer in 1901 . While occupying that position , Charlton also prepared arbitration cases . Battling for an improvement in mine workers ' conditions , he attended a trade union congress in November 1902 , at which he moved for nationalisation of the coal mining industry , believing it would " eliminate cut @-@ throat competition between owners that depressed miners ' wages and conditions " . That idea was opposed as being too radical but a compromise was drawn up urging state governments to open and run their own coal mines , while affirming the ultimate desirability of full nationalisation . = = State political career = = Colleagues urged Charlton to stand for the state electoral district of Waratah , and on 5 December 1903 Charlton became the second member for the district in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly . His representation of that district was short @-@ lived , as the next year he transferred to Northumberland , replacing John Norton . Charlton became the unofficial spokesperson for the miners , speaking principally about mining matters in parliament . In 1909 a coal miners ' strike struck New South Wales and Charlton was called upon by the Colliery Employees ' Federation to represent it in front of a wage board . Charlton was unsuccessful in gaining better conditions for the miners but he did settle the dispute , talking to miners around the state and convincing them to return to work . He resigned from state politics and in 1910 Charlton wrested the federal Division of Hunter from the sitting Frank Liddell.Hunter has remained a safe Labor seat ever since . = = Early federal career = = Charlton was an immediate success with Andrew Fisher and was promoted to the temporary chairmanship of committees in the House in 1913 , however Charlton threatened to resign in 1915 over a dispute in government delays in granting the committee increased powers . Fisher mollified him and in 1916 Charlton proved his loyalty to the new Labor leader Billy Hughes by voting for Hughes ' conscription referendum bill , even though he was vehemently opposed to conscription and fought hard against it . However , Charlton seemed to accept the affirmative result of the referendum and again proved his loyalty to Hughes by defending him when he became the target of caucus criticism . Charlton attempted to deflect attacks made on Hughes to a party conference , but Hughes left the party before a decision could be made . The new Labor leader Frank Tudor was a weak leader in health and political prowess . A successor @-@ designate was chosen by the caucus but it was not Charlton . T. J. Ryan was chosen over him , but he died in 1921 and Charlton filled the deputy leadership position . During election year , 1922 , Tudor died also , and Charlton became Leader of the Opposition going into the 1922 election . = = Leader of the Opposition = = Charlton offered alternative policies and looked to be favourite until he was hospitalised with illness halfway through the campaign . Labor still won the most seats as a single party , but Charlton was unable to defeat a strong government coalition . Labor remained in opposition . Because of great losses during World War I , Charlton opposed military training and commitments of Australian forces . In 1924 Charlton was invited to a League of Nations ( now United Nations ) conference in Geneva , Switzerland . At the conference Charlton strongly opposed war , and the Geneva Protocol took form . Upon his return to Australia , Charlton advocated adoption of the protocol , but the government sided with the British and refused to observe it . Charlton lost the 1925 election , largely due to his stance on industrial relations and continual militant union action which plagued his campaign . Charlton always aided in maintaining amicable relations in the party and many times lent his expertise to conflicts within the NSW branch of the Labor Party . He resigned from his positions on 29 March 1928 . His successor James Scullin went on to become the Prime Minister of Australia , something Charlton never managed to do . = = Final years = = Following his six years of service as Labor leader , Charlton took an interest in local government and became an alderman on the Lambton Council from 1934 to 1938 ( before its merger with the City of Newcastle ) . On 8 December 1948 Charlton died at Lambton , New South Wales , where he grew up and had lived most of his life . The Division of Charlton in the Hunter Region was named in his honour and had been a safe Labor seat since its creation in 1984 until its abolition in 2016 .
= Italian battleship Andrea Doria = Andrea Doria was the lead ship of her class of battleships built by the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The class included only one sister ship , Caio Duilio . Andrea Doria was named after the 16th century Genoese admiral of the same name . Laid down in March 1912 , the battleship was launched a year later in March 1913 , and completed in March 1916 . She was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns and had a top speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Andrea Doria saw no major action in World War I , and served extensively in Mediterranean in the 1920s and 1930s . She was involved in the suppression of rebels in Fiume and the Corfu incident in the 1920s . Starting in 1937 , Andrea Doria underwent an extensive modernization , which lasted until 1940 . She saw relatively little action during World War II ; she was tasked with escorting convoys to Libya throughout 1941 and into 1942 , during which she engaged in the inconclusive First Battle of Sirte . After the Armistice in September 1943 the ship was sailed to Malta and interned by the Allies . She remained there until 1944 , when she was permitted to return to Italian ports . Andrea Doria survived the war and soldiered on in the post @-@ war navy as a training ship until 1956 . Paid off in September , she was formally stricken from the naval register on 1 November and sold for scrapping later that year . = = Design = = Andrea Doria was 176 meters ( 577 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 28 m ( 92 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) . At full combat load , she displaced up to 24 @,@ 729 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 338 long tons ; 27 @,@ 259 short tons ) . She had a crew of 35 officers and 1 @,@ 198 enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eight oil @-@ fired and twelve coal and oil @-@ burning Yarrow boilers . The boilers were trunked into two large funnels . The engines were rated at 30 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) , which provided a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She had a cruising radius of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) 46 @-@ caliber guns in three triple turrets and two twin turrets . The secondary battery comprised sixteen 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns , all mounted in casemates clustered around the forward and aft main battery turrets . Andrea Doria was also armed with thirteen 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ caliber guns and six 76 @-@ mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured by Terni . The belt armor was 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main deck was 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 280 mm ( 11 in ) worth of armor plating . = = = Modifications = = = Andrea Doria was heavily rebuilt in 1937 – 1940 at Trieste . Her forecastle deck was extended further aft , until it reached the mainmast . The stern and bow were rebuilt , increasing the length of the ship to 186 @.@ 9 m ( 613 ft ) , and the displacement grew to 28 @,@ 882 t ( 28 @,@ 426 long tons ; 31 @,@ 837 short tons ) . Her old machinery was replaced with more efficient equipment and her twenty boilers were replaced with eight oil @-@ fired models ; the new power plant was rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) and speed increased to 26 kn ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) . The ship 's amidships turret was removed and the remaining guns were bored out to 320 mm ( 13 in ) . Her secondary battery was completely overhauled ; the 152 mm guns were replaced with twelve 135 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) guns in triple turrets amidships . The anti @-@ aircraft battery was significantly improved , to include ten 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns , fifteen 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . Later , during World War II , four more 37 mm guns were installed and two of the 20 mm guns were removed . After emerging from the modernization , Andrea Doria 's crew numbered 35 officers and 1 @,@ 450 enlisted men . = = Service history = = Andrea Doria , named for the 16th century Genoese admiral of the same name , was laid down at the La Spezia shipyard in Naples on 24 March 1912 . She was launched on 30 March 1913 and completed by 13 March 1916 . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , which had been Italy 's primary rival for decades , was the primary opponent in the conflict . The Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet lay in its harbors directly across the narrow Adriatic Sea and did not emerge for the duration of the conflict . In addition , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement . Starting in November 1918 , Andrea Doria was based in Taranto . On 10 November , she was sent to Corfu , where she remained until 19 February 1919 . She then returned to Taranto , before proceeding to Constantinople in July , departing on the 4th and arriving on the 9th of the month . She joined an Allied fleet in the city and remained there until 9 November , when she returned again to Taranto . In 1920 , most of the Italian fleet was temporarily demobilized to provide crews to bring ex @-@ German warships that had been awarded to Italy under the Treaty of Versailles ; Andrea Doria was the only battleship to remain operational during the period . In November , the Treaty of Rapallo was signed with the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes . Andrea Doria was sent to remove the rebellious forces of Gabriele d 'Annunzio from Fiume that month . On 24 December , she joined the attack on Fiume , and two days later fired three salvos from her 76 mm guns at the destroyer Espero , which had rebelled and joined d 'Annunzio . Andrea Doria 's gunfire badly damaged Espero . Andrea Doria also shelled d 'Annunzio 's headquarters and wounded him ; he surrendered on 31 December . During the 1923 Corfu incident with Greece , the Italian Navy , including Andrea Doria , was deployed to the island to secure a Greek apology following the murder of Enrico Tellini and four others . Following the peaceful resolution of the incident , Andrea Doria visited Spain . On 16 January 1925 , Andrea Doria visited Lisbon to participate in the 400th anniversary of the death of Vasco de Gama . She thereafter went to La Spezia for a refit , which began on 7 February and was completed by June . Following civil unrest in Syria , Andrea Doria steamed to the eastern Mediterranean with a squadron of destroyers in the event that Italian nationals would need to be evacuated . The ships remained docked in Leros until 12 December , by which time the disturbances in Syria had been calmed down . She spent the next six years on normal peacetime duties , until she was withdrawn from service in August 1932 . She was placed in reserve in Taranto , with a skeleton crew for maintenance . In March 1937 , she started the major reconstruction in Trieste , where she arrived on the 30th . The refit began on 8 April at the Cantieri Riuniti dell 'Adriatico shipyard . = = = World War II = = = Andrea Doria was still out of service in 1939 when the Second World War broke out in Europe . Work was finished by October 1940 , and on the 26th of the month , she rejoined the Italian fleet in the 5th Division in Taranto . She was undamaged by the British attack on Taranto on the night of 11 – 12 November , and was sent to Naples on the 12th . In early December , the Italian Navy reorganized the fleet ; Andrea Doria remained in the 5th Division , along with the battleship Giulio Cesare . She undertook her first operation in early January with the new battleship Vittorio Veneto in response to Operation Excess , a complex series of British convoys to Malta . The Italian battleships were unable to locate any British forces , and so returned to port by 11 January . On 8 February , Andrea Doria sortied again , along with Vittorio Veneto and Giulio Cesare , in response to reports of a British fleet in the area . They were steaming off Sardinia when they received word that the British had bombarded Genoa ; they immediately turned north to intercept them , but heavy fog allowed the British to escape . In December 1941 , Andrea Doria formed part of the escort during Operation M41 , a major convoy from Italy to Benghazi in Libya on the 13th . M42 followed on 17 – 19 December , where Andrea Doria saw action against British cruisers and destroyers in the First Battle of Sirte . Late on the 17th , the Italian fleet , commanded by Admiral Angelo Iachino , engaged the British light forces . Both sides acted hesitantly , however , and no decisive engagement resulted . Operation M43 followed on 3 January 1942 ; Andrea Doria again provided escort for the three convoys to Libya . While on the operation , Andrea Doria suffered mechanical problems and had to return to port early . She remained inactive for the remainder of the year , and indeed until the Armistice in September 1943 that removed Italy from the war , owing to severe fuel shortages in the Italian Navy . On 9 September 1943 , Andrea Doria left Italy , bound for internment in Malta , where she remained until 8 June 1944 . She was then released to return to Sicily , and eventually returned to Taranto on 14 March 1945 . After the war ended in May 1945 , Andrea Doria went to Syracuse , where she remained until 13 December 1949 . She was then made flagship of the Italian fleet , a role she performed until 9 December 1950 . She held the position again from 9 March 1951 to May 1953 , after which time she was used as a gunnery training ship . She was paid off on 16 September 1956 , after serving in the Italian Navy for over 40 years . She was formally stricken from the naval register on 1 November and subsequently broken up for scrap in La Spezia .
= Behemoth ( roller coaster ) = Behemoth is a steel roller coaster at Canada 's Wonderland in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada . It is a Hypercoaster designed and developed by Swiss manufacturer , Bolliger & Mabillard . Behemoth was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada until 2012 when Leviathan , a roller coaster also manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard , was built at the opposite side of Canada 's Wonderland , claiming these titles . Behemoth is similar to Diamondback ( Kings Island ) , Goliath ( La Ronde ) and Nitro ( Six Flags Great Adventure ) . After a year and a half of preparation and development , Behemoth premiered in May 2008 . With its high speeds , tall heights and rapid changes in both direction and elevation , the attraction is one of the most aggressive thrill rides in the park . Behemoth also has a high hourly passenger throughput – making it one of the most efficient rides in the park . The ride features a prototype seating arrangement to ensure an unobstructed view for every rider – a first for a roller coaster of this type . The Behemoth experience lasts for approximately three minutes and subjects the rider to a maximum speed of 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) achieved in less than 3 @.@ 9 seconds followed by five air @-@ time hills , a hammerhead turn and two helixes . = = History = = Behemoth was announced on 27 August 2007 . The estimated C $ 26 million ride represented the single biggest investment in the 27 @-@ year history of Canada 's Wonderland . When completed , Behemoth became the 15th roller coaster at the park . After 17 @.@ 5 months of planning and construction , steel construction of the track and supports was completed on 22 January 2008 . The ride was officially opened on 24 April 2008 for Media Day . On Season Pass Preview Night , the ride was open to season pass holders on 25 April 2008 . Behemoth opened to the public on 4 May 2008 . For the 2014 season , seat belts were added to the trains . = = Characteristics = = Behemoth is rated a five out of five ( double black diamond ) according to Wonderland 's Attraction Rating System . This rating specifies that the ride will have " high speeds and / or heights , aggressive and unexpected forces and rapid directional or elevation change . " Passengers of any age must be 137 centimetres ( 54 in ) tall to ride . Behemoth has a high throughput and will accommodate approximately 1 @,@ 545 passengers an hour , making it one of the most efficient roller coasters in the park . = = = Train = = = " Behemoth 's three open @-@ air steel and fiberglass trains feature a prototype v @-@ shaped staggered seating arrangement to ensure an unobstructed view for every rider . " This prototype design is a first for Bolliger & Mabillard roller coasters which was later reproduced for Diamondback at Kings Island , Intimidator at Carowinds and Shambhala : Expedición al Himalaya at PortAventura . The trains are named Red Train , Orange Train , and Yellow Train , after their coloured fronts . Each of the trains comprise eight cars , seating four guests each for a total capacity of 32 . Each passenger is seated in a bucket seat restrained by a lapbar harness ; and a seatbelt . Some persons over a certain weight / waist size cannot be accommodated by this arrangement . = = = Track = = = The steel track is 1 @,@ 620 @.@ 9 metres ( 5 @,@ 318 ft ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 70 metres ( 230 ft ) . The angle of the first descent is approximately 75 degrees . The track includes trim brakes and magnetic brakes for smoothness . = = = Station = = = A two @-@ story sheltered station house contains the ride loading and unloading area . The ground floor of the station contains the maintenance area for the trains , equipped with Radiant Heaters . At the boarding area , the station features three colour @-@ coded cabinets for loose belongings – one designated for each of the three trains . The operator 's booth is also located on this platform . = = = Gift shop = = = Unlike most of the park 's other attractions , Behemoth has its own gift shop at the exit . The shop sells ride memorabilia and displays the photos taken during the ride . = = Experience = = The ride features a prototype seating arrangement to ensure an unobstructed view for every rider – a first for a roller coaster of this type . The Behemoth experience lasts for approximately three minutes and subjects the rider to a maximum speed of 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) achieved in less than 3 @.@ 9 seconds followed by five air @-@ time hills , a hammerhead turn and two helixes . = = = First drop = = = After departing the station , the train turns right and begins to slowly climb the lift hill through the use of a chain lift . After approximately thirty seconds , the maximum height of 70 metres ( 230 ft ) is reached . From the top , a passenger can clearly see the iconic CN Tower to the left and overlook the entire park to the right . The train drops from the peak at a 75 @-@ degree angle to reach the maximum speed of 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) in 3 @.@ 9 seconds . = = = Air @-@ time hills = = = At the base of the first drop , the train banks a few degrees to the right and climbs the first air @-@ time hill and descends . Following this , the train climbs up to a hairpin 180 @-@ degree hammerhead turn to the left . The train descends from the height of the turn to travel up and over three more air @-@ time hills . After the hills , the train climbs up a steep slope into the mid @-@ course brake run . = = = Helix pair = = = After the momentary reduction in speed , the train turns to the right and descends into a downward 540 @-@ degree helix . Immediately following the first helix , the train climbs into an upward 270 @-@ degree helix to the left . Following the climb is a small descent and a final hill . The train climbs up from the final hill into the terminal brake run . = = = Disembarkment = = = The train waits at the terminal brake run until it is cleared for return by the station . The train proceeds forward and turns 180 @-@ degrees to the left to return to the station . = = Reception = = Behemoth is one of the most popular attractions at Canada 's Wonderland and it has enjoyed a great deal of success since its establishment . The ride appeals to a wide demographic with park staff noting that both young children and senior citizens line up for the attraction . With the addition of Behemoth , we wanted to compliment our already impressive line @-@ up of more than 200 rides , shows and attractions with a world class roller coaster that will showcase Wonderland as one of the premier amusement parks in our industry . = = = Awards = = = The Golden Ticket Awards is an annual set of awards given out by Amusement Today , a newspaper published for the amusement industry . The rankings are selected by an international poll conducted by the newspaper . When Behemoth debuted in 2008 , it ranked third as the Best New Ride of the year .
= Marian Breland Bailey = Marian Breland Bailey , born Marian Ruth Kruse ( December 2 , 1920 – September 25 , 2001 ) and nicknamed " Mouse " , was an American psychologist , an applied behavior analyst who played a major role in developing empirically validated and humane animal training methods and in promoting their widespread implementation . She and her first husband , Keller Breland ( 1915 – 1965 ) , studied at the University of Minnesota under behaviorist B. F. Skinner and became " the first applied animal psychologists . " = = Childhood and education = = Born to Christian and Harriet ( Prime ) Kruse , Marian Ruth Kruse grew up in Minneapolis , Minnesota . German @-@ born Christian worked for an automotive supply store , and Harriet was a registered nurse . Marian 's father and then others called her " Maus " ( " mouse " ) , a common German nickname for little girls . After graduating from Washburn High School as her senior class 's valedictorian , Marian Kruse went to the University of Minnesota to major in Latin and minor in Greek . Although financial times were difficult as her family had lost everything during the banking collapse of the Great Depression , a full scholarship and a Works Progress Administration award for writers supported her undergraduate education . Before long , she also became a research assistant for B. F. ( Fred ) Skinner . To meet a science requirement , Marian took psychology because , as she later explained , " I thought it the least painful science . " As a straight A student , she was recommended for a highly selective psychology class taught by Skinner ( the first of what Skinner later called " pro @-@ seminars " ) , under whom she studied along with George Collier , W. K. Estes , Norman Guttman , Kenneth MacCorquodale , Paul Everett Meehl , and others bound for later fame in their field . With its emphasis on Skinner 's new operant training techniques , the course inspired Marian to major in psychology with a minor in child psychology and to study operant conditioning . Marian worked as Skinner 's teaching and laboratory assistant when he published his pivotal work The Behavior of Organisms in 1938 . She trained rats for Skinner , typed lecture notes for him , proofread his classic text The Behavior of Organisms , and even babysat his children . Skinner gave her the final galley proof of The Behavior of Organisms , which she considered a prized possession . While still an undergraduate student , Marian met her future husband Keller Breland , who came to call her " Mouse " without knowing that family called her " Maus " . Marian and others soon decided that her name was Mouse . In 1940 , Marian joined Psi Chi , the national honor society in psychology . She graduated with her bachelor of arts degree summa cum laude in 1941 , the only member of her graduating class with an A average . = = Work with Keller Breland = = After Marian earned her bachelor 's degree , she married psychologist Keller Breland on August 1 , 1941 . Together , they had three children : Bradley ( 1946 ) , Frances ( 1948 ) , and Elizabeth ( 1952 ) . Marian became the second graduate student to work under the renowned Skinner . Her husband soon came to work with Skinner as well . While graduate students , they collaborated with Skinner on military research during World War II . Their work involved training pigeons for use by the U.S. Navy , teaching the birds to guide bombs . This was never actually used . Although many sources incorrectly refer to the work as Project Pigeon or the Pigeon Project , Marian assured colleagues that its name had actually been " Pigeon in a Pelican " , with pelican referring to the missile each pigeon was to guide . The Brelands saw the commercial possibilities of operant training . So they left the University of Minnesota without completing their doctorates , and founded Animal Behavior Enterprises ( ABE ) on a farm in Minnesota . Skinner tried to dissuade the Brelands from abandoning their graduate education for an untested commercial endeavor . Classmate Paul Meehl bet $ 10 they would fail . ( His 1961 check for $ 10 later hung framed on Marian 's office wall . ) ABE 's first project was training farm animals to appear in feed advertisements for General Mills . The Brelands went on to train " more animals and different species of animals than any other animal trainers " of their time , including animals of the land ( cats , cattle , chickens , dogs , goats , pigs , rabbits , raccoons , rats , and sheep ) , the air ( ducks , parrots , and ravens ) , and the sea ( dolphins and whales ) . At their busiest , they trained " more than 1 @,@ 000 animals at a given time " . In training animals for recreational facilities such as Marineland of Florida , Parrot Jungle , SeaWorld , and Six Flags , they created the very first dolphin and bird shows , a form of program now considered traditional entertainment fare . Most major theme parks ' animal programs can be traced back to the Brelands ' pioneering work . The Brelands also established the first coin @-@ operated animal shows . The Buck Bunny commercial featured their trained rabbits for a Coast Federal Savings television ad that ran for twenty years and which still holds the record for longest running TV commercial advertisement . They trained animals for many other venues including circuses , motion pictures , museums , stores , and zoos . Earlier animal trainers had historically relied primarily on punishment when teaching animals . The Brelands instead followed Skinner 's emphasis on the use of positive reinforcement to train animals , using rewards for desired behavior . Although other students of Skinner 's later entered commercial animal training as well , the Brelands ' techniques dominated the field because they found ways to simplify the training of complex behaviors . The Brelands did not just train the animals . They also trained other animal trainers , establishing in 1947 " the first school and instruction manual for teaching animal trainers the applied technology of behavior analysis . " Marlin Perkins of Wild Kingdom and Walt Disney were among those who learned from them . Marian led ABE 's government research , some of which remains classified to this day . Known projects included the development of an avian ambush detection system . In 1950 , the Brelands relocated ABE to a farm near Hot Springs , Arkansas . In 1955 , they opened the " I.Q. Zoo " in Hot Springs as both a training facility and a showcase of trained animals . " Popular acts included chickens that walked tightropes , dispensed souvenirs and fortune cards , danced to music from jukeboxes , played baseball and ran the bases ; rabbits that kissed their ( plastic ) girlfriends , rode fire trucks and sounded sirens , and rolled wheels of fortune ; ducks that played pianos and drums ; and raccoons that played basketball . " The Brelands were also " the first to introduce the public to the applied technology of behavior analysis via numerous personal appearances at fairs , exhibitions , and theme parks across the country " . They appeared on well known television shows such as The Today Show , The Tonight Show , Wild Kingdom , and You Asked For It . Publications including Colliers , Life , Popular Mechanics , Reader 's Digest , Saturday Evening Post , Time , and even The Wall Street Journal featured them and their work . Although Keller was often the public face of ABE with some ads referring to " Keller Breland 's I.Q. Zoo , " the Brelands collaborated equally in ABE 's endeavors . The Brelands stirred controversy among behaviorists with their 1961 article , " The misbehavior of organisms " — the title of which involved a play on words referring to Skinner 's classic 1938 work The Behavior of Organisms . Marian and Keller outlined training difficulties in which instinct or instinctive drift might occur as tendencies biologically inherent in a species intrude into the behaviors a trainer was attempting to teach an animal . The article is recognized as a milestone in the history of psychology . In 1963 , Marian designed and implemented a program to improve techniques for working with profoundly mentally retarded individuals at a human development center in Alexandria , Louisiana . She emphasized the value of positive reinforcement , and taught ward attendants humane practices that became the standard for institutions of this kind . The 1965 training manual Teaching the Mentally Retarded , which she and others prepared , remained in use for decades . On June 16 , 1965 , Keller died of a heart attack . In their 1966 textbook , Marian described him as the “ dreamer ” and herself as the “ engineer ” . She continued writing , researching , and training animals . = = Work with Bob Bailey = = In 1976 , Marian married Robert E. ( Bob ) Bailey . He had been the first Director of Training in the Navy 's Marine Mammal Program , then became ABE 's General Manager . He and Marian had founded the facility " Animal Wonderland " in 1972 . Among their many activities , the Baileys worked with the Canine Companions for Independence nonprofit organization which trained dogs to assist disabled individuals . Together , the Baileys trained animals from over 140 species . Marian 's graduate studies had stopped when she and Keller left to found ABE . Marian now returned to grad school , and earned her Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Arkansas in 1978 . She then served as a professor of psychology at Henderson State University from 1981 until her retirement in 1998 . During these years , the Baileys produced educational films on topics such as the history of behaviorism . Their film work included The History of Behavioral Analysis Biographies , the ABE documentary Patient Like the Chipmunks , and An Apple for the Student : How Behavioral Psychology Can Change the American Classroom . Marian continued writing about the " misbehavior " of animals during operant conditioning for publications like American Psychologist , ' , the official journal of the American Psychological Association ( APA ) . The Baileys were chief among the behaviorists who began using the Internet for instruction , problem solving , and promotion of their science . In 1996 , the Baileys began the Bailey & Bailey Operant Conditioning Workshops , which provided training to animal trainers , psychologists , students , and many others from throughout the world . The program of study involved four increasingly advanced levels of the " physically , mentally , and emotionally demanding " workshops . In 1998 , the University of Arkansas inducted Marian into the university 's Fulbright College Alumni Academy as one of their first Distinguished Alumni Award recipients . On September 25 , 2001 , Marian died at St. Joseph 's Hospital in Hot Springs . = = Remembering Mouse = = After Marian 's death , numerous professionals in the field recognized her death with obituaries and biographies . Dr. Art Gillaspy and Dr. Elson Bihm of the University of Central Arkansas wrote an obituary for the American Psychologist . Psi Chi 's journalEye on Psi Chi honored Marian , who had been a member for over sixty years , with a biography by Dr. Todd Wiebers of Henderson State . The year after her death , the Arkansas Historical Quarterly featured a retrospective on Marian , who had been a figure in the state of Arkansas for decades . Her husband Bob provided a biographical tribute for the Division 25 Recorder , the official publication of the APA 's Division 25 for Behavior Analysis . Other obituaries and biographies have appeared online . In her name , Henderson State University presents the Marian Breland Bailey Endowed Scholarship in Psychology to select psychology undergraduates . Memorial contributions in Marian 's memory go to this scholarship and to the Arkansas Kidney Foundation . Marian 's husband Bob continued to teach seminars they developed and the Bailey & Bailey Operant Conditioning Workshops which they began together . The Archives of the History of Psychology in Akron , Ohio , and the Smithsonian Math and Science Museum in Washington , D.C. , now house collections of Marian 's documents and items .
= Yemi Odubade = Yemi Odubade ( born 4 July 1984 ) is a Nigerian footballer who plays for Eastleigh as a striker . Odubade began his football career in England , playing in the Sussex County League for Eastbourne Town in 2002 , where he scored over 70 times in just two seasons at the East Sussex club in all competitions . This attracted the interest of Yeovil Town , and he later signed for the club in July 2004 . At Yeovil , Odubade found first @-@ team opportunities sparse , playing a total of six times during the club 's 2004 – 05 campaign , scoring once . He left the club in February 2005 and joined Eastbourne Borough shortly after . The following season , Odubade impressed Oxford United manager Brian Talbot in two FA Cup ties , and he joined the League Two side two months later for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 . He spent three and a half years at Oxford , playing a total of 145 games for the club . Shortly after the 2008 – 09 season he was released , and joined Stevenage on a free transfer in May 2009 . His first season at the club was a successful one , finishing the season as the club 's top goalscorer , as well as helping the Hertfordshire outfit earn promotion to the Football League for the first time in the club 's history . In January 2011 , Odubade joined Newport County on loan until the end of the 2010 – 11 campaign . On returning to his parent club , Odubade signed for Conference Premier side Gateshead on a free transfer in June 2011 . After spending two years at Gateshead , during which he spent a brief time on loan at Forest Green Rovers , Odubade then joined Eastleigh in May 2013 . = = Career = = Despite being born in Lagos , Nigeria , Odubade grew up in East Sussex . He attended The Bishop Bell School in Eastbourne . He began his football career in England , playing in the Sussex County League for Eastbourne Town in 2002 . He scored over 70 times in just two seasons at the East Sussex club in all competitions , before attracting the attention of then – Yeovil Town manager Gary Johnson before the start of the 2004 – 05 season , he subsequently joined the club on a one @-@ year contract in July 2004 after a successful trial . He made his debut as a substitute for the Somerset side in a 4 – 3 defeat against Torquay United in the Football League Trophy in September 2004 . He made his second Yeovil appearance in a 3 – 1 victory away at Histon in an FA Cup tie , scoring his only goal for the club deep into injury @-@ time . He made a further four appearances for the side , before leaving the club in February 2005 due to personal reasons , and subsequently joined Conference South side Eastbourne Borough two days later . Odubade made his Eastbourne Borough debut in the club 's 2 – 0 victory against Basingstoke Town just three days after signing for the club , playing 45 minutes of the match . In the following game , he scored twice as Eastbourne came from back from a two @-@ goal deficit to draw 2 – 2 at Cambridge City , scoring both goals within the space of five minutes . Odubade made it five goals in his first three games for Eastbourne , as he scored a hat @-@ trick in the club 's 4 – 0 home victory against Thurrock . He also scored Eastbourne 's third goal in a 3 – 1 win in the following game against Newport County , latching onto a long ball and beating the goalkeeper first time . Throughout March 2005 , Odubade scored in four consecutive games , netting against Cambridge City , Havant & Waterlooville , Sutton United , and Hayes to take his tally to ten goals for the club . He also provided the assists for two of Eastbourne 's goals in a 3 – 0 win against Redbridge , and scored two goals in late April 2005 against Bishop 's Stortford and Weston @-@ Super @-@ Mare respectively . He scored his last goal of the season in Eastbourne 's 3 – 0 away win against Cambridge City in the play @-@ off , and was in the side that lost 2 – 1 to Altrincham in the final . Odubade made a total of 17 appearances for Eastbourne during the second half of the 2004 – 05 campaign , scoring 13 times . Odubade opted to stay at Eastbourne Borough ahead of the 2005 – 06 season , and subsequently started in the club 's first game of the season , scoring the only goal of the game in a 1 – 0 away win against Bishop 's Stortford . Odubade scored his second goal of the season a week later , scoring the opening goal of the match as Eastbourne lost 3 – 2 against Basingstoke Town , as well as scoring in the club 's 2 – 1 home loss to Weston @-@ Super @-@ Mare . After scoring three goals in the club 's first five matches of the season , Odubade failed to score again until November 2005 – scoring Eastbourne 's goal in a 1 – 1 draw against Carshalton Athletic . He also scored and assisted a goal in the club 's 3 – 2 away victory against Farnborough Town at Cherrywood Road . Odubade impressed in the club 's FA Cup run during the same season , helping the club take Oxford United to a replay in November 2005 . After impressing Oxford manager Brian Talbot in the two ties , Odubade joined Oxford two months later for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 on an 18 @-@ month contract . On joining Oxford , Odubade said " It brings a tear to my eye just the thought of leaving Eastbourne . But I wanted to get back into the Football League and I just feel I am very lucky to have this second chance " . In total , Odubade played 40 times for Eastbourne Borough in all competitions , scoring 20 goals . = = = Oxford United = = = Odubade was assigned the number 7 shirt ahead of his first game for Oxford . He subsequently made his debut a day after signing for the club , starting in a 3 – 0 defeat against Rushden & Diamonds at Nene Park , but was substituted after just 33 minutes with Rushden three goals up . He was an unused substitute in the club 's next two matches , but returned to first @-@ team action in Oxford 's 1 – 1 draw against Cheltenham Town , coming on as a 59th @-@ minute substitute . In the club 's following game , he scored his first goal for Oxford in a 2 – 1 loss away to Wycombe Wanderers , having come on at half @-@ time . He started one further match against Stockport County , but was an unused substitute for the club 's last two matches of the 2005 – 06 season . Odubade played a total of 8 games throughout Oxford 's 2005 – 06 campaign , scoring once , as the club were relegated to the Conference National . Under the new management of Jim Smith , Odubade started the 2006 – 07 campaign by appearing as a 60th @-@ minute substitute in Oxford 's 2 – 0 win against Halifax Town . Three days later , Odubade came on as a half @-@ time substitute against Dagenham & Redbridge , and scored the only goal of the game in the 57th minute . He also scored in Oxford 's 5 – 1 home victory against Northwich Victoria , again appearing as a substitute . He scored the winner in the club 's 2 – 1 win against St Albans City , as well as scoring in Oxford 's 5 – 1 away win at Forest Green Rovers in October 2006 . Odubade 's first 15 appearances of the 2006 – 07 season were made as a substitute , and he started his first game of the season in Oxford 's 1 – 1 draw against Altrincham . A week later , he was in the starting line @-@ up once more , scoring twice in Oxford 's 3 – 0 win against Cambridge United at the Abbey Stadium . He provided assists for goals in draws against Stevenage and Cambridge United respectively , before scoring in a 1 – 1 draw against Aldershot Town in February 2007 . He scored Oxford 's first goal after 11 minutes in the club 's 3 – 1 away win against Tamworth . A brace against Dagenham & Redbridge in a 2 – 2 draw took Odubade 's tally to 10 goals for the season . His 11th of the season followed shortly after , scoring a headed goal in a 2 – 0 away victory at St Albans City . Oxford failed to gain promotion back to the Football League after losing on penalties to Exeter City , although Odubade scored and assisted another during the two ties . Consequently , he was voted Oxford 's Player of the Year at the end of the season . Odubade scored a total of 12 goals in 46 games during the campaign . He started in Oxford 's first game of the 2007 – 08 season , a 1 – 0 home win against Forest Green Rovers , coming on at half @-@ time . Eight days later , he scored his first goal of the campaign in the club 's 2 – 1 away win at the Pirelli Stadium against Burton Albion , latching onto Eddie Odhiambo 's cross to score from six yards . He started his first game in a 0 – 0 draw against Stevenage at Broadhall Way in late August 2007 , and started once more in a game against Altrincham at Moss Lane a month later , scoring in injury @-@ time to seal a 3 – 1 victory , having previously assisted the first goal . Odubade 's third goal of the campaign came in Oxford 's 2 – 1 home win against Salisbury City , scoring from just inside the area . He also scored a consolation goal for Oxford in the club 's 3 – 1 away loss to relegation candidates Droylsden , as well as scoring twice in the following game as Oxford raced into a three @-@ goal lead against Torquay United , although the game ended 3 – 3 . Odubade scored again against Northwich Victoria in the FA Cup in November 2007 , but failed to net again until January 2008 – scoring Oxford 's goal in a 3 – 1 loss away to Salisbury City . After a 0 – 0 draw against Grays Athletic , a game in which Odubade was substituted on 64 minutes , he failed to start a game for three months . Subsequently , in March 2008 , he was transfer @-@ listed by manager Darren Patterson . Shortly after Odubade had been transfer @-@ listed , it was announced that he had played his last game for the club , with Patterson saying " I think the best thing for him and us is that we go our separate ways " . However , just a week later , Odubade was told by Patterson that he " must start producing performances " if he wants to be taken off the transfer list . He was taken off of the list after scoring three goals in four games at the end of the season , as well as starting in the club 's last two games of the season . Patterson said that Odubade was removed from the transfer list because " he 's now putting in a shift " every game . He finished the season as Oxford 's top goalscorer , as Oxford finished the season in ninth place . In total , Odubade played 43 games in all competitions , scoring 11 times as Oxford finished in ninth place . Odubade started the first six games of the 2008 – 09 season , but sustained an injury in a 1 – 1 draw away Ebbsfleet United , and subsequently missed the following match . He returned to first @-@ team action against Kettering Town , coming on as a 64th @-@ minute substitute and scoring eight minutes later from close range . He scored his second goal of the season in Oxford 's 2 – 1 home defeat against Crawley Town , and assisted Phil Trainer 's goal in a 2 – 1 win against Rushden & Diamonds in October 2008 . He scored the only goal of the game as Oxford beat York City 1 – 0 at the Kassam Stadium , scoring an 87th @-@ minute penalty having been fouled in the area . He scored in the FA Cup for the third consecutive year , scoring in a 3 – 1 win against Dorchester Town , scoring Oxford 's third in the 120th minute , after the tie had gone to extra @-@ time . His fifth goal of the season came in Oxford 's 5 – 1 win against Ebbsfleet United , scoring the third goal with a " precise finish " . Two weeks later , he came off the substitutes bench to score a goal and assist another in Oxford 's 2 – 1 win against Forest Green Rovers . He also scored in a 3 – 0 win against Barrow , his final goal for Oxford . He featured mainly off the bench during the latter stages of the season , although did start in the final game of the season as Oxford lost 2 – 1 against Northwich Victoria . He scored a total of seven times in 46 appearances , although in 25 games he featured as a substitute . In April 2009 , new manager Chris Wilder opted not to renew Odubade 's contract at the Kassam Stadium due to " the financial terms in his contract " , as well as him playing a peripheral role during the 2008 – 09 season , and subsequently he was allowed to leave the club on a free transfer . During his three and a half @-@ year tenure at Oxford , Odubade made a total of 145 appearances , scoring 32 goals . = = = Stevenage = = = Odubade signed for Conference Premier side Stevenage on a free transfer in May 2009 . He made his debut for the club as a substitute in Stevenage 's 1 – 1 draw with Tamworth in the opening game of the 2009 – 10 season . He scored his first goal for the club in a 2 – 1 defeat against his former employers , Oxford United , scoring from close range at the back post . He scored his second goal for the club as Stevenage came from two goals down to beat Mansfield Town at Field Mill , scoring the equalising goal . Odubade made his first eight appearances for Stevenage as a substitute , but started the next game ; a 4 – 0 win over Hayes & Yeading , assisting Stevenage 's second goal . In the following match , he started once more , and assisted two of the club 's goals in a 3 – 1 win against Salisbury City . Throughout November 2009 , Odubade became a regular feature in the Stevenage squad , scoring twice in games against Gateshead and Chester City respectively . He also notched the club 's solitary goal in a 2 – 1 defeat against Ebbsfleet United in early December , a game in which he was injured and was subsequently substituted at half @-@ time . Odubade then returned to first @-@ team action on Boxing Day to score a penalty against Cambridge United , as well as setting up the third goal in a 3 – 1 victory . He then played a major part in the reverse fixture at Broadhall Way six days later , scoring one and claiming two assists in a 4 – 1 win . He scored his eighth goal of the season in Stevenage 's 4 – 1 victory against Dover Athletic ; coming on as a substitute and volleying home the fourth in injury @-@ time . A brace against Mansfield Town ensured his goal tally reached double figures in his first season at the club , helping the club come from a goal behind to win 3 – 1 . A month later , he scored a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 home victory against Barrow . He followed this up with another goal four days later against Kidderminster Harriers in the FA Trophy . Odubade scored his 15th and 16th goals of the season against Crawley Town , scoring both goals in the first @-@ half as Stevenage ran out 3 – 0 winners . Odubade played a total of 47 times during his first season at Stevenage , scoring 16 times and finishing as the club 's top goalscorer for the season – a season that witnessed the club reach the Football League for the first time in their history after finishing as league champions . Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Odubade scored in a pre @-@ season friendly against Histon , in a 2 – 0 win . He featured in the club 's first Football League match , against Macclesfield Town in August 2010 , coming on as a 60th @-@ minute substitute in a match that ended 2 – 2 . He subsequently started his first game of the season in Stevenage 's 2 – 1 loss to Portsmouth in the League Cup . Odubade scored his first goal of the season in the club 's 1 – 1 home draw against Crewe Alexandra in September 2010 , tapping in from close range to give Stevenage the lead . He scored his second goal of the season in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 televised FA Cup victory against AFC Wimbledon . In January 2011 , Odubade went on loan to Conference National side Newport County until the end of the 2010 – 11 campaign . He made his Newport debut in the club 's televised 3 – 3 away draw against Mansfield Town , coming on as an 82nd @-@ minute substitute in the match . Odubade made his first start for Newport in a 2 – 2 away draw against Bath City on 22 February 2011 , scoring Newport 's first goal after 14 minutes . It was to be Odubade 's only goal for Newport in the eleven appearances he made for the club , seven of which were as a substitute . He returned to his parent club on 17 May 2011 . = = = Gateshead = = = Having been released by Stevenage at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , Odubade signed for Conference National side Gateshead on 7 June 2011 . He joined Gateshead on a free transfer , signing for the club alongside Eddie Odhiambo ; the two had previously played alongside each other at Oxford United , Stevenage , and Newport County . On joining Gateshead , Odubade said " I have parted company with Stevenage on good terms and this is now a new chapter for me . Gateshead is a good club that is moving in the right direction and I 'm sure we can kick on next season . I don 't look back with any regrets as things happen for a reason . I am always looking forward . Gateshead is a new challenge for me and I can only see good things coming from it " . He made his Gateshead debut on 13 August 2011 in the club 's 3 – 2 away win against Kidderminster Harriers at Aggborough , assisting Kris Gate 's goal in the 80th minute . Odubade scored his first goal for Gateshead three days later at Gateshead International Stadium in Gateshead 's 3 – 0 win against Mansfield Town , which was voted Goal of the Season in the club 's end of season awards . His first season at Gateshead was disrupted by two @-@ foot injuries mid @-@ way through the campaign , with Odubade breaking his metatarsal bone on two occasions , subsequently missing a total of 18 games . Despite the injuries , he made 34 appearances throughout the season , scoring seven times . He signed a one @-@ year contract extension with Gateshead in May 2012 . Despite appearing 24 times for Gateshead during the opening half of the 2012 – 13 season , although eight of which were as a substitute , Odubade was loaned to Conference National side Forest Green Rovers on 17 January 2013 , for the remainder of the campaign . He made his debut on 19 January as a second @-@ half substitute against Stockport County , a game in which Forest Green lost 2 – 1 . He scored his first goal for Forest Green on 12 March 2013 in a 2 – 1 win over Southport . It proved to be his only goal during his time at Forest Green , making 14 appearances , all of which in the league . Odubade returned to Gateshead following the conclusion of the 2012 – 13 season , and was told he was one of seven players released by the club in April 2013 . = = = Eastleigh = = = Following his release from Gateshead , Odubade joined Conference South side Eastleigh on a free transfer on 31 May 2013 . On acquiring Odubade 's services , Eastleigh manager Richard Hill stated — " I was impressed with his own personal ambition and his desire to be successful and Yemi opted to sign for Eastleigh as he wants to be with a Club that hold the same ambitions " . While playing for Eastleigh , Odubade went on loan to Woking during the 2014 / 15 season and made his debut as a substitute against Alfreton . He soon became a regular starter and scored in half the games he played in for the club . = = Style of play = = Odubade is generally deployed as a striker , but has also been used as a winger . He believes that his best asset is his turn of pace , and that he is at his most dangerous when he is " running at opposition defences " . He is predominantly right @-@ footed , and scores the majority of his goals with his right foot , but is also comfortable using his left . During his time at Stevenage , manager Graham Westley has used Odubade as the second striker as part of a 4 – 4 – 2 formation sitting off the shoulder of the centre forward . Westley has also used him as part of a 4 – 3 – 3 formation , usually on the right side of a three @-@ pronged attack . Odubade has been described as possessing " blistering pace " , which was emphasised following two goals away at Crawley Town in March 2010 , whereby his pace left the Crawley defence " in their tracks " . Former Oxford United manager Darren Patterson said that Odubade needs " to work on his movement up front , and he 's got to realise what his assets are and play to them " . = = Honours = = Individual Oxford United Player of the Season : 2006 – 07 = = Career statistics = = As of 26 April 2015 .
= 1997 Pacific hurricane season = The 1997 Pacific hurricane season was a very active hurricane season . With hundreds of deaths and hundreds of millions of dollars in damage , this season was the costliest and one of the deadliest Pacific hurricane seasons . This was due to the exceptionally strong 1997 – 98 El Niño event . The 1997 Pacific hurricane season officially started on May 15 , 1997 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1997 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1997 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when almost all tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . Several storms impacted land . The first was Tropical Storm Andres which killed four people and left another two missing . In August , Tropical Storm Ignacio took an unusual path , and its extratropical remnants caused minor damage in the Pacific Northwest and California . Linda became the most intense east Pacific hurricane in recorded history . Although it never made landfall , it produced large surf in Southern California and as a result five people had to be rescued . Hurricane Nora caused flooding and damage in the Southwestern United States , while Olaf made two landfalls and caused eighteen deaths and several other people were reported missing . Hurricane Pauline killed several hundred people and caused record damage in southeastern Mexico . In addition , Super Typhoons Oliwa and Paka originated in the region before crossing the International Date Line and causing significant damage in the western Pacific . There were also two Category 5 hurricanes : Linda and Guillermo . Activity in the season was above average . The season produced 17 named storms , which was a little above normal . The average number of named storms per year is 15 . The 1997 season also had 9 hurricanes , compared to the average of 8 . There were also 7 major hurricanes compared to the average of 4 . = = Season summary = = The 1997 Pacific hurricane season officially started on May 15 , 1997 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1997 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1997 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . This season exceeded these boundaries appreciably , as Tropical Storm Paka formed December 2 , and dissipated nineteen days later after crossing the International Dateline and then moved into the Western Pacific . The 1997 Pacific hurricane season was fairly active , due to the strong El Niño that was occurring at the time . El Niño causes wind shear to be reduced and water temperatures to increase , resulting in conditions more conductive for tropical cyclones in the East Pacific . There were 24 cyclones in total , including five unnamed tropical depressions . Of these , 19 were in the east Pacific ( east of 140 ° W ) . Of these , eight peaked at tropical storm intensity , while ten reached hurricane status . Seven of these reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale , including central Pacific cyclones Super Typhoons Oliwa and Paka , which became typhoons after crossing into the western Pacific . The first hurricane of the year was Hurricane Dolores , and the first major hurricane was Hurricane Enrique . Most months during the year had several storms , but no records were set for storms in any particular month . Activity in the central Pacific was also above average . Two tropical storms formed , as did several tropical depressions . A number of storms moved in from the east . With a total of nine tropical cyclones entering or forming there , this was the fourth highest number since satellite observations began . The first storm formed on June 1 . The last storm dissipated December 21 , which gives this season the latest known end . However , if December 6 , the date the last storm crossed the dateline is taken to be the end , this season has the second latest end , behind the 1983 season and tied with the 1957 season . = = Season summary and statistics = = The season began with the formation of Tropical Depression One @-@ E on June 1 and ended with the dissipation of Tropical Depression Paka on December 22 . The season can alternatively be considered to end on December 6 , the day Tropical Storm Paka crossed the international dateline . No named storms formed in May , three in June , four in July , four in August , five in September , one in October , and one in November . Very unusually , a tropical storm formed in December , after the season ended . The other two times this feat occurred since the satellite era began in 1971 were in 1983 and 2010 . = = Storms = = = = = Tropical Storm Andres = = = Andres originated from a disturbance that slowly organized and formed into Tropical Depression One @-@ E on June 1 . The next day , it reached tropical storm status as a second circulation formed north @-@ northwest of the initial circulation . However , the former circulation became dominant , and Andres intensified slightly . After a brief period of a normal track to the northwest , Andres was picked up by westerly winds and became the first named storm to threaten Central America . Initially forecast to cross the isthmus and enter the Caribbean Sea , Andres instead turned to the southeast and paralleled the coast . This was the first time since record @-@ keeping began that any East Pacific storm had taken such a path . Andres then turned back to the northeast . It weakened to a depression and made landfall near San Salvador on June 7 and dissipated shortly thereafter . Among the casualties were two fishers who were reported missing . Andres caused power outages , flooding rivers , several car crashes , and damage to roughly ten homes . The highest rainfall report from Mexico was 11 @.@ 42 inches ( 290 mm ) at Mazatan . Damage was noted in parts of Nicaragua . Andres also killed four people in Usulután , El Salvador due to heavy flooding . = = = Tropical Storm Blanca = = = Tropical Depression Two @-@ E formed from a broad area of low pressure on June 9 . Six hours later the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Blanca . This system developed a good outflow , and reached its peak intensity with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . However , its circulation was not well @-@ defined and a weakening trend began , and Blanca was downgraded to a depression on June 12 . It lost its closed circulation shortly thereafter and was thus declared dissipated . Blanca briefly threatened land on June 10 as warnings and watches were established by the Mexican Servicio Meteorológico Nacional . Shortly thereafter , a ridge of high pressure turned Blanca away from the coast . As Blanca moved just south of the Mexican coast , it dropped a total of 5 @.@ 77 inches ( 147 mm ) of rainfall at Fincha Chayabe / Maragaritas . There were no major damage or casualties as Blanca 's impact was generally minimal . = = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ E = = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ E formed June 21 . Moving rapidly westward , it never strengthened and the winds of the depression soon decreased . It dissipated early on June 24 . The depression never impacted land . = = = Tropical Storm Carlos = = = On June 22 , showers increased associated with a tropical wave several hundred miles away from land . Three days later , deep convection became more concentrated , and the system became a tropical depression . It intensified into Tropical Storm Carlos as banding features increased and the outflow became better defined . As it moved west , convection diminished as Carlos moved into cooler water . Shortly thereafter , increased wind shear took its toll on Carlos as the low @-@ level center became exposed from the deep convection . Carlos weakened into a depression early on June 27 , and dissipated June 28 . However , a swirl of clouds remained for a couple of days . Except for Socorro Island , which the system passed close to , Carlos never threatened land . No indications of casualties or damage were reported . = = = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E = = = On the afternoon of June 29 , Tropical Depression Five @-@ E formed . It erratically moved westward . On July 1 , the depression weakened slightly , but quickly reintensified . It dissipated on July 4 , without even threatening land . = = = Hurricane Dolores = = = In early July , shower activity increased in association with an area of disturbed weather . With surface pressures lower than normal for a tropical disturbance , deep convection increased further and Tropical Depression Six @-@ E formed late on July 5 and reaching tropical storm status the following day and was named Dolores . Despite moderate wind shear , very cold cloud tops formed as the winds increased to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , a moderate tropical storm . Moving westward , Dolores strengthened into the first hurricane of the season on July 7 as a ragged eye formed . Dolores continued to intensify and it reached a peak windspeed of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , a strong Category 1 hurricane , two days later . Meanwhile , Dolores became the first hurricane in over two years to cross longitude 125 ° W. Shortly thereafter , the hurricane started losing strength as it moved over cooler waters . The eye dissipated from satellite imagery while the associated thunderstorm activity became sheared . Dolores weakened back into a tropical storm on July 10 and a tropical depression the next day . The cyclone then crossed into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility ( west of longitude 140 ° W ) while producing minimal shower activity . It dissipated on July 12 . The hurricane was not a threat to any land . = = = Hurricane Enrique = = = The first major hurricane of the season originated from a broad area of low pressure on July 8 near the Gulf of Tehuantepec . The thunderstorms gradually became more concentrated and a tropical depression formed on July 12 . It strengthened into a tropical storm twelve hours later , and then began to rapidly intensify as convection increased further near the center . It became a hurricane on July 13 . Enrique continued to steadily intensify and became a Category 2 hurricane on July 14 . The next day , Enrique reached its peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and peak pressure 960 mbar ( hPa ) on July 14 . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane outflow became asymmetrical and it began to weaken over cool waters . It weakened fairly quickly and was downgraded into a Category 2 hurricane on July 15 . It then lost hurricane intensity later that day . On July 16 the winds had decreased further to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Enrique weakened into a depression the next day , and degenerated into a swirl of clouds shortly thereafter . The system never threatened land . = = = Hurricane Felicia = = = A large area of disturbed weather formed on July 13 . It then organized into a depression south of Manzanillo , Colima , on July 14 . Intensification was delayed by wind shear due to its proximity to Enrique for about two days . However , it became a tropical storm late July 15 as it moved west @-@ northwestward . Continuing to intensify , an eye formed . Based on this , Felicia was upgraded into a hurricane on July 17 . Its development was again halted by increased wind shear , and as such it leveled off in intensity . After the shear decreased , Felicia began to intensify and the hurricane 's winds reached 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) and its pressure fell to 948 mbar ( hPa ) , making it a moderate low @-@ end Category 4 hurricane . Shear increased for the third time , and then moved into cooler waters . It began to weaken as it moved west @-@ northwest . On July 20 , it lost major hurricane intensity . Shortly before being downgraded to a tropical storm , it crossed 140 ° W. A strong wind shear took toll on Felicia and it was downgraded into a tropical depression July 22 . No damage or deaths were reported in wake of the hurricane . = = = Tropical Depression One @-@ C = = = Tropical Depression One @-@ C formed on July 26 from a disturbance that had been showing signs of organization for the past three days . It moved west to southwest through an unfavorable environment . On the morning of July 27 , it dissipated due to strong wind shear caused by an upper @-@ level trough . The system never impacted land , thus no damage was reported . = = = Hurricane Guillermo = = = A tropical wave emerged into the Pacific Ocean on July 27 . It organized into a depression July 30 and was named Tropical Storm Guillermo the next day . It quickly intensified , reaching hurricane status on August 1 . Guillermo became a major hurricane August 2 . It reached Category 4 intensity on August 3 . Continuing to rapidly intensify , Guillermo attained Category 5 strength August 4 . The tropical cyclone peak intensity was 919 mbar ( hPa ) and 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . Guillermo then weakened slowly , becoming a tropical storm August 8 . It crossed 140 ° W and entered the Central Pacific . It weakened to a depression late August 10 , but restrengthened back into a storm 24 hours later when it encountered a small area of warmer water . It weakened to a depression for the second and final time August 15 and became an extratropical cyclone early the next day . The storm 's remnants recurved over the far northern Pacific . They were tracked to a point 500 nautical miles ( 930 km ) west of Vancouver Island . The remnants persisted for a few more days and drifted south before being absorbed by a mid @-@ latitude cyclone August 24 off the coast of California . = = = Tropical Storm Hilda = = = A tropical wave that had showed signs of development emerged into the East Pacific and organized into Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E on August 10 . Despite some wind shear , the depression managed to become a tropical storm late on August 11 . Hilda reached its peak intensity as a moderate 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm the next day . After maintaining its peak intensity for 24 hours , it gradually weakened due to increasing wind shear On August 14 , shear weakened Hilda to a depression and the cyclone dissipated early the next morning . Hilda was no threat to land and caused no known damage or deaths . = = = Tropical Storm Ignacio = = = Tropical Storm Ignacio formed first as a depression in an area of disturbed weather on August 17 . Twelve hours later , it organized into a tropical storm . Its location of tropical cyclone formation was further north and west of where most East Pacific tropical cyclones develop . Steering currents pulled Ignacio north , where it encountered wind shear and cooler waters . Ignacio never intensified beyond 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and then was downgraded into a depression on August 18 . It last transitioned into an extratropical cyclone 24 hours later . It was then absorbed by a cyclone associated with the remnants of Hurricane Guillermo . Ignacio 's remnants moved north , bringing gusty winds to California coastal waters before dissipating . Severe flooding was recorded along Highway 97 with a debris flow estimated at 0 @.@ 5 mi ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) and 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep . They caused rainfall as far north as the U.S. state of Washington . Thunderstorms caused power outages in central California . = = = Hurricane Jimena = = = During the third week of August , a tropical disturbance formed far from land . Although the system was located over warmer than average sea surface temperatures , the upper @-@ level environment was initially unfavorable . However the environment gradually became more conducive for tropical cyclone formation and Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E formed August 25 from an area of disturbed weather in a rather easterly location . It became a tropical storm the next day and a hurricane on August 27 . Intensification was rapid , with winds increasing from 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) in just 6 hours . Continuing to rapidly intensify , it reached its peak intensity as a low @-@ end category 4 hurricane . After maintaining peak intensity for 30 hours , it moved north @-@ northwest and encountered increasing wind shear which reduced its winds from 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) in just 24 hours . Jimena completely dissipated on August 30 , not long after entering the Central Pacific Basin . Hurricane Jimena was of no threat to land . = = = Tropical Storm Oliwa = = = Tropical storm Oliwa began as a tropical disturbance that had meandered south of Johnston Atoll . It organized into Tropical Depression Two @-@ C on September 2 . Later that day , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Oliwa ( Hawaiian for Oliver ) as it slowly moved towards the west . It crossed the dateline late on September 3 and entered the Joint Typhoon Warning Center 's Area of Responsibility . ) In the Pacific Ocean , tropical cyclones are not renamed when they cross basin boundaries , so Oliwa kept its name . Oliwa passed south of Wake Island on September 6 , where it caused heavy rains but no damage . On September 7 , Oliwa started a period of rapid strengthening , becoming a typhoon on September 8 and a Super Typhoon eight hours later . Oliwa stayed at that intensity for over two days . While still a strong typhoon , Oliwa passed near the Northern Marianas Islands . It then started weakening as it curved towards Japan . It made landfall as a minimal typhoon September 16 . It quickly dissipated later that same day . Typhoon Oliwa caused 12 fatalities and left 30 @,@ 000 people homeless . Damage totaled to 4 @.@ 36 billion yen ( $ 50 @.@ 1 million USD ) . = = = Tropical Storm Kevin = = = Tropical Storm Kevin , first displayed hints of development while located near Panama , and developed a well @-@ defined circulation after emerging into the Pacific . It was classified as a tropical depression in the Pacific on September 3 while located south @-@ south west of Baja California . Convection increased and the outflow of the storm became better defined . As such , it became a tropical storm on the morning of September 4 . Gradually intensifying , it reached it peak intensity as a mid @-@ level tropical storm on September 5 . As it moved westbound , it maintained its intensity for 12 hours . The environment was unfavorable , and two days later , Kevin weakened to a depression when deep convection ceased . It dissipated early on September 7 , having never posed a threat to land . = = = Hurricane Linda = = = A tropical disturbance formed on September 9 and became Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E later that day . The cyclone moved northwest and strengthened into a tropical storm on September 10 . Linda then rapidly intensified reaching hurricane intensity the next day as an eye formed . It peaked in intensity on September 12 with it reaching a maximum windspeed of 185 mph ( 298 km / h ) — enough to make it a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale — and a minimum pressure of 902 mbar ( 902 hPa ) , making it the most intense Pacific hurricane ever recorded until Hurricane Patricia took its place in 2015 . However , Linda soon moved over cooler waters , and lost hurricane intensity on September 16 . It then slowly weakened and dissipated on September 17 . Linda passed very near Socorro Island . In addition , early forecasts predicted that Linda would make landfall in California . The landfall never materialized and warnings or watches were not necessary for any location . However , Linda caused large surf , which crashed ashore in California , where it swept five people off a jetty . Moisture related to Linda also contributed to a landslide in southern California that destroyed or damaged 79 houses . = = = Tropical Storm Marty = = = An area of disturbed weather formed early on September 10 . It became better organized two days later as convection increased , and then organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E late on September 12 . Moving slowly in a westward direction , it strengthened into a tropical storm in the morning of September 14 . Later that day , the system reached its peak intensity of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Meanwhile , the storm 's forward speed slowed down even more , and it turned to the south . It then encountered an area of strong wind shear , and it weakened into a depression on September 15 as the center of circulation became displaced from the deep convection . The shear continued to weaken , and the tropical cyclone dissipated late on September 16 . There were no deaths or damage . = = = Hurricane Nora = = = A large area of disturbed weather moved into the Pacific on September 12 . It then organized into Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E on September 16 and quickly strengthened into a tropical storm . Early on September 18 , a poorly defined and ragged eye appeared on infrared imagery . Shortly thereafter , its winds reached 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . Nora eventually peaked at Category 4 . It then encountered water temperature anomalies , and fluctuated in strength . Then , a trough pulled Nora northward and accelerated the storm . After weakening to a Category 1 , Nora made landfall in northern Baja California and stayed a tropical storm as it entered the United States . At that time , however , most of the deep rest convection was displaced to the northeast . Nora dissipated over Arizona , but its remnants kept going north . Hurricane Nora was the first Pacific hurricane to bring gale @-@ force winds to the Continental United States since Kathleen in 1976 . In Mexico , Nora produced high waves , flooding , and heavy damage . Many homes were destroyed . In the United States , rains were heavy , and damage amounted to several hundred million dollars . Several hundred people were rendered homeless , and there was wind and flood damage in Arizona . Nora killed two people in Mexico , and several indirect deaths were reported in California . = = = Tropical Storm Olaf = = = A tropical disturbance left Central America on September 22 . Despite some wind shear , the system gradually became better organized and a tropical depression formed September 26 , being upgraded to a tropical storm several hours later . The cyclone immediately moved north . Instead of strengthening into a hurricane before landfall as forecasted , Olaf weakened due to its proximity to land . On September 29 , Olaf made landfall near Salina Cruz , Oaxaca . Olaf , as a tropical depression , moved westward , far out to sea . Operationally , Olaf was believed to have dissipated for six days. however , in the Tropical Cyclone Report , a report issued several months after the hurricane 's duration , it was believed to have remained a tropical cyclone the entire time . After restrengthening slightly , Olaf moved southeast on October 5 due to the influence of Hurricane Pauline . Olaf then turned north , and on October 12 made a second landfall near Manzanillo , Colima , as a tropical depression . Olaf 's surface circulation weakened , and its remnants moved back out to sea , but did not redevelop . Olaf resulted in some reports of damage and flooding in Mexico and Guatemala . During two time frames , from September 27 through October 2 and 10 through October 16 , a total of 27 @.@ 73 inches ( 704 mm ) of rainfall fell in association with Olaf in Soyalapa / Comaltepec . Several people were reported missing . Most of its damage was from its first landfall . Throughout Southern Mexico , Guatemala and El Salvador , flooding caused by Olaf was blamed for eighteen deaths . = = = Hurricane Pauline = = = On October 3 , a distinct area of disturbed weather formed . It drifted eastbound , and a well @-@ defined low pressure soon formed . It became Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E on October 5 . Early the next day it intensified into tropical Storm Pauline . An eye feature developed on October 7 and as such Pauline was upgraded into a hurricane . In a favorable environment , the cyclone rapidly intensified , reaching Category 4 intensity . After fluctuating in intensity , interaction with land weakened Pauline to a Category 2 by the time it made landfall on October 9 . It accelerated to the northwest , and passed over a mountainous region . The mountains disrupted Pauline 's circulation , and squeezed the moisture from the hurricane . Pauline dissipated on October 10 while over Jalisco . Hurricane Pauline was the deadliest storm of the season . Landslides and flooding caused by heavy rain caused tragic loss of life and left thousands homeless . There were at least 230 casualties . The Red Cross reported that 400 people died , but this was disputed by Mexican officials . Pauline was Mexico 's deadliest hurricane since 1976 's Liza . In addition , the hurricane caused $ 447 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 1997 USD ; $ 473 million 2008 USD ) . = = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ C = = = A tropical disturbance formed near 140 ° W. It became Tropical Depression Three @-@ C on October 6 . The waters were very warm , and there was only moderate wind shear . However , the depression slowly moved westward without intensifying , and dissipated the next day . = = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ C = = = A tropical disturbance formed in late October . It became Tropical Depression Four @-@ C on October 30 well southwest of Hawaii . Although the waters were very warm , some dry air was located north of the system . It slowly moved westward without intensifying , and dissipated the next day as the circulation became exposed . = = = Hurricane Rick = = = The first hurricane in November since 1991 formed from a tropical disturbance . Although the circulation was initially poorly defined , it later acquired enough organization and was classified as a tropical depression on November 7 . It moved north until a trough of low pressure turned it to the northeast . It was named on November 8 , and was upgraded to a hurricane the next day . It reached its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and 973 mbar ( hPa ) . Rick made landfall in Oaxaca – the same area devastated by Hurricane Pauline one month earlier – and quickly weakened , dissipating early on November 11 . The storm downed trees , washed out recently repaired roads , and disrupted communications in some small population centers . A total of 10 @.@ 47 inches ( 266 mm ) of rain was reported at Astata / San Pedro Huameluca near the point of landfall in Mexico . No one was killed . Rick is one of only eight known hurricanes to form in the Pacific Ocean east of the dateline in the month of November . The other ones are Nina , Tara , Iwa , Nora , Sergio , Kenneth , and Sandra of which only Rick , Tara , and Iwa directly impacted land . It was also the second @-@ latest landfalling Pacific hurricane . = = = Tropical Storm Paka = = = Tropical Depression Five @-@ C formed on December 2 , two days after the season ended . It was the second December tropical depression east of the dateline ; 1983 's Hurricane Winnie was the only other one . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Paka ( Hawaiian for Pat ) while west of Palmyra Atoll . The system began to move westward at a steady pace . As Paka moved westward , dry air and wind shear disrupted its development until it crossed the dateline on December 6 . After entering the Western Pacific , the cyclone encountered a more favorable environment , resulting in rapid intensification . It became a typhoon on December 10 and passed near Kwajalein with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . It strengthened further , twice reaching Category 5 intensity . While a super typhoon , Paka passed close to Guam on December 17 , causing major damage . Afterwards , Paka encountered a hostile environment and had completely dissipated by the evening of December 22 . = = Season effects = = This is a table of the storms in 1997 and their landfall ( s ) , if any . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , but do not include impacts in the Western Pacific basin . = = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) = = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) is a measure of how active a hurricane season is . It is calculated by squaring the windspeed of a cyclone with at least tropical storm @-@ force winds every six hours , summing the results , and dividing that total by 104 . This explains why Hurricane Guillermo has a higher ACE than Linda . It was not as strong as that storm , but because it was above tropical storm force for a longer time , it reached a higher ACE level . As a tropical cyclone does not have gale @-@ force winds until it becomes a tropical storm , tropical depressions are not included in these tables . For all storms , ACE is given to three significant figures . The ACE in the east Pacific proper ( 140 ° W to North America ) is given ; the ACE in the central Pacific ( the international dateline to 140 ° W ) is given in brackets . The table includes the ACE for Oliwa and Paka only during those storm 's time east of the dateline . Their ACE west of the dateline is part of the totals of the 1997 typhoon season . The National Hurricane Center uses ACE to rank hurricane seasons as above @-@ normal , near @-@ normal , and below @-@ normal . This season has a total of 17 tropical storms , 9 hurricanes , and 7 major hurricanes . The total ACE of this season is 160 * 104 kt2 in the east Pacific proper . This qualifies this season as above @-@ normal . = = Storm names = = The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1997 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2003 season . This is the same list used for the 1991 season except for Felicia , which replaced Fefa . A storm was named Felicia for the first time in 1997 . Also , the name " Dolores " was misspelled " Delores " in the 1991 season ; in this and subsequent seasons , the typo was corrected . For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 1997 are shown below , however , only two of them were used . = = = Retirement = = = The World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1998 : Pauline . It was replaced in the 2003 season by Patricia . In 2006 , a name from the Central Pacific list was retired due to its effects west of the International Dateline in this season : Paka . The name set to replace it is Pama .
= Yugoslav submarine Nebojša = The Yugoslav submarine Nebojša was the second of the Hrabri @-@ class diesel @-@ electric submarines built by the Vickers @-@ Armstrong Naval Yard on the River Tyne in the United Kingdom , for the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) and was launched in 1927 . Her design was based on that of the British L @-@ class submarine of World War I , and she was built using parts originally assembled for a Royal Navy L @-@ class submarine that was never built . She was armed with six bow @-@ mounted 533 mm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes , two 102 mm ( 4 in ) guns and one machine gun , and could dive to 60 metres ( 200 ft ) . Prior to World War II Nebojša participated in cruises to several Mediterranean ports . During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she evaded capture by Italian forces , and joined British naval forces in the Mediterranean where she performed a training role . After the war she was taken over by the new Yugoslav government and renamed Tara . She was eventually stricken in 1954 , and scrapped in 1958 . = = Description and construction = = Yugoslav naval policy in the interwar period lacked direction until the mid @-@ 1920s , although it was generally accepted that the Adriatic coastline was effectively a sea frontier that the naval arm was responsible for securing with the limited resources made available to it . In 1926 , a modest ten @-@ year construction program was initiated to build up a force of submarines , coastal torpedo boats , torpedo bombers and conventional bomber aircraft to perform this role . The Hrabri @-@ class submarines were one of the first new acquisitions aimed at developing a naval force capable of meeting this challenge . Nebojša ( Fearless ) was built in 1927 for the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , by the Vickers @-@ Armstrong Naval Yard on the River Tyne in the United Kingdom . Her design was based on that of the British L @-@ class submarine of World War I , and she was built using parts originally assembled for HMS L @-@ 68 , which was never completed . Along with her sister submarine Hrabri , she had an overall length of 72 @.@ 05 metres ( 236 ft 5 in ) , a beam of 7 @.@ 32 m ( 24 ft 0 in ) , and a surfaced draught of 3 @.@ 96 m ( 13 ft 0 in ) . Her surfaced displacement was 975 long tons ( 991 t ) or 1 @,@ 164 long tons ( 1 @,@ 183 t ) submerged , and her crew consisted of 45 officers and enlisted men . She had an operational depth of 60 m ( 200 ft ) . The Hrabri @-@ class had two shafts driven by two diesel engines ( when surfaced ) or two electric motors ( when submerged ) . Their diesel engines were rated at 2 @,@ 400 brake horsepower ( 1 @,@ 800 kW ) and the electric motors at 1 @,@ 600 shaft horsepower ( 1 @,@ 200 kW ) , and they were designed to reach a top speed of 15 @.@ 7 knots ( 29 @.@ 1 km / h ; 18 @.@ 1 mph ) under diesel power while surfaced , and 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) on their electric motors when submerged . They were armed with six bow @-@ mounted 533 mm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes , and carried twelve torpedoes . They were also equipped with two 102 mm ( 4 in ) deck guns ( one forward and one aft of the conning tower ) , and one machine gun . Their radius of action was 3 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 400 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . = = Service career = = Nebojša was launched in 1927 as the second submarine of the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , which later became the Royal Yugoslav Navy . Along with her sister submarine Hrabri , she left the Tyne in late January 1928 . In company with the Yugoslav submarine tender Hvar , the two submarines arrived in the Bay of Kotor on the southern Adriatic coast on 8 April 1928 . In May and June 1929 , Hrabri , Nebojša , Hvar and six torpedo boats accompanied the light cruiser Dalmacija on a cruise to Malta , the Greek island of Corfu in the Ionian Sea , and Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia . The British naval attaché observed that the ships and crews made a very good impression while visiting Malta . On 16 May 1930 , Nebojša was exercising her crew at periscope depth near the entrance to the Bay of Kotor when she collided with a Yugoslav steamship . The damage was not serious and there were no injuries , but her forward 102 mm gun was lost overboard . The necessary repairs were carried out at the dockyard in the Bay of Kotor . In June and July 1930 , Hrabri , Nebojša and the fleet auxiliary Sitnica again cruised the Mediterranean , visiting Alexandria and Beirut . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships engaged in few exercises , manoeuvres or gunnery training due to reduced budgets . In September 1933 , Nebojša and the submarine Osvetnik cruised the southern part of the central Mediterranean . In August 1936 , Nebojša and Osvetnik visited the Greek island of Corfu . During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she and two Orjen @-@ class motor torpedo boats evaded capture by Italian forces at the Bay of Kotor , arriving at Suda Bay , Crete , on 23 April , after eight days at sea . Despite this , the Italians claimed that they had sunk all the Yugoslav vessels . Nebojša then sailed to Alexandria , but the Royal Navy considered her unfit for combat duties . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill suggested her crew might be retrained and used to operate the recently captured German Type VIIC U @-@ boat U @-@ 570 , but this idea was soon abandoned . She was based at Valletta in Malta as an anti @-@ submarine warfare training vessel , serving with the British 2nd Submarine Flotilla in 1942 and the British 3rd Submarine Flotilla in 1943 . She continued working in the Mediterranean until the end of the war , but her service with the Royal Navy appears to have been limited to a training role . After the war she was towed first to Bari in Italy , then in August 1945 to the port of Split where she was overhauled , renamed Tara and given the pennant number 801 . She was then transferred to Pula on the Istrian peninsula in the northern Adriatic . Used to train the fledgling Yugoslav Navy submarine arm , she was stricken in 1954 . One of her guns was removed at the end of her career , and she was eventually scrapped in 1958 . = = Legacy = = In 2011 , to mark the 70th anniversary of the invasion of Yugoslavia , the Military Museum in Belgrade , Serbia hosted an exhibit which included a flag from the Nebojša . In April 2013 , the 85th anniversary of the arrival of the first Yugoslav submarines at the Bay of Kotor was marked by an event in Tivat , Montenegro , attended by dozens of former Yugoslav submariners . = = = Books = = = = = = Periodicals = = = = = = Websites = = =
= 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion ( Australia ) = The 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion was formed in June 1940 as part of the 7th Division and served in Egypt , Syria , the Netherlands East Indies and New Guinea during World War II . Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Blackburn when it was raised , the battalion was primarily a South Australian unit , although it had sub @-@ units formed in Victoria , Tasmania and Western Australia . After completing training in Australia , in April 1941 the battalion embarked for the Middle East . In June / July 1941 it saw action against Vichy French forces during the Syria – Lebanon campaign , during which time the battalion was heavily involved in supporting various elements of the 7th Division . Following Japan 's entry into the war , the decision was made to transfer a large number of Australian troops from the Middle East to the Pacific region . In early 1942 , as the Japanese advanced through the Netherlands East Indies , the majority of the battalion was captured during the Battle of Java . A small number of the battalion 's personnel returned to Australia and it was subsequently re @-@ raised in mid @-@ 1942 . It was later attached to the 6th Division as a corps unit and served in Papua New Guinea during the Aitape – Wewak campaign in 1944 – 45 . The battalion was disbanded in January 1946 . = = History = = = = = Formation and training = = = The 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion was one of four machine gun battalions that were raised as part of the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for service overseas during World War II . Motorised infantry units , equipped with wheeled motor vehicles , motorcycles and sometimes tracked carriers , the machine gun battalions were formed to provide a greater level of support by fire than that which was organically available within ordinary infantry battalions . At its peak , the 2 / 3rd was equipped with 124 motor vehicles of various descriptions and 50 motorcycles . Developed by the British Army , the concept within the Australian Army had its genesis during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions – initially two and then , later , four – had been grouped together and co @-@ ordinated at brigade level to help compensate for the lack of artillery support . Over the course of the war , on the Western Front the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 and machine gun battalions in 1918 . Similar formations had also been established amongst the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . During the inter @-@ war years , the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary . When the Army was reorganised in 1921 , they were not re @-@ raised , but in 1937 , as the Army looked to expand as fears of war in Europe loomed , four such units were raised within the part @-@ time Militia , by converting light horse units and motorising them . When World War II broke out , the decision was made to raise several machine gun battalions within the 2nd AIF , allocated at a rate of one per division . The 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion was formed on 17 June 1940 , in Wayville , South Australia . Upon formation , the battalion was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Blackburn , a World War I veteran who had received the Victoria Cross for actions at Pozieres . Designated a South Australian battalion , its personnel were nevertheless recruited from several Australian states : South Australians predominated , but there were also men from Victoria , Tasmania , and Western Australia , with many of the battalion 's cadre staff of officers and senior non commissioned officers having served previously in the Militia with various light horse regiments and infantry battalions . In common with the other Australian machine gun battalions , the colours chosen for the battalion 's Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were black and gold . These were presented in a triangular shape with a border of grey . Initially , the battalion was stretched across several locations , with companies being formed in Seymour , Victoria , Brighton , Tasmania , and Northam , Western Australia . The Tasmanians and Western Australians had initially been intended to join the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , and during its formative period , the companies completed basic training in their home locations , before concentrating together at Warradale , South Australia with the Tasmanians sailing to Melbourne to link up with Victorians prior to entraining for the journey west , while the Western Australians crossed the Nullarbor Plain . At this point , the unit 's establishment was completed , as the battalion structure was finalised . It was structured along the same lines as the other 2nd AIF machine gun battalions , which consisted of between 800 and 900 personnel organised into a headquarters element consisting of three platoons – signals , anti @-@ aircraft and administration – and four machine gun companies , each equipped with 12 Vickers machine guns , to make a total of 48 across the entire battalion . Within the machine gun companies there were three platoons ; these were numbered sequentially starting from 1 to 3 in Headquarters Company through to 13 to 15 in ' D ' Company . A Light Aid Detachment of electrical and mechanical engineers was also attached . = = = Fighting against the French : Palestine and Syria = = = In early April 1941 , the battalion , less ' D ' Company which travelled west for home leave , entrained at Oakbank , near to Woodside , South Australia where they had moved the previous February . From there , the battalion travelled overland to Sydney where they embarked upon the SS Ile de France from Pyrmont Wharf , bound for the Middle East , as part of a large convoy of troopships . Sailing via Fremantle where ' D ' Company rejoined the battalion , they sailed on to Colombo , which was reached in late April , where the troopship put in for repairs and shore leave was given to all battalion personnel . Departing again in early May , they continued on alone , crossing the Red Sea in a week and making landfall at Port Tewfik . The troops had to endure a two day wait before disembarkation whereupon they were taken to the eastern side of the Suez Canal by lighter and then transferred by train to Kantara . Upon arrival in the Middle East , the 2 / 3rd was assigned to the 7th Division , the 2nd AIF 's second division – there were also five infantry divisions as part of the Militia at this time , which were reserved for service in Australia and New Guinea – and subsequently joined them in Palestine , establishing a camp at Hill 95 , to the north of Gaza . There the battalion undertook a vigorous physical training regime to regain the fitness lost from the sea voyage . The final elements of unit identity were issued at the time : pugarees and colour patches . It also finally began to receive its vehicles and heavy equipment , including its Vickers machine guns as preparations were made for the battalion to join the fighting in the Western Desert . In the end , this did not eventuate , as the 7th Division was committed to the Syria – Lebanon campaign in early June , to secure the Allied eastern flank from attack . Due to the presence of Vichy French troops , the campaign was politically sensitive and as a result of heavy censorship not widely reported in Australia at the time ; the nature of the fighting , where it was reported , was also downplayed with the Vichy Forces outnumbering the Allies and also being better equipped . For the 2 / 3rd , the campaign saw them heavily involved throughout the short , but sharply contested campaign , with each of the four machine gun companies supporting separate efforts by elements of the 7th Division and also British troops , seeing action around Merdajayoun , Metula , Quneitra , Sidon and Damour before the Vichy French requested an armistice in mid @-@ July . The 2 / 3rd 's casualties during the campaign amounted to one officer and 41 other ranks killed or wounded . In the aftermath of the campaign , the 2 / 3rd stayed on as part of the Allied occupation force established in Syria and Lebanon to defend against a possible drive south by Axis forces through the Caucasus . The battalion defended a position north @-@ east of Beirut , around Bikfaya , initially but was moved around to various locations including Aleppo , on the Turkish border , throughout the remainder of 1941 . They endured a bitter cold , and snowy , winter at Fih near Tripoli , which was punctuated by leave drafts to Tel Aviv . = = = Into action against the Japanese : Java and captivity = = = In late 1941 , the Japanese entered the war , attacking Pearl Harbor and launching an invasion of Malaya . Faced with a threat closer to home , the Australian government pressed for the return of its troops from the Middle East , and so in early 1942 the 7th Division began withdrawing from their garrison posts in Syria and Lebanon . The 2 / 3rd left the village of Fih and moved to a camp at Hill 69 , in Palestine , on 14 January 1942 . They remained there until 31 January when they boarded a train which took them to Kantara where they were ferried across the canal to continue the journey to Port Tewfik where the majority of the battalion , totalling 636 personnel of all ranks , boarded the troopship Orcades . Men who were in the hospital or on course were subsequently reposted to the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , and remained in the Middle East , later seeing action at El Alamein . Others who did not board the Orcades included the battalion 's ' B ' Echelon , essentially all its vehicles , baggage and heavy weapons , and its maintenance personnel . These embarked on eight smaller vessels : the Silver Willow , Penrith Castle , Shillong , Tarifa , Sophecles , Nigerstroom , Industria and Tricolor . These ships were to follow the Orcades up at its eventual destination , which was at the time , still being kept secret even to the troops on board . The Orcades , a fast transport capable of 26 knots , set sail for Colombo before even the battalion 's baggage could be brought on board . On 8 February 1942 , the ship reached its intermediate destination from where it was escorted by the cruiser HMS Dorsetshire . As the situation in the Pacific worsened for the Allies – Singapore had fallen in early February and the Japanese were steadily advancing through the Netherlands East Indies – the Allies made the decision to hastily make a stand . The Orcades reached Oosthaven , in Sumatra , on 15 February , and the troops from Orcades were ferried ashore on the tanker Van Spillsbergen , where they were grouped together as " Boost Force " under orders to take up the defence of the Palembang airfields and providing protection to civilians as they were evacuated . Missing many of their weapons , the troops were re @-@ equipped with rifles from the Orcades 's armoury . However , shortly after their arrival , they were ordered to re @-@ embark on the tanker , which eventually caught up with Orcades and transferred its personnel for the remainder of the journey to Batavia . There , fresh orders reached them . The units aboard the Orcades – the 2 / 2nd Pioneers as well as an engineer field company , and an anti @-@ aircraft regiment as well as transport and medical personnel – were ordered to form an ad hoc force along with a squadron from the British 3rd The King 's Own Hussars and an artillery battery from the US 131st Field Artillery Regiment . This force , under Blackburn who was promoted to brigadier , came to be known as " Blackforce " , with headquarters being established at Batavia . In Blackburn 's stead , the ' D ' Company commander , Major Edward Lyneham , was promoted to take over command of the battalion . Blackburn established his force into a brigade formation , utilising the pioneers and machine gunners as infantry battalions , and forming a third infantry battalion from troops that were assigned to garrison the base , as well as logistics and administrative personnel , and members of the AIF who had been able to get out of Singapore before it fell . Due to the presence of a large amount of equipment on the wharf , which had been intended to be sent to Singapore before its fall , Blackforce was able to re @-@ equip itself handsomely with vehicles including carriers and armoured cars , Bren guns , Thompson sub @-@ machine guns and mortars ; but there were no machine guns . Concentrating around the civilian airport at Kemajoian , the battalion formed part of Blackforce 's defensive garrison , tasked with protecting Batavia 's five airfields from Japanese paratroopers ; ' B ' Company was detached in this time to defend the Buitenzorg military airfield . Shortly afterwards , they came under air attack from Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zeroes on 22 February , during which one member of the 2 / 3rd was killed , while six others were wounded . Two of these wounded were later smuggled out of the Indies by medical personnel back to Australia , with one rejoining the battalion there later in the year . As the Japanese began advancing further in the Indies , Blackburn sought to re @-@ orient his troops , and the machine gunners were subsequently moved to the Leuwiliang area , 15 miles ( 24 km ) west of Buitenzorg along an expected main avenue of advance , and they were given the task for defence the bridge over the Tjianten River . Following the Battle of the Java Sea , the Japanese were able to land a force around Banten Bay and Marek , on the western tip of Java , and subsequently began advancing east towards Batavia and Buitenzorg , forcing Blackforce to reorientate itself east of the Tjianten River , to make a stand south of Buitenzorg . On 3 March , the battalion went into action around Leuwiliang for the first time as Dutch troops began to withdraw . Occupying positions in support of the 2 / 2nd Pioneers who held the bridge over the Tjianten River , they were alerted to the advancing Japanese by the presence of fifth columnists , who were seen to be laying out marking panels . A short time later , a force of five Japanese light tanks attempted to cross the river , but were rebuffed by anti @-@ tank rifles and small arms . The plan had been for the Dutch troops to make a stand at Djasinga , but faulty intelligence resulted in a rout and the Dutch began to withdraw back to Bandung , flooding through Blackforce 's lines . In the ensuing chaos , Dutch engineers blew up the bridge at the Tjianten River . For the next couple of days , the battalion fought several skirmishes with ' C ' Company bearing the brunt of the Japanese attacks , suffering seven killed and 28 wounded , while inflicting about 200 casualties on the Japanese . As the Allied defence of the island began to collapse , the machine gunners were ordered to hold up the Japanese around Leuwiliang for a day . After this , Blackforce began moving towards Soekaboemi on 5 March , as part of efforts to reach Tjilatjap on the southern coast of the island to secure passage back to Australia . Ultimately , this never eventuated and Blackforce was ordered to surrender on 9 March 1942 following the Dutch capitulation the day before . They would subsequently endure three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years in captivity as Japanese prisoners of war , being sent to camps across south @-@ east Asia , including the infamous Thai – Burma Railway . Forced to endure brutal conditions , over worked in labour camps , and inadequately provided for , casualties amongst these men were high . = = = Re @-@ organisation and garrison duties in Australia = = = While the troops who had boarded the Orcades went into captivity on Java , the five officers and 257 other ranks that had been transported on the eight smaller ships returned to Australia in the last week of March 1942 . Arriving at Port Adelaide , the battalion 's vehicles , weapons and heavy equipment was moved to Morphettville Racecourse and the remaining personnel concentrated at Sandy Creek . On 15 April 1942 , the order was passed to re @-@ form the battalion , under Lieutenant Colonel Sidney Reed , the battalion 's original second @-@ in @-@ command . Reinforcements arrived from various locations , including the Machine Gun Training Battalion based at Camden , New South Wales , while others came from the 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion to provide a cadre of experienced personnel . In May , the battalion moved to Balcombe on the Mornington Peninsula in Victoria , where they undertook range shoots , planning exercises and bivouacks . In mid @-@ July , the 2 / 3rd received orders to move north to Cowra by road . Along the way , they stopped at Ingleburn , New South Wales where a draft of almost 400 reinforcements was received ; the result of this was that in its second incarnation , about half the battalion came from New South Wales , instead of South Australia . The battalion remained in Cowra , where they carried out training , for ten months , eventually proceeding north to south @-@ east Queensland in May 1943 . Based around the Deception Bay area , north of Brisbane , a company was deployed to Moreton Island and another to Bribie Island . In late June , ' B ' Company embarked upon the Dutch vessel , the SS Jansens and deployed to Netherlands New Guinea as part of Merauke Force , remaining there in a defensive capacity until May 1944 . While ' B ' Company was deployed to Merauke , the remainder of the battalion moved to the Atherton Tablelands in mid @-@ August 1943 , at which time the battalion was transferred to the command of the 6th Division , assigned as a corps unit rather than a direct command unit . Lieutenant Colonel Roy Gordon , who had raised the original ' C ' Company in 1940 , took over command of the battalion in February 1944 . A long period of relative inactivity subsequently followed as a result of inter @-@ Allied service politics which saw the US Army assume primacy of operations in the Pacific , and indecision about the future role of Australian forces in the Pacific campaign . During this time , the battalion was based around Wondecla , south @-@ west of Cairns . The battalion was transferred to the " tropical war establishment " during this period as part of an Army @-@ wide reorganisation intended to optimise units for jungle warfare . As a result of this change , the battalion was required to return all of its vehicles , with the intention that its guns would largely be carried across the battlefield by soldiers moving on foot . The 2 / 3rd remained at Wondecla until 2 December 1944 , when they entrained for Cairns and subsequently boarded the transport Evangeline , a former cruise ship , bound for New Guinea , where they were to undertake their final campaign of the war . = = = Aitape – Wewak : The final campaign = = = Although it had been intended to deploy the Australians as part of the Allied efforts to recapture the Philippines , this did not eventuate . Instead , the Australian troops were tasked with relieving the US forces around New Guinea , so that they could be redistributed in the Pacific . The 6th Division was subsequently assigned to take over from the US XI Corps around Aitape – Wewak . The campaign that followed was , in the words of author Eustace Keogh , essentially a " mopping up campaign " , with the division being tasked with security of the airstrip and base area , and ensuring that contact was maintained with Japanese forces in the area . These tasks were to be achieved without large @-@ scale offensive action , due to contingency plans for the division to be re @-@ deployed to the Philippines ; in the event this did not occur and the 6th Division remained in Aitape – Wewak for the remainder of the war . With priority of effort being given to the campaigns in the Philippines and Borneo , the arrival of the 6th Division took place over several months . Initially , they were camped around Tadji defending the airfield there , but after Christmas , the majority of the battalion – headquarters , headquarters company and two machine gun companies – was assigned to the 19th Brigade as they advanced west along the coast towards the Danmap , switching to providing support to the 16th Brigade in early January as it drove towards Abau ; in the open country of the coastal area the machine guns proved quite effective . While this took place , ' B ' and ' D ' Companies were assigned to the 17th Brigade , with whom they undertook a mainly defensive role around Aitape , while accompanying infantry patrols into the interior . In February 1945 , as the Australians began advancing into the thick , hilly interior , the utility of the machine guns decreased . At the behest of Brigadier Roy King , commander of the 16th Brigade , the 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion was hastily converted into a standard infantry battalion , which was achieved with a quick issue of rifles , sub @-@ machine guns and mortars . From then until the end of the war , the battalion took part in the ground advance through Wewak and beyond , fighting a series of small scale patrol actions , initially advancing through Arohemi and Muguluwela , and finally the town of But , while ' B ' Company was assigned to Farida Force and carried out an amphibious landing around Dove Bay , in early May . The battalion later moved into the Mandi and Brandi areas where they were tasked with re @-@ invigorating the Australian operations in the area , as Japanese resistance around the plantations increased . By late July , the majority of the battalion moved to Wewak Point , while two companies remained in the vicinity of Mandi – Bandi ; operations in the area had killed 59 Japanese , for the loss of four men from 2 / 3rd killed in action and eight wounded . The battalion 's final action of the war came on 7 August when a patrol killed four Japanese . A week later , the Japanese surrender was announced , bringing combat operations officially to an end . The battalion 's final campaign of the war cost them 94 battle casualties . = = = Disbandment = = = In late August , following the conclusion of hostilities the 2 / 3rd was concentrated at Wewak Point , in the 19th Brigade 's area , where final parades were held and education classes commenced to prepare the soldiers for discharge and return to civilian life . Meanwhile , following the conclusion of hostilities , the battalion 's personnel were slowly transferred to other units or repatriated back to Australia for demobilisation . In early December 1945 , the 2 / 3rd 's remaining personnel returned to Australia aboard the British aircraft carrier HMS Implacable , arriving in Sydney , and the following month , in January 1946 , after final clearances had been obtained the unit was disbanded . During the war the battalion lost 202 men killed or died on active service , of which 56 were killed in action , 139 died while prisoners of war and seven in accidents or illness on active service . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Distinguished Service Order , three Military Crosses , four Military Medals , one British Empire Medal and 21 Mentions in Despatches . In addition , one member was appointed as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire and four were appointed as Members of the Order of the British Empire . After the war , the Australian Army moved away from the machine gun battalion construct and consequently no similar units have been raised since , with the role being subsumed into the support companies of individual infantry battalions . The concept was arguably misunderstood by Australian commanders throughout the war , and this may have influenced the decision to move away from the concept . When the units had been established , the intent had been that the machine gun battalions would provide highly mobile fire support ; however , this was largely only applicable in theatres where principles of open warfare could be applied . Once the focus of Australian Army combat operations shifted to the Pacific , the machine gun battalions were largely misused , being employed in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets , or for menial tasks , rather than as offensive fire support weapons that could have been employed to provide long range fire support . The medium machine guns were also largely utilised in the same manner as light machine guns , such as the Bren . Other reasons identified for the concept 's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders , a preference for organic fire support over attached sub @-@ units , over @-@ estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle , and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen . The difficulties of target acquisition in dense jungle also contributed . For the 2 / 3rd , the Syrian campaign was the only one of its three campaigns where it was employed wholly as a machine gun unit in support of the infantry ; on Java and in Aitape – Wewak , it was utilised as infantry . = = Battle honours = = The 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion received the following battle honours : Anumb River , But – Dagua , Damour , Jebel Mazar , Jezzine , Nambut Ridge , Sidon , and Syria 1941 . = = Commanding officers = = The following officers commanded the 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion during the war : Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Blackburn ( 1940 – 42 ) Lieutenant Colonel Edward Lyneham ( 1942 ) Lieutenant Colonel Sidney Reed ( 1942 – 44 ) Lieutenant Colonel Roy Gordon ( 1944 – 45 ) Of these , both Blackburn and Reed were World War I veterans who had later served in the Militia in the 18th Light Horse Regiment , in South Australia , during the inter @-@ war years . Lyneham and Gordon had both served in the Militia before the war , with Lyneham serving in the 28th Battalion , The Swan Regiment in Western Australia and Gordon in the 6th Battalion , Royal Melbourne Regiment . Gordon later reached the rank of major general .
= Ne @-@ Yo = Shaffer Chimere Smith ( born October 18 , 1979 ) , better known by his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , is an American R & B singer , songwriter , record producer , dancer , and actor . Ne @-@ Yo gained fame for his songwriting abilities when he penned his 2004 hit " Let Me Love You " for singer Mario . The single 's successful release in the United States prompted an informal meeting between Ne @-@ Yo and Def Jam 's label head , and the signing of a recording contract . = = Early life = = Ne @-@ Yo was born in Camden , Arkansas . His father is of African American and Chinese descent , and his mother is African @-@ American . Both his parents were musicians . As a young child , he was raised by his mother after she separated from his father . In hopes of better opportunity , his mother relocated the family to Las Vegas , Nevada . While in the Las Vegas Academy , Smith adopted the stage name " GoGo " and joined an R & B group called Envy , who appeared during amateur night on Showtime at the Apollo and on the MTV 's The Cut ( hosted by Lisa " Left Eye " Lopes of TLC ) . The group disbanded in 2000 , and Smith continued to write songs for other artists before starting his solo career . The stage name " Ne @-@ Yo " was coined by Big D Evans , a producer with whom Ne @-@ Yo once worked , because Evans claimed that Ne @-@ Yo sees music as Neo sees the matrix . = = Music career = = = = = 1998 – 2005 : Career beginnings = = = At an early age , Ne @-@ Yo emerged on the recording industry scene as a member of the Romford @-@ based quartet Envy , which featured Chimna Orji as its leading woman . After the group disbanded in 2000 , Columbia Records signed Ne @-@ Yo , but the label dropped him before he could release his already @-@ recorded first album . American singer Marques Houston happened to hear " That Girl " , which Ne @-@ Yo had planned to release as his debut single off his then @-@ unreleased album . Houston re @-@ recorded the song and released it as a single for his 2003 album MH . The release of the song led to Ne @-@ Yo being recognized as a top songwriter . For the next two years , Ne @-@ Yo continued writing songs , some of which have not been officially released . He contributed songs to American singer Teedra Moses 's 2004 album Complex Simplicity , Christina Milian 's It 's About Time , and the American boy band Youngstown , none of which , however , brought Ne @-@ Yo much mainstream attention . Ne @-@ Yo has also contributed songs to singers Mary J. Blige , B2K , Faith Evans , and Musiq , among others . A breakthrough came when Ne @-@ Yo wrote " Let Me Love You " for American singer Mario . The song reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and later stayed at the top spot for nine weeks . After the successful release , Tina Davis , former A & R representative for Def Jam Recordings , arranged an informal meeting with label head L.A. Reid . Despite not seeking a new contract at the time , then @-@ CEO of Def Jam Jay Z signed Ne @-@ Yo to a new deal after he performed for the label 's executives . = = = 2006 – 07 : In My Own Words and Because of You = = = In early 2006 , Ne @-@ Yo released his debut album , In My Own Words , through Def Jam . Boosted by its popular second single " So Sick " , the album debuted at number one on Billboard 200 , selling over 301 @,@ 000 copies in its first week on sale . During the same week , the single had reached number one on the \| Billboard Hot 100 . Later singles released were " When You 're Mad " and " Sexy Love " , which peaked at number 15 and number 7 , respectively . The album has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for a shipment of over one million units . His second album , Because of You , was released on May 1 , 2007 , and , fueled by its lead single , debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 251 @,@ 000 copies in the United States ; the feat gave Ne @-@ Yo his second number @-@ one album . The first single from the platinum @-@ selling album was the title track , which peaked at the number @-@ two spot . Despite the success of " Because of You , " later singles released charted lower and were unable to reach the Top 20 . The album has been certified platinum by RIAA for a shipment of over one million units . In December 2007 , Ne @-@ Yo and the Goo Goo Dolls performed at a fund @-@ raising concert for the then – presidential candidate Senator Barack Obama . = = = 2008 – 10 : Year of the Gentleman and Libra Scale = = = Ne @-@ Yo 's third album , Year of the Gentleman , was released internationally on August 5 , 2008 . Speaking to noted UK R & B writer Pete Lewis of the award @-@ winning Blues & Soul , Ne @-@ Yo explained the thinking behind its title : " To me Year of the Gentleman is all about a persona , a swag and a charm . I made an assessment of the music business . And , in my personal opinion , the essence of the gentleman is absent right now . Everybody kinda looks the same , everybody 's kinda doing the same thing , everybody 's kinda rude and full of themselves . Whereas a gentleman is calm , courteous , kind , charming ... So that title basically represents me trying to lead by example , and showing these cats what it is to be a gentleman in this business still . " The album sold 250 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States , debuting on the Billboard 200 at number two . Reviews for the album were positive : in one , Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that Year of the Gentleman is " actually a superb concept album about what a great boyfriend he [ Ne @-@ Yo ] can be " . The first two singles , " Closer " and " Miss Independent , " peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album was nominated for Best Contemporary R & B Album and Album of the Year at the 2009 Grammy Awards , " Closer " for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance , and " Miss Independent " for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance and Best R & B Song . Year of the Gentleman has been certified platinum by RIAA for a shipment of more than one million copies . The third single , " Mad , " peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 . On August 12 , 2008 , the New Kids on the Block released " Single , " the second single from their fifth studio album , The Block , which is a duet with Ne @-@ Yo . Ne @-@ Yo included a solo version of the song on his album Year of the Gentleman . In December 2008 , Ne @-@ Yo performed at the Kennedy Center Honors as part of the tribute to Barbra Streisand ; he sang and danced to the song " Lover Come Back to Me , " which Streisand recorded on her second album in 1963 . In 2009 , Billboard ranked him as the 57th Artist of the 2000s decade . On September 2 , 2009 , Ne @-@ Yo released greatest hits album Ne @-@ Yo : The Collection in Japan . The album was also released with a limited edition CD + DVD edition complete with the music videos of singles . It debuted at number four on Japan 's Oricon weekly albums chart , selling 55 @,@ 625 copies in the first week . In January 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo was featured in a duet with singer Mariah Carey titled Angels Cry . In June 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo released the single " Beautiful Monster , " which became Ne @-@ Yo 's first number @-@ one single on the UK Singles Chart . It peaked at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . On October 8 , 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo performed some of his songs from the new album at P.C. Richard & Son Theater in New York City , an event hosted by iheartradio . Ne @-@ Yo made an appearance at New York ComicCon to announce that he was collaborating with Stan Lee for a Libra Scale comic . Ne @-@ Yo also met with fans for pictures and autographs in the Cultyard of the ComicCon . The second and third singles released off of the album are " Champagne Life " and " One in a Million , " respectively . Libra Scale was released on November 22 , 2010 . It received critical acclaim from music critics , but was a commercial disappointment , debuting at number nine on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling less than all of his previous three studio albums . Ne @-@ Yo stated : " The album is based upon this short story which basically follows these three characters who are forced to choose between money @-@ power @-@ and @-@ fame versus love . Which in turn is why I 've called it ' Libra Scale ' . You know , its whole concept is based on that question of morality – that , if you weighed it all out on a libra scale , which one of those two options would you choose ? " . Libra Scale sold 112 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number 11 on the UK Albums Chart , while debuting at number one on the UK R & B Chart . = = = 2011 – 12 : R.E.D. = = = On February 25 , 2011 , while on his tour in the United Kingdom , he announced his new album would be called Love and Passion and would be released in September , but this was proven false as the title was tentative . American rapper Fabolous said in an interview that he is planning a collaboration album with Ne @-@ Yo as well . Ne @-@ Yo has also written songs for Mary J. Blige , JB , Beyoncé , Monica , Alexandra Burke , Cheryl Cole and Willow Smith 's upcoming albums . Ne @-@ Yo starred in two motion pictures , the long @-@ gestating George Lucas project Red Tails , released in early 2012 , and Battle : Los Angeles , which was released in the United States on March 11 , 2011 . Ne @-@ Yo has already finished writing songs for American pop singer and Roc Nation artist Alexis Jordan and her self @-@ titled debut album as well as Jennifer Hudson for her second studio album , I Remember Me , which had a North American release on March 22 , 2011 . Ne @-@ Yo appeared in the children 's preschool show The Fresh Beat Band and was one of the few artists not to cancel appearances in the wake of the 2011 Japan earthquake . In the spring of 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo collaborated with American rapper Pitbull and Nayer on his single " Give Me Everything " , which peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , giving Ne @-@ Yo his second U.S. number @-@ one single , his first since 2006 's " So Sick " and his first as a guest artist . Ne @-@ Yo also revealed in an interview that he would like to collaborate with Chris Brown , Lil Wayne and Drake on his upcoming album . In January 2012 , it was reported that Ne @-@ Yo , along with his label imprint Compound Entertainment , had moved from Def Jam Recordings to Motown Records . He was also appointed Senior Vice President of A & R of Motown , where he would serve " ... as a producer and mentor to the label 's artists , as well as seeking out and signing new talent to the label . " Ne @-@ Yo was slated to release his fifth studio album , R.E.D. ( as in " Realizing Every Dream " ) , on September 18 , 2012 . The album was initially titled The Cracks in Mr. Perfect . The album 's first official single , " Lazy Love , " was released on June 12 , 2012 and peaked at number forty @-@ two on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Let Me Love You ( Until You Learn to Love Yourself ) , " co @-@ written by Australian singer @-@ songwriter Sia , was released as the second single on July 31 , 2012 . Because of Kevin McCall 's new album and the song Ne @-@ Yo will be in , Love Time , is not yet released because he and his friend Chris Brown will make an appearance on Ne @-@ Yo 's R.E.D. album in the song called What I Do , which they all will be involved in writing the beat says Ne @-@ Yo , who was interviewed by TMZ in New York . " I expect this to be a banger in clubs for the slow songs and to get Ne @-@ Yo his first top 10 song in years , " said Chris Brown , after a celebrity basketball game with Ne @-@ Yo , Kevin Hart , and other celebrities in the month of July . On August 29 , 2012 , Ne @-@ Yo was one of the headliners alongside R & B recording artist Melanie Fiona , in the Summer Beats Concert Series , otherwise known as the MJ Birthday Concert , which was on what would have been the 54th birthday of the late American pop icon Michael Jackson which was sponsored by and live @-@ streamed by Pepsi and Billboard . He performed a medley of hits , as well as performing " The Way You Make Me Feel , " " Smooth Criminal , " and " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " from Jackson 's best @-@ selling 1987 album , Bad , in preparation for the reissue of Bad 25 on September 18 , 2012 . The concert took place at Gotham Hall in New York City . R.E.D. was released in the United Kingdom on November 5 , and in North America on November 6 , 2012 . In 2012 , Ne @-@ Yo was awarded the Hal David Starlight Award of the Songwriter 's Hall of Fame which honors gifted songwriters who are at an apex in their careers and are making a significant impact in the music industry via their original songs . = = = 2013 – present : Non @-@ Fiction and seventh studio album = = = In March 2013 , Ne @-@ Yo collaborated with Akon on David Guetta 's single " Play Hard " , from his 2012 album Nothing but the Beat 2 @.@ 0 . He also collaborated with Jessica Sanchez on her single " Tonight " from her debut album Me , You & the Music . The single , along with the music video got released on March 21 , 2013 . In April , Ne @-@ Yo and Cher Lloyd collaborated on their single " It 's All Good " , which eventually was featured on Fruttare commercials . Around the same time , he and Celine Dion recorded " Incredible " for Dion 's 2013 album Loved Me Back to Life . " Incredible " was released as a single in February 2014 and the music video premiered in June 2014 . On May 29 , 2014 , Ne @-@ Yo announced his upcoming sixth studio album would be called Non @-@ Fiction . That same day , he announced a new single , " Money Can 't Buy . " On September 16 , 2014 , Ne @-@ Yo released the lead single from " Non Fiction " to mainstream radio titled " She Knows " featuring Juicy J. A few months later , Ne @-@ Yo announced that the new release date for Non @-@ Fiction was January 27 , 2015 . The album included collaborations with Pitbull and Charisse Mills . The album peaked at number 5 of on the Billboard 200 chart . In July 2015 , Ne @-@ Yo collaborated with Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike on a new song for the Tomorrowland anthem titled " Higher Place " . In August 2015 Ne @-@ Yo announced his seventh studio album with no title yet . However , he plans on the album to drop sometime in 2016 . He also leaked a sneak peek of the potential lead single off the album titled " Hang W / " during a live recording in the studio . On September 6 , 2015 , Ne @-@ Yo premiered two new songs off the album titled " Goodbye " and " She Leaving With Me " featuring Busta Rhymes . = = Artistry = = = = = Musical style and influence = = = Ne @-@ Yo 's music is generally R & B , while he also incorporates Pop and Hip @-@ hop occasionally . His musical influences include Luther Vandross , Michael Jackson , R.kelly , Babyface , Blackstreet and Usher . = = = Voice = = = Ne @-@ Yo possess a light Lyric tenor vocal style . = = = Songwriting and production = = = Ne @-@ Yo frequently co @-@ writes with Tor Erik Hermansen and Mikkel S. Eriksen of the Norwegian production team Stargate . Ne @-@ Yo met them in a hallway at Sony Music Studios in New York , and knowing the team produced R & B records , decided to collaborate with them . The collective 's early works were tracks off In My Own Words , including " So Sick . " Aside from working on his own album , Ne @-@ Yo also collaborates with several other artists . His works include : Rihanna 's top @-@ ten singles " Unfaithful , " " Russian Roulette , " and her number @-@ one hit " Take a Bow , " Mario Vazquez 's " Gallery , " Paula DeAnda 's " Walk Away ( Remember Me ) , " and Beyoncé Knowles ' Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one single " Irreplaceable , " which stayed at the top of the chart for ten consecutive weeks . He wrote the song " I 'm You " for Leona Lewis 's debut album Spirit , and is currently writing songs for her next album and for the debut album of fellow X Factor winner Alexandra Burke . He has also been working with Sugababes for their seventh album , with member Keisha Buchanan confirming that Ne @-@ Yo had written a song called " No More You " for their album . In 2010 , he dueted with Mariah Carey on " Angel 's Cry , " a song on her cancelled album , Angels Advocate . Ne @-@ Yo has also written songs for Celine Dion , Whitney Houston , Carrie Underwood , Anastacia , Ciara , Corbin Bleu , Enrique Iglesias , and Dima Bilan . He collaborated with Lindsay Lohan on her new material , having already finished " Bossy " , a pre @-@ single for her new album Spirit in the Dark . In 2007 , Ne @-@ Yo confirmed that he had been contacted by producer will.i.am to work on what would have been Michael Jackson 's new album . However , at the time of Jackson 's death , Ne @-@ Yo 's collaborations with him had yet to move past the writing stage . In an interview in 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo said that , since Jackson 's death , he had been confused as what to do with the songs , as he felt that selling them to another artist or even releasing the songs himself would be disrespectful to Jackson 's legacy . In 2009 , he wrote " Truth ( Saigo no Shinjitsu ) " for w @-@ inds . , the Japanese pop group . Ne @-@ Yo ventured out to open his own recording studio , called Carrington House , in Atlanta , Georgia . He also had started his own production company , Compound Entertainment , in 2007 , and has hired several producers and songwriters in hopes of turning it into a full @-@ fledged record label . It successfully became a label , and artists such as RaVaughn , Paula Campbell , Sixx John , Adrienne Bailon and Shanell are now associated with Compound . = = Other ventures = = = = = Television = = = In 2011 Ne @-@ Yo was approached by Cartoon Network to help create an animated series . Ne @-@ Yo announced that the show would be titled I Heart Tuesday and that he had created it for his sister . He also stated that he wanted to avoid having the show resemble the anime art style of The Boondocks due to the potential cost of the show 's animation style . Ne @-@ Yo appeared in an episode of the seventh season of CSI : NY as a hit @-@ man , under his birth name of Shaffer Smith . In 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo appeared in an episode of The Fresh Beat Band as himself . He starred as the Tin Man in NBC 's musical telecast adaptation of The Wiz alongside David Alan Grier , Elijah Kelley , Queen Latifah , Common , Amber Riley , Uzo Aduba and Mary J. Blige . The musical telecast premiered December 3 , 2015 as a three @-@ hour event . For his performance , he received a Critics Choice Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Movie made for Television or Limited Series . = = = Philanthropy = = = Ne @-@ Yo is very passionate about the arts and children , and has shown his support for Little Kids Rock by filming a PSA for the organization . = = Personal life = = = = = Family = = = In 2005 , Jessica White , Ne @-@ Yo 's girlfriend at the time , gave birth to a boy , naming him Chimere after Ne @-@ Yo 's middle name . Though Ne @-@ Yo believed he was the father , he later discovered the child was not his . In June 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo told Ebony that he and his girlfriend , Monyetta Shaw , were expecting their first child together , a girl due early in 2011 . Shaw gave birth early to daughter , Madilyn Grace Smith , on November 12 , 2010 in Atlanta , Georgia . Announcing the birth , Ne @-@ Yo said of his first child , " I 've been in love before but this feels like nothing I 've ever felt ... like I 'm in love for the first time . " In September 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo revealed that he was expecting his second child with Monyetta Shaw . Shaw gave birth to a boy , Mason Evan Smith , on October 9 , 2011 . In September 2015 , the singer announced that he and Crystal Renay Williams were engaged and expecting a child . They were married on February 20 , 2016 . Their son , Shaffer Chimere Smith , Jr . , was born in March 2016 . = = = Legal issues = = = On February 19 , 2008 , Ne @-@ Yo was arrested for reckless driving and driving without a valid license while driving through Cobb County , Georgia in his 2006 Range Rover . It was reported that he was doing about 150 mph , 100 mph over the speed limit . On June 2 , 2008 , Ne @-@ Yo pleaded guilty to driving without a valid license and no contest to the reckless driving charge . He was sentenced to 24 hours of community service . On August 22 , 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo was sued along with rapper Pitbull and Dutch DJ Afrojack by actress Lindsay Lohan , claiming that their song " Give Me Everything " referenced her by name in the lyrics . Pitbull won the lawsuit . = = Discography = = In My Own Words ( 2006 ) Because of You ( 2007 ) Year of the Gentleman ( 2008 ) Libra Scale ( 2010 ) R.E.D. ( 2012 ) Non @-@ Fiction ( 2015 ) = = Filmography = =
= George Odlum = George William Odlum ( 24 June 1934 – 28 September 2003 ) was a Saint Lucian left @-@ wing politician who served as Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister . Born in Castries , Odlum studied at Bristol University and Oxford University in the United Kingdom before returning to Saint Lucia as Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Trade . After working for the Commonwealth Secretariat and the West Indies Associated States , he formed the Saint Lucia Forum , a left @-@ wing pressure group . This group merged with the Saint Lucia Labour Party in time for the 1974 elections ; although the Party did not win , the progress they made allowed them to take power in 1979 , with Odlum as Deputy Prime Minister . Although a secret agreement originally stated that Odlum would take power after six months , his support for Cuba and similar left @-@ wing nations led to American pressure to keep him out . After months of negotiations , Odlum was dismissed as Deputy Prime Minister , and the ensuing government weakness and infighting led to its defeat in the 1982 election . In opposition , Odlum was made Ambassador to the United Nations , resigning in 1996 . When the Labour Party came to power again a year later , he became Foreign Minister , overseeing the establishment of stronger relations with both Cuba and China . Amidst controversy over his alleged alliance with the opposition , Odlum resigned in 2001 . Never again returning to power , he died on 28 September 2003 following a battle with pancreatic cancer . Odlum 's legacy is controversial : while noted as a skilled orator who cared deeply for Saint Lucia 's working class , his idealism , support for controversial figures such as Muammar Gaddafi and departure from two Labour administrations were noted as factors which harmed him and others around him . Despite this , his funeral saw widespread grieving , with Ralph Gonsalves , the Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , describing him simply as a " giant of a man " . = = Early life = = Odlum was born on 24 June 1934 in Castries , the son of a barber . He studied economics at Bristol University , becoming the first Afro @-@ Caribbean head of the University of Bristol Union before moving to Magdalen College , Oxford in 1959 , where he studied Philosophy , Politics and Economics and was one of the few Afro @-@ Caribbean students to attend . At university , Odlum acted , played both football and cricket , and became noted as a successful debater . After graduating from Oxford he returned to St Lucia in 1961 , becoming a Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Trade . He moved back to the United Kingdom in 1964 to work as an economist in the Commonwealth Secretariat , leaving 3 years later . Returning to St Lucia again , he became Executive Secretary to the Council of Ministers of the West Indies Associated States . = = Career = = During the early 1960s , St Lucia and the other West Indies Associated States were British colonies , with a limited degree of self @-@ rule . In St Lucia , the Saint Lucia Labour Party was considered the traditional party for " political and constitutional advance " but , despite this , it lost the general election in 1964 to the United Workers Party , a right @-@ wing party led by John Compton that continued to rule until 1979 . In response Odlum , a socialist , founded the Saint Lucia Forum , a pressure group that discussed " the socialist and black cultural ideas which were beginning to challenge the Caribbean status quo " . This was part of a group of Forums established in 1970 following secret talks with other left @-@ wing Caribbean intellectuals , including Maurice Bishop . In 1972 Odlum left his job with the Council of Ministers to form the St Lucia Action Movement , which later merged with a weakened Labour Party in time for the 1974 general election . Odlum 's faction of the Labour Party did most of the work in the election , building their power base among the banana @-@ producing small farmers , with Odlum leading frequent strikes in an attempt to improve working conditions . His work in the 1974 election , along with his " good looks and charisma " , yielded a safe seat in Castries , which he allowed his brother to run for . Odlum instead chose to campaign for a rural seat held by the United Workers Party , which he lost by a small margin . Despite the Labour Party still being in opposition in Saint Lucia , socialism and left @-@ wing politics were on the rise in the Caribbean as a whole and , during his time out of Parliament , Odlum was the public face of socialism in the region . Saint Lucia gained full independence in 1979 . Immediately beforehand , Odlum organised large protests in front of international news cameras , further cementing his role in the region 's communist and socialist movement . Three weeks after independence , the nearby country of Grenada saw the overthrow of its government by communists revolutionaries led by Maurice Bishop . When the United Workers Party called a general election in Saint Lucia three weeks later , Compton 's government fell – Odlum was returned to Parliament and the Labour Party , led by Allan Louisy , came to power . = = = Deputy Prime Minister = = = Odlum 's prominent role within the party led to his immediate appointment as Deputy Prime Minister , with the portfolios of foreign affairs and trade and industry . He publicly supported the Grenadian revolutionaries , who were constructing a new airport with Cuban support . Ronald Reagan alleged that this was to be used as a launching point for Soviet aircraft , and Odlum 's support for it worried both the Americans ( due to their concerns about the purposes of the new facility ) and his fellow communists , who saw him as a " loose cannon " and thought that his continuing public championing of it would further draw American attention . Louisy had become Prime Minister thanks to a secret agreement with Odlum that he would resign , allowing Odlum to take over , within 6 months . When the time came Louisy refused , backed by the Americans , who wanted to keep Odlum out of office at all costs . This saw Odlum turn against his own government and even vote against the budget . A second proposal that Louisy resign was rejected on 30 December 1980 , with the power struggle continuing despite his agreement to hand over some of his portfolios . The dispute continued into 1981 , with Odlum attracting controversy by announcing on 3 March that he had not ignored the possibility of his grouping within the Labour Party splitting and joining the United Workers Party . The result was the 1981 dismissal of Odlum as Deputy Prime Minister and the resignation of Louisy . Louisy was succeeded not by Odlum , but by Winston Cenac , who himself resigned eight months later on 16 January 1982 . Cenac was succeeded by Michael Pilgrim in an attempt by moderates in the Labour Party to avoid the possibility of Odlum leading the country . By this point Odlum had left the party , forming the Progressive Labour Party ( PLP ) . Pilgrim 's government also collapsed , necessitating an early general election in 1982 in which the Labour Party was left with only 3 of the 17 seats , returning the United Workers Party to government and seeing Odlum dismissed from Parliament . His Progressive Labour Party won only a single seat . = = = Ambassador and Foreign Minister = = = Now outside Parliament , Odlum maintained his presence in the public eye through meetings and the work of his newspaper , The Crusader . His revenge over the Labour Party finally occurred during the 1987 general election , when the PLP split the vote and denied his old allies victory . In 1995 he accepted the position of Ambassador to the United Nations from Compton , his old enemy , holding it for only a year . When Compton resigned in 1996 , Odlum chose to stand for election against his successor and lost the contest . After again allying with the Labour Party in 1997 , Odlum was returned to Parliament , receiving appointment as Foreign Minister in the government of Kenny Anthony . In this position , he oversaw the improvement of diplomatic relations with Cuba , announcing that a consulate would be established there and spearheading the signing of a joint Cuban @-@ Saint Lucian trading agreement to oversee improvements in the agricultural and healthcare sectors . Odlum 's ministry also saw the diplomatic recognition of China in 1997 , following month @-@ long negotiations and the offer of several million dollars worth of aid to Saint Lucia . Taiwan responded to the announcement by breaking off relations , stating that the government 's move to recognise China had harmed Taiwan 's " national interests and dignity " . After diplomatic relations were officially established , Odlum visited China between 5 and 12 September . Odlum resigned in 2001 after a series of controversies . His fellow ministers accused him of conspiring against the government and attempting to have it overthrown and replaced with a new administration . Odlum , on the other hand , argued that ruling members of the Labour Party had been making efforts to remove him and that the " dastardly act " of cutting away a significant portion of his constituency in a boundary change was what had forced him over the edge . His resignation came immediately before a letter of dismissal arrived at his house . Odlum formed the National Alliance party to contest the 2001 elections , but the party failed to win any seats . = = Retirement and death = = Odlum attracted controversy in November 2002 when he spoke at the funeral service for Antiguan politician Tim Hector . His speech censured the attendees for what he perceived as mourning Hector in death while failing to support him in life , asking " were you there when the ballot process was contaminated to declare him a loser ? Were you there ? " . His speech was criticised by Vere Bird , Jr . , the Antiguan Minister of Agriculture , Lands and Fisheries , who called Odlum 's words " strident and ill @-@ informed reflections " . Following a long fight against cancer , spending most of the last year of his life in and out of hospital , Odlum died on 28 September 2003 in Tapion Hospital , Castries , aged 69 . The body lay in state on 5 October , where it was viewed by Pearlette Louisy , Kenny Anthony , and members of the Cabinet . Odlum 's funeral was held on 6 October , with a 30 @-@ vehicle procession travelling from Vieux Fort to Castries ; it was led by a pair of police outriders and a coach carrying the coffin , draped in the national flag . St Lucian citizens were reported to be openly weeping at Odlum 's death . The funeral itself was held in a park , due to no church in Castries being large enough to hold the number of mourners . During the service , sections of his most famous speeches were broadcast from loudspeakers . James Fletcher , a Cabinet Secretary , had previously announced that all flags would be flown at half @-@ mast for the day as a tribute . Edwin Carrington , the Secretary @-@ General of the Caribbean Community , stated that Odlum " served his country , St Lucia , with distinction " and was " charismatic , eloquent and a consummate master of communication , both in speaking and writing ... one of the region 's leading and most persistent exponents on the debilitating effects of the erosion of trade preferences for the region 's banana industry on the livelihood of the people " . Other tributes came from Ralph Gonsalves , the Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , who described Odlum as " one of the region 's finest political orators , who was persuasive , eloquent and was able to command attention universally , not only in his native capital city Castries but also at the United Nations , in Geneva , Cape Town or in London " . In 2004 , on the anniversary of his death , a series of activities were organised in memory of Odlum . These included the dedication of a tomb at the Choc Cemetery and a service at the Mount of Prayer in Coubaril that was attended by his family and close friends . = = Legacy = = Odlum , known simply as " Brother George " , had a controversial legacy . He was noted as one of the region 's greatest orators , able to command attention not only in Saint Lucia itself , but at the United Nations and on the world stage . Supporters praised his connection with the working class , and his fight for better pay and conditions in the agricultural sector . At the same time , both critics and supporters point towards awkward elements of his personality and career . Gonsalves , at his funeral , noted that " the strictures of bureaucratic systems he found difficult to be contained within " , while his obituary in The Times described him as a man " with more flamboyance than substance " . His resignation from the two Labour administrations , as well as his alliances with the UWP and other factions , were noted as contradictions which would require historical debate and assessment . His support of figures such as Fidel Castro and Muammar Gaddafi was also noted as controversial , with his relentless left @-@ wing approach to politics being identified as damaging both to others and to the causes he championed .
= John Baker White ( Virginia ) = John Baker White ( August 4 , 1794 – October 9 , 1862 ) was a 19th @-@ century American military officer , lawyer , court clerk , and civil servant in the U.S. state of Virginia . During the War of 1812 , White enlisted in the United States Army as a soldier and was promoted to the military rank of ensign . In 1815 , White was qualified as Clerk of Court for both the county and circuit courts of Hampshire County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) and he continued to hold these offices through successive appointments and elections for 46 years between 1815 and 1861 . To date , White remains the longest @-@ serving Clerk of Court for Hampshire County since the office 's creation in 1757 . As a prominent lawyer and court clerk , White taught jurisprudence . Many of White 's law students later became eminent lawyers and public officials in their own right , including Henry Bedinger , United States House Representative and United States Ambassador to Denmark . During the American Civil War , White was concerned for the safety of the county 's records and proceeded to load land registration records ledger books onto wagons and had them transported for safekeeping . Because of White 's efforts , Hampshire County land records survived the war , while those records that remained in the courthouse were destroyed . White was threatened by occupying Union Army forces to either vacate his residence in Romney or face arrest because of his Confederate sympathies . White relocated to Richmond and served in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury . White was a member of the White political family of Virginia and West Virginia and was the son of prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) and the father of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White ( 1833 – 1915 ) and Hampshire County Clerk of Court Christian Streit White ( 1839 – 1917 ) . = = Early life and military career = = John Baker White was born on August 4 , 1794 , near Winchester in Frederick County , Virginia . White was the third and youngest child of prominent Virginia General Court judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) and his wife Arabella Baker . Among his other relations , White was a great @-@ great @-@ nephew of United States House Representative Alexander White ( 1738 – 1804 ) and a great @-@ nephew of another United States House Representative , Francis White ( 1761 – 1826 ) . During the War of 1812 , White enlisted in the United States Army as a soldier and was promoted to the military rank of ensign . = = Clerk of court career = = Following his service in the War of 1812 , White settled in Romney , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) where he was appointed as deputy clerk for both the superior court and circuit court in Hampshire County in 1814 . On March 20 , 1815 , White was qualified as Clerk of Court for both the superior and circuit courts of Hampshire County , and he continued to hold these offices through successive appointments and elections for 46 years between 1815 and 1861 . To date , White remains the longest @-@ serving Clerk of Court for Hampshire County since the office 's creation in 1757 . = = Academic affairs = = As a prominent lawyer and court clerk , White conducted the teaching of jurisprudence in both his Clerk of Court office and residence , where he allowed his law students to reside during their studies . Many of White 's law students later became eminent lawyers and public officials in their own right , including : Henry Bedinger , United States House Representative and United States Ambassador to Denmark ; James Dillon Armstrong , Hampshire County Circuit Court judge and son of William Armstrong ; Dr. Robert White , Presbyterian minister of Tuscaloosa , Alabama ; and Virginia lawyers Newton Tapscott , Alfred P. White , and Philip B. Streit . In addition to his law instruction , White was an active member of the Romney Literary Society . When the act of incorporation for Romney Academy was amended by the Virginia General Assembly on March 25 , 1839 , White was appointed as a trustee along with other prominent Romney area residents David Gibson , Angus William McDonald , Daniel Mytinger , and John Kern , Jr . The 1839 act authorized any of the five appointed trustees of Romney Academy to fill vacancies on the board " occasioned by death , resignation , removal , or legal disability " , thereby preventing future prolonged vacant trustee seats . = = Business affairs = = By 1839 , White was serving on the board of directors of the Bank of the Valley of Virginia in Romney . During the absence of the board 's president , David Gibson , White served as president pro tempore from November 29 until December 13 , 1839 . The Wirgman Building housed the Bank of the Valley of Virginia during White 's tenure on its board of directors . = = American Civil War = = Prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War , White was in support of preserving the United States . In the United States presidential election of 1860 , White supported Constitutional Union Party presidential candidate John Bell and his running mate Edward Everett . The Constitutional Union Party was formed by former Whig Party members seeking to avoid secessionism over the issue of slavery . In 1861 , White voted for Union candidates to serve as delegates from Hampshire County in the Virginia secession convention , one of which was his son @-@ in @-@ law Colonel E. M. Armstrong . White 's national loyalties shifted following the Battle of Fort Sumter and other Union encroachments into the Confederate States of America , after which White supported the defense of Virginia 's states ' rights and of the United States Constitution . White 's eldest three sons out of four joined the Confederate States Army , and White became active in enlisting and arousing support within Hampshire County for the Confederate States cause . Because of his Confederate sympathies , White was threatened by occupying Union Army forces to either vacate his residence in Romney or face arrest . = = = Preservation of Hampshire County records = = = No court proceedings convened in the county between 1861 and 1864 , and the Hampshire County Courthouse was utilized as a stable by Union soldiers stationed in Romney during the war . In 1861 , Union Army forces under the command of Lew Wallace occupied Romney following a minor battle there during which White " kept close watch over " the county 's record books so that they would not be destroyed by Union forces . Later in the fall of 1861 , Union Army forces under the command of Benjamin Franklin Kelley advanced upon Romney . Upon learning of this , White was again concerned for the safety of the county 's records and proceeded to load land registration records ledger books onto wagons and had them transported to Winchester for safekeeping . White selected for transport only the bound volumes of records which included " deed books , wills , and settlements of estates " and kept the unbound paper records in the courthouse , thus separating them so that the entirety of the county 's records could not be destroyed by Union forces . White likely chose to transport the bound volumes of records , as the loose paper records would have been more cumbersome to keep together . In 1863 , when Winchester was no longer a safe location for the storage of Hampshire County 's records and they again risked destruction by Union Army forces , White 's son Captain Christian Streit White took responsibility for the records and transferred them to Front Royal . When Front Royal became endangered by advancing Union Army forces , Captain White had the records moved to Luray Caverns where they remained for several months . In the fall of 1864 , the county 's record books were rescued by Captain White and his company as Union Army troops were in the process of destroying them . Captain White 's company loaded about 150 record books into a wagon , and they were taken to North Carolina where they remained safely for the duration of the war . Hampshire County 's land records survived and were returned to the courthouse following the conclusion of the American Civil War , likely by a soldier returning to the area from North Carolina . Had White not separated the records and sent the bound volumes away for safekeeping , Hampshire County would have lost all its records during the course of the war , as those that remained in the courthouse were destroyed . In addition to the desecration of the courthouse 's loose paper records , either a Union Army officer or an Indiana unit confiscated an old Scots language Bible belonging to White , which had been passed down to him from his grandfather , John White . The " old Scots Bible " was purportedly taken as punishment against White for his support of the Confederacy . = = = Removal to Richmond = = = White left Romney with his wife and youngest children and traveled to Richmond where he was offered a position in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury within the government of the President of the Confederate States of America , Jefferson Davis . = = Death and legacy = = White died soon after his arrival in Richmond on October 9 , 1862 . He was interred by Scottish Rite Masons at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond . Distant relative Reverend Moses D. Hoge of the Southern Presbyterian Church , Bishop Duncan of the Methodist Episcopal Church , South , and Bishop Minegerode of the Southern Protestant Episcopal Church participated in White 's funeral services . White 's friends and family believed that he " died of grief " caused by the loss of his property in Romney and his concern for the safety of the records in the Hampshire County Courthouse during the conflict . In their History of Hampshire County , West Virginia : From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present ( 1897 ) , West Virginia historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher said of White : = = Personal life = = = = = Marriage and issue = = = White was married first to Alcinda Louisa Tapscott of Jefferson County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) , on December 15 , 1815 . Tapscott was White 's cousin through his mother , Arabella Baker White . White and his first wife Alcinda had three children together : White was married for the second time to Frances Ann Streit ( March 19 , 1811 – November 12 , 1866 ) , a daughter of Lutheran Reverend Christian Streit of Winchester , Virginia . Streit and her family were of Swiss descent . White and his second wife , Frances , had ten children ( one of which died in infancy ) : = = = Residence = = = White and his family resided in a large brick mansion located along East Main Street ( Northwestern Turnpike ) which was later known as " Liberty Hall " . Due to his upbringing in an affluent family , White was a person of means from a young age , and in his early adulthood he was able to construct a " large brick mansion " at this location . His original residence was destroyed by fire in 1857 , and White replaced it with a more modest brick edifice where he resided until his departure from Romney in 1861 during the American Civil War . White 's home was a " seat of true old Virginia hospitality " and it was frequented by all socio @-@ cultural strata of Hampshire County and the greater Valley of Virginia region . During the construction of the Northwestern Turnpike through Romney , the state superintendent for the project , Angus William McDonald , proposed building the thoroughfare through White 's garden in front of his residence . White won an appeal in court which caused the turnpike to be rerouted , thus creating the present curve on East Main Street in front of White 's former residence .
= Battle of Glenmama = The Battle of Glenn Máma ( Irish : Cath Ghleann Máma , The Battle of " The Glen of the Gap " ) or Glenmama was a battle that took place , most probably near Lyons Hill in Ardclough . County Kildare in AD 999 between Windmill Hill and Blackchurch . It was the decisive and only engagement of the brief Leinster revolt of 999 – 1000 against the King of Munster , Brian Boru . In it , the combined forces of the Kingdoms of Munster and Meath , under King Brian Boru and the High King of Ireland , Máel Sechnaill II , inflicted a crushing defeat on the allied armies of Leinster and Dublin , led by King Máel Mórda of Leinster . The two armies met in a narrow valley , causing a rout of Máel Mórda 's army in at least three directions . They were pursued , and the main body of the army was slaughtered when they rallied at several fording points along the River Liffey . The main commanders were either killed or captured . The battle resulted in the occupation of Dublin by Brian 's Munster forces , and the submission of Máel Mórda and King Sigtrygg Silkbeard of Dublin to Brian Boru . The solution did not prove permanent , however , and eventually resulted in the second Leinster revolt against Brian and the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 . = = Location = = Although nineteenth century scholars , including John O ’ Donovan and Todd , and especially the Dunlavin @-@ based clergyman John Francis Shearman ( in 1830 ) were tempted to locate the battle @-@ site in the vicinity of Dunlavin , Co Wicklow , within their lifetime the theory was disputed by Goddard Orpen , and were disproved by Joseph Lloyd in 1914 and subsequently by Albha mac Gabhrain who located the battle site beside Ardclough on the Dublin @-@ Kildare border in 1914 ( he Irish form of Dunlavin is in reality Dun Luadhain ) . between Windmill Hill and Blackchurch . Ailbhe Mac Shamhráin wrote : Given the propensity for battles to take place in border regions , it seems reasonable to seek a location close to the perimeter of the Hiberno @-@ Norse kingdom of Dublin . On that account , the suggestion of Lloyd , which places the battle at a gap now crossed by the Naas Road on the section between Kill and Rathcoole , is still worthy of consideration . In any event , the engagement took place within an easy day ’ s march of Dublin , as Brian pressed on immediately afterwards to reach the town on the following day . = = Background = = In 997 , at a royal meeting near Clonfert , Brian Boru , King of Munster , met with his long @-@ time rival Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill , who was at the time High King of Ireland . Although the idea of the high @-@ kingship is considered mainly an anachronistic invention , it came into vogue in the 10th century to denote a king who had enforced his power over external territories . Máel Sechnaill assumed the Irish high @-@ kingship after the Battle of Tara in 980 . The two kings made a truce , by which Brian was granted rule over the southern half of Ireland , while Máel Sechnaill retained the northern half and high kingship . In honour of this arrangement , Máel Sechnaill handed over to Brian the hostages he had taken from Dublin and Leinster ; and in 998 , Brian handed over to Máel Sechnaill the hostages of Connacht . In the same year , Brian and Máel Sechnaill began co @-@ operating against the Norse of Dublin for the first time . Late in 999 , however , the Leinstermen , historically hostile to domination by either the Uí Néill overkings or the King of Munster , allied themselves with the Norse of Dublin and revolted against Brian . According to the 17th century Annals of the Four Masters , the following prophecy had predicted the Battle of Glenmama : They shall come to Gleann @-@ Mama , It will not be water over hands , Persons shall drink a deadly draught Around the stone at Claen @-@ Conghair . From the victorious overthrow they shall retreat , Till they reach past the wood northwards , And Ath @-@ cliath the fair shall be burned , After the ravaging the Leinster plain . = = Battle = = The Annals of the Four Masters records that Brian and Máel Sechnaill united their forces , and according to the Annals of Ulster , they met the Leinster @-@ Dublin army at Glenmama on Thursday , 30 December 999 . Glenmama , near Lyons Hill in County Kildare , was the ancient stronghold of the Kings of Leinster . The Munster @-@ Meath army defeated the Leinster @-@ Dublin army . Later historians have also seen the battle as decisive . The sources point to high mortality on both sides . According to the Annals of Innisfallen , which represents a Munster perspective , formna Gall herend ( ‘ the best part of the foreigners of Ireland ’ ) fell therein . The more partisan Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib indulges in hyperbole , claiming that ‘ since the Battle of Mag Roth to that time there had not taken place a greater slaughter . ” The fallen included Harald son of Amlaib ( a brother of Sitriuc Silkbeard ) and ‘ other nobles of the foreigners ’ , amongst whom was one Cuilén son of Eitigén , who apparently belonged to the Gailenga ; he may have been a brother of Ruadacán son of Eitegén , king of Airther Gaileng , who died in 953 . On Brian ’ s side , even the Cogadh acknowledges that ‘ there fell many multitudes of the Dál Cais , ’ but no details are provided. the It says the battle was ' bloody , furious , red , valiant , heroic , manly ; rough , cruel and heartless ; ' and that there had been no greater slaughter since the seventh century Battle of Magh Rath . Ó Corráin refers to it as a " crushing defeat " of Leinster and Dublin , while The dictionary of English history says the battle effectively " quelled " the " desperate revolt " of Leinster and Dublin . Tradition records that " the son of the King of the Danes " , Harold Olafsson , was killed in the retreat , and was interned at the now obscure cemetery of Cryhelpe . Brian took Máel Mórda of Leinster prisoner and held him until he received hostages from the Leinstermen . It was alleged that 7000 Norse fell in the battle . This was at a time when warfare was fought on a very limited scale , and raiding armies generally had between a hundred and two hundred men . Most importantly , the defeat left the road to Dublin " free and unimpeded for the victorious legions of Brian and Maelsechlainn " . = = Sack of Dublin = = The victory was followed up with an attack on the city of Dublin . Brian ’ s forces marched quickly to Dublin ( again confirming a Saggart @-@ Ardclough location for the battle ) reaching the town on New Year ’ s Eve 999 . They entered its defences without any great resistance and the Annals of Innisfallen say that , on New Year ’ s Day ( the Kalends of January ) 1000 , they burned both the settlement itself and the nearby wood known as Caill Tomair which apparently stood on the north side of the Liffey . The plunder of the town , for the second time in ten years , is described in considerable detail in the Cogaidh . The 12th century Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh gives two accounts of the occupation : that Brian remained in Dublin from Christmas Day until Epiphany ( 6 January ) , or from Christmas Day until St. Brigid 's Day ( 1 February ) . The later Annals of Ulster gives a date of 30 December for the Battle of Glenmama , while Annals of Inisfallen dates Brian 's capture of the city two days later , to 1 January 1000 . According to the much more reliable Annals of the Four Masters and the Chronicon Scotorum , Dublin was only occupied for a week by Munster forces . In any case , in 1000 Brian plundered the city , burned the Norse fortress and expelled its ruler , King Sigtrygg Silkbeard . Ailbhe Mac Shamhráin wrote : Allowance must be made here for poetic license but , event itself , some picture can be obtained of the wealth of the trading centre that was Dublin According to the account Brian , having plundered the dún ( fortress ) , entered the margadh ( market area ) and here seized the greatest wealth . Meanwhile , on the approach of the Munster forces , King Sitriuc had fled northward hoping to obtain asylum among the Ulstermen . His ally , Máel @-@ mórda of Uí Faeláin , was captured , in ignominious circumstances according to Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib . = = Aftermath = = The kingship of Leinster was bestowed upon the Uí Dunchada candidate , Dunchad son of Domnail , who retained this status until he was deposed in 1003 . Sigtrygg Silkbeard returned having found no asylum in the north . The annal accounts concur that he , too , yielded hostages to Brian while the Annals of Innisfallen add that Brian in a suitable magnanimous gesture , ‘ gave the fort ( dún ) to the Foreigners . Ailbhe Mac Shamhráin wrote : The implications here is that , from this time onwards , the Hiberno @-@ Scandinavian ruler would hold his kingship from his Munster overlord . Brian , at this stage , aspired to an even tighter dominance of Dublin that than secured by his rival , Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill , ten years earlier . There seems to be little doubt that the longer term beneficiary of Glenn Máma was Brian alone . With renewed confidence , he again moved against Máel Sechnaill \| Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill , even if his initiatives of 1000 @-@ 1001 resulted in setbacks , one expedition into Brega resulted in his advance cavalry being slaughtered by the Uí Néill , another foray was reversed in Míde ( Co Westmeath ) , and the Dál Cais river @-@ fleet was impeded by the King of Tara and his Connachta allies having constructed a barrier across the Shannon . Brian , however , found a way of circumventing hit and , early in 1002 , brought a large army through to Athlone and took the hostages of Connacht . According to the Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh , Sigtrygg 's flight from the city brought him north , first to the Ulaid and then to Áed of Cenél nEógain . Since Sigtrygg could find no refuge in Ireland , he eventually returned , submitted to Brian , gave hostages and was restored to Dublin . This was three months after Brian ended his occupation in February . In the meantime , Sigtrygg may have temporarily " turned pirate " and been responsible for a raid on St David 's in Wales . Brian gave his own daughter by his first wife in marriage to Sigtrygg . Brian in turn took as his second wife Sigtrygg 's mother , the now thrice @-@ married Gormflaith . The cessation of revolt was followed by over a decade of peace in Dublin while Sigtrygg 's men served in the armies of Brian . However , Sigtrygg never forgot the insult of the Ulaid , and in 1002 he had his revenge when his soldiers served in Brian 's campaign against the Ulaid and ravaged their lands . Máel Sechnaill found the support of the northern kings slipping away felt obliged to submit and a new political order was created . The capitulation of the king of Tara left Brian as the most powerful king in Ireland – the first non Uí Néill king to achieve such prominence . Ailbhe Mac Shamhráin wrote : Glenn Máma gave Brian a psychological advantage over the king of Tara and increased his readiness to break the Agreement of Clonfert . As a result of the battle , he had achieved domination , in a meaningful sense , of Leinster and Dublin . Through achieving effective dominance of Dublin , Brian acquired a military ( aside from a psychological ) advantage over Máel Sechnaill , which helped him in his endeavours to reach beyond the lordship of Leth Moga . His success in this regard was probably instrumental in tying Dublin into the sphere of Leth Moga for at least a century to follow .
= Iori Yagami = Iori Yagami ( 八神庵 , Yagami Iori ) is a character from SNK 's The King of Fighters video game series who first appeared in The King of Fighters ' 95 as the leader of the Rivals Team . He is an iconic character in the series , and appears regularly on publicity material and merchandise . Iori is a central character to the series ' plot , and the initial enemy and eventual rival of Kyo Kusanagi . He was created specifically to become Kyo 's rival and his name and abilities were designed to relate him with the Yamata no Orochi legend . The designers ended up liking him so much that they are careful how his character is developed as the series expands . Iori is the heir of the Yagami clan , who wield pyrokinetic powers and sealed the Orochi demon along with the Kusanagi and Yata clans . However , after betraying the Kusanagi clan , the Yagami are cursed by Orochi giving them powers that cause all their members to die young . The character harbors hatred against the other clans , but later becomes obsessed with killing their heir Kyo . As a result , Iori sometimes helps him in order to have the opportunity to have a final fight against him . Aside from the main series , Iori appears in several other media series such as spin @-@ offs and crossover video games , and comic adaptations of the series . Video games journalists have praised the character as one of the most powerful characters in the series . Reviewers have also cited Iori as one of the best characters from the games , labeling him as a veteran character and praising his appearance as one of the best creations by SNK . A variety of collectibles based on Iori 's likeness have been created , including key chains and figurines . = = Attributes = = Iori is a violent and sadistic person who suffers from trauma because of his clan 's past . In ancient times , the Yagami clan was known as the Yasakani . With the help of the Yata and Kusanagi clans , they sealed the demon Orochi . As time passed , the Yasakani , tired of living in the shadow of the Kusanagi , made a blood pact with Orochi . This gave them greater powers , but in return , they and their descendants were forever cursed . They renamed their clan the Yagami and set out to destroy the Kusanagi with their new powers . In response , the Kusanagi declared war on the Yagami , which led to many clan members on both sides being killed . As a side @-@ effect of the Orochi 's curse , the flames of the Yagami have a bluish tint . The curse also causes each heir to die young and each mother to die in childbirth . Iori suffers from an additional curse - " The Riot of the Blood " ( 血の暴走 , Chi no Bōso ) - when he becomes faster , more powerful , wilder , and tends to attack anybody near him indiscriminately . In this state Iori is commonly named " Wild Iori " or " Orochi Iori " ( 月の夜大蛇の血に狂う庵 , Tsuki no Yoru Orochi no Chi ni Kuruu Iori , lit . Insane Iori with Blood of Orochi Under the Night of the Moon ) . Iori hates the Kusanagi clan because of this curse , but later becomes obsessed with killing its heir Kyo , disregarding their clans ' past . This sometimes results in Iori helping him to defeat his enemies to finish their battle . In order to find him , he sometimes enters the The King of Fighters tournaments and uses his teammates as tools in order to get to him . Iori appears in most of the series ' games , and is voiced by Kunihiko Yasui . = = Appearances = = = = = In video games = = = First appearing in The King of Fighters ' 95 , Iori enters the annual tournament as the leader of the Rival Team along with Billy Kane and Eiji Kisaragi ) as he learns that the heir of the Kusanagi clan , Kyo , is expected to be there . However , the team fails to defeat Kyo 's team and Iori betrays his teammates . In the next video game , Iori teams up with two women , Vice and Mature , servants of the Orochi demon . The same team would be repeated in KOF ' 98 , KOF 2002 , and Neowave , games which do not feature a storyline . During the ' 96 competition , Iori meets Chizuru Kagura , heir of the Yata clan , who wants to gather Kyo and Iori on her team to seal Orochi . Together they defeat the Orochi follower Goenitz but neither Iori nor Kyo agree with the idea . When Iori leaves with his teammates , he is unable to control this surge of Orochi power , resulting in their deaths . Iori continued to suffer from multiple outbreaks and during The King of Fighters ' 97 , attacks other team members . As such , Iori appears as a sub @-@ boss character in the game depending on the characters that the player uses . He later joins Chizuru and Kyo to confront and seal Orochi . In The King of Fighters ' 99 Iori is a secret character in most versions of the game . Iori can be faced as a bonus fight in the end of the game if the player manages to get a high score . In the story , Iori discovers the creation of Kyo clones and enters the annual tournament where he finds those responsible , an organization named NEST . Iori follows the battles in secret and fights against the Nests ' agents to continue his fight against Kyo . An assistant version of his character , named Striker , also appears for Iori in The King of Fighters 2000 but with an outfit based on his illustrations from artbooks . In The King of Fighters 2001 , an agent named Seth invites Iori to join his team for the next King of Fighters tournament , presuming that he would get his shot against Kyo . While his regular form appears in KOF 2002 , his Orochi form is also featured in the PlayStation 2 port from the game as well as the remake of KOF ' 98 . In The King of Fighters 2003 , Chizuru appears to both Kyo and Iori , requesting that they form a team and investigate suspicious activities concerning the Orochi seal . During the investigation , the team is ambushed by the fighter Ash Crimson , who plans to get the power from the descendants of the clans who sealed Orochi and steals the ones from Chizuru . In the following video game , Iori and Kyo form a team once again with Kyo 's student Shingo Yabuki to fill Chizuru 's spot to stop Ash . At the end of the tournament , the strengthening presence of Orochi causes Iori to enter the Riot of Blood state , in which he attacks his comrades . Ash appears afterward and defeats Iori , stealing his powers . Iori is a playable character in The King of Fighters XII . Iori is featured with a different outfit , and with a new moveset , that does not use purple flames . Like each character , he does not have a team . Iori 's appearance in The King of Fighters XIII sees him teamed with his former team members from the 1996 tournament , Mature and Vice , who return as spirits . He recovers his flames in his ending and appears as downloadable content in this form . He is set to return in the upcoming The King of Fighters XIV . In The King of Fighters : Kyo , a role @-@ playing video game situated before KOF ' 97 , Iori appears as Kyo 's antagonist in his journey around the world . Iori appears in the spin @-@ off video games Maximum Impact series . In the North American editions of Maximum Impact , Iori is voiced by Eric Summerer . Iori also appears as a sub @-@ boss during The King of Fighters Ex : Neo Blood , which is situated after his fight against Orochi . Although Iori enters the tournament to fight Kyo , Geese Howard , the organizer of the tournament , tries to make him awake his Riot of the Blood to absorb his powers , but fails . In The King of Fighters EX2 : Howling Blood , Iori enters another tournament , and is joined by two women who want to find a man controlled by the Orochi power . The shooter game KOF : Sky Stage also features him as a boss . Iori also appears in SNK 's hand @-@ held game , SNK Gals ' Fighters , as a comical interpretation called Miss X ( ミス X , Misu Ekusu ) . The character insists he is a female in order to participate in the game 's Queen of Fighters tournament , though several female fighters easily see through his disguise . In the crossover video games NeoGeo Battle Coliseum and SNK vs. Capcom series , Iori appears as a playable character ; the latter includes his Riot of the Blood state . His character is also a boss character ( along with Geese ) in the Game Boy version from Real Bout Fatal Fury Special . = = = In other media = = = Aside from the King of Fighters series , the character is featured on his own drama CD and character image album . In the anime The King of Fighters : Another Day , Iori is seen searching for Ash to regain his powers . Iori appears in the spin @-@ off manga story based on his adventure prior to The King of Fighters ' 96 entitled , The King of Fighters : Kyo . The character appears in the manhua adaptation of The King of Fighters : Zillion created by Andy Seto . The manhua retells Iori 's story from his fight against Orochi until he attacks NESTS to destroy Kyo 's clones . He also stars in further manhua for the games , starting with The King of Fighters 2001 through 2003 along with the Maximum Impact series . In the The King of Fighters movie , Iori is played by Will Yun Lee . = = Conception and creation = = A main objective planned for The King of Fighters ' 95 was to introduce Iori properly as Kyo 's rival . Creators have stated Iori 's personality , and other aspects of his character such as his phrases and unique moves , " broke the mold for characters in fighting games at that time " Like Kyo , several aspects of Iori , including his surname and abilities , were designed to relate him to the Yamata no Orochi legend , which was the inspiration for the plot . After observing fan reactions at initial location testing for King of Fighters ' 95 , several staff members predicted that Iori would be popular on his release . One of them was happy that at an event for The King of Fighters XIII on March 25 , 2010 , several fans reminded him that it was Iori 's birthday according to his official profile . Iori is a berserker due to the Orochi demon blood within him . This version of him , officially named " Orochi Iori " , is hinted to have existed before his debut in The King of Fighters ' 97 as one of the game 's mid bosses . This form of Iori was designed specifically to overpower other characters easily . Series ' flagship director , Toyohisa Tanabe , states that the staff was initially reluctant to add this version of Iori to the series ' roster — worried about fans ' reactions — but did so to add more impact to the Orochi saga 's climax . He was particularly pleased to see surprised reactions from female fans to this form during KOF ' 97 's location testing . Another minor development of his character was his change of " most valued possession / valued treasure " information . A girlfriend was also listed more than once , specifically in The King of Fighters ' 95 , The King of Fighters ' 99 , and The King of Fighters 2000 . However , starting with The King of Fighters 2001 and every entry after , the space is listed as " None " . The SNK staff commented that it is curious that he does not have a girlfriend anymore . During the early development stages of The King of Fighters ' 99 , SNK planned to exclude Iori and Kyo from the game , as the story 's focus was meant to center on the new protagonist , K ' . However , they reversed this decision because of the characters ' popularity . Iori 's , Kyo 's , and other SNK regulars repeated appearances in the series is at the insistence of the marketers and main planners , making it a challenge to decide the story for each title . Because of his popularity among fans , some of the series ' main designers have stated that he is " difficult to draw for " . Illustrator Shinkiro thought Iori was one of the series ' wildest characters because of his hairstyle ; similar sentiments were expressed by Last Blade illustrator , Tonko . In addition , KOF : Maximum Impact producer Falcoon stated that attempting to change an " untouchable " design such as Iori 's put him under severe pressure . He stated that creating Iori 's alternate design that appears in the Maximum Impact series almost felt " unforgivable " , as he felt unsure of fans ' reaction to the change . In The King of Fighters XIII , Iori 's gameplay mechanics were modified to be a close range fighter . Despite losing his flaming techniques , he was given brutal moves using his nails to emphasize his character 's ferociousness . His strongest technique in the game , " Forbidden 1218 Shiki : Yatagarasu " ( 禁千弐百拾八式・八咫烏 ) , is a new move that focuses on violent combos and serves as a reference to the character 's ending from The King of Fighters ' 96 in which he brutally murders his teammates . Iori 's 10th color scheme in the game matches his classic outfit 's scheme , and during development of the game , details were added to increase the similarities . The ending of the character at the end of the game was also pointed by developers as something to look forward to . His version , featuring his classic techniques , was designed with the intention of not surpassing the current Iori so that players would choose the fighting style they prefer in the game . This was further emphasized in the console version of The King of Fighters XIII where Iori had his moveset adjusted for better balancing by not using flaming techniques . = = Reception = = Iori 's character was mostly well received by several video game publications and other media . IGN 's A. E. Sparrow considered him one of the most useful of the games ' characters and one of the best ones for the " veteran players " . In another review from the same site , writer Jeremy Dunham praised Iori 's appearance in KOF : Maximum Impact as one of the best designs from the game . However , Dunham complained about his lack of bloody scenes considering his actions in previous 2D games . The character 's ending in The King of Fighters ' 97 has been considered by 1UP.com as one of the strangest parts of the story . However , they considered his winning quotations and appearance as one of the best creations of SNK , commenting that the company had been unable to make such an appealing character until K ′ ' s introduction . Lucke M. Albiges from Eurogamer praised Iori , along with Kyo , as having one of the most unpredictable appearances in the series , and considered him a veteran character . In the top ten fighting games from GameTrailers , Iori has been called one of the main innovative figures from the series , from his introduction in The King of Fighters ' 95 through his development in the following games . Some commentators found his recurring interactions with Kyo Kusanagi during fights d to be appealing , adding depth to the games , despite the fact English gamers are not able to understand them , and some lack a storyline . The character 's new design from The King of Fighters XII has been well received by GameSpot writer Andrew Park who found such moves interesting . On the other hand , 1UP.com writer Richard Li ; Li complained about the lack of Iori 's signature moves such as his fireballs , and while some of them remained , Li noted that they now require a different input from the ones they normally require . In an interview with Iori 's Japanese voice actor , Kunihiko Yasui comments that he feels responsible as a voice actor for his performances as Iori , taking care to sound different in each installment as a means of developing and " protecting " his character 's humanity . Iori has been highly popular with video gamers . In Gamest 's 1996 Heroes Collection , Iori was no . 2 in the poll Best Character from 1996 . In an issue from 1997 , Iori was voted as the staff 's favorite character , claiming first place over fifty other characters . He also received the same rank on Neo Geo Freak 's website with a total of 3 @,@ 792 votes . In a 2005 poll made by SNK @-@ Playmore USA , he was voted the eighth fan favorite character with 145 votes . Merchandising based on Iori has also been released including figurines , key @-@ chains and puzzles .
= Glee : The Music , Journey to Regionals = Glee : The Music , Journey to Regionals is the second extended play ( EP ) by the cast of musical television series Glee . Containing six songs from the season one finale " Journey to Regionals " , it was released on June 8 , 2010 , the same day the episode aired . Half of the tracks are cover versions of songs by American rock band Journey . The EP debuted at the top of the US Billboard 200 and Soundtrack charts , with first @-@ week sales of 154 @,@ 000 copies . Unlike previous Glee releases , no singles were released from this album , but all of its tracks managed to appear on multiple national charts . Songs were generally received favorably , with many enjoying the Journey covers . The setlist of Glee Live ! In Concert ! , the cast 's first concert tour , included three songs from the Glee : The Music , Journey to Regionals . = = Background and composition = = The season one finale of Glee first aired on Fox on June 8 , 2010 in the US . The episode sees the fictional William McKinley High School glee club New Directions compete at the 2010 Midwest Regional Show Choir Championships . Director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) decides to have New Directions pay tribute to American rock band Journey . This was not only as homage to the cast 's cover of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " in the season one premiere that led to his decision to remain at the school , but as a representation of the path undertaken to arrive at the Regionals level of competition . They perform a medley of Journey songs : the love ballad " Faithfully " , with Lea Michele and Cory Monteith on lead vocals as Rachel Berry and Finn Hudson , respectively , transitions into a mashup of " Any Way You Want It " and " Lovin ' , Touchin ' , Squeezin ' " . This ends with a reprise of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , where each cast member sings a portion of the song . Rival choir Vocal Adrenaline performs a cover of Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " thereafter , with Jesse ( Jonathan Groff ) on lead vocals . At the end of the episode , New Directions decides to show appreciation for Schuester with a rendition of Lulu 's " To Sir With Love " , the theme of the 1967 film of the same name . He returns the honor , performing Israel Kamakawiwoʻole 's reinvention of " Over the Rainbow " along with glee club member Puck ( Mark Salling ) . The EP , along with its track listing , was announced in an official press release on May 26 , 2010 . It was released on June 8 , 2010 in the US , and on June 14 , 2010 in the UK . " Lovin ' , Touchin ' , Squeezin ' " was previously covered in the series ' pilot episode . The 1981 single " Don 't Stop Believin ' " was also previously performed in the pilot , as well as in the season one episode " The Rhodes Not Taken " . The songs in the EP all fall under the genres of pop and rock . = = Critical reception = = The Denver Post 's Ricardo Baca enjoyed the familiar nature of the songs on the EP , and liked " Faithfully " best of the Journey covers . He felt , however , that the music of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " outshone the vocals of the cast . Andrew Leahey of allmusic gave the album a rating of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . A writer for Reuters called the Journey medley " heartfelt and uplifting " and Jessica Derschowitz of CBS News found it " fantastic " . Gerrick Kennedy also enjoyed it , highlighting its emotional nature and complimenting the entire cast 's vocals . IGN 's Eric Goldman thought the reprise of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " worked well , and liked not only the connection to the pilot , but also its musical rearrangment . Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle enjoyed " Don 't Stop Believin ' " best of the performances but Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk deemed it unnecessary in the medley , and felt the cast would have done better to showcase more of " Lovin ' , Touchin ' , Squeezin ' " . Berk enjoyed " Bohemian Rhapsody " best , giving it a rating of four stars out of a possible five , though he thought it was too predictable a song choice . Time 's James Poniewozik opined the song was one of Glee 's best , but was contemplative of which choir 's performance was the better . Berk felt the lyrical context of " To Sir With Love " was trite and Hankinson was impressed by the song , calling it " sweet " . " Over the Rainbow " was called " lovely " by the former and Derschowitz decided it was a " perfect " closing song . Former Journey frontman Steve Perry gave an interview to American magazine RadarOnline , as co @-@ writer of several Journey tracks , and praised the use of his songs on the show : " Glee has opened up a international [ sic ] catalog of songwriting and introduced those songs to a whole new generation that would have otherwise never heard them . " The Regionals version of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " earned a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for the ceremonies in 2011 . Following this nomination , the song was included on the compilation album 2011 Grammy Nominees . = = Chart performance = = The EP debuted at number one on both the US Billboard 200 and Soundtracks charts , selling 154 @,@ 000 copies there . The album became the cast 's third number @-@ one album on the Billboard 200 . Reaching the top of the chart on June 26 , 2010 , it did so three weeks after Glee : The Music , Volume 3 Showstoppers . This beat the cast 's own record for the shortest span between number @-@ one debuts with different releases , previously held with Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna and Volume 3 Showstoppers . It entered at number two in Canada and the United Kingdom , selling 14 @,@ 000 copies in the former . On the Irish Albums Chart , Journey to Regionals entered the week of June 10 , 2010 at number 14 and ascended to the top position the next week , taking the spot from Volume 3 Showstoppers . The EP entered at number seven in Australia on July 4 , 2010 , climbing four places to its peak three weeks later , and in Mexico , a peak of fifty @-@ nine was reached . Second @-@ week sales in the US amounted to 39 @,@ 000 copies as the EP dropped to the tenth position on the Billboard 200 . The EP has spent a total of 39 weeks on the Soundtracks chart . Although none of the tracks were released as singles , all of the tracks managed to chart in several countries ( with the new version of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " charting under the original entry ) . On the Billboard Hot 100 , " Faithfully " debuted highest the week of June 26 , 2010 , at number 37 . The same week on the Canadian Hot 100 , " Over the Rainbow " led the Glee debuts at number 31 . The song was also highest on the Australian and UK Singles Chart , at numbers 42 and 30 , respectively . In Ireland , " Any Way You Want It / Lovin ' Touchin ' Squeezin ' " charted as highest of the Glee entries at number twenty on June 17 , 2010 . " Don 't Stop Believin ' " was regarded as a re @-@ entry of the group 's debut single by most chart companies ; in addition to the debut of the new tracks , it climbed from 71 to 33 in the UK and from 49 to 24 in Ireland . It re @-@ entered the single charts of the US at 59 and Canada at 37 , setting a new peak for the song in the latter . Only the Australian Recording Industry Association regarded it as a separate song , who placed it at number 67 the week of July 12 , 2010 . With sales figures provided by Nielsen SoundScan , a list of the twenty most successful Glee songs was released by Yahoo ! Music on October 22 , 2010 . The best @-@ selling song , with 1 @,@ 005 @,@ 000 copies sold , was " Don 't Stop Believin ' " — 84 @,@ 000 of those came from sales of the Regionals reprise . " Faithfully " was also on the list , at number eighteen with 159 @,@ 000 copies . The EP 's five new Billboard Hot 100 entries brought the cast 's total appearances on the chart to 64 , an accomplishment that placed them seventh among all artists , between Elton John ( 67 ) and Stevie Wonder ( 63 ) . Billboard noted an increase in sales of the original seven songs rising in percentages ranging from 23 % ( " Don 't Stop Believin ' " ) to 557 % ( " To Sir With Love " ) . Additionally , Journey 's compilation Greatest Hits ( 1988 ) saw a 62 % increase in sales , rising from 104 to 57 on the Billboard 200 . = = Promotion = = The cast embarked on an American concert tour , Glee Live ! In Concert ! starting in May 2010 in promotion of their first season . From the EP , " Faithfully " and " Any Way You Want It / Lovin ' Touchin ' Squeezin ' " were included on the set list . Morrison appeared on dates in New York City to sing " Over the Rainbow " whilst playing the ukulele . He was accompanied by Salling when he again sang the number at the annual White House Easter Egg Roll in 2010 . In addition , he also performed the song at The O2 Arena in London with Leona Lewis on June 16 , 2010 , as part of Lewis ' tour , The Labyrinth . On December 5 , 2010 , the cast appeared on the seventh season of UK reality TV series The X Factor to perform " Don 't Stop Believin ' " . = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = Source : allmusic . = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Ioan C. Filitti = Ioan Constantin Filitti ( Romanian pronunciation : [ iˈon konstanˈtin fiˈliti ] , first name also Ion ; Francized Jean C. Filitti ; May 8 , 1879 – September 21 , 1945 ) was a Romanian historian , diplomat and conservative theorist , best remembered for his contribution to social history , legal history , genealogy and heraldry . A member of the Conservative Party and an assistant of its senior leader Titu Maiorescu , he had aristocratic ( boyar ) origins and an elitist perspective . Among his diverse contributions , several focus on 19th @-@ century modernization under the Regulamentul Organic regime , during which Romania was ruled upon by the Russian Empire . As a historian , Filitti is noted for his perfectionism , and for constantly revising his own works . I. C. Filitti had an auspicious debut in diplomacy and politics , but his career was mired in controversy . A " Germanophile " by the start of World War I , he secretly opposed the pact between Romania and the Entente Powers , and opted to stay behind in German @-@ occupied territory . He fell into disgrace for serving the collaborationist Lupu Kostaki as Prefect and head of the National Theater , although he eventually managed to overturn his death sentence for treason . Filitti became a recluse , focusing on his scholarship and press polemics , but was allowed to serve on the Legislative Council after 1926 . In his political tracts , written well after the Conservative Party 's demise , I. C. Filitti preserves the orthodox conservative principles of Maiorescu . His attachment to boyar tradition was expanded into a critique of centralized government , etatism and Romanian liberalism . Toward the end of his life , he supported the dictatorial regime known as National Renaissance Front . = = Biography = = = = = Origin and early life = = = Through his paternal family , Filitti descended from historical figures whose careers were intertwined with the history of Wallachia , the Romanian subregion and former autonomous state . It originated with ethnic Greek migrants from the Epirus — where the Filitti family was known to be residing in the 17th century . The main settlers were male monks , whose presence was attested in Buzău County around 1786 : rising through the ranks of the Romanian Orthodox Church , Dositei Filitti served as Wallachian Metropolitan Bishop , assigning nephew Constandie to preside over the Diocese of Buzău . Although his Epirote father was a noted Russophile , the Metropolitan regarded himself as a liberal @-@ minded Wallachian patriot : he founded the local school of divinity , provided scholarships to young Wallachians , and sponsored the growing printing industry . In tandem , he spoke out against the practice of slavery , protecting Romani women from their Wallachian masters and donating money for the release of devșirme victims . During times of turmoil , when Wallachia effectively became a dominion of the Russian Empire , Dositei was swiftly deposed on Russian orders . The historian claimed lineage from the non @-@ monastic branch of the Filitti clan . A Silvestru Filitti , active ca . 1810 , was among the first private practitioners in Wallachia . Fully Romanianized , 20th @-@ century Filittis were still members of Romania 's privileged class . A native of Bucharest , Ioan C. was the son of Colonel Constantin Filitti , a former Ordinance Officer of the Romanian Domnitori . By then , the family owned a country estate , at Alexeni , Ialomița County . The Filittis preserved strong connections with the Ialomița region , where Colonel Filitti had twice served as Prefect . Ioan inherited from him a deep dislike and mistrust toward the dominant National Liberal Party ( PNL ) , sentiments which carried him into Conservative politics : Constantin regarded himself as a political victim of the PNL establishment , and in particular of the Brătianu family . Colonel Filitti had another son , Alexandru — better known under the moniker Filitti @-@ Robănești . The mother , Elena , was born into the Ghica family . Her father , Mihail Ghica , was a staff officer of the Royal Army , who had been married for a while to writer Elena Văcărescu . Thorough his mother 's other relatives , Ioan also descended from the eponymous boyar line of Slatina ( the Slătineanus ) . I. C. Filitti studied at Saint Sava National College , where he was colleagues with future politician ( and adversary ) Ion G. Duca . He was an eminent student , who earned top distinctions annually , and moved on to study at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris . His first ever published work as a historian was a French @-@ language tome , Le Rôle diplomatique des phanariotes de 1700 à 1821 ( " The Diplomatic Role of Phanariotes from 1700 to 1821 " ) . Signed Jean C. Filitti , it was probably his Licence ès Lettres , and , although receiving good reviews , was never listed by its author in his official résumés . He became a Doctor of Law in 1904 , when he published the first draft of his study about Regulamentul Organic as the first ever Romanian constitution . = = = Entry into public life = = = Young Filitti made a remarkably early entry into the diplomatic corps , and stayed on with the Romanian Legation in France . In this capacity , he purposefully embarrassed PNL Foreign Minister Ion I. C. Brătianu by not sending in all Legation employees to receive him during an official visit . During his return trips to Romania , Filitti was focusing on researching his own family archives , and , in 1910 , published the volume Așezământul cultural al mitropolitului Dosit [ h ] ei Filitti , de la înființare până azi ( " Metropolitan Dosit [ h ] ei Filitti 's Cultural Foundation , from Its Establishment to the Present Day " ) . In researching this work , Filitti sought input from the genealogical school in Greece and Macedonia , and from Romanian diplomats working in Istanbul . In a show of perfectionism , Filitti constantly revised the work as new data surfaced , and , in 1936 , declared the 1910 edition to be entirely unusable . Filitti was soon drawn into the Conservative establishment , by politics and family connections . His wife Alexandrina ( " Sanda " ) , descending from another branch of the Ghica clan , was a distant relative of two Conservative potentates and doyens of the Cantacuzino political family : Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino @-@ Nababul , who was twice the Prime Minister of Romania , and newspaper magnate Grigore Gh . Cantacuzino . She brought in considerable wealth . Filitti was by then also in contact with Junimea , an inner @-@ Conservative club dedicated to cultural criticism , presided upon by the aged literary patron Titu Maiorescu . As noted in 2008 by political scientist Ioan Stanomir , the young diplomat was " an orthodox Junimist who survived the end of his world . " Like other historiographers and doctrinaires raised by Junimea , Filitti the scholar firmly believed in the preservation of boyar demesnes and , as political scientist Victor Rizescu suggests , took part in the century @-@ long debate opposing elitist historians to the advocates of natural law . Filitti 's biographer and posthumous daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Georgeta Penelea @-@ Filitti , also writes that , even in the 1910s , he had become a Conservative apologist , who felt compelled to justify the party line in a " trenchant and unresponsive " manner . Like senior Junimists Maiorescu and Petre P. Carp , Filitti reserved contempt for Take Ionescu , the rising star of Romanian conservatism , whom he depicted as a manipulator with no actual convictions . Filitti 's first important postings were received from the Conservative cabinet of P. P. Carp , wherein Titu Maiorescu held the Foreign Affairs portfolio . After 1910 , Maiorescu appointed Filitti head of the Ministry 's Political Section in Bucharest , and then granted him supervision of the Consular and Litigation sections . Filitti was also sent on regular missions to France , Austria @-@ Hungary , the Ottoman Empire , Serbia and Italy . The missions allowed Filitti to expand his activity as a historiographer and archivist . The main stimulus of this activity was , according to Filitti 's son Manole , a sense of filial duty : " since destiny wished for his parents to have such assets as would allow him to study in Paris for a couple of years , [ my father ] felt compelled to repay them by publishing works which would live up to that degree of education . " According to historian Lucian Boia , although " non @-@ academic " , Filitti 's work has earned deserved praise from within the scholarly community . Georgeta Penelea @-@ Filitti argues that I. C. Filitti 's work , indicative of his personality , covers an impressively " large horizon . " On May 8 , 1913 , shortly before the Second Balkan War , Filitti began keeping a diary , which records the political intrigues of his age , and offers insight into Conservative affairs . One of the first events recorded there is the August 1913 Peace Conference of Bucharest . Filitti was the official Secretary during the proceedings . In this context , he also helped Titu Maiorescu with drafting Cartea Verde ( " The Green Book " ) , that is the official justification of Romanian foreign policy . Decades later , he recalled that the congress had been a magnificent affair , noting especially the triumphant arrival of King Carol I , that " old Nestor of European monarchs " . The Conference , he recalled , " was the swan song of the old Conservative Party . " His services during the Conference earned him public praise from Maiorescu , and Filitti , who feared for his prospects , was kept on at the Ministry even after the National Liberal Emanuel Porumbaru became Minister in January 1914 . In tandem with his diplomatic endeavors , he spent time researching at the Vatican Library in Rome . As noted by Manole Filitti , Ioan C. received " special recommendations " , which allowed him entry into the less accessible archives of the Holy See . Such study trips resulted in a two @-@ volume anthology of historical sources , Din arhivele Vaticanului ( " From the Vatican Archives " , 1913 and 1914 ) . = = = Germanophile polemicist and Domniile române ... = = = World War I was a turning point in Filitti 's diplomatic career . Like many of his fellow Conservatives , and against the lobby which dominated the PNL , he believed in tying Romania to the Central Powers , especially to the German Empire and Austria @-@ Hungary . The Entente Powers alternative , he argued , was bankrupt , because Romania would find herself manipulated by a hostile Russian Empire . His core idea , paraphrased by Georgeta Filitti , was that : " Any entente , any attempt to collaborate , any concession made to [ Russia ] would sooner or later turn against us . " The diplomat witnessed with alarm that public opinion was against him , either because of seductive Francophilia , or because a war on Austria @-@ Hungary could bring Romania Transylvania region and other irredenta : " The Russian gold has bought off the press and many private persons . Others are guided by sentimentality " . In restaurants such as Casa Capșa , " Franco @-@ hysteria and Russo @-@ Frenchitude [ have reached ] a peak " , and " people of no significance " were even proposing to assassinate the Germanophile King Carol . In this context , he believed , Transylvania could only stand to lose its character if ever governed from Bucharest . At around that time , Filitti issued at his expense the Germanophile brochure Cu Tripla Alianță ( " With the Triple Alliance " ) . He prudently signed it with the fake initials F. K. In it , Filitti spoke out at length about containing Pan @-@ Slavism , more important a priority than " the nation 's other aspirations " ( in Transylvania ) : " The best thing one may wish upon Romania is that the Muscovite Empire be evicted as far away as possible from the heart of Europe . " The pamphlet was also noted for its unfulfilled prophecy that Italy would also join the war as a German ally , and for arguing that , either way , Austria @-@ Hungary was set to collapse after the war . The text 's reception , he noted , was disastrous : no reviews were printed , almost no bookstores would sell it , and the few who looked over it attributed it to an agent of influence or to some " paid @-@ off Jew " . In Cu Tripla Alianță and in his diary , the diplomat continued to complain that the Francophile mood was irrational , since France and the Entente as a whole only " love [ Romanians ] when they need us " , which was " only natural " . In the same vein , his diary documents earlier instances where ( he argued ) France had gambled with Romania 's independence . In his more public existence , I. C. Filitti was still regarded with sympathy by the entire political and cultural establishment . In 1915 , he was elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy . The institution also granted him its prestigious Năsturel Herescu Award . This was in recognition of his groundbreaking monograph on modernization under the Regulamentul regime : Domniile române sub Regulamentul Organic ( " Romanian Reigns under Regulamentul Organic " ) . It described in some detail the culture shock of the 1830s , when the Westernized elites reversed a process of Turkification [ ? ? controversial use of this term ] , and noted the ambivalent policies of Russian governors . The book also speaks about the 1832 manhunt for , and forced sedentarization of , Wallachia 's Romani people , both the fugitive slaves and the free nomads . Domniile române ... was simultaneously published in Bucharest ( by Editura Socec ) , Leipzig ( Otto Harrassowitz ) and Vienna ( Carl Gerold ) . It was then reprinted by the official Editura Academiei press , under the supervision of historian Nicolae Iorga . The encounter was confrontational : Iorga decided to cut out entire passages where , he argued , the author had gone into too much detail . The intervention was unwittingly destructive , as part of the documents cited by Filitti , and only by him , have since been destroyed . It was also in 1915 that Filitti contributed his views on the thorny issue of " Capitulations " , contracts reputedly signed by two Danubian Principalities ( Wallachia and Moldavia ) when they first came under the Ottoman Empire 's suzerainty . The author postulated that the Capitulations regulated the status of foreigners living in ancient Romania , exempting them from the consequences of common law , and creating major legal problems after 1800 . His research produced the article România față de capitulațiile Turciei ( " Romania in Relation to the Turkish Capitulations " ) , taken up by the Academy 's official yearbook . It saw print at the same time as his new collection of documents , sampling the archives of French Ambassadors to the Porte : Lettres et extraits concernant les relations des principautés roumaines avec la France , 1728 @-@ 1810 ( " Letters and Excerpts on the Relations between the Romanian Principalities and France " ) . = = = Filitti and the Kostaki administration = = = I. C. Filitti was not in a celebratory mood as the National Liberals publicized their August 1916 Treaty , when Romania became part of the Entente . His diaries record not only his general frustration , but also his belief that the decades of PNL rule had left the military ill @-@ prepared , and claims about generalized embezzlement within the Army . He was soon after drafted into the Romanian Land Forces , as officer of the Second Field Army , and stationed in Bucharest . When the German @-@ led counteroffensive forced the army on the retreat , resulting in the Central Powers ' occupation of southern Romania , Filitti took his most controversial decision . In circumstances that are largely unknown , he opted to stay behind in occupied territory , and greeted the enemy . According to Boia , Filitti received two contradictory orders : one to follow the Imperial Russian Army as liaison officer , the other to stay behind in Bucharest ; he conveniently opted to follow the latter . The Filitti family had by then divided its loyalties : judge Ioan D. Filitti , formerly a PNL politico , followed the Germanophile line ; instead , Ioan C. ' s own brother Alexandru entered history when he led a cavalry charge on a German machine gun turret , located outside of Balș . At the time , Lupu Kostaki was organizing left @-@ behind Conservatives and forming a provisional administration , answering to the German command . Filitti served Kostaki as Head of the National Theater Bucharest . Under his management , the Theater took on some 67 new productions of Romanian plays . The Germans also assigned him to an administrative position , making him the Prefect of Ialomița County . However , Filitti himself was troubled by his association with the puppet regime . According to Georgeta Filitti , the diary he kept shows " the efforts to interpose himself between the foreign military authorities and his own administrators , to alleviate the unbearable regime of requisitions , the abuse and Prussian arrogance , [ efforts which ] were , for the most part , ineffectual . " Like other Germanophiles , Filitti justified himself as a protector of Romanian interests during times of chaos , and was discouraged to find out that the German regime regarded him as a servant . He had similar trouble getting along with some of his Romanian colleagues , in particular Virgil Arion , the phantom Minister of Education ( whom he described as nepotistic , aloof , and especially " lazy " ) . Both of his assignments failed to satisfy him : he was , according to Boia , a " strange " choice for the Theater leadership , and gave up on this office in April 1917 ; Filitti himself viewed his Prefect 's job as inane , and repeatedly presented his resignation ( only accepted in February 1918 ) . His departure from the Theater was in fact hastened by the Germans , who took over the location for their own purposes . Filitti informed the troupe members that they had to pay rent , and they moved out in protest . While in Ialomița , Filitti combined his administrative missions ( retold as short notes in his diaries ) with historical research , and tapped into a documentary fund at Alexeni . Although only a junior member of the administrative staff , Filitti aimed for a position at the core of government , and demanded from Kostaki a post better suited to his intelligence , " in Bucharest " . He noted that the death of Maiorescu in June 1917 had stripped him of political support inside the Conservative Party , and had derailed his steady advancement . Meanwhile , the legitimate government had relocated to Iași , in besieged Moldavia . Late in 1916 , it court @-@ martialled Filitti in absentia , and sentenced him to death for the crime of high treason . By January 1918 , the collapse of Russian forces on the Eastern Front led the Iași administration into negotiating a separate peace with the Central Powers . Germanophile Alexandru Marghiloman took over as Premier , in what seemed to spell a moral victory for the pro @-@ German camp . However , Filitti was drawing closer to the more disgruntled Germanophiles , led by P. P. Carp , who wanted to sign peace on their own terms : " I ask Carp , should he leave to negotiate for Romania , to take me with him . He says that he 'll take along his son . I note that one does not exclude the other . He agrees " ( January 12 , 1918 ) . Filitti was also upset that Marghiloman himself had not yet offered him a high diplomatic post during negotiations over the Buftea @-@ Bucharest Peace Treaty , and noted that the Ententist King , Ferdinand I , " made it hard " for him to be accepted back into the diplomatic corps . As noted by Georgeta Filitti , Ferdinand vetoed successive proposals to rehire him as public servant . In June 1918 , I. C. Filitti handed himself in to the authorities in Moldavia , and , upon retrial , was acquitted of treason . In addition to presenting evidence of his efforts to curb German excesses , he enlisted the testimony of Ialomița citizens , who vouched for him . However , Boia concludes , the retrial itself was a sham : " A rehabilitation as politicized in the new context as had been his sentencing at the end of 1916 . " = = = Post @-@ 1918 controversy = = = Upon the end of 1918 , when the Central Powers succumbed on the Western Front , the pro @-@ Entente forces regained power . I. C. Filitti faced the political repercussions : blocked out of the Foreign Ministry and diplomatic corps , he had to reinvent himself as a full @-@ time historian , publicist and essayist . He largely immersed himself in his decades @-@ long work , in effect a multilevel historical narrative covering the history of the Danubian Principalities , from the foundation of Wallachia ( 14th century ) to the emergence of United Romania ( 1859 ) . Much of his interest , marked by what Georgeta Filitti calls " excessive accuracy " , was in reviewing the intricate boyar genealogies . He substantiated the various inheritance claims , and , in addition , painstakingly retraced the borders of Wallachia 's oldest demesnes . During his retrial , facing the possibility of execution , Filitti also turned his attention to the philosophy of history , reading profusely from Ernest Renan and Hippolyte Taine . According to Filitti , the war spelled out the end of Romania 's aristocratic order , leaving the country prey to the nouveaux riches and the neo @-@ Jacobins . As the Conservative Party itself collapsed into obscurity , he remained largely cut off from the outside world , and rejected many of the recent innovations . Reportedly , he wrote all his books and articles in dip pen , and never watched a motion picture . After 1919 , he had to recover from financial ruin , having entrusted the bulk of his assets ( what had not been lost in the war ) to a broker , who gambled it away and then committed suicide . Filitti lived secluded in a townhouse on Oltarului Street , in the Bucharest quarter of Moșilor . He repeatedly complained about street noises , confiscated the footballs of neighborhood children , and eventually received ( from Romanian Police chief Gavrilă Marinescu ) a permanent guard to protect him from distractions . Filitti had few visiting friends , among them Alexandru Filitti @-@ Robănești , teacher Alexandru Pisoschi , historians Emanoil Hagi @-@ Moscu and G. D. Florescu . He was however in constant correspondence with other scholars who shared his passions , including Greek jurist Panagiotis Zepos , His Majesty 's Antiquarian G. T. Kirileanu , bibliophile Constantin Karadja , regional historian G. Poboran , academician @-@ priest Nicolae M. Popescu and Hungarian archivist Endre ( Andrei ) Veress . In addition to the anti @-@ Germanophile Nicolae Iorga , his rivals in academia included a new generation of leading historians , who were targets of his polemical articles : Gheorghe I. Brătianu , George Fotino , Constantin C. Giurescu and P. P. Panaitescu . The latter was however influenced by Filitti 's ideas on the sources of landed property , and incorporated them into his own historical narrative . An early product of Filitti 's interest in genealogy was a 1919 book about his relatives , the Cantacuzinos : Arhiva Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino ( " The Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino Archive " ) . It refers to the documents collected by Cantacuzino @-@ Nababul , whom the book describes as : " Good and kind , a self @-@ effacing host , confident of the nation 's faculties . " The author tracked down Nababul 's origins to Michael " Șeytanoğlu " Kantakouzenos , a Byzantine Greek in Ottoman service , active around 1580 . The factual errors of this study caused Filitti great distress , to the point where he planned to entirely revise his version of the Cantacuzino family tree . The book is still considered a particularly relevant source on the obscure genealogies of some high @-@ ranking Greek @-@ Romanian families : Cara ( g ) iani , Filodor , Gheraki and Plagino . Filitti the politician returned in 1921 with an extended pro domo covering his wartime stances : Rusia , Austro @-@ Ungaria și Germania față de România ( " Russia , Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany Confront Romania " ) . The same year , in May , Iași 's Viața Românească review hosted his tract on administrative reform , whereby he criticized attempts to impose centralized government on post @-@ war Greater Romania . He proposed three essential policies : decentralization , the depoliticization of public administration , and enhanced executive powers for the prefects . These prolonged P. P. Carp 's ideas on local autonomy and , in addition , attempted to protect the existing local government of the newly united Transylvania , Bessarabia and Bukovina . He still struggled with prejudice against Germanophiles : also in 1921 , he tried to obtain the History Chair at the University of Iași , but lost once his old adversary Iorga intervened against him . Two years later , he was present at the funeral ceremony of Dimitrie Onciul , a fellow historian and Junimist . Onciul , whose Germanophila had been the topic of a major scandal in 1919 , was honored by Filitti with a funeral oration . It stated : " All of us , we are what our known or unknown ancestors have accumulated in our beings ; we are that which preceding generations have planted in us ; we are the echo of our dead . " = = = Recovery = = = In the early 1920s , I. C. Filitti worked with the formerly Junimist tribune Convorbiri Literare , which published fragments of his research on Maiorescu ( 1922 ) and novelist Costache Negruzzi ( 1923 ) . Filitti subsequently turned his attention to some of the earliest sources on Wallachian history , adding his opinion to the debate surrounding the historicity of Negru Vodă ( described by some early modern sources as Wallachia 's state @-@ builder ) . His topical study , published by in the 1924 Romanian Academy annals , concluded that Negru Vodă was in fact the stuff of legend , concocted by the 17th @-@ century Wallachian Lord Matei Basarab . The next year , he returned to social history , with the book Clasele sociale în trecutul românesc ( " Social Classes in the Romanian Past " ) . It mainly explained the difference between the concepts of nobility in Western Europe , on one hand , and the Danubian Principalities , on the other : Moldo @-@ Wallachian nobility had no concept of knighthood , as all boyars were defined by their demesnes . Eventually , in 1926 , King Ferdinand allowed Filitti to resume his political career , making him a member of the Romanian Legislative Council . An emanation of the 1923 Constitution , it comprised experts tasked with reviewing laws endorsed by Parliament , and whose exact role sparked a series of controversies . Filitti was among those who described the Council as a necessary branch of the legislature , rather than as an organ of the executive . Also in 1926 , Filitti was one of the authors of a legal history overview , Contribuții la istoria justiției penale în Principatele române ( " Contributions to the History of Penal Justice in the Romanian Principalities " ) . By means of Iorga 's academic journal Revista Istorică , he also publicized his discovery of a 17th @-@ century Romanian glossary , which emissaries of the Holy See used on their missions to the Danubian Principalities . He returned in 1927 with a work tracing the very history of the Legislative Council : Originea și menirea Consiliului Legislativ ( " The Origin and Purpose of the Legislative Council " ) . Filitti ended the 13th and final notebook of his diary on March 6 , 1928 . By 1929 , he turned his attention to the history of medicine in Wallachia , publishing a study of medical practice between 1784 and 1828 . The same year , he edited the critical edition of the 1829 boyar register ( catagrafie ) , originally compiled by Russian authorities under Regulamentul provisions . It notably showed the division of aristocracy into three classes , with only 70 entries in the top , " great boyars " , category . Filitti conclusively showed that , at only 4 @.@ 6 ‰ of the Wallachian population , Wallachian boyars formed one of the thinnest layers of European aristocrats proportional to the respective population . While still involved in the disputes over Legislative Council attributions , Filitti was a member , and later President , of the state 's Heraldry and Genealogy Commission . The appointment again brought him into disagreement with the Romanian monarch , this time involving the heraldic symbols of Greater Romania . Filitti and Kirileanu suggested redesigned coats of arms of the Romanian counties , each bearing the Steel Crown , as a show of national unity ; Ferdinand disagreed , and the counties were only allowed their simple escutcheons . He was turning his attention to the Slătineanu branch of his family , and completed a biographical study on Ion Slătineanu , governor of Brăila in the 1830s ( hosted by the magazine Analele Brăilei , 1 / 1929 ) . Some of Filitti 's biographical work was dedicated to the 16th @-@ century Wallachian hero Michael the Brave . In 1931 , he published an investigation of Michael 's early career as titular Ban of Oltenia . A year later , he detailed Michael 's introduction of serfdom in Wallachia : Despre " legătura " lui Mihai Viteazul ( " On ' Bondage ' under Michael the Brave " ) . Between these , the academic review Analele Economice și Statistice , Vol . XIV , reissued the 1857 count of emancipated Romani slaves , annotated by Filitti . In 1932 , returning to the history of Oltenian Bans , he gave an account on the Craiovești family history , taken up by Arhivele Olteniei journal . His ongoing research into social issues of the early 19th century produced another book , Frământări politice și sociale în Principatele române de la 1821 la 1828 ( " Political and Social Turmoil in the Romanian Principalities from 1821 to 1828 " , Cartea Românească , 1932 ) . It has been described as a " non @-@ partisan analysis " of the Wallachian uprising of 1821 and its reverberations , and features detail on the property dispute between local Orthodox monks and their Greek Orthodox competitors . = = = Conservative theories and Principatele române ... = = = By 1928 , I. C. Filitti 's writing was moving from sheer historical research , as he was taking a stand in political theory . As noted by Ioan Stanomir , Filitti 's evolution in this direction marks a final cycle in the history of classical , " Burkean " , conservatism in Romania , which did not have a political aspect , but was complementary and contemporary with the views of his rival Nicolae Iorga . According to Stanomir , the objectivity professed by Filitti the historiographer was at odds with his ambition to rehabilitate Junimea and the Conservative cause , to prolong their relevancy into the 1930s . Some of his core ideas were updated versions of 19th @-@ century Junimist concepts : the praise of moderation and organicity , the rejection of state capitalism and its " pseudo @-@ bourgeoisie " , and in particular the critique of generous land reforms . Directly influenced by the agrarian skepticism of Carp and Maiorescu , Filitti argued that the division of large estates into non @-@ lucrative plots had only enhanced endemic problems , such as poverty or an unskilled workforce , and had prevented an organic growth toward good governance . Filitti 's diary chides the political establishment of Greater Romania for not obtaining sufficient guarantees of territorial integrity — particularly so against Russia 's successor , the Soviet Union — and for deprofessionalizing the diplomatic corps . From Maiorescu , Filitti borrowed the essential sociological concept of " forms without content " , criticizing all modernization which did not take into account local realities , writing : " After seven decades of bourgeois forms , without a bourgeoisie , with all that maelstrom of laws and regulations , which has grown to cover 20 @,@ 000 pages [ ... ] , the tally shows that [ ... ] the villages of all places have registered no profit , although [ ... ] Romania is , at heart , nothing but one giant village . " In his post @-@ Junimist studies , Filitti angrily noted that the PNL regime had only increased the ranks of the bureaucracy ( and implicitly enlarged their political machine ) , perpetuating etatism . He proposed measures to counter this trend by encouraging a " rural bourgeoisie " , " self @-@ reliant " , determined to reemerge " from the darkness and routine " of country life , and , in time , capable of supporting a national industry . In 1932 , Filitti , who kept a vivid interest in Romanian Orthodox history , published Biserici și ctitori ( " Churches and Ktitors " ) . He was preoccupied with similar thoughts when he decided to sponsor the rebuilding and refurbishing of two ancestral churches : the Dormition Church in Slatina , originally built by his Slătineanu relatives ( whom he commemorated with a coat of arms , displayed over the church entrance ) ; and the Sfântul Dumitru de Jurământ Metochion of Constandie Filitti ( whom he had reburied on church premises ) . It was in 1934 that I. C. Filitti registered one of his greatest successes , when he published a revised and extended version of his 1904 study : Principatele române de la 1828 la 1834 . Ocupațiunea rusească și Regulamentul Organic ( " The Romanian Principalities from 1828 to 1834 . The Russian Occupation and Regulamentul Organic " ) . The study even earned him accolades from Iorga , who called it " an extraordinarily rich work of pragmatic history " . The work mainly documents the emergence of a civic consciousness , called " public spirit " by Filitti , over the years when Regulamentul was in force , and speaks about how the Moldo @-@ Wallachian Russophile class turned Russophobic as it became acquainted with Tsarist autocracy . Principatele române ... includes additional data on the rift between the liberal youth , with its ideal of national liberation , and the peasantry , more determined to terminate the corvée system . He continued to publish on topical issues of legal history , documenting the antique Wallachian form of Weregild ( plata capului , " head payment " ) , and on historiography , with a Revista Istorică biography of Wallachian chronicler Radu Greceanu . His other book for that year was an extended political manifesto , Rătăcirile unei pseudo @-@ burghezii și reforme ce nu se fac ( " The Aberrations of a Pseudo @-@ bourgeoisie and Reforms Not Effected " ) . In 1935 , Filitti completed his Proprietatea solului în Principatele române până la 1864 ( " Land Ownership in the Romanian Principalities to 1864 " ) and Contribuții la istoria diplomatică a României în secolul al XIX @-@ lea ( " Contributions to the Diplomatic History of Romania in the 19th Century " ) . In Vechea organizare fiscală a Principatelor Române până la Regulamentul Organic ( " On the Ancient Fiscal Order of the Romanian Principalities to Regulamentul Organic " ) , he discussed the proliferation of state taxes over the centuries , and the measure to which the Orthodox clergy was exempted . A fourth book , on literary history , saw print with the title Cărți vechi privitoare la români ( " Old Books Relating to the Romanians " ) . Also in 1935 , he released a selection of his memoirs , as Câteva amintiri ( " Some Recollections " ) , and set in print his conferences for the state Radio Company : Dezvoltarea politică a României moderne ( " The Political Development of Modern Romania " ) . Building on his previous research in Arhiva Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino , Filitti also contributed an article about the Romanian origins of French diplomat Maurice Paléologue ( Adevărul daily , September 29 , 1935 ) and edited for print the letters of Oltenian engineer Petrache Poenaru ( Arhivele Olteniei , 74 @-@ 76 / 1934 ) . His other contribution for 1935 was a collection of texts on political history , called Pagini din istoria României moderne ( " Pages from the History of Modern Romania " ) . The volume criticized the PNL 's historical narrative , Romania 's answer to Whiggishness , and noted that , from the beginning , the Conservatives were closer to the models of classical liberalism than their revolutionist opponents . Published with the Lupta Graphic Arts Institute in 1936 , Filitti 's new essay revisited the birth and evolution of conservatism in the Danubian Principalities and then Romania : Conservatori și junimiști în viața politică românească ( " Conservatives and Junimists in Romanian Political Life " ) . The work postulated that local conservatism had in fact originated within the first phase of Romanian liberalism , grouping opponents of the " extremist " , " utopian " , " exulted " force which became the National Liberal elite . He argued that , since the National Liberals had become the establishment and did away with their republican agenda , the Conservatives , " in reality moderate liberals " , came to be falsely depicted as " reactionaries " . His retrospective portrait of Junimea was , according to Stanomir , particularly " melancholy " , his own Junimism " never abjured " . = = = Final years = = = In 1936 , I. C. Filitti wrote an article defining the scope and history of the Legislative Council . It was featured in the anniversary collection of articles published by Council President Ioan Ionescu @-@ Dolj . His revised work on the Cantacuzinos , published in Bucharest as Notice sur les Cantacuzène du XIe au XVIIe siècles ( " Note on the Cantacuzinos from the 11th to the 14th Century " ) , traced the family links between Cantacuzino @-@ Nababul and 14th @-@ century Byzantine Emperor John VI , whom Filitti identified as a usurper . Also then , he republished a political pamphlet by the 18th @-@ century poet Alecu Văcărescu , with the journal Preocupări Literare . Filitti was preparing his retirement from public life , and designated his only son Manole as a curator of the Filitti Archive . Filitti Jr was a lawyer , financier and amateur rugby footballer , who would later serve as manager of the Phoenix Oil Factory . Married to actress Mimi Enăceanu , he was for long based in Iași , sharing a villa with the poet Mihail Codreanu . It was there that Ioan C. ' s grandson Ion was born in 1936 . His baptism was a public affair involving some of the established aristocratic houses , and one of the last functions ever attended by Filitti Sr ( who met and befriended Codreanu on the occasion ) . The National Renaissance Front dictatorship , with King Carol II at its helm , put an end to democratic rule in Greater Romania . Under these circumstances , I. C. Filitti was recovered by the official school of historians . From 1938 , sociologist Dimitrie Gusti employed Filitti as an external contributor to the standard Romanian dictionary , Enciclopedia României . His " fundamental " contribution was , according to Stanomir , the " Legislative Council " entry , included in Volume I. Together with I. C. Vântu , Filitti also wrote the section on the administrative reform , whereby Carol had replaced the counties with larger ținuturi . This entry justified Carol 's ideas on territorial division , describing the new regions as organic , " moral , cultural , economic and financial " units . The two authors offered praise to the supposedly increased representative powers of communes , and to the laws protecting private property within urban domains . As noted by Georgeta Filitti , I. C. Filitti was again dissatisfied with the finished product : " The [ Enciclopedia ] copy he left comprises numerous rectifications to his own entries and observations made on those of other authors , which would be welcomed for any future reediting . " Filitti 's other contribution for 1938 is an eponymous volume about the 1821 Wallachian revolutionist Tudor Vladimirescu , with the subtitle : Rostul răscoalei lui ( " The Purpose of His Revolt " ) . The outbreak of World War II again pushed Filitti away from public life . Romania was an Axis country , and , as such , Bucharest endured heavy bombardments by the United States Air Force . The air attack of April 4 , 1944 , effectively destroyed the Filitti residence , its art collection ( including Murano glassware ) and scores of unedited documents . The historian survived , but , according to Georgeta Filitti , the incident " hastened his death " . I. C. Filitti died in September 1945 , almost a year after King Michael 's Coup broke with the Axis . By his own account , he had published 82 volumes , 267 topical articles , and completed some 700 family trees . Many of these texts were circular of " rectifications " to previous editions , addressed to the community of scientists at large . = = Legacy = = Filitti 's death occurred shortly before a Romanian communist regime came into existence . He was survived by his wife and son . An aristocrats by blood and conservatives by conviction , Ioan C. ' s descendants and relatives suffered heavily as a result of the new policies : the outspoken anti @-@ communist Filitti @-@ Robănești became a political prisoner , as did his cousin Puiu Filitti , who had been the King 's Adjutant . Alexandrina Filitti was stripped of virtually all her land during the land reform and nationalization , but still forced to meet agricultural quotas imposed by the government ; when she failed to do so , Manole Filitti took it upon himself to face the consequences , and spent some three years in communist jails . Upon release , Manole and part of the Filitti clan moved into a single Bucharest home , located near the Darvari Skete . Reintegrated as a clerk for nationalized enterprises , he remarried , in 1985 , to historian Georgeta Penelea . Of Croat and Istro @-@ Romanian ancestry , she is related to prestigious woman reporter Mihaela Catargi . Manole 's son Ion had a career in engineering , but could not advance professionally due to his aristocratic lineage . He emigrated to West Germany , where a branch of the Filittis still resides . Although officially censored , Filitti 's work was not entirely inaccessible . As indicated by Victor Rizescu , under orthodox Marxism @-@ Leninism , the idea of boyar precedence in the early Danubian Principalities was not discarded , but rather integrated within a " modes of production " theory . Some of Filitti 's books were reprinted in the 1980s , when national communism allowed selective exposure to Romania 's conservative schools of thought . As noted by historian Ovidiu Pecican , the regime was trying to encourage " autarkic xenophobia " , preventing intellectuals from receiving Western ideas , but in exchange allowing them a selective recovery of old ideas . In 1985 , Proprietatea solului ... , Frământări politice și sociale ... and România față de capitulațiile Turciei were reissued in critical editions . On the academic side , the main contributor to this particular recovery project was Georgeta Penelea @-@ Filitti , also distinguished as the editor of books by Iorga , Mihail Kogălniceanu , etc . The Romanian Revolution of 1989 resulted in more consideration being granted to I. C. Filitti , as both researcher and polemicist . The Filitti Archive , preserved by Manole Filitti , was divided into separate funds , and divided between several institutions : the Romanian Academy Library , the National Archives , the Cotroceni Palace collection , and the Ialomița County Museum . Selections from the historian 's diaries were published by Georgeta Filitti as fascicles in the academic review Revista Istorică , during the early 1990s . Beginning 2008 , she published the diary in book form , with the Ialomița Museum press and Cetatea de Scaun company of Târgoviște . Romania 's academic community was thus prompted to reassess the overall value of Ioan C. Filitti 's work . The popular history review Magazin Istoric grants an I. C. Filitti Award as one of its four annual distinctions for exceptional research and writing . In 2009 , Editura Compania company published historian Dan Berindei 's book of scholarly biographies , which notably includes a chapter on Filitti . According to Boia , Berindei bracketed out Filitti 's entire career in occupied Romania , while expressing a vague regret that Filitti never reached his full potential in diplomacy . Boia asks rhetorically : " the historian knows [ the reason for this ] , shouldn 't the reader also find it out ? " According to political scientist Cristian Cercel , Ioan Stanomir takes credit for having helped recover Filitti 's contributions as conservative theorist , which had been " all too soon forgotten . " In his 2004 book Conștiința conservatoare ( " The Conservative Consciousness " ) , Stanomir places Filitti alongside Constantin Rădulescu @-@ Motru , Alexandru Duțu and Virgil Nemoianu , as one of the intellectuals who preserved a place for Junimist conservatism into the latter 20th century and beyond .
= Sangay = Sangay ( also known as Macas , Sanagay , or Sangai ) is an active stratovolcano in central Ecuador . It is the most active volcano in Ecuador , having erupted three times in recorded history . It exhibits mostly strombolian activity ; the most recent eruption , which started in 1934 , is still ongoing . Geologically , Sangay marks the southern boundary of the Northern Volcanic Zone , and its position straddling two major pieces of crust accounts for its high level of activity . Sangay 's approximately 500 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old history is one of instability ; two previous versions of the mountain were destroyed in massive flank collapses , evidence of which still litters its surroundings today . Due to its remoteness , Sangay hosts a significant biological community with fauna such as mountain tapirs , giant otters , cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock , and king vultures . Since 1983 , its ecological community has been protected as part of the Sangay National Park . Although climbing the mountain is hampered by its remoteness , poor weather conditions , river flooding , and the danger of falling ejecta , the volcano is regularly climbed , a feat first achieved by Robert T. Moore in 1929 . = = Geological setting = = Lying at the eastern edge of the Andean cordillera , Sangay was formed by volcanic processes associated with the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate at the Peru – Chile Trench . It is the southernmost volcano in the Northern Volcanic Zone , a subgroup of Andean volcanoes whose northern limit is Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia . The next active volcano in the chain , Sabancaya , is in Peru , a distant 1 @,@ 600 km ( 990 mi ) to the south . Sangay lies above a seismogenic tectonic slab located about 130 km ( 80 mi ) beneath Sabancaya , reflecting a sharp difference in the thermal character of the subducted oceanic crust , between older rock beneath southern Ecuador and Peru ( dated more than 32 million years old ) , and younger rock under northern Ecuador and Colombia ( dated less than 22 million years old ) . The older southern rock is more thermally stable than the northern crust , and to this is attributed the long break in volcanic activity in the Andes ; Sangay occupies a position at the boundary between these two bodies , accounting for its high level of activity . = = Geology = = Sangay developed in three distinct phases . Its oldest edifice , formed between 500 @,@ 000 and 250 @,@ 000 years ago , is evidenced today by a wide scattering of material opening to the east , defined by a crest about 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 120 ft ) high . This first Sangay , pockmarked by secondary ridges , is thought to have been 15 – 16 km ( 9 – 10 mi ) in diameter , with a summit located 2 to 3 km ( 1 to 2 mi ) southeast of the present summit . The curved shape of the remnants of this first structure indicates that it suffered a massive flank collapse , scattering the nearby forest lowlands with debris and causing a large part of its southern caldera wall to slide off the mountain , forming an embayment lower on its slopes . This 400 m ( 1 @,@ 312 ft ) thick block , the best preserved specimen of Sangay 's early construction , consists of sequentially layered breccias , pyroclastic flows , and lahar deposits . Acidic andesites with just under 60 % silicon dioxide dominate these flows , but more basic andesites can be found as well . Sangay 's second edifice began to form anew after the massive sector collapse that damaged the first , being constructed between 100 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 years ago . Remnants of its second structure lie within the southern and eastern parts of the debris from its first collapse ; some remnants of the volcano lie to the west and north as well . Sangay 's second structure is believed to have had an east @-@ to @-@ west elongated summit , and like its first summit structure , it suffered a catastrophic collapse that created a debris avalanche 5 km ( 3 mi ) wide and up to 20 km ( 12 mi ) in length . It was likely less voluminous than the volcano 's first version , and its summit lay near Sangay 's current one . Sangay currently forms an almost perfect glacier @-@ capped cone 5 @,@ 230 m ( 17 @,@ 159 ft ) high , with a 35 ° slope and a slight northeast @-@ southwest tilt . Its eastern flank marks the edge of the Amazon Rainforest , and its western flank is a flat plain of volcanic ash , sculpted into steep gorges up to 600 m ( 1 @,@ 970 ft ) deep by heavy rainfall . It has a west @-@ east trending summit ridge , capped by three active craters and a lava dome . Sangay has been active in its current form for at least 14 @,@ 000 years , and is still filling out the area left bare by its earlier incarnations , being smaller than either of them . Uniquely , in its 500 @,@ 000 years of activity , its magma plume has never changed composition or moved a significant distance . Mainly andesitic in composition , Sangay is highly active . The earliest report of a historical eruption was in 1628 ; ash fell as far away as Riobamba , located 50 km ( 31 mi ) northwest of Sangay , and was severe enough to cover pastures and starve local livestock . The volcano erupted again in 1728 , remaining essentially continuously active through 1916 , with particularly heavy activity in 1738 – 1744 , 1842 – 1843 , 1849 , 1854 – 1859 , 1867 – 1874 , 1872 , and 1903 . After a brief pause , it erupted again on August 8 , 1934 , and has not completely quelled ever since , with heavy eruptive periods occurring in 1934 – 1937 and 1941 – 1942 . Eruptions at Sangay exhibit strombolian activity , producing ashfall , lava flows , pyroclastic flows , and lahars . All known eruptions at the volcano have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 3 . Despite its activity , Sangay is located in a remote , uninhabited region ; only a large Plinian eruption could threaten occupied areas 30 – 100 km ( 19 – 62 mi ) to its west . Nonetheless , a flank collapse on its eastern side , possible given the volcano 's construction and history , could displace nearby forest and possibly affect settlements . Access to the volcano is difficult , as its current eruptive states constantly peppers the massif with molten rock and other ejecta . For these reasons , it is not nearly as well @-@ studied as other , similarly active volcanoes in the Andes and elsewhere ; the first detailed study of the volcano was not published until 1999 . = = Ecology = = Sangay is one of two active volcanoes located within the namesake Sangay National Park , the other being Tungurahua to the north . As such it has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983 . The area 's isolation has allowed it to maintain a pristine ecology relatively untouched by human interaction , and the park hosts a biome ranging from alpine glaciers on the volcanoes ' peaks to tropical forest on their flanks . Altitude and rainfall are the most significant local factors affecting fauna , and therefore the most lush ecosystems are found on the wetter parts of the volcano 's eastern slope . The highest level below the snowline is dominated by lichen and bryophytes . Below this lies a zone of small trees and shrubs which develops into montane forest , principally in western valleys and on well @-@ irrigated eastern slopes , which occurs below 3 @,@ 750 m ( 12 @,@ 303 ft ) . Tree heights develop from 5 m ( 16 ft ) near the top to up to 12 m ( 39 ft ) below 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 843 ft ) ; below 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) , subtropical rainforest is present , with temperatures between 18 and 24 ° C ( 64 and 75 ° F ) and up to 500 cm ( 196 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall . Fauna is similarly distributed , with distinct altitudinal zonation present . The highest altitudes support endangered mountain tapirs ( Tapirus pinchaque ) , cougars ( Puma concolor ) , guinea pigs ( Cavia porcellus ) , and Andean foxes ( Lycalopex culpaeus ) . Lower down , spectacled bears ( Tremarctos ornatus ) , jaguars ( Panthera onca ) , ocelots ( Leopardus pardalis ) , margays ( Leopardus wiedii ) , white @-@ tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) , brocket deer ( Mazama sp . ) , vulnerable pudús ( Pudu sp . ) , and endangered giant otters ( Pteronura brasiliensis ) can all be found . Bird species common in the area include Andean condors ( Vultur gryphus ) , cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock ( Rupicola sp . ) , giant hummingbirds ( Patagona gigas ) , torrent ducks ( Merganetta armata ) , king vultures ( Sarcoramphus papa ) , and swallow @-@ tailed kites ( Elanoides forficatus ) . = = Recreation = = Sangay can and has been climbed . It was first ascended in 1929 by Robert T. Moore , prior to its current eruption beginning in 1934 . However , the volcano 's current active state presents dangers to mountaineers in the form of falling ejecta ; in 1976 , two members of an expedition on the volcano were stuck and killed by falling debris . In addition , the volcano is located in a remote region with poor roads and is difficult to access , and periods of heavy rainfall can flood rivers and cause landslides , rendering the mountain routes impassable . Nonetheless , the Instituto Ecuatoriano Forestal y de Areas Naturales , which maintains an office near the mountain , facilitate such activities by providing local guides and rooms for rent for visitors . Ascension takes between 7 and 10 days from Quito . Conditions on the volcano are usually very wet and foggy , and mountaineers may be visually impaired from viewing the volcano as they ascend it .
= Educating the Disfranchised and Disinherited = Educating the Disfranchised and Disinherited is a 1999 biography of American General Samuel Chapman Armstrong and his associated normal school for freedmen , Hampton Institute , written by Robert Francis Engs and published by the University of Tennessee Press . The first full biography of its kind , the book portrays Armstrong as a complex politician and administrator in the postbellum period who balanced the needs of opposed parties surrounding the Virginia school : its African American students , Southern white neighbors , and Northern philanthropist funders . Previous works presented Armstrong in a polarized fashion , as either a savior or handicap for freedmen . The book emphasizes Armstrong 's upbringing as a missionary in Hawaii in the development of his educational philosophy . Reviewers complimented the book 's balanced presentation of Armstrong , grounded use of the period 's thought , and contribution to the historiography of industrial education . They felt the book lacked community and state historical context , as well as recent scholarship on Native Americans at Hampton . = = Summary = = Robert Francis Engs 's Educating the Disfranchised and Disinherited : Samuel Chapman Armstrong and Hampton Institute , 1839 – 1893 is the first biography of General Samuel Chapman Armstrong , the founder of the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute . The book was published by the University of Tennessee Press in 1999 . It challenges several long @-@ standing ideas about this period : that the " Hampton @-@ Tuskegee system " and its adherents stunted the progress of African Americans , that the Hampton Institute ideology was opposed to that of historically black and historically white colleges , and that the positions of W. E. B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington were diametrically opposed . Engs writes Armstrong as a symbol of postbellum America 's conflicts over race , class , religion , and gender . Engs 's Armstrong , in " paternal ... arrogance " believed that he and others of higher status could best determine how to improve the lots of those suppressed by " lack of opportunity and discrimination " , such as African Americans and American Indians . This intuition , of knowing " what was best for the freedmen " , was influenced by his experience in missionary work , where his parents treated the indigenous Hawaiians as misbehaving children with behavior to be corrected . The biography distills Armstrong 's philosophy , demeanor , and understanding of African Americans from his experiences as a missionary , student of Williams College , and leader in the American Civil War . Engs dismisses polarized interpretations of Armstrong 's legacy as either a savior or a handicap for uneducated blacks . Instead , Armstrong is portrayed as a complex man who believes both in " black inferiority " and that freedmen could improve their lives through his lessons . Armstrong was born and raised in Hawaii in the mid @-@ 1800s . His father was the Kingdom of Hawaii 's ( secular ) minister of public instruction , whose schools practiced the " manual labor principle of education " . Engs wrote that Armstrong 's Hawaiian childhood insulated him from racist sentiment on the mainland . Armstrong attended private schools in Oahu before moving to study on the mainland . He shied away from the ministry , believing as his father , " the shorter one 's creed , the better " . Armstrong 's experience in the Civil War — including as a prisoner of war , leader of the United States Colored Troops , and General — led to his lifelong pursuit of " noble strife " in helping his " fellow man " . He joined the Freedmen 's Bureau and served as the first principal of the Hampton Institute on the Virginia Peninsula . Hampton 's task was to prepare African Americans " to teach their people the ' civilizing ' ways of white men " through " Christian teachings , a strict code of conduct , and manual labor " . Hampton was one of eight American Missionary Association teacher @-@ training schools . Armstrong left a 25 @-@ year legacy , and introduced the school 's manual and industrial teaching methods in the late 1860s despite its increased cost . Engs distinguishes this vision from the post @-@ 1900 industrial education , with Armstrong 's " industry " signifying the industriousness of " self @-@ discipline and self @-@ reliance " . The labor proceeds also supported the black students through school , though only during school months . Armstrong sought to see his " best " graduates ascend to higher education and to occupations " originally envisioned for whites " . As his " most famous student " , " virtual son " , and " spiritual heir " , Booker T. Washington opened the Tuskegee Institute in the style of Hampton . Armstrong later expanded Hampton 's scope to include Native Americans , who were kept apart from the blacks as a " school within a school " . Engs notes that missionaries struggled to reconcile the task of assimilating discriminated peoples into a society that defined itself by that active discrimination . Engs portrays Armstrong as a natural politician , administrator , and " risk @-@ taker " who sought broad @-@ based support from opposed parties , including African Americans , the " anti @-@ Negro white South " , and white philanthropists of the North , which made Armstrong into a " master prevaricator " . As a " realist " , Armstrong adopted the subtleties of his patrons to keep Hampton open , and did not confuse " the uplift of African Americans " with " promoting their equality with whites " . Hampton 's curriculum was ultimately set by federal and donor money . In time , Armstrong 's goals for the school were derailed by increased costs and the school 's Northern industrialist backers , who made manual labor education the focus and end of the curriculum , rather than a means . Engs concludes that Armstrong 's black graduates lived in better circumstances than their peers . Many became teachers in the South and were " grateful " for their opportunities . Reversely , Hampton 's Native American graduates suffered in health at the school and had little job opportunity back out West . Engs also concluded that Armstrong 's work was limited by his reliance on the elite , emphasis on white men deciding black lives , and inability to change his philosophy when his assumptions became outdated . Still , Engs thought that Armstrong succeeded in his intent to " civilize " students at Hampton , though this mattered little , Engs wrote , when white society was unprepared to accept them " no matter how civilized they might be " . = = Reception = = Wilbert Ahern ( Journal of American History ) found the book 's arguments convincing and " gracefully written " , but wanted to know more about Armstrong 's background in financial administration , forming of ties with the Northern philanthropists , and successful students apart from Booker T. Washington . Jennings Wagoner ( History of Education Quarterly ) noted that Armstrong 's intentions were portrayed as comparable to the leaders of George Fredrickson 's Inner Civil War , who saw their work as an extension of that of the Founding Fathers . Wagoner wrote that Engs provided a " well @-@ grounded " biography that handles Armstrong 's " complexities and contradictions " with skillful use of the historiography and understanding of the era . Ahern emphasized the biography 's " balance " in contrast to prior partisan writing on Armstrong . He noted Donald Spivey 's Schooling for the New Slavery and Engs 's first book , the 1979 Freedmen 's First Generation , as examples of work that associates Armstrong with " stifling ... African @-@ American aspirations " . Ahern also wrote that Engs 's work affirms the then @-@ controversial claim in James McPherson 's 1975 The Abolitionist Legacy that Armstrong was " fundamentally dedicated to the advancement of opportunity for African Americans " and other races . Edna Green Medford ( The North Carolina Historical Review ) wrote that the book was particularly valuable to the historiography of industrial education . Medford praised Engs 's contextualization of the late @-@ nineteenth century in American political , racial , and educational thought , but criticized his treatment of the relationship between the school and its community , particularly in stories of its students interacting with the community . Ahern felt that Engs missed relevant , recent literature on Armstrong 's impact on Native Americans . Harold Forsythe ( The Journal of Southern History ) described Engs 's tone as mild , but with a " continuous ... critical bite " . Forsythe also marked the book 's reliance on Armstrong 's and Hampton records and consequent distance from the larger history of Virginia .
= Planned Parenthood = Planned Parenthood Federation of America ( PPFA ) , or Planned Parenthood , is a nonprofit organization that provides reproductive health services in the United States and around the world . A member association of the International Planned Parenthood Federation ( IPPF ) , PPFA has its roots in Brooklyn , New York , where Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in 1916 . In 1921 , Sanger founded the American Birth Control League , which changed its name to Planned Parenthood in 1942 . Planned Parenthood is made up of 159 medical and non @-@ medical affiliates , which operate more than 650 health clinics in the United States , and it also partners with organizations in 12 countries globally . The organization directly provides a variety of reproductive health services and sexual education , contributes to research in reproductive technology , and does advocacy work aimed at protecting and expanding reproductive rights . PPFA is the largest single provider of reproductive health services , including abortion , in the United States . In their 2014 Annual Report , PPFA reported seeing over 2 @.@ 5 million patients in over 4 million clinical visits and performing a total of nearly 9 @.@ 5 million discrete services including 324 @,@ 000 abortions . The organization has a combined annual revenue of US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , including roughly US $ 530 million in government funding such as Medicaid reimbursements . Throughout its history PPFA and its member clinics have variously experienced support , controversy , protests , and violent attacks . = = History = = = = = Early history = = = The origins of Planned Parenthood date to October 16 , 1916 , when Margaret Sanger , her sister Ethel Byrne , and Fania Mindell opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in the Brownsville section of the New York borough of Brooklyn . They distributed birth control , birth control advice , and birth control information . All three women were arrested and jailed for violating provisions of the Comstock Act , accused of distributing obscene materials at the clinic . The so @-@ called Brownsville trials brought national attention and support to their cause . Sanger and her co @-@ defendants were convicted on misdemeanor charges , which they appealed through two subsequent appeals courts . While the convictions were not overturned , the judge who issued the final ruling also modified the law to permit physician @-@ prescribed birth control . The women 's campaign led to major changes in the laws governing birth control and sex education in the United States . In 1921 the clinic was organized into the American Birth Control League , the core of the only national birth control organization in the U.S. until the 1960s . By 1941 it was operating 222 centers and had served 49 @,@ 000 clients . However , some found its title offensive and " against families " , so the League began discussions for a new name . In 1942 the League became known as the Planned Parenthood Federation of America . Largely relying on a volunteer workforce , by 1960 the Federation had provided family planning counseling in hundreds of communities across the country . Planned Parenthood was one of the founding members of the International Planned Parenthood Federation when it was launched at a conference in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) , India , in 1952 . = = = After Sanger = = = Following Margaret Sanger , Alan Frank Guttmacher became president of Planned Parenthood , serving from 1962 until 1974 . During his tenure , the Food and Drug Administration approved the sale of the original birth control pill , giving rise to new attitudes towards women 's reproductive freedom . Also during his presidency , Planned Parenthood lobbied the federal government to support reproductive health , culminating with President Richard Nixon 's signing of Title X to provide governmental subsidies for low @-@ income women to access family planning services . The Center for Family Planning Program Development was also founded as a semi @-@ autonomous division during this time . The center became an independent organization and was renamed the Guttmacher Institute in 1977 . Faye Wattleton became the first African American president of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1978 . Wattleton , who was also the youngest president in Planned Parenthood 's history , served in this role until 1992 . During her term , Planned Parenthood grew to become the seventh largest charity in the country , providing services to four million clients each year through its 170 affiliates , whose activities were spread across 50 states . From 1996 to 2006 , Planned Parenthood was led by Gloria Feldt . Feldt activated the Planned Parenthood Action Fund ( PPAF ) , the organization 's political action committee , launching what was the most far reaching electoral advocacy effort in its history . The PPAF serves as the nonpartisan political advocacy arm of PPFA . It engages in educational and electoral activity , including legislative advocacy , voter education , and grassroots organizing to promote the PPFA mission . Feldt also launched the Responsible Choices Action Agenda , a nationwide campaign to increase services to prevent unwanted pregnancies , improve quality of reproductive care , and ensure access to safe and legal abortions . Another initiative was the commencement of a " Global Partnership Program " , with the aim of building a vibrant activist constituency in support of family planning . On February 15 , 2006 , Cecile Richards , the daughter of former Texas governor Ann Richards , and formerly the deputy chief of staff to the U.S. Rep. Nancy Pelosi ( the Democratic Leader in the United States House of Representatives ) , became president of the organization . In 2012 Richards was voted one of Time magazine 's 100 Most Influential People in the World . = = = Margaret Sanger Awards = = = In 1966 PPFA began awarding the Margaret Sanger Award annually to honor , in their words , " individuals of distinction in recognition of excellence and leadership in furthering reproductive health and reproductive rights " . In the first year , it was awarded to four men , Carl G. Hartman , William H. Draper , Lyndon Baines Johnson , and Martin Luther King , Jr . Later recipients have included John D. Rockefeller III , Katharine Hepburn , Jane Fonda , Hillary Clinton , and Ted Turner . = = Services = = The services provided by PPFA affiliates vary by location , with just over half of all Planned Parenthood affiliates in the United States performing abortions . Services provided by PPFA include birth control and long @-@ acting reversible contraception ; emergency contraception ; breast and cervical cancer screening ; pregnancy testing and pregnancy options counseling ; testing and treatment for sexually transmitted infections ; sex education ; vasectomies ; LGBT services ; and abortion . In 2013 PPFA reported seeing 2 @.@ 7 million patients in 4 @.@ 6 million clinical visits . Roughly 16 % of its clients are teenagers . According to PPFA , in 2014 the organization provided 3 @.@ 6 million contraceptive services , 4 @.@ 5 million sexually transmitted infection services , about 1 million cancer related services , over 1 million pregnancy tests and prenatal services , over 324 @,@ 000 abortion services , and over 100 @,@ 000 other services , for a total of 9 @.@ 5 million discrete services . PPFA is well known for providing services to minorities and the poor ; according to PPFA , approximately four out of five of their clients have incomes at or below 150 percent of the federal poverty level . Given that each patient receives about three services on average , the percent of abortions provided out of the total services provided ‍ — ‌ 3 @.@ 4 % ‍ — ‌ may not clearly represent the importance of abortion to PPFA . Each year , 12 percent of PPFA 's patients gets an abortion , which is expensive when compared with other services . = = Facilities = = PPFA has two national offices in the United States : one in Washington , D.C. , and one in New York . It has three international offices , including a hub office in London , England . It has 68 medical and related affiliates and 101 other affiliates including 34 political action committees . These affiliates together operate more than 700 health centers in all 50 states and the District of Columbia . PPFA owns about US $ 54 million in property , including real estate . In addition , PPFA spends a little over US $ 1 million per year for rented space . The largest facility , a US $ 26 million , 78 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 200 @-@ square @-@ metre ) structure , was completed in Houston , Texas , in May 2010 . = = Worldwide availability = = PPFA 's international outreach and other activities are performed by Planned Parenthood Global , a division of PPFA , and by the International Planned Parenthood Federation ( IPPF ) which now consists of more than 149 Member Associations working in more than 189 countries . The IPPF is further associated with International Planned Parenthood Federation affiliates in the Caribbean and the Americas and IPPF European Network , as well as other organizations like Family Planning Queensland , Pro Familia ( Germany ) and mouvement français pour le planning familial ( French Movement for Family Planning ) . Offices are located in New York , NY ; Washington , DC ; Miami , FL ; Guatemala City , Guatemala ; Abuja , Nigeria ; and Nairobi , Kenya . The organization 's focus countries are Guatemala , Nicaragua , Costa Rica , Ecuador , Peru , Senegal , Burkina Faso , Nigeria , Sudan , South Sudan , Uganda , Ethiopia , and Kenya . The Bloomberg Philanthropies donated US $ 50 million for Planned Parenthood Global 's reproductive health and family planning efforts in Tanzania , Nicaragua , Burkina Faso , Senegal and Uganda . Among specific countries and territories serviced by Planned Parenthood Global 's reproductive planning outreach are Brazil , Colombia , El Salvador , French Guiana , Guatemala , Haiti , Honduras , Martinique , Mexico , Panama , Paraguay , Peru , Suriname , Venezuela , Puerto Rico , U.S. Virgin Islands , Dominican Republic , Barbados , Bolivia , Ecuador , Guadeloupe , Saint Martin , Guyana , Cape Verde and Samoa . = = Funding = = Planned Parenthood has received federal funding since 1970 , when President Richard Nixon signed into law the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act , amending the Public Health Service Act . Title X of that law provides funding for family planning services , including contraception and family planning information . The law had support from both Republicans and Democrats . Nixon described Title X funding as based on the premise that " no American woman should be denied access to family planning assistance because of her economic condition " . In the fiscal year ending June 30 , 2014 , total revenue was US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion : non @-@ government health services revenue was US $ 305 million , government revenue ( such as Medicaid reimbursements ) was US $ 528 million , private contributions totaled US $ 392 million , and US $ 78 million came from other operating revenue . According to Planned Parenthood , 59 % of the group 's revenue is put towards the provision of health services , while non @-@ medical services such as sex education and public policy work make up another 15 % ; management expenses , fundraising , and international family planning programs account for about 16 % , and 10 % of the revenue in 2013 – 2014 was not spent . Planned Parenthood receives over a third of its money in government grants and contracts ( about US $ 528 million in 2014 ) . By law , federal funding cannot be allocated for abortions ( except in rare cases ) , but some opponents of abortion have argued that allocating money to Planned Parenthood for the provision of other medical services allows other funds to be re @-@ allocated for abortions . A coalition of national and local pro @-@ life groups have lobbied federal and state governments to stop funding Planned Parenthood . As a result , federal and state legislators have proposed legislation to reduce funding levels . Eight states ‍ — ‌ Alabama , Arkansas , Indiana , Kansas , Louisiana , New Hampshire , Ohio , and Utah ‍ — ‌ have enacted such proposals . In some cases the courts have overturned such actions , citing conflict with federal or state laws ; in others the federal executive branch has provided funding in lieu of the states . In some states , Planned Parenthood was completely or partially defunded . In August 2015 , Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal attempted to end Louisiana 's contract with Planned Parenthood to treat Medicaid patients at a time when there was an epidemic of sexually transmitted diseases in Louisiana . Planned Parenthood and three patients sued the state of Louisiana , with the United States Department of Justice siding with Planned Parenthood . On February 2 , 2016 , the U.S. House failed to override President Obama 's veto of H.R. 3762 which would have prohibited Planned Parenthood from receiving any federal Medicaid funds for one year . Donors to Planned Parenthood have included the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the Buffett Foundation , the Ford Foundation , the Turner Foundation , the Cullmans , and others . The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 's contributions to the organization have been specifically marked to avoid funding abortions . Some donors , such as the Buffett Foundation , have supported reproductive health that can include abortion services . Pro @-@ life groups have advocated the boycott of donors to Planned Parenthood . Corporate donors include CREDO Mobile . = = Political advocacy = = Planned Parenthood is an advocate for the legal and political protection of reproductive rights . This advocacy includes helping to sponsor abortion rights and women 's rights events . The Federation opposes restrictions on women 's reproductive health services , including parental consent laws for minors . To justify this position , Planned Parenthood has cited the case of Becky Bell , who died following an illegal abortion rather than seek parental consent for a legal one . Planned Parenthood also takes the position that laws requiring parental notification before an abortion can be performed on a minor are unconstitutional on privacy grounds . The organization opposes laws requiring ultrasounds before abortions , stating that their only purpose is to make abortions more difficult to obtain . Planned Parenthood has also opposed initiatives that require waiting periods before abortions , and bans on late @-@ term abortions including intact dilation and extraction , which has been illegal in the U.S. since 2003 . Planned Parenthood supports the wide availability of emergency contraception such as the Plan B pill . It opposes conscience clauses , which allow pharmacists to refuse to dispense drugs against their beliefs . Planned Parenthood has been critical of hospitals that do not provide access to emergency contraception for rape victims . Citing the need for medically accurate information in sex education , Planned Parenthood opposes abstinence @-@ only education in public schools . Instead , Planned Parenthood is a provider of , and endorses , comprehensive sex education , which includes discussion of both abstinence and birth control . Planned Parenthood 's advocacy activities are executed by the Planned Parenthood Action Fund , which is registered as a 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) charity , and files financial information jointly with PPFA . The committee was founded in 1996 , by then @-@ president Gloria Feldt , for the purpose of maintaining reproductive health rights and supporting political candidates of the same mindset . In the 2012 election cycle , the committee gained prominence based on its effectiveness of spending on candidates . Although the Planned Parenthood Action Fund ( PPAF ) shares some leadership with the Planned Parenthood Federation of America , the president of PPAF , Cecile Richards , testified before Congress in September 2015 that she did not manage the organization . The Planned Parenthood Action Fund has 58 active , separately incorporated chapters in 41 states and maintains national headquarters in New York and Washington , D.C. Planned Parenthood has received grants from the Obama administration to help promote the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , or ObamaCare . = = = Political spending = = = Planned Parenthood spends money on politics and elections through the Planned Parenthood Action Fund ( its federal political action committee ) , through its Super PAC , and through a variety of related 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) entities . Planned Parenthood endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections . In the 2014 election cycle , Planned Parenthood spent US $ 6 @,@ 587 @,@ 100 on contributions to candidates and political parties ( overwhelmingly to Democrats ) and on independent expenditures . = = Before the U.S. Supreme Court = = Planned Parenthood regional chapters have been active in the American courts . A number of cases in which Planned Parenthood has been a party have reached the U.S. Supreme Court . Notable among these cases is the 1992 case Planned Parenthood v. Casey , the case that sets forth the current constitutional abortion standard . In this case , " Planned Parenthood " was the Southeast Pennsylvania Chapter , and " Casey " was Robert Casey , the governor of Pennsylvania . The ultimate ruling was split , and Roe v. Wade was narrowed but upheld in an opinion written by Sandra Day O 'Connor , Anthony Kennedy , and David Souter . Harry Blackmun and John Paul Stevens concurred with the main decision in separately written opinions . The Supreme Court struck down spousal consent requirements for married women to obtain abortions , but found no " undue burden " — an alternative to strict scrutiny , which tests the allowable limitations on rights protected under the Constitution — from the other statutory requirements . Dissenting were William Rehnquist , Antonin Scalia , Clarence Thomas , and Byron White . Blackmun , Rehnquist , and White were the only justices who voted on the original Roe v. Wade decision in 1973 who were still on the Supreme Court to rule on this case , and their votes on this case were consistent with their votes on the original decision that legalized abortion . Only Blackmun voted to maintain Roe v. Wade in its entirety . Other related cases include : Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth ( 1976 ) . Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent , spousal consent , clinic bookkeeping and allowed abortion methods . Portions of the challenged law were held to be constitutional , others not . Planned Parenthood Association of Kansas City v. Ashcroft ( 1983 ) . Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent , clinic record keeping , and hospitalization requirements . Most of the challenged law was held to be constitutional . Planned Parenthood v. ACLA ( 2001 ) . The American Coalition of Life Activists ( ACLA ) released a flier and " Wanted " posters with complete personal information about doctors who performed abortions . A civil jury and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals both found that the materials were indeed " true threats " and not protected speech . Gonzales v. Planned Parenthood ( 2003 ) . Planned Parenthood sued Attorney General Gonzales for an injunction against the enforcement of the Partial @-@ Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 . Planned Parenthood argued the act was unconstitutional because it violated the Fifth Amendment , namely in that it was overly vague , violated women 's constitutional right to have access to abortion , and did not include language for exceptions for the health of the mother . Both the district court and the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit agreed , but that decision was overturned in a 5 – 4 ruling by the Supreme Court . Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England ( 2006 ) . Planned Parenthood et al. challenged the constitutionality of a New Hampshire parental notification law related to access to abortion . In Sandra Day O 'Connor 's final decision before retirement , the Supreme Court sent the case back to lower courts with instructions to seek a remedy short of wholesale invalidation of the statute . New Hampshire ended up repealing the statute via the legislative process . = = Other court cases = = Some state attorneys general have subpoenaed medical records of patients treated by Planned Parenthood . Planned Parenthood has gone to court to keep from turning over these records , citing medical privacy and concerns about the motivation for seeking the records . In 2006 , Kansas Attorney General Phill Kline , a Republican , released some sealed patient records obtained from Planned Parenthood to the public . His actions were described as " troubling " by the state Supreme Court , but Planned Parenthood was compelled to turn over the medical records , albeit with more stringent court @-@ mandated privacy safeguards for the patients involved . In 2007 Kline 's successor , Paul J. Morrison , a Democrat , notified the clinic that no criminal charges would be filed after a three @-@ year investigation , as " an objective , unbiased and thorough examination " showed no wrongdoing . Morrison stated that he believed Kline had politicized the attorney general 's office . In 2012 a Kansas district attorney found that that the practices of the Kansas City @-@ area Planned Parenthood clinic were " within accepted practices in the medical community " and dropped all of the remaining criminal charges . In all , the Planned Parenthood clinic had faced 107 criminal charges from Kline and other Kansas prosecutors , all of which were ultimately dismissed . In 2006 , the Indiana Court of Appeals ruled that Planned Parenthood was not required to turn over its medical records in an investigation of possible child abuse . In 2005 Planned Parenthood Minnesota / North Dakota / South Dakota was fined US $ 50 @,@ 000 for violating a Minnesota state parental consent law . In 2012 , a Texas state court judge , Gary Harger , denied Planned Parenthood request for a temporary restraining order against the State of Texas , concluding that the State may exclude otherwise qualified doctors and clinics from receiving state funding if the doctors or clinics advocate for abortion rights . = = Debate and opposition = = = = = Margaret Sanger and eugenics = = = In the 1920s , various theories of eugenics were popular among intellectuals in the United States . ( For example , 75 % of colleges offered courses on eugenics . ) In her campaign to promote birth control , Sanger teamed with eugenics organizations such as the American Eugenics Society , although she argued against many of their positions . Scholars describe Sanger as believing that birth control and sterilization should be voluntary , and not based on race . Sanger advocated for " voluntary motherhood " — the right to choose when to be pregnant — for all women , as an important element of women 's rights . As part of her efforts to promote birth control , however , Sanger found common cause with proponents of eugenics , believing that she and they both sought to " assist the race toward the elimination of the unfit " . Critics of Planned Parenthood often refer to Sanger 's connection with supporters of eugenics to discredit the organization by associating it , and birth control , with the more negative modern view of eugenics . Planned Parenthood has responded to this effort directly in a leaflet acknowledging that Sanger agreed with some of her contemporaries who advocated the voluntary hospitalization or sterilization of people with untreatable , disabling , hereditary conditions , and limits on the immigration of the diseased . The leaflet also states that Planned Parenthood " finds these views objectionable and outmoded " but says that it was compelled to discuss the topic because " anti @-@ family planning activists continue to attack Sanger ... because she is an easier target " than Planned Parenthood . = = = Abortion = = = Planned Parenthood has occupied a central position in the abortion debate in the U.S. , and has been among the most prominent targets of the United States pro @-@ life movement for decades . Some members of Congress , overwhelmingly Republican , have attempted since the 1980s to end federal funding of the organization , nearly leading to a government shutdown over the issue in 2011 . Planned Parenthood has consistently maintained that federal money received by Planned Parenthood is not used to fund abortion services , but pro @-@ life activists have argued that the federal funding frees up other resources that are , in turn , used to provide abortions . Planned Parenthood is the largest single provider of abortions in the U.S. , but pro @-@ choice advocates have argued that the organization 's family planning services reduce the need for abortions ; in the words of Megan Crepeau of the Chicago Tribune , Planned Parenthood could be " characterized as America 's largest abortion preventer " . Pro @-@ life activists dispute the evidence that greater access to contraceptives reduces abortion frequency . = = = = Undercover videos by anti @-@ abortion activists = = = = Periodically , pro @-@ life advocates and activists have tried to demonstrate that Planned Parenthood does not follow applicable state or federal laws . The groups called or visited Planned Parenthood health centers posing as victims of statutory rape , minors who by law need parental notification before abortion , racist donors seeking to earmark donations to reduce the African @-@ American population , or pimps seeking abortions for underage prostitutes . As a result of some of these videos , several Planned Parenthood workers have been disciplined or fired . However , a 2005 review by the Bush administration 's Department of Health and Human Services " yielded no evidence of clinics around the nation failing to comply with laws on reporting child abuse , child molestation , sexual abuse , rape or incest " . = = = = = Live Action videos = = = = = Beginning in 2010 , Live Action has released several series of undercover videos filmed in Planned Parenthood centers . Live Action said one series showed Planned Parenthood employees at many affiliates actively assisting or being complicit in aiding a prostitution ring , advising patients on how to procure sex @-@ selective abortions , and one who said they would immerse a child born alive after a botched abortion in a chemical solution to make it stop moving and breathing . No criminal convictions resulted , but some Planned Parenthood employees and volunteers were fired for not following procedure , and the organization committed to retraining its staff . Additionally , one center was placed on probation . = = = = = The Center for Medical Progress videos = = = = = In 2015 an anti @-@ abortion organization called the Center for Medical Progress ( CMP ) released several videos that had been secretly recorded . The videos showed how members of CMP posed as representatives of a biotechnology company in order to gain access to meetings with abortion providers . Members of CMP have since been indicted by a Texas grand jury on felony charges for tampering with governmental records . On July 26 , 2016 , all charges against the CMP members were thrown out by a Texas judge . = = Violence by anti @-@ abortion activists = = In the U.S. , abortion providers have been threatened with death , and facilities that provide abortions have been attacked or vandalized . Planned Parenthood clinics have been the target of a number of instances of violence by anti @-@ abortion activists , including bombing , arson , and attacks with chemical weaponry . In 1994 , John Salvi entered a Brookline , Massachusetts Planned Parenthood clinic and opened fire , murdering receptionist Shannon Elizabeth Lowney and wounding three others . He fled to another Planned Parenthood clinic where he murdered Leane Nichols and wounded two others . In 2012 , a Grand Chute , Wisconsin , Planned Parenthood clinic was subject to a bombing perpetrated by an unknown individual . In 2015 , a Planned Parenthood clinic in Pullman , Washington was heavily damaged by arson . = = = 2015 shooting = = = On November 27 , 2015 , a gunman shot and killed two civilians and a police officer during a five @-@ hour gun battle at the Colorado Springs , Colorado clinic . The 57 @-@ year @-@ old gunman surrendered to police and was taken into custody . During his arrest , he gave a " rambling " interview in which , at one point , he said " no more baby parts " , echoing language used in the news media about the clinic following the Center for Medical Progress videos .
= Zoltán of Hungary = Zoltán ( Hungarian pronunciation : [ ˈzoltaːn ] ; c . 880 or 903 – c . 950 ) , also Zolta , is mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum as the third Grand Prince of the Hungarians who succeeded his father Árpád around 907 . Although modern historians tend to deny this report on his reign , because other chronicles do not list him among the Hungarian rulers , there is consensus that even if Zoltán never ascended the throne , all monarchs ruling in Hungary from the House of Árpád after around 955 were descended from him . = = Life = = = = = Zoltán in the Gesta Hungarorum = = = Modern historians ' main source of Zoltán 's life is the Gesta Hungarorum , a late 12th @-@ century chronicle whose writer is now known as Anonymous . According to this source , Zoltán was the only son of Árpád , Grand Prince of the Hungarians . In contrast , the nearly contemporary Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus writes that " Zaltas " was Árpád 's fourth son . Zoltán 's name seemingly derived from the Arabian sultan title with Turkic mediation , but modern scholars have not unanimously accepted this etymology . According to Anonymous , Zoltán was born after 903 , during his father 's second campaign against Menumorut . The latter was one of the many local rulers who are solely mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum among the opponents of the Hungarians during their conquest of the Carpathian Basin . In the Gesta Hungarorum 's narration , Menumarot was forced to surrender and to give his daughter in marriage to Zoltán in 904 or 905 . When Menumorut died , Zoltán inherited his father @-@ in @-@ law 's duchy east of the river Tisza , which Anonymous claims was inhabited by " the peoples that are called Kozár " . Anonymous also states that Zoltán , still a minor , succeeded his father who died around 907 . Zoltán , in turn , later abdicated in favour of his son Taksony and died " in the third year of his son 's reign " . And his son Zolta succeeded [ Árpád ] , who was similar to his father in character but dissimilar in appearance . Prince Zolta was a little lisping and pale , with soft , blonde hair , of middling stature ; a warlike duke , brave in spirit , merciful to his subjects , sweet of speech , but covetous of power , whom all the leading men and warriors of Hungary loved marvelously . Some time later , when Zolta was thirteen , all the leading men of the realm by their common counsel and of their equal wish appointed rectors of the kingdom beneath the prince to mend through the guidance of customary law the conflicts and lawsuits of litigants . = = = Modern historians ' views = = = Nowadays historians reject most details of Zoltán 's life presented by Anonymous . For instance , the Hungarian historian Gyula Kristó says that Zoltán was born around 880 instead of around 903 . His Romanian colleague Alexandru Madgearu likewise writes that either Zoltán was born many years earlier than 903 or his marriage must have happened years after 904 . Zoltán 's father @-@ in @-@ law 's identity is also debated . Medievalist Pál Engel says that Menumorut is one of the " imaginary figures " invented by Anonymous in order to describe the conquering Hungarians ' heroic wars against them . Historian Charles R. Bowlus writes that he was a Moravian ruler whose daughter 's marriage with Zoltán symbolized the end of " Great Moravia " . Medievalist Tudor Sălăgean also says that Menumorut was a real person , the ruler of a one @-@ time duchy inhabited by Romanians , Slavs and many other peoples at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries . Anonymous 's statement that Zoltán succeeded his father as grand prince , or even the idea that Zoltán ever ruled the federation of the Hungarian tribes have also been challenged . For instance , historian Sándor L. Tóth writes that Zoltán , being the youngest among Árpád 's four sons , could hardly precede his elder brothers in the line of succession . Kristó also says that other Hungarian chroniclers do not make mention of Zoltán 's rule , implying that Anonymous only inserted Zoltán into the incompletely preserved list of the grand princes because he knew that all Hungarian monarchs from the House of Árpád descended from him . = = Family = = The following is a family tree presenting Zoltán 's closest known relatives : * Whether Menumorut is an actual or an invented person is debated by modern scholars . * * All later grand princes and kings of Hungary descended from Taksony .
= Military career of Benedict Arnold , 1781 = The military career of Benedict Arnold in 1781 consisted of service in the British Army . Arnold had changed sides in September 1780 , after his plot to surrender the key Continental Army outpost at West Point was exposed . After spending the rest of 1780 recruiting Loyalists for a new regiment called the American Legion , Arnold was sent with 1 @,@ 600 men in late December by General Sir Henry Clinton to Virginia , with instructions to raid Richmond and then establish a strong fortification at Portsmouth . Landing in Virginia on January 4 , 1781 , he raided Richmond the next day . After raiding a few nearby communities , he returned to Portsmouth , where his troops established fortifications . They remained there until late March , when 2 @,@ 000 reinforcements led by General William Phillips arrived . Phillips took command of the forces , and Arnold served under him as they resumed raiding operations aimed at potentially establishing a permanent presence at Richmond . Although they fought off a spirited militia defense in the Battle of Blandford in late April , the timely arrival of Continental forces under the Marquis de Lafayette prevented the taking of Richmond . Phillips continued to raid , but was ordered to Petersburg to effect a junction with General Charles Cornwallis , who was marching up from North Carolina . Phillips died on May 13 of a fever , and Arnold was briefly in command again until Cornwallis arrived a week later . Arnold returned to New York , suffering from a recurrence of gout . When French and American movements to encircle Cornwallis at Yorktown became apparent to General Clinton , he sent Arnold on a raiding expedition in early September to New London , Connecticut in an attempt to draw American resources away from Virginia . Arnold raided the port , but a detachment of his troops was involved in the bloody Battle of Groton Heights at a fort across the Thames River . The operation was the last command Arnold held . In December , he and General Cornwallis , who had been released on parole after his surrender at Yorktown , sailed for England . During his command of British troops , Arnold did not command a great deal of respect from other officers . His actions in Virginia and Connecticut were criticized , and allegations that he was primarily interested in money circulated in New York . On his arrival in England he was also unable to acquire new commands either in the army or with the British East India Company . He resumed his business and trade activities , and died in London in 1801 . = = Background = = Benedict Arnold was born in 1741 into a well @-@ to @-@ do family in the port city of Norwich in the British colony of Connecticut . He was interested in military affairs from an early age , serving briefly ( without seeing action ) in the colonial militia during the French and Indian War in 1757 . He embarked on a career as a businessman , first opening a shop in New Haven , and then engaging in overseas trade . He owned and operated ships , sailing to the West Indies , New France and Europe . When the British Parliament began to impose taxes on its colonies , Arnold 's businesses began to be affected by them and the resulting , sometimes violent , opposition , which he eventually joined . In 1767 he married a local woman , with whom he had three children , one of whom died in infancy . She died in 1775 , and Arnold left his children under the care of his sister Hannah at his home in New Haven . = = Continental Army service , 1775 – 1780 = = Arnold had distinguished himself early in the war , participating in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 and then boldly leading a raid on Fort Saint @-@ Jean near Montreal . He then led a small army from Cambridge , Massachusetts to Quebec City on an expedition through the wilderness of present @-@ day Maine , where he was wounded in the climactic Battle of Quebec on December 31 , 1775 . After leading an ineffectual siege of Quebec until April 1776 , he took over the military command of Montreal . He directed the American retreat from there on the arrival of British reinforcements , and his forces formed the rear guard of the retreating Continental Army as it headed south toward Ticonderoga . Arnold then organized the defense of Lake Champlain , and led the Continental Navy fleet that was defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island . During these actions , Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress . He established decent relationships with George Washington , commander of the army , as well as Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates , both of whom had command of the army 's Northern Department at different times during 1775 and 1776 . However , an acrimonious dispute with Moses Hazen , commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment , boiled over into a court martial of Hazen at Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776 . Only action by Gates , then his superior at Ticonderoga , prevented his own arrest on countercharges leveled by Hazen . He had also had disagreements with John Brown and James Easton , two lower @-@ level officers with political connections . His conflict with them resulted in ongoing suggestions of improprieties on his part . Brown was particularly vicious , publishing a handbill that claimed of Arnold , " Money is this man 's God , and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country " . In December 1776 Washington sent Arnold to coordinate the defense of Rhode Island after the British occupied Newport . Due to inadequate supplies and militia training , no offensive action was possible . In February 1777 Arnold , along with several other brigadiers , was passed over by Congress for promotion to major general . While en route to Philadelphia to discuss the matter , he stopped in New Haven to visit his family , and fought in the rearguard Battle of Ridgefield against a British raiding party in which his left leg was injured once again . In Philadelphia , Arnold threatened to resign over the issue of rank , but demurred when it was learned that Ticonderoga had fallen . Sent north to assist in the defense of the Hudson River valley , he helped lift the Siege of Fort Stanwix in August , and then played key roles in the two Battles of Saratoga in September and October . He was stripped of his command after the first battle in a dispute with General Gates , who had come to see Arnold as a competitor for rank and glory . Midway through the second battle he rode off to the battlefield anyway , and led the troops to in a spirited attack on two British redoubts , suffering serious injuries to his leg . After Arnold had recovered from his injuries ( he walked with a cane for the rest of his life ) , Washington gave him the military command of Philadelphia after the British withdrew from the city in May 1778 . There his actions increased political opposition to him , and further inquiries were made into his affairs . He also began consorting with Loyalist sympathizers , and married Peggy Shippen , the daughter of one such man . Shortly after , he opened negotiations with General Sir Henry Clinton , mediated by Major John André , offering his services to their side . After resigning his Philadelphia command in anger after poor treatment by Congress and local opponents , he sought and acquired in July 1780 the command of West Point , the key Continental Army base on the Hudson River . Pursuant to plans to make its taking easier by the British , he systematically weakened its defenses . When the plot was exposed in September 1780 with the capture by American forces of Major André , Arnold fled to New York , and was given a commission as a brigadier general in the British Army . Major André was hanged as a spy , greatly upsetting the British . = = British Army service = = The British gave Arnold a brigadier general 's commission with an annual income of several hundred pounds , but only paid him £ 6 @,@ 315 plus an annual pension of £ 360 because his plot failed . He and his wife settled in New York , where the Loyalist elites at first snubbed them , but were eventually overcome by Peggy 's charm . Arnold began recruiting a new Loyalist regiment , the American Legion , enrolling his young sons in the unit ( at least on paper ) . General Clinton then assigned Arnold to lead an expedition to the Chesapeake Bay . As his force began to take shape in November and December , rumors swirled in the city that many officers were refusing to serve under him . Many of the British soldiers in New York held Arnold responsible for the death of the popular Major André . Arnold 's preparations for the Chesapeake Bay expedition interrupted a scheme hatched by George Washington and Henry " Light Horse Harry " Lee to kidnap Arnold . Pursuant to the plan , Lee 's sergeant major , John Champe staged a " desertion " from Lee 's unit in New Jersey to British lines in New York late in October 1780 , and convinced Arnold to take him on as a senior noncommissioned officer . Champe was supposed to make contact with covert operatives working in New York , with whom he would work to kidnap Arnold . After observing Arnold 's habits , a plan was developed to be executed on the night of December 11 . Arnold ordered his troops , including Champe , to embark on transports on December 11 , and thus scuttled the attempt . ( Champe participated in the start of the expedition , and finally managed to escape several weeks later and return to Lee 's unit . Washington and Lee rewarded him richly , and convinced him to retire from military service so that he would not risk hanging for his role in the affair if he was captured . ) = = = Virginia = = = Arnold 's force of 1 @,@ 600 troops arrived off Virginia on January 1 , 1781 . Landing his troops on January 4 , he captured Richmond by surprise and then went on a rampage through Virginia , destroying supply houses , foundries , and mills . This activity brought out Virginia 's militia , led by Colonel Sampson Mathews , initiating Arnold 's return to Portsmouth to hold the port there . The relative inactivity of holding the port led Arnold to request a change of command . When reinforcements arrived in March , they were led by William Phillips ( who had served under Burgoyne at Saratoga ) , who took over the command . However , Clinton did not issue orders recalling Arnold , so he accompanied Phillips on new raiding expeditions into the Virginia countryside . The force advanced on Petersburg , where they defeated a militia force led by Baron von Steuben at the Battle of Blandford in late April . The arrival at Richmond of the Marquis de Lafayette and 900 Continental troops , sent by General Washington to oppose Arnold , prompted Phillips to begin making his way back to Portsmouth . While en route , they were ordered by Charles Cornwallis , the commander of the British southern army , to return to Petersburg , where he would join them with his force . Phillips fell ill on the way , and died of a fever at Petersburg on May 12 . Arnold commanded the army only until May 20 , when Cornwallis arrived to take over . One colonel wrote to Clinton of Arnold , " there are many officers who must wish some other general in command " . Cornwallis disregarded advice proferred by Arnold to locate a permanent base away from the coast that might have averted his later surrender at Yorktown . Shortly after Cornwallis 's arrival , Arnold suffered a severe attack of gout , and returned to New York . During Arnold 's time in Virginia two things happened that had a negative impact on his reputation . He wrote a letter to Lord George Germain , the British colonial secretary , criticizing Clinton 's conduct of the war . Word of this communication reached Clinton , and Arnold was met on his return to New York with a frosty reception , and assignments to perform menial administrative tasks . Arnold attempted to make amends , writing to Germain , " I find my letter has given umbrage ; I am extremely sorry for it . " The second incident was a dispute with his naval counterpart on the Chesapeake , Captain Thomas Symonds , over the distribution of prizes captured during the various expeditions . Symonds was so incensed by Arnold 's attitude that he refused to leave port to respond to reports of transports carrying Lafayette 's troops on the bay . The incident became widely known when Arnold got back to New York , prompting one officer to write , " [ Arnold ] has hurt himself by discovering too much fondness for cash ... if he is attached to the latter ... he is no acquisition for us . " Arnold 's stint in Virginia also demonstrated that he was a target of Patriot wrath and revenge . Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson issued a large reward for his capture , and Washington gave orders to Lafayette to summarily hang Arnold should he be captured . Lafayette had shadowed Arnold and Phillips when they went to Petersburg to join with Cornwallis . After Phillips died , Arnold tried to open communications with the marquis ; the letters were returned unopened by Lafayette . Washington approvingly wrote to Lafayette that " your conduct [ ... ] meets my approbation [ ... ] in refusing to correspond with Arnold . " In conversation with one of Lafayette 's officers sent to confer on prisoner exchanges , Arnold is said to have asked what would happen to him should he be captured . The response was , " We should cut off the leg which was wounded in the country 's service , and we should hang the rest of you . " ( The Boot Monument at the Saratoga National Historical Park , honoring his role there , includes a representation of Arnold 's left boot . ) = = = New London = = = On his return to New York in June Arnold made a variety of proposals for continuing to attack economic or military targets ( including West Point ) in order to force the Americans to end the war . Clinton was not interested in most of Arnold 's aggressive ideas , but the arrival of 3 @,@ 000 new Hessian troops led him to relent . He authorized an expedition against the port of New London , Connecticut , near Arnold 's childhood home of Norwich . On September 4 , not long after the birth of his and Peggy 's second son , Arnold 's force of over 1 @,@ 700 men raided and burned New London and captured Fort Griswold , causing damage estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 . British casualties were high — nearly one quarter of the force sent against Fort Griswold was killed or wounded , a rate at which Clinton claimed he could ill afford more such victories . Although Arnold only reported 44 killed and 127 wounded in his official report , there were unofficial whispers that between 400 and 500 casualties had occurred , with at least one claim that it had been like " a Bunker Hill expedition " . The capture of Fort Griswold included American allegations that the British attackers slaughtered the surviving garrison after it had surrendered ; of a garrison numbering about 150 , more than 130 were killed or seriously wounded . Although Arnold was not in a position to influence what transpired at Fort Griswold ( he remained in New London and observed the action at Fort Griswold across the river ) , he was somewhat predictably blamed by many on both sides for the affair . = = Later years = = Even before the surrender of Cornwallis in October , Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give Lord Germain his thoughts on the war in person . When word of the surrender reached New York , Arnold renewed the request , which Clinton then granted . On December 8 , 1781 , Arnold and his family left New York for England . In London he aligned himself with the Tories , advising Germain and King George III to renew the fight against the Americans . In the House of Commons , Edmund Burke expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold " at the head of a part of a British army " lest " the sentiments of true honor , which every British officer [ holds ] dearer than life , should be afflicted . " To Arnold 's detriment the anti @-@ war Whigs had gotten the upper hand in Parliament , and Germain was forced to resign , with the government of Lord North falling not long after . Arnold then applied to accompany General Carleton , who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander @-@ in @-@ chief ; this request went nowhere . Other attempts to gain positions within the government or the British East India Company over the next few years all failed , and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non @-@ wartime service . His reputation also came under criticism in the British press , especially when compared to that of Major André , who was celebrated for his patriotism . One particularly harsh critic said that Arnold was a " mean mercenary , who , having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder , quits it when convicted of that charge . " In turning him down for an East India Company posting , George Johnstone wrote , " Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct , the generality do not think so . While this is the case , no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company . " Despite repeated attempts to gain command positions in the British Army or with the British East India Company , he saw no further military duty . He resumed business activities , engaging in trade while based at first in Saint John , New Brunswick and then London . He died in London in 1801 , and was buried without military honors .
= Davis v. Ayala = Davis v. Ayala , 576 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2015 ) was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States upheld a death sentence of a Hispanic defendant despite the fact that all Blacks and Hispanics were excluded from the jury during the defendant 's trial . The case involved a habeas corpus petition submitted by Hector Ayala , who was arrested and tried in the late 1980s for the alleged murder of three individuals during an attempted robbery of an automobile body shop in San Diego , California in April 1985 . At trial , the prosecution used peremptory challenges to strike all Black and Hispanic jurors who were available for jury service . The trial court judge allowed the prosecution to explain the basis for the peremptory challenges outside the presence of Ayala 's counsel , " so as not to disclose trial strategy " . Ayala was ultimately sentenced to death , but he filed several appeals challenging the constitutionality of the trial court 's decision to exclude his counsel from the hearings . In a 5 – 4 opinion written by Justice Samuel Alito , the Supreme Court held that even if the trial court committed error , the error was harmless and that Ayala did not suffer any actual prejudice . Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote a dissenting opinion in which she argued that Ayala 's sentence should be reversed because the exclusion of Ayala 's counsel from the hearings " substantially influenced the outcome " of the case . Additionally , Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote a separate concurring opinion in which he questioned the propriety of Ayala 's placement in solitary confinement . In response , Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a one @-@ paragraph concurring opinion in which he stated that Ayala 's accommodations were " far sight more spacious than those in which his victims ... now rest " . Commentators have described the case as " important " and note that will likely have a " significant effect " on similar cases in the future . However , some analysts have described the outcome as " particularly unjust " . Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion also received significant coverage from the media , and some analysts suggested that solitary confinement may become a " new battleground " for Justice Kennedy . One commentator described Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion as " the single most surprising and heartening development of the term " . = = Legal Background = = = = = Batson challenges = = = In Batson v. Kentucky , the Supreme Court of the United States held that a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution occurs when prosecutors use peremptory challenges to exclude jurors on the basis of race . If a defendant alleges that a prosecutor challenged a prospective juror on the basis of that juror 's race ( a process known as a " Batson challenge " ) , trial courts will conduct a three @-@ part analysis of the peremptory challenge in question : " [ f ] irst , a defendant must make a prima facie showing that a peremptory challenge has been exercised on the basis of race ; second , if that showing has been made , the prosecution must offer a race @-@ neutral basis for striking the juror in question ; and third , in light of the parties ’ submissions , the trial court must determine whether the defendant has shown purposeful discrimination . " A court will only sustain a Batson challenge if all three elements of this test are satisfied . On appeal , a trial court 's findings with respect to a Batson challenge will only be reversed if a trial court judge committed clear error . Additionally , the Supreme Court of the United States has held that findings with respect to a prosecutor 's explanation of the reasons for their use of peremptory challenges is " entitled to ' great deference ' " . = = = The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus under federal law = = = When individuals are convicted for crimes under state law , those individuals have the right to challenge the constitutionality of their convictions in federal court by petitioning for a writ of habeas corpus . This right was codified by the Habeas Corpus Act of 1867 , and in 1953 , the United States Supreme Court held that even when a state court rules against a prisoner , that individual still has the right to seek de novo review of their constitutional claims in federal court . However , in the wake of the Oklahoma City bombing , congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act ( " AEDPA " ) in 1996 to modify federal habeas corpus procedures . Under the AEDPA 's new standards , when a prisoner 's claim has been adjudicated in state court , that individual 's petition for habeas corpus shall not be granted unless the state court decision " was contrary to , or involved an unreasonable application of , clearly established Federal law , as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States " . In 2007 , the United States Supreme Court held that , as a " precondition " for relief under the AEDPA , habeas petitioners must demonstrate evidence that a state court 's error resulted in " actual prejudice " . = = = Federal harmless error doctrine = = = The Supreme Court of the United States has identified a narrow range of errors that require automatic reversal ; for all other errors , the decision of a lower court will be upheld if the error was harmless . In 1967 , the Supreme Court ruled in Chapman v. California that a constitutional error will only be considered harmless when the court is " able to declare a belief that it was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt " . Additionally , when reviewing federal habeas corpus petitions , a petitioner must demonstrate that an error " had substantial and injurious effect or influence in determining the jury 's verdict " . The Supreme Court has also ruled that when reviewing a determination of harmlessness under Chapman , the AEDPA mandates that the reviewing court may not grant a petition for habeas corpus " unless the harmlessness determination itself was unreasonable " . According to the Supreme Court , the rationale underlying this doctrine is the public policy concern that states courts should not be forced to undertake the " arduous task " of retrying criminal defendants " based on mere speculation that the defendant was prejudiced by trial error " . = = Arrest and Trial of Hector Ayala = = Hector Ayala was charged with three counts of murder that allegedly occurred during an attempted robbery of an automobile body shop in San Diego , California in April 1985 . During jury selection , the prosecution used peremptory challenges to strike all Black and Hispanic jurors who were available for jury service . Ayala , who was of Hispanic descent , filed a series of Batson challenges to contest the prosecution 's use of peremptory challenges . The trial judge permitted the prosecution to explain the basis of their peremptory challenges in a closed hearing , outside the presence of Ayala 's counsel , " so as not to disclose trial strategy " . The trial court ultimately concluded that the peremptory challenges were based on race @-@ neutral criteria , and Ayala was convicted of the three counts of murder in August 1989 . The jury returned a sentence of death for the three murder convictions , and the trial judge entered a judgment consistent with the jury 's sentence . On direct appeal , the California Supreme Court upheld Ayala 's conviction and sentence , noting that even if the trial judge committed an error when considering the defense 's Batson challenges , that error was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt . Ayala subsequently filed a petition for habeas corpus , which was denied by a district court judge in 2006 . On appeal , the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit granted Ayala 's habeas petition in 2013 , holding that Ayala was denied due process at trial and that the trial court 's error was not harmless . In 2014 , the Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari to review the Ninth Circuit 's ruling . = = Opinion of the Court = = In his majority opinion , Justice Samuel Alito held that the exclusion of Ayala 's counsel during the Batson hearings was harmless error . Justice Alito emphasized that under federal law , prisoners are not entitled to habeas relief unless they can demonstrate " actual prejudice " . Additionally , Justice Alito noted that under the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act , federal courts should be " highly deferential " to state courts " when a prisoner 's ' claim ' has been ' adjudicated on the merits ' in state court " . Applying these standards to the facts of this case , Justice Alito ruled that Ayala did not suffer any actual prejudice and that the California Supreme Court 's opinion " represented an entirely reasonable application of controlling precedent " . Consequently , Justice Alito held that the Ninth Circuit 's ruling should be reversed and that the case should be remanded for reconsideration in light of the Supreme Court 's decision . = = = Concurring opinions = = = Although he noted that his support for the majority 's opinion was " unqualified " , Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote a separate concurring opinion in which he questioned the propriety of solitary confinement . Justice Kennedy observed that since 1989 , Ayala had spent more than twenty five years in solitary confinement . Although the conditions of Ayala 's confinement were not established in the record , Justice Kennedy wrote that " it is likely [ he ] has been held for all or most of the past 20 years or more in a windowless cell no larger than a typical parking spot for 23 hours a day ; and in the one hour when he leaves it , he likely is allowed little or no opportunity for conversation or interaction with anyone " . Justice Kennedy wrote that " [ t ] he human toll wrought by extended terms of isolation long has been understood , and questioned , by writers and commentators " and that solitary confinement " bears a further terror and peculiar mark of infamy " . Justice Kennedy conceded that " in some instances temporary , solitary confinement is a useful or necessary means to impose discipline and to protect prison employees and other inmates " , but that courts should ultimately determine " whether workable alternative systems for long @-@ term confinement exist , and , if so , whether a correctional system should be required to adopt them " . Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a separate , one @-@ paragraph concurring opinion to respond to Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion . He wrote that the " accommodations in which Ayala is housed are a far sight more spacious than those in which his victims , Ernesto Dominguez Mendez , Marcos Antonio Zamora , and Jose Luis Rositas , now rest " . Justice Thomas also noted that because Ayala 's victims were all 31 years of age or younger , " Ayala will soon have had as much or more time to enjoy those accommodations as his victims had time to enjoy this Earth " . = = = Justice Sotomayor 's dissenting opinion = = = Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote a dissenting opinion in which she was joined by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , Justice Stephen Breyer , and Justice Elena Kagan . Justice Sotomayor argued that the exclusion of Ayala 's counsel from the Batson hearings " substantially influenced the outcome " of the case and that " grave doubt exists as to whether [ the exclusion ] was harmless " . She critiqued Justice Alito 's methodological approach , arguing that " [ t ] he proper inquiry is not whether the trial court ’ s determination can be sustained , but whether it may have been different had counsel been present " . Considering the evidence presented in this case , Justice Sotomayor concluded that there " is neither a factual nor a legal basis for the Court ’ s confidence " that the prosecution 's use of peremptory challenges was race neutral . She argued that in light of " the strength of Ayala ’ s prima facie case " , the Court should have upheld the Ninth Circuit 's ruling . = = Commentary and analysis = = Following the release of the Court 's opinion , commentators described Davis v. Ayala as " an important case raising claims about jury selection and harmless error " . Steve Vladeck wrote that " [ g ] oing forward , the dispute between the majority and dissent will have an especially significant effect on cases in which trial courts conduct Batson proceedings ex parte " . Hadar Aviram wrote that " [ t ] he Court was willing to accept , as a basic premise , that Ayala 's constitutional rights were violated ; but that is not enough to merit a reversal " . In his review of the case for The New Yorker , Lincoln Caplan described the Court 's opinion as " particularly unjust " because the Court " had the opportunity to hold a state prosecutor to account for using trumped @-@ up reasons to justify racial discrimination in a jury selection " but failed to do so . = = = Commentary about Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion = = = Much of the initial commentary about the case focused on Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion . Writing for the Los Angeles Times , David G. Savage described Justice Kennedy 's opinion as " unusual " and " a rare instance of a Supreme Court justice virtually inviting a constitutional challenge to a prison policy " . Marty Lederman described Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion as " the single most surprising and heartening development of the term " . Matt Ford wrote that " Kennedy ’ s critique of solitary confinement in Davis came without warning or fanfare " and that " [ s ] olitary confinement is a new battleground for the Court ’ s second @-@ longest serving justice , but not a surprising one " . Although he suggested Justice Kennedy 's concurrence may be " more consequential " than Justice Harry Blackmun 's dissent in Callins v. Collins , Mark Joseph Stern described Justice Kennedy 's concurrence as " myopic " , noting that " large chunks of the ' legal academy ' in the ' public ' were aware — and outraged — by the practice long before Kennedy condemned it " . Dahlia Lithwick wrote that even though " Kennedy may not come around on the death penalty " and rule it unconstitutional , " after reading his own words in Ayala — he probably should " . In an interview with Harvard Law School dean Martha Minow , Justice Kennedy explained that when he was in the Army , he was locked in a cell for four hours and " slightly tortured " . Justice Kennedy remarked that " [ a ] fter four hours in a cell , I was going mad . These people are in , some for 40 years . It drives people mad and we don ’ t even think about it . We ’ ve got to do something about it " .
= The Pest House = " ' The Pest House " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on February 27 , 1998 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Allen Coulter . " The Pest House " featured guest appearances by Melinda McGraw , Justin Louis and Michael Massee . Millennium Group offender profilers Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) investigate a series of murders mimicking urban legends . The case soon leads them to a psychiatric hospital for violent criminals , where all is not as it seems . " The Pest House " marked the second of three contributions by Coulter , and saw past Morgan and Wong collaborator McGraw once again work for the writing duo . The episode received positive reviews from critics , and was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 59 million households in its initial broadcast . = = Plot = = A young couple sit in a car , sharing a story of a serial killer from the area . They hear sounds outside , and the boyfriend steps out to see what they are . His girlfriend is terrified when she hears sounds of a struggle , and investigates to find him dangling above the car , dead . Millennium Group members Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) examine the crime scene . Black is skeptical when Watts notes that similar killings have occurred in the past , believing it is simply an urban legend . However , an inmate at the psychiatric hospital nearby was committed for similar murders . Unconvinced that he could have escaped , the pair nevertheless visit the facility . They meet Dr. Ellen Stoller ( Melinda McGraw ) , who reluctantly assists them in interviewing their suspect , E. Jacob Woodcock . Woodcock admits the killing fits his methods , but denies involvement . The interview is terminated when two inmates begin fighting . That night , another couple is brutally killed on the highway . Black and Watts investigate , but they deem the deaths unconnected . However , Black notices that the newest murders are identical to the prior crimes of " Bear " , one of the inmates involved in the previous day 's fight . Stoller is adamant Bear cannot be responsible — until she finds the victim 's hand in the cafeteria 's stew . Bear insists someone took something " from inside " him , but has a seizure before he can explain . Between this incident and Woodcock insisting that Edward ( Justin Louis ) has stolen his dreams , Black realizes someone in the hospital is causing the deaths . After seeing a vision of Stoller being stabbed in her car , Black warns her that she may be in danger , which she rebukes . However , she is approached by another patient , Purdue ( Michael Massee ) , who insists that Edward is stealing dreams , but will not steal his . Watts researches the facility 's inmates to find who has committed stabbings in the victims ' cars , concluding that Purdue is the one this profile fits . Black attempts to warn Stoller , but she has already driven away from the hospital . Black gives chase , scaring her , and she out @-@ paces him before pulling into a filling station . However , the attendant alerts Stoller that someone is hiding in the back seat of her car , and manages to bring her to the safety of his office . Black arrives and finds the car empty . He drives Stoller back to the hospital while the attendant attempts to call the police . However , he is killed before making the call . Black searches for Purdue in the hospital , but encounters Edward , who tells him a nurse was murdered years before by Woodcock . Edward believes the patients can be cured by having the evil drained from their bodies . The electricity is cut and the lights go off . Black and Stoller roam in the dark , finding the body of the night nurse . Purdue 's voice is heard over the intercom , and the pair move to the office with the tannoy equipment to find him . Edward attacks with a knife — Stoller sees him shape @-@ shift into Purdue , then Bear , and then Woodcock . However , Purdue fights and kills him , proclaiming it " the sanest thing I ever did . " Black theorizes that Edward somehow absorbed the killers ' violent impulses into himself , but was unable to refrain from acting upon them . = = Production = = " The Pest House " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Allen Coulter . The episode was Coulter 's second contribution to the series — he had previously directed " Beware of the Dog " and would return to helm " Siren " later in the second season . " The Pest House " was the eleventh episode to have been written by Morgan and Wong , who had penned several across the first and second seasons . The pair had also taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season . Guest star Melinda McGraw had appeared in several episodes of Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , in a recurring role as Melissa Scully , debuting in an episode of that series also penned by Morgan and Wong . McGraw had also worked with the writers on The Commish . = = Broadcast and reception = = " The Pest House " was first broadcast on the Fox network on February 27 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 59 million households , and left the episode the seventy @-@ fifth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week . The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A − , finding it " is , like many episodes of this season before it , a bit of mess , a melange of concepts which don 't always taste so great together " . Handlen felt that the episode began with an " iffy " premise which more closely resembled an episode of The X @-@ Files , but by its end had managed to make it something more distinct and separate . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , writing that it was " an episode that pays lip service to the Group 's interest in this case to merely go back to the same old " killer of the week " conceit " . However , Gibron felt that " the acting is wonderful , and the actual story very moody and atmospheric " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Pest House " three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Shearman praised guest star Massee 's performance , and felt that the script was " great fun " , noting that it worked as a more serious version of the 1996 film Scream .
= Slavery in Haiti = Slavery in Haiti has existed since Christopher Columbus arrived on the island in 1492 . The practice was so devastating to the native population that the Spanish began importing African slaves . During the French colonial period beginning in 1625 , the economy of Haiti ( then known as Saint @-@ Domingue ) was based on slavery , and the practice there was regarded as the most brutal in the world . The Haitian Revolution of 1804 , the only successful slave revolt in human history , precipitated the end of slavery not only in Saint @-@ Domingue , but in all French colonies . However , several Haitian leaders following the revolution employed forced labor , believing a plantation @-@ style economy was the only way for Haiti to succeed , and building fortifications to safeguard against attack by the French . During the U.S. occupation between 1915 and 1934 , the U.S. military forced Haitians to work building roads for defense against Haitian resistance fighters . Slavery is still practiced in Haiti today . As many as half a million children are unpaid domestic servants called restaveks , who routinely suffer physical and sexual abuse . Additionally , human trafficking , including child trafficking is a significant problem in Haiti ; trafficked people are brought into , out of , and through Haiti for forced labor , including sex trafficking . The groups most at risk include the poor , women , children , the homeless , and people migrating across the border with the Dominican Republic . The devastating earthquake in 2010 displaced many , rendering them homeless , isolated , and supremely vulnerable to exploitation by traffickers . The chaos following the quake also distracted authorities and hindered efforts to stop trafficking . The government has taken steps to prevent and stop trafficking , ratifying human rights conventions and enacting laws to protect the vulnerable , but enforcement remains difficult . = = History = = = = = Spanish Hispaniola ( 1492 – 1625 ) = = = The natives living on the island that would come to be called Hispaniola were peaceful and not trained in military tactics . In the Pre @-@ Columbian era , other Caribbean tribes would sometimes attack the island to kidnap people into slavery . However , when Columbus arrived in 1492 , slavery on the island turned into a major business : colonists quickly began establishing sugar plantations dependent on slave labor . The practice of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies would become so large scale in Spain 's colonization of the Americas that imports of African slaves outnumbered Spanish immigration to the New World by the end of the 1500s . When Columbus arrived in what is today Haiti in December 1492 and met the native Taino Arawak people , they were friendly , exchanging gifts with the Spaniards and volunteering their help . But Columbus was already planning to enslave them . He wrote in a letter to Queen Isabella of Spain that the natives were " tractable , and easily led ; they could be made to grow crops and build cities " . When Columbus returned to Europe in 1493 , 30 of his soldiers stayed to build a fort there called La Navidad . They began stealing from , raping , and enslaving the natives — in some cases they held native women and girls as sex slaves . Finding gold was a chief goal for the Spanish ; they quickly forced enslaved natives to work in gold mines , which took a heavy toll in life and health . In addition to gold the slaves mined copper , and they grew crops for the Spaniards . In response to the brutality , the natives fought back . Some Taino escaped into remote parts of the island 's mountains and formed communities in hiding as " maroons " , who organized attacks against Spaniards ' settlements. the Spanish responded to the native resistance with severe reprisals , for example destroying crops to starve the natives . The Spaniards brought to the island dogs trained to kill the natives and unleashed them upon those who rebelled against enslavement . In 1495 Columbus sent 500 captured natives back to Spain as slaves , but 200 did not survive the voyage , and the others died shortly afterwards . In the late 1490s he planned to send 4000 slaves back to Spain each year , but this expectation failed to take into account the rapid decline the native population would soon suffer and was never achieved . It is not known how many Taino people were on the island prior to Columbus 's arrival — estimates range from several thousand to eight million — but overwork in slavery and diseases introduced by the Europeans quickly killed a large part of the population . Between 1492 and 1494 , one third of the native population on the island died . Two million had been killed within ten years of the Spaniards ' arrival , and by 1514 , 92 % of the native population of the island were killed by enslavement and European diseases . By the 1540s the culture of the natives had disappeared from the island , and by 1548 the native population was under 500 . The rapid rate at which the native slaves died necessitated the import of Africans , for whom contact with Europeans was not new and who therefore had already developed some immunity to European diseases . Columbus 's son Diego Columbus started the African slave trade to the island in 1505 . Some newly arrived slaves from Africa and neighboring islands were able to escape and join maroon communities in the mountains . In 1519 Africans and Native Americans joined forces to start a slave rebellion that turned into a years @-@ long uprising which was eventually crushed by the Spanish in the 1530s . Spanish missionary Bartolomé de las Casas spoke out against the enslavement of the natives and the brutality of the Spaniards . He wrote that to the natives , the Christianity brought by the Spaniards had come to symbolize the brutality with which they had been treated ; he quoted one Taino cacique ( tribal chief ) , " They tell us , these tyrants , that they adore a God of peace and equality , and yet they usurp our land and make us their slaves . They speak to us of an immortal soul and of their eternal rewards and punishments , and yet they rob our belongings , seduce our women , violate our daughters . " Las Casas commented that the Spaniards ' punishment of a Taino man by cutting off his ear " marked the beginning of the spilling of blood , later to become a river of blood , first on this island and then in every corner of these Indies . " Las Casas ' campaign led to an official end of the enslavement of Tainos in 1542 — however it was replaced by the African slave trade . As Las Casas had presaged , the Spaniards ' treatment of the Tainos was the start of a centuries @-@ long legacy of slavery in which abuse such as amputating body parts was commonplace . = = = French Saint Domingue ( 1625 – 1789 ) = = = The Spanish ceded control of the western part of the island of Hispaniola to the French in the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 ; France named its new colonial possession Saint Domingue . The colony , based on the export of slave @-@ grown crops , particularly sugar , would become the richest in the world . Known as the " Pearl of the Antilles " , the colony became the world 's foremost producer of coffee and sugar cane . The French , like the Spanish , imported slaves from Africa . In 1681 there were 2 @,@ 000 African slaves in the future Saint Domingue ; by 1789 there were almost half a million . French plantation @-@ owners worked their African slaves so hard that half died within a few years ; it was cheaper to import new slaves than to improve working conditions enough to increase survival . The rate of death of slaves on Saint Domingue 's plantations was higher than anywhere else in the western hemisphere . Over the French colony 's hundred @-@ year course , slavery killed about a million Africans , and thousands more chose suicide . Slaves newly arrived from Africa , particularly women , were especially likely to kill themselves ; some thought that in death they could return home to Africa . Pregnant slaves usually did not survive long enough or have healthy enough pregnancies to have live babies , but if they did the children often died young . Food was insufficient , and slaves were expected to grow and prepare it for themselves on top of their already crushing , 12 @-@ hour workdays . It was legal for a slaveholder to kill a slave who hit a white person , according to the 1685 Code Noir , a decree by the French king Louis XIV regulating practices of slaves and slavers . Torture of slaves was routine ; they were whipped , burned , buried alive , restrained and allowed to be bitten by swarms of insects , mutilated , raped , and had limbs amputated . Slaves caught eating the sugar cane would be forced to wear tin muzzles in the fields . The Catholic Church condoned slavery and the practices used in the French colony , viewing the institution as a way to convert Africans to Christianity . About 48 @,@ 000 slaves in Saint Domingue managed to escape ; slaveholders hired bounty hunters to catch these maroons . Those who were not caught and re @-@ enslaved established communities away from settled areas . Maroons would organize raids called mawonag on plantations , stealing supplies that their communities needed to survive , such as food , tools , and weapons . One famous maroon , François Mackandal , escaped into the mountains in the middle of the 18th century and went on to plan attacks on plantation owners . Mackandal was caught and burned at the stake in 1758 , but his legend lived on to inspire rebellion among slaves — and fear among slaveholders . In addition to escaping , slaves resisted by poisoning slaveholders , their families , their livestock , and other slaves — this was a common and feared enough occurrence that in December 1746 the French King banned poisoning in particular . Arson was another form of slave resistance . The rapid rate of death of slaves during this period set the stage for the Haitian revolution by necessitating the import of more slaves from Africa . These were people who had known freedom , some of whom had been captured as soldiers and had military training . Before the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 there were eight times as many slaves in the colony as there were white and mixed @-@ race people put together . In 1789 the French were importing 30 @,@ 000 slaves a year and there were half a million slaves in the French part of the island alone , compared to about 30 @,@ 000 whites . = = = Revolutionary period ( 1789 – 1804 ) = = = Sex between male masters and female slaves was so common in Saint Domingue that a separate class had emerged consisting of the mixed @-@ race children of these encounters . It was standard for fathers to free these children , leading them to become a new class more privileged than slaves but less so than whites ; they were called gens de couleur , " free people of color " . Some of these free people of color were quite wealthy and some owned slaves . The French Revolution in 1789 presented an opportunity for Haiti 's middle class , who organized a revolt , which was followed shortly thereafter by a general slave revolt . In 1791 , slaves staged a revolt , massacring whites and torching plantations . By 1801 , the revolt had succeeded , putting Toussaint Louverture into power as Governor General of Haiti . Although slavery was outlawed , Louverture , believing that the plantation economy was necessary , forced laborers back to work on the plantations using military might . With a view towards re @-@ establishing slavery , Napoleon Bonaparte sent his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Charles Leclerc to regain control of Haiti , along with a fleet of 86 ships and 22 @,@ 000 soldiers . The Haitians resisted the soldiers , but the French were more numerous and better positioned , until the rainy season brought yellow fever . As French soldiers and officers died , black Haitian soldiers who had allied themselves with the French began to defect to the other side . = = = Jean @-@ Jacques Dessalines = = = In 1802 , Louverture was arrested and deported to France , where he later died in prison , leaving leadership of the military to Jean @-@ Jacques Dessalines . In 1804 , the French were defeated . France officially gave up control of Haiti , making it the second independent country in the Americas ( after the US ) and the first successful slave revolt in the world . Dessalines was the country 's leader , first naming himself Governor @-@ General @-@ for @-@ life , then Emperor of Haiti . After the revolution , newly freed slaves were violently opposed to remaining on plantations , but Dessalines , like Louverture , used military might to keep them there , thinking that plantation labor was the only way to make the economy function . Most ex @-@ slaves viewed Dessalines ' rule as more of the same oppression they had known during de jure slavery . Dessalines was killed by a mob of his own officers in 1806 . = = = Henri Christophe = = = Dessalines ' successor was King Henry Christophe , another general in the revolution . Christophe , fearing another French invasion , continued in Dessalines ' footsteps fortifying the country . For the construction of one citadel , La Citadelle Laferrière , Christophe is thought to have forced hundreds of thousands of people into laboring on it , killing an estimated 20 @,@ 000 of them . Also like his predecessors Louverture and Dessalines , Christophe used military might to force former slaves to stay on the plantations . Plantation workers under Louverture and Christophe were not unpaid — they received one quarter of what they produced , paying the rest to plantation owners and the government . Under Christophe 's rule it was also possible for black people to rent their own land or work in government , and agricultural workers on plantations could make complaints to the royal administration about working conditions . These ex @-@ slaves may also have sometimes had a choice about what plantation they would work on — but they could not choose not to work , and they could not legally leave a plantation they were " attached " to . Many ex @-@ slaves were probably forced to work on the same plantations they had worked on as slaves . The population 's staunch resistance to working on plantations — owned by whites or otherwise — made it too difficult to perpetuate the system , despite its profitability . Christophe and other leaders enacted policies allowing state land to be broken up and sold to citizens , and the plantation system largely gave way to one in which Haitians owned and farmed smaller lots . = = = Jean @-@ Pierre Boyer = = = In 1817 , a Haitian ship seized a Spanish slave ship bound for Cuba which had entered Haiti ’ s waters , and , acting on standing government orders , brought it ashore . All 171 captive Africans were liberated and joyfully accepted into Haitian society , and President Jean @-@ Pierre Boyer himself served as their godfather . The ship ’ s captain , and later Cuban officials , protested to Boyer that his trade was legal , but Boyer maintained that the 1816 constitution decreed that there could be no slaves in Haitian territory , and no reimbursement could be given for their value . Slave ships had also been seized and their human cargo freed under previous leaders Christophe and Alexandre Pétion , and slaves who managed to take control of ships and arrive in Haiti were given asylum . Slavers quickly learned to avoid Haiti ’ s waters . In 1825 France sent an armada to Haiti and threatened to blockade the country , preventing trade unless Boyer agreed to pay France 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 francs to reimburse it for losses of " property " — mostly its slaves . In exchange , France would recognize Haiti as an independent nation , which it had so far refused to do . Boyer agreed without making the decision public beforehand , a move which met with widespread outrage in Haiti . The amount was reduced to 90 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 francs in 1838 , equivalent to USD $ 19 billion in 2015 . Haiti was saddled with this debt until 1947 , and forced to forgo spending on humanitarian programs such as sanitation . In 1838 , an estimated 30 % of the country 's yearly budget went to debt , and in 1900 , the amount had risen to 80 % . Haiti took out loans from Germany , the US , and France itself to come up with this money , further increasing its debt burden and those countries ' centrality in the Haitian economy . Under new pressure to produce money to pay the debt , in 1826 , Boyer enacted a new set of laws called the Code Rural that restricted agricultural workers ' autonomy , required them to work , and prohibited their travel without permission . It also reenacted the system of Corvée , by which police and government authorities could force residents to work temporarily without pay on roads . These laws met with widespread resistance and were difficult to enforce since the workers ' access to land provided them autonomy and they were able to hide from the government . The United States passed laws to keep Haitian merchants away from US soil because slaveholders there did not want their slaves getting ideas about revolt from the Haitians . However the two countries continued trade , with Haiti purchasing the weapons it needed , albeit at disadvantageous prices . The US embargo of Haiti lasted 60 years , but Lincoln declared it unnecessary to deny the country 's independence once the institution in the US began to be ended . He encouraged newly freed slaves to emigrate there to attain a freedom he did not deem possible in the US . = = = US occupation = = = In July 1915 , after political unrest and the mob murder of Haiti 's president Vilbrun Guillaume Sam , United States marines invaded Haiti . Prior to the occupation peasants had staged uprisings to resist moves by US investors to appropriate their land and convert the style of agriculture in the area from subsistence back to a plantation @-@ like system — the idea of going back to anything like the plantation system faced fierce resistance . Haitians had been afraid that US investors were trying to convert the economy back into a plantation @-@ based one since US businesses had been amassing land and evicting rural peasants from their family land . Rural Haitians formed armies that roamed around the countryside , stealing from farmers and raping women . The motivation of the US occupation of Haiti was partly to protect investments and to prevent European countries from gaining too much power in the area . One stated justification for the occupation had been the practice of enslaving children as domestic servants ; however the US then reinstituted the practice of forced labor under the corvée system . As had occurred under the regimes of Dessalines and Christophe , unfree labor was again employed in a public works program , this time ordered by the US Admiral William Banks Caperton . In 1916 , the US occupiers employed the corvée system of forced labor allowed by Haiti 's 1864 Code Rural until 1918 . Since the Cacos , Haitian resistance fighters , hid out in remote , mountainous areas and waged guerrilla @-@ style warfare against the marines , the military needed roads built to find and fight them . To build these roads , laborers were forcibly taken from their homes , bound together with rope into chain gangs , sometimes beaten and abused , and resisters were executed . Peasants were told they would be paid for their labor and given food , working near their homes — but sometimes the promised food and wages were meager or altogether absent . Corvée was highly unpopular ; Haitians widely believed that whites had returned to Haiti to force them back into slavery . The brutality of the forced labor system strengthened the Cacos ; many Haitians escaped to the mountains to join them , and many more lent their help and support . Reports of the abuses led the commander of the marines to order an end to the practice in 1918 ; however it continued illegally in the North until it was discovered — no one faced punishment for the infraction . When corvée was no longer available , occupiers turned to prison labor , sometimes having men arrested for the purpose when they had too few laborers . The occupation lasted until 1934 . = = Modern day = = Slavery is still widespread in Haiti today . According to the 2014 Global Slavery Index , Haiti has an estimated 237 @,@ 700 enslaved persons making it the country with the second @-@ highest prevalence of slavery in the world , behind only Mauritania . Haiti has more human trafficking than any other Central or South American country . According to the United States Department of State 2013 Trafficking in Persons Report , " Haiti is a major source , passage , and destination country for men , women , and children subjected to forced labor and sex slavery . " Haitians are trafficked out of Haiti and into the neighboring Dominican Republic , as well as to other countries such as Ecuador , Bolivia , Argentina , Brazil , and North American countries as well . Haiti is also a transit country for victims of trafficking en route to the United States . After the 2010 Haiti earthquake , human trafficking has drastically increased . While trafficking often implies moving , particularly smuggling people across borders , it only requires " the use of force , fraud , or coercion to exploit a person for profit , " and it is understood to be a form of slavery . = = = Children = = = Child trafficking is a substantial part of the human trafficking crisis in Haiti . One major form of child trafficking and child slavery , affecting an estimated 300 @,@ 000 Haitian children , is called the restavek system , in which children are forced to work as domestic servants . The restavek system accounts for the lion 's share of human trafficking in Haiti . Families send the children into other households , exchanging their labor for upbringing . Impoverished rural parents hope for education and a better life for their children in the city , sending them to wealthier ( or at least less poor ) households . Increasingly , children enter domestic servitude when a parent dies . Paid middlemen may act as recruiters , fetching the children for the host families . Unlike slaves in the traditional sense , restaveks are not bought or sold or owned , could run away or return to their families , and are typically released from servitude when they become adults ; however , the restavek system is commonly understood to be a form of slavery . Some restaveks do receive proper nutrition and education , but they are in the minority . Restaveks ' labor includes hauling water and wood , grocery shopping , laundry , house cleaning , and childcare . Restaveks work long hours ( commonly 10 to 14 a day ) under harsh conditions , are frequently denied schooling , and are at severe risk of malnutrition and verbal , physical , and sexual abuse . Beatings are a daily occurrence for most restaveks , and most of the girls are sexually abused , which puts them at an elevated risk for HIV infection . Those who are thrown out or run away from their host homes become street children , vulnerable to exploitation including forced prostitution . Those who return to their families may be unwelcome as an added economic burden or shamed and stigmatized for having been a restavek . The trauma of abuse and the deprivation of free time and normal childhood experiences can stunt a child 's development and have long @-@ lasting effects . The term restavek comes from the French " to live with " , rester avec . The practice has been around since the end of the revolution but became common in the 20th century as a way for rural people to cope with poverty . The number of restaveks increased after the 2010 earthquake , when many children became orphans or were separated from their families . The US Department of State estimated in 2013 that between 150 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 children were in domestic servitude , accounting for most of Haiti ’ s human trafficking . About 19 % of Haitian children ages 5 to 17 live away from their parents , and about 8 @.@ 2 % are considered domestic workers . In one survey , restaveks were present in 5 @.@ 3 % of households by their heads ' own admission . In one study , 16 % of Haitian children surveyed admitted to being restaveks . It is estimated that an additional 3 @,@ 000 Haitian children are domestic servants in the Dominican Republic . Children are also trafficked out of Haiti by organizations claiming to be adoption agencies , into countries including the US — but some are actually kidnapped from their families . This practice was particularly widespread in the chaos following the 2010 earthquake . While women migrants were vulnerable during this time , the situation of children was underscored because of the phenomenon of irregular adoptions ( one facet of human trafficking ) of supposed “ orphans ” through the Dominican Republic . International outcry arose when on January 29 , 2010 , ten members of the American New Life Children 's Refuge were arrested trying to take 33 Haitian children out of the country to an orphanage — but the children were not orphans . Traffickers pretending to be workers from legitimate charitable organizations have been known to trick refugee families , convincing them that their children would be taken to safety and cared for . In some cases , traffickers run " orphanages " or " care facilities " for children that are difficult to distinguish from legitimate organizations . Children may be smuggled across the border by paid traffickers claiming to be their parents and subsequently forced into laboring for begging rings or as servants . Child trafficking spurred Unicef to fund the Brigade de Protection des Mineurs , a branch of the national police that exists to monitor cases of child trafficking , to watch borders and refugee camps for such activity . Children in refugee camps are in particular danger of other kinds of trafficking as well , including sexual exploitation . = = = Sex slavery = = = Although a majority of the modern day slavery cases in Haiti are due to the practice of the restavek system , trafficking for Sexual exploitation in Haiti is a widespread and pressing issue . In recent years , Haiti has become a magnet for sex tourists . Sex slavery includes the practices of coercion , forced prostitution , and trafficking for any sexual purposes . Sheldon Zhang defines sex trafficking as “ migrants [ who ] are transported with the intent to perform sexual services ... and in which the smuggling process is enabled through the use of force , fraud , or coercion . ” Most victims are trafficked for prostitution , but others are used for pornography and stripping . Children tend to be trafficked within their own countries , while young women may be trafficked internally or internationally , sometimes with the consent of their husbands or other family members . Suspicion was raised in 2007 that UN peacekeeping forces ( deployed in 2004 to quell political instability ) were creating an increased demand for sex trafficking after 114 UN soldiers were expelled from Haiti for using prostitutes . In its 2007 yearly report , the US state department found an increase in sex trafficking into Haiti of women and girls to work as prostitutes for peacekeepers . It was the first mention in such a report of women being trafficked into Haiti from the Dominican Republic for sex work . = = = Haitian – Dominican border = = = For decades Haitians have been crossing the Haitian @-@ Dominican border for various reasons , including voluntary and involuntary migration , long- and short @-@ term residence in the Dominican Republic , legal and illegal entry , smuggling , and human trafficking . Haitians move across the Haitian @-@ Dominican border in search of opportunities and they are highly vulnerable to exploitation . In fact , the Dominican Republic has one of the worst records of human rights abuses , including human trafficking , against migrant workers in all of the Caribbean . Haitians in the Dominican Republic are widely disparaged as a migrant minority because of the countries ' proximity . During the dictatorial reign of Jean @-@ Claude Duvalier in the 1970s and 80s , he sold Haitians at bulk rates to work on sugar plantations in the Dominican Republic . Most people who move across the border are women and girls . The migration of Haitian women to the Dominican Republic is intrinsically linked to the “ feminization of migrations ” which is in turn part of the “ new Haitian immigration , ” brought about by changes in labor markets as well as by the fragile situation of women and their families in Haiti . Women migrants are particularly vulnerable to human trafficking , violence and illicit smuggling . When attempting to cross the border , Haitian women are at risk of being robbed , assaulted , raped and murdered , at the hands of smugglers , delinquents and traffickers , both Dominican and Haitian . Given this threat of violence , women turn to alternative , unofficial routes and dependence upon hired buscones ( informal scouts ) , cousins and other distant family to accompany them across the border . These hired smugglers who have promised to help them , often through force and coercion , trick them instead into forced domestic labor in private homes in Santo Domingo , the capital of Dominican Republic . Hired buscones also sell women and children into the sex slave trade within the Dominican Republic ( brothels and other venues ) or into sexual slavery as an export . Often , mothers need their young children to help provide for the family , which puts the children in vulnerable positions and allows them to fall prey to predators and traffickers . The number of children smuggled into the Dominican Republic is not known , but a UNICEF estimate placed the number at 2 @,@ 000 in 2009 alone . Haitian officials report that there are three main fates met by children trafficked out of Haiti : domestic work , prostitution , and organ harvesting . Women from the Dominican Republic have also reportedly been trafficked into Haiti to be sex slaves . = = = Government action = = = The 2014 US Trafficking in Persons Report has placed Haiti on the Tier 2 Watch list . The Tier 2 Watch List placement is given to countries whose governments do not fully comply with the Trafficking Victims Protection Act ’ s ( TVPA ) minimum standards , but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards , and the number of victims of severe forms of trafficking is very significant or significantly increasing . Some of Haiti 's efforts to combat modern day slavery include ratifying several key conventions , including the Universal Declaration on Human Rights ( UHDR ) , the Convention on the Rights of the Child ( CRC ) , the International Labour Organization ( ILO ) Convention Concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour , and the ILO Minimum Age Convention . In 2014 Haiti ratified the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children . Conventions such as these , if enforced , could help to combat human trafficking . In 2000 , Haiti signed the UN Protocol to Prevent , Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons , especially Women and Children , but has not ratified it . Haiti has not ratified the Convention on Domestic Workers . = = = = Anti @-@ restavek action = = = = In accordance with these international conventions , Haitian law prohibits abuse , violence , exploitation , and servitude of children of any kind that is likely to harm their safety , health , or morals . Additionally , it declares that all children have the right to an education and to be free from degrading and inhumane treatment . Enacted in 2003 , Article 335 of the Haitian Labor code prohibits the employment of children under the age of 15 . Furthermore , an Act passed in June 2003 specifically outlawed the placement of children into restavek service . The law states that a child in domestic service must be treated in the same manner as the biological children of the family ; however it does not contain any criminal sanctions for those who violate its provisions . Despite the enactment of these laws , the practice of restavek persists and grows . Political instability and lack of resources hinder efforts to curtail trafficking in children . = = = = Prosecution and protection = = = = The government took steps to legally address the issue of trafficking of women and children by submitting a bill to Parliament , in response to its ratification of the Palermo Protocol which required it . In 2014 the law CL / 2014 @-@ 0010 was passed , criminalizing trafficking with penalties of up to 15 years of imprisonment . However , enforcement remains elusive . Impediments to combating human trafficking include widespread corruption , the lack of quick responses to cases with trafficking indicators , the slow pace of the judicial branch to resolve criminal cases , and scant funding for government agencies . People displaced by the 2010 earthquake are at an increased risk of sex trafficking and forced labor . The international protections in place for the internally displaced , primarily the 1998 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement , do not apply to earthquake survivors who have crossed an international border . There is nothing protecting the externally displaced , which creates significant protection gaps for those most vulnerable to trafficking — girls and young women — who are treated as migration offenders rather than forced migrants in need of protection . No temporary protected status has been created or granted in the Dominican Republic . Since the 2010 Haiti earthquake , international aid and domestic effort has been focused on relief and recovery , and as a result few resources have been set aside for combating modern day slavery . There are no government @-@ run shelters to aid human trafficking victims . The government refers victims to non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) for services like food and medical care . The majority of victim services are provided by Haitian NGOs such as Foyer l ’ Escale , Centre d ’ Action pour le Developpement and Organisation des Jeunes Filles en Action that provide accommodation , educational and psycho @-@ social services to victims . Additionally , the IOM has been cooperating with local NGOs and the Haitian Ministry of Social Affairs , the Institute for Social Welfare and Research or the Brigade for the Protection of Minors of the Haitian national police to tackle human trafficking . = = = = Prevention = = = = The government has made efforts to prevent and reduce human trafficking . In June 2012 , the IBESR ( Institut du BienEtre Social et de Recherches ) launched a human trafficking hotline and conducted a campaign to raise public awareness about child labor , child trafficking , and child sexual abuse . The government made a hotline to report cases of abuse of restaveks . In December 2012 , the government created a national commission for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor , which involved launching a public awareness campaign on child labor , and highlighting the national day against restavek abuse . In early 2013 , the government created an inter @-@ ministerial working group on human trafficking , chaired by the Judicial Affairs Director of the foreign affairs ministry , to coordinate all anti @-@ trafficking executive branch initiatives . = = = Contributing factors = = = The 2013 Trafficking in Persons Report has identified several individual and structural factors that contribute to the persistence of human trafficking to , through , and out of Haiti , as well as throughout Latin America and the Caribbean . The Haitians at gravest risk of victimization by human traffickers are its poorest people , particularly children . In Haiti , the poorest country in the western hemisphere , over half the population lives on less than a dollar a day and over three quarters live on less than two dollars a day . Severe poverty , compiled with a lack of social services such as education and basic healthcare increases a child ’ s vulnerability to modern slavery . Factors that increase a child 's likelihood of becoming a restavek include illness or loss of one or both parents , lack of access to clean water , lack of educational opportunities , and having access to family in a city . In addition to poverty , individual factors that can lead to exploitation include unemployment , illiteracy , poor educational opportunities , a history of physical or sexual abuse , homelessness , and drug abuse . These individual factors “ push ” people towards pathways of human trafficking and modern day slavery . Oftentimes men , women and children accept slave @-@ like work conditions because there is little hope for better and they need to survive . Some cross national borders in search of positive opportunities , but instead find themselves a part of the exploited work force . Additionally , factors that make people easy targets for traffickers make enslavement more likely . One group at high risk for sexual enslavement and other types of forced labor is internally displaced persons , particularly women and children living in refugee camps , which offer little security . The estimated 10 % of undocumented Haitians , whose births go unreported , are at especial risk of enslavement . Human trafficking along the Haitian @-@ Dominican border persists because both sending and receiving countries have a huge economic stake in continuing the stream of undocumented migration which directly leads to trafficking . Trafficking is a profitable business for traffickers both in Haiti and the Dominican Republic . As long as large economic and social disparities such as poverty , social exclusion , environmental crisis , and political instability exist between the two countries , the trade will continue . There are also structural factors outside of the individual that explain the persistence of modern day slavery in Haiti . The US state department 's Trafficking in Persons report has identified the following eight structural factors that contribute to human trafficking in Latin America and the Caribbean : ( 1 ) the high demand for domestic servants , agricultural laborers , sex workers , and factory labor ; ( 2 ) political , social , or economic crises , as well as natural disasters such as the January 2010 earthquake ; ( 3 ) lingering machismo ( chauvinistic attitudes and practices ) that tends to lead to discrimination against women and girls ; ( 4 ) existence of established trafficking networks with sophisticated recruitment methods ; ( 5 ) public corruption , especially complicity between law enforcement and border agents with traffickers and smugglers of people ; ( 6 ) restrictive immigration policies in some destination countries that have limited the opportunities for legal migration flows to occur ; ( 7 ) government disinterest in the issue of human trafficking ; and ( 8 ) limited economic opportunities for women . The restavek tradition is perpetuated by widespread tolerance for the practice throughout Haiti . Other contributing factors to the restavek system include poverty and lack of access to contraception , education , and employment in the countryside . Poor rural families with many children have few opportunities to feed and educate them , leaving few options other than servitude in the city .
= Tsing Yi North Coastal Road = Tsing Yi North Coastal Road , also abbreviated as TYNCR , ( Chinese : 青衣北岸公路 ; Jyutping : cing1 ji1 bak1 ngon6 gung1 lou6 ; pinyin : Qīngyī Běi 'àn Gōnglù ) is a dual carriageway in Tsing Yi , Hong Kong . The road starts at Tsing Tsuen Road , where it travels through the northern part of the island . It ends at Route 3 and Route 8 on the western side of the island at a left @-@ in / left @-@ out interchange , 2 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) from its eastern terminus . The road was first planned in 1998 to relieve traffic coming from Lantau . It was constructed in 1999 , and was opened in February 2002 . = = Description = = The road starts at the border of the Tsing Ma Control Area , on the eastern exit ramps of the Tam Kong Shan Interchange and the western terminus of Tsing Tsuen Road . The road travels westward , with ramps reemerging from the interchange , which is surrounded by noise barriers . TYNCR then travels across multiple viaducts on the northern side of Tsing Yi , with hills south of the road , and the coastline north of it . About 1 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) from the eastern terminus , TYNCR travels to Tam Kong Shan Road , near a shipyard and a cement factory . The exit ramp is accessible from westbound lanes , and the entrance ramp from Tam Kong Shan Road to eastbound lanes . The road continues eastward and ends at a left @-@ in / left @-@ out intersection , located east of the Lantau Link Visitors Centre . The interchange then connects to Routes 3 and 8 . In 2014 , 15 @,@ 240 vehicles traveled the road between Tam Kong Shan Road interchange and Tsing Tsuen Road . It is measured in average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which measures the amount of traffic daily on average . The road is classified as a District Distributor by the Transport Department . = = History = = Planning for the road began around 1996 , as part of the Tsing Ma Control Area , a small region of highways with special management . The road was to relieve the higher traffic traveling through Tsing Yi , especially with the new Hong Kong International Airport and developments in Lantau being built . The project included the road and its ramps , pedestrian pathways , noise barriers around the highway , surveillance system , and a maintenance centre in Tsing Yi . The Highways Department signed a contract with Gammon Construction Limited for HKD $ 775 @.@ 6 million in February 1999 , after it invited qualified contractors in October 1998 . Construction began later that month . During construction , techniques were used to prevent air pollution . Water was sprayed on roads , vehicles , and other areas to keep dust from leaving the site . Multiple viaducts , road embankments , and retaining walls were constructed in the project , with a set of walls replaced after its footings were damaged . Construction of the traffic control system began in November 2000 , after the Transport Department signed an agreement with ABB Industrial and Building Systems Limited . The road was opened on February 2 , 2002 , after Donald Tsang inaugurated the road in a ceremony on February 1 . New speed limits were set to 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) upon opening . = = Major intersections = = The entire road is in Kwai Tsing District .
= Texas Park Road 3 = Park Road 3 ( PR 3 ) is a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) Park Road located near Fort Davis , in the U.S. state of Texas . The highway connects the Indian Lodge of Davis Mountains State Park to State Highway 118 ( SH 118 ) . The entire length of the road is located within the park . The highway was constructed in 1933 by the Civilian Conservation Corps . The highway currently has one suffixed route , Park Road 3A , also known as Skyline Drive . This route is 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) long , which is longer than its parent route . This road was created in 1965 . = = Route description = = PR 3 's 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) main road begins at SH 118 . Immediately after the intersection , PR 3 divides into two one @-@ way roadways separated by the park headquarters and reuniting just beyond . The road then continues westward through Keesey Canyon one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) passing a couple of small hiking trails to the intersection with PR 3A . Beyond PR 3A , several drives branch off as loops accessing campsites , staff residences , and other park facilities . The road makes a sharp curve and a steep upward grade before ending at Indian Lodge 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) west of the intersection with PR 3A . = = History = = In 1924 , the Texas Legislature directed the State Parks Board , a predecessor agency to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department , to consider establishing a major destination park within the Davis Mountains . After the parks board failed to receive appropriations or donated land for a new park , the Legislature then instructed the State Highway Department , which preceded the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) , to build a Davis Mountains State Park Highway in 1927 . Landowners finally agreed to donate land for the park in 1933 to boost the local economy devastated by the Great Depression . With the creation of the park , a state park highway was no longer necessary , and that highway initially became SH 166 . Construction of PR 3 began in 1933 soon after the establishment of the state park . Like the park , the road was originally constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps . The road at this time consisted of the main route between the park entrance and Indian Lodge . In 1939 , SH 118 was extended from Fort Davis to Kent over the portion of SH 166 at the terminus of PR 3 . The state ended the SH 166 designation over that same portion in 1941 . = = Major intersections = = The entire highway is in the Davis Mountains State Park , Jeff Davis County . = = Park Road 3A = = Park Road 3A ( PR 3A ) is a 2 @.@ 8 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) suffixed spur of PR 3 . The road travels from a junction with PR 3 to the border of the state park , and provides access to a trail leading to Fort Davis National Historic Site . The road begins at PR 3 and crosses Keesey Creek before turning east in Keesey Canyon . Like PR 3 , the road also has connecting drives acting as loops and cul @-@ de @-@ sacs to campgrounds and park facilities . After leaving the campground , the road begins steeply ascending the ridge between Keesey and Hospital canyons on a climb requiring several switchbacks . The road connects with drives to scenic overlooks , picnic tables , and trail heads before terminating after 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) at a scenic overlook and trail head at the boundary between the park and Fort Davis National Historic Site . Park Road 3A was first created by the CCC in 1933 , when the state park was built . In 1965 , the Texas Department of Transportation numbered the route Park Road 3A . Major junctions The entire highway is in the Davis Mountains State Park , Jeff Davis County .
= A Town Called Mercy = " A Town Called Mercy " is the third episode of the seventh series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , transmitted on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 15 September 2012 . It was written by Toby Whithouse and directed by Saul Metzstein . The episode featured alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) visiting the Wild West , where they encounter a town which is cut off from the rest of the frontier until they hand over Kahler @-@ Jex , an alien doctor , to a cyborg called the Gunslinger . However , the Gunslinger is a product of experiments by Jex to win a civil war on his planet , and the Doctor is unsure of what is the right thing to do . Showrunner Steven Moffat pitched the Wild West theme to Whithouse when thinking of ways to give each episode a distinct theme . Whithouse further developed the theme , including classic Western tropes and a sympathetic villain . " A Town Called Mercy " and the previous episode " Dinosaurs on a Spaceship " were the first to enter production for the seventh series . Much of the episode was filmed in March 2012 in the desert area of Almería , Spain , in Mini Hollywood and Fort Bravo , locations used for many Western @-@ set films . Reviewers noted that the episode addressed a moral debate . " A Town Called Mercy " was watched by 8 @.@ 42 million viewers in the UK . Critical reception was generally positive to mixed , with some critical of the Doctor 's actions and pacing . = = Plot = = = = = Prequel = = = A prequel to " A Town Called Mercy " was released exclusively onto iTunes , and titled " The Making of The Gunslinger " . It depicts the actual making and formation of the Gunslinger , from a normal humanoid body . It also has an explanation of the making of the Gunslinger in voice @-@ over by Kahler @-@ Jex . = = = Synopsis = = = The Doctor , Amy , and Rory , while en route to the Day of the Dead festival in Mexico via the TARDIS , instead arrive at the small American Frontier town of Mercy . The Doctor is curious as to a ring of stone and wood that surrounds the town 's border and the availability of electricity to the town ten years too early . They learn from the town 's marshal , Isaac , that they have been kept within town for the last three weeks by " The Gunslinger " , who uses alien weaponry to threaten to kill anyone trying to leave town and blocks the town from receiving any supplies . The Gunslinger has demanded the town turn over " the doctor " , which the Doctor deduces is not himself but a humanoid alien hiding in the marshal 's jail . The alien introduces himself as Kahler @-@ Jex , who had crashed on Earth about ten years earlier , and was rescued from his craft by the town ; in return , Jex has helped the town as their physician , ending a cholera outbreak and providing the town with primitive electricity . However , the town 's food supplies are nearly empty , and while the situation has become more dire , the marshal is reluctant to hand over Jex . The Doctor offers to get the TARDIS and evacuate the town , riding off on horseback to collect it while Isaac and Rory distract the Gunslinger . The Doctor comes across Jex 's craft and enters it , though in doing so he sets off an alarm heard across the plains . He reviews Jex 's records and discovers that Jex was part of a team of scientists from his war @-@ torn homeworld that experimented on a number of volunteers to convert them into cyborgs , who either died or killed countless people in the battle . Aghast , the Doctor leaves the ship to find the Gunslinger waiting for him , and he realises that the Gunslinger is one of Jex 's subjects . The Gunslinger affirms that he is seeking revenge on those that created him , with Jex being the last member alive ; he further explains that his programming prevents him from harming innocents , creating the ring around Mercy to protect the townsfolk while Jex is in their care , but demands of the Doctor that the next person that crosses that line must be Jex . The Doctor returns to Mercy and angrily drags Jex to the edge of town , followed by his companions and the concerned townsfolk . As he forces Jex to cross the line , Amy asserts that the Doctor has changed for the worse from months of travelling on his own . The Gunslinger arrives and holds his weapon to Jex ; Jex tries to offer that he has become better and rejects his past actions , but this does not sway the cyborg . As the Gunslinger is about to fire , Isaac pushes Jex out of the way , taking the lethal shot . Isaac 's final action is to hand his marshal badge to the Doctor and ask him to protect the town . The Gunslinger leaves , warning that he will return at noon tomorrow to collect Jex , even if it puts the townspeople at risk . During the night , Jex explains his guilt to the Doctor , trying to repent for his past knowing what will await him in his afterlife : his culture believes that upon death , one must carry the souls of everyone they have ever wronged up a mountain , giving Jex an unbearable load . An angry mob of townsfolk arrive to demand Jex , but the Doctor warns by doing so they would have not honored Isaac 's death . Further discussions with Jex provide the Doctor with an idea for a plan . The next day , when the Gunslinger arrives the Doctor distracts it by amplifying the electricity sent through town , while other townsfolk , wearing makeup applied in the same fashion as Jex 's facial markings , dash between buildings to confuse the cyborg . Jex flees out of town to his ship as the Doctor planned , but instead of returning to space , Jex initiates the ship 's self @-@ destruct . Before he dies , Jex explains that no matter where he goes , the Gunslinger will follow and more innocents will be caught in the crossfire . Truly wishing to repent of his past actions , he declares that his last act will be to end the war for the Gunslinger and go to face the souls of those he wronged . The Gunslinger becomes desolate with his quest for revenge complete and the realization that Jex was no worse a person than he is . Recognizing that there is no need for a creature of war during a time of peace , the Gunslinger announces his intent to self @-@ destruct far away from town , but the Doctor suggests that he could become the protector of peace as the new marshal . The Doctor takes Amy and Rory home , while the Gunslinger stays on to watch over Mercy . = = Production = = In looking to give each episode of the series a distinct feel , showrunner Steven Moffat pitched the Wild West theme to writer Toby Whithouse , suggesting that the episode could be about a town terrorised by a robot . Moffat was keen on putting Matt Smith in a Western setting , who he called one of the last people one would expect to replace Clint Eastwood . Whithouse had previously written the Doctor Who episodes " School Reunion " ( 2006 ) , " The Vampires of Venice " ( 2010 ) , and " The God Complex " ( 2011 ) . Moffat had been planning for the first five episodes of the series to have " movie marquee " themes . Whithouse noted that it was a genre he had not written before , but he " absolutely [ loved ] it " . The Wild West has not been a setting for a Doctor Who episode since the 1966 third season serial The Gunfighters . Whithouse was advised not to watch The Gunfighters by the other writers , who said it was " not exactly the jewel in the crown " . Whithouse felt obliged to include common Western tropes , such as the Doctor riding a horse and a face @-@ off . He stated the hardest scene to write was where the Doctor is forced to use a gun ; the Doctor is a pacifist and he would need " the right sort of emotional journey " . Whithouse preferred the cyborg villain to be three @-@ dimensional and sympathetic , which would require it to have a " living consciousness " rather than simply be a " soulless automaton " . He wanted its look to be reminiscent of Frankenstein 's monster , and later called the design " fantastic " . It took about three and a half hours for Andrew Brooke to have all the make @-@ up applied . Due to the costume , Brooke had to act with just his left eye . Smith had praise for guest actors Ben Browder , who he said " [ made ] a good cowboy " with " that great drawl " , and Adrian Scarborough , who he said " steals the whole episode " . Browder was offered the role and gladly accepted ; he was aware of the show as his children had watched it , and he also wanted to do a western . Whithouse was " thrilled " with Browder 's performance , as it was how he imagined the character . " A Town Called Mercy " and the previous episode , " Dinosaurs on a Spaceship " , were the first episodes to be produced for the seventh series , and both were directed by Saul Metzstein . The two episodes are Metzstein 's first Doctor Who credits . Much of the episode was filmed around the desert area of Almería , Spain , where studios have built Wild West @-@ style streets that have been used in the making of over 100 Western @-@ set films , such as A Fistful of Dollars . Filming the episode in Spain was cheaper than constructing a set in the UK . Moffat stated , " We knew from the start we need some serious location shooting for this one , and given the most iconic American setting imaginable , there was only one place to go – Spain . " They reportedly filmed there from 8 March to 17 March 2012 . Filming took place at Oasys / Mini Hollywood , and Fort Bravo / Texas Hollywood . While Smith was allowed to try riding the horse , most of the action shown in the episode was done by his stuntman . Composer Murray Gold mimicked Western @-@ style scores when creating the music for the episode . = = Themes = = James F. McGrath of the religious website Patheos found that " A Town Called Mercy " had strong religious themes and moral messages , writing that it " really is about mercy , about forgiveness , about war crimes , about vengeance , and about justice " . He interpreted Amy 's comment about how the Doctor 's behaviour was due to him being alone for too long to mean that " when we loosen our ties to other human beings , we can begin to treat matters of mercy and justice , and the fate of other persons , differently , impersonally " . McGrath also noted a " take @-@ home religious message " in the scene near the end where the town gathers in the church while the Gunslinger and the Doctor face off ; he felt that it emphasised the importance of valuing human life . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph wrote that the Western concept was " effectively window @-@ dressing for Toby Whithouse 's powerful morality tale , where not everything was quite as it seemed and went on to explore issues of morality , ethics , conscience and justice " . The A.V. Club reviewer Keith Phipps noted that the " never @-@ ending struggle between order and chaos " was common in Westerns , and the episode represented this with the question of " what should win out : Lawless revenge or civilized justice ? " . Ian Berriman of SFX interpreted the border around Mercy as a metaphor for the Doctor nearly " crossing [ the ] line " and " [ breaking ] his own moral code " . He likened the Doctor 's debate to that of the Fourth Doctor ( Tom Baker ) in Genesis of the Daleks ( 1975 ) and the Fifth Doctor ( Peter Davison ) in Resurrection of the Daleks ( 1984 ) . In addition , reviewers noted that the episode presented its characters with " shades of grey " , rather than black @-@ and @-@ white villains typically seen in the show . = = Broadcast and reception = = " A Town Called Mercy " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One and BBC One HD on 15 September 2012 and on the same date on BBC America in the United States . Overnight ratings showed that it was watched by 6 @.@ 6 million viewers live , the highest overnight figure of the seventh series thus far . It was the third most @-@ watched programme of the day , and was also the most popular programme the next day on BBC iPlayer . It later came in third on the iPlayer chart for September with 1 @.@ 4 million requests , behind the first two episodes of the series . When final consolidated viewers were taking into account the figure rose to 8 @.@ 42 million , also beating " Asylum of the Daleks " to be the highest rated of the series . It also received an Appreciation Index of 85 , considered " excellent " . = = = Critical reception = = = " A Town Called Mercy " received generally positive to mixed reviews from critics . IGN 's Matt Risely rated the episode 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , calling it " a weighty , progressive , sumptuous and entertaining adventure " . He praised Whithouse and Metzstein for setting the right mood and found the highlight to be the Doctor 's moral uncertainty . Dan Martin of The Guardian described it as " a complex morality dilemma fizzing with sharp dialogue " . He wrote that it was Gillan who " emerged as the real star of the episode " , citing Amy 's conversation with the Doctor about how travelling alone had affected him . The A.V. Club reviewer Keith Phipps gave the episode a B + , enjoying that it spent most of the time discussing the morality issue . The Telegraph 's Fuller awarded " A Town Called Mercy " four out of five stars , calling it " an absorbing , thoughtful , adult piece of drama " . He praised Smith 's toned @-@ down performance and his conversations with Jex . Though he also praised the " well @-@ crafted " scene between the Doctor and Amy , he felt that the episode was " a waste of Gillan and Darvill 's talents " as the two did not feature much . Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery also gave it four stars , commending the Western atmosphere and the way the Doctor 's darkness was handled . He also found Browder to bring an American authenticy to his role that a British actor would not have accomplished . However , like Fuller , he called Amy and Rory 's sidelined role " one of the few downsides " . Slant Magazine reviewer Steven Cooper described it as " a very enjoyable episode " , though he noted that " the conclusion of the story is a slight let @-@ down after the excellence of what has preceded it " because the issues between the Doctor and Jex were left unresolved . Neela Debnath , writing for The Independent , praised the " brilliant twist " in having Kahler @-@ Jex be the villain rather than the Gunslinger . She found the Doctor holding Jex at gunpoint as " completely uncharacteristic " , but interpreted it as foreshadowing Amy and Rory 's departure . Likewise , Charlie Jane Anders from io9 felt that the Doctor 's decision to let Jex die was " out of character " . She criticised the Gunslinger for neither simply using its presumably advanced targeting systems to kill Jex or making the townspeople leave so that he would not have human shields . Additionally , according to her , the episode in general " felt [ ... ] like a Deep Space Nine episode transplanted to the Wild West " . SFX reviewer Ian Berriman gave " A Town Called Mercy " three and a half out of five stars . He commented that the ethical debate made it " a surprisingly mature story " , but otherwise the Western tropes made it " occasionally feel a little over @-@ familiar " . He also felt it was missing " another twist or two " , as most of the episode was dedicated to figuring out what to do with Jex rather than discovering more about him . Berriman also had two " nitpicks " that arose with the plot ; the Gunslinger could just walk into the town and take Jex away , or the Doctor could take Jex away in the TARDIS . Dave Golder of the magazine labelled " A Town Called Mercy " as a " disappointing " science fiction Western episode , writing , " There are some great things about this episode ... But in a show that usually has a lot of fun reinventing TV tropes , too much of " A Town Called Mercy " feels a bit been @-@ there , done that . " Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times was more critical , writing that he did not " believe " or " feel " it . He felt that Westerns and Doctor Who were two things that " never quite gelled " and also criticised the " languorous pace " the fact that Rory had little to do . However , he did praise the " gorgeous " set and the " cleverly constructed a morality play " .
= Object permanence = Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed ( seen , heard , touched , smelled or sensed in any way ) . This is a fundamental concept studied in the field of developmental psychology , the subfield of psychology that addresses the development of infants ' and children 's social and mental capacities . There is not yet scientific consensus on when the understanding of object permanence emerges in human development . Jean Piaget , the Swiss psychologist who first studied object permanence in infants , argued that object permanence is one of an infant 's most important accomplishments , as without this concept , objects would have no separate , permanent existence . In Piaget 's theory of cognitive development infants develop this understanding by the end of the " sensorimotor stage , " which lasts from birth to about two years of age . Piaget thought that an infant 's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development , which was required for the infant to link visual , tactile and motor representations of objects . According to this view , it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence . = = Early research = = Child development expert Jean Piaget conducted experiments that collected behavioral tests on infants . Piaget studied object permanence by observing infants ' reactions when a favorite object or toy was presented and then was covered with a blanket or removed from sight . Object permanence is considered to be one of the earliest methods for evaluating working memory . An infant that has started to develop object permanence might reach for the toy or try and grab the blanket off the toy . Infants that have not yet developed this might appear confused . Piaget interpreted these behavioral signs as evidence of a belief that the object had ceased to exist . Reactions of most infants that had already started developing object permanence were of frustration because they knew it existed , but didn 't know where it was . However , the reaction of infants that had not yet started developing object permanence was more oblivious . If an infant searched for the object , it was assumed that they believed it continued to exist . Piaget concluded that some infants are too young to understand object permanence , which explains why they do not cry when their mothers are gone ( " out of sight , out of mind " ) . A lack of object permanence can lead to A @-@ not @-@ B errors , where children reach for a thing at a place where it should not be . Older infants are less likely to make the A @-@ not @-@ B error because they are able to understand the concept of object permanence more than younger infants . However , researchers have found that A @-@ not @-@ B errors do not always show up consistently . They concluded that this type of error might be due to a failure in memory or the fact that infants usually tend to repeat a previous motor behavior . = = Stages = = In Piaget 's formulation , there are six stages of object permanence . These are : 0 – 1 months : Reflex Schema Stage – Babies learn how the body can move and work . Vision is blurred and attention spans remain short through infancy . They aren 't particularly aware of objects to know they have disappeared from sight . However , babies as young as 7 minutes old prefer to look at faces . The three primary achievements of this stage are : sucking , visual tracking , and hand closure . 1 – 4 months : Primary Circular Reactions – Babies notice objects and start following their movements . They continue to look where an object was , but for only a few moments . They ' discover ' their eyes , arms , hands and feet in the course of acting on objects . This stage is marked by responses to familiar images and sounds ( including parent 's face ) and anticipatory responses to familiar events ( such as opening the mouth for a spoon ) . The infant 's actions become less reflexive and intentionality emerges . 4 – 8 months : Secondary Circular Reactions – Babies will reach for an object that is partially hidden , indicating knowledge that the whole object is still there . If an object is completely hidden however the baby makes no attempt to retrieve it . The infant learns to coordinate vision and comprehension . Actions are intentional but the child tends to repeat similar actions on the same object . Novel behaviors are not yet imitated . 8 – 12 months : Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions – This is deemed the most important for the cognitive development of the child . At this stage the child understands causality and is goal directed . The very earliest understanding of object permanence emerges , as the child is now able to retrieve an object when its concealment is observed . This stage is associated with the classic A @-@ not @-@ B error . After successfully retrieving a hidden object at one location ( A ) , the child fails to retrieve it at a second location ( B ) . 12 – 18 months : Tertiary Circular Reaction – The child gains means @-@ end knowledge and is able to solve new problems . The child is now able to retrieve an object when it is hidden several times within his or her view , but cannot locate it when it is outside their perceptual field . 18 – 24 months : Invention of New Means Through Mental Combination – The child fully understands object permanence . They will not fall for A @-@ not @-@ B errors . Also , a baby is able to understand the concept of items that are hidden in containers . If a toy is hidden in a matchbox then the matchbox put under a pillow and then , without the child seeing , the toy is slipped out of the matchbox and the matchbox then given to the child , the child will look under the pillow upon discovery that it is not in the matchbox . The child is able to develop a mental image , hold it in mind , and manipulate it to solve problems , including object permanence problems that are not based solely on perception . The child can now reason about where the object may be when invisible displacement occurs . = = Contradicting evidence = = In more recent years , the original Piagetian object permanence account has been challenged by a series of infant studies suggesting that much younger infants do have a clear sense that objects exist even when out of sight . Bower showed object permanence in 3 @-@ month @-@ olds . This goes against Piaget 's coordination of secondary circular reactions stage because infants aren 't supposed to understand that a completely hidden object still exists until they are eight to twelve months old . The two studies below demonstrate this idea . The first study showed infants a toy car that moved down an inclined track , disappeared behind a screen , and then reemerged at the other end , still on the track . The researchers created a " possible event " where a toy mouse was placed behind the tracks but was hidden by the screen as the car rolled by . Then , researchers created an " impossible event . " In this situation , the toy mouse was placed on the tracks but was secretly removed after the screen was lowered so that the car seemed to go through the mouse . Also in the 1991 study the researchers used an experiment involving two differently sized carrots ( one tall and one short ) in order to test the infants response when the carrots would be moved behind a short wall . The wall was specifically designed to make the short carrot disappear , as well as tested the infants for habituation patterns on the disappearance of the tall carrot behind the wall ( impossible event ) . Infants as young as 3 ½ months displayed greater stimulation toward the impossible event and much more habituation at the possible event . This indicated that they may have been surprised by the impossible event , which suggested they remembered not only that the toy mouse still existed ( object permanence ) but also its location . The same was true of the tall carrot in the second experiment . This research suggests that infants understand more about objects earlier than Piaget proposed . There are primarily four challenges to Piaget 's framework : Whether or not infants without disabilities actually demonstrate object permanence earlier than Piaget claimed . There is disagreement about the relative levels of difficulty posed by the use of various types of covers and by different object positions . Controversy concerns whether or not object permanence can be achieved or measured without the motor acts that Piaget regarded as essential . The nature of inferences that can be made from the A @-@ not @-@ B error has been challenged . Studies that have contributed to this discussion have examined the contribution of memory limitations , difficulty with spatial localization , and difficulty in inhibiting the motor act of reaching to location A on the A @-@ not @-@ B error . One criticism of Piaget 's theory is that culture and education exert stronger influences on a child 's development than Piaget maintained . These factors depend on how much practice their culture provides in developmental processes , such as conversational skills . = = In animals = = Experiments in non @-@ human primates suggest that monkeys can track the displacement of invisible targets , that invisible displacement is represented in the prefrontal cortex , and that development of the frontal cortex is linked to the acquisition of object permanence . Various evidence from human infants is consistent with this . For example , formation of synapses in the frontal cortex peaks during human infancy , and recent experiments using near infrared spectroscopy to gather neuroimaging data from infants suggests that activity in the frontal cortex is associated with successful completion of object permanence tasks . However , many other types of animals have been shown to have the ability for object permanence . These include dogs , cats , and a few species of birds such as the carrion crow and food @-@ storing magpies . Dogs are able to reach a level of object permanence that allows them to find food after it has been hidden beneath one of two cups and rotated 90 ° . Similarly , cats are able to understand object permanence but not to the same extent that dogs can . Cats fail to understand that if they see something go into an apparatus in one direction that it will still be there if the cat tries to enter from another direction . A longitudinal study found that carrion crows were able to reach the same level of object permanence as humans . There was only one task , task 15 , that the crows were not able to master . Another study tested the comparison of how long it took food @-@ storing magpies to develop the object permanence necessary for them to be able to live independently . The research suggests that these magpies followed a very similar pattern as human infants while they were developing . = = Recent studies = = One of the areas of focus on object permanence has been how physical disabilities ( blindness , cerebral palsy and deafness ) and intellectual disabilities ( Down syndrome , etc . ) affect the development of object permanence . In a study that was performed in 1975 @-@ 76 , the results showed that the only area where children with intellectual disabilities performed more weakly than children without disabilities was along the lines of social interaction . Other tasks , such as imitation and causality tasks , were performed more weakly by the children without disabilities . However , object permanence was still acquired similarly because it was not related to social interaction . Some psychologists believe that ' while object permanence alone may not predict communicative achievement , object permanence along with several other sensorimotor milestones , plays a critical role in , and interacts with , the communicative development of children with severe disabilities ' . This was observed in 2006 , in a study recognizing where the full mastery of object permanence is one of the milestones that ties into a child 's ability to engage in mental representation . Along with the relationship with language acquisition , object permanence is also related to the achievement of self @-@ recognition . This same study also focused specifically on the effects that Down syndrome has on object permanence . They found that the reason why the children that participated were so successful in acquiring object permanence , was due to their social strength in imitation . Along with imitation being a potential factor in the success , another factor that could impact children with Down syndrome could also be the willingness of the child to cooperate . Other , more recent studies suggest that the idea of object permanence may not be an innate function of young children . While , in reference to Piaget 's theory , it has been established that young children develop object permanence as they age , the question arises : does this occur because of a particular perception that already existed within the minds of these young children ? Is object permanence really an inbred response to the neural pathways developing in young minds ? Studies suggest that a multitude of variables may be responsible for the development of object permanence rather than a natural talent of infants . Evidence suggests that infants use a variety of cues while studying an object and their perception of the object 's permanence can be tested without physically hiding the object . Rather , the object is occluded , slightly obstructed , from the infants view and they are left only other visual cues , such as examining the object from different trajectories . It was also found that the longer an infant focuses on an object may be due to detected discontinuities in their visual field , or the flow of events , with which the infant has become familiar .
= FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm = The FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm is a small @-@ caliber , high @-@ velocity cartridge designed and manufactured by FN Herstal in Belgium . It is a bottlenecked centerfire cartridge that is somewhat similar to the .22 Hornet or .22 K @-@ Hornet . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm was developed in conjunction with the FN P90 personal defense weapon ( PDW ) and FN Five @-@ seven pistol , in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge . In 2002 and 2003 , NATO conducted a series of tests with the intention of standardizing a PDW cartridge as a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge . The tests compared the relative merits of the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm cartridge , which was created by Heckler & Koch as a competitor to the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The NATO group subsequently recommended the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge , citing superior performance in testing , but the German delegation objected and the standardization process was indefinitely halted . By 2006 , FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms — the P90 personal defense weapon and Five @-@ seven pistol — were in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations throughout the world . In the United States , 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms are currently used by numerous law enforcement agencies , including the U.S. Secret Service . In addition to being used in the FN P90 and FN Five @-@ seven firearms , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge has subsequently been used in a number of other weapons , such as the AR @-@ 57 and FN PS90 carbines . Excel Arms has developed four firearms chambered in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm , and MasterPiece Arms offers three different firearms in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge itself is produced in a number of varieties , two of which — the SS195LF and SS197SR — are currently offered by FN to civilian shooters . = = History = = = = = Development = = = The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge was designed in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge . According to the NATO requirement , the new cartridge was to have greater range , accuracy , and terminal performance than the 9 × 19mm cartridge . Additionally , it was to be capable of penetrating body armor . FN Herstal responded to the NATO requirement by developing the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and two associated weapons : the FN P90 personal defense weapon ( PDW ) and FN Five @-@ seven pistol . The original 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge , called the SS90 , was introduced in 1990 . It used a 1 @.@ 5 gram ( 23 grain ) plastic @-@ core projectile , which was propelled at a muzzle velocity of roughly 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) when fired from the P90 . A United States patent application for the projectile design used in the SS90 was filed by FN 's Jean @-@ Paul Denis and Marc Neuforge in 1989 . U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 012 @,@ 743 ( " High @-@ Performance Projectile " ) was received in 1991 . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS90 cartridge was discontinued , and replaced , in 1993 , with the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 . The SS190 uses a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) shorter projectile with a weight of 2 @.@ 0 g ( 31 grains ) , which has , when fired from the P90 , a muzzle velocity of roughly 715 m / s ( 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ) . The shorter length of the SS190 projectile allows it to be more conveniently used in the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm FN Five @-@ seven pistol , which was also being developed at that time . In 1993 , FN introduced a modified version of the P90 with a magazine adapted to use the SS190 cartridge . Several specialized 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm varieties were also developed alongside the SS190 , such as the L191 tracer round and the subsonic SB193 bullet for sound @-@ suppressed use . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm chambered FN Five @-@ seven pistol then went into production in 1998 . = = = NATO evaluation = = = In 2002 and 2003 , NATO conducted a series of tests with the intention of standardizing a PDW cartridge as a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum . The tests compared the relative merits of the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and the HK 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm cartridge , which was created by German small arms manufacturer Heckler & Koch as a competitor to the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The results of the NATO tests were analyzed by a group formed of experts from Canada , France , the United Kingdom , and the United States , and the group 's conclusion was that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm was " undoubtedly " the more efficient cartridge . Among other points , the NATO group cited superior effectiveness ( 27 percent greater ) for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm against unprotected targets and equal effectiveness against protected targets . It also cited less sensitivity to extreme temperatures for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm , and cited a greater potential risk of barrel erosion with the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm . In addition , the group pointed out that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm is close to the 5 @.@ 56 × 45mm NATO by its design and manufacture process , allowing it to be manufactured on existing production lines . The group also noted that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms had existed for a longer period of time than 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm firearms , and that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm FN Five @-@ seven pistol was already in production at that time , while the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm Heckler & Koch UCP pistol was a new concept . However , the German delegation and others rejected the NATO recommendation that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm be standardized , halting the standardization process indefinitely . As a result , both the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridges ( and the associated weapons ) have been independently adopted by various NATO countries , according to preference ; both the P90 and Five @-@ seven are currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations throughout the world . = = = Present = = = In 2004 , the SS192 hollow @-@ point cartridge was introduced to civilian shooters alongside the new IOM variant of the Five @-@ seven pistol . After being met with controversy , the SS192 variety was discontinued in the same year , and in 2005 the SS196SR variety was introduced using a 2 @.@ 6 g ( 40 grain ) Hornady V @-@ Max projectile . The SS196 was also quickly discontinued in favor of the newer SS195LF and SS197SR varieties , which are currently offered to civilian shooters for use in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms , followed by the SS198LF variety , which is currently produced but is restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers . FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition types were briefly manufactured by Olin @-@ Winchester , but today they are made by FN Herstal in Belgium and ( since 2006 ) Fiocchi in the United States . In 2009 , the National Rifle Association added 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms to its NRA Tactical Police Competition standards , allowing law enforcement agencies to compete in this event using 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms . Starting in 2012 , Federal began producing a new 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm round for civilian shooters , designated the AE5728A . = = Design details = = The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge was designed by FN Herstal specifically for use in the FN P90 personal defense weapon and FN Five @-@ seven pistol . Subsequently , it has been used in a number of other weapons , such as the FN PS90 carbine and the AR @-@ 57 , an upper receiver for M16 and AR @-@ 15 rifles . The ST Kinetics CPW can be configured for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge by changing the barrel and magazine groups . Excel Arms has developed four firearms chambered in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm , and MasterPiece Arms offers three different 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge weighs 6 @.@ 0 grams ( 93 grains ) — roughly half as much as a typical 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge — making extra ammunition less burdensome , or allowing more ammunition to be carried for the same weight . Since the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge also has a relatively small diameter , a relatively high number of cartridges can be contained in a magazine . The cartridge has a loud report and produces considerable muzzle flash ( when fired from a pistol ) , but it has roughly 30 percent less recoil than the 9 × 19mm cartridge , improving controllability . Due to its high velocity , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm also exhibits an exceptionally flat trajectory . One of the design intents of the SS190 variety of this cartridge was that it have the ability to penetrate Kevlar protective vests — such as the NATO CRISAT vest — that will stop conventional pistol bullets . Fired from the P90 , the SS190 is capable of penetrating the CRISAT vest at a range of 200 m ( 219 yd ) , or a Level IIIA Kevlar vest at the same range . However , sporting variants of the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm are classified by the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives ( ATF ) as not armor @-@ piercing . According to FN , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge has an effective range of 200 m ( 219 yd ) and a maximum range of 1 @,@ 800 m ( 1 @,@ 969 yd ) when fired from the P90 , and an effective range of 50 m ( 55 yd ) and a maximum range of 1 @,@ 510 m ( 1 @,@ 651 yd ) when fired from the Five @-@ seven . In testing , the SS190 and similar 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectiles consistently turn base over point ( " tumble " ) as they pass through ballistic gelatin and other media , using the 21 @.@ 6 @-@ mm ( .85 in ) projectile length to create a larger wound cavity . However , some are skeptical of the bullet 's terminal performance , and it is a subject of debate among civilian shooters in the United States . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectile potentially poses less risk of collateral damage than conventional pistol bullets , because the projectile design limits overpenetration , as well as risk of ricochet . The lightweight projectile also poses less risk of collateral damage in the event of a miss , because it loses much of its kinetic energy after traveling only 400 m ( 437 yd ) , whereas a conventional pistol bullet such as the 9 × 19mm retains significant energy beyond 800 m ( 875 yd ) . This range exceeds the engagement distances expected for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge 's intended applications , so the cartridge 's limited energy at long range is not conversely considered to be disadvantageous . Since the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 projectile does not rely on fragmentation or the expansion of a hollow @-@ point bullet , the cartridge ( and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms ) are considered suitable for military use under the Hague Convention of 1899 , which prohibits the use of expanding bullets in warfare . FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge cases are covered with a special polymer coating for easier extraction with the PS90 carbine due to the high chamber pressures and lack of case tapering . In addition , this coating ensures proper feeding and function in the magazines . = = Cartridge dimensions = = The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm has a cartridge case capacity of 0 @.@ 90 ml ( 13 @.@ 85 grains H2O ) . Americans define the shoulder angle at alpha / 2 ≈ 35 degrees . The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 1 : 228 @.@ 6 mm ( 1 : 9 in ) , 8 grooves , Ø lands
= 5 @.@ 53 mm , Ø grooves = 5 @.@ 62 mm , land width = 1 @.@ 63 mm and the recommended primer type is small rifle . According to the official Commission Internationale Permanente pour l 'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives ( CIP ) guidelines the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm case can handle up to 345 MPa ( 50 @,@ 037 psi ) piezo pressure . In CIP @-@ regulated countries every rifle cartridge combination has to be proofed at 125 % of this maximum CIP pressure to certify for sale to consumers . = = Cartridge types = = SS90 prototype The SS90 was an early prototype round used only in the earliest examples of the P90 . It used a lightweight 1 @.@ 5 @-@ g ( 23 grain ) full metal jacket bullet with a polymer core , which it propelled at a muzzle velocity of roughly 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The SS90 was abandoned in 1994 in favor of the heavier and 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) shorter SS190 projectile . SS190 duty The SS190 FMJ , a refinement of the SS90 , was introduced in 1993 . It offered superior performance over the prototype projectile as well as slightly reduced length . The latter change allowed it to be used more conveniently in the Five @-@ seven pistol , also being developed at that time . Fired from the P90 , the SS190 propels a 2 @.@ 0 @-@ g ( 31 grain ) bullet at a muzzle velocity of roughly 715 m / s ( 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ) . It has a steel penetrator and an aluminum core . The SS190 has been manufactured with a plain , black , and a black @-@ on @-@ white tip color . It is classified by the ATF as armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) handgun ammunition , and its sale is currently restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers . In testing done by Houston Police Department SWAT , the SS190 fired from the P90 into bare ballistic gelatin exhibited penetration depths ranging from 28 to 34 cm ( 11 to 13 @.@ 5 in ) . In testing in 1999 by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) , the SS190 fired from the P90 at a distance of 25 m ( 27 yd ) exhibited an average penetration depth of 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 85 in ) in ballistic gelatin after passing through a Level II Kevlar vest . L191 tracer The L191 ( also formerly called the SS191 ) is a tracer cartridge designed for easier bullet spotting in dim light . Combustible chemicals packed in the rear of the L191 projectile create a light trail visible up to 200 m ( 219 yd ) . The L191 has been manufactured with red and red @-@ on @-@ black tips . The performance and trajectory of the L191 is identical to the SS190 . For this reason , it is also classified by the ATF as armor @-@ piercing handgun ammunition , and its sale is currently restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers . SS192 hollow @-@ point The SS192 was discontinued in late 2004 . It used a 1 @.@ 8 g ( 28 grain ) hollow point bullet with a copper jacket and an aluminum core . The projectile had a length of 21 @.@ 6 mm ( .85 in ) . It had an unmarked hollow nose with a depth of 7 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) and a 0 @.@ 8 @-@ mm ( 0 @.@ 03 in ) opening . The SS192 was classified by the ATF as not armor @-@ piercing , and in testing by FNH USA it did not penetrate a Level IIIA vest when fired from the Five @-@ seven . SB193 subsonic The SB193 ( also formerly called the SS193 ) is a speed subsonic cartridge featuring a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ g ( 55 grain ) Sierra Game King FMJBT ( FMJ boat tail ) projectile . The SB193 's low muzzle velocity eliminates the distinctive " crack " created by supersonic rounds , and when used in conjunction with a sound suppressor , the muzzle report is also reduced . Due to the greatly decreased muzzle velocity , the SB193 benefits from a slightly reduced recoil force of 1 @.@ 3 kgm / s . The SB193 can be identified by its white tip color . Its sale is currently restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers . T194 training The T194 training round was discontinued in 2002 . It could be considered an early version of the SS192 or SS195 . It used the same 1 @.@ 8 @-@ g ( 28 grain ) copper @-@ jacketed aluminum core bullet , propelled at the same muzzle velocity . It had a green tip . SS195LF ( lead free ) The SS195LF is a commercially available cartridge that features a lead @-@ free primer and produces ballistics similar to the SS192 round , which it replaced in late 2004 . It uses the same 1 @.@ 8 @-@ g ( 28 grain ) copper @-@ jacketed aluminum core bullet as the SS192 , and it can be identified by the unmarked , hollow void at the tip and the silver @-@ colored primer . The SS195 is classified by the ATF as not armor @-@ piercing , and it is currently manufactured by FN Herstal in Belgium . SS196SR ( sporting round ) The SS196SR was introduced in 2005 and it is now discontinued in favor of the SS197SR cartridge . It featured a lead core 2 @.@ 6 @-@ g ( 40 grain ) Hornady V @-@ Max bullet which it propelled at a muzzle velocity of roughly 500 m / s ( 1 @,@ 650 ft / s ) when fired from the Five @-@ seven . The polycarbonate tip used in the V @-@ Max bullet acted as a wedge , enhancing expansion of the bullet . The SS196 was classified by the ATF as not armor @-@ piercing , and in testing by FNH USA it did not penetrate a Level II vest when fired from the Five @-@ seven . The SS196 could be identified by its red polymer tip . SS197SR ( sporting round ) The SS197SR is currently offered to civilian shooters in addition to the SS195LF . It uses the same lead core 2 @.@ 6 @-@ g ( 40 grain ) Hornady V @-@ Max projectile as the SS196SR , but it is loaded for a muzzle velocity roughly 30 @-@ m / s ( 100 ft / s ) higher . The projectile has a blue @-@ colored polymer tip instead of the red color used in the SS196 projectile tip . The SS197 has been manufactured by Fiocchi , under contract for FN Herstal , since 2006 and it is distributed in the United States by Federal Cartridge Company . SS198LF ( lead free ) The SS198LF uses the same lead @-@ free projectile and primer as the SS195LF , but propels it at roughly a 30 @-@ m / s ( 100 ft / s ) higher muzzle velocity . It has a green painted tip , and its sale is currently restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers . American Eagle ( AE5728A ) TMJ Since 2012 , Federal Cartridge Company produces a 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm round under their American Eagle brand . Designated the AE5728A , this cartridge uses a 40 @-@ grain total metal jacket ( TMJ ) projectile , that is atypical in that it does not use a copper plated bullet ; sectioned pictures show a very thick full copper jacket . The AE5728A casings are of FN manufacture , and the muzzle velocity is slightly lower than that of the SS197SR . Non @-@ FN ammunition Elite Ammunition manufactures a wide variety of reloaded 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition offerings . Belgian ammunition manufacturer VBR @-@ Belgium has also developed specialized 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectiles designed for armor penetration and controlled fragmentation . Handloading is possible with 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition , and 5 @.@ 7 @-@ mm ( .224 in ) bullets are widely available due to use in .223 Remington and 5 @.@ 56 × 45mm NATO cartridges . Handloaders have noted that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge is very sensitive to small changes in powder charge or overall length ( OAL ) with a bullet inserted . Bullets weighing 2 @.@ 6 g ( 40 grains ) or less are recommended for optimal use in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm applications , but the 1 : 231 mm ( 1 : 9 @.@ 1 in ) rifling twist rate ( distance the bullet must travel to complete one full revolution ) used in the firearms ' barrels will stabilize bullets weighing up to 4 @.@ 5 g ( 70 grains ) . = = Specifications = = Fired from the longer 40 @.@ 74 cm ( 16 @.@ 04 in ) barrel of the PS90 , the muzzle velocity of SS195LF is roughly 60 m / s ( 200 ft / s ) faster , and the muzzle velocity of SS197SR is roughly 45 m / s ( 150 ft / s ) faster . Fired from the shorter 12 @.@ 2 cm ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) barrel of the Five @-@ seven pistol , the muzzle velocity of SS195LF is roughly 90 m / s ( 300 ft / s ) slower , and the muzzle velocity of SS197SR is roughly 60 m / s ( 200 ft / s ) slower .
= A Newsboy Hero = A Newsboy Hero is an American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . A standard melodrama , it has the alcoholic John Bailey return home in a drunken state . He strikes his wife and by this act drives his wife and child from the house . They go out into the snow and fall asleep , but are saved by a newspaper boy and taken home . John searches for them , but believes they are dead after reading a newspaper story and decides to commit suicide . He is saved by a member of the Salvation Army and then is reunited with his family . The only known credit in the production is that of Marie Eline as the couple 's child , Marie . The film was released on February 24 , 1911 , and it received mixed reviews by critics over its melodramatic plot , but the actors strong skills was the strongest redeeming factor in the negative reviews . The film is presumed lost . = = Plot = = The film is a melodrama focuses on a young working man named John Bailey ( alternatively Jack ) . His alcoholism had caused much strife in his home and his wife , May , prays and pleads for him to stop drinking . One night he returns home in a drunken state and strikes her . His wife decides to leave with their child , Marie and goes out into the world without help . They wander in the snow and become exhausted and fall asleep . They are saved from certain death by a cripple newspaper boy named Jim Sands . He brings them back to his home and they take refuge with Jim 's poor family . Realizing his mistake , John searches for his wife and child in vain until he sees a newspaper story ( claimed to be two weeks later ) about the death of a woman and child in the storm . Believing May and Marie are dead , he decides to commit suicide by drowning himself . He is saved by Jim , a member of the Salvation Army and decides that he has to atone for his sins . Jim learns of John and May 's relation and reunites family again . = = Production = = The only known credit in the production is that of Marie Eline as the child , Marie . Thanhouser films , as moral as they were , did not depict the actual violence which would be formally alluded to in the synopsis . The New York Dramatic Mirror 's reviewer would state that the male lead was drunk and stated that he did not drive them from the house . There was no depiction of any violence towards the wife or apparent mention by inter @-@ title of any physical abuse . The synopsis published describes what was not shown , but it also gives names that were not provided for audiences . Thanhouser 's advertising for the film included the tag line " And a child shall lead them " , which is a reference to Isaiah 11 : 6 . = = Release and reception = = The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on February 24 , 1911 . The film had mixed reviews from critics . The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer was thorough in the analysis of the film who did not like the production for its poor rehashed story and maudlin melodrama . The characters behavior was not logical and the series of events relied on deus ex machina elements , such as the Salvation Army suddenly decides to march down to the water 's edge , then stop and remain in the background so that they can save his soul at the opportune moment . The reviewer did state that the acting was good . The Billboard ' review agreed that the story was implausible , but agreed that the skill of the actors made it more plausible than it otherwise would have been . The Morning Telegraph and Walton of The Moving Picture News would praise the film for its pathos and heart . The film is presumed lost because the film is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
= Ziggurat ( video game ) = Ziggurat , stylized as ZiGGURAT , is a retro @-@ style arcade shooter video game developed by Action Button Entertainment for iOS platforms . As the world 's last human fighting off incoming alien freaks from atop a ziggurat , the player uses simple touch controls to charge and shoot the enemies away , and dies if hit by an enemy . The game has 16 @-@ bit graphics style and an 8 @-@ bit chiptune soundtrack . Action Button designer Tim Rogers developed the game idea based on his experience with Angry Birds , which later led to his forming Action Button as a company with Ziggurat as its first release on February 17 , 2012 . The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised Ziggurat 's nuanced controls and minimalism . Time magazine picked the game as one of the best for the then new high @-@ resolution third generation iPad . = = Gameplay = = As the " Last Human on Earth " , the player fights off approaching enemies with their laser rifle . The player @-@ character , stationary atop a mountain peak ( ziggurat ) at the top of the world and end of time , attacks incoming mono @-@ eyed alien freaks and dies upon the first hit from any enemy . The player earns a score based on their number of aliens killed before succumbing . The aliens vary in size and shape , from " blue freaks " who pogo like the Tektites from Zelda , to stealth yellow freaks , to shielded , aggressive red freaks , to bullet @-@ sponge giant freaks . There are two shooting modes : Precision and Slingshot . In Precision , players control the shot by sliding their fingers along the bottom of the screen , which calculates the arc and direction of the shot . In Slingshot , like Angry Birds , players draw back their shots like slingshots . The shot grows in power the longer the screen is held , and the shot is fired when the player lets go . Weak shots will also arc down with gravity , and strong shots will decrease in power if held too long . There are no power @-@ ups , no gamified micropayments , and no pause function , but there are achievements such as living to see the end of the universe . It also integrates " pro @-@ social " features like GameCenter and Twitter . Ziggurat uses retro @-@ style 16 @-@ bit graphics and an 8 @-@ bit chiptune soundtrack . The player @-@ character is blonde and dressed in a red jumpsuit , and clouds pass by in parallax motion in the background . The sun 's position in the distance appears as a function of game 's duration . The chiptune soundtrack includes wailing solos , and its pitch appears to intensify with the game 's difficulty . The player 's death is accompanied by a " wince @-@ inducing digital screech " or siren and a " blood @-@ red screen " . = = Development = = Action Button Entertainment was founded by Tim Rogers . The studio consists of Rogers , Brent Porter , Michael Kerwin , and Nicholas Wasilewski , who have built all of the studio 's four games from Ziggurat through Videoball . Their games are consistently simple in their aesthetics and controls . Rogers cited Angry Birds as the inspiration for Ziggurat . He found the former " an incredible collision of game design concepts " that worked , though he wanted the game to be more of a " driving range " where he could throw birds at falling stuff , an idea which he refined into a Raiders of the Lost Ark @-@ themed game of slowly hurling projectiles that push back bats in a corridor with no limit of projectiles . When riding the Bay Area Rapid Transit from Oakland to San Francisco a year later , Rogers watched a man play Angry Birds as he perfected a level , whereupon Rogers decided to make his game idea . He asked his friend and indie developer Adam Saltsman for advice , who confirmed and encouraged Rogers 's interest in trying Flixel , the Adobe Flash tools used to make Saltsman 's Canabalt . Upon deciding that he lacked the expertise , he tweeted to recruit others on the project and received some responses that later fell through . Rogers continued to work as a video game design consultant and met Bob Pelloni ( of Bob 's Game ) at the 2010 Game Developers Conference . The two worked on games ( including Ziggurat ) together . Rogers put out a call for artists on Twitter with a submissions request of " fan art of the Japanese box art of Phantasy Star II " , and Action Button artist Brent Porter replied in under an hour with an entry Rogers called " incredible " . In mid 2011 , Rogers decided to work on an iPhone game for a few weeks as a break from a larger project . While Pelloni was against the buttonless iPhone as a platform , Rogers said the team was convinced by his design document . He contacted an Internet acquaintance who had previously mocked up a design idea from Rogers 's Kotaku column , programmer Michael Kerwin , who came through in a week with a version without graphics or sound , which was later added . Rogers recorded " some insane and rough music " with his band , Large Prime Numbers , that Andrew Toups converted into an 8 @-@ bit soundtrack in the " original Nintendo sound format " that Rogers found " breathtaking " . His friend , QWOP creator Bennett Foddy deemed the game " sort of interesting " . Six months passed as Rogers worked on a social game before he chose to make a few more changes : more enemy types and progression , graphics in the background , and so emailed people to continue development . Rogers described his own critical list of video games as having minimalist aesthetics with no overt story to tell other than through its game mechanics , and wanted the game to live up to those expectations . He fine @-@ tuned the game with gut @-@ driven decisions . For example , he applied a concept he called " sticky friction " from Super Mario Bros. 3 to the game 's controls . One of the final features was the " scream sound effect " Rogers made with his guitar and " crushed " for a distorted and quasi @-@ digital sound that he compared to those made by eccentric Japanese musicians whose records he owned . Rogers explained that they did not add a pause option because he did not want non @-@ game icons in the screen and because ( like in Contra ) players would die too soon after resuming . He saw the game as simultaneously a " snow globe of an electric toy " and a " gosh darn airtight hardcore video game " homage to the Super Nintendo and Sega Genesis , and called Ziggurat a descendant of his hobbies : Ibara : Black Label and the Rubik 's Cube . Rogers added that the game contained nine hours of scripted events and that the Archenemy alien " is only the beginning " . Rogers produced a trailer for the game . It was released for iOS platforms on February 17 , 2012 . Two months later , Freshuu , the game 's publisher , signed Ziggurat as the first client for Gimme , an in @-@ game achievement to " real @-@ life rewards " incentive program . The game received two spikes in sales following positive reviews from journalists , and from a mock infomercial 's release on YouTube , all postrelease and not at the time of launch . Brandon Sheffield , writing for Game Developer , thought that Rogers handled the postrelease well since leaking details to the press before the game was available may have impacted sales . = = Reception = = The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It won a Destructoid Editors ' Choice Award , and Time magazine picked the game as one of the best for the then new high @-@ resolution third generation iPad . Edge compared the game to a more pleasurable version of Halo : Reach 's final scene . The magazine also compared the feeling of prioritization as a swarm of enemies appear to the feeling of clutter when stacking Tetris blocks haphazardly . Edge also called the red screen and sound effect that flashes upon the player 's death " brash and lo @-@ fi and unexpectedly poignant " , for which they noted Rogers 's interest in noise rock and credited the effect as " a beguiling personal signature " . Alternatively , Paste 's Joe Bernardi thought the sound did not accomplish what it intended . Joseph Leray of TouchArcade noticed how the guitar sound in Gears of War was reaffirming but the opposite in Ziggurat . Edge noted that nuances such as gravity 's influence on the arc of uncharged shots make Ziggurat more of a basketball or golf @-@ like sport skill than a " 2D Halo " . Edge awarded the game a 9 of 10 , adding that it " prized immediacy " in a manner that matched the iOS platform . Eurogamer 's Martin Robinson said the game made him nostalgic for a score attack game from the early 90s that does not exist , and as such called Ziggurat " one of the finer simple score @-@ attack shooters ... on the App Store " and an expression of the golden age of the Super Nintendo and Sega Genesis . He called the game 's mechanics " fine @-@ tuned " and the gun 's abilities collated from the best elements of other video games . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com likewise found the controls " very well suited " for touchscreens . He also praised the chained explosions and shot charging as " satisfying " , and compared the game to Missile Command in its allure . Robinson of Eurogamer said the game 's deserving peers were Geometry Wars and Robotron for their refined play styles that make players predict what enemies are about to act . TouchArcade 's Leray praised the game design and never reached a place where his skills plateaued . He advised against using the Slingshot mode controls . Joe Bernardi of Paste put Ziggurat in a lineage of iOS games where the player tries to do a fun thing as much as possible before dying , including Canabalt , Bit Pilot , and Super Crate Box . He connected Ziggurat 's mechanics to Rogers 's longstanding interest in " infinite mode " without external rewards , and praised the charge time mechanics as " excellent " and the perfect awkward length to confuse muscle memory . Leray of TouchArcade praised its attention to detail , especially in the character sprites . Paste 's Bernardi called Action Button 's design restraint " admirable " and lauded the game 's balance . He noted its " extremely focused shallowness " as defining , like a Dorito , and called it " one of the best iOS games [ he had ] ever played " . Reviewing for ActionButton.net , indie developer Adam Saltsman called Ziggurat " French New Wave action videogame fan art " .
= Kentucky Railway Museum = The Kentucky Railway Museum , now located in New Haven , Kentucky , United States , is a non @-@ profit railroad museum dedicated to educating the public regarding the history and heritage of Kentucky 's railroads and the people who built them . Originally created in 1954 in Louisville , Kentucky , the museum is at its third location , in extreme southern Nelson County . It is one of the oldest railroad stations in the United States . The museum owns four steam locomotives , six diesel locomotives and over a hundred pieces of rolling stock . Four of the pieces are separately on the National Register of Historic Places : the Louisville and Nashville Steam Locomotive No. 152 , the Louisville and Nashville Combine Car Number 665 , the Mt . Broderick Pullman Lounge @-@ Obs @-@ Sleeping Car , and the Frankfort and Cincinnati Model 55 Rail Car . = = History = = The site of the current museum was built by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad from 1856 to 1857 , on their old line , which ran to Lebanon , Kentucky . The line was of vital importance to the Union cause , making it a frequent target of Confederate forces under John Hunt Morgan , and others , during the 1860s ; the nearby bridge was even destroyed . The railroad station on the site now is a 1990s replica of the station which was built at the site in 1910 . The museum was chartered in 1954 by railroad enthusiasts from Louisville , through the Kentucky General Assembly , who wished to preserve steam locomotives and other rail paraphernalia . One of its very first displays was the Louisville and Nashville # 152 locomotive , a caboose , and a wooden coach . These first donations , including railroad track , were from the Monon Railroad , and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . The museum has moved twice since it was chartered , from its original location in Louisville . The first site was at 1837 East River Road , where the Louisville Soccer Fields are now located . This first location was 6 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 ha ) in size , and was fenced and lighted by the Louisville Parks Department . The site opened for the public on May 30 , 1958 , with its dedication taking place on September 30 , 1957 . The museum eventually left the first location because of flooding from the nearby Ohio River , and a general lack of necessary space . The worst of these floods was in March 1964 . In December 1975 it was decided to move the museum to a larger and safer location . The museum was moved in 1977 to the Ormsby Village area at the corner of La Grange Road and Dorsey Lane on land leased from Jefferson County , and known as Ormsby Station . The Louisville and Nashville # 152 locomotive was left at River Road to be repaired . Ormsby Station was situated on 32 acres ( 13 ha ) . However , the county informed the museum that the lease would not be renewed in 1993 ; the land was in a highly @-@ valuable commercial area . With the edict from Jefferson County , it became necessary to move to the current site in New Haven , which opened on July 4 , 1990 . The original New Haven location was 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) , with a building , and was donated by Lewis and Chester Simms , two New Haven businessmen , along with their wives ( Elizabeth Jo and Nora respectively ) . It used the last eighteen miles remaining of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad 's old Lebanon line , then under the control of CSX Transportation , which had taken control of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad in the 1970s . Train excursions began at the New Haven site in May 1991 . The move also inspired the renovation of the New Sherwood Hotel . Many of the donations to move the museum from Louisville to New Haven were due to the efforts of Glenn Rutherford , a reporter for the Louisville Courier @-@ Journal . During the fund raising for the move Rutherford told many stories regarding the trains at the museum . He was singularly honored for his efforts in November 2003 . The Kentucky Railway Museum faced vandalism concerns in its new location . In June 1992 it became necessary to build a razor wire perimeter fence after three juveniles ( of an average age of twelve ) damaged several of the historic cars and trains . Rich Collins , then the museum director , worried about the facility looking " like Fort Knox or a penal colony " . In 1999 the Kentucky Railway Museum was given a grant by CSX Transportation to start a traveling exhibit . There is one other heritage railroad in Nelson County : My Old Kentucky Dinner Train , which is based at the Old Louisville and Nashville Station in Bardstown , Kentucky . = = Attractions = = Among the steam locomotives is Louisville and Nashville Railroad # 152 , a 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 Pacific style that is believed to be the last operating steam locomotive from the L & N. The museum operates a heritage railroad and offers excursion trains on selected weekends in summer and fall . The line is a portion of the L & N 's former main line from Lebanon Junction to Corbin ; the museum operates the segment from Boston to New Haven , with the line having been abandoned east of the museum site . There is a large model train layout and a gift shop at New Haven , in a brick building that is a replica of the former L & N depot there . = = = Locomotives = = = The old Louisville and Nashville Steam Locomotive # 152 is one of the trains used to take passengers to Boston , Kentucky , and back . It was donated to the museum by Louisville and Nashville Railroad President William H. Kendall in 1957 . It is the oldest known remaining 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 Pacific to exist . It is also the " Official State Locomotive of Kentucky " , designated as such on March 6 , 2000 . Another locomotive that dates back to the Kentucky Railway Museum 's early days is Monon Route 's Diesel Engine No. 32 . It was painted black and gold by Monon , and kept as such , to match the school colors of Purdue University , located in West Lafayette , Indiana . It was purchased by Monon in 1948 , and then acquired by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad in August 1971 . It became a display at the museum in 1972 . = = = Rail Cars = = = Several historic rail cars are at the facility . The Louisville and Nashville Combine Car Number 665 was one of only two " two wood side steel " train cars ever made . It was designed for the times of the Jim Crow laws ; whichever end was the front during the trip would hold white passengers , while the rear held black passengers . It was given to the Kentucky Railway Museum by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad in 1958 . During the Civil War Centennial observances of the 1960s this car was pulled by the famous Civil War @-@ era steam locomotive The General , touring various parts of the Eastern U.S. rail network . The Mt . Broderick Pullman Car was a four @-@ star hotel on rails , with polished brass restroom fixtures , and pull out beds . The Pullman Company sold the car to the museum in 1958 . The other historic car at the facility on the National Register is the Frankfort and Cincinnati Model 55 Rail Car , also known as The Cardinal due to its red color . It is a gas @-@ powered motor rail car that formerly ran the Frankfort and Cincinnati Railroad 's " Whiskey Route " between Frankfort , Kentucky and Paris , Kentucky . = = = Excursions = = = Train rides leave regularly from the museum to Boston , Kentucky , and back , with picturesque views of the Rolling Fork River Valley along the way . The train crosses roads fourteen times on a single one @-@ way trip . The total trip is 22 miles ( 35 km ) and lasts approximately one hour . At various times special excursions will involve themes such as train robberies , haunted trains , Easter Bunny , Santa Claus , and Thomas the Tank Engine . = = = Exhibits = = = One of the buildings at the facility holds a model train display . The model trains are in glass covered dioramas , covering a total area of 3 @,@ 000 square feet ( 280 m2 ) . Dioramas include a German @-@ landscape featuring a village and carnival , and another depicting convicts working on placing rails .
= Winter service vehicle = A winter service vehicle ( WSV ) , or snow removal vehicle , is used to clear thoroughfares of ice and snow . Winter service vehicles are usually based on a dump truck chassis , with adaptations allowing them to carry specially designed snow removal equipment . Many authorities also use smaller vehicles on sidewalks , footpaths , and cycleways . Road maintenance agencies and contractors in temperate or polar areas often own several winter service vehicles , using them to keep the roads clear of snow and ice and safe for driving during winter . Airports use winter service vehicles to keep both aircraft surfaces , and runways and taxiways free of snow and ice , which , besides endangering aircraft takeoff and landing , can interfere with the aerodynamics of the craft . The earliest winter service vehicles were snow rollers , designed to maintain a smooth , even road surface for sleds , although horse @-@ drawn snowplows and gritting vehicles are recorded in use as early as 1862 . The increase in motor car traffic and aviation in the early 20th century led to the development and popularisation of large motorised winter service vehicles . = = History = = Although snow removal dates back to at least the Middle Ages , early attempts merely involved using a shovel or broom to remove snow from walkways and roads . Before motorised transport , snow removal was seen as less of a concern ; unpaved roads in rural areas were dangerous and bumpy , and snow and ice made the surface far smoother . Most farmers could simply replace their wagons with sleds , allowing the transport of heavy materials such as timber with relative ease . Early communities in the northern regions of the United States and Canada even used animal @-@ drawn snow rollers , the earliest winter service vehicles , to compress the snow covering roads . The compression increased the life of the snow and eased passage for sleds . Some communities even employed snow wardens to spread or " pave " snow onto exposed areas such as bridges , to allow sleds to use these routes . However , with the increase in paved roads and the increasing size of cities , snow @-@ paving fell out of favour , as the resultant slippery surfaces posed a danger to pedestrians and traffic . The earliest patents for snowplows date back to 1840 , but there are no records of their actual use until 1862 , when the city of Milwaukee began operating horse @-@ drawn carts fitted with snowplows . The horse @-@ drawn snowplow quickly spread to other cities , especially those in areas prone to heavy snowfall . The first motorised snowplows were developed in 1913 , based on truck and tractor bodies . These machines allowed the mechanisation of the snow clearing process , reducing the labor required for snow removal and increasing the speed and efficiency of the process . The expansion of the aviation industry also acted as a catalyst for the development of winter service vehicles during the early 20th century . Even a light dusting of snow or ice could cause an aeroplane to crash , so airports erected snow fences around airfields to prevent snowdrifts , and began to maintain fleets of vehicles to clear runways in heavy weather . With the popularisation of the motor car , it was found that plowing alone was insufficient for removing all snow and ice from the roadway , leading to the development of gritting vehicles , which used sodium chloride to accelerate the melting of the snow . Early attempts at gritting were resisted , as the salt used encouraged rusting , causing damage to the metal structures of bridges and the shoes of pedestrians . However , as the number of motoring accidents increased , the protests subsided and by the end of the 1920s , many cities in the United States used salt and sand to clear the roads and increase road safety . As environmental awareness increased through the 1960s and 1970s , gritting once again came under criticism due to its environmental impact , leading to the development of alternative de @-@ icing chemicals and more efficient spreading systems . = = Design = = Winter service vehicles are usually based on a dump truck chassis , which are then converted into winter service vehicles either by the manufacturer or an aftermarket third @-@ party . A typical modification involves the replacement of steel components of the vehicle with corrosion resistant aluminium or fibreglass , waterproofing any exposed electronic components , replacement of the stock hopper with a specially designed gritting body , the addition of a plow frame , reinforcement of the wheels , bumpers to support the heavy blade , and the addition of extra headlamps , a light bar , and retroreflectors for visibility . Other common changes include the replacement of the factory stock tires with rain tires or mud and snow tires and the shortening of the vehicle 's wheelbase to improve maneuverability . For smaller applications smaller trucks are used . In Canada pickup trucks are used with snow removal operations with a blade mounted in front and optional de @-@ icing equipment installed in the rear . Underbody scrapers are also used by some agencies and are mounted between axles , distributing plowing stresses on the chassis more evenly . In most countries , winter service vehicles usually have amber light bars , which are activated to indicate that the vehicle is operating below the local speed limit or otherwise poses a danger to other traffic , either by straddling lanes or by spreading grit or de @-@ icer . In some areas , such as the Canadian province of Ontario , winter service vehicles use the blue flashing lights associated with emergency service vehicles , rather than the amber or orange used elsewhere . Many agencies also paint their vehicles in high @-@ contrast orange or yellow to allow the vehicles to be seen more clearly in whiteout conditions . Some winter service vehicles , especially those designed for use on footpaths or pedestrian zones , are built on a far smaller chassis using small tractors or custom made vehicles . These vehicles are often multi @-@ purpose , and can be fitted with other equipment such as brushes , lawnmowers or cranes — as these operations are generally unable to run during heavy snowfalls , there is generally little overlap between the different uses , reducing the size of the fleet required by the agency or contractor . Modern winter service vehicles will usually also have a satellite navigation system connected to a weather forecast feed , allowing the driver to choose the best areas to treat and to avoid areas in which rain is likely , which can wash away the grit used — the most advanced can even adapt to changing conditions , ensuring optimal gritter and plow settings . Most run on wheels , often with snow chains or studded tires , but some are mounted on caterpillar tracks , with the tracks themselves adapted to throw the snow towards the side of the road . Off @-@ road winter service vehicles mounted on caterpillar tracks are known as snowcats . Snowcats are commonly fitted with snowplows or snow groomers , and are used by ski resorts to smooth and maintain pistes and snowmobile runs , although they can also be used as a replacement for chairlifts . Military winter service vehicles are heavily armoured to allow for their use in combat zones , especially in Arctic and mountain warfare , and often based on combat bulldozers or Humvees . Military winter service vehicles have been used by the United Nations , Kosovo Force , and the US Army in Central Europe during the Kosovo War , while during the Cold War , the Royal Marines and Royal Corps of Signals deployed a number of tracked vehicles in Norway to patrol the NATO border with the Soviet Union . = = Operation = = Winter service vehicles are operated by both government agencies and by private subcontractors . Public works in areas which regularly receive snowfall usually maintain a fleet of their own vehicles or pay retainers to contractors for priority access to vehicles in winter , while cities where snow is a less regular occurrence may simply hire the vehicles as needed . Winter service vehicles in the United Kingdom are the only road @-@ going vehicles entitled to use red diesel . Though the vehicles still use public highways , they are used to keep the road network operational , and forcing them to pay extra tax to do so would discourage private contractors from assisting with snow removal on public roads . Winter service vehicle drivers in the United States must hold a Class A or Class B commercial driver 's license . Although some agencies in some areas , such as the US state of Minnesota , allow winter service vehicle drivers to operate without any extra training , most provide supplemental lessons to drivers to teach them the most effective and safe methods of snow removal . Many require that trainee drivers ride @-@ along with more experienced drivers , and some even operate specially designed driving simulators , which can safely replicate dangerous winter driving conditions . Other organisations require that all staff have a recognised additional licence or certificate — the United Kingdom Highways Agency for example requires that all staff have both a City & Guilds qualification and a supplemental Winter Maintenance Licence . Winter service vehicle drivers usually work part time , before and during inclement weather only , with drivers working a 12- to 16 @-@ hour shift . Main roads are typically gritted in advance , to reduce the disruption to the network . Salt barns are provided at regular intervals for drivers to collect more grit , and bedding is provided at road maintenance depots for drivers to use between shifts in heavy or prolonged storms . Weather conditions typically vary greatly depending on altitude ; hot countries can experience heavy snowfall in mountainous regions yet receive very little in low @-@ lying areas , increasing the accident rate among drivers inexperienced in winter driving . In addition , road surface temperatures can fall rapidly at higher altitudes , precipitating rapid frost formation . As a result , gritting and plowing runs are often prioritised in favour of clearing these mountain roads , especially at the start and end of the snow season . The hazardous roads through mountain passes pose additional problems for the large winter service vehicles . The heavy metal frame and bulky grit makes hill climbing demanding for the vehicle , so vehicles have extremely high torque transmission systems to provide enough power to make the climb . Furthermore , because the tight hairpin turns found on mountain slopes are difficult for long vehicles to navigate , winter service vehicles for use in mountainous areas are shortened , usually from six wheels to four . = = Equipment = = = = = De @-@ icer = = = De @-@ icers spray heated de @-@ icing fluid , often propylene glycol or ethylene glycol , onto icy surfaces such as the bodies of aircraft and road surfaces . These prevent ice from forming on the body of the aircraft while on the ground . Ice makes the surface of the wings rougher , reducing the amount of lift they provide while increasing drag . The ice also increases the weight of the aircraft and can affect its balance . Aircraft de @-@ icing vehicles usually consist of a large tanker truck , containing the concentrated de @-@ icing fluid , with a water feed to dilute the fluid according to the ambient temperature . The vehicle also normally has a cherry picker crane , allowing the operator to spray the entire aircraft in as little time as possible ; an entire Boeing 737 can be treated in under 10 minutes by a single de @-@ icing vehicle . In road snow and ice control , brine is often used as an anti @-@ icer rather than a de @-@ icer . A vehicle carries a tank of brine , which is sprayed on the road surface before or at the onset of the storm . This keeps snow and ice from adhering to the surface and makes mechanical removal by plows easier . Solid salt is also wetted with brine or other liquid deicer . This speeds de @-@ icing action and helps keep it from bouncing off the pavement into the gutter or ditch . Brine acts faster than solid salt and does not require compression by passing traffic to become effective . The brine is also more environmentally friendly , as less salt is required to treat the same length of road . Airport runways are also de @-@ iced by sprayers fitted with long spraying arms . These arms are wide enough to cross the entire runway , and allow de @-@ icing of the entire airstrip to take place in a single pass , reducing the length of time that the runway is unavailable . = = = Front @-@ end loader = = = Front @-@ end loaders are commonly used to remove snow especially from sidewalks , parking lots , and other areas too small for using snowplows and other heavy equipment . They are sometimes used as snowplows with a snowplow attachment but commonly have a bucket or snowbasket , which can also be used to load snow into the rear compartment of a snowplow or dump truck . Front end loaders with large box @-@ like front end attachment are used to clear snow in parking lots in malls and other institutions . = = = Gritter = = = A gritter , also known as a sander , salt spreader or salt truck , is found on most winter service vehicles . Indeed , the gritter is so commonly seen on winter service vehicles that the terms are sometimes used synonymously . Gritters are used to spread grit ( rock salt ) , onto roads . The grit is stored in the large hopper on the rear of the vehicle , with a wire mesh over the top to prevent foreign objects from entering the spreading mechanism and hence becoming jammed . The salt is generally spread across the roadway by an impeller , attached by a hydraulic drive system to a small onboard engine . However , until the 1970s , the grit was often spread manually using shovels by men riding on the back of the truck , and some older spreading mechanisms still require grit be manually loaded into the impeller from the hopper . Salt reduces the melting point of ice by freezing @-@ point depression , causing it to melt at lower temperatures and run off to the edge of the road , while sand increases traction by increasing friction between car tires and roadways . The amount of salt dropped varies with the condition of the road ; to prevent the formation of light ice , approximately 10 g / m2 ( 2 @.@ 0 lb / 1000 sq ft ; 0 @.@ 018 lb / sq yd ) is dropped , while thick snow can require up to 40 g / m2 ( 8 @.@ 2 lb / 1000 sq ft ; 0 @.@ 074 lb / sq yd ) of salt , independent of the volume of sand dropped . The grit is sometimes mixed with molasses to help adhesion to the road surface . However , the sweet molasses often attracts livestock , who lick the road . Gritters are among the winter service vehicles also used in airports , to keep runways free of ice . However , the salt normally used to clear roads can damage the airframe of aircraft and interferes with the sensitive navigation equipment . As a result , airport gritters spread less dangerous potassium acetate or urea onto the runways instead , as these do not corrode the aircraft or the airside equipment . Gritters can also be used in hot weather , when temperatures are high enough to melt the bitumen used in asphalt . The grit is dropped to provide a protective layer between the road surface and the tires of passing vehicles , which would otherwise damage the road surface by " plucking out " the bitumen @-@ coated aggregate from the road surface . = = = Snow blower = = = Snow blowers , also known as rotating snowplows or snow cutters , can be used in place of snowplows on winter service vehicles . A snow blower consists of a rapidly spinning auger which cuts through the snow , forcing it out of a funnel attached to the top of the blower . Snow blowers typically clear much faster than plows , with some clearing in excess of 5 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ; 5 @,@ 500 short tons ) of snow per hour , and can cut through far deeper snow drifts than a snowplow can . In addition , snow blowers can remove snow from the roadway completely , rather than piling it at the side of the road , making passage easier for other road users and preventing the windrow from blocking driveways . = = = Jet @-@ powered snow blower = = = Some railroads occasionally use air @-@ blowing machines , each powered by a jet engine to clear snow from tracks and switches . In addition to physically blowing snow with the force of the air , they melt recalictrant precipitation with exhaust temperatures over 1 @,@ 000 degrees Fahrenheit ( 538 ° C ) . Approximately 100 are believed to have been manufactured in the 1960s , 1970s , and 1980s ; they are used so rarely that they are generally maintained indefinitely rather than being replaced . For example , in the Boston area the MBTA uses two model RP @-@ 3 Portec RMC Hurricane Jet Snow Blowers , nicknamed " Snowzilla " to clear heavy snows from the Ashmont – Mattapan High Speed Line and Wellington Yard . The jet snow blowers can be faster and gentler than conventional removal methods , but consume a large amount of fuel . = = = Snow groomer = = = A snow groomer is a machine designed to smooth and compact the snow , rather than removing it altogether . Early snow groomers were used by residents of rural areas to compress the snow close to their homes , and consisted of a heavy roller hauled by oxen which compacted the snow to make a smooth surface for sledging . With the invention of the motor car , snow groomers were replaced by snowplows and snow blowers on public thoroughfares , but remained in use at ski resorts , where they are used to maintain smooth , safe trails for various wintersports , including skiing , snowboarding and snowmobiling . Snow groomers remained unchanged throughout the 20th century , with most consisting of heavy roller which could be attached to a tractor or snowcat and then hauled across the area to be groomed . The development of more advanced electronic systems in the 1980s allowed manufacturers to produce snow groomers which could work on and replicate a much wider range of terrains , with the most modern even able to produce half @-@ pipes and ramps for snowboarding . Snow groomers are also used in conjunction with snow cannons , to ensure that the snow produced is spread evenly across the resort . However , snow groomers have a detrimental effect on the environment within the resort . Regular pressure from the grooming vehicle increases the infiltration rate of the soil while decreasing the field capacity . This increases the rate at which water can soak through the soil , making it more prone to erosion . = = = Snow melter = = = A snow melting vehicle works by scooping snow into a melting pit located in a large tank at the rear of the vehicle . Around the melting pit is a thin jacket full of warm water , heated by a powerful burner . The gases from the burner are bubbled through the water , causing some of the heated water to spill over into the melting pit , melting the snow instantly . The meltwater is discharged into the storm drains . Because they have to carry the large water tank and fuel for the burner , snow melting machines tend to be much larger and heavier than most winter service vehicles , at around 18 metres ( 59 ft ) , with the largest being hauled by semi @-@ trailer tractor units . In addition , the complicated melting process means that snow melting vehicles have a much lower capacity than the equivalent plow or blower vehicle ; the largest snow melter can remove 500 metric tons of snow per hour , compared to the 5 @,@ 000 metric tons per hour capacity of any large snow blower . Snow melters are in some ways more environmentally friendly than gritters , as they do not spray hazardous materials , and pollutants from the road surface can be separated from the meltwater and disposed of safely . In addition , because the snow is melted on board , the costs of transporting snow from the site are eliminated . On the other hand , snow melting can require large amounts of energy , which has its own costs and environmental impact . = = = Snowplow = = = Many winter service vehicles can be fitted with snowplows , to clear roads which are blocked by deep snow . In most cases , the plows are mounted on hydraulically @-@ actuated arms , allowing them to be raised , lowered , and angled to better move snow . Most winter service vehicles include either permanently fixed plows or plow frames : 75 % of the UK 's Highways Agency vehicles include a plow frame to which a blade can be attached . Winter service vehicles with both a plow frame and a gritting body are known as " all purpose vehicles " , and while these are more efficient than using dedicated vehicles , the weight of the hopper often decreases the range of the vehicle . Therefore , most operators will keep at least a few dedicated plowing vehicles in store for heavy storms . In the event that specially designed winter service vehicles are not available for plowing , other service or construction vehicles can be used instead : among those used by various authorities are graders , bulldozers , skid loaders , pickup trucks and rubbish trucks . Front @-@ end loaders can also be used to plow snow . Either a snowplow attachment can be mounted on the loader 's arm in place of the bucket , or the bucket or snowbasket can be used to load snow into the rear compartment of a snowplow or dump truck , which then hauls it away . Snowplows are dangerous to overtake ; often , the oncoming lane may not be completely free of snow . In addition , the plow blade causes considerable spray of snow on both sides , which can obscure the vision of other road users . = = = Snow sweeper = = = A snow sweeper uses brushes to remove thin layers of snow from the pavement surface . Snow sweepers are used after plowing to remove any remaining material missed by the larger vehicles in areas with very low snow @-@ tolerance , such as airport runways and racing tracks , as the flexible brushes follow the terrain better than the rigid blades of snowplows and snow blowers . These brushes also allow the vehicle to be used on the tactile tiles found at traffic lights and tram stops , without damaging the delicate surface . Unlike other winter service vehicles , snow sweepers do not compress the snow , leaving a rough , high friction , surface behind them . This makes snow sweepers the most efficient method of snow removal for snow depths below 10 centimetres ( 4 in ) . Snow deeper than this however can clog the brushes , and most snow sweepers cannot be used to clear snow deeper than 15 centimetres ( 6 in ) . A more advanced version of the snow sweeper is the jet sweeper , which adds an air @-@ blower just behind the brushes , in order to blow the swept snow clear of the pavement and prevent the loosened snow from settling . = = = Surface friction tester = = = The surface friction tester is a small fifth wheel attached to a hydraulic system mounted on the rear axle of the vehicle , used to measure road slipperiness . The wheel , allowed to roll freely , is slightly turned relative to the ground so that it partially slides . Sensors attached to the axis of the wheel calculate the friction between the wheel and the pavement by measuring the torque produced by the rotation of the wheel . Surface friction testers are used at airports and on major roadways before ice formation or after snow removal . The vehicle can relay the surface friction data back to the control centre , allowing gritting and clearing to be planned so that the vehicles are deployed most efficiently . Surface friction testers often include a water spraying system , to simulate the effects of rain on the road surface before the rain occurs . The sensors are usually mounted to small compact or estate cars or to a small trailer , rather than the large trucks used for other winter service equipment , as the surface friction tester works best when attached to a lightweight vehicle . = = Materials = = To improve traction and melt ice or snow , winter service vehicles spread granular or liquid ice melting chemicals and grit , such as sand or gravel . The most common chemical is rock salt , which can melt snow at low temperatures , but has some unwanted side effects . If the salt concentration becomes high enough , it can be toxic to plant and animal life and greatly accelerate corrosion of metals , so operators should limit gritting to an absolute minimum . The dropped salt is eventually washed away and lost , so it cannot be reused or collected after gritting runs . By contrast , the insoluble sand can be collected and recycled by street sweeping vehicles and mixed with new salt crystals to be reused in later batches of grit . Sea salt cannot be used , as it is too fine and dissolves too quickly , so all salt used in gritting comes from salt mines , a non @-@ renewable source . As a result , some road maintenance agencies have networks of ice prediction stations , to prevent unnecessary gritting which not only wastes salt , but can damage the environment and disrupt traffic . The US state of Oregon uses magnesium chloride , a relatively cheap chemical similar in snow @-@ melting effects to sodium chloride , but less reactive , while New Zealand uses calcium magnesium acetate , which avoids the environmentally harmful chloride ion altogether . Urea is sometimes used to grit suspension bridges , as it does not corrode iron or steel at all , but urea is less effective than salt , and can cost up to 7 times more weight @-@ for @-@ weight . In some areas of the world , including Berlin , Germany , dropping salt is prohibited altogether except on the highest @-@ risk roads ; plain sand without any melting agents is spread instead . Although this protects the environment , it is more labour @-@ intensive , as more gritting runs are needed ; because the sand is insoluble , it tends to accumulate at the sides of the road , making it more difficult for buses to pull in at bus stops . Grit is often mixed with hydrous sodium ferrocyanide as an anticaking agent which , while harmless in its natural form , can undergo photodissociation in strong sunlight to produce the extremely toxic chemical hydrogen cyanide . Although sunlight is generally not intense enough to cause this in polar and temperate regions , salt deposits must kept as far as possible from waterways to avert the possibility of cyanide @-@ tainted runoff water entering fisheries or farms . Gritting vehicles are also dangerous to overtake ; as grit is scattered across the entire roadway , loose pieces can damage the paintwork and windows of passing cars . Loose salt does not provide sufficient traction for motorcycles , which can lead to skidding , especially around corners .
= K @-@ 232 ( Kansas highway ) = K @-@ 232 is a 17 @.@ 263 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 27 @.@ 782 km ) north – south state highway in central Kansas connecting the towns of Wilson and Lucas . The highway was first established in 1962 and expanded over the following two years . K @-@ 232 is designated by the Kansas Department of Transportation as the Post Rock Scenic Byway . The scenic byway derives its name from the abundant limestone in the area which early settlers used as fence posts and in other construction in place of wood . The route was designated as a scenic byway both for the natural beauty of the area and unique towns located each end of the highway . Annual average daily traffic on the highway ranges from 238 to 340 , and the entire route is paved with partial design bituminous pavement . = = History = = K @-@ 232 's route was first designated as the part of the current highway between Interstate 70 and Old U.S. 40 ( then U.S. Route 40 ) in 1962 . The rest of the highway 's route was established over the following two years . K @-@ 232 has been paved since the highway was designated . Due to the area 's natural beauty and unique heritage , K @-@ 232 has been designated by the Kansas Department of Transportation as the Post Rock Scenic Byway , named for the abundance of limestone fenceposts found throughout the Smoky Hills region . = = Route description = = The highway begins at an intersection with Old U.S. 40 in Ellsworth County , on the eastern side of the city of Wilson . From there , it travels northward 1 @.@ 753 miles ( 2 @.@ 821 km ) along the eastern side of Wilson and through agricultural lands to a junction with Interstate 70 . After crossing Interstate 70 , K @-@ 232 turns and continues in a generally west of north direction across the Ellsworth / Lincoln county line . After crossing the county line , the highway continues on a slightly west of north heading until reaching Wilson Lake . Upon reaching Wilson Lake , K @-@ 232 travels along the eastern side of the lake , crossing into Russell County . K @-@ 232 then has a junction with K @-@ 181 at the southeastern end of Wilson Dam , turns northwest , and travels along the top of the dam . A short distance after crossing the dam , K @-@ 232 turns due north and travels through more rural land to its northern terminus at K @-@ 18 highway . K @-@ 232 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . K @-@ 232 connects to the National Highway System at its junction with Interstate 70 . The entire route is paved with partial design bituminous pavement . Annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) in Ellsworth County ranges from 307 from Interstate 70 to the Ellsworth / Lincoln county line to 333 closer to the city of Wilson . In Lincoln County , AADT values are 308 for the first three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , 315 for the next one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , and 340 for the final one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before entering Russell County . In Russell County , AADT values range from 305 to 340 south of the junction with K @-@ 181 and from 238 to 280 between K @-@ 181 and the northern terminus at K @-@ 18 . = = Major intersections = =
= Palestinian cuisine = Palestinian cuisine consists of foods from or commonly eaten by Palestinians — which includes those living in Palestine , Israel , Jordan , refugee camps in nearby countries as well as by the Palestinian diaspora . The cuisine is a diffusion of the cultures of civilizations that settled in the region of Palestine , particularly during and after the Islamic era beginning with the Arab Ummayad conquest , then the eventual Persian @-@ influenced Abbasids and ending with the strong influences of Turkish cuisine , resulting from the coming of the Ottoman Turks . It is similar to other Levantine cuisines , including Lebanese , Syrian and Jordanian . Cooking styles vary by region and each type of cooking style and the ingredients used are generally based on the climate and location of the particular region and on traditions . Rice and variations of kibbee are common in the Galilee . The West Bank engages primarily in heavier meals involving the use of taboon bread , rice and meat and coastal plain inhabitants frequent fish , other seafood , and lentils . The Gaza cuisine is a variation of the Levant cuisine , but is more diverse in seafood and spices . Gaza 's inhabitants heavily consume chili peppers too . Meals are usually eaten in the household but dining out has become prominent particularly during parties where light meals like salads , bread dips and skewered meats are served . The area is also home to many desserts , ranging from those made regularly and those that are commonly reserved for the holidays . Most Palestinian sweets are pastries filled with either sweetened cheeses , dates or various nuts such as almonds , walnuts or pistachios . Beverages could also depend on holidays such as during Ramadan , where carob , tamarind and apricot juices are consumed at sunset . Coffee is consumed throughout the day and liquor is not very prevalent among the population , however , some alcoholic beverages such as arak or beer are consumed by Christians and less conservative Muslims . = = History = = The region of the southern Levant has a varied past and as such , its cuisine has contributions from various cultures . After the area was conquered by the Muslims , it became part of a Bilad al @-@ Sham under the name Jund Filastin . Therefore , many aspects of Palestinian cuisine are similar to the cuisine of Syria — especially in the Galilee . Modern Syrian @-@ Palestinian dishes have been generally influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups : the Arabs , the Persian @-@ influenced Arabs ( Iraqis ) and the Turks . The Arabs that conquered Syria and Palestine initially had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice , lamb , yogurt and dates . This cuisine did not advance for centuries until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate , that established Baghdad as its capital and integrated elements of Persian cuisine into the existing Arab cuisine . The Arab geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi said this of Palestine 's foods : From Palestine comes olives , dried figs , raisins , the carob fruit ... from Jerusalem comes cheeses and the celebrated raisins of the species known as Ainuni and Duri , excellent apples ... also pine nuts of the kind called ' Kuraish @-@ bite ' , and their equal is not found elsewhere ... from Sughar and Baysan come dates , the treacle called Dibs . The cuisine of the Ottoman Empire — which incorporated Palestine in 1516 — was partially made up of what had become , by then a " rich " Arab cuisine . After the Crimean War , in 1855 , many other communities including Bosnians , Greeks , French and Italians began settling in the area especially in urban centers such as Jerusalem , Jaffa and Bethlehem . These communities ' cuisines contributed to the character of Palestinian cuisine , especially communities from the Balkans . Until around the 1950s @-@ 60s , the main ingredients for rural Palestinian cuisine was olive oil , oregano and bread baked in a simple oven called a taboon . Author G. Robinson Lees , writing in 1905 , observed that " The oven is not in the house , it has a building of its own , the joint property of several families whose duty is to keep it always hot . " = = Regional cuisines = = There are three primary culinary regions of Palestine — the Galilee , Gaza and the West Bank ( which has its own culinary subregions ranging from north to south ) . In the Galilee , bulgur and meat ( beef or lamb ) are primary ingredients that are often combined to form several variations of dishes ranging from a family @-@ sized meal to a side dish . However , in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip , the populations have a cooking style of their own . In the West Bank , meals are particularly heavy and contrast from the foods of the northern Levant . Main dishes involve rice , flatbreads and roasted meats . The staple food of the inhabitants in the Gaza Strip is fish due to its location on the Mediterranean seacoast . Their cuisine is similar to that of the Levant 's ; however , other spices are used more frequently . These generally include chili peppers , dill seed , garlic , and chard to flavor many of Gaza 's meals . Although the cuisine is diverse , generally Palestinians are not restricted to the foods of their specific region and there is constant culinary diffusion amongst them . Although , because of Gaza 's isolation from other Palestinian and Levantine Arab areas , their cooking styles are less known in the region . = = = Galilee = = = The cuisine of the Galilee is very similar to Lebanese cuisine , due to the extensive communication between the two regions before the establishment of Israel . The Galilee specializes in a number of meals based on the combination of bulgur , spices and meat , known as kubbi by Arabs . Kubbi bi @-@ siniyee is a combination of minced lamb or beef mixed with pepper , allspice and other spices wrapped in a bulgur crust , then baked . Kubbi bi @-@ siniyee could serve as the main dish during a Palestinian lunch . Kubbi neyee is a variation of kubbi , that is served as raw meat mixed with bulgur and a variety of spices . It is mostly eaten as a side dish and pita or markook bread is used for scooping the meat . Since the dish is raw , whatever is not eaten is cooked the next day in either the baked version or as fried kibbee balls . A special occasion meal in the Galilee consists of Roasted Lamb or any other type of meat complemented by a mixture of rice with chopped lamb and flavored with an assortment of spices , usually garnished with chopped parsley and toasted nuts. shish kebab or lahme mashwi and shish taouk are grilled meats on skewers and are commonly eaten after an array of appetizers known as the maza . The mezzeh consists of a wide variety of appetizers , usually including hummus ( sometimes topped with meat ) , baba ghannouj , labaneh , tabbouleh , olives and pickled vegetables . Akkawi cheese , a semi @-@ hard cheese common throughout the Middle East and among the Arab diaspora , originated in the city of Akka , from which the cheese receives its name . = = = West Bank = = = Musakhan is a common main dish that originated in the Jenin and Tulkarm area in the northern West Bank . It consists of a roasted chicken over a taboon bread that has been topped with pieces of fried sweet onions , sumac , allspice and pine nuts . Maqluba is an upside @-@ down rice and baked eggplant casserole mixed with cooked cauliflowers , carrots and chicken or lamb . The meal is known throughout the Levant but among Palestinians especially . It dates back to the 13th century . Mansaf is a traditional meal in the central West Bank and Naqab region in the southern West Bank , having its roots from the Bedouin population of ancient Arabia . It is mostly cooked on occasions such as , during holidays , weddings or a large gathering . Mansaf is cooked as a lamb leg or large pieces of lamb on top of a taboon bread that has usually been smothered with yellow rice . A type of thick and dried cheesecloth yogurt from goat 's milk , called jameed , is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste . The dish is also garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds . The classic form of eating mansaf is using the right hand as a utensil . For politeness , participants in the feast tear pieces of meat to hand to the person next to them . In addition to meals , the West Bank 's many subregions have their own fruit @-@ based jams . In the Hebron area , the primary crops are grapes . Families living in the area harvest the grapes in the spring and summer to produce a variety of products ranging from raisins , jams and a molasses known as dibs . The Bethlehem area , Beit Jala in particular , and the village of Jifna are known regionally for their apricots and apricot jam as is the Tulkarm area for its olives and olive oil . = = = Gaza = = = The Gaza Strip 's cooking style is similar to culinary styles adopted by the rest of the Levant countries , and is also influenced by the Mediterranean coast . The staple food for the majority of the inhabitants in the area is fish . Gaza has a major fishing industry and fish is often served either grilled or fried after being stuffed with cilantro , garlic , red peppers and cumin and marinated in a mix of coriander , red peppers , cumin , and chopped lemons . Besides fish , as well as other types of seafood , Zibdieh , is a clay pot dish that consists of shrimp baked in a stew of olive oil , garlic , hot peppers , and peeled tomatoes . Crabs are cooked and then stuffed with a red hot pepper paste called shatta . A dish native to the Gaza area is Sumaghiyyeh , consisting of water @-@ soaked ground sumac mixed with tahina . The mixture is added to sliced chard and pieces of stewed beef and garbanzo beans and additionally flavored with dill seeds , garlic and hot peppers . It is often eaten cool with khubz . Rummaniyya is prepared differently depending on the time of the year and is made up of unripened pomegranate seeds , eggplant , tahina , garlic , hot peppers and lentils . Fukharit adas is a slow @-@ cooked lentil stew flavored with red pepper flakes , crushed dill seeds , garlic , and cumin ; it is traditionally made during winter and early spring . Qidra is a rice dish named after the clay vessel and oven it is baked in . Rice is cooked with pieces of meat inside of the vessel , often using lamb , whole garlic cloves , garbanzo beans , cardamom pods , and various other spices such as , turmeric , cinnamon , allspice , nutmeg and cumin . Plain rice cooked in meat or chicken broth and flavored with mild spices including cinnamon is known as fatteh ghazzawiyyeh . The rice is layered over a thin markook bread known as farasheeh , smothered in ghee and topped with stuffed chicken or lamb . The meal is eaten with green peppers and lemon sauce . = = Types of meals = = = = = Rice meals = = = Rice is the basic ingredient in ceremonial dishes , and is a very important element of Palestinian meals . Rice dishes are usually the main dish of Palestinian dinner , because they consist of a variety of ingredients commonly found within the Palestinian land . Rice is usually not served alone or as a side dish ( see ruz ma lahma below ) , but rather it is incorporated within a larger dish or tabeekh ( dish ) , that would include soups , vegetables , and meat ( chicken or lamb ) . Meat is almost always present in Palestinian dishes . Mansaf is a very popular dish that is usually served during important events , such as a traditional wedding , engagement , funeral , baptism and circumcision . It is a dish incorporating all the elements of Palestinian land , such as bread , laban ( yogurt ) soup , rice , nuts ( pine nuts ) , parsley and lamb , making it an important cultural dish . The meal is oftentimes served the traditional way in a large common plate , a sidr . The meal is usually eaten without the use of tableware , but rather each person sits beside each other eating from the same large plate . Maqluba means " upside down " in Arabic , and it is a dish made with a meat , fried vegetables and rice . The dish is cooked with the meat at the bottom of a large pot , then layered with fried vegetables , such as potatoes , carrots , cauliflower and eggplant . Rice is then added to the dish as it completes cooking . When served , Maqluba is flipped upside down with the meat now at the top , hence the name . Maqluba is a popular dish , commonly served with salad and yogurt by Palestinians . Quzi is a rich rice dish with chopped vegetables and roasted meat made in the Taboon served with it . The dish is seen as comparatively simpler in its cooking than other Palestinian dishes , because it is cooked with basic rice ( with diced vegetables ) and a meat served on top of it . The meal is served in a large sidr , similar to mansaf , decorated with chopped parsley and pine nuts or chopped almonds . Another variant of this is the Zarb which has bread dough instead of rice although this is due to the Jordanian influence in the region . Ruz ma Lahma is generally the only rice side dish in most Arab and Palestinian cooking , with simply cooked rice , spices , ground beef and nuts . It is usually served with a full lamb , kharoof , as the main dish . = = = Stew meals = = = Stews are basic fare for every day family cooking and are always served with vermicelli rice or plain rice . They are popular because they provide a wide range of nutrients from the meat , the vegetables and the rice . The extra liquid is also essential in such dry climate . Stews are also economically beneficial , as they provide relatively small amount of meat into feeding large families , especially within the poorer population . Mloukhiyeh is a stew made from Jew 's mallow . The Jew 's mallow is picked during harvest time , and is either frozen or dried . It is widely popular in the middle east , as it is commonly grown in dry climate areas . The stew is cooked with lemon juice and water , and served with cut lemons and rice . The meal can be served with either chicken or lamb however it can be served without either ( unlike many other Palestinian meals ) . Adas is a healthy lentil soup , common in the Middle East . Unlike other parts of the Middle East , Palestinians do not incorporate yogurt or other ingredients into this soup . Rather , it is made with lentils and chopped onions and served with sliced onions and bread on the side . = = = Bread meals = = = Palestinians bake a variety of different kinds of breads : they include khubz , pita and markook and taboon . Khubz is an everyday bread and is very similar to pita . It often takes the place of utensils ; It is torn into bite size pieces and used to scoop various dips such as hummus or ful . Markook bread is a paper @-@ thin unleavened bread and when unfolded it is almost transparent . Taboon receives its name from the ovens used to bake them . Musakhan is a widely popular Palestinian dish composed of roasted chicken , with fried onions , sumac , allspice , safron and pine nuts atop one or more taboons . The dish is usually eaten with the hands and served with cut lemon on the side . In April 2010 , Palestinians were entered into the Guinness Book of World Records for largest Musakhan dish . Palestinian cuisine also includes many small pizza @-@ like foods , including Manakish , sfiha , fatayer , sambusac and ikras . Sfiha is a baked miniature flatbread , topped with lamb and cooked red peppers or tomatoes . Manakish is a baked flat bread , usually topped with za 'atar and olive oil . Sfiha are meat patties decorated with spices and peppers . Sambusac and fatayer are baked or sometimes fried doughs stuffed with minced meat and cooked onions or snobar ( pine nuts ) . Fatayer is usually folded into triangles and unlike sambusac , it could be filled with arabic cheese or za 'atar . Ikras is similar to sambusac and fatayer , by using dough stuffed with either meat or spinach , however they are not fried ( like sambusac ) , and are usually served as a meal rather than meal addition or side dish . Sandwiches usually using markook or khubz , such as Shawarma and Falafel are also common bread meals . Shawarma can be served as a sandwich or meal with shaved meat and bread . Shawarma can be chicken or beef , and is adorned with a variety of garnishes . These can include pickles , hummus , or a garlic yogurt mix . Falafel , fried chickpeas , parsley and onion are fried into small patties and are adorned with similar toppings as shawarma . = = = Mahashi = = = Mahshi ( pl. mahshi ) dishes are composed of rice stuffed vegetables such as , eggplants , baby pumpkins , potatoes , carrots and marrows as well as a variety of leaf vegetables , primarily grape leaves , cabbage leaves and less often chard . Mahshi requires delicacy and time — the main reason it is prepared before the day it is cooked and served . Many female family members participate in the rolling and stuffing of the vegetables , relaxing the amount of individual effort required , with great attention to detail . Waraq al- ' ainib ( stuffed grape leaves ) , is a mahshi meal reserved for large gatherings . The grape leaves are normally wrapped around minced meat , white rice and diced tomatoes , however meat is not always used . Dawali is an excellent representation of the attention to detail commonly found in Palestinian and Levant cuisine , with each piece being tightly wrapped to the size of cigarette morsels ( some families differ in their structure ) .It is then cooked and served as dozens of rolls on a large plate usually accompanied by boiled potato slices , carrots and lamb pieces . Kousa mahshi are zucchinis stuffed with the same ingredients as waraq al- ' ainib and usually served alongside it heavy meals . If made with a large number of zucchinis as well as dawali it is known as waraq al- ' ainib wa kousa . = = = Dips and side dishes = = = Bread dips and side dishes such as , hummus , baba ghanoush , mutabbel and labaneh are frequented during breakfast and dinner . Hummus is a staple in Palestinian side dishes , in particular in hummus bi tahini , in which boiled , ground beans are mixed with tahini ( sesame paste ) and sometimes lemon juice . Hummus is often slathered in olive oil and sometimes sprinkled with paprika , oregano and pine nuts ; the latter are especially popular in the West Bank . Chick peas are also mixed with ful ( fava beans ) , resulting in an entirely different dish , mukhluta , with a distinct flavor and brownish color . Baba ghanoush is an eggplant or aubergine salad or dip with several variants . The root of all the variants is broiled and mashed eggplant and tahini lathered with olive oil , which can then be flavored with either garlic , onions , peppers , ground cumin seeds , mint and parsley . Mutabbel is one of the spicier variants that receives its zest from green chili peppers . Jibneh Arabieh or jibneh baida is a white table cheese served with any of the above dishes . Ackawi cheese is a common variation of jibneh baida . Ackawi cheese has a smoother texture and a mild salty taste . Labaneh is a pasty yogurt @-@ like cream cheese either served on a plate with olive oil and za 'atar — which is generally called labaneh wa za 'atar — or in a khubz sandwich . = = = Salads = = = The most served Palestinian salad is a simple type known as salatat bandura ( tomato salad ) , similar to Arab salad . It is composed of diced tomatoes and cucumbers combined with olive oil , parsley , lemon juice and salt . Depending on the area of Palestine , the recipe may include scallions and garlic as well . Tabbouleh is a Mediterranean @-@ style table salad originating in the Levant . The salad is made from parsley pieces , bulgur , diced tomatoes , cucumbers and is sautéed with lemon juice and vinegar . In 2006 , the largest bowl of tabbouleh in the world was prepared by Palestinian cooks in the West Bank city of Ramallah . Fattoush is a combination of toasted bread pieces and parsley with chopped cucumbers , radishes , tomatoes and scallions and flavored by sumac . Dagga is a Gazan salad usually made in a clay bowl and is a mix of crushed tomatoes , garlic cloves , red hot peppers , chopped dill and olive oil . Its seasoned with lemon juice immediately before being served . Salatah arabieh or " Arab salad " is a salad used with most meals . Romaine lettuce , tomatoes and cucumbers are the main ingredients . Lettuce is cut into long strips , then chopped into thin strands , the tomatoes and cucumbers are chopped into cubes . Finely chopped parsley and mint give it a " particular zest " according to chef Ali Qleibo . A pinch of salt , the juice of a whole fresh lemon and several tablespoons of olive oil are used for final touch ups . = = = Sweets = = = Palestinian desserts include baklawa , halawa and kanafeh , as well as other semolina and wheat pastries . Baklawa is a pastry made of thin sheets of unleavened flour dough ( phyllo ) , filled with pistachios and walnuts sweetened by honey . Burma Til @-@ Kadayif , or simply Burma , especially popular in East Jerusalem , has the same filling as baklawa , but is cylndrical in shape and made with kanafeh dough instead of phyllo . Halawa is a block confection of sweetened sesame flour served in sliced pieces . Muhalabiyeh is a rice pudding made with milk and topped with pistachios or almonds . Kanafeh , a well @-@ known dessert in the Arab World and Turkey . Made of several fine shreds of pastry noodles with honey @-@ sweetened cheese in the center , the top layer of the pastry is usually dyed orange with food coloring and sprinkled with crushed pistachios . Nablus , to the present day is famed for its kanafeh , partly due to its use of a white @-@ brined cheese called Nabulsi after the city . Boiled sugar is used as a syrup for kanafeh . = = = Snack foods = = = It is common for Palestinian hosts to serve fresh and dried fruits , nuts , seeds and dates to their guests . Roasted and salted watermelon , squash and sunflower seeds as well as , pistachios and cashews are common legumes . Watermelon seeds , known as bizir al @-@ bateekh and pumpkin seeds , known as bizir abyad are eaten regularly during various leisurely activities : playing cards , smoking argeelah , conversing with friends or before and after meals . = = Meal structure = = Palestinian culture and life revolves around food in every aspect , whether it is an ordinary day or a special occasion such as a wedding or holiday . Meals are structured in a cyclical order by Palestinians and span into two main courses and several intermediate ones like coffee , fruits and sweets as well as dinner . Like in most Arab cultures , meals are a time to spend with family and could last 1 – 2 hours depending on the specific time of the day . Unlike other cultures , lunch is the primary course and breakfast and dinner are lighter in contents . Fatur / Iftur ( lit . ' breakfast ' ) is a term for breakfast , usually consists of fried eggs , olives , labaneh , olive oil , za 'atar , or jams . Hummus bi tahini is also eaten primarily during this time the day . Ghada is a term for lunch , usually late in the afternoon . Lunch is the heaviest meal of the day and main ingredients could include rice , lamb , chicken , cooked vegetables and forms of mahashi . Asrooneh Derives from the word ' Aasr ( lit . ' afternoon ' ) is a term for the consumption of a variety of fruits and legumes after gheda . 'Asha is a term for supper , usually eaten anytime from 8 @-@ 10 pm . ' Asha is simpler than gheda and some foods consumed include fatayer , hummus bi tahini , a variety of salads and a Levantine @-@ style omelette called ijee . 'Hilew Sometimes after or just before ' asha as well as when hosting guests come various sweets . Baklawa is common and is usually purchased from pastry shops instead of made at home like muhallabiyeh . Shay wa Kahwah Tea and coffee are served in throughout the day in before , after and between fatur , ghada and ' asha . = = Dining out = = Restaurants or mata 'im offer a brilliant array of cold appetizers known as the mezze . Notably , hummus bi tahini , mukhluta , sometimes nearly a dozen variations of eggplant salad , tabbouleh , fattoush , chili pepper and red cabbage salads and dishes made up by the chef are served . Kibbee balls and sfiha are the primary hot appetizers available . Heavy meals are rarely provided by restaurants , instead however , the entrées include shish kebab , shish taouk , rack of lamb and chicken breasts . Falafel shops or Mahal falafel offer mainly falafel and shawarma with several different contents . They also offer hummus or tabbouleh to be served with the meal . Coffeehouses ( called al @-@ maqhah in Arabic ) serve hot beverages and soft drinks and are usually restricted to male customers — who take part in leisurely activities like playing cards or backgammon and smoking argileh ( Arabic for hookah ) . Sweet shops or mahal al hilaweyat , can be found in the souks of cities and major towns , they offer a wide range of sweets common with Palestinians , such as , kanafeh , baklawa and anise @-@ flavored cookies . Family @-@ run shops often serve at least one type of sweet that they themselves created . The city of Nablus in particular are world famous for their exquisite Arabic sweets , and have some of the oldest sweet shops in Palestine . = = Beverages = = = = = Soft drinks = = = Soft drinks are also common in Palestinian homes and the city of Ramallah contains a Coca @-@ Cola and Faygo bottling plant , while Gaza , Hebron and Nablus have distribution centers . A Pepsi @-@ Cola plant in Gaza was shut down in 2007 . Homemade fruit juices are also a common household drink during warm days and during Ramadan , the holy month for fasting by Muslims . In the Palestinian culture , coffee and tea is traditionally served to adults during a visit or gathering , while juice is served primarily to children . However , juices such as tamar hind or qamar deen are served during special occasions to everyone . Tamar hind , originally from Africa is a liquorice drink made by soaking or infusing liquorice sticks , and adding lemon juice . Qamar deen is traditionally served to break the Ramadan fast ( as is water ) , and is an iced drink made from a dry sheet of apricots soaked in water , and mixed with lemon juice or syrup . Rose or mint water is a drink commonly added to Palestinian sweets and dishes . However , it is also a popular drink on its own , and is seen as refreshing in the heated summers . Herbs such as sage can also be boiled with water to create a drink that is sometimes used for medicinal purposes . A warm drink made from sweetened milk with salep garnished with walnuts , coconut flakes and cinnamon , is known as sahlab and is primarily served during the winter season . = = = Coffee and tea = = = Two hot beverages that Palestinians consume is coffee — served in the morning and throughout the day — and tea which is often sipped in the evening . Tea is usually flavored with na 'ana ( mint ) or maramiyyeh ( sage ) . The coffee of choice is usually Turkish or Arabic coffee . Arabic coffee is similar to Turkish coffee , but the former is spiced with cardamom and is usually unsweetened . Among Bedouins and most other Arabs throughout the region of Palestine , bitter coffee , known as qahwah sadah ( Lit. plain coffee ) , was a symbol of hospitality . Pouring the drink was ceremonial ; it would involve the host or his eldest son moving clockwise among guests — who were judged by age and status — pouring coffee into tiny cups from a brass pot . It was considered " polite " for guests to accept only three cups of coffee and then end their last cup by saying daymen , meaning " always " , but intending to mean " may you always have the means to serve coffee " . = = = Liquor = = = A widely consumed liquor among Palestinian Christians , non @-@ religious Palestinians and many less @-@ stringently observant Muslims is Arak . Arak is a clear anise @-@ flavored alcoholic drink that is mixed with water to soften it and give it a creamy white color . It is consumed during special occasions such as holidays , weddings , and gatherings or with the mezze . Beer is also a consumed drink and the Palestinian town of Taybeh in the central West Bank contains one of the few breweries in Palestine . In addition to regular beer , the brewery produces non @-@ alcoholic beer for observant Muslims . The nearby town of Birzeit is also home to Shepherds Brewery . = = Holiday cuisine = = There is a sharp difference of Palestinian courses eaten on a daily basis in comparison to those reserved for holidays — which include family and religious occasions for both Muslims and Christians . = = = Ramadan = = = In the past , during the fasting month of Ramadan , the Musaher of a town would yell and beat his drum to wake up the town 's residents for suhoor ( lit . ' of dawn ' ) — usually very early in the morning , ranging from 4 @-@ 6 am . The meals eaten during this time are light and foods include labaneh , cheese , bread and fried or boiled eggs along with various liquids to drink . The muezzin 's call to dawn prayers signaled the beginning of sawm or fasting . Breaking the day 's fasting traditionally begins with the brief consumption of dates and a chilled beverage . Palestinians make a variety of fruit @-@ based beverages , including the flavors , tamar Hindi or tamarind , sous or licorice , kharroub or carob and Qamar Eddine . Tamar Hindi is made by soaking tamarinds in water for a many hours , then straining , sweetening and mixing it with rose water and lemon juice . Kharroub is made similarly except instead of tamarind , carob is used . Qamar Eddine is made of dried apricots boiled into a liquid and chilled . The term iftar has a different meaning in Ramadan where it is used to describe the ' breaking of fasting ' unlike its common meaning of breakfast in the morning . Iftar begins with soup , either made from lentils , vegetables or freekeh . Shurbat freekeh ( " freekeh soup " ) is made from cracked , green wheat cooked in chicken broth . There is a wide variety of meals served during iftar , ranging from small plates or bowls vegetable @-@ based courses or saniyyehs ( large plates or trays ) of a particular meat . Common small dishes on the dinner table are bamia — a name for okra in tomato paste , mloukhiyeh — a corchorus stew — or maqali , an array of fried tomatoes , aubergines , potatoes , peppers and zucchini . Pilaf or plain freekeh are normally served alongside the dinner meat . Each household prepares extra food to provide for their neighbors and the less fortunate — who must receive an equal version of the food eaten at home . = = = Holiday sweets = = = A common Palestinian dessert reserved only for Ramadan is qatayef , which could be provided by the numerous street vendors in several major Palestinian cities or towns as well as typical Palestinian households . Qatayef is the general name of the dessert as a whole , but more specifically , the name of the batter that acts as a base . The result of the batter being poured into a round hot plate appears similar to pancakes , except only one side is cooked , then folded . The pastry is filled with either unsalted goat cheese or ground walnuts and cinnamon . It is then baked and served with a hot sugar @-@ water syrup or sometimes honey . Ka 'ak bi ' awja is a semolina shortbread pastry filled with ground dates called ' ajwa or walnuts . The dessert is a traditional meal for Christians during Easter , however , ka 'ak bi awja is also prepared towards the end of Ramadan , to be eaten during Eid al @-@ Fitr — a Muslim festival immediately following Ramadan , as well as during Eid al @-@ Adha . During Mawlid — the holiday honoring the birth of the Islamic prophet Muhammad — Zalabieh which consists of small , crunchy deep fried dough balls in dipped in syrup , is served . The dough is made from flour , yeast and water . A special pudding called mughli is prepared for a new born child . The dessert is made of ground rice , sugar and a mixture of spices , garnished with almonds , pine nuts and walnuts . An infant 's new tooth is celebrated with bowls of sweetened wheat or barley and sweets served after a child 's circumcision include baklava and Burma . Christian families in mourning serve a sweet bun known as rahmeh . It is a food eaten in remembrance of the dead and as a gesture of blessing the soul of the deceased person . The Greek Orthodox Church offer a special tray with cooked wheat covered with sugar and candy after a memorial service .
= Flaming Pie = Flaming Pie is the tenth solo studio album by Paul McCartney under his own name , first released in 1997 . His first studio album in over four years , it was mostly recorded following McCartney 's involvement in the highly successful Beatles Anthology project . The album was recorded in several locations over two years , 1995 and 1997 , featuring two songs dating from 1992 . The album featured several of McCartney 's family members and friends , most notably McCartney 's son , James McCartney . In Flaming Pie 's liner notes , McCartney said : " [ The Beatles Anthology ] reminded me of The Beatles ' standards and the standards that we reached with the songs . So in a way it was a refresher course that set the framework for this album . " Flaming Pie peaked at number two in both the UK and US and was certified gold . The album , which was well received by critics , also reached the top 20 in many other countries . From its release up to mid @-@ 2007 , the album sold over 1 @.@ 5 million copies . = = Background = = " Calico Skies " , which Paul McCartney had written when Hurricane Bob had hit while McCartney was staying on Long Island in 1991 , and " Great Day " , which features backing vocal from his wife Linda McCartney , hailed from a 1992 session , recorded even before Off the Ground had come out . Starting from the mid @-@ 1990s for four years , McCartney was involved in The Beatles Anthology , a documentary on the history of the Beatles . The documentary was originally titled The Long and Winding Road , named after McCartney 's song of the same name . During 1995 , as the Anthology albums were starting to be released over a two @-@ year period , EMI did not want McCartney to release a solo album in the meantime . McCartney said that he " was almost insulted at first " before then realising that " it would be silly to go out against yourself in the form of the Beatles . So I fell in with the idea and thought , ' Great , I don 't even have to think about an album . ' " McCartney was occupied with working on Standing Stone in the interim . = = Recording and structure = = Beginning in February 1995 , McCartney teamed up with Jeff Lynne , Electric Light Orchestra lead singer and guitarist , an ardent Beatles fan . Lynne had previously worked with former Beatle George Harrison on his 1987 album Cloud Nine and in the Traveling Wilburys , and also co @-@ produced " Free as a Bird " and " Real Love " for the Anthology project . Intending to produce something pure and easy – and without elaborate productions – McCartney sporadically recorded the entire album in a space of two years , working not only with Lynne , but with Steve Miller , George Martin , Ringo Starr and his own son , James McCartney , who plays lead guitar on " Heaven on a Sunday " . McCartney wrote the song " Young Boy " while his wife Linda was making lunch for a New York Times feature on 18 August 1994 . McCartney and Miller started recording " Young Boy " on 22 February 1995 in Sun Valley , Idaho . They reconvened a few months afterwards in May at McCartney 's home studio , The Mill , recording – a song described as a " road song " – " If You Wanna " and the jam track " Used to Be Bad " in the process . The duo also recorded the B @-@ side " Broomstick " and three unreleased tracks : " ( Sweet Home ) Country Girl " , " Soul Boy " , and an untitled song . Also in May , McCartney , by himself , recorded the unreleased tracks " Stella May Day " , for his daughter Stella McCartney , which would be used playing over loudspeakers at her fashion shows , and " Whole Life " with Dave Stewart . " Somedays " , which was written while McCartney was escorting Linda to Kent for a photo shoot , features an orchestration score by George Martin . " The Song We Were Singing " , which was about the times McCartney and his former @-@ songwriting partner John Lennon were at 20 Forthlin Road , was recorded in 3 / 4 time . " Little Willow " was written for the children of Starr 's first wife , Maureen Starkey Tigrett , who had recently died of cancer . " Souvenir " features the sound of a 78 rpm record towards the end of the track . The title track , recorded in a four @-@ hour session , is in similar style to the Beatles ' " Lady Madonna " . In May 1996 , Starr and McCartney were working on a track that McCartney had started a decade previously , " Beautiful Night " , which featured vocals from Starr . Lynne showed up the next day and the trio , with McCartney on bass , Starr on drums , and Lynne on guitar , jammed , with the finished results being the track " Really Love You " , the first track credited to McCartney – Starkey . McCartney and Starr also recorded the B @-@ side " Looking for You " and an untitled song . " Heaven on a Sunday " , which was written while McCartney was in the US sailing on holiday , was recorded on 16 September 1996 , and features backing vocals by both Linda and James . Martin added orchestration to " Beautiful Night " , on 14 February 1997 at Abbey Road Studios . An unreleased song was recorded with Lynne producing , titled " Cello in the Ruins " , had its copyright registered in 1994 , despite work on the song only getting started a year later , in May 1995 . The track was nearly issued as a single for War Child 's The Help Album in 1995 , but ultimately shelved . This album was the last McCartney studio album to feature vocals and participation from Linda , who died of breast cancer in 1998 . = = Release and reception = = Upon its 1997 release , on 5 May in the UK on Parlophone and on 20 May in the US on Capitol , the critical reaction to Flaming Pie was strong , with McCartney achieving his best reviews since 1982 's Tug of War . With fresh credibility , even with young fans who had been introduced to him through the Anthology project , it debuted at number 2 in the UK in May , giving McCartney his best new entry since Flowers in the Dirt eight years before . It was kept off the top spot by the Spice Girls ' album Spice . Flaming Pie was also received positively in the United States , where it became McCartney 's first top 10 album since Tug of War . Flaming Pie debuted at number 2 , with 121 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week , behind Spice , which sold just 16 @,@ 500 more copies that week . In both the UK and the US , Flaming Pie was the most commercially successful new entry , and was certified gold in both countries . It was also certified gold in Norway . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album had sold over 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide up to June 2007 . The singles " Young Boy " , " The World Tonight " and " Beautiful Night " , all of which were released as picture discs , became UK hits , all making the top 40 in the sales charts . The only single in the US from the album was " The World Tonight " , released on 17 April 1997 , a top 30 entry on the Billboard mainstream rock listing . The album was also released on vinyl . To promote the album , McCartney held an online chat party , and the event entered the Guinness Book of World Records for the most people in an online chatroom at once . In the World Tonight , a film about the making of the album , was broadcast in the UK on ITV , and on VH1 in the US , around the release of the album . Also broadcast was an hour @-@ long radio show about the album on 5 May 1997 on BBC Radio 2 . It received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year , although Bob Dylan won the award with his back @-@ to @-@ form album Time Out of Mind . " Young Boy " and " The World Tonight " appeared in the 1997 Ivan Reitman comedy Fathers ' Day . The title Flaming Pie ( also given to one of the album 's songs ) is a reference to a humorous story John Lennon told in a story in Mersey Beat in 1961 on the origin of the Beatles ' name : " It came in a vision – a man appeared on a flaming pie and said unto them , ' from this day on you are Beatles with an A. ' " = = Track listing = = All songs written by Paul McCartney , except where noted . " The Song We Were Singing " – 3 : 55 " The World Tonight " – 4 : 06 " If You Wanna " – 4 : 38 " Somedays " – 4 : 15 " Young Boy " – 3 : 54 " Calico Skies " – 2 : 32 " Flaming Pie " – 2 : 30 " Heaven on a Sunday " – 4 : 27 " Used to Be Bad " ( Duet with Steve Miller ) ( Steve Miller , McCartney ) – 4 : 12 " Souvenir " – 3 : 41 " Little Willow " – 2 : 58 " Really Love You " ( McCartney , Richard Starkey ) – 5 : 18 " Beautiful Night " – 5 : 09 " Great Day " – 2 : 09 = = = Other songs = = = Also released on the singles were four songs ( all written by McCartney , except where noted ) , plus 6 Oobu Joobu mini episodes . From " Young Boy " single " Looking for You " ( McCartney , Richard Starkey ) – 4 : 38 Another jam with Starr and Lynne Released as an exclusive bonus track on the album in 2007 when the iTunes Store added McCartney 's catalogue of music " Oobu Joobu Part 1 " – 9 : 54 Features the song " I Love This House " ( 3 : 41 ) , a track from 1984 with David Gilmour " Broomstick " – 5 : 09 Another track with Miller " Oobu Joobu Part 2 " – 10 : 19 Features the song " Atlantic Ocean " ( 6 : 25 ) , from 1987 From " The World Tonight " single " Oobu Joobu Part 3 " – 9 : 48 Features the song " Squid " ( 6 : 25 ) , an instrumental from 1987 " Oobu Joobu Part 4 " – 7 : 06 Features Paul 's solo version of " Don 't Break the Promise " ( 3 : 39 ) , later done with 10CC From " Beautiful Night " single " Love Come Tumbling Down " – 4 : 21 A song from 1987 " Oobu Joobu Part 5 " – 9 : 54 Features the original version of " Beautiful Night " ( 4 : 02 ) , done in 1986 . " Same Love " – 3 : 53 Recorded in 1988 " Oobu Joobu Part 6 " – 8 : 33 Features the song " Love Mix " ( 3 : 02 ) , from 1987 that includes " Waiting for the Sun to Shine " which was written in late 1973 , and included as the chorus . = = Personnel = = Personnel per booklet . = = Charts and certifications = =
= Lurgan = Lurgan ( from Irish : an Lorgain , meaning " the shin @-@ shaped hill " ) is a town in County Armagh , Northern Ireland . The town is near the southern shore of Lough Neagh and in the north @-@ eastern corner of the county . Formerly part of the Craigavon Borough Council area until it was merged in 2015 into the larger Armagh , Banbridge and Craigavon , Lurgan is about 18 miles ( 29 km ) south @-@ west of Belfast and is linked to the city by both the M1 motorway and the Belfast – Dublin railway line . It had a population of about 23 @,@ 000 at the 2001 Census . Lurgan is characteristic of many Plantation of Ulster settlements , with its straight , wide planned streets and rows of cottages . It is the site of a number of historic listed buildings including Brownlow House and the former town hall . Historically the town was known as a major centre for the production of textiles ( mainly linen ) after the industrial revolution and it continued to be a major producer of textiles until that industry steadily declined in the 1990s and 2000s . The development of the ' new city ' of Craigavon had a major impact on Lurgan in the 1960s when much industry was attracted to the area . The expansion of Craigavon 's Rushmere Retail Park in the 2000s has affected the town 's retail trade further . = = History = = The name Lurgan is an Anglicisation of the Irish name an Lorgain . This literally means " the shin " , but in placenames betokens a shin @-@ shaped hill or ridge ( i.e. one that is long , low and narrow ) . Earlier names of Lurgan include Lorgain Chlann Bhreasail ( Anglicised Lurganclanbrassil , meaning " shin @-@ shaped hill of Clanbrassil " ) and Lorgain Bhaile Mhic Cana ( Anglicised Lurg [ an ] vallivackan , meaning " shin @-@ shaped hill of McCann 's settlement " ) . The McCanns were a sept of the O 'Neills and Lords of Clanbrassil before the Plantation of Ulster period in the early 17th century . About 1610 , during the Plantation and at a time when the area was sparsely populated by Gaelic peoples , the lands of Lurgan were given to the English lord William Brownlow and his family . Initially the Brownlow family settled near the lough at Annaloist , but by 1619 , on a nearby ridge , they had established a castle and bawn for their own accommodation , and " a fair Town , consisting of 42 Houses , all of which are inhabited with English Families , and the streets all paved clean through also to water Mills , and a Wind Mill , all for corn . " Brownlow became MP for Armagh in the Irish Parliament in 1639 . During the Irish Rebellion of 1641 , Brownlow 's castle and bawn were destroyed , and he and his wife and family were taken prisoner and brought to Armagh and then to Dungannon in County Tyrone . The land was then passed to the McCanns and the O 'Hanlons . In 1642 , Brownlow and his family were released by the forces of Lord Conway , and as the rebellion ended they returned to their estate in Lurgan . William Brownlow died in 1660 , but the family went on to contribute to the development of the linen industry which peaked in the town in the late 17th century . = = = An Gorta Mór / The Great Hunger = = = A workhouse was built in Lurgan and opened in 1841 under the stipulations of the Poor Law which stated that each Poor Law Union would build a workhouse to give relief to the increasing numbers of destitute poor . In 1821 the population of Lurgan was 2 @,@ 715 , this increased to 4 @,@ 677 by 1841 . There were a couple of reasons for this large growth in population . Firstly the opportunities provided by the booming linen industry led many to abandon their meagre living in rural areas and migrate to Lurgan in the hope of gaining employment . Secondly the ever @-@ expanding town gave tradesmen the opportunity to secure work in the construction of new buildings such as Brownlow House . The large numbers of poor workers migrating to the town inevitably resulted in over @-@ crowding and a very low standard of living . When the potato crop failed for a second time in 1846 the resulting starvation led to a quickly overcrowded workhouse which by the end of 1846 exceeded its 800 capacity . In an attempt to alleviate the problem a relief committee was established in Lurgan as they were in other towns . The relief committees raised money by subscription from local landowners , gentry and members of the clergy and were matched by funds from Dublin . With these monies food was bought and distributed to the ever @-@ increasing numbers of starving people at soup kitchens . In an attempt to provide employment and thereby give the destitute the means to buy food , Lord Lurgan devised a scheme of land- drainage on his estate . The so @-@ called ' famine roads ' were not built in Lurgan to the same extent as the rest of Ireland , although land owners also provided outdoor relief by employing labourers to lower hills and repair existing road . During the period 1846 to 1849 the famine claimed 2 @,@ 933 lives in the Lurgan Union alone . The Lurgan workhouse was situated in the grounds of what is now Lurgan Hospital and a commemorative mural can be seen along the adjacent Tandragee Road . = = = New city = = = The town grew steadily over the centuries as an industrial market town , and in the 1960s , when the UK government was developing a programme of new towns in Great Britain to deal with population growth , the Northern Ireland government also planned a new town to deal with the projected growth of Belfast and to prevent an undue concentration of population in the city . Craigavon was designated as a new town in 1965 , intended to be a linear city incorporating the neighbouring towns of Lurgan and Portadown . The plan largely failed , and today , ' Craigavon ' locally refers to the rump of the residential area between the two towns . The Craigavon development , however , did affect Lurgan in a number of ways . The sort of dedicated bicycle and pedestrian paths that were built in Craigavon were also incorporated into newer housing areas in Lurgan , additional land in and around the town was zoned for industrial development , neighbouring rural settlements such as Aghacommon and Aghagallon were developed as housing areas , and there was an increase in the town 's population , although not on the scale that had been forecast . The textile industry remained a main employer in the town until the late twentieth century , with the advent of access to cheaper labour in the developing world leading to a decline in the manufacture of clothing in Lurgan . = = = The Troubles = = = Lurgan and the associated towns of Portadown and Craigavon made up part of what was known as the " murder triangle " ; an area known for a significant number of incidents and fatalities during The Troubles . Today the town is one of the few areas in Northern Ireland where so @-@ called dissident republicans have a significant level of support . The legacy of the Troubles is continued tension between Roman Catholics and Protestants , which has occasionally erupted into violence at flashpoint ' interface areas ' . = = Geography = = Lurgan sits in a relatively flat part of Ireland by the south east shore of Lough Neagh . The two main formations in north Armagh are an area of estuarine clays by the shore of the lough , and a mass of basalt farther back . The earliest human settlements in the area were to the northwest of the present day town near the shore of the lough . When the land was handed to the Brownlow family , they initially settled near the lough at Annaloist , but later settled where the town was eventually built . The oldest part of the town , the main street , is built on a long ridge in the townland ( baile fearainn ) of Lurgan . A neighbouring hill is the site of Brownlow House , which overlooks Lurgan Park . = = = Townlands = = = Like the rest of Ireland , the Lurgan area has long been divided into townlands , whose names mostly come from the Irish language . Lurgan sprang up in the townland of the same name . Over time , the surrounding townlands have been built upon and they have given their names to many roads and housing estates . The following is a list of townlands within Lurgan 's urban area , alongside their likely etymologies : Shankill parish : Aghnacloy ( from Irish Achadh na Cloiche , meaning " field of the stone " ) Ballyblagh ( from Baile Bláthach meaning " flowery townland " ) Ballyreagh ( from Baile Riach meaning " greyish townland " ) Demesne ( an English name – this townland was carved out of Drumnamoe and others ) Derry ( from Doire meaning " oak grove " ) Dougher or Doughcorran ( from Dúchorr meaning " black round hill " and Dúchorrán meaning " small black round hill " ) Drumnamoe ( from Druim na mBó meaning " ridge of the cows " or Druim na Mothar meaning " ridge of the thickets " ) Knocknashane ( formerly Knocknashangan , from Cnoc na Seangán meaning " hill of the ants " ) Shankill ( from Seanchill meaning " old church " or Seanchoill meaning " old wood " ) Taghnevan ( formerly Tegnevan , from Teach Naomháin meaning " Naomhán 's house " ) Tannaghmore North & Tannaghmore South ( from an Tamhnach Mór meaning " the big grassland " ) Toberhewny ( from Tobar hAoine / Tobar Chainnigh / Tobar Shuibhne meaning " Friday well / Canice 's well / Sweeny 's well " ) Seagoe parish : Aghacommon ( from Achadh Camán meaning " hurling field " ) Ballynamony ( from Baile na Móna meaning " townland of the bog " ) Silverwood ( an English name – formerly called Killinargit , from Coill an Airgid meaning " wood of the silver " ) = = = Climate = = = Lurgan has a temperate climate in common with inland areas in Ireland . Summer temperatures can reach the 20s ° C and it is rare for them to go higher than 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . The consistently humid climate that prevails over Ireland can make temperatures feel uncomfortable when they stray into the high 20s ° C ( 80 – 85 ° F ) , more so than similar temperatures in hotter climates in the rest of Europe . = = Governance = = Lurgan is part of the Upper Bann constituency for the purpose of elections to the UK Parliament at Westminster . This has long been a safe unionist seat and the current MP is David Simpson of the Democratic Unionist Party . Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont are elected from six @-@ member constituencies using proportional representation and using the same constituencies as for Westminster . Lurgan town commissioners were first elected in 1855 , and they were replaced by Lurgan Urban District Council following the Local Government ( Ireland ) Act 1898 . This effectively ended landlord control of local government in Ireland . The town council was abolished when local government was reformed in Northern Ireland in 1973 under the Local Government ( Boundaries ) Act ( Northern Ireland ) 1971 and the Local Government Act ( Northern Ireland ) 1972 . These abolished the two @-@ tier system of town and county councils replacing it with the single @-@ tier system . Lurgan was placed under the jurisdiction of Craigavon Borough Council , and remained so until a new act streamlined and merged the various districts in 2015 . Today Lurgan forms part of the new Armagh , Banbridge and Craigavon District . The Lurgan area contains the following wards : Church , Donaghcloney , Knocknashane , Magheralin , Mourneview , Parklake , and Waringstown . Lurgan Town Hall is owned by the new District Council but has not been used to conduct Council business since the Town Council was abolished in 1972 . = = Demography = = For census purposes , Lurgan is not treated as a separate entity by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency ( NISRA ) . Instead , it is combined with Craigavon , Portadown and Bleary to form the " Craigavon Urban Area " . A fairly accurate population count can be found by combining the data of the electoral wards that make up the Lurgan urban area . These are Church , Court , Drumnamoe , Knocknashane , Mourneview , Parklake , Taghnevan and Woodville . On the day of the last census ( 27 March 2011 ) the combined population of these wards was 25 @,@ 093 Of this population : 15 @,@ 607 ( 62 @.@ 2 % ) were Catholic or from a Catholic background 8 @,@ 460 ( 33 @.@ 7 % ) were Protestant or from a Protestant background 1 @,@ 026 ( 4 @.@ 1 % ) were of other religious backgrounds or no religious background . The town is divided along political / sectarian lines with entire housing areas being almost exclusively Catholic / nationalist or almost exclusively Protestant / unionist . The north end of the town centre is considered Catholic , the south end is considered Protestant , with the " invisible dividing line " crossing Market Street at Castle Lane and Carnegie Street . In the 1980s there were two Protestant enclaves in the north end of the town , Gilpinstown and Wakehurst . They have both since changed to become Catholic areas as Protestants gradually moved out . = = Economy = = Lurgan has historically been an industrial town in which the linen industry predominated as a source of employment during the Industrial Revolution , and is said to have employed as many as 18 @,@ 000 handloom weavers at the end of the 19th century , a figure significantly higher than the town 's resident population at the time . That particular branch of the textile industry declined as consumer tastes changed , but other textiles continued to be produced in the town providing a major source of employment until the 1990s and 2000s when the textile industry across the UK suffered a major decline as a result of outsourcing to low wage countries . The large Goodyear fan @-@ belt factory at Silverwood Industrial Estate was a product of the Craigavon development when large tracts of land in Lurgan , Portadown , and areas in between were zoned off for exclusive industrial use . The Goodyear factory closed in 1983 after failing to make a profit , resulting in the loss of 750 jobs . The facility was later partly occupied by Wilson Double Deck Trailers and DDL Electronics . Silverwood Industrial Estate continues to host other manufacturing and light engineering firms . Other industrial areas in the town are Annesborough and Halfpenny Valley ( Portadown Road ) industrial estates ; areas in which growth has been limited compared to other industrial estates in the Craigavon Borough . A key component of the Craigavon development was a central business district halfway between Lurgan and Portadown that would serve as the city centre for the whole of the new city . What was built was an office building , a court house , a civic building , and a small shopping centre alongside several acres of parkland that were developed around the newly created balancing lakes that also serve as part of the area 's drainage system . In the 1690s , the shopping centre was significantly expanded to form what is now Rushmere Retail Park , containing many major retail stores . This has had a detrimental effect on the retail trade in Lurgan in the same way that out @-@ of @-@ town shopping developments in other parts of Northern Ireland have damaged other traditional town centres . The town 's Chamber of Commerce is not functioning and has remained dormant despite numerous attempts to revive it . = = Culture and community = = = = = Cultural references = = = There is a figure of speech used in Northern Ireland – to have a face as long as a Lurgan spade – meaning " to look miserable " . The origins of this expression are disputed . One theory is that a " Lurgan spade " was an under @-@ paid workman digging what is now the Lurgan Park lake . Another theory is that it could be from the Irish language lorga spád meaning the shaft ( literally " shin " ) of a spade . The ballad Master McGrath concerns a greyhound of that name from Lurgan which became an Irish sporting hero . The dog was bought in Lurgan by the Brownlow family , and the song also mentions his owner Charles Brownlow , referred to in the lyrics as Lord Lurgan . Master McGrath won the Waterloo Cup hare coursing competition three times in 1868 , 1870 and 1871 at a time when this was a high profile sport . A post mortem found that he had a heart twice the size of what is normal for a dog of his size . He is remembered all over the town , including in its coat of arms . The dog was named McGrath after the kennel boy responsible for its care . A statue of him was unveiled at Craigavon Civic Centre in 1993 , over 120 years after his last glory in 1871 . A festival is also held yearly in his honour . A Lurgan pub was also named after Master McGrath , although it has been renamed in recent years . = = = Community facilities = = = Oxford Island is a nature reserve on the shore of Lough Neagh that includes Kinnego Marina and the Lough Neagh Discovery Center , which is an interpretive visitor centre offering information about the surrounding wildlife , conference facilities , and a café . Lurgan Park , a few hundred yards from the main street , is the largest urban park in Northern Ireland and the second @-@ largest in Ireland after Phoenix Park , Dublin . It used to be part of the estate of Brownlow House , a 19th @-@ century Elizabethan @-@ style manor house . In 1893 , the land was purchased by Lurgan Borough Council and opened as a public park in 1909 by Earl Aberdeen , Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . It includes a sizeable artificial lake and an original Coalbrookdale fountain . Today the park is home to annual summer events such as the Lurgan Agricultural Show , and the Lurgan Park Rally , noted as the largest annual motor sport event in Northern Ireland and a stage in the Circuit of Ireland rally . Mount Zion House in Edward St , formerly the St Joseph 's Convent , is now a cross @-@ community centre run by the Shankill Lurgan Community Association / Community Projects . It is funded by the Department for Social Development , the EU Special Programme for Peace and Reconciliation , and the Physical and Social Environment Programme . = = Landmarks = = Lurgan town centre is distinctive for its wide main street , Market Street , one of the widest in Ireland , which is dominated at one end by Shankill Church in Church Place . A grey granite hexagonal temple @-@ shaped war memorial sits at the entrance to Church Place , topped by a bronze @-@ winged statue representing the spirit of Victorious Peace . A marble pillar at the centre displays the names of over 400 men from the town who lost their lives in the First World War . The rows of buildings on either side of Market Street are punctuated periodically by large access gates that lead to the space behind the buildings , gates that are wide enough to drive a horse and cart through . The town 's straight planned streets are a common feature in many Plantation towns , and its industrial history is still evident in the presence of many former linen mills that have since been modified for modern use . At the junction of Market Street and Union Street is the former Lurgan Town Hall , a listed building erected in 1868 . It was the first site of the town 's library in 1891 , was temporarily used as a police station in 1972 when it was handed to the Police Authority , and is today owned by the Mechanics ' Institute and is available for conferences and community functions . Brownlow House , known locally as ' Lurgan Castle ' , is a distinctive mansion built in 1833 with Scottish sandstone in an Elizabethan style with a lantern @-@ shaped tower and prominent array of chimney pots . It was originally owned by the Brownlow family , and today is owned by the Lurgan Loyal Orange District Lodge . The adjacent Lurgan Park , now a public park owned by Craigavon Borough Council , used to be part of the same estate . The park is the venue for the Lurgan Park Rally . = = = Religious sites = = = The site of what is now Shankill cemetery served as a place of worship over the centuries . It began in ancient times as a simple double ring fort , the outline of which is still noticeable , and is today an historic burial site holding the remains of people who lived in the earliest days of the town 's existence , including the Brownlow family . Dougher cemetery is another old graveyard that was donated to the Catholic people by the Brownlows following passage of the Catholic Relief Act . The two most prominent modern places of worship are Shankill Parish Church in Church Place and St Peter 's Church in North Street , the steeples of which are visible from far outside the town . Shankill Parish Church belongs to the Church of Ireland . The original church was established at Oxford Island on the shore of Lough Neagh in 1411 , but a new church was built in Lurgan on the site of what is now Shankill Cemetery in 1609 as the town became the main centre of settlement in the area . It was eventually found to be too small given the growth of the town , and the Irish Parliament granted permission to build a replacement in 1725 one mile away on the ' Green of Lurgan ' , now known as Church Place , where it stands to this day . It is believed to be the largest parish church in Ireland . Following passage of the Catholic Relief Act , Charles Brownlow granted a site to the Roman Catholic parish priest the Reverend William O 'Brien in 1829 for the construction of a church on Distillery Hill , now known as lower North Street . It was there that work began in 1832 on what is now St Peter 's Church . In 1966 , another Catholic church , St Paul 's , was built at the junction of Francis Street and Parkview Street . This was a radical departure from traditional church architecture with its grey plaster finish , copper roof , slim spire , hexagonal angles and modern design throughout . Many of its architectural features such as the copper roof and gray plaster finish are shared by the neighbouring St Paul 's School . It was designed to cope with the extra demand for worship space following the growth of the surrounding Taghnevan and Shankill housing estates . The Lurgan Museum houses one of the largest collections of items relating to Irish History in the North of Ireland . The Museum has many photographs and artefacts connected with Lurgan life over the past 150 years . It houses an extensive collection relating to the periods known as " The Troubles " , " Operation Harvest " 1956 @-@ 62 , and " The 1916 Easter Rising " . This collection also has a popular section covering the social history of the area . The first Methodist church was built in Nettleton 's Court , Queen Street in 1778 . It was found to be too small and a new church was built on High Street in 1802 , and replaced by a newer building in front of it in 1826 . This was extensively renovated in 1910 and stands to this day sporting a simple facade . = = Education = = It was the late 19th century that saw the development of formal education in Lurgan and a significant move away from the less organised hedge schools of before . Today , schools in Lurgan operate under the Dickson Plan , a transfer system in north Armagh that allows pupils at age 11 the option of taking the Eleven Plus exam to enter grammar schools , with pupils in comprehensive junior high schools being sorted into grammar and non @-@ grammar streams . Pupils can get promoted to or demoted from the grammar stream during their time in those schools depending on the development of their academic performance , and at age 14 can take subject @-@ based exams across the syllabus to qualify for entry into a dedicated grammar school to pursue GCSEs and A @-@ levels . As is common in Northern Ireland , most of the schools in Lurgan are attended mainly by children from one or other of the two main religious blocs reflecting the existence of deep @-@ seated sectarian and political divisions in society . Some schools are in the Catholic ' maintained ' sector , i.e. maintained by the Council for Catholic Maintained Schools , and others are controlled directly by the state . Directly @-@ controlled state schools generally have a predominantly Protestant intake . = = = Primary education = = = At primary level , schools attended by the Protestant / unionist community are Carrick Primary School , Dickson Primary School , and King 's Park Primary School . The Model School was part of the national schools programme proposed in 1831 in which each county in Ireland would have at least one school that would serve as an example to other national schools in the area and as a teacher training establishment ( although teacher training did not take place at this particular school ) . Initially it had a multi @-@ denominational intake , offered such services as night classes and industry @-@ relevant vocational courses , and was enthusiastically supported by William Brownlow who is thought to have brought the school to the town . It was undermined , however , by church interests , which were opposed to its lack of ecclesiastical control , and criticism of the efficiency of its management , hence losing much of its earlier prestige as the premier educational establishment in the town . Over the years , the intake of Catholic / nationalist students steadily increased , due mainly to being situated in the Catholic side of Lurgan . The student body is now almost 100 % Catholic , with the last recorded Protestant pupil having left the school in 1999 . Other Catholic primary schools are Carrick Primary School , Bunscoil Naomh Proinsias , St. Francis ' Primary School , St Teresa 's Primary School , St Anthony 's Primary School , Tannaghmore Primary School , and Tullygally Primary School . = = = Post @-@ primary education = = = At secondary level , schools attended by the Protestant community are Lurgan College , and Lurgan Junior High School ( formerly part of Lurgan College of Further Education ) . Lurgan College , now a co @-@ ed 14 – 18 grammar school , was established in 1873 as an all @-@ boys school to provide what was known as ' classical education ' as opposed to the more practical vocational education on offer at the Model School . Its initial charter included a provision that " no person being in Holy Orders , or a minister of any religious denomination shall at any time interfere in the management of the said school , or be appointed to serve as master " and that no religious instruction was to take place during school hours . Secondary schools attended by the Catholic / nationalist community were previously St Mary 's Junior High School , St Paul 's Junior High School , and St Michael 's Grammar School , which have emerged to become one school spanning the 3 sites , St Ronan 's College . St Mary 's Intermediate School was built on Kitchen Hill after land was acquired from the Sisters of Mercy in 1955 and was opened in 1959 as an all @-@ girls school . The nearby all @-@ boys St Paul 's Intermediate School was opened in 1962 , and both of these schools are now known as junior high schools . Pupils attend these schools from age 11 to 13 , at which time they have the option of transferring to St Michael 's if they qualify . Those who do not qualify may stay on at St Paul 's and St Mary 's until minimum school leaving age at 16 and where the option of taking GCSE exams is available . A significant number of people from Lurgan also attend the Catholic maintained Lismore Comprehensive School in Craigavon . Lurgan Technical College was renamed Lurgan College of Further Education , and subsequently merged with Portadown CFE and Banbridge CFE into the larger Upper Bann Institute of Further and Higher Education ( UBIFHE ) . Further education in the region was consolidated further when this institution was merged with other FE colleges in Armagh , Newry and Kilkeel to form the Southern Regional College . The Lurgan campus is one of the few educational institutions in the area with a mixed denominational intake . It offers vocational courses as an alternative to A @-@ Levels , and adult education services . = = = Special needs education = = = Ceara School provides education for pupils aged 3 through 19 who have severe learning difficulties . = = Sport and leisure = = = = = Facilities = = = Lurgan has a municipal swimming pool and leisure complex called Waves . This includes a swimming pool , squash courts , a gym , and offers such activities as pilates , circuit training , and spinning classes . Following a vote taken by Craigavon Borough Council on April 7 , 2010 , Waves is to be closed as will the Cascades Centre in Portadown , and both facilities are to be replaced by a large central swimming facility that will be built near the Craigavon balancing lakes . Lurgan has two 18 @-@ hole golf courses , an artificial ski slope and an equestrian centre for show jumping . = = = Clubs = = = Lurgan is home to the Association football clubs Glenavon F.C. , Dollingstown F.C. , Lurgan Celtic F.C. , and Lurgan Town F.C .. There are another thirteen clubs that play in the Mid Ulster Football Leagues . They are Derryhirk United , Hill Street , Lurgan Institute , Taghnevan Harps , Silverwood United , Tullygally , Lurgan BBOB , Lurgan United , Goodyear , Craigavon City , Lurgan Thistle , Celtic Club ( Lurgan No. 1 ) , Oxford Sunnyside F.C .. Loughgrove and Sheffield Thursday F.C. play in the Lonsdale league . Glenavon is the most prominent of these , playing in the IFA Premiership . The GAA has a large presence in the area with Gaelic football being played by clubs Clan na Gael CLG ( based at Páirc Mhic Daibhéid ) , Clann Éireann GAC ( Páirc Chlann Éireann ) , Éire Óg CLG ( Pine Bank , Craigavon ) , Sarsfields GAC ( Páirc an tAth . Dhónaill Mhig Eoghain , Derrytrasna ) , St Mary 's GAC ( Aghagallon ) , St Michael 's GAC ( Magheralin ) , St Paul 's GFC ( Na Páirceanna Imeartha ) , St Peter 's GAC ( Páirc Naomh Peadar ) and Wolfe Tone GAC , Derrymacash ( Páirc na Ropairí ) . Camogie is played by the St Enda 's club which shares the grounds of the Wolfe Tone club , and there is one hurling club in the town , Seán Treacy 's , which shares the grounds of Clann Éireann . Clann Éireann also has a handball club . All play in Armagh leagues and competitions except St Mary 's and St Michael 's ( Antrim ) . Cricket has two clubs , Lurgan Cricket Club and Victoria Cricket Club . Cycling is promoted by three clubs , Apollo CT , Clann Éireann CC , and Lurgan Road Club . Rugby union is played by Lurgan RFC . Tennis is played by Lurgan Tennis Club which is in Lurgan Park . Lurgan Golf Club is situated at The Demesne beside Lurgan Park and is an 18 hole challenging parkland course bordering on Lurgan lake . = = Railway links = = Lurgan railway station opened by the Ulster Railway on 18 November 1841 , connecting the town to Belfast Great Victoria Street in the east and Portadown and Armagh in the west . The Great Northern Railway of Ireland provided further access to the west of Ulster which was then closed in the 1950s and 1960s from Portadown railway station . Presently Lurgan railway station is run by Northern Ireland Railways with direct trains to Belfast Great Victoria Street and as part of the Dublin @-@ Belfast railway line . The Enterprise runs through Lurgan from Dublin Connolly to Belfast Central , and a change of train may be required at Portadown to travel to Newry or Dublin Connolly . Railway access at Sydenham links into George Best Belfast City Airport on the line to Bangor . = = Road transport and public services = = Lurgan is also situated by the M1 motorway connecting the town to Belfast . Bus services , provided by Translink , arrive and depart on a regular basis from bus stops on Market Street to Belfast , Portadown , Armagh , Dungannon , and surrounding areas . Electricity is supplied by Northern Ireland Electricity which was privatised in 1993 and is now a subsidiary of ESB Group . The gasworks used to be in North St. , but there is no longer any town gas since it was abolished in Northern Ireland in the 1980s by the Thatcher government for being uneconomical , although it was restored to the greater Belfast area in 1996 . Water is supplied by Northern Ireland Water , a public owned utility . = = Media = = Lurgan is served by two weekly local newspapers . The Lurgan Mail , published by Johnston Publishing ( NI ) , reports news and sport from around the local area . The Lurgan and Portadown Examiner also reports local news and sport with an emphasis on photographs of local people at sporting and social events . = = Notable people = = = = = Living people = = = Jocelyn Bell Burnell , Northern Irish astrophysicist , discovered the first radio pulsars . Barry Douglas , classical pianist and conductor , has residences in Paris and Lurgan . Jim Harvey , Lurgan @-@ born former professional footballer ; former assistant manager of the Northern Ireland football team , has also played for Glenavon , Arsenal and Tranmere Rovers . Neil Lennon , manager of Bolton Wanderers , former manager of Glasgow Celtic and former captain of the Northern Ireland football team and Glasgow Celtic . Stella McCusker ( born 1942 , Aghagallon ) won the Best Actress award at the 2010 Irish Theatre Awards . Gayle Williamson , Miss Northern Ireland 2002 ; and Miss United Kingdom 2002 = = = Deceased people = = = James Howard Calvert , born 4 May 1895 , lived at 41 Avenue Road Lurgan , Second Lieutenant , 6th Royal Irish Rifles , shot in the head and killed in April 1916 at the junction of Redmond 's Hill and Bishop Street Dublin during the Easter Rising Edward Costello , who took part in the Easter Rising in April 1916 , received a fatal bullet wound to the head on the 25th of April and died in Jervis Street Hospital , Dublin . John Cushnie was a broadcaster and panellist on the BBC radio 4 show Gardeners ' Question Time . He also presented the BBCNI TV show The Greenmount Garden . Tommy Donaldson was a specialist racing bicycle builder . His premises were in 92 Union Street Lurgan . Tommy built bicycles for many well known names in the sport of competitive cycling . He died in the early 1990s . Field Marshal Sir John Greer Dill ( 25 December 1881 – 4 November 1944 ) , a British commander in World War I and World War II and later a diplomat , was born in Lurgan in 1881 . William Frederick McFadzean ( October 9 , 1895 – July 1 , 1916 ) , died when he threw himself on a box of primed grenades prior to the Battle of the Somme and was awarded the Victoria Cross . Len Ganley MBE , a former world championship snooker referee , was a resident of the town . Billy Hanna ( c . 1929 – 27 July 1975 ) founder and first commander of the Ulster Volunteer Force 's Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade , was a native of Lurgan . He was shot dead outside his home in the Mourneview estate by members of his own organisation . Thomas Harte ( 14 May 1916 - 6 September 1940 ) was a member of the Irish Republican Army and participated in the failed " S @-@ Plan " campaign in Britain which lasted from 1939 - 1940 . He was executed in Dublin as part of a wider Dáil Éireann crackdown on IRA activity . Jim Haughey ( 12 December 1909 - 12 September 1943 ) joined the XV International Brigade as part of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 . He later moved to Canada , joining the Royal Canadian Air Force in World War II , and was killed when his plane crashed during a training exercise in Devon , England . Sammy Jones ( 11 June 1911 – 1993 ) , a former professional footballer who made over 100 appearances for Blackpool and received one cap for the Irish national team , was born in Lurgan in 1911 . James Logan ( October 20 , 1674 – October 31 , 1751 ) , was born in Lurgan . He became an American colonial statesman and scholar , secretary to his friend William Penn , and was noted as a jurist , political philosopher , and botanist . Margorie McCall was a local woman who was accidentally buried alive but revived by grave robbers in 1705 , and is today buried in the historic Shankill cemetery . Her gravestone reads " Lived once , buried twice " . Richard McGhee ( 1851 – 7 April 1930 ) was an Irish Protestant Nationalist home rule politician . A Land League and trade union activist , he was a Member of Parliament ( MP ) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland for more than 20 years . Rosemary Nelson ( 4 September 1958 – 15 March 1999 ) was a human rights solicitor killed by a loyalist car bomb in 1999 . Martin O 'Hagan , a journalist for The Sunday World newspaper , was murdered on the 28th of September 2001 in front of his wife near his own home in the town . The boxer Isaac O 'Neil Weir or " Ike " Weir ( February 5 , 1867 – 12 September 1908 ) , a featherweight champion of the world known as the " Belfast Spider " , was born in Castle Lane . He was also famous for being a champion jockey , trick shooter , acrobat , traditional Irish dancer , for turning somersaults as he entered the ring and in the ring itself , and for other crowd @-@ pleasing comedic antics during fights . He died in 1908 in Massachusetts . George William Russell ( April 10 , 1867 – July 17 , 1935 ) , who wrote under the pseudonym Æ , was an Anglo @-@ Irish supporter of the nationalist movement in Ireland . He was a critic , poet , painter , mystical writer , and was at the centre of a group of followers of theosophy in Dublin for many years . He was born in William Street , Lurgan . Philip Felix Smith ( 5 October 1825 – 16 January 1906 ) was born in North Lurgan and was a recipient of the Victoria Cross . His birth is recorded in the parish of Shankill at St. Peter 's RC Church . Norman Uprichard ( 20 April 1928 – 31 January 2011 ) was a goalkeeper who began his career playing Gaelic Football with St. Peter 's GAC . His decision to sign for Glenavon cost him a league medal under the GAA 's now @-@ defunct ' Rule 27 ' . He was finally awarded his medal by St. Peter 's in 2004 . He went on to play for Swindon Town , Portsmouth and Southend United at club level , and won 18 caps for Northern Ireland at international level . = = = Government = = = Craigavon Borough Council Lurgan Forward – Lurgan Town Centre Management Company . NI Statistics and Research Agency ( NISRA ) = = = Sport clubs = = = Glenavon FC Dollingstown FC Lurgan Celtic FC Lurgan Town Boys FC Lurgan Cricket Club Apollo Cycling Team Clann Eireann Cycling Club Clan na Gael CLG Clann Eireann GAC = = = Other links = = = Chisholm , Hugh , ed . ( 1911 ) . " Lurgan " . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press .
= Cirque du Soleil = Cirque du Soleil ( pronounced : [ siʁk dy sɔ.lɛj ] , " Circus of the Sun " ) is a Canadian entertainment company . It is the largest theatrical producer in the world . Based in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , and located in the inner @-@ city area of Saint @-@ Michel , it was founded in Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul in 1984 by two former street performers , Guy Laliberté and Gilles Ste @-@ Croix . Initially named Les Échassiers ( [ lez ‿ e.ʃa.sje ] , " The Waders " ) , they toured Quebec in 1980 as a performing troupe . Their initial financial hardship was relieved in 1983 by a government grant from the Canada Council for the Arts , as part of the 450th anniversary celebrations of Jacques Cartier 's voyage to Canada . Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil was a success in 1984 , and after securing a second year of funding , Laliberté hired Guy Caron from the National Circus School to re @-@ create it as a " proper circus " . Its theatrical , character @-@ driven approach and the absence of performing animals helped define Cirque du Soleil as the contemporary circus ( " nouveau cirque " ) that it remains today . Each show is a synthesis of circus styles from around the world , with its own central theme and storyline . Shows employ continuous live music , with performers rather than stagehands changing the props . After financial successes and failures in the late 1980s , Nouvelle Expérience was created – with the direction of Franco Dragone – which not only made Cirque du Soleil profitable by 1990 , but allowed it to create new shows . Cirque du Soleil expanded rapidly through the 1990s and 2000s , going from one show to 19 shows in over 271 cities on every continent except Antarctica . The shows employ approximately 4 @,@ 000 people from over 40 countries and generate an estimated annual revenue exceeding US $ 810 million . The multiple permanent Las Vegas shows alone play to more than 9 @,@ 000 people a night , 5 % of the city 's visitors , adding to the 90 million people who have experienced Cirque du Soleil 's shows worldwide . In 2000 , Laliberté bought out Gauthier , and with 95 % ownership , has continued to expand the brand . In 2008 , Laliberté split 20 % of his share equally between two investment groups Istithmar World and Nakheel of Dubai , in order to further finance the company 's goals . In partnership with these two groups , Cirque du Soleil had planned to build a residency show in the United Arab Emirates in 2012 directed by Guy Caron ( Dralion ) and Michael Curry . But since Dubai 's financial problems in 2010 caused by the 2008 recession , it was stated by Laliberté that the project has been " put on ice " for the time being and may be looking for another financial partner to bankroll the company 's future plans , even willing to give up another 10 % of his share . Several more shows are in development around the world , along with a television deal , women 's clothing line and the possible venture into other mediums such as spas , restaurants and nightclubs . Cirque du Soleil also produces a small number of private and corporate events each year ( past clients have been the royal family of Dubai and the 2007 Super Bowl ) . The company 's creations have received numerous prizes and distinctions , including a Bambi Award in 1997 , a Rose d 'Or in 1989 , three Drama Desk Awards in 1991 , 1998 and 2013 , three Gemini Awards , four Primetime Emmy Awards , and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . In 2000 , Cirque du Soleil was awarded the National Arts Centre Award , a companion award of the Governor General 's Performing Arts Awards . In 2002 , Cirque du Soleil was inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame . In 2015 , TPG Capital , Fosun Capital Group and Caisse de depot et placement du Quebec purchased 90 % of Cirque du Soleil . The sale received regulatory approval from the Government of Canada on 30 June 2015 . = = Origins = = At age 18 , interested in pursuing some kind of performing career , Guy Laliberté quit college and left home . He toured Europe as a folk musician and busker . By the time he returned home to Canada in 1979 , he had learned the art of fire breathing . Although he became " employed " at a hydroelectric power plant in James Bay , his job ended after only three days due to a labour strike . He decided not to look for another job , instead supporting himself on his unemployment insurance . He helped organize a summer fair in Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul with the help of a pair of friends named Daniel Gauthier and Gilles Ste @-@ Croix . Gauthier and Ste @-@ Croix were managing a youth hostel for performing artists named Le Balcon Vert at that time . By the summer of 1979 , Ste @-@ Croix had been developing the idea of turning the Balcon Vert , and the talented performers who lived there , into an organized performing troupe . As part of a publicity stunt to convince the Quebec government to help fund his production , Ste @-@ Croix walked the 56 miles ( 90 km ) from Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul to Quebec City on stilts . The ploy worked , giving the three men the money to create Les Échassiers de Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul . Employing many of the people who would later make up Cirque du Soleil , Les Échassiers toured Quebec during the summer of 1980 . Although well received by audiences and critics alike , Les Échassiers was a financial failure . Laliberté spent that winter in Hawaii plying his trade while Ste @-@ Croix stayed in Quebec to set up a nonprofit holding company named " The High @-@ Heeled Club " to mitigate the losses of the previous summer . In 1981 , they met with better results . By that fall , Les Échassiers de Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul had broken even . The success inspired Laliberté and Ste @-@ Croix to organize a summer fair in their hometown of Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul . This touring festival , called " La Fête Foraine " , first took place in July 1982 . La Fête Foraine featured workshops to teach the circus arts to the public , after which those who participated could take part in a performance . Ironically , the festival was barred from its own hosting town after complaints from local citizens . Laliberté managed and produced the fair over the next couple years , nurturing it into a moderate financial success . But it was in 1983 that the government of Quebec gave him a $ 1 @.@ 5 million grant to host a production the following year as part of Quebec 's 450th anniversary celebration of the French explorer Jacques Cartier 's discovery of Canada . Laliberté named his creation " Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil " . = = Shows = = The duration of each touring show was traditionally split into two acts of an hour each separated by a 30 @-@ minute interval ; however , as of 2014 , due to cost cutting issues , the shows have now been reduced to a shorter 55 @-@ minute first act followed by a 50 @-@ minute second act , still including a 30 @-@ minute interval . Permanent shows are usually 90 minutes in length without any intermission . This excludes Joyà ( the permanent show in Riviera Maya , Mexico ) , which is only 70 minutes in length . Typically touring shows as well as resident shows perform a standard 10 shows a week . Touring shows usually have one ' dark day ' ( with no performances ) while resident shows have two . = = = Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil = = = Originally intended to only be a one @-@ year project , Cirque du Soleil was scheduled to perform in 11 towns in Quebec over the course of 13 weeks running concurrent with the third La Fête Foraine . The first shows were riddled with difficulty , starting with the collapse of the big top after the increased weight of rainwater caused the central mast to snap . Working with a borrowed tent , Laliberté then had to contend with difficulties with the European performers . They were so unhappy with the Quebec circus 's inexperience that they had , at one point , sent a letter to the media complaining about how they were being treated . The problems were only transient , however , and by the time 1984 had come to a close , Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil was a success . Having only $ 60 @,@ 000 left in the bank , Laliberté went back to the Canadian government to secure funding for a second year . While the Canadian federal government was enthusiastic , the Quebec provincial government was resistant to the idea . It was not until Quebec 's premier , René Lévesque , intervened on their behalf that the provincial government relented . The original big top tent that was used during the 1984 Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil tour can now be seen at Carnivàle Lune Bleue , a 1930s @-@ style carnival that is home to the Cirque Maroc acrobats . = = = La Magie Continue = = = After securing funding from the Canadian government for a second year , Laliberté took steps to renovate Cirque du Soleil from a group of street performers into a " proper circus " . To accomplish this he hired the head of the National Circus School , Guy Caron , as Cirque du Soleil 's artistic director . The influences that Laliberté and Caron had in reshaping their circus were extensive . They wanted strong emotional music that was played from beginning to end by musicians . They wanted to emulate the Moscow Circus ' method of having the acts tell a story . Performers , rather than a technical crew , move equipment and props on and off stage so that it did not disrupt the momentum of the " storyline " . Most importantly , their vision was to create a circus with neither a ring nor animals . The rationale was that the lack of both of these things draws the audience more into the performance . To help design the next major show , Laliberté and Caron hired Franco Dragone , another instructor from the National Circus School who had been working in Belgium . When he joined the troupe in 1985 , he brought with him his experience in commedia dell 'arte techniques , which he imparted to the performers . Although his experience would be limited in the next show due to budget restraints , he would go on to direct every show up to , but not including Dralion . By 1986 , the company was once again in serious financial trouble . During 1985 they had taken the show outside Quebec to a lukewarm response . In Toronto they performed in front of a 25 % capacity crowd after not having enough money to properly market the show . Gilles Ste @-@ Croix , dressed in a monkey suit , walked through downtown Toronto as a desperate publicity stunt . A later stop in Niagara Falls turned out to be equally problematic . Several factors prevented the company from going bankrupt that year . The Desjardins Group , which was Cirque du Soleil 's financial institution at the time , covered about $ 200 @,@ 000 of bad checks . Also , a financier named Daniel Lamarre , who worked for one of the largest public relations firms in Quebec , represented the company for free , knowing that they didn 't have the money to pay his fee . The Quebec government itself also came through again , granting Laliberté enough money to stay solvent for another year . = = = Le Cirque Réinventé = = = In 1987 , after Laliberté re @-@ privatized Cirque du Soleil , it was invited to perform at the Los Angeles Arts Festival . Although they continued to be plagued by financial difficulties , Normand Latourelle took the gamble and went to Los Angeles , despite only having enough money to make a one @-@ way trip . Had the show been a failure , the company would not have had enough money to get their performers and equipment back to Montreal . The festival turned out to be a huge success , both critically and financially . The show attracted the attention of entertainment executives , including Columbia Pictures , which met with Laliberté and Gauthier under the pretense of wanting to make a movie about Cirque du Soleil . Laliberté was unhappy with the deal , claiming that it gave too many rights to Columbia , which was attempting to secure all rights to the production . Laliberté pulled out of the deal before it could be concluded , and that experience stands out as a key reason why Cirque du Soleil remains independent and privately owned today . In 1988 , Guy Caron left the company due to artistic differences over what to do with the money generated by Cirque du Soleil 's first financially successful tour . Laliberté wanted to use it to expand and start a second show while Caron wanted the money to be saved , with a portion going back to the National Circus School . An agreement was never met and Caron , along with a large number of artists loyal to him , departed . This stalled plans that year to start a new touring show . Laliberté sought out Gilles Ste @-@ Croix as replacement for the artistic director position . Ste @-@ Croix , who had been away from the company since 1985 , agreed to return . The company went through more internal troubles , including a failed attempt to add Normand Latourelle as a third man to the partnership . This triumvirate lasted only six months before internal disagreements prompted Gauthier and Laliberté to buy out Latourelle . By the end of 1989 , Cirque du Soleil was once again in a deficit . = = = Fascination = = = With Saltimbanco finished and touring in the United States and Canada , Cirque du Soleil toured Japan in the summer of 1992 at the behest of the Fuji Television Network . Taking acts from Nouvelle Expérience and Cirque Réinventé , they created a show for this tour , titled Fascination . Although Fascination was never seen outside Japan , it represented the first time that Cirque du Soleil had produced a show that took place in an arena rather than a big top . It was also the first that Cirque du Soleil performed outside of North America . = = = Knie Presents Cirque du Soleil = = = Also in 1992 , Cirque du Soleil made its first collaboration with Switzerland 's Circus Knie in a production named Knie Presents Cirque du Soleil that toured for nine months from 20 March to 29 November 1992 through 60 cities in Switzerland , opening in Rapperswil and closing in Bellinzona . The production merged Circus Knie 's animal acts with Cirque du Soleil 's acrobatic acts . The stage resembled that of Cirque du Soleil 's previous shows La Magie Continue and Le Cirque Reinventé , but was modified to accommodate Circus Knie 's animals . The show also featured acts seen previously in Le Cirque Reinventé , including : The prologue Les Pingouins ( Korean plank ) Slack wire Tower on Wheels Trick cycling = = = Other shows = = = = = = Future productions = = = Luna Petunia : It was announced on 11 October 2014 that in partnership with Saban Brands , Cirque du Soleil Media would produce an animated children 's ( pre @-@ school aged ) series called Luna Petunia and the showrunner was announced as children 's TV writer Bradley Zweig . The plot revolves around a little girl who plays in a dreamland where she learns how to make the impossible possible . It will be shown on Netflix around September – November 2016 . The Wiz : In a collaboration with NBC , Cirque du Soleil will help produce both a live @-@ television broadcast and Broadway revival of The Wiz . The broadcast will premiere December 2015 on NBC , the revival following soon after in the 2016 @-@ 2017 season . Tony Award @-@ winning director Kenny Leon will direct both productions with Broadway writer / actor Harvey Fierstein , who will be contributing new material to the original Broadway book . Queen Latifah , Mary J. Blige , Stephanie Mills , Ne @-@ Yo , David Alan Grier , Common , Elijah Kelley , Amber Riley , and Uzo Aduba and newcomer Shanice Williams are set to star . Additional casting and creative team announcements will be made later . Cirque du Soleil - Soda Stereo : In partnership with Argentine promoters PopArt and Triple , Cirque du Soleil is producing a new touring show based on the rock band Soda Stereo , which will premiere in May 2017 in Buenos Aires before touring Latin America ( including Chile , Mexico , Peru and Colombia ) , Miami , Los Angeles and other US cities . The show will also coincide with the release of a soundtrack album , created by surviving Soda Stereo members Zeta Bosio and Charly Alberti , and some producers who have worked with the band . It wil be directed by Michel Laprise and the director of creation will be Chantal Tremblay . Cirque 2017 : On 5 December 2015 , Cirque du Soleil posted numerous job openings on their website for a new production nicknamed " Cirque 2017 " . Hanzhou 2018 : On 15 June 2015 at the Shanghai International Film Festival , Cirque du Soleil announced their plans to develop a permanent show in the Xintiandi commercial complex in Hangzhou , China . The theater will seat 1400 spectators and Cirque du Soleil 's chief executive Daniel Lamarre has said that the show will have a “ local flavor ” but still be a “ Cirque show ” . It is scheduled to open in early 2018 with the development of the theatre on the site of an old warehouse of an old rail yard area currently underway . Cirque du Soleil Theme Park : On 12 November 2014 , Cirque du Soleil , Grupo Vidanta , and Goddard Group announced plans for a theme park in Nuevo Vallarta , Mexico . The plans call for at least two lands , the Village of the Sun and the Village of the Moon , as well as an outdoor evening show accommodating as many as 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 spectators , and may include a water park and nature park elements . It is due to open some time in 2018 . Dubai 2018 : On 10 November 2015 , Cirque du Soleil posted a job opening on their website for a new production nicknamed " Dubai 2018 " . A production had been originally scheduled to premiere in Dubai in 2011 , but due to financial instability that hit Cirque du Soleil around that time ( including their Middle Eastern investors Nakheel and Istithmar World pulling out of their partnership ) , they had postponed the show . The 2011 show was meant to be directed by Guy Caron ( director of Dralion and Kà ) and Michael Curry ( who specialises in puppetry / props ) , and was to be housed in a custom @-@ built theatre that would seat 1 @,@ 800 people on Palm Jumeirah ( one of three man @-@ made , palm @-@ shaped islands in Dubai ) . It is unclear whether these plans remain in place for the 2018 show . = = Other works = = = = = Projects = = = Cirque du Monde : a social action project designed to reach marginalized youth . Jukari Fit to Fly : A fitness program promoted cooperatively with Reebok . Safewalls : An artistic project curated by Cirque du Soleil that is bringing time @-@ honoured circus posters into the 21st century by pairing up with renowned international street art and lowbrow artists . Cultural Action Art Exhibitions : As part of its Cultural Action programs , Cirque du Soleil offers artists the opportunity to exhibit at its Montreal Headquarters and at its Las Vegas offices . Artists who have participated include : France Jodoin , Dominique Fortin @-@ Mues , Laurent Craste and Dominic Besner . Desigual inspired by Cirque du Soleil : Cirque du Soleil partnered with Desigual fashion design in 2011 to develop a collection of clothing and accessories , which was made available at Desigual stores and Cirque du Soleil show boutiques . Movi.Kanti.Revo : In association with Google , Cirque du Soleil released a Google Chrome extension in 2012 , meant to bring some of Cirque du Soleil 's imagination to the browser . = = = Special events = = = In April 2015 , Cirque du Soleil 's Special Events division , which had been responsible for coordinating various public and private events , formed a separate company called 45 Degrees . Led by Yasmine Khalil , the new company has continued to produce special events for Cirque du Soleil while expanding to offer creative content outside Cirque du Soleil as well . = = = Lounges and nightclubs = = = As of October 2015 , Cirque du Soleil renounced its intention to be involved in Las Vegas nightclubs and has since dissociated itself from all lounges and clubs listed below . These lounges are no longer affiliated with Cirque du Soleil . Revolution is a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 500 m2 ) lounge concept designed for The Mirage resort in Las Vegas , in which cast members perform to the music of The Beatles . Cirque du Soleil drew inspiration from the Beatles ' lyrics to design some of the lounge 's features . For instance , the ceiling is decorated with 30 @,@ 000 dichroic crystals , representing " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " . The VIP tables use infrared technology that allows guests to create artwork , which is then projected onto amorphic columns . Cirque du Soleil 's second lounge was the Gold Lounge , which is located in the Aria Resort and Casino in Las Vegas and is 3 @,@ 756 square feet ( 349 m2 ) . The design is reminiscent of Elvis ' mansion , Graceland , and black and gold are utilized extensively throughout the décor . The bar has the same shape as the bar in the Elvis mansion as well . The music played here changes throughout the night , including upbeat classic rock , commercial house music , upbeat Elvis remixes , minimal hip hop , Top 40 , and pop . In May 2013 The Light Group opened the Light nightclub in collaboration with Cirque du Soleil at the Mandalay Bay Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas , costing $ 25 million . Light was the first time Cirque du Soleil worked as part of a nightclub . Among other features the club has a large wall of LED screens , and the room is illuminated with fog , lasers and strobes . DJs at the events include charting artists such as Kaskade and Tiesto , with prices ranging from $ 30 to $ 10 @,@ 000 for certain table placements . = = = Diversification = = = In October 2011 , Cirque du Soleil was reported to be interested in purchasing Maison Alcan , as part of a diversification strategy . = = Grand chapiteau tours = = Cirque du Soleil shows normally tour under a grand chapiteau ( i.e. big top ) for an extended period of time until they are modified , if necessary , for touring in arenas and other venues . The company 's grands chapiteaux are easily recognizable by their blue and yellow coloring . The infrastructure that tours with each show could easily be called a mobile village ; it includes the Grand Chapiteau , a large entrance tent , artistic tent , kitchen , school , and other items necessary to support the cast and crew . The company 's tours have significant financial impacts on the cities they visit by renting lots for shows , parking spaces , selling and buying promotions , and contributing to the local economy with hotel stays , purchasing food , and hiring local help . For example , during its stay in Santa Monica , California , Koozå brought an estimated US $ 16 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 18 @,@ 419 @,@ 994 in 2015 ) to the city government and local businesses . = = = Site = = = The site takes around eight days to construct and three days to pack up . Anywhere from 50 – 75 large tractor @-@ trailer containers are necessary to transport the vast amount of equipment . Totem , for example , requires 65 such containers to transport 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 180 long tons ; 1 @,@ 320 short tons ) . Five generators are used to provide electricity to the site . = = = Grand chapiteau = = = Totem 's canvas tent is constructed by Les Voileries du Sud @-@ Ouest and weighs approximately 5 @,@ 227 @.@ 3 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 524 lb ) . The tent is 19 metres high ( 62 ft ) and is 51 metres ( 167 ft ) in diameter . A single performance can seat more than 2 @,@ 600 spectators . = = = Other tents = = = The Entrance Tent holds the concessions and merchandise . The Tapis Rouge is for VIP guests ( up to 250 ) and is also available for private functions . The Artistic Tent for the performers houses the wardrobe area , a fully equipped training area , and a physiotherapy room . = = = Kitchen = = = Used as the primary commons area , the kitchen serves 200 – 250 meals a day ( 6 days a week ) . = = Discography = = = = Filmography = = Cirque du Soleil Images creates original products for television , video and DVD and distributes its productions worldwide . Its creations have been awarded numerous prizes and distinctions , including two Gemini Awards and a Primetime Emmy Award for Cirque du Soleil : Fire Within ( in 2003 ) and three Primetime Emmy Awards for Dralion ( in 2001 ) . = = Legal issues = = = = = Suspension of artist due to HIV = = = In November 2003 , a US federal discrimination complaint was filed against Cirque du Soleil by Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund on behalf of gymnast Matthew Cusick . The allegation was that in April 2002 , they fired Cusick because he tested HIV positive . Cusick had not yet performed , but had completed his training and was scheduled to begin working at Mystère just a few days after he was terminated . Even though company doctors had already cleared him as healthy enough to perform , Cirque du Soleil alleged that due to the nature of Cusick 's disease coupled with his job 's high risk of injury , there was a significant risk of his infecting other performers , crew or audience members . Cirque du Soleil said that they had several HIV @-@ positive employees , but in the case of Cusick , the risk of him spreading his infection while performing was too high to take the risk . A boycott ensued and Just Out ran a story on it with the headline " Flipping off the Cirque " . An additional complaint was filed on Cusick 's behalf by the San Francisco Human Rights Commission . Their complaint stemmed from the issue that the City of San Francisco bans contracts ( or in this case land leases ) to discriminatory employers . Although Cirque du Soleil 's position remains that this was a safety issue , not a discrimination issue , they settled with Cusick on 22 April 2004 . The terms of the settlement include that the company would initiate a companywide anti @-@ discrimination training program and alter its employment practices pertaining to HIV @-@ positive applicants . In addition , Matthew Cusick received $ 60 @,@ 000 in lost wages , $ 200 @,@ 000 in front pay , $ 300 @,@ 000 in compensatory damages and Lambda Legal received $ 40 @,@ 000 in attorney fees . = = = Naming Rights = = = Cirque du Soleil opposed Neil Goldberg and his company Cirque Productions over its use of the word " Cirque " in the late 1990s . Goldberg 's company was awarded a trademark on its name " Cirque Dreams " in 2005 . In August 1999 , Fremonster Theatrical filed an application for the trademark Cirque de Flambé . This application was opposed by the owners of the Cirque du Soleil trademark in August 2002 , on the grounds that it would cause confusion and " [ dilute ] the distinctive quality " of Cirque du Soleil 's trademarks . A judge dismissed the opposition and the Cirque de Flambé trademark application was approved in 2005 . = = = Justin Timberlake plagiarism accusations = = = On 2 April 2016 , it was revealed that Cirque du Soleil was suing Justin Timberlake , the co @-@ authors and producers of the song ' Don 't Hold the Wall ' $ 800 @,@ 000 USD over copyright infringements with their song ' Steel Dreams ' from Quidam . The song from Timberlake 's ' 20 / 20 ' album ( released in 2013 ) has a section of melody as well as instrumentation ( between 4 : 03 to 4 : 20 in the song ) which bears heavy resemblance to the opening of Steel Dreams , which prompted the claims from Cirque that ' Don 't Hold the Wall ' includes " unauthorised use of the musical composition and sound recording " . = = = HB2 Laws in North Carolina = = = On April 15 , Cirque du Soleil announced the cancellation of all their 2016 touring shows to North Carolina citing the recent signing of the Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act by North Carolina governor Pat McCrory . This cancelations effected OVO in both Greensboro and Charlotte and of Toruk in Raleigh . The company announced in a press release that " Cirque du Soleil strongly believes in diversity and equality for every individual and is opposed to discrimination in any form . The new HB2 legislation passed in North Carolina is an important regression to ensuring human rights for all . " Cirque has been criticized for this decision and accused of taking a double standard , for cancelling the shows in North Carolina while many times they have performed their shows in countries like the United Arab Emirates which violates a number of fundamental human rights . = = Fatalities = = In 2009 , Oleksandr Zhurov , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old from Ukraine , fell off a trampoline while training at one of the company 's Montreal facilities . He died from head injuries sustained in the accident . The first death during a performance occurred on June 29 , 2013 . Acrobat Sarah Guyard @-@ Guillot , from Paris , France , was killed after she fell ninety feet into an open pit at the MGM Grand during the Kà show . After the fall , everyone on the stage looked " visually scared and frightened " . Then the audience could hear her groans and screams from the floor .
= Superstar ( Madonna song ) = " Superstar " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna from her twelfth studio album MDNA ( 2012 ) . It was released on December 3 , 2012 , in Brazil only as a special edition free CD with Brazilian newspaper Folha de S.Paulo. The song was written and produced by Madonna , Hardy " Indigo " Muanza and Michael Malih and is a dance @-@ pop track , which has electronic and pop influences . Instrumentation featured in " Superstar " includes guitars and drum machines . Lyrically , Madonna compares her boyfriend with famous men , such as John Travolta , Abraham Lincoln , Al Capone , among others and claims to be his " biggest fan " . The accompanying artwork for the single was created by Brazilian graffiti artist Simone Sapienza , who won a contest sponsored by Johnnie Walker 's Keep Walking Project in Brazil . She was chosen by Madonna from ten finalists of the contest . " Superstar " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , most of whom felt it would be a potential single and praised the production , while others dismissed the lyrical content . A music video for the track was shot , however it was controversial since Madonna wanted to dress as a " Terror Bride " , a combination of an Iraqi bridal veil and a US soldier 's uniform . Subsequently , the video was never released . " Superstar " was used in a television campaign for US TV channel Bravo , supporting its " Summer by Bravo " promotion including stars from its original programming . = = Background and composition = = " Superstar " was written and produced by Madonna , Hardy " Indigo " Muanza and Michael Malih and was recorded at MSR Studios in New York City . After the completion of MDNA , critics around the world were invited to Abbey Road Studios for an initial review of the album . Many critics noted that Madonna 's daughter Lourdes ' vocals appeared in " Superstar " , which was subsequently confirmed by the singer herself . When Madonna was talking to The Sun about her daughter 's collaboration , she said : " [ Lola ] just came over to the studio that day . Then I said , ' Oh , can you sing this part ? ' and she agreed to . " Further explanation about Lourdes ' singing on the track was given : She has a very good voice . She 's quite shy about it and won 't admit it . Lots of people are knocking on my door to meet her about everything , movies , what @-@ not . But she 's not really interested in any of it . She just wants to go to school . She says to me , ' Mum , I just want to be a normal kid . I 'm not ready for any of that . ' I respect that , and if she ever wants to work with me on any level , I welcome it . But otherwise , I leave her to homework and school . Musically , " Superstar " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song , that features influences of electronic and pop music . The track was mixed by Demacio ' Demo ' Castellon for The Demolition Crew , and recorded by Angie Teo . Editing for the track was completed by Stephen ' The Koz ' Kozmeniuk for The Demolition Crew . The song makes references to historical figures including Marlon Brando , James Dean , Al Capone , Bruce Lee , Julius Caesar , Abraham Lincoln and John Travolta . Billboard 's Keith Caulfied noted dubstep influences during the bridge , and like other songs on MDNA , " Superstar " takes time to change the composition into a fast @-@ paced track . According to Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph , the composition features a " shimmering ambiance built up from a ringing guitar loop and echoing tom @-@ tom pattern that might have been constructed from Beatles ' drum fills . " Along with the looping music , the lyrics are simple and obtuse in nature , which McCormick believed was done deliberately like " You can have the password to my phone / I 'll give you a massage when you get home " . There are also references to her older songs like " Into the Groove " ( 1985 ) with the line , " You 're Travolta getting into your groove " . = = Artwork and release = = The accompanying artwork for " Superstar " was created by Brazilian graffiti artist Simone Sapienza , known as Siss . It was directed by Binho Ribeiro and Giovanni Bianco . On the cover Madonna wears a shorts with a whip , while a phrase reads ; " The shorts says : ' let 's have dinner ! ' . The whip says , ' but you must pay for ' " . A contest sponsored by Keep Walking Brazil project selected 30 proposed covers , and Sapienza was chosen by Madonna after being among the ten finalists . The creator said she did not know she was participating in a cover contest and explained , " My work is connected to the status of women . I like strong women , who work hard for what they think is right . " " Superstar " was released as a promotional single in Brazil on December 3 , 2012 . Readers of Brazilian newspaper Folha de S.Paulo received a free copy of the single together with their newspaper . The single features the original album version along with a remixed version by DJ Eddie Amador . The song was also used in a television campaign for US TV channel Bravo , supporting its " Summer by Bravo " promotion including stars from its original programming . = = Critical reception = = " Superstar " received generally mixed to favorable reviews from music critics . Becky Bain from Idolator called it a " sweet love song " and compared it as the sweeter , more simplified version of " Ray of Light " . Andy Gill from The Independent stated the song was an " obvious hit single " and compared the song to her 1990 release , " Vogue " . MuuMuse 's Bradley Stern complimented " the sugary @-@ sweet , instantly summer @-@ friendly " nature of the song , while Alexis Petridis from The Guardian described the composition of the track as " saccharine " . Dean Piper from the Daily Mirror felt the song was not one he was " immediately keen on – but the one that 's in my head . It 's lyrically very simple [ ... ] It 's a little rockier than the others and more conventional . " Sharing the same view , The Sun 's Gordon Smart called the song a " stand @-@ out " on MDNA . Priya Elan from NME was very positive towards the song , and described it , along with " Girl Gone Wild " , as " accomplishments " and " sound better than they have any right to . " While reviewing the album , Robert Copsey from Digital Spy noted that " Superstar " was the most " relaxed [ sounding ] song " compared to the rest of the track which he described as kind of " in @-@ yer @-@ face . " Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph described the song as " sweet and summery " . Writing for Popjustice , Brad O 'Mance rated the song 9 out of 10 and explained in detail : The lyrical reference points in [ ' Superstar ' ] are all quite interesting — if you consider the youth @-@ obsessed reference collaborators of the first two singles and how uncomfortable it all feels . ' Superstar ' offers a glimpse of something far more comfortable in its own skin . All the reference points will mean very little to your average 17 @-@ year @-@ old . We suppose the idea is that they 're icons whose imagery transcends generations blah blah blah but after all the aggressive positioning of the first two singles it 's great to hear Madonna relaxing into this sort of song . The lyrics about being in love are a bit soppy but love makes you go a bit soppy sometimes . Michael Roffman from Consequence of Sound was more critical towards the lyrical content , describing the song itself as " infantile " and her lyrics like they were " stripped from a fifth grader 's notebook at the history fair . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani gave it a mixed review , calling its lyrical content a " faux pas " . Another mixed reception came from writers of Virgin Media , who awarded it three stars out of five , and called it a " passable slice of electro @-@ hued chart @-@ pop . " Enio Chiola from PopMatters gave it a poor review for its lyrical content by calling it " badly written " , but stated that songs like " ' Superstar ' and ' Masterpiece ' indicates that Madonna isn 't just a blubbering mess of bitterness . " In his review of MDNA for Pitchfork Media , Matthew Perpetua said that the track , along with " B @-@ Day Song " from the album , are " mesmerizingly dumb lyrics " and are as " spiteful trolling rather than vapid pandering . " Gigwise listed the lyrics as one of the most embarrassing moments on MDNA . = = Music video = = Although no music video was officially confirmed or produced , media outlets reported that a music video for " Superstar " was to be shot in October 2012 . Madonna wanted to dress as a " Terror Bride " , which is a combination of an Iraqi bridal veil and a US soldier 's uniform . The dress was to be portrayed as a statement for oppression against women and warfare . However , the singer 's advisers talked her out of wearing the costume because they thought it would " put her life at risk " . Sources then stated " [ Madonna ] had the outfit ready to go . She was really proud of it and said it was her ' Terror Bride ' costume [ ... ] At first , when people started telling her it was madness , she just brushed it off , but when they mentioned that her actions could put her life at risk , she decided to ditch it from her video and certainly won 't be wearing it on stage . " Madonna said she was " really disappointed " about not wearing the outfit , but had put aside the idea for a future use . = = Track listing = = Keep Walking Brazil Special Edition CD single " Superstar " – 3 : 55 " Superstar " ( Eddie Amador Remix ) – 6 : 18 = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the MDNA album liner notes . Madonna – vocals , songwriter , producer Hardy " Indigo " Muanza – songwriter , producer Michael Malih – songwriter , producer Demacio ' Demo ' Castellon – audio mixing for The Demolition Crew Angie Teo – recording at MSR Studios , New York City Stephen ' The Koz ' Kozmeniuk – music editing for The Demolition Crew Lourdes " Lola " Leon – background vocals = = Charts = = After the release of MDNA , " Superstar " debuted at number 150 on the South Korea International Downloads chart , with a total of 174 @,@ 917 streams and digital downloads . = = Release history = =
= Cyclone Elita = Cyclone Elita was an unusual tropical cyclone that made landfall on Madagascar three times . The fifth named storm of the 2003 – 04 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Elita developed in the Mozambique Channel on January 24 , 2004 . It strengthened to become a tropical cyclone before striking northwestern Madagascar on January 28 . Elita weakened to tropical depression status while crossing the island , and after exiting into the southwest Indian Ocean , it turned to the west and moved ashore in eastern Madagascar on January 31 . After once again crossing the island , the cyclone reached the Mozambique Channel and re @-@ intensified . Elita turned to the southeast to make its final landfall on February 3 along southwestern Madagascar . Two days later , it underwent an extratropical transition ; the remnant system moved erratically before dissipating on February 13 . Elita dropped heavy rainfall of more than 200 mm ( 8 inches ) , which damaged or destroyed thousands of houses in Madagascar . Over 50 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , primarily in Mahajanga and Toliara provinces . Flooding from the storm ruined more than 450 km ² ( 170 sq mi ) of agricultural land , including important crops for food . Across the island , the cyclone caused 33 deaths , with its impact further compounded by Cyclone Gafilo about two months later . Elsewhere , Elita brought rainfall and damage to Mozambique and Malawi , and its outer wind circulation produced rough seas and strong gusts in Seychelles , Mauritius , and Réunion . = = Meteorological history = = An area of thunderstorms developed in the Mozambique Channel on January 25 , 2004 , about 95 km ( 60 mi ) west of Madagascar . Deep convection developed and organized around a mid- to low @-@ level circulation , and at 0600 UTC on January 26 , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) classified the system as Tropical Disturbance 06 , about 105 km ( 65 mi ) west of Maintirano , Madagascar . Six hours later , it was upgraded to Tropical Depression 06 , and later that day the depression was named Elita . At the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing advisories on the cyclone . Strengthening at first was slow , due to moderate wind shear limiting the convection to the northern portion of the cyclone . Initially , the storm tracked in an unusual northward motion toward the equator , which was caused by a ridge to its west . Early on January 27 , Elita was upgraded to a moderate tropical storm , though later that day it weakened to tropical depression status . However , it quickly re @-@ attained tropical storm status early on January 28 , with convection increasing further . Elita turned east @-@ southeastward due to a ridge to its north , quickly intensifying as it approached land and developing a well @-@ defined eye on visible satellite imagery . It intensified to tropical cyclone status , or the equivalence of a minimal hurricane , at 1200 UTC on January 28 . Three hours later , Elita made landfall on Bombetoka Bay in northwestern Madagascar with wind gusts of over 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . The storm rapidly weakened to tropical depression status over land , though as it crossed the island convection re @-@ developed over the waters east of Madagascar . Elita reached the southwest Indian Ocean by January 30 , and its convection quickly organized into rainbands . It drifted southward a short distance offshore , slowly intensifying before attaining tropical storm status at 0000 UTC on January 31 . About six hours later , after turning to the west , Elita moved ashore near Mananjary with winds of about 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , as reported by MFR . The cyclone quickly weakened to tropical depression status as it tracked westward across Madagascar , and late on January 31 it emerged into the Mozambique Channel . Deep convection increased as it reached open waters , with outflow improving . A strengthening ridge to its north caused Elita to decelerate before turning to the east @-@ southeast . Late on February 2 , the JTWC assessed Elita with peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 km / h ) , and shortly thereafter MFR reported the cyclone as attaining peak winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Early on February 3 , Elita moved ashore near Morondava at peak intensity . Weakening rapidly while crossing the island for a third time , the cyclone emerged into the southwest Indian Ocean as a tropical depression by 0000 UTC on February 4 . Despite initial forecasts of re @-@ intensification , Elita accelerated southeastward and lost its remaining convection , leaving its center exposed under the influence of a strong upper @-@ level trough . By February 5 , it had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , and its motion had halted due to weak steering currents . For about a week , the remnants of Elita meandered to the southeast of Madagascar before dissipating on February 13 . Elita 's crossing of Madagascar three times is unusual , but not unprecedented ; Severe Tropical Storm Felicia in January 1970 and Storm Justine in March 1982 accomplished the same feat . = = Impact = = The Mozambique National Institute of Meteorology advised people living in Nampula , Zambezia , Sofala , and Inhambane Provinces to make preparations for strong winds and rainfall . In Nampula province , over 2000 buildings were destroyed . The most severe damage was to generally poorly built houses in Memba , Nacala @-@ a @-@ Velha , Mogincual , and Nampula city . In the latter city , an Islamic school was badly damaged , and in Nacla @-@ a @-@ Velha survivors had to spend the night of January 29 in the open . All in all , Elita impacted four provinces of Mozambique . Much of the impact was along the coast from Inhambane to Nampula . The inflow of the storm brought moisture from the Intertropical Convergence Zone through Malawi , which produced heavy rainfall of over 150 mm ( 6 in ) ; the rainfall destroyed more than 80 houses and a clinic in Karonga district . The storm brought rough seas , gusty winds , and some precipitation to the southwestern islands in Seychelles . Upon making its first landfall on Madagascar , Elita dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 715 mm ( 28 @.@ 1 in ) including a 24 ‑ hour total of 222 mm ( 8 @.@ 74 in ) in Antsohihy . Wind gusts reached over 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) in Mahajanga . The passage of the cyclone left 5 @,@ 000 people homeless in the vicinity of its first landfall , with 90 percent of the buildings in northwestern Mahajanga Province damaged by the storm . At least two people were killed in the region . Throughout the country , Cyclone Elita destroyed or severely damaged 12 @,@ 408 homes , which left 55 @,@ 983 people homeless , primarily in Mahajanga and Toliara . This forced around 7 @,@ 000 people to seek shelter in either stadiums or in the remaining standing buildings . Additionally , a total of 510 schools and hospitals received major damage . The cyclone affected five of the six provinces of Madagascar , with roads and power being severely disrupted in some areas ; at least 39 bridges were damaged or destroyed . The cities of Maintirano and Soavinandriana were both severely damaged . In Midongy Atismo , heavy rainfall flooded 80 % of the town 's rice crop , and the corn and manioc crops were both similarly affected . These represent the staple foods of the population , and across the nation the storm damaged more than 450 km2 ( 170 sq mi ) of agricultural land . Throughout Madagascar , the cyclone killed at least 33 people and injured 129 others . The extratropical remnants of Elita produced rough seas and strong winds on Mauritius and Réunion island , which caused one ship to sink . = = Aftermath = = On February 13 , 2004 , officials in Madagascar issued an appeal for international aid . By a month after the storm , the governments of France , the United States , Germany , and Japan sent a total of $ 287 @,@ 000 ( 2004 USD ) in assistance . The government of France sent a plane with food , medicine , and other equipment to the affected areas . The government of Germany sent aid to be used for foods and medicines . On February 27 , the government of Japan sent aid to the country , including tents , generators , and plastic sheets . Officials distributed emergency relief items to the affected areas , including rice , sugar , soap , candles , matches and water purification tablets . In Morondava in Toliara Province , the government distributed 4 tons of rice seed , while in Ambatolampy in Antananarivo Province , the government sent 10 tons of rice ; additionally , the World Food Programme sent 80 tons of flour to the nation . The combined efforts of the United Nations and aid agencies repaired the schools and distributed meals to the families affected by the disaster . Workers in association with the Madagascar Red Cross set up a water system that provided about 45 @,@ 000 litres ( 11 @,@ 900 gallons ) of drinkable water per day . The impact of Cyclone Elita was severely compounded by Cyclone Gafilo about two months later , which killed hundreds and left over 240 @,@ 000 people homeless .
= Finnegans Wake = Finnegans Wake is a novel by Irish writer James Joyce . It is significant for its experimental style and reputation as one of the most difficult works of fiction in the English language . Written in Paris over a period of seventeen years , and published in 1939 , two years before the author 's death , Finnegans Wake was Joyce 's final work . The entire book is written in a largely idiosyncratic language , consisting of a mixture of standard English lexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words , which many critics believe were attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams . Owing to the work 's expansive linguistic experiments , stream of consciousness writing style , literary allusions , free dream associations , and abandonment of narrative conventions , Finnegans Wake remains largely unread by the general public . Despite the obstacles , readers and commentators have reached a broad consensus about the book 's central cast of characters and , to a lesser degree , its plot . However , a number of key details remain elusive . The book discusses , in an unorthodox fashion , the Earwicker family , comprising the father HCE , the mother ALP , and their three children Shem the Penman , Shaun the Postman , and Issy . Following an unspecified rumour about HCE , the book , in a nonlinear dream narrative , follows his wife 's attempts to exonerate him with a letter , his sons ' struggle to replace him , Shaun 's rise to prominence , and a final monologue by ALP at the break of dawn . The opening line of the book is a sentence fragment which continues from the book 's unfinished closing line , making the work a never @-@ ending cycle . Many noted Joycean scholars such as Samuel Beckett and Donald Phillip Verene link this cyclical structure to Giambattista Vico 's seminal text La Scienza Nuova ( " The New Science " ) , upon which they argue Finnegans Wake is structured . Joyce began working on Finnegans Wake shortly after the 1922 publication of Ulysses . By 1924 installments of Joyce 's new avant @-@ garde work began to appear , in serialized form , in Parisian literary journals transatlantic review and transition , under the title " fragments from Work in Progress " . The actual title of the work remained a secret until the book was published in its entirety , on 4 May 1939 . Initial reaction to Finnegans Wake , both in its serialized and final published form , was largely negative , ranging from bafflement at its radical reworking of the English language to open hostility towards its lack of respect for the conventions of the novel . The work has since , however , come to assume a preeminent place in English literature , despite its numerous detractors . Anthony Burgess has lauded Finnegans Wake as " a great comic vision , one of the few books of the world that can make us laugh aloud on nearly every page . " The prominent literary academic Harold Bloom has called it Joyce 's masterpiece , and wrote that " [ if ] aesthetic merit were ever again to center the canon [ Finnegans Wake ] would be as close as our chaos could come to the heights of Shakespeare and Dante . " In 1998 , the Modern Library ranked Finnegans Wake 77th on its list of the 100 best English @-@ language novels of the 20th century . = = Background and composition = = Having completed work on Ulysses , Joyce was so exhausted that he did not write a line of prose for a year . On 10 March 1923 he wrote a letter to his patron , Harriet Weaver : " Yesterday I wrote two pages — the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses . Having found a pen , with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them . " This is the earliest reference to what would become Finnegans Wake . The two pages in question consisted of the short sketch " Roderick O 'Conor " , concerning the historic last king of Ireland cleaning up after guests by drinking the dregs of their dirty glasses . Joyce completed another four short sketches in July and August 1923 , while holidaying in Bognor . The sketches , which dealt with different aspects of Irish history , are commonly known as " Tristan and Isolde " , " Saint Patrick and the Druid , " " Kevin 's Orisons " and " Mamalujo " . While these sketches would eventually be incorporated into Finnegans Wake in one form or another , they did not contain any of the main characters or plot points which would later come to constitute the backbone of the book . The first signs of what would eventually become Finnegans Wake came in August 1923 when Joyce wrote the sketch " Here Comes Everybody " , which dealt for the first time with the book 's protagonist HCE . Over the next few years , Joyce 's method became one of " increasingly obsessional concern with note @-@ taking , since [ he ] obviously felt that any word he wrote had first to have been recorded in some notebook . " As Joyce continued to incorporate these notes into his work , the text became increasingly dense and obscure . By 1926 Joyce had largely completed both Books I and III . Geert Lernout asserts that Book I had , at this early stage , " a real focus that had developed out of the HCE [ " Here Comes Everybody " ] sketch : the story of HCE , of his wife and children . There were the adventures of Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker himself and the rumours about them in chapters 2 – 4 , a description of his wife ALP 's letter in chapter 5 , a denunciation of his son Shem in chapter 7 , and a dialogue about ALP in chapter 8 . These texts [ ... ] formed a unity . " In the same year Joyce met Maria and Eugène Jolas in Paris , just as his new work was generating an increasingly negative reaction from readers and critics , culminating in The Dial 's refusal to publish the four chapters of Book III in September 1926 . The Jolases gave Joyce valuable encouragement and material support throughout the long process of writing Finnegans Wake , and published sections of the book in serial form in their literary magazine transition , under the title Work In Progress . For the next few years Joyce worked rapidly on the book , adding what would become chapters I.1 and I.6 , and revising the already written segments to make them more lexically complex . However , by this time some early supporters of Joyce 's work , such as Ezra Pound and the author 's brother Stanislaus Joyce , had grown increasingly unsympathetic to his new writing . In order to create a more favourable critical climate , a group of Joyce 's supporters ( including Samuel Beckett , William Carlos Williams , Rebecca West and others ) put together a collection of critical essays on the new work . It was published in 1929 under the title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress . In July 1929 , increasingly demoralised by the poor reception his new work was receiving , Joyce approached his friend James Stephens about the possibility of his completing the book . Joyce wrote to Weaver in late 1929 that he had " explained to [ Stephens ] all about the book , at least a great deal , and he promised me that if I found it madness to continue , in my condition , and saw no other way out , that he would devote himself heart and soul to the completion of it , that is the second part and the epilogue or fourth . " Apparently Joyce chose Stephens on superstitious grounds , as he had been born in the same hospital as Joyce , exactly one week later , and shared both the first names of Joyce himself and his fictional alter @-@ ego Stephen Dedalus . In the end , Stephens was not asked to finish the book . In the 1930s , as he was writing Books II and IV , Joyce 's progress slowed considerably . This was due to a number of factors including the death of his father John Stanislaus Joyce in 1931 ; concern over the mental health of his daughter Lucia ; and his own health problems , chiefly his failing eyesight . Finnegans Wake was published in book form , after seventeen years of composition , on 4 May 1939 . Joyce died two years later in Zürich , on 13 January 1941 . = = = Chapter summaries = = = Finnegans Wake comprises seventeen chapters , divided into four Books . Book I contains eight chapters , Books II and III each contain four , and Book IV consists of only one short chapter . The chapters appear without titles , and while Joyce never provided possible chapter titles as he had done for Ulysses , he did title various sections published separately ( see Publication history below ) . The standard critical practice , however , is to indicate book number in Roman numerals , and chapter title in Arabic , so that III.2 , for example , indicates the second chapter of the third book . Given the book 's fluid and changeable approach to plot and characters , a definitive , critically agreed @-@ upon plot synopsis remains elusive ( see Critical response and themes : Difficulties of plot summary below ) . Therefore , the following synopsis attempts to summarise events in the book which find general , although inevitably not universal , consensus among critics . = = = Book I = = = The entire work forms a cycle : the last sentence — a fragment — recirculates to the beginning sentence : " a way a lone a last a loved a long the / riverrun , past Eve and Adam 's , from swerve of shore to bend of bay , brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs . " Joyce himself revealed that the book " ends in the middle of a sentence and begins in the middle of the same sentence . " The introductory chapter ( I.1 ) establishes the book 's setting as " Howth Castle and Environs " ( i.e. the Dublin area ) , and introduces Dublin hod carrier " Finnegan " , who falls to his death from a ladder while constructing a wall . Finnegan 's wife Annie puts out his corpse as a meal spread for the mourners at his wake , but he vanishes before they can eat him . A series of episodic vignettes follows , loosely related to the dead Finnegan , most commonly referred to as " The Willingdone Museyroom " , " Mutt and Jute " , and " The Prankquean " . At the chapter 's close a fight breaks out , whiskey splashes on Finnegan 's corpse , and “ the dead Finnegan rises from his coffin bawling for whiskey and his mourners put him back to rest ” , persuading him that he is better off where he is . The chapter ends with the image of the HCE character sailing into Dublin Bay to take a central role in the story . I.2 opens with an account of " Harold or Humphrey " Chimpden receiving the nickname " Earwicker " from the Sailor King , who encounters him attempting to catch earwigs with an inverted flowerpot on a stick while manning a tollgate through which the King is passing . This name helps Chimpden , now known by his initials HCE , to rise to prominence in Dublin society as " Here Comes Everybody " . He is then brought low by a rumour that begins to spread across Dublin , apparently concerning a sexual trespass involving two girls in the Phoenix Park , although details of HCE 's transgression change with each retelling of events . Chapters I.2 through I.4 follow the progress of this rumor , starting with HCE 's encounter with " a cad with a pipe " in Phoenix Park . The cad greets HCE in Gaelic and asks the time , but HCE misunderstands the question as an accusation , and incriminates himself by denying rumours the cad has not yet heard . These rumours quickly spread across Dublin , gathering momentum until they are turned into a song penned by the character Hosty called " The Ballad of Persse O 'Reilly " . As a result , HCE goes into hiding , where he is besieged at the closed gate of his pub by a visiting American looking for drink after hours . However HCE remains silent – not responding to the accusations or verbal abuse – dreams , is buried in a coffin at the bottom of Lough Neagh , and is finally brought to trial , under the name Festy King . He is eventually freed , and goes once more into hiding . An important piece of evidence during the trial – a letter about HCE written by his wife ALP – is called for so that it can be examined in closer detail . ALP 's Letter becomes the focal point as it is analysed in detail in I.5. This letter was dictated by ALP to her son Shem , a writer , and entrusted to her other son Shaun , a postman , for delivery . The letter never reaches its intended destination , ending up in a midden heap where it is unearthed by a hen named Biddy . Chapter I.6 digresses from the narrative in order to present the main and minor characters in more detail , in the form of twelve riddles and answers . In the final two chapters of Book I we learn more about the letter 's writer Shem the Penman ( I.7 ) and its original author , his mother ALP ( I.8 ) . The Shem chapter consists of " Shaun 's character assassination of his brother Shem " , describing the hermetic artist as a forger and a " sham " , before " Shem is protected by his mother [ ALP ] , who appears at the end to come and defend her son . " The following chapter concerning Shem 's mother , known as " Anna Livia Plurabelle " , is interwoven with thousands of river names from all over the globe , and is widely considered the book 's most celebrated passage . The chapter was described by Joyce in 1924 as " a chattering dialogue across the river by two washerwomen who as night falls become a tree and a stone . " These two washerwomen gossip about ALP 's response to the allegations laid against her husband HCE , as they wash clothes in the Liffey . ALP is said to have written a letter declaring herself tired of her mate . Their gossip then digresses to her youthful affairs and sexual encounters , before returning to the publication of HCE 's guilt in the morning newspaper , and his wife 's revenge on his enemies : borrowing a " mailsack " from her son Shaun the Post , she delivers presents to her 111 children . At the chapter 's close the washerwomen try to pick up the thread of the story , but their conversation is increasingly difficult as they are on opposite sides of the widening Liffey , and it is getting dark . Finally , as they turn into a tree and a stone , they ask to be told a Tale of Shem or Shaun . = = = Book II = = = While Book I of Finnegans Wake deals mostly with the parents HCE and ALP , Book II shifts that focus onto their children , Shem , Shaun and Issy . II.1 opens with a pantomime programme , which outlines , in relatively clear language , the identities and attributes of the book 's main characters . The chapter then concerns a guessing game among the children , in which Shem is challenged three times to guess by " gazework " the colour which the girls have chosen . Unable to answer due to his poor eyesight , Shem goes into exile in disgrace , and Shaun wins the affection of the girls . Finally HCE emerges from the pub and in a thunder @-@ like voice calls the children inside . Chapter II.2 follows Shem , Shaun and Issy studying upstairs in the pub , after having been called inside in the previous chapter . The chapter depicts " [ Shem ] coaching [ Shaun ] how to do Euclid Bk I , 1 " , structured as " a reproduction of a schoolboys ' ( and schoolgirls ' ) old classbook complete with marginalia by the twins , who change sides at half time , and footnotes by the girl ( who doesn 't ) " . Once Shem ( here called Dolph ) has helped Shaun ( here called Kev ) to draw the Euclid diagram , the latter realises that he has drawn a diagram of ALP 's genitalia , and " Kev finally realises the significance of the triangles [ .. and .. ] strikes Dolph . " After this " Dolph forgives Kev " and the children are given " [ e ] ssay assignments on 52 famous men . " The chapter ends with the children 's " nightletter " to HCE and ALP , in which they are " apparently united in a desire to overcome their parents . " II.3 moves to HCE working in the pub below the studying children . As HCE serves his customers , two narratives are broadcast via the bar 's radio and television sets , namely " The Norwegian Captain and the Tailor 's Daughter " , and " How Buckley Shot the Russian General " . The first portrays HCE as a Norwegian Captain succumbing to domestication through his marriage to the Tailor 's Daughter . The latter , told by Shem and Shaun ciphers Butt and Taff , casts HCE as a Russian General who is shot by the soldier Buckley . Earwicker has been absent throughout the latter tale , having been summoned upstairs by ALP . He returns and is reviled by his customers , who see Buckley 's shooting of the General as symbolic of Shem and Shaun 's supplanting their father . This condemnation of his character forces HCE to deliver a general confession of his crimes , including an incestuous desire for young girls . Finally a policeman arrives to send the drunken customers home , the pub is closed up , and the customers disappear singing into the night as a drunken HCE , clearing up the bar and swallowing the dregs of the glasses left behind , morphs into ancient Irish high king Rory O 'Connor , and passes out . II.4 , ostensibly portraying the drunken and sleeping Earwicker 's dream , chronicles the spying of four old men ( Matthew , Mark , Luke and John ) on Tristan and Iseult 's journey . The short chapter portrays " an old man like King Mark being rejected and abandoned by young lovers who sail off into a future without him " , while the four old men observe Tristan and Isolde , and offer four intertwining commentaries on the lovers and themselves which are " always repeating themselves " . = = = Book III = = = Book III concerns itself almost exclusively with Shaun , in his role as postman , having to deliver ALP 's letter , which was referred to in Book I , but never seen . III.1 opens with the Four Masters ' ass narrating how he thought , as he was " dropping asleep " , he had heard and seen an apparition of Shaun the Post . As a result , Shaun re @-@ awakens , and , floating down the Liffey in a barrel , is posed fourteen questions concerning the significance and content of the letter he is carrying . However , Shaun , " apprehensive about being slighted , is on his guard , and the placating narrators never get a straight answer out of him . " Shaun 's answers focus on his own boastful personality and his admonishment of the letter 's author – his artist brother Shem . After the inquisition Shaun loses his balance and the barrel in which he has been floating careens over and he rolls backwards out of the narrator 's earshot , before disappearing completely from view . In III.2 Shaun re @-@ appears as " Jaunty Jaun " and delivers a lengthy and sexually suggestive sermon to his sister Issy , and her twenty @-@ eight schoolmates from St. Brigid 's School . Throughout this book Shaun is continually regressing , changing from an old man to an overgrown baby lying on his back , and eventually , in III.3 , into a vessel through which the voice of HCE speaks again by means of a spiritual medium . This leads to HCE 's defence of his life in the passage " Haveth Childers Everywhere " . Book III ends in the bedroom of Mr. and Mrs. Porter as they attempt to copulate while their children , Jerry , Kevin and Isobel Porter , are sleeping upstairs and the dawn is rising outside ( III.4 ) . Jerry awakes from a nightmare of a scary father figure , and Mrs. Porter interrupts the coitus to go comfort him with the words " You were dreamend , dear . The pawdrag ? The fawthrig ? Shoe ! Hear are no phanthares in the room at all , avikkeen . No bad bold faathern , dear one . " She returns to bed , and the rooster crows at the conclusion of their coitus at the Book 's culmination . = = = Book IV = = = Book IV consists of only one chapter , which , like the book 's opening chapter , is mostly composed of a series of seemingly unrelated vignettes . After an opening call for dawn to break , the remainder of the chapter consists of the vignettes " Saint Kevin " , " Berkely and Patrick " and " The Revered Letter " . ALP is given the final word , as the book closes on a version of her Letter and her final long monologue , in which she tries to wake her sleeping husband , declaring " Rise up , man of the hooths , you have slept so long ! " , and remembers a walk they once took , and hopes for its re @-@ occurrence . At the close of her monologue , ALP – as the river Liffey – disappears at dawn into the ocean . The book 's last words are a fragment , but they can be turned into a complete sentence by attaching them to the words that start the book : A way a lone a last a loved a long the / riverrun , past Eve and Adam 's , from swerve of shore to bend of bay , brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs . = = Critical response and themes = = = = = Difficulties of plot summary = = = Commentators who have summarised the plot of Finnegans Wake include Joseph Campbell , John Gordon , Anthony Burgess , William York Tindall , and Philip Kitcher . While no two summaries interpret the plot in the same way , there are a number of central " plot points " upon which they find general agreement . However , a number of Joyce scholars question the legitimacy of searching for a linear storyline within the complex text . As Bernard Benstock highlights , " in a work where every sentence opens a variety of possible interpretations , any synopsis of a chapter is bound to be incomplete . " David Hayman has suggested that " For all the efforts made by critics to establish a plot for the Wake , it makes little sense to force this prose into a narrative mold . " The book 's challenges have led some commentators into generalised statements about its content and themes , prompting critic Bernard Benstock to warn against the danger of " boiling down " Finnegans Wake into " insipid pap , and leaving the lazy reader with a predigested mess of generalizations and catchphrases . " Fritz Senn has also voiced concerns with some plot synopses , saying " we have some traditional summaries , also some put in circulation by Joyce himself . I find them most unsatisfactory and unhelpful , they usually leave out the hard parts and recirculate what we already think we know . I simply cannot believe that FW would be as blandly uninteresting as those summaries suggest . " The challenge of compiling a definitive synopsis of Finnegans Wake lies not only in the opacity of the book 's language , but also in the radical approach to plot which Joyce employed . Joyce acknowledged this when he wrote to Eugène Jolas that : " I might easily have written this story in the traditional manner [ ... ] Every novelist knows the recipe [ ... ] It is not very difficult to follow a simple , chronological scheme which the critics will understand [ ... ] But I , after all , am trying to tell the story of this Chapelizod family in a new way . This " new way " of telling a story in Finnegans Wake takes the form of a discontinuous dream @-@ narrative , with abrupt changes to characters , character names , locations and plot details resulting in the absence of a discernible linear narrative , causing Herring to argue that the plot of Finnegans Wake " is unstable in that there is no one plot from beginning to end , but rather many recognizable stories and plot types with familiar and unfamiliar twists , told from varying perspectives . " Patrick A. McCarthy expands on this idea of a non @-@ linear , digressive narrative with the contention that " throughout much of Finnegans Wake , what appears to be an attempt to tell a story is often diverted , interrupted , or reshaped into something else , for example a commentary on a narrative with conflicting or unverifiable details . " In other words , while crucial plot points – such as HCE 's crime or ALP 's letter – are endlessly discussed , the reader never encounters or experiences them first hand , and as the details are constantly changing , they remain unknown and perhaps unknowable . Suzette Henke has accordingly described Finnegans Wake as an aporia . Joyce himself tacitly acknowledged this radically different approach to language and plot in a 1926 letter to Harriet Weaver , outlining his intentions for the book : " One great part of every human existence is passed in a state which cannot be rendered sensible by the use of wideawake language , cutanddry grammar and goahead plot . " Critics have seen a precedent for the book 's plot presentation in Laurence Sterne 's famously digressive The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy , Gentleman , with Thomas Keymer stating that " Tristram Shandy was a natural touchstone for James Joyce as he explained his attempt " to build many planes of narrative with a single esthetic purpose " in Finnegans Wake " . Book II is usually considered the book 's most opaque section , and hence the most difficult to synopsize . William York Tindall said of Book II 's four chapters " Than this [ ... ] nothing is denser . " Similarly , Patrick Parrinder has described Book II as the " worst and most disorienting quagmire [ .. ] in the Wake . " Despite Joyce 's revolutionary techniques , the author repeatedly emphasized that the book was neither random nor meaningless ; with Ellmann quoting the author as having stated : " I can justify every line of my book . " To Sisley Huddleston he stated " critics who were most appreciative of Ulysses are complaining about my new work . They cannot understand it . Therefore they say it is meaningless . Now if it were meaningless it could be written quickly without thought , without pains , without erudition ; but I assure you that these 20 pages now before us [ i.e. chapter I.8 ] cost me twelve hundred hours and an enormous expense of spirit . " When the editor of Vanity Fair asked Joyce if the sketches in Work in Progress were consecutive and interrelated , Joyce replied " It is all consecutive and interrelated . " = = = Themes = = = Fargnoli and Gillespie suggest that the book 's opening chapter " introduces [ the ] major themes and concerns of the book " , and enumerate these as " Finnegan 's fall , the promise of his resurrection , the cyclical structure of time and history ( dissolution and renewal ) , tragic love as embodied in the story of Tristan and Iseult , the motif of the warring brothers , the personification of the landscape and the question of Earwicker 's crime in the park , the precise nature of which is left uncertain throughout the Wake . " Such a view finds general critical consensus , viewing the vignettes as allegorical appropriations of the book 's characters and themes ; for example , Schwartz argues that " The Willingdone Museyroom " episode represents the book 's " archetypal family drama in military @-@ historical terms . " Joyce himself referred to the chapter as a " prelude " , and as an " air photograph of Irish history , a celebration of the dim past of Dublin . " Riquelme finds that " passages near the book 's beginning and its ending echo and complement one another " , and Fargnoli and Gillespie representatively argue that the book 's cyclical structure echoes the themes inherent within , that " the typologies of human experience that Joyce identifies [ in Finnegans Wake ] are [ .. ] essentially cyclical , that is , patterned and recurrent ; in particular , the experiences of birth , guilt , judgment , sexuality , family , social ritual and death recur throughout the Wake . In a similar enumeration of themes , Tindall argues that " rise and fall and rise again , sleeping and waking , death and resurrection , sin and redemption , conflict and appeasement , and , above all , time itself [ ... ] are the matter of Joyce 's essay on man . " Henkes and Bindervoet generally summarise the critical consensus when they argue that , between the thematically indicative opening and closing chapters , the book concerns " two big questions " which are never resolved : what is the nature of protagonist HCE ’ s secret sin , and what was the letter , written by his wife ALP , about ? HCE 's unidentifiable sin has most generally been interpreted as representing man 's original sin as a result of the Fall of Man . Anthony Burgess sees HCE , through his dream , trying " to make the whole of history swallow up his guilt for him " and to this end " HCE has , so deep in his sleep , sunk to a level of dreaming in which he has become a collective being rehearsing the collective guilt of man . " Fargnoli and Gillespie argue that although undefined , " Earwicker 's alleged crime in the Park " appears to have been of a " voyeuristic , sexual , or scatological nature " . ALP 's letter appears a number of times throughout the book , in a number of different forms , and as its contents cannot be definitively delineated , it is usually believed to be both an exoneration of HCE , and an indictment of his sin . Herring argues that " [ t ] he effect of ALP 's letter is precisely the opposite of her intent [ ... ] the more ALP defends her husband in her letter , the more scandal attaches to him . " Patrick A. McCarthy argues that " it is appropriate that the waters of the Liffey , representing Anna Livia , are washing away the evidence of Earwicker 's sins as [ the washerwomen speak , in chapter I.8 ] for ( they tell us ) she takes on her husband 's guilt and redeems him ; alternately she is tainted with his crimes and regarded as an accomplice " . = = = A reconstruction of nocturnal life = = = Throughout the book 's seventeen @-@ year gestation , Joyce stated that with Finnegans Wake he was attempting to " reconstruct the nocturnal life " , and that the book was his " experiment in interpreting ' the dark night of the soul ' . " According to Ellmann , Joyce stated to Edmond Jaloux that Finnegans Wake would be written " to suit the esthetic of the dream , where the forms prolong and multiply themselves " , and once informed a friend that " he conceived of his book as the dream of old Finn , lying in death beside the river Liffey and watching the history of Ireland and the world – past and future – flow through his mind like flotsam on the river of life . " While pondering the generally negative reactions to the book Joyce said : I can 't understand some of my critics , like Pound or Miss Weaver , for instance . They say it 's obscure . They compare it , of course , with Ulysses . But the action of Ulysses was chiefly during the daytime , and the action of my new work takes place chiefly at night . It 's natural things should not be so clear at night , isn 't it now ? Joyce 's claims to be representing the night and dreams have been accepted and questioned with greater and lesser credulity . Supporters of the claim have pointed to Book IV as providing its strongest evidence , as when the narrator asks “ You mean to see we have been hadding a sound night ’ s sleep ? ” , and later concludes that what has gone before has been “ a long , very long , a dark , very dark [ ... ] scarce endurable [ ... ] night . ” Tindall refers to Book IV as " a chapter of resurrection and waking up " , and McHugh finds that the chapter contains " particular awareness of events going on offstage , connected with the arrival of dawn and the waking process which terminates the sleeping process of [ Finnegans Wake ] . " However , this conceptualisation of the Wake as a dream is a point of contention for some . Harry Burrell , representative of this view , argues that " one of the most overworked ideas is that Finnegans Wake is about a dream . It is not , and there is no dreamer . " Burrell argues that the theory is an easy way out for " critics stymied by the difficulty of comprehending the novel and the search for some kind of understanding of it . " However , the point upon which a number of critics fail to concur with Burrell 's argument is its dismissal of the testimony of the book 's author on the matter as " misleading ... publicity efforts " . Parrinder however , equally skeptical of the concept of the Wake as a dream , argues that Joyce came up with the idea of representing his linguistic experiments as a language of the night around 1927 as a means of battling his many critics , further arguing that " since it cannot be said that neologism is a major feature of the dreaming process , such a justification for the language of Finnegans Wake smacks dangerously of expediency . " While many , if not all , agree that there is at least some sense in which the book can be said to be a " dream " , few agree on who the possible dreamer of such a dream might be . Edmund Wilson 's early analysis of the book , The Dream of H. C. Earwicker , made the assumption that Earwicker himself is the dreamer of the dream , an assumption which continued to carry weight with Wakean scholars Harry Levin , Hugh Kenner , and William Troy . Joseph Campbell , in A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake , also believed Earwicker to be the dreamer , but considered the narrative to be the observances of , and a running commentary by , an anonymous pedant on Earwicker 's dream in progress , who would interrupt the flow with his own digressions . Ruth von Phul was the first to argue that Earwicker was not the dreamer , which triggered a number of similarly @-@ minded views on the matter , although her assertion that Shem was the dreamer has found less support . The assertion that the dream was that of Mr. Porter , whose dream personality personified itself as HCE , came from the critical idea that the dreamer partially wakes during chapter III.4 , in which he and his family are referred to by the name Porter . Anthony Burgess representatively summarized this conception of the " dream " thus : " Mr. Porter and his family are asleep for the greater part of the book [ ... ] Mr. Porter dreams hard , and we are permitted to share his dream [ ... ] Sleeping , he becomes a remarkable mixture of guilty man , beast , and crawling thing , and he even takes on a new and dreamily appropriate name – Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker . " Harriet Weaver was among the first to suggest that the dream was not that of any one dreamer , but was rather an analysis of the process of dreaming itself . In a letter to J.S. Atherton she wrote : In particular their ascription of the whole thing to a dream of HCE seems to me nonsensical . My view is that Mr. Joyce did not intend the book to be looked upon as the dream of any one character , but that he regarded the dream form with its shiftings and changes and chances as a convenient device , allowing the freest scope to introduce any material he wished — and suited to a night @-@ piece . Bernard Benstock also argued that " The Dreamer in the Wake is more than just a single individual , even if one assumes that on the literal level we are viewing the dream of publican H.C. Earwicker . " Other critics have been more skeptical of the concept of identifying the dreamer of the book 's narrative . Clive Hart argues that " [ w ] hatever our conclusions about the identity of the dreamer , and no matter how many varied caricatures of him we may find projected into the dream , it is clear that he must always be considered as essentially external to the book , and should be left there . Speculation about the ' real person ' behind the guises of the dream @-@ surrogates or about the function of the dream in relation to the unresolved stresses of this hypothetical mind is fruitless , for the tensions and psychological problems in Finnegans Wake concern the dream @-@ figures living within the book itself . " John Bishop has been the most vocal supporter of treating Finnegans Wake absolutely , in every sense , as a description of a dream , the dreamer , and of the night itself ; arguing that the book not only represents a dream in an abstract conception , but is fully a literary representation of sleep . On the subject Bishop writes : The greatest obstacle to our comprehension of Finnegans Wake [ ... has been ... ] the failure on the part of readers to believe that Joyce really meant what he said when he spoke of the book as a " reconstruction of the nocturnal life " and an " imitation of the dream @-@ state " ; and as a consequence readers have perhaps too easily exercised on the text an unyielding literalism bent on finding a kind of meaning in every way antithetical to the kind of meaning purveyed in dreams Bishop has also somewhat brought back into fashion the theory that the Wake is about a single sleeper ; arguing that it is not " the ' universal dream ' of some disembodied global everyman , but a reconstruction of the night – and a single night – as experienced by ' one stable somebody ' whose ' earwitness ' on the real world is coherently chronological . " Bishop has laid the path for critics such as Eric Rosenbloom , who has proposed that the book " elaborates the fragmentation and reunification of identity during sleep . The masculine [ ... ] mind of the day has been overtaken by the feminine night mind . [ ... ] The characters live in the transformation and flux of a dream , embodying the sleeper ’ s mind . " = = Characters = = Critics disagree on whether discernible characters exist in Finnegans Wake . For example , Grace Eckley argues that Wakean characters are distinct from each other , and defends this with explaining the dual narrators , the " us " of the first paragraph , as well as Shem @-@ Shaun distinctions while Margot Norris argues that the " [ c ] haracters are fluid and interchangeable " . Supporting the latter stance , Van Hulle finds that the " characters " in Finnegans Wake are rather " archetypes or character amalgams , taking different shapes " , and Riquelme similarly refers to the book 's cast of mutable characters as " protean " . As early as in 1934 , in response to the recently published excerpt " The Mookse and the Gripes " , Ronald Symond argued that " the characters in Work in Progress , in keeping with the space @-@ time chaos in which they live , change identity at will . At one time they are persons , at another rivers or stones or trees , at another personifications of an idea , at another they are lost and hidden in the actual texture of the prose , with an ingenuity far surpassing that of crossword puzzles . " Such concealment of character identity has resulted in some disparity as to how critics identify the book 's main protagonists ; for example , while most find consensus that Festy King , who appears on trial in I.4 , is a HCE type , not all analysts agree on this – for example Anthony Burgess believes him to be Shaun . However , while characters are in a constant state of flux — constantly changing names , occupations , and physical attributes — a recurring set of core characters , or character types ( what Norris dubs " ciphers " ) , are discernible . During the composition of Finnegans Wake , Joyce used signs , or so @-@ called “ sigla ” , rather than names to designate these character amalgams or types . In a letter to his Maecenas , Harriet Shaw Weaver ( March 1924 ) , Joyce made a list of these sigla . For those who argue for the existence of distinguishable characters , the book focuses on the Earwicker family , which consists of father , mother , twin sons and a daughter . = = = Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker ( HCE ) = = = Kitcher argues for the father HCE as the book 's main protagonist , stating that he is " the dominant figure throughout [ ... ] . His guilt , his shortcomings , his failures pervade the entire book " . Bishop states that while the constant flux of HCE 's character and attributes may lead us to consider him as an " anyman , " he argues that " the sheer density of certain repeated details and concerns allows us to know that he is a particular , real Dubliner . " The common critical consensus of HCE 's fixed character is summarised by Bishop as being " an older Protestant male , of Scandinavian lineage , connected with the pubkeeping business somewhere in the neighbourhood of Chapelizod , who has a wife , a daughter , and two sons . " HCE is referred to by literally thousands of names throughout the book ; leading Terence Killeen to argue that in Finnegans Wake " naming is [ .. ] a fluid and provisional process " . HCE is at first referred to as " Harold or Humphrey Chimpden " ; a conflation of these names as " Haromphreyld " , and as a consequence of his initials " Here Comes Everybody " . These initials lend themselves to phrase after phrase throughout the book ; for example , appearing in the book 's opening sentence as " Howth Castle and Environs " . As the work progresses the names by which he may be referred to become increasingly abstract ( such as " Finn MacCool " , " Mr. Makeall Gone " , or " Mr. Porter " ) . Some Wake critics , such as Finn Fordham , argue that HCE 's initials come from the initials of the portly politician Hugh Childers ( 1827 – 96 ) , who had been nicknamed " Here Comes Everybody " for his size . Many critics see Finnegan , whose death , wake and resurrection are the subject of the opening chapter , as either a prototype of HCE , or as another of his manifestations . One of the reasons for this close identification is that Finnegan is called a " man of hod , cement and edifices " and " like Haroun Childeric Eggeberth " , identifying him with the initials HCE . Parrinder for example states that " Bygmester Finnegan [ ... ] is HCE " , and finds that his fall and resurrection foreshadows " the fall of HCE early in Book I [ which is ] paralleled by his resurrection towards the end of III.3 , in the section originally called " Haveth Childers Everywhere " , when [ HCE 's ] ghost speaks forth in the middle of a seance . " = = = Anna Livia Plurabelle ( ALP ) = = = Patrick McCarthy describes HCE 's wife ALP as " the river @-@ woman whose presence is implied in the " riverrun " with which Finnegans Wake opens and whose monologue closes the book . For over six hundred pages , however , Joyce presents Anna Livia to us almost exclusively through other characters , much as in Ulysses we hear what Molly Bloom has to say about herself only in the last chapter . " The most extensive discussion of ALP comes in chapter I.8 , in which hundreds of names of rivers are woven into the tale of ALP 's life , as told by two gossiping washerwomen . Similarly hundreds of city names are woven into " Haveth Childers Everywhere " , the corresponding passage at the end of III.3 which focuses on HCE . As a result , it is generally contended that HCE personifies the Viking @-@ founded city of Dublin , and his wife ALP personifies the river Liffey , on whose banks the city was built . = = = The children : Shem , Shaun and Issy = = = ALP and HCE have a daughter , Issy – whose personality is often split ( represented by her mirror @-@ twin ) . Parrinder argues that " as daughter and sister , she is an object of secret and repressed desire both to her father [ ... ] and to her two brothers . " These twin sons of HCE and ALP consist of a writer called Shem the Penman and a postman by the name of Shaun the Post , who are rivals for replacing their father and for their sister Issy 's affection . Shaun is portrayed as a dull postman , conforming to society 's expectations , while Shem is a bright artist and sinister experimenter , often perceived as Joyce 's alter @-@ ego in the book . Hugh Staples finds that Shaun " wants to be thought of as a man @-@ about @-@ town , a snappy dresser , a glutton and a gourmet ... He is possessed of a musical voice and is a braggart . He is not happy in his work , which is that of a messenger or a postman ; he would rather be a priest . " Shaun 's sudden and somewhat unexpected promotion to the book 's central character in Book III is explained by Tindall with the assertion that " having disposed of old HCE , Shaun is becoming the new HCE . " Like their father , Shem and Shaun are referred to by different names throughout the book , such as " Caddy and Primas " ; " Mercius " and " Justius " ; " Dolph and Kevin " ; and " Jerry and Kevin " . These twins are contrasted in the book by allusions to sets of opposing twins and enemies in literature , mythology and history ; such as Set and Horus of the Osiris story ; the biblical pairs Jacob and Esau , Cain and Abel , and Saint Michael and the Devil – equating Shaun with " Mick " and Shem with " Nick " – as well as Romulus and Remus . = = = Minor characters = = = The book is also populated by a number of minor characters , such as the Four Masters , the twelve customers , the Earwickers ' cleaning staff Kate and Joe , as well as more obscure characters such as " McGrath " , Lily Kinsella , and the bell @-@ ringer " Fox Goodman " . The most commonly recurring characters outside of the Earwicker family are the four old men known collectively as " Mamalujo " ( a conflation of their names : Matt Gregory , Marcus Lyons , Luke Tarpey and Johnny Mac Dougall ) . These four most commonly serve as narrators , but they also play a number of active roles in the text , such as when they serve as the judges in the court case of I.4 , or as the inquisitors who question Yawn in III.4. Tindall summarises the roles that these old men play as those of the Four Masters , the Four Evangelists , and the four Provinces of Ireland ( " Matthew , from the north , is Ulster ; Mark , from the south , is Munster ; Luke , from the east , is Leinster ; and John , from the west , is Connaught " ) . According to Finn Fordham , Joyce related to his daughter @-@ in @-@ law Helen Fleischmann that " Mamalujo " also represented Joyce 's own family , namely his wife Nora ( mama ) , daughter Lucia ( lu ) , and son Giorgio ( jo ) . In addition to the four old men , there are a group of twelve unnamed men who always appear together , and serve as the customers in Earwicker 's pub , gossipers about his sins , jurors at his trial and mourners at his wake . The Earwicker household also includes two cleaning staff : Kate , the maid , and Joe , who is by turns handyman and barman in Earwicker 's pub . These characters are seen by most critics as older versions of ALP and HCE . Kate often plays the role of museum curator , as in the " Willingdone Museyroom " episode of 1 @.@ 1 , and is recognisable by her repeated motif " Tip ! Tip ! " Joe is often also referred to by the name " Sackerson " , and Kitcher describes him as " a figure sometimes playing the role of policeman , sometimes [ ... ] a squalid derelict , and most frequently the odd @-@ job man of HCE 's inn , Kate 's male counterpart , who can ambiguously indicate an older version of HCE . " = = Language and style = = Joyce invented a unique polyglot @-@ language or idioglossia solely for the purpose of this work . This language is composed of composite words from some sixty to seventy world languages , combined to form puns , or portmanteau words and phrases intended to convey several layers of meaning at once . Senn has labelled Finnegans Wake 's language as " polysemetic " , and Tindall as an " Arabesque " . Norris describes it as a language which " like poetry , uses words and images which can mean several , often contradictory , things at once " An early review of the book argued that Joyce was attempting " to employ language as a new medium , breaking down all grammatical usages , all time space values , all ordinary conceptions of context [ ... the theme is the language and the language the theme , and a language where every association of sound and free association is exploited . " Seconding this analysis of the book 's emphasis on form over content , Paul Rosenfeld reviewed Finnegans Wake in 1939 with the suggestion that " the writing is not so much about something as it is that something itself [ .. ] in Finnegans Wake the style , the essential qualities and movement of the words , their rhythmic and melodic sequences , and the emotional color of the page are the main representatives of the author 's thought and feeling . The accepted significations of the words are secondary . " While commentators emphasize how this manner of writing can communicate multiple levels of meaning simultaneously , Hayman and Norris contend that its purpose is as much to obscure and disable meaning as to expand it . Hayman writes that access to the work 's " tenuous narratives " may only be achieved through " the dense weave of a language designed as much to shield as to reveal them . " Norris argues that Joyce 's language is " devious " and that it " conceals and reveals secrets . " Allen B. Ruch has dubbed Joyce 's new language " dreamspeak , " and describes it as " a language that is basically English , but extremely malleable and all @-@ inclusive , rich with portmanteau words , stylistic parodies , and complex puns . " Although much has been made of the numerous world languages employed in the book 's composite language , most of the more obscure languages appear only seldom in small clusters , and most agree with Ruch that the latent sense of the language , however manifestly obscure , is " basically English " . Burrell also finds that Joyce 's thousands of neologisms are " based on the same etymological principles as standard English . " However , the Wake 's language is not entirely unique in literature ; for example critics have seen its use of portmanteaus and neologisms as an extension of Lewis Carroll 's Jabberwocky . Although Joyce died shortly after the publication of Finnegans Wake , during the work 's composition the author made a number of statements concerning his intentions in writing in such an original manner . In a letter to Max Eastman , for example , Joyce suggested that his decision to employ such a unique and complex language was a direct result from his attempts to represent the night : In writing of the night I really could not , I felt I could not , use words in their ordinary connections . Used that way they do not express how things are in the night , in the different stages – the conscious , then semi @-@ conscious , then unconscious . I found that it could not be done with words in their ordinary relations and connections . When morning comes of course everything will be clear again [ ... ] I 'll give them back their English language . I 'm not destroying it for good . Joyce is also reported as having told Arthur Power that " what is clear and concise can 't deal with reality , for to be real is to be surrounded by mystery . " On the subject of the vast number of puns employed in the work Joyce argued to Frank Budgeon that " after all , the Holy Roman Catholic Apostolic Church was built on a pun . It ought to be good enough for me " , and to the objection of triviality he replied " Yes . Some of the means I use are trivial – and some are quadrivial . " A great many of the book 's puns are etymological in nature . Sources tell us that Joyce relished delving into the history and the changing meanings of words , his primary source being An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat ( Oxford , at the Clarendon Press ; 1879 ) . For example , one of the very first entries in Skeat is for the letter A , which begins : " ... ( 1 ) adown ; ( 2 ) afoot ; ( 3 ) along ; ( 4 ) arise ; ( 5 ) achieve ; ( 6 ) avert ; ( 7 ) amend ; ( 8 ) alas ; ( 9 ) abyss ... " Further in the entry , Skeat writes : " These prefixes are discussed at greater length under the headings Of , On , Along , Arise ... Alas , Aware , Avast ... " It seems likely that these strings of words prompted Joyce to finish the Wake with a sentence fragment that included the words : " ... a way a lone a last a loved a long ... " Samuel Beckett collated words from foreign languages on cards for Joyce to use , and , as Joyce 's eyesight worsened , wrote down the text from his dictation . Beckett described and defended the writing style of Finnegans Wake thus : This writing that you find so obscure is a quintessential extraction of language and painting and gesture , with all the inevitable clarity of the old inarticulation . Here is the savage economy of hieroglyphics . Faced with the obstacles to be surmounted in " understanding " Joyce 's text , a handful of critics have suggested readers focus on the rhythm and sound of the language , rather than solely on " meaning . " As early as 1929 , Eugène Jolas stressed the importance of the aural and musical dimensions of the work . In his contribution to Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress , Jolas wrote : Those who have heard Mr. Joyce read aloud from Work in Progress know the immense rhythmic beauty of his technique . It has a musical flow that flatters the ear , that has the organic structure of works of nature , that transmits painstakingly every vowel and consonant formed by his ear . The Canadian critic , historian and novelist Patrick Watson has also argued this point , writing that Those people who say the book is unreadable have not tried reading it aloud . This is the secret . If you even mouth the words silently , suddenly what seemed incomprehensible ( Hubert Butler called it " Joyce 's learned gibberish , " ) leaps into referential meaning , by its sound , since page after page is rich in allusion to familiar phrases , parables , sayings of all kinds – and the joyous and totally brilliant wordplay , over and over again imperceivable until you actually listen to it – transforms what was an unrelievable agony into an adventure . = = = Allusions to other works = = = Finnegans Wake incorporates a high number of intertextual allusions and references to other texts ; Parrinder refers to it as " a remarkable example of intertextuality " containing a " wealth of literary reference . " Among the most prominent are the Irish ballad " Finnegan 's Wake " from which the book takes its name , Italian philosopher Giovanni Battista Vico 's La Scienza Nuova , the Egyptian Book of the Dead , the plays of Shakespeare , and religious texts such as the Bible and Qur 'an . These allusions , rather than directly quoting or referencing a source , normally enter the text in a contorted fashion , often through humorous plays on words . For example , Hamlet Prince of Denmark becomes " Camelot , prince of dinmurk " and the Epistle to the Hebrews becomes a " farced epistol to the hibruws " . The book begins with one such allusion to Vico 's New Science : riverrun , past Eve and Adam 's , from swerve of shore to bend of bay , brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs . " Commodius vicus " refers to Giambattista Vico ( 1668 – 1744 ) , who proposed a theory of cyclical history in his work " La Scienza Nuova " ( The New Science ) . Vico argued that the world was coming to the end of the last of three ages , these being the age of gods , the age of heroes , and the age of humans . These ideas recur throughout Finnegans Wake , informing the book 's four @-@ part structure . Vico 's name appears a number of times throughout the Wake , indicating the work 's debt to his theories , such as “ The Vico road goes round and round to meet where terms begin . ” That a reference to Vico 's cyclical theory of history is to be found in the opening sentence which is a continuation of the book 's closing sentence – thus making the work cyclical in itself – creates the relevance of such an allusion . One of the sources Joyce drew from is the Ancient Egyptian story of Osiris , and the Egyptian Book of the Dead , a collection of spells and invocations . Bishop asserts that " it is impossible to overlook the vital presence of the Book of the Dead in Finnegans Wake , which refers to ancient Egypt in countless tags and allusions . " At one of their last meetings , Joyce suggested to Frank Budgen that he write an article about Finnegans Wake , entitling it " James Joyce 's Book of the Dead " . Budgen followed Joyce 's advice with his paper " Joyce 's Chapters of Going Forth by Day " , highlighting many of the allusions to Egyptian mythology in the book . The Tristan and Iseult legend – a tragic love triangle between the Irish princess Iseult , the Cornish knight Tristan and his uncle King Mark – is also oft alluded to in the work , particularly in Book II chapter 4 . Fargnoli and Gillespie argue that " various themes and motifs throughout Finnegans Wake , such as the cuckoldry of Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker ( a King Mark figure ) and Shaun 's attempts at seducing Issy , relate directly to Tristan and Isolde [ ... ] other motifs relating to Earwicker 's loss of authority , such as the forces usurping his parental status , are also based on Tristan and Isolde . " The book also alludes heavily to Irish mythology , with HCE sometimes corresponding to Fionn mac Cumhaill , Issy and ALP to Gráinne , and Shem / Shaun to Dermot ( Diarmaid ) . Not only Irish mythology , but also notable real @-@ life Irish figures are alluded to throughout the text . For example , HCE is often identified with Charles Stewart Parnell , and Shem 's attack on his father in this way mirrors the attempt of forger Richard Pigott to incriminate Parnell in the Phoenix Park Murders of 1882 by means of false letters . But , given the flexibility of allusion in Finnegans Wake HCE assumes the character of Pigott as well , for just as HCE betrays himself to the cad , Pigott betrayed himself at the inquiry into admitting the forgery by his spelling of the word " hesitancy " as " hesitency " ; and this misspelling appears frequently in the Wake . Finnegans Wake also makes a great number of allusions to religious texts . When HCE is first introduced in chapter I.2 , the narrator relates how " in the beginning " he was a " grand old gardener " , thus equating him with Adam in the Garden of Eden . Spinks further highlights this allusion by highlighting that like HCE 's unspecified crime in the park , Adam also " commits a crime in a garden " . = = = Norwegian influence = = = With Dublin , an early Viking settlement , as the setting for Finnegans Wake , it is perhaps not surprising that Joyce incorporated a number of Norwegian linguistic and cultural elements into the work ( notably Riksmål references for the most part ) . For example , one of the main tales of chapter II.3 concerns a Norwegian tailor , and a number of Norwegian words such as bakvandets , Knut Oelsvinger and Bygmester Finnegan ( the latter a reference to Ibsen 's Bygmeester Solness ) are used throughout . Indeed , most of Ibsen 's works , many of his characters and also some quotations are referenced in the Wake . While Joyce was working on Finnegans Wake , he wanted to insert references to Scandinavian languages and literature , hiring five teachers of Norwegian . The first one turned out to be the poet Olaf Bull . Joyce wanted to read Norwegian works in the original language , including Peter Andreas Munch 's Norrøne Gude- og Heltesagn ( Norse tales of gods and heroes ) . He was looking for puns and unusual associations across the barriers of language , a practice Bull well understood . Lines from Bull 's poems echo through Finnegans Wake , and Bull himself materializes under the name " Olaph the Oxman " , a pun on his surname . = = Literary significance and criticism = = The value of Finnegans Wake as a work of literature has been a point of contention since the time of its appearance , in serial form , in literary reviews of the 1920s . Initial response , to both its serialised and final published forms , was almost universally negative . Even close friends and family were disapproving of Joyce 's seemingly impenetrable text , with Joyce 's brother Stanislaus " rebuk [ ing ] him for writing an incomprehensible night @-@ book " , and former friend Oliver Gogarty believing the book to be a joke , pulled by Joyce on the literary community , referring to it as " the most colossal leg pull in literature since Macpherson 's Ossian " . When Ezra Pound , a former champion of Joyce 's and admirer of Ulysses , was asked his opinion on the text , he wrote " Nothing so far as I make out , nothing short of divine vision or a new cure for the clap can possibly be worth all the circumambient peripherization . " H.G. Wells , in a personal letter to Joyce , argued that " you have turned your back on common men , on their elementary needs and their restricted time and intelligence [ ... ] I ask : who the hell is this Joyce who demands so many waking hours of the few thousands I have still to live for a proper appreciation of his quirks and fancies and flashes of rendering ? " Even Joyce 's patron Harriett Weaver wrote to him in 1927 to inform him of her misgivings regarding his new work , stating " I am made in such a way that I do not care much for the output from your Wholesale Safety Pun Factory nor for the darknesses and unintelligibilities of your deliberately entangled language system . It seems to me you are wasting your genius . " The wider literary community were equally disparaging , with D. H. Lawrence declaring , in reaction to the sections of the Wake being published individually as " Work in Progress " , " My God , what a clumsy olla putrida James Joyce is ! Nothing but old fags and cabbage @-@ stumps of quotations from the Bible and the rest , stewed in the juice of deliberate journalistic dirty @-@ mindedness – what old and hard @-@ worked staleness , masquerading as the all @-@ new ! " Vladimir Nabokov , who had also admired Ulysses , described Finnegans Wake as " nothing but a formless and dull mass of phony folklore , a cold pudding of a book , a persistent snore in the next room [ ... ] and only the infrequent snatches of heavenly intonations redeem it from utter insipidity . " In response to such criticisms , Transition published essays throughout the late 1920s , defending and explaining Joyce 's work . In 1929 , these essays ( along with a few others written for the occasion ) were collected under the title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress and published by Shakespeare and Company . This collection featured Samuel Beckett 's first commissioned work , the essay " Dante ... Bruno . Vico .. Joyce " , along with contributions by William Carlos Williams , Stuart Gilbert , Marcel Brion , Eugene Jolas and others . As Margot Norris highlights , the agenda of this first generation of Wake critics and defenders was " to assimilate Joyce 's experimental text to an already increasingly established and institutionalized literary avant @-@ garde " and " to foreground Joyce 's last work as spearhead of a philosophical avant @-@ garde bent on the revolution of language " . Upon its publication in 1939 , Finnegans Wake received a series of mixed , but mostly negative reviews . Louise Bogan , writing for Nation , surmised that while " the book 's great beauties , its wonderful passages of wit , its variety , its mark of genius and immense learning are undeniable [ ... ] , to read the book over a long period of time gives one the impression of watching intemperance become addiction , become debauch " and argued that " Joyce 's delight in reducing man 's learning , passion , and religion to a hash is also disturbing . " Edwin Muir , reviewing in Listener wrote that " as a whole the book is so elusive that there is no judging it ; I cannot tell whether it is winding into deeper and deeper worlds of meaning or lapsing into meaningless " , although he too acknowledged that " there are occasional flashes of a kind of poetry which is difficult to define but is of unquestioned power . " B. Ifor Evans , writing in the Manchester Guardian , similarly argued that , due to its difficulties , the book " does not admit of review " , and argued that , perhaps " in twenty years ' time , with sufficient study and with the aid of the commentary that will doubtless arise , one might be ready for an attempt to appraise it . " Taking a swipe at many of the negative reviews circulating at the time , Evans writes : " The easiest way to deal with the book would be [ ... ] to write off Mr. Joyce 's latest volume as the work of a charlatan . But the author of Dubliners , A Portrait of the Artist and Ulysses is not a charlatan , but an artist of very considerable proportions . I prefer to suspend judgement ... " In the time since Joyce 's death , the book 's admirers have struggled against public perception of the work to make exactly this argument for Finnegans Wake . One of the book 's early champions was Thornton Wilder , who wrote to Gertrude Stein and Alice Toklas in August 1939 , a few months after the book 's publication : " One of my absorptions [ ... ] has been James Joyce 's new novel , digging out its buried keys and resolving that unbroken chain of erudite puzzles and finally coming on lots of wit , and lots of beautiful things has been my midnight recuperation . A lot of thanks to him " . The publication in 1944 of the first in @-@ depth study and analysis of Joyce 's final text — A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake by mythologist Joseph Campbell and Henry Morton Robinson — tried to prove to a skeptical public that if the hidden key or " Monomyth " could be found , then the book could be read as a novel with characters , plot , and an internal coherence . As a result , from the 1940s @-@ 1960s critical emphasis moved away from positioning the Wake as a " revolution of the word " and towards readings that stressed its " internal logical coherence " , as " the avant @-@ gardism of Finnegans Wake was put on hold [ and ] deferred while the text was rerouted through the formalistic requirements of an American criticism inspired by New Critical dicta that demanded a poetic intelligibility , a formal logic , of texts . " Slowly the book 's critical capital began to rise to the point that , in 1957 , Northrop Frye described Finnegans Wake as the “ chief ironic epic of our time ” and Anthony Burgess lauded the book as " a great comic vision , one of the few books of the world that can make us laugh aloud on nearly every page . " In 1962 , Clive Hart wrote the first major book @-@ length study of the work since Campbell 's Skeleton Key , Structure and Motif in " Finnegans Wake " which approached the work from the increasingly influential field of structuralism . However through the 1960s it was to be French post @-@ structuralist theory that was to exert the most influence over readings of Finnegans Wake , refocussing critical attention back to the work 's radical linguistic experiments and their philosophical consequences . Jacques Derrida developed his ideas of literary " deconstruction " largely inspired by Finnegans Wake ( as detailed in the essay " Two Words for Joyce " ) , and as a result literary theory — in particular post @-@ structuralism — has embraced Joyce 's innovation and ambition in Finnegans Wake . Derrida tells an anecdote about the two books ' importance for his own thought ; in a bookstore in Tokyo , an American tourist of the most typical variety leaned over my shoulder and sighed : " So many books ! What is the definitive one ? Is there any ? " It was an extremely small book shop , a news agency . I almost replied , " Yes , there are two of them , Ulysses and Finnegans Wake . The text 's influence on other writers has grown since its initial shunning , and contemporary American author Tom Robbins is among the writers working today to have expressed his admiration for Joyce 's complex last work : the language in it is incredible . There 's so many layers of puns and references to mythology and history . But it 's the most realistic novel ever written . Which is exactly why it 's so unreadable . He wrote that book the way that the human mind works . An intelligent , inquiring mind . And that 's just the way consciousness is . It 's not linear . It 's just one thing piled on another . And all kinds of cross references . And he just takes that to an extreme . There 's never been a book like it and I don 't think there ever will be another book like it . And it 's absolutely a monumental human achievement . But it 's very hard to read . More recently , Finnegans Wake has become an increasingly accepted part of the critical literary canon , although detractors still remain . As an example , John Bishop described the book 's legacy as that of " the single most intentionally crafted literary artifact that our culture has produced [ ... ] and , certainly , one of the great monuments of twentieth @-@ century experimental letters . " The section of the book to have received the most praise throughout its critical history has been " Anna Livia Plurabelle " ( Book I , chapter 8 ) , which Parrinder describes as being " widely recognized as one of the most beautiful prose @-@ poems in English . " In 1994 , in The Western Canon , Harold Bloom wrote of Finnegans Wake : " [ if ] aesthetic merit were ever again to center the canon [ it ] would be as close as our chaos could come to the heights of Shakespeare and Dante , " and in 1998 the Modern Library placed Finnegans Wake seventy @-@ seventh amongst its list of " Top 100 English @-@ language novels of the twentieth century . " = = Publication history = = Throughout the seventeen years that Joyce wrote the book , Finnegans Wake was published in short excerpts in a number of literary magazines , most prominently in the Parisian literary journals Transatlantic Review and Eugene Jolas 's transition . It has been argued that " Finnegans Wake , much more so than Ulysses , was very much directly shaped by the tangled history of its serial publication . " In late October 1923 in Ezra Pound 's Paris flat , Ford Madox Ford convinced Joyce to contribute some of his new sketches to the Transatlantic Review , a new journal that Ford was editing . The eight page " Mamalujo " sketch became the first fragment from the book to be published in its own right , in Transatlantic Review 1 @.@ 4 in April 1924 . The sketch appeared under the title " From Work in Progress " , a term applied to works by Ernest Hemingway and Tristan Tzara published in the same issue , and the one by which Joyce would refer to his final work until its publication as Finnegans Wake in 1939 . The sketch appeared in the final published text , in radically altered form , as chapter 2 @.@ 4 . In 1925 four sketches from the developing work were published . " Here Comes Everybody " was published as " From Work in Progress " in the Contact Collection of Contemporary Writers , edited by Robert McAlmon . " The Letter " was published as " Fragment of an Unpublished Work " in Criterion 3 @.@ 12 ( July 1925 ) , and as " A New Unnamed Work " in Two Worlds 1 @.@ 1 . ( September 1925 ) . The first published draft of " Anna Livia Plurabelle " appeared in Le Navire d 'Argent 1 in October , and the first published draft of " Shem the Penman " appeared in the Autumn – Winter edition of This Quarter . In 1925 @-@ 6 Two Worlds began to publish redrafted versions of previously published fragments , starting with " Here Comes Everybody " in December 1925 , and then " Anna Livia Plurabelle " ( March 1926 ) , " Shem the Penman " ( June 1926 ) , and " Mamalujo " ( September 1925 ) , all under the title " A New Unnamed Work " . Eugene Jolas befriended Joyce in 1927 , and as a result serially published revised fragments from Book I in his transition literary journal . This began with the debut of the book 's opening chapter , under the title " Opening Pages of a Work in Progress " , in April 1927 . By November chapters I.2 through I.8 had all been published in the journal , in their correct sequence , under the title " Continuation of a Work in Progress " . From 1928 Book 's II and III slowly began to emerge in transition , with a brief excerpt of II.2 ( " The Triangle " ) published in February 1928 , and Book III 's four chapters between March 1928 and November 1929 . At this point , Joyce started publishing individual books of chapters from Work in Progress . In 1929 , Harry and Caresse Crosby , owners of the Black Sun Press , contacted James Joyce through bookstore owner Sylvia Beach and arranged to print three short fables about the novel 's three children Shem , Shaun and Issy that had already appeared in translation . These were " The Mookse and the Gripes " , " The Triangle " , and " The Ondt and the Gracehoper " . The Black Sun Press named the new book Tales Told of Shem and Shaun for which they paid Joyce US $ 2 @,@ 000 for 600 copies , unusually good pay for Joyce at that time . Their printer Roger Lescaret erred when setting the type , leaving the final page with only two lines . Rather than reset the entire book , he suggested to the Crosby 's that they ask Joyce to write an additional eight lines to fill in the remainder of the page . Caresse refused , insisting that a literary master would never alter his work to fix a printer 's error . Lescaret appealed directly to Joyce , who promptly wrote the eight lines requested . The first 100 copies of Joyce 's book were printed on Japanese velum and signed by the author . It was hand @-@ set in Caslon type and included an abstract portrait of Joyce by Constantin Brâncuși , a pioneer of modernist abstract sculpture . Brâncuși 's drawings of Joyce became among the most popular images of him . Faber and Faber published book editions of " Anna Livia Plurabelle " ( 1930 ) , and " Haveth Childers Everywhere " ( 1931 ) , HCE 's long defence of his life which would eventually close chapter III.3. A year later they published Two Tales of Shem and Shaun , which dropped " The Triangle " from the previous Black Sun Press edition . Book 2 was published serially in transition between February 1933 and May 1938 , and a final individual book publication , Storiella as She Is Syung , was published by Corvinus Press in 1937 , made up of sections from what would become chapter II.2. By 1938 virtually all of Finnegans Book was in print in the transition serialisation and in the booklets , with the exception of Book IV . However , Joyce continued to revise all previously published sections until Finnegans Wake 's final published form , resulting in the text existing in a number of different forms , to the point that critics can speak of Finnegans Wake being a different entity to Work in Progress . The book was finally published by Faber and Faber on 4 May 1939 , after seventeen years of composition . In March 2010 , a new " critically emended edition " was published in a limited edition of 1 @,@ 000 copies by Houyhnhnm Press in conjunction with Penguin . This edition was published in a trade edition in 2012 . Edited by Danis Rose and John O 'Hanlon , is the " summation of thirty years ’ intense engagement by textual scholars Danis Rose and John O ’ Hanlon verifying , codifying , collating and clarifying the 20 @,@ 000 pages of notes , drafts , typescripts and proofs . " In the publisher 's words the new edition " incorporates some 9 @,@ 000 minor yet crucial corrections and amendments , covering punctuation marks , font choice , spacing , misspellings , misplaced phrases and ruptured syntax . " According to the publisher , " Although individually minor , these changes are nonetheless crucial in that they facilitate a smooth reading of the book ’ s allusive density and essential fabric . " An attempt to identify these " 9 @,@ 000 minor yet crucial corrections and amendments " is under way at the Finnegans Wake Extensible Elucidation Treasury ( FWEET ) . = = Translations and derivative works = = Despite its linguistic complexity , Finnegans Wake has been translated into other languages : French , German , Chinese , Japanese , Dutch , Korean , Portuguese , Polish , Greek and Turkish . A musical play , The Coach with the Six Insides by Jean Erdman , based on the character Anna Livia Plurabelle , was performed in New York in 1962 . Parts of the book were adapted for the stage by Mary Manning as Passages from Finnegans Wake , which was in turn used as the basis for a film of the novel by Mary Ellen Bute . Danish visual artists Michael Kvium and Christian Lemmerz created a multimedia project called " the Wake " , an 8 hour long silent movie based on the book . A version adapted by Barbara Vann with music by Chris McGlumphy was produced by The Medicine Show Theater in April 2005 and received a favorable review in the 11 April 2005 edition of The New York Times . André Hodeir composed a jazz cantata on Anna Plurabelle ( 1966 ) . John Cage 's Roaratorio : an Irish circus on Finnegans Wake combines a collage of sounds mentioned in Finnegans Wake , with Irish jigs and Cage reading his Writing for the Second Time through Finnegans Wake , one of a series of five writings based on the Wake . The work also sets textual passages from the book as songs , including The Wonderful Widow of Eighteen Springs and Nowth upon Nacht . Phil Minton set passages of the Wake to music , on his 1998 album Mouthfull of Ecstasy . In recent years Olwen Fouéré 's play riverrun , based on the theme of rivers in Finnegans Wake has received critical accolades around the world . Adam Harvey has also adapted Finnegans Wake for the stage , including collaborating with Martin Pearlman and the Boston Baroque . In 2015 Waywords and Meansigns : Recreating Finnegans Wake [ in its whole wholume ] set Finnegans Wake to music unabridged , featuring an international group of musicians and Joyce enthusiasts . = = Cultural impact = = Finnegans Wake is a difficult text , and it has been noted that Joyce did not aim it at the general reader ; however , certain aspects of the work have made an impact on popular culture beyond the awareness of it being difficult . In the academic field , physicist Murray Gell @-@ Mann named a type of subatomic particle as a quark , after the phrase " Three quarks for Muster Mark " on page 383 of Finnegans Wake , as he already had the sound " kwork " . Similarly , the comparative mythology term monomyth , as described by Joseph Campbell in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces , was taken from a passage in Finnegans Wake . The work of Marshall McLuhan was greatly inspired by James Joyce , especially referencing Finnegans Wake throughout the collage book War and Peace in the Global Village . The novel also was the source of the title of Clay Shirky 's book Here Comes Everybody .
= Dub Jones ( American football ) = William Augustus " Dub " Jones ( born December 29 , 1924 ) is a former American football halfback who played ten seasons in the National Football League ( NFL ) and the old All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) in the late 1940s and early 1950s , primarily for the Cleveland Browns . He shares the NFL record for touchdowns scored in a single game , with six . Jones was born into an athletic family in Louisiana and played a variety of sports , including football , at his high school in Ruston . The team won the state championship in 1941 , his senior year . Jones attended Louisiana State University on a scholarship for a year before being transferred to Tulane University in New Orleans as part of a World War II @-@ era U.S. Navy training program . He played football at Tulane for two seasons before joining the Miami Seahawks of the new AAFC in 1946 . The Seahawks traded Jones at the end of the 1946 season to the AAFC 's Brooklyn Dodgers , who subsequently sent him to the Browns before the 1948 season . That year , the Browns won all of their games and the AAFC championship . The team repeated as champions in 1949 , but the AAFC dissolved at the end of the year and the Browns joined the NFL . A tall flanker back who was both a running and receiving threat , Jones was a key part of Browns teams that won NFL championships in 1950 , 1954 and 1955 . He was twice named to the Pro Bowl , the NFL 's all @-@ star game , including in 1951 , when he set his touchdown record . Jones retired after the 1955 season , but returned to the Browns as an assistant coach in 1963 . The Browns won the NFL championship the following year . Jones left football for good in 1968 and went back to Ruston , where he worked with one of his sons in a general contracting business . Jones is a member of the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame and the Greater New Orleans Sports Hall of Fame . = = Early life and college = = Jones was born in Arcadia , Louisiana , but moved with his mother and three brothers to nearby Ruston , Louisiana after his father died when he was three years old . He played Little League Baseball as a child and went to watch boxing matches and baseball and football games at the nearby Louisiana Tech University . Jones attended Ruston High School starting in 1938 , and played football under head coach L.J. " Hoss " Garrett . He was small in stature and did not make the first team until his senior year in 1941 . Ruston 's Bearcats football team won its first @-@ ever state championship that year , with Jones playing left halfback and tailback . Jones also played baseball and basketball and boxed in high school . After graduating , Jones got a scholarship to attend Louisiana State University ( LSU ) in Baton Rouge , where one of his brothers played football . He stayed there for a year before joining the U.S. Navy as American involvement in World War II intensified . The Navy transferred him to a V @-@ 12 training program at Tulane University in New Orleans , where he played as a halfback and a safety in 1943 and 1944 . Jones carried the football for a total of 700 yards of rushing and scored four touchdowns in 1944 , his junior year , and was named an All @-@ American and an All @-@ Southeastern Conference player by sportswriters . He trained as a fireman aboard submarines while in the Navy , and in 1945 he played football for a military team at the Naval Submarine Base New London in New London , Connecticut . Before beginning his professional career , he played in the 1946 Chicago College All @-@ Star Game , a now @-@ defunct annual contest between the National Football League champion and a squad of the country 's best college players . Led by quarterback and future teammate Otto Graham , the college players beat the Los Angeles Rams 16 – 0 that year . = = Professional career = = Jones was selected by the Chicago Cardinals of the National Football League ( NFL ) with the second pick in the 1946 NFL Draft , but did not sign with the team as he pondered returning to LSU to finish his studies . When the Miami Seahawks of the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) offered him a $ 12 @,@ 000 contract , however , he accepted it and joined the team . The Seahawks won just three games in 1946 , the AAFC 's first season of play , and Jones was traded along with two other players to the Brooklyn Dodgers , another AAFC team , in December . The Seahawks , meanwhile , folded and were moved to Baltimore after the season because of poor attendance and shaky finances . Jones played sparingly for the Dodgers in the last three games of the 1946 season , rushing for 62 yards on 19 carries . The Dodgers traded for Jones in part to replace Glenn Dobbs – a star tailback in Brooklyn 's single @-@ wing offense – because Dobbs was suffering from injuries . Jones himself was hurt early in the 1947 season , however , when he was hit by Bill Willis of the Cleveland Browns . Injuries to his knee , hip and clavicle forced him to sit out for several weeks . He broke his hand when he returned and had to play exclusively on defense for the rest of the season . Paul Brown , the head coach of the Browns , was impressed with Jones 's defensive play for Brooklyn , and traded away the rights to University of Michigan star Bob Chappuis to acquire him in June 1948 . Jones began his career with the Browns as a defensive back , but was switched to halfback early in the 1948 season because his performance on defense wasn 't up to Brown 's standards . Jones played on offense alongside Graham , the team 's quarterback , and star fullback Marion Motley as the Browns won all of their games in 1948 and beat the Buffalo Bills for their third straight AAFC championship . He ended the year with 149 rushing yards on 33 carries . Over the next two seasons , Jones developed into a star flanker , a position he helped invent . He was both a running threat and a receiver – his tall stature was well @-@ suited to receiving – and helped complement a passing attack that featured the Browns ' two main ends , Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie . Jones often went in motion behind the line of scrimmage before the snap at a time when few players did so , causing confusion and mismatches on defense . He had 312 rushing yards and 241 receiving yards in 1949 , when the Browns won another AAFC championship . Jones came into his own in the 1950 season , when the Browns joined the NFL following the dissolution of the AAFC . Cleveland won the NFL championship against the Rams that year , helped by Jones 's skill receiving short passes underneath opponents ' coverage . Jones had 31 receptions and 11 rushing and receiving touchdowns in 1950 . Jones continued to excel in 1951 , scoring 12 touchdowns and amassing a career @-@ high 1 @,@ 062 yards from scrimmage . He tied an NFL record in a November 25 game against the Chicago Bears by scoring six touchdowns in a single game , a record he shares with Ernie Nevers ( 1929 ) and Gale Sayers ( 1965 ) . The Browns finished the season with an 11 – 1 win @-@ loss record and advanced to the championship game , but lost this time to the Rams . Jones came in second in the NFL in touchdowns scored and was named to the Pro Bowl , the league 's all @-@ star game . He was also selected by sportswriters as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro . " Dub has the speed , the guts and the know @-@ how of a great player , " Paul Brown said at the time , calling him " the most underrated player in the league . " Jones made the Pro Bowl again in 1952 , when he had 952 total yards and six touchdowns . Cleveland advanced to the NFL championship for the third time in a row that year , losing 17 – 7 to the Detroit Lions . In 1953 , Jones 's production declined : he had just 401 total yards and no touchdowns , and he decided to retire after the Browns reached and lost another championship game . He went back to Ruston to work at a lumber business he ran in the offseason , but Brown asked him to return in 1954 , saying the team needed him . Jones played for two more years , winning two more championships with the Browns before retiring for good . He pulled his hamstring in an exhibition game before the 1955 season , an injury that caused him to miss several games and bothered him all season . = = Later life and coaching career = = Jones spent seven years working at his business in Ruston after leaving the Browns . He worked briefly as a special instructor for the Houston Oilers and an occasional advisor to college programs in Louisiana , but otherwise was out of football . He returned to the Browns as an assistant coach , however , in March 1963 after Paul Brown was fired by team owner Art Modell . Blanton Collier , Brown 's long @-@ time deputy , became head coach and put Jones in charge of the receivers . Jones and Collier had been close during his playing days , and Collier considered him an astute student of the game . Under Collier , Jones supervised the offensive backfield and the ends , but was also the Browns ' offensive play @-@ caller . He directed the team from the press box on Collier 's behalf because Collier was hard of hearing and could not do so himself . The Browns won their first six games at the beginning of Jones 's coaching career in the 1963 season , although a late slump cost them a spot in the championship game . The team regrouped the following year , ending with a 10 – 3 – 1 win @-@ loss @-@ tie record and winning the NFL 's eastern division . Cleveland went on to win the championship game against the Baltimore Colts in 1964 . The Browns advanced to the championship game again the following year , but lost to the Green Bay Packers . During his tenure as a coach , Jones was the primary position coach for running backs Jim Brown and Leroy Kelly , both of whom are members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame . He also coached receiver Paul Warfield , another hall of fame member who helped propel the Browns to the 1964 championship . Jones stayed with the Browns until early 1968 , when he quit and was replaced by Nick Skorich . The Browns had offered him a part @-@ time coaching job but made clear that he could not stay on as offensive coordinator ; Jones declined the reduced role . After leaving the Browns , Jones moved back to Ruston and did occasional scouting for the team at the nearby Grambling State University . He was also a volunteer coach of receivers on Grambling 's football team . Later in life , he worked for his son Tom 's general contracting business in Ruston . Jones was inducted into the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1982 and the Greater New Orleans Sports Hall of Fame in 1984 . He is the father of former NFL quarterback Bert Jones , who played 10 seasons in the 1970s and 1980s for the Baltimore Colts and Los Angeles Rams and won the NFL 's most valuable player award in 1976 . Jones and his wife , Schump , have seven children , including four sons who played college football .
= Rudolf Wolters = Rudolf Wolters ( August 3 , 1903 – January 7 , 1983 ) was a German architect and government official , known for his longtime association with fellow architect and Third Reich official Albert Speer . A friend and subordinate of Speer , Wolters received the many papers which were smuggled out of Spandau Prison for Speer while he was imprisoned there , and kept them for him until Speer was released in 1966 . After Speer 's release , the friendship slowly collapsed , Wolters objecting strongly to Speer 's blaming of Hitler and other Nazis for the Jewish Holocaust and World War II , and they saw nothing of each other in the decade before Speer 's death in 1981 . Wolters , who was born to a Catholic middle @-@ class family in the northern German town of Coesfeld , obtained his degree and doctorate in architecture from the Technical University of Berlin , forging a close friendship with Speer while a student . After receiving his doctorate , he had difficulty finding employment prior to the Nazi rise to power . From 1933 to 1937 , he worked for the Reichsbahn . In 1937 , Speer hired him as a department head , and Wolters soon took major responsibility for Hitler 's plan for the large scale reconstruction of Berlin . When Speer became Minister of Armaments and War Production in 1942 , Wolters moved to his department , remaining his close associate . After Speer 's indictment and imprisonment for war crimes , Wolters stood by him . In addition to receiving and organizing Speer 's clandestine notes from Spandau , which later served as the basis of his best @-@ selling books of memoirs , Wolters quietly raised money for Speer . These funds were used to support Speer 's family and for other purposes , according to directions which Wolters received from his former superior . Following Speer 's release in 1966 , their friendship gradually deteriorated , until the two men became so embittered that Wolters allowed papers demonstrating Speer 's knowledge of the persecution of the Jews to become public in 1980 . Wolters was involved in the reconstruction of West Germany following World War II , rebuilding his hometown of Coesfeld among many other projects . Wolters wrote several architectural books during the war , as well as a biography of Speer . = = Early life = = Wolters was born into a Catholic family in Coesfeld , Germany on August 3 , 1903 , the son of an architect who had married the daughter of a master carpenter in the shipbuilding trade . In his privately published memoirs , Segments of a Life , Wolters described his father as " a serious , conscientious and diligent man , always concerned about the future " . Wolters regarded his mother as " a highly practical woman , full of zest for life , who in hard times thought nothing of serving a delicious roast without letting on it was horsemeat " . Wolters passed a generally happy childhood , punctuated by the chaos of the war years , and by a childhood illness that resulted in his being taught at home for a year by two priests . After passing his Abitur , or secondary school examination , he began his architectural studies at the Technical University of Munich in 1923 . Wolters noted the politicized atmosphere of his student days , stating , " My academic freedom began , one might say , to the sound of drums : the Hitler Putsch and its consequences to us students , most of whom were in agreement with it . " Wolters , by his own admission , was in broad sympathy with Nazi aims , though he never saw a need to join the Party . In 1924 , Wolters met Albert Speer , who was a year behind him . Wolters transferred to the Technical University of Berlin later that year , followed by Speer in 1925 . Wolters sought to study under Professor Hans Poelzig , but there was no room in the course for the transfer student . Instead , Wolters studied under Heinrich Tessenow , as did Speer . Wolters obtained his degree in 1927 , and earned his doctorate at the school two years later . In class prize competition , Wolters generally finished second to Speer . Wolters ' graduation coincided with the start of the Great Depression , and he had great difficulty finding a job , eventually settling for an unpaid position at Reichsbahn headquarters in Berlin in 1930 . Upon losing that position the following year , Wolters accepted a position with the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway 's urban planning division in Novosibirsk . = = Nazi era = = In 1933 , Wolters returned to Berlin , where he briefly worked as an assistant in Speer 's office before returning to the Reichsbahn , this time getting paid for his work . Speer had forged a close relationship with Hitler , and in late 1936 , Speer informed Wolters that the dictator would soon appoint Speer as Generalbauinspektor ( GBI ) or General Building Inspector for the Reich Capital , and suggested that Wolters resign his post with the railway and come work for him again . Wolters did so , beginning work at the GBI office in January 1937 as a Head of Department in the Planning Bureau . Wolters was one of a number of young , well @-@ paid assistants of Speer at the GBI , who were collectively nicknamed " Speer 's Kindergarten " . Most of the Kindergarteners were not Nazi Party members , since Speer found that Party duties interfered with working time , and the Kindergarten was expected to work long hours . Speer had Hitler 's permission to hire non @-@ Nazis , so the GBI became something of a political sanctuary . Wolters later wrote of his views at this time : I had viewed Hitler and his movement with some skepticism , but when the abolition of the multi @-@ party mess removed the obscenity of unemployment , and the first 1 @,@ 000 kilometers of autobahns opened up a new era of mobility , I too saw the light : this was the time when Churchill said he hoped Great Britain would have a man like Hitler in time of peril , and when high church dignitaries and distinguished academics paid the Führer homage . Much of Wolters ' work at the GBI was connected to Hitler 's plan for the large scale reconstruction of Berlin . The dictator had placed Speer in charge of this plan . The centerpiece of the scheme was a grand boulevard , 4 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) long , dubbed by Speer as the Prachtstrasse ( Street of Magnificence ) or " North – South Axis " , for which the main design responsibility was delegated to Wolters . Wolters was also responsible for transport rings in the new Berlin , for museums , and for the GBI 's press office . In 1939 , Wolters became responsible for the architecture portion of the magazine , Die Kunst im Deutschen Reich ( Art in the German Reich ) . Wolters made several trips abroad in connection with his duties for the GBI . He visited the United States to study advanced transport systems , and Paris for the 1937 international exposition there . In 1939 , Joseph Goebbels appointed him Exhibition Commissioner . Wolters took charge of organizing German architectural exhibits presented in other countries . Until 1943 , Wolters traveled to other European capitals , and in addition to his duties as commissioner , gathered political intelligence . On his return , Wolters passed along his insights to Speer and some of these thoughts reached Hitler 's ears . In 1940 , Wolters , a longtime diarist , suggested to Speer that he begin keeping a Chronik , or chronicle of the GBI 's activities . Speer agreed , and instructed department heads to send Wolters raw material for the Chronik on a regular basis . Among other matters , the Chronik detailed the GBI 's responsibility for administering a 1939 amendment to the Nuremberg Laws which allowed Aryan landlords to evict Jewish tenants with virtually no notice . For example , the entry for August 1941 included this information : " According to a Speer directive a further action for the clearing of some five thousand Jewish flats is being started . " The November entry noted that " roughly 4 @,@ 500 Jews were evacuated " . The dispossessed Jews were sent to the occupied territories , with the newspapers reporting , as directed by Goebbels : " Over the past few days many Jews have hurriedly left Germany , leaving debts behind them . " Wolters was given the additional task in 1941 of setting up a special section of the government publishing house which specialized in works of architecture . Wolters wrote several books on the Third Reich 's architectural works during the war years . He rejected the notion that Nazi architecture was an imitation of classical models : " Those who speak of neo @-@ classicism have not understood the spirit of our buildings . " In February 1942 , following the death of Fritz Todt , Hitler appointed Speer as Minister of Armaments and War Production . Wolters followed Speer to his new ministry , becoming head of the Department of Culture , Media , and Propaganda of the Organization Todt . Wolters continued his Chronik in the new position . In December 1943 , Speer put Wolters in charge of planning for the reconstruction of bombed German cities . Wolters organized a working group of about twenty architects and city planners , mostly from northern Germany . The work of this group , known as the Arbeitsstab Wiederaufbauplanung ( Task Force for Reconstruction Planning ) , would form the basis for the actual postwar reconstruction of Germany . Speer , who authorized the group , saw an opportunity to make German cities more habitable in the age of the automobile . The group sought solutions which would use the existing street system , rather than the grand ceremonial boulevards common in Nazi city planning . In addition , the Arbeitsstab issued extensive guidelines , ranging from the width of avenues that carried streetcar lines to the ratio of theatre seats to inhabitants . Wolters rarely met Hitler , and only in the company of other members of Speer 's office . He later recorded , Of course , from these few experiences , I cannot judge Hitler 's personality , but having shared with Speer his virtually daily contacts with him , and being familiar with Hitler 's ideas , for example , on town planning , I think that commentators are making it easy for themselves now when , as they frequently do , they resort in their descriptions to simplistic epitaphs such as " buck private " , " wall painter " , " petit @-@ bourgeois philistine " , or " history 's greatest criminal " . Wolters ' longtime secretary , Marion Riesser , was half @-@ Jewish , and Wolters protected her throughout the war . In late 1944 , word reached them that those with Jewish ancestry who remained free would be called up and used for cannon fodder . Wolters met with Riesser and the three other half @-@ Jews in the Speer organizations , telling them if it became necessary ( which it did not ) , the four would be transferred to essential war factories where they would be safe . Wolters told them , " With Albert Speer 's help one can do anything . " In February 1945 , as the Nazi regime collapsed , Speer instructed Wolters to take other high @-@ ranking officials in his department , including Heinrich Lübke , and set up architectural offices in the north of Germany to work on large @-@ scale prefabricated housing . Speer expected to join them , but not then , as he anticipated that the Allies would want to use his expertise towards the reconstruction of Germany . This did not come to pass ; Speer was arrested and charged with war crimes . = = After the war = = = = = Architectural work = = = As Speer had instructed , Wolters set up a small office in the North German town of Höxter with Lübke , who knew the town 's mayor . The new office was soon commissioned to rebuild a bridge which had been destroyed , contrary to Speer 's instructions to preserve infrastructure . Later in 1945 , the office was dissolved , and Wolters returned to his hometown of Coesfeld where he had been commissioned to rebuild the ruined city . Lübke instead turned to politics , rising quickly through the political ranks of postwar Germany . In 1959 , Lübke became President of the Federal Republic of Germany , a position in which he served almost ten years before he resigned over questions about what he may have known about forced labor while working in Speer 's department . Wolters was forced to rebuild in Coesfeld almost from scratch . With the widespread destruction , he had to lay out lots and rebuild streets , all without delay . He built a road through the grounds of the local castle , and converted the building into a hotel and conference center . The versatility he showed in the rebuilding of Coesfeld led to other commissions from German cities , including Rheine , Borken and Anholt . In 1947 and 1949 , Wolters organized meetings of the former Arbeitsstab members , many of whom were intensively involved in the postwar reconstruction efforts . In 1950 , Wolters won a competition to design the new police headquarters in Dortmund The Hotel Königshof in Bonn , rebuilt by Wolters , had previously been the leading hotel in the city . It reopened by hosting the President of Italy in 1956 on his state visit , and again became the leading hotel in the then @-@ capital of the Federal Republic , hosting heads of states ( including U.S. Presidents Kennedy , Nixon , and Reagan ) , state dinners , and events hosted by the Chancellor of Germany . Wolters received so many commissions from the government of North Rhine @-@ Westphalia that he opened an additional office in Düsseldorf . In 1955 , Wolters won a competition to design the Industrie @-@ Kreditbank building in Düsseldorf . Two years later , he was again successful in that city in a competition to design the Galarie Conzen . Wolters was awarded a prize for his design to reconstruct Düsseldorf 's Altstadt ( Old City ) . His son , Fritz Wolters , also an architect , described him as a man who fought uncompromisingly for what he saw as the " whole " in urban planning , and once ended a discussion with a local committee with the remark that they had " rented his head , not his pencil " . Wolters also considered himself to be a " functionalist " , designing a number of concrete , flat roofed , modern hospitals . In the 1960s , Wolters and his son shared an office until their architectural differences separated them , Fritz Wolters being more interested in the small details rather than in what he described as " epoch @-@ making " solutions . However , their personal relationship survived this professional separation . In 1978 , Wolters published a book on the town centre of Berlin , but despite suggestions from his son , he declined to include his views about Nazi architecture , and never did set forth such views to his colleagues . = = = Association with Speer = = = = = = = Spandau years = = = = Wolters did not attend the Nuremberg trial ( he later described it as a " victor 's court " and as a " show trial " ) but wrote to Speer in January 1946 , during the trial : " I stand by you in misfortune as in the good days . I believe as before in your lucky star . " On August 10 , as the trial approached its conclusion , Speer , anticipating the likelihood of a death sentence , wrote to Wolters asking him to " collect my work together for later ages and to recount much of my life . I think it will be honored one day . " Despite his forebodings , Speer did not receive the death sentence , but on October 1 , 1946 , was given a sentence of twenty years in prison , and on July 18 , 1947 , was transferred to Spandau Prison to serve it . Wolters and longtime Speer secretary Annemarie Kempf , while not permitted direct communication with Speer in Spandau , did what they could to help his family and carry out the requests Speer put in letters to his wife — the only written communication officially allowed Speer . Beginning in 1948 , Speer had the services of a sympathetic Dutch orderly to smuggle mail . In 1949 , Wolters opened a special bank account for Speer , the Schulgeldkonto or " School Fund Account " , and began fundraising among those architects and industrialists who had benefited from Speer 's activities during the war . At first the funds were used only to support Speer 's family , but as the amounts grew and Speer 's family became increasingly able to support itself , the money was used for everything from vacations for Speer 's Spandau conduit , Toni Proost , to bribes for those who might be able to secure Speer 's release . Once Speer became aware of the existence of the fund , he would often send detailed instructions about what to do with the money . Wolters raised a total of DM158,000 for Speer over the final seventeen years of his sentence . In 1951 , with secret means of communications established , Wolters sent his first letter to Speer in five years . He suggested that Speer move ahead with his memoirs . In January 1953 , Speer began work on his draft memoirs , and over the next year lengthy missives , sometimes written on tobacco wrappings or candy wrappers but most often on toilet paper , made their way to Wolters ' office in Coesfeld . Marion Riesser , who had continued as Wolters ' secretary as he began private architectural practice , transcribed these notes into as many as forty closely typed pages per missive , and the draft totalled 1 @,@ 100 pages . Wolters objected that Speer called Hitler a criminal in the draft , and Speer presciently observed that he would likely lose a good many friends were the memoirs ever to be published . Wolters had come to believe that reports of Nazi genocide were exaggerated by a factor of at least ten , that Hitler had not been given credit for the things he did right and that Germany had been harshly treated by the Allies . In the mid @-@ 1950s , Wolters quarrelled with Kempf who effectively dropped out of the network for a number of years , adding to the burden on Wolters and Riesser . While Speer 's pleas for his former associate and his former secretary to work together eventually brought about a healing of the breach , this was to some degree superficial as Kempf was aware that Wolters , even then , disagreed with Speer 's opinions . Wolters questioned Speer 's readiness to accept responsibility for the Nazi regime 's excesses and did not believe Speer had anything to apologise for , though the strength of his feelings on this point was kept from Speer — but not from Kempf and Riesser . Wolters was tireless in his efforts on behalf of Speer and his family to such an extent that his son , Fritz , later expressed feelings of neglect . For Speer 's fiftieth birthday in March 1955 , Wolters gathered letters from many of Speer 's friends and wartime associates , and saw to it that they made their way inside the walls of Spandau in time for Speer 's birthday . Wolters gave Speer 's son Albert a summer job in his Düsseldorf office and a place to stay — in fact , Wolters hosted all six of the Speer children at one time or another . By prior arrangement , he and Speer tried to get in touch with each other by telepathy one New Year 's Eve — but both men fell asleep before midnight struck . Wolters constantly sought Speer 's early release , which required the consent of the four occupying powers . He engaged Düsseldorf attorney , and later state minister , Werner Schütz to lobby high German officials to get them to advocate Speer 's release . Schütz , who refused to ask for his expenses , was unsuccessful even though Lübke , West German President for the last seven years of Speer 's incarceration , had worked under Speer . Wolters had more success fending off denazification proceedings against Speer , collecting many affidavits in Speer 's favor , including one from Tessenow whom Speer had shielded during the war . Those proceedings dragged on for years , and were eventually ended by order of Willy Brandt , a strong supporter of Speer 's . As early as 1956 , Wolters feared the effect that disclosure of the GBI 's eviction of Jewish tenants might have on Speer . Wolters wrote to Kempf concerning the denazification proceedings , " I am only anxious about the matter of the clearance of Jew @-@ flats in Berlin . That could be a bullseye . And this is the point to which the defense should direct itself ... " In 1964 , Speer mentioned to Wolters in a letter that he would need the Chronik as a reference in revising his memoirs upon his release . Wolter 's response was to have Riesser retype the entire Chronik , leaving out any mention of the GBI 's involvement in the persecution of the Jews , without telling Speer what he was doing . Wolters later wrote that he did this to correct mistakes , to leave out extraneous matters , and " above all to delete certain parts on the basis of which Speer and one or another of his colleagues could still have been prosecuted . The Ludwigsburg Central office for ' war crimes ' was still at work and an end of the persecution of National Socialists was not in sight . " In April 1965 , with only eighteen months left of Speer 's sentence , Wolters wrote to him of their prospective reunion , " [ I ] t will have been twenty years since I saw you last . What will there be between us old codgers , aside of course from happy memories of skiing tours in the long distant past [ ? ] ... Will you come to me mainly to take receipt of the promised gift I have held for you in our cellar — that long cured Westphalian ham , and those patiently waiting bottles of your favorite nectar : Johannisberger 1937 ? Could these things of the senses end up being all that there is between us ? I am so happy that the moment approaches , but my heart is heavy ... " According to Riesser , she thought that Wolters " was frightened of the reality of Speer " . However , Kempf thought Wolters wished Speer ill . Speer was unaware of the depth of Wolters ' feelings , and later told his biographer @-@ to @-@ be Joachim Fest that Wolters was the closest friend he had . Speer added that during the Spandau years , Wolters performed invaluable services for him and that he did not know how he would have survived Spandau without Wolters ' assistance . Throughout the latter part of Speer 's imprisonment , Wolters was a faithful correspondent , writing lengthy letters to Speer at least once a month , attempting to tell Speer everything that might interest him but nothing that might hurt him . When Speer invented the concept of his " world wide walk " , imagining his daily exercise around the prison yard to be segments in a long walk from Europe through Asia to North America , Wolters supplied Speer with details of what he would " see " . Speer later stated , " In a manner of speaking , Rudi Wolters accompanied me on these walks . " As midnight struck and October 1 , 1966 began , Speer was released from Spandau Prison . His last use of the clandestine message system was to have a telegram sent to Wolters , in which Speer jokingly asked Wolters to pick him up thirty @-@ five kilometres south of Guadalajara , Mexico , which he had " reached " after walking 31 @,@ 936 kilometres . = = = = Deterioration of relationship = = = = After spending two weeks with his family , Speer came to Coesfeld to visit Wolters in October 1966 . Shortly before Speer 's visit , Annemarie Kempf had visited Wolters in Coesfeld to ask him not to allow his differences with Speer to affect their first meeting . Wolters responded that he and Speer were " too far apart " . The visit was quickly marred by Speer 's insistence on inviting industrialist Ernst Wolf Mommsen to Wolters ' home instead of allowing a one @-@ on @-@ one reunion . According to Wolters ' son Fritz , his father was furious and hurt by the perceived slight . While the actual meeting was casual and cordial ( in addition to the long @-@ promised ham and wine , Wolters turned over all of the accumulated papers from Speer , the censored copy of the Chronik and the remaining balance of DM25,000 in the School Fund Account ) , Wolters later wrote , " I knew that day of that first still merry reunion that the Spandau friendship was over . As he stood there , in person , I saw him suddenly quite differently than I had previously . " Wolters was perturbed by an interview with Speer published in Der Spiegel in November 1966 , in which Speer , while again taking responsibility for crimes of the Nazi era , blamed Hitler , rather than Germany , for starting World War II . Wolters wrote to Speer on November 30 , describing Speer 's assignment of blame as a " dangerous oversimplification made entirely from today 's perspective ... You will surely remember that in 1939 we were all of the opinion that Hitler was Germany . Although we were certainly depressed rather than enthusiastic about the war in Poland , we surely considered that the responsibility for it was to be found in the provocative conduct by the Poles , and it was the British who made of it a world war . " Wolters asked Speer to " concentrate wholly on what really happened , leaving aside what the world thinks of it now " . Their relationship was further embittered by Speer 's failure to mention Wolters by name in Speer 's first book based on the Spandau material , Inside the Third Reich . Speer 's initial draft of the book , written while in Spandau , does mention his " old university friend , Dr. Rudolf Wolters , to whom was assigned the most essential task , the Prachtstrasse " in connection with the Berlin project . However , Wolters ' name appears nowhere in the published version , and no mention is made of Wolters ' help , essential to the writing and preservation of the draft memoir . Speer later told his future biographer , Gitta Sereny , that he did so to protect Wolters , since it might have been risky for Wolters to have been known to have assisted an imprisoned war criminal . Sereny notes in her biography of Speer that it would not have been in Speer 's interest to have publicized Wolter 's assistance , given the growing disagreement between them over Speer 's statements . Wolter 's son , Fritz , suggested that had Speer mentioned Wolters even once , " it would have made all the difference " , since it would have shown that Speer acknowledged the debt he owed Wolters for his efforts during his incarceration . After the German edition of Inside the Third Reich was published in late 1969 , Speer proposed a visit to the embittered Wolters in Coesfeld . Wolters advised against it , sarcastically suggesting that he was surprised that the author did not " walk through life in a hair shirt , distributing his fortune among the victims of National Socialism , forswear all the vanities and pleasures of life and live on locusts and wild honey " . Nevertheless , Wolters expressed a willingness to meet , proposing ( rather pointedly ) a meeting at Wolters ' house on November 19 , Buß- und Bettag , the day of penance and prayer for German Protestants . Speer duly visited , and as the two sat down to lunch , enquired , " Where are the locusts ? " With research concluded upon Inside the Third Reich , Speer had donated the edited Chronik to the German Federal Archives in Koblenz in July 1969 . David Irving compared the donated Chronik with a copy of the Chronik for 1943 in the Imperial War Museum in London , and discovered discrepancies . Irving asked the Archives and Speer the reason for the differences ( which were minor compared with previous years ) . Speer requested an explanation from Wolters , and Wolters admitted the censorship by letter in January 1970 , saying , " I wouldn 't have put it past the Ludwigsbergern [ German war crimes prosecutors ] to launch an additional prosecution against you on the pretext that this charge [ of evicting the Jews ] was not included in the Nuremberg Indictment . " Speer suggested that the pages of the Chronik dealing with the Jews should not exist , and informed the Archives that the original of the Chronik , from which the copy given to the Archives had been made , had disappeared . Wolters did not destroy the original as Speer had hinted . Wolters ' anger towards Speer burst into the open in 1971 after Speer did a lengthy interview for Playboy , in which he again took responsibility for Nazi crimes and blamed Hitler and his associates for the war . What is the matter with you that , that even after the unending admissions of guilt in [ Inside the Third Reich ] you cannot stop representing yourself ever more radically as a criminal for whom twenty years in prison was " too little " ? ... there appears to be a vast and incomprehensible discrepancy between your humble confessions and your present way of life . For the former would lead one to expect a Speer in sackcloth and ashes ; I , however , know you as a merry fellow who undertakes one lovely journey after another and who happily regales his old chums with tales of his literary and financial successes ... [ Y ] our accusations against your former colleagues ( Göring , Goebbels , Bormann , etc . ) who , being dead , cannot defend themselves are agony to me ... I hope and think that the day will come when you will no longer find it necessary to confess your guilt to all and sundry in order to persuade yourself of your virtue . Wolters concluded his letter with a suggestion that they avoid seeing each other in future , a suggestion with which Speer concurred . In spite of this , Wolters ' wife Erika remained close friends with Margarete Speer , Albert Speer 's wife . The two men had Christmas presents delivered to each other every year ( Wolters sent Speer a ham , while receiving a pot of honey ) . Speer admitted that because he had had few friends , the estrangement hurt . In 1975 , Wolters attempted a reconciliation , sending Speer a letter for his seventieth birthday in March . Speer responded emotionally , pledging to come visit Wolters at the slightest hint . Speer wrote again two months later , telling Wolters that " despite all inherent contradictions , I am very attached to you " . Nevertheless , the two men never met again . Even in Speer 's second book of memoirs , Spandau : The Secret Diaries , Wolters ' name is not mentioned , and his hometown is changed ; the text refers to him as Speer 's " Coburg friend " . Speer sent Wolters a copy of the book anyway , though Speer stated that he thought it likely that Wolters would let it sit in his bookcase unread . Wolters responded sarcastically in a letter which he signed , " Duke of Coburg , " " I forgive you for not ' localizing ' me in the diaries after your modest restraint in [ Inside the Third Reich ] . The author of the [ Chronik ] , the temporary ' best friend ' , and the indefatigable contact for Spandau remains nonexistent . " = = Later life and death = = Wolters bequeathed his papers to the Federal Archives , ensuring the record would be corrected one day . However , in late 1979 , Speer was approached by Matthias Schmidt , a doctoral student , who sought answers to a number of questions for use in preparing his thesis . After answering Schmidt 's questions , Speer referred Schmidt to Wolters for further information . Wolters took a liking to Schmidt , and showed him both the original Chronik and the correspondence in which Wolters had informed Speer of the censoring of the record . When confronted by Schmidt with this information , Speer both denied knowledge of the censorship and stated that the correspondence was not genuine . While Speer pledged not to take legal action against Schmidt for using the disputed papers ( after obtaining his doctorate , Schmidt published his thesis as a book , Albert Speer : The End of a Myth ) , he made no such promise regarding Wolters . Speer published a formal revocation of a power of attorney he had given Wolters while in Spandau and disputed on legal grounds Wolters ' right to the Chronik and other papers . The dispute was only ended by Speer 's sudden death in London in September 1981 . Wolters died in January 1983 after a long illness . According to his son Fritz , his final word was " Albert " . He had donated many of his papers to the Archives in 1982 ; after Wolters died , Riesser , as his literary executor , donated the remainder . = = Books in German = = Spezialist in Sibirien , Berlin : Wendt & Matthes Verlag , 1933 . Die Neue Reichskanzlei : Architekt Albert Speer , with Heinrich Wolff . Munich : Zentralverlag der NSDAP , 1940 . Neue deutsche Baukunst , with Albert Speer . Berlin : Volk und Reich , 1943 . Albert Speer , Oldenburg : Stalling , 1943 . Vom Beruf des Baumeisters , Berlin : Volk und Reich , 1944 . Coesfeld Fragen und Antworten eines Städtebauers , Coesfeld : Kreisverwaltung , 1974 . Stadtmitte Berlin , Tübingen : Wasmuth , 1978 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 8030 @-@ 0130 @-@ 6
= Jack Crossland = John " Jack " Crossland ( 2 April 1852 – 26 September 1903 ) was an English professional cricketer who played for Lancashire between 1878 and 1887 . A right @-@ arm fast bowler , Crossland was recognised as one of the fastest bowlers in county cricket . However , he was also widely criticised for throwing , rather than bowling the ball . Were it not for this , he would have probably played for England against Australia in 1882 or 1884 . Crossland was born in Nottinghamshire , but qualified to play for Lancashire due to residency . He made his first @-@ class debut for his adopted county in 1878 , but his bowling was most effective from 1881 until 1884 . His best year was 1882 , when he topped the national bowling averages , claiming 112 wickets at an average of just over ten . The presence of Crossland , and a number of other bowlers with suspect actions , in the Lancashire team resulted in some counties refusing to play fixtures against during the mid @-@ 1880s . During 1885 , a ruling from the Marylebone Cricket Club barred Crossland from playing for Lancashire as his qualification for the county had been breached by him living in Nottinghamshire during the winter . The ruling forced his retirement from county cricket , though he continued to appear in other matches for a few years following that . In all , Crossland claimed 322 wickets in first @-@ class cricket at an average of 12 @.@ 48 . He claimed ten wickets in a match on six occasions . Primarily a tail @-@ end batsman , he scored 1 @,@ 172 runs with a top score of 51 . = = Early career = = Crossland was born in Sutton @-@ in @-@ Ashfield in Nottinghamshire on 2 April 1852 . Employed as a coal miner , he was one of a number of Nottinghamshire @-@ born cricketers who sought professional contracts in Lancashire . The Lancashire cricket leagues began paying the best players to appear for them , creating an exodus of cricketing talent to the county . Crossland first gained employment as a professional cricketer in 1876 , with Enfield Cricket Club . In a single innings match against Burnley that season , he took eight wickets and conceded 88 runs ( eight for 88 ) . The following season he once again took eight wickets against the same opposition , finishing with figures of eight for 50 . Towards the end of 1877 , he was chosen to play for a " Gentlemen and Players XI " against Burnley in a benefit match for Burnley 's professional John Melling . He took five for 10 in the match from his five overs to help his side win on first innings . In early 1878 , Crossland improved upon his previous efforts , taking eight for 28 against Burnley . = = Lancashire professional = = Crossland 's performances for Enfield drew the attention of Lancashire County Cricket Club , for whom he was qualified on the basis of residency . He made his debut against Yorkshire in August 1878 . He was not required to bowl in the first innings , and after scoring one run , bowled eight overs without a wicket in the second innings . He took his maiden wicket in first @-@ class cricket in his second match , against Kent . In another benefit match played for Melling , Crossland took eight for 60 for " Burnley District XI " against Burnley in September 1878 . His first match for Lancashire in 1879 came in June , when he claimed four for 26 against Derbyshire ; his best bowling that season . He claimed wickets consistently through the season , and finished with fifteen wickets from his seven matches at an average of 14 @.@ 53 . He only played three times for Lancashire in 1880 , taking seven wickets at 16 @.@ 28 . He bowled with little effect in most of 1881 , but took ten wickets in a match against Surrey at the Oval . Across his other six matches that year , he only claimed three further wickets , and completed the season with thirteen wickets at an average of 7 @.@ 15 . The 1882 season was Crossland 's best ; though he started with a wicket @-@ less match against the Marylebone Cricket Club . He took seven wickets against the touring Australians in early June , while in the following match , against Somerset , he took six for 7 in the second innings , to help Lancashire to an innings victory . He took five wickets in an innings on ten occasions during the season , including twice in a match against Middlesex , to claim ten wickets in the match . Playing a match for Liverpool and District against the touring Australians , he took his best bowling figures in an innings that season , claiming seven wickets for 72 . He took a pair of five @-@ wicket hauls against Surrey in late August to finish with eleven wickets in the match . His final match of the season was a further fixture against the Australians , in which he took eight wickets in the match for the North . In all , Crossland took 112 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 10 @.@ 06 in 1882 , topping the national bowling averages . Lancashire were recognised by some publications as being champion county , or more commonly as joint champions with Nottinghamshire in 1882 , and in addition to Crossland , Lancashire 's George Nash , Dick Barlow and Alexander Watson took fifty or more wickets at an average of under thirteen . In his obituary in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , it was suggested that were it not for the accusations of throwing against Crossland , he would have been selected for the sole Test match against the touring Australians at the Oval . = = Throwing controversies = = An article written for The Argus , an Australian daily newspaper , by an unnamed member of the Australian side in 1882 reported that Crossland bowled ; " with a delivery so like a throw that I feel sure it would not be allowed in Australia ; but , as we all know , throwing in England is just as common as bowling – more 's the pity . " Crossland 's delivery was the cause for much discussion throughout his most successful year of 1882 , but despite a commonly held view that he threw the ball , umpires never called a no ball against him for throwing . In 1883 , Middlesex refused to arrange matches with Lancashire due to the perceived unfair bowling of Crossland and some of his teammates . He continued to bowl effectively during 1883 , and peaked towards the end of the season , claiming seven wickets in an innings against " The Rest " while playing for a combined Lancashire and Yorkshire side , another seven in an innings for Lancashire against Surrey , and the best bowling figures of his career , eight for 57 for the North against the South . During the match against Surrey , which was held at the Oval , Crossland was heckled by the crowd , with cries of " well thrown " , and " take him off " , shouted during his bowling spell . The vehemence of the protests almost drew the Lancashire captain , A. N. Hornby to refuse to complete the match . In an end of season match for Dick Barlow 's XI against Tom Emmett 's XI ; he scored his highest first @-@ class score with the bat , reaching 51 runs in the second innings . He took 72 wickets in 1883 at an average of 12 @.@ 97 , placing him third in the national bowling averages . Lancashire 's policy of recruiting professional bowlers without much regard for their qualification to play for the county caused some bad @-@ feeling with other counties , most notably Crossland 's native Nottinghamshire . The bickering between the counties escalated and in 1883 , after receiving a provocative Christmas card from Lancashire , the Nottinghamshire committee sent an aggressive response : LANCASHIRE COUNTY CRICKET . The only rules necessary for players in the County Eleven are that they shall neither have been born in , nor reside in , Lancashire . Sutton @-@ in @-@ Ashfield men will have the preference . At the end of the 1883 season , a meeting of the county secretaries at Lord 's was held , during which a proposal was made " that the undermentioned counties agree among themselves not to employ any bowler whose action is at all doubtful . " The proposal was essentially a gentlemen 's agreement to try and prevent unfair bowling , necessitated by the umpires ' refusal to intervene . The resolution was signed by representatives from Derbyshire , Kent , Middlesex , Nottinghamshire , Surrey and Yorkshire , but those from Gloucestershire and Sussex refused to sign it , along with the representative from Lancashire . As a result , Middlesex were joined by Nottinghamshire in boycotting Lancashire in 1884 . Crossland was strong again , and claimed ten wickets in a match on three occasions ; first against Oxford University in late May – early June . In his next match , for the North against the South , he claimed seven wickets in each innings to record match figures of 14 for 80 . The crowd at Lord 's followed the example set at the Oval in the previous year , heckling Crossland throughout the match . He collected seven wickets in an innings again , in a match not classified as first @-@ class against Leicestershire , and completed the ten @-@ wicket haul with four wickets in the second innings . He faced the touring Australians twice during June , taking two wickets for the North , before collecting eleven wickets for Liverpool and District . The report in The Argus once again vilified Crossland , writing that " owing principally to the successful throwing of Crossland " the Australian first innings closed for 140 . Crossland was considered for selection in the first Test against Australia , which was played at Lancashire 's Old Trafford ground . An official from the home ground chose the England team for each match . Lord Harris announced that he would not participate in the Test at Old Trafford if Crossland was selected . As a result , Lord Harris was not chosen by the Lancashire official , although in the end Crossland did not play either . Lord Harris , who was both the captain of Kent and England in 1884 , led the protests against throwing . He forced the retirement of two of Kent 's bowlers , but was reasonably satisfied with Lancashire in 1884 : for their match against Kent at Old Trafford , they dropped Nash , and by the meeting of the two sides in August that year , neither Crossland nor Nash were in the side . Lord Harris had hoped that this indicated that Lancashire were making efforts to " of [ their ] own free will , and without agreement with other counties , to place [ their ] eleven in an irreproachable position . " = = Termination of county cricket career = = In 1885 Lancashire once again were unable to face either Middlesex or Nottinghamshire as the two sides maintained their boycott . Crossland was chosen to appear for Charles Thornton 's England XI against Cambridge University , in which he took seven wickets for 117 . In late May , he took four for 52 and three for 51 against Kent at Old Trafford . After the match , Lord Harris , unhappy with the return of Crossland and Nash to the Lancashire side , requested that the Kent committee cancel the home fixture against Lancashire . The committee agreed with his argument , and Kent became the third first @-@ class county to refuse to play against Lancashire . Crossland only played six matches for Lancashire in 1885 before the Marylebone Cricket Club ruled that he had breached his residency qualification by returning to live in Nottinghamshire during the winter period . Due to this , he was not allowed to play for Lancashire , effectively ending his first @-@ class career . Nash retired from county cricket at the end of 1885 due to criticisms about his own action , and fixtures between Lancashire and Middlesex , Nottinghamshire and Kent resumed in 1886 . He played two further first @-@ class matches , in 1886 and 1887 , both for CI Thornton 's XI against Cambridge University . At his peak in 1882 , Crossland was considered one of the fastest bowlers in England , and his yorker were described as W. G. Grace as being " exceedingly difficult to play . " In his Wisden obituary , it was reported that " the majority of experts having no hesitation in describing him as a rank thrower . " Grace was scarcely kinder , noting that he was " inclined to think that he ought to have been no @-@ balled in every over . " Although the widespread opinion against his action , the umpires , themselves professional , were reluctant to no ball him . In all first @-@ class matches , Crossland claimed 322 wickets at an average of 10 @.@ 95 . He took ten wickets in a match on six occasions , and five wickets in an innings 25 times . He scored 1 @,@ 172 runs with a high score of 51 . = = Later life and career = = Crossland remained in Lancashire after his expulsion from their county side , playing for a variety of club sides ; East Lancashire from 1885 to 1889 , Church and Oswaldtwistle in 1890 and Colne in 1891 . He died on 26 September 1903 in Blackburn . His burial was paid for by Lancashire County Cricket Club . Throwing in cricket came to a head in the early part of the twentieth century when the careers of a number of professional bowlers came to a close , most notably those of Lancashire 's Arthur Mold , Somerset 's Ted Tyler and Leicestershire 's Frederic Geeson .
= M @-@ 553 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 553 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan . It connects M @-@ 35 near Gwinn with the Marquette Bypass , an expressway carrying US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) and M @-@ 28 in Marquette . M @-@ 553 connects Marquette with Sawyer International Airport at the unincorporated community of K.I. Sawyer AFB , the former site of a US Air Force base , in the Sands Plains area of Marquette County . The intersection with CR 480 in Sands Township , known locally as the Crossroads , is the site of several businesses . North of this location , M @-@ 553 runs through some hilly terrain around a local ski hill . The trunkline was originally County Road 553 ( CR 553 ) in Marquette County . CR 553 dates back to the 1930s , was fully paved in the 1940s , and a segment of the roadway was relocated in the 1950s . During the early 1990s , the City of Marquette extended one of their streets , McClellan Avenue , southward to connect to CR 553 . The county road was transferred from the Marquette County Road Commission ( MCRC ) to the jurisdiction of the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) on October 1 , 1998 . MDOT assigned most of the former county road the M @-@ 553 designation after the transfer was complete . One section that was less than a mile ( about 1 @.@ 4 km ) was given the M @-@ 554 designation . This related trunkline was unsigned by the state with only city street signs to indicate its existence . In 2005 , control of various roadways was exchanged between the City of Marquette and MDOT , and M @-@ 553 was extended through the city . At the same time , M @-@ 554 was turned over to the city 's jurisdiction . = = Route description = = M @-@ 553 begins as a two @-@ lane rural highway east of Gwinn at an intersection with M @-@ 35 in the community of New Swanzy . From there it runs north through some commercial properties into the Sands Plains , a sandy area sparsely covered with Jack Pines . The highway runs through an intersection with M @-@ 94 near the west gate of the former K. I. Sawyer Air Force Base . In this area , the trunkline is parallel to a line of the Canadian National Railway which connects mines of the Marquette Iron Range to Escanaba . M @-@ 553 crosses over the rail line west of the runway at the Sawyer International Airport located at the former Air Force base . On the north side of the airport , M @-@ 553 intersects Kelly Johnson Memorial Drive , the airport access road named for Clarence " Kelly " Johnson , who was a noted aviation engineer at Lockheed who helped design the SR @-@ 71 " Blackbird " reconnaissance aircraft . The trunkline continues farther through woodlands and turns to the northwest . M @-@ 553 passes the Marquette County Fairgrounds and reaches CR 480 at the Crossroads area just north of the Sands Plains and the Blueberry Ridge ski trail ; the area around the intersection has several businesses . North of the intersection , M @-@ 553 passes some residential subdivisions in the northern end of Sands Township . As the highway continues northward , the landscape transitions into hilly , wooded terrain . The trunkline descends through a series of curves , first to the northwest and then a steep downhill curve , known locally as Glass ' Corrner , northeasterly alongside the Marquette Mountain ski area . The highway enters the city of Marquette and runs past the front of the ski resort 's chalet before crossing the Carp River . North of the river , the roadway ascends part of the west side of Mount Mesnard before leveling off near the intersection with Division Street . Past that intersection , M @-@ 553 follows McClellan Avenue as a four @-@ lane boulevard divided by a center turn lane through a residential area on the south side of the city . The trunkline passes between the Superior Hills Elementary School to the east and the Marquette Golf and Country Club to the west . There is a pedestrian bridge over the roadway adjacent to the school , and north of the overpass the center turn lane ends . With few exceptions , the adjacent properties in this area do not have direct access to the highway . M @-@ 553 descends one last hill and terminates at a Michigan left intersection with the US 41 / M @-@ 28 expressway ; McClellan Avenue continues north of the terminus through a business district to a residential area . Like other state trunkline highways , M @-@ 553 is maintained by MDOT . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that , on average , 3 @,@ 615 vehicles between the M @-@ 35 and M @-@ 94 junctions , and 10 @,@ 021 vehicles north of Division Street , used the highway daily . No section of M @-@ 553 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = = = = County road era = = = The first roadway along the route of the modern M @-@ 553 was a county road ; it was first shown on maps by 1936 . At the time , the northern half of this county road was " improved " , meaning it was gravel or stone , while the southern half was an earthen road . The southern end started in downtown Gwinn at the time . The northern half was paved during World War II ; a new road was paved immediately east of Gwinn , shifting the road out of town . The remainder of CR 553 was paved by the middle of 1946 . At the time , CR 553 ran north from New Swanzy along what is now Marshall Drive to the county airport ; the roadway continued north of the airport along the present course except through the Sands area , where it ran to the east , and ended at a terminus on the south side of Marquette at Pioneer Road and Division Street . In 1953 , the county road commission relocated CR 553 near the county airport to eliminate a rail crossing and a pair of tight turns . The county entered into negotiations with the US Air Force to lease the county airport for use as an Air Force Base in 1954 ; a lease was signed on January 24 , 1955 , and the base was active the next year . In the mid @-@ 1960s , the rail line and roadway in the area were moved to go around a section of the runway complex 's cargo ramps ; this relocation also added a new rail line crossing to CR 553 . In 1975 , residents of a trailer park on Pioneer Road and city officials asked the county road commission to reconfigure the intersection between the county road , Division Street and Pioneer Road to reduce accidents . In 1976 , the MCRC shifted the southern end of CR 553 westward to its current alignment from K.I. Sawyer AFB to New Swanzy so that the road crossed the railroad in a different location , using a bridge instead of the previous at @-@ grade crossing . Later in the decade , another section of the roadway was realigned through Sands Township ; this segment was moved by 1979 south of the Crossroads area . The southern end of this project was completed by 1981 , and the roadway directly angled northwesterly instead of utilizing a long sweeping curve between the road to the south and the new road to the north . Later in 1986 , the roadway carrying CR 553 over the Carp River was washed away during spring flooding ; the county had to replace the culverts that supported the road with new ones , forcing a temporary road closure . The bridge over the rail line near the Air Force Base had weakened sufficiently by December 1988 that the MCRC had to lower the truck weight limits for the structure from 77 to 33 short tons ( 70 to 30 t ) for single @-@ unit trucks and 40 or 42 short tons ( 36 or 38 t ) for double- or triple @-@ unit trucks ; repairs to the structure were planned for the following year . The City of Marquette started planning an extension of McClellan Avenue southward to CR 553 in the 1970s . When the projects were started in the 1990s , the goal was to reroute traffic and relieve congestion in town . By April 1994 , the street had been extended south from the retail corridor along the business loop north of the Marquette Bypass to the Superior Hills Elementary School . Funding at that time was in place for the extension only as far as Pioneer Road . The last segment between Pioneer Road and CR 553 was held up over environmental clearances and funding ; there were some wetlands in the path of the proposed construction . The US Congress initially denied funding for the extension in 1993 , but they approved funding for this section of the McClellan Avenue project later in 1994 while the environmental assessments were being reviewed . In 1995 , a passing lane was approved to run uphill southbound approaching Glass ' Corner in a project funded by the federal government based on MDOT recommendations . The city and county continued to improve CR 553 and McClellan Avenue during 1996 . The county closed the road between the Carp River and the Crossroads starting in June 1996 . During the closure , they built the previously approved 1 @.@ 6 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) passing lane for southbound traffic headed uphill near Marquette Mountain ; the project was completed on November 1 , 1996 . By the end of that month , the city had the necessary environmental approvals and cleared the land needed for the last southward extension of McClellan Avenue ; construction crews were working on blasting rock , drainage and other earthworks for the project . Local business owners near the intersection between McClellan Avenue and the Marquette Bypass petitioned the city and MDOT in November 1996 to reconfigure the intersection , calling it " confusing " , " dangerous " and " inconvenient " . The intersection was configured as a Michigan left design when McClellan Avenue was extended southward past the expressway in 1994 . Transportation planners defended the design , saying that the intersection was actually safer than several others in the city , even if its unique status made it unfamiliar to local drivers . Michigan left intersections are common in the Lower Peninsula , but this intersection was the first in the UP built that way . In 1993 , the federal government announced plans to close K. I. Sawyer Air Force Base in 1995 . The after effects of the base closure were the impetus for a December 1996 study by UP counties on the designation of a north – south highway corridor in the region to help fuel redevelopment at the base ; the study would help MDOT and the counties prioritize transportation funding . When the local study group completed its report in June 1997 , CR 553 was included with M @-@ 35 and US 41 as part of the primary north – south traffic corridor in the Central Upper Peninsula . The group cited the redevelopment efforts at the former air force base for the designation . The McClellan Avenue extension was finished the following September , and CR 553 was realigned to flow into the south end of McClellan . Instead of curving to the northeast in the area , the county road turned northward and a T @-@ shaped intersection was built to reconnect CR 553 with the remainder of its routing into South Marquette , requiring the county road to make a right @-@ angle turn . = = = State trunkline period = = = As part of Governor John Engler 's " Build Michigan II " plan in the late 1990s , about 9 @,@ 200 miles ( 14 @,@ 800 km ) of roadway were investigated as potential candidates for state maintenance as part of the Rationalization plan . Included in these queries were county roads 553 , 460 and 462 ; the latter two roadways connected east – west across the former base . Traffic to and from the base was increasing as a byproduct of economic redevelopment at K.I. Sawyer , and if the state took control of the roadways , they would be marked on the state map like other state trunklines , further benefiting redevelopment . Local officials were concerned at the time because at least one proposal included a total of 103 miles ( 166 km ) of roads , one @-@ third of the county 's primary county road network . The MCRC manager was concerned that such a transfer could impact the level of funding the commission received for the maintenance of the roads that would remain under county jurisdiction . The three county roads were transferred to state jurisdiction on October 1 , 1998 . MDOT renumbered the two roads across K.I. Sawyer as an extension of M @-@ 94 , and designated M @-@ 553 along most of CR 553 . The latter highway designation then terminated at the southern end of McClellan Avenue in the city of Marquette ; the remainder of CR 553 to the intersection with Pioneer Road and Division Street was given the M @-@ 554 moniker by the state . The city and local residents expressed safety issues concerning pedestrians at Marquette Mountain in 2000 , and driveways access was consolidated by MDOT in a construction project while a specific pedestrian crossing was installed by the ski hill owner . The Carp River flooded on April 16 , 2002 , washing out the roadway where M @-@ 553 crossed the river . The washout sent " tons of sediment " into the river , impacting the fish habitat before the Central Lake Superior Watershed Partnership could assist MDOT to stabilize the banks . Before the event , the highway had crossed the water body using two 8 @-@ by @-@ 12 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m × 3 @.@ 7 m ) , oval metal culverts . The flood waters overwhelmed these culverts and washed away a 64 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 20 m ) section of roadway . MDOT budgeted $ 750 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2015 ) that May to rebuild the river crossing using a concrete bridge instead . In April 2005 , the City of Marquette initially agreed to exchange jurisdiction over a number of roadways with MDOT . These transfers placed former Business US 41 ( Bus . US 41 ) and M @-@ 554 under city jurisdiction ; at the same time , the state would take over a section of McClellan Avenue to extend M @-@ 553 to its current northern terminus at the Marquette Bypass . One of the city 's requests in negotiating the transfer was to have MDOT defer to city zoning ordinances along McClellan Avenue regarding driveway access and snowmobile access . The transfers were made official on October 11 , 2005 , and signage was updated on November 9 . Because of the transfer , MDOT initiated a speed study to determine what speed limits should apply on the extension . The McClellan Avenue section of M @-@ 553 was placed under a temporary traffic control order leaving the 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) limit in place . A school zone was considered near the Superior HIlls Elementary school . In 2009 , the speed limit along McClellan Avenue was raised to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . The school zone was implemented in December 2011 , reducing the speed limit to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) for two 40 @-@ minute periods during the morning and afternoon . The reduced speed limit is indicated by a set of flashing lights installed in December 2011 . MDOT started construction of a new 20 @-@ space commuter parking lot at the southern terminus of M @-@ 553 at M @-@ 35 on August 11 , 2008 , as part of an effort to offer expanded ride @-@ sharing opportunities in Marquette County . Another carpool lot was added at the Crossroads when MDOT partnered with the restaurant there . The state paved the gravel parking lot , and the business allowed the installation of signs . = = Future = = The section of M @-@ 553 known as Glass ' Corner has come to the attention of MDOT in 2012 as one of the more dangerous stretches of highway in the state . Short sight distances combined with the end of a southbound uphill passing lane immediately before the curve have been blamed for some serious crashes . In the short term , the department is going to install additional signage in 2012 to warn motorists approaching the section of highway . An audit of the area also recommended the installation of street lighting by Sands Township . Another intermediate @-@ term proposal is to study a reduction of the speed limit from 55 to 50 mph ( 89 to 80 km / h ) , an action that would require the involvement of the Michigan State Police . MDOT is seeking funding for a project to straighten some of the curves and decrease the grade of the roadway . This long @-@ term solution is forecast to cost $ 5 million in a project to be completed in 2017 . = = Major intersections = = The entire highway is in Marquette County . = = Related trunkline = = M @-@ 554 was a short state trunkline highway in the city of Marquette that follows what is now a part of Division Street . The southern terminus was at the intersection with M @-@ 553 and McClellan Avenue . From there , the highway ran just under a mile ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) within Marquette in a tree @-@ lined section of the city that is relatively flat ; the roadway that carried the M @-@ 554 designation has a few gentle curves . At the intersection with Pioneer Road and Division Street , the M @-@ 554 designation ended , and the roadway continued as Division Street . The only signage present along the route to indicate the highway number was the street signs erected by the City of Marquette Department of Public Works ; MDOT never posted the standard reassurance markers along the road , leaving M @-@ 554 as an unsigned highway , although at least one map manufacturer included the highway on its maps . When CR 553 was transferred from the county to the state on October 1 , 1998 , one segment was not included in the routing for M @-@ 553 ; that section between the McClellan Avenue and Pioneer Road intersections was numbered M @-@ 554 by MDOT . The City of Marquette approved a plan to accept jurisdiction of M @-@ 554 from MDOT in April 2005 ; the plan also affected two other roads ( Bus . US 41 and M @-@ 553 ) . On October 10 , 2005 , the city and the state exchanged jurisdiction of the three roadways in Marquette . The signage was changed on November 9 , 2005 , reflecting the changeover of M @-@ 554 and Bus . US 41 to the city 's control and McClellan Avenue to the state 's control . This change ended the existence of M @-@ 554 . Since the transfer , the former M @-@ 554 is now part of an extended Division Street . Major intersections The entire highway was in Marquette , Marquette County .
= Sinosauropteryx = Sinosauropteryx ( meaning " Chinese reptilian wing " , Chinese : 中华龙鸟 ; pinyin : Zhōnghuá lóng niǎo ; literally : " China dragon bird " ) is a compsognathid dinosaur . Described in 1996 , it was the first dinosaur taxon outside of Avialae ( birds and their immediate relatives ) to be found with evidence of feathers . It was covered with a coat of very simple filament @-@ like feathers . Structures that indicate colouration have also been preserved in some of its feathers , which makes Sinosauropteryx the first non @-@ avialian dinosaurs where colouration has been determined . The colouration includes a reddish and light banded tail . Some contention has arisen with an alternative interpretation of the filamentous impression as remains of collagen fibres , but this has not been widely accepted . Sinosauropteryx was a small theropod with an unusually long tail and short arms . The longest known specimen reaches up to 1 @.@ 07 metres ( 3 @.@ 5 feet ) in length , with an estimated weight of 0 @.@ 55 kilograms ( 1 @.@ 2 pounds ) It was a close relative of the similar but older genus Compsognathus , both genera belonging to the family Compsognathidae . Only one species of Sinosauropteryx has been named : S. prima , meaning " first " in reference to its status as the first feathered non @-@ avialian dinosaur species discovered . Three specimens have been described . The third specimen previously assigned to this genus represents either a second , as @-@ yet unnamed species or a distinct , related genus . Sinosauropteryx lived in what is now northeastern China during the early Cretaceous period . It was among the first dinosaurs discovered from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning Province , and was a member of the Jehol Biota . Well @-@ preserved fossils of this species illustrate many aspects of its biology , such as its diet and reproduction . = = Description = = Sinosauropteryx was a small bipedal theropod , noted for its short arms , large first finger ( thumbs ) , and long tail . The taxon includes some of the smallest known adult non @-@ avian theropod specimens , with the holotype specimen measuring only 68 cm ( 27 in ) in length , including the tail . However , this individual was relatively young . The longest known specimen reaches up to 1 @.@ 07 m ( 3 @.@ 5 ft ) in length , with an estimated weight of 0 @.@ 55 kg ( 1 @.@ 2 lb ) . Sinosauropteryx was anatomically similar to Compsognathus , differing from its European relatives in its proportions . The skull of Sinosauropteryx was 15 % longer than its thigh bones , unlike in Compsognathus , where the skull and thigh bones are approximately equivalent in length . The arms of Sinosauropteryx ( humerus and radius ) were only 30 % the length of its legs ( thigh bone and shin ) , compared to 40 % in Compsognathus . Additionally , Sinosauropteryx had several features unique among all other theropods . It had 64 vertebrae in its tail . This high number made its tail the longest relative to body length of any theropod . Its hands were long compared to its arms , about 84 % to 91 % of the length of the rest of the arm ( humerus and radius ) , and half the length of the foot . The first and second digits were about the same length , with a large claw on the first digit . The first fingers were large , being both longer and thicker than either of the bones of the forearm . The teeth differed slightly ( they were heterodont ) based on position : those near the tips of the upper jaws ( on the premaxillae ) were slender and lacked serrations , while those behind them ( on the maxillae ) were serrated and laterally compressed . The teeth of the lower jaws were similarly differentiated . A pigmented area in the abdomen of the holotype has been suggested as possible traces of organs , and was interpreted as the liver by John Ruben and colleagues , which they described as part of a crocodilian @-@ like " hepatic piston " respiratory system . A later study , while agreeing that the pigmented area represented something originally inside the body , found no defined structure and noted that any organs would have been distorted by the processes that flattened the skeleton into an essentially two @-@ dimensional form . Dark pigment is also present in the eye region of the holotype and another specimen . = = = Feathers = = = All described specimens of Sinosauropteryx preserve integumentary structures ( filaments arising from the skin ) which most palaeontologists interpret as very primitive type of feathers . These short , down @-@ like filaments are preserved along the back half of the skull , the arms , neck , back , and top and bottom of the tail . Additional patches of feathers have been identified on the sides of the body , and palaeontologists Chen , Dong and Zheng proposed that the density of the feathers on the back and the randomness of the patches elsewhere on the body indicated the animals would have been fully feathered in life , with the ventral feathers having been removed by decomposition . The filaments are preserved with a gap between the bones , which several authors have noted corresponds closely to the expected amount of skin and muscle tissue that would have been present in life . The feathers are closest to the bone on the skull and end of the tail , where little to no muscle was present , and the gap increases over the back vertebrae , where more musculature would be expected , indicating that the filaments were external to the skin and do not correspond with subcutaneous structures . The filaments exhibit random orientations and are often wavy , which has been interpreted as evidence that they were soft and pliable in life . Microscopic examination shows that individual filaments appear dark along the edges and light internally , suggesting that they were hollow , like modern feathers . Compared to modern mammals the filaments were quite coarse , with each individual strand much larger and thicker than the corresponding hairs of similarly sized mammals . The length of the filaments varies across the body . On the type specimen , they are shortest just in front of the eyes , with a length of 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) . Going further along the body , the filaments rapidly increase in length until reaching lengths of 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) over the shoulder blades . The length remains uniform over the back , until beyond the hips , when the filaments lengthen again and reach their maximum length midway down the tail at 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . The filaments on the underside of the tail are shorter overall and decrease in length more rapidly than those on the dorsal surface . By the 25th tail vertebrae , the filaments on the underside reach a length of only 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) . The longest feathers present on the forearm measured 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) . Though the feathers are too dense to isolate a single structure for examination , several studies have suggested the presence of two distinct filament types ( thick and thin ) interspersed with each other . The thick filaments tend to appear ' stiffer ' than thin filaments , and the thin filaments tend to lie parallel to each other but at angles to nearby thick filaments . These properties suggest that the individual feathers consisted of a central quill ( rachis ) with thinner barbs branching off from it , similar to but more primitive in structure than modern bird feathers . Overall , the filaments most closely resemble the " plumules " or down @-@ like feathers of some modern birds , with a thick central quill and long , thin barbs . The same structures are seen in other fossils from the Yixian Formation , including Confuciusornis . While Sinosauropteryx had feather @-@ like structures , it was not very closely related to the previous " first bird " Archaeopteryx . There are many dinosaur clades that were more closely related to Archaeopteryx than Sinosauropteryx was , including the deinonychosaurians , the oviraptorosaurians , and the therizinosauroids . This indicates that feathers may have been a characteristic of many theropod dinosaurs , not just the obviously bird @-@ like ones , making it possible that equally distant animals such as Compsognathus had feathers as well . = = = = Colouration = = = = Sinosauropteryx was the first dinosaur to have its life colouration described by scientists based on physical evidence . Some fossils of Sinosauropteryx show an alternation of lighter and darker bands preserved on the tail . Chen and colleagues initially interpreted this banding pattern as an artifact of the splitting between the main slab and counter @-@ slab in which the original specimen was preserved . However , Longrich suggested in his 2002 presentation for the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology that these specimens actually preserve remnants of the colouration pattern the animal would have exhibited in life . He argued that the dark , banded areas on the tail were too evenly spaced to have been caused by random separation of the fossil slabs , and that they represent fossilized pigments present in the feathers . Additionally , rather than an artifact of preservation or decomposition , the presence of dark feathers along only the top of the body may also reflect the colour pattern in life , indicating that Sinosauropteryx prima was countershaded with dark colouration on its back and lighter colouration on its underside , with bands or stripes on the tail for camouflage . Longrich 's conclusions were supported in a paper first published online in the journal Nature in January 2010 . Fucheng Zhang and colleagues examined the fossilized feathers of several dinosaurs and early birds , and found evidence that they preserved melanosomes , the cells that give the feathers of modern birds their colour . Among the specimens studied was a previously undescribed specimen of Sinosauropteryx , IVPP V14202 . By examining melanosome structure and distribution , Zhang and colleagues were able to confirm the presence of light and dark bands of colour in the tail feathers of Sinosauropteryx . Furthermore , the team was able to compare melanosome types to those of modern birds to determine a general range of colour . From the presence of phaeomelanosomes , spherical melanosomes that make and store red pigment , they concluded that the darker feathers of Sinosauropteryx were chestnut or reddish brown in colour . = = Classification = = Despite its feathers , most palaeontologists do not consider Sinosauropteryx to be birds . Phylogenetically , the genus is only distantly related to the clade Aves , usually defined as Archaeopteryx lithographica plus modern birds . The scientists who described Sinosauropteryx , however , used a character @-@ based , or apomorphic , definition of the Class Aves , in which any animal with feathers is considered to be a bird . They argued that the filamentous plumes of Sinosauropteryx represent true feathers with a rachis and barbs , and thus that Sinosauropteryx should be considered a true bird . They classified the genus as belonging to a new biological order , Sinosauropterygiformes , family Sinosauropterygidae , within the subclass Sauriurae . These proposals have not been accepted , and Sinosauropteryx is generally classified in the family Compsognathidae , a group of small @-@ bodied long @-@ tailed coelurosaurian theropods known from the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous of Asia , Europe , and South America . Below is a cladogram showing the placement of Sinosauropteryx within Coelurosauria by Senter et al. in 2012 . There is only one named species of Sinosauropteryx , S. prima . A possible second species is represented by the specimen GMV 2124 ( aka NGMC 2124 ) , which was described as a third , larger specimen of S. prima by Ji and Ji in 1997 . However , in a 2002 presentation and abstract for the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology , Nick Longrich showed that this specimen differs in several anatomical aspects from the others , including its relatively large size , proportionally longer shins , and shorter tail . Longrich suggested that GMV 2124 was a compsognathid coelurosaurian , while Sinosauropteryx proper was a more primitive kind of coelurosaurian or even a basal carnosaurian . In 2007 , Gishlick and Gauthier concurred that this specimen was probably a new taxon , and tentatively re @-@ classified it as Sinosauropteryx ? sp . , though they suggested it may belong in a new genus . Also in 2007 , Ji , Ji and colleagues wrote that GMV 2124 is probably a new genus , noting the differences in tail length and hindlimb proportions . = = = Distinguishing anatomical features = = = Ji and Ji ( 1996 ) identified many features that set Sinosauropteryx apart from other birds and dinosaurs . They found that it was a small primitive bird with a relatively high skull , blunt rostrum and a slightly high premaxilla ; that the antorbital fenestra was elliptical but not enlarged , the dentary was robust , the surangular was narrow and elongated , and the dentition is extremely well developed and acute ; that there are over 50 extremely elongated caudals , constituting 60 % of the body length , and the forelimb is extremely short with a short and thick humerus ; the pubis was elongated and extremely inflated at its distal end and the ischium is broad ; the hind limb was long and robust , the tibia is only slightly longer than the femur , the tarsals are separated , and the metatarsals are relatively robust with unfused proximal ends ; the feathers are short , small , and uniform ; many ornament the top of the skull , cervical , and dorsal regions , in addition to the dorsal and ventral caudal region . = = History of discovery = = The first fossil specimen of the dinosaur later named Sinosauropteryx prima was uncovered in August 1996 by Li Yumin . Yumin was a farmer and part @-@ time fossil hunter who often prospected around Liaoning Province to acquire fossils to sell to individuals and museums . Yumin recognized the unique quality of the specimen , which was separated into two slabs , and sold the slabs to two separate museums in China : the National Geological Museum in Beijing , and the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology . The director of the Beijing museum , Ji Qiang , recognized the importance of the find , as did visiting Canadian palaeontologist Phil Currie and artist Michael Skrepnick , who became aware of the fossil by chance as they explored the Beijing museum 's collections after leading a fossil tour of the area during the first week of October , 1996 . Currie recognized the significance of the fossil immediately . As The New York Times quoted him , " When I saw this slab of silt stone mixed with volcanic ash in which the creature is embedded , I was bowled over . " When originally described , the authors named Sinosauropteryx , meaning " Chinese Reptilian Wing . Chinese authorities initially barred photographs of the specimen from publication . However , Currie brought a photograph to the 1996 meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York , causing crowds of palaeontologists to gather and discuss the new discovery . The news reportedly left palaeontologist John Ostrom , who in the 1970s had pioneered the theory that birds evolved from dinosaurs , " in a state of shock . " Ostrom later joined an international team of researchers who gathered in Beijing to examine the fossils ; other team members included feather expert Alan Brush , fossil bird expert Larry Martin , and Peter Wellnhofer , an expert on the early bird Archaeopteryx . Three specimens have been assigned to Sinosauropteryx prima : the holotype GMV 2123 ( and its counter slab [ opposite face ] , NIGP 127586 ) , NIGP 127587 , and D 2141 . Another specimen , IVPP V14202 , was assigned to the genus but not to the only species by Zhang and colleagues . The assignment of an additional larger specimen to S. prima , GMV 2124 , was later found to be in error . All of the fossils were found in the Jianshangou or Dawangzhangzi Beds of the Yixian Formation in the Beipiao and Lingyuan regions of Liaoning , China . These fossil beds have been dated to 124 @.@ 6 – 122 million years ago , during the late Barremian to early Aptian stages of the Early Cretaceous . = = = Identity of filaments = = = Controversy regarding the identity of the filaments preserved in the first Sinosauropteryx specimen began almost immediately , as the team of scientists spent three days in Beijing examining the specimen under a microscope . The results of their studies ( reported during a press conference at the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences on Thursday , April 24 , 1997 ) were inconclusive ; the team agreed that the structures preserved on Sinosauropteryx were not modern feathers , but suggested further research was required to discover their exact nature . Palaeontologist Alan Feduccia , who had not yet examined the specimen , wrote in Audubon Magazine that the structures of Sinosauropteryx ( which he considered at the time to be a synonym of Compsognathus , as Compsognathus prima ) were stiffening structures from a frill running along the back , and that dinosaur palaeontologists were engaging in wishful thinking when equating the structures with feathers . Subsequent publications saw some of the team members disagreeing over the identity of the structures . Feduccia 's frill argument was followed up in several other publications , in which researchers interpreted the filamentous impressions around Sinosauropteryx fossils as remains of collagen fibres rather than primitive feathers . Since the structures are clearly external to the body , these researchers have proposed that the fibres formed a frill on the back of the animal and underside of its tail , similar to some modern aquatic lizards . The absence of feathers would refute the proposal that Sinosauropteryx is the most basal known theropod genus with feathers , and also raise questions about the current theory of feather origins itself . It calls into question the idea that the first feathers evolved not for flight but for insulation , and that they made their first appearance in relatively basal dinosaur lineages that later evolved into modern birds . Most researchers have disagreed with the identification of the structures as collagen or other structural fibres . Notably , the team of scientists that reported the presence of pigmentation cells in the structures argued that their presence proved the structures were feathers , not collagen , because collagen does not contain pigment . Gregory S. Paul reidentified what the collagen hypothesis 's proponents consider a body outline outside of the fibres as an artefact of preparation : breakage and brushed @-@ on sealant have been misidentified as the outline of the body . = = Palaeobiology = = = = = Diet = = = The specimen NIGP 127587 was preserved with the remains of a lizard in its gut region , indicating that small , fast @-@ moving animals made up part of the diet of Sinosauropteryx prima . Numerous lizards of this type have been found in the same rocks as Sinosauropteryx , but have yet to be described . The possible Sinosauropteryx specimen GMV 2124 ( Sinosauropteryx ? sp . ) was found with three mammal jaws in its gut region . Hurum , Luo , and Kielan @-@ Jaworowska ( 2006 ) identified two of these jaws as belonging to Zhangheotherium and the third to Sinobaatar , showing that these two mammals were part of the animal 's diet . Zhangheotherium is known to have had a spur on the ankle , like the modern platypus , which would indicate that Sinosauropteryx fed on possibly venomous mammals . = = = Reproduction = = = The same specimen of S. prima which had preserved a lizard in its stomach contents ( NIGP 127587 ) also had several small eggs in its abdomen . Two eggs were preserved just in front of and above the pubic boot , and several more may lie underneath them on the slab . It is unlikely that they were eaten by the animal , as they are in the wrong part of the body cavity for the egg shells to have remained intact . It is more likely that they are unlaid eggs produced by the animal itself . Each egg measured 36 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) long by 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) wide . The presence of two developed eggs suggests that Sinosauropteryx had dual oviducts and laid eggs in pairs , like other theropods . = = Palaeoecology = = Sinosauropteryx , as a Yixian Formation dinosaur , is a member of the Jehol Biota , the assemblage of organisms found in the Yixian Formation and overlying Jiufotang Formation . The Yixian Formation is composed largely of volcanic rocks such as andesite and basalt . Between the volcanic layers are several beds of sedimentary rocks representing deposition in a lake . The freshwater lake strata of the Yixian Formation have preserved a wide variety of plants , invertebrates , and vertebrates . Gymnosperm forests were extensive , with a few early flowering plants as well . Ostracods and insects were diverse , and bivalves and gastropods were abundant . Mammals and birds are also well @-@ known from the formation . The setting was subject to periodic mortality events including volcanic eruptions , wildfires , and noxious gases erupting from the lakes . The climate has been interpreted as temperate , with distinct wet and dry seasons . The yearly temperature during this time period averaged about 10 degrees celsius ( 50 degrees Fahrenheit ) , indicating a temperate climate with unusually cold winters for the generally warm Mesozoic era , possibly due to northern China 's high latitude during this time .
= Bjorli Station = Bjorli Station ( Norwegian : Bjorli stasjon ) is a railway station on the Rauma Line located at Bjorli in Lesja , Norway . The station opened on 19 November 1921 and was the line 's terminus until 1923 . In addition to a station building , Bjorli had a water tower , roundhouse , turntable and a restaurant seating 700 people , the latter which was bombed to pieces in 1940 . The station is served by Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) trains four times per day per direction . In the summer , the station is the terminus of a tourist services from Åndalsnes . = = History = = Construction of the station started in 1918 and was finished in 1921 . The station , excluding its water tower and restaurant , cost 117 @,@ 062 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) to build and took 26 @,@ 883 man @-@ hours . The station and axillary buildings were designed by Gudmund Hoel of NSB Arkitektkontor . The station opened with the first part of the Rauma Line on 19 November 1921 . It remained the terminus until 25 November 1923 , when the next section , to Verma Station , opened . The station is located in a wide , flat terrain , so getting sufficient pressure to supply water for the steam locomotives would be very expensive . Instead , a water tower was built at the station , with water pumped from the river Rauma . The pump is located 140 meters ( 460 ft ) from the tower , with the water intake being another 50 meters ( 160 ft ) from the pump . The water tower was built in natural stone brick and is square . After the steam locomotive services ended , was used as a storage facility . The tower cost NOK 103 @,@ 795 to build . The station also received a turntable , which cost NOK 101 @,@ 236 , which had a 20 @-@ meter ( 66 ft ) diameter . Although it was planned completed on 1 August 1921 , construction was delayed and it was taken into use one month after the station opened . Bjorli had a temporary roundhouse while the station was the terminus . Built out of wood , the building cost NOK 30 @,@ 373 . On 1 July 1927 , a separate restaurant building with place for 700 diners opened . Open only during summer until September , it was aimed at cruise ship tourists who took the line from Åndalsnes to Bjorli . Operated by Norsk Spisevognselskap , it was highly profitable . However , during the German occupation of Norway in 1940 , the building was bombed and burnt down , and was never rebuilt . = = Facilities = = The station building is owned by Rom Eiendom , a subsidiary of NSB , while the tracks and infrastructure are owned and operated by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The station building is unstaffed , but the waiting room is open from 07 : 00 to 22 : 00 . The line lacks centralized traffic control , so the station must be manned for trains to pass . The station has three tracks : two which are used for trains to pass and one which is designed for loading , and has an effective length of 75 meters ( 246 ft ) . The station has ten parking spaces but lacks ticket vending machines . The station is 575 meters ( 1 @,@ 886 ft ) above mean sea level and located 57 kilometers ( 35 mi ) from both Dombås and Åndalsnes , and 400 kilometers ( 250 mi ) from Oslo . It is located in the village of Bjorli in Lesja , that serves as an Alpine skiing center . = = Service = = The Norwegian State Railways operates passenger train services on the line . Using Class 93 trains , they operate four services in each direction per day . During the summer , from June through August , NSB operates the trains as tourist trains , limiting the service from Åndalsnes to Bjorli .
= Basil Hayden = Basil Ewing Hayden ( May 19 , 1899 – January 9 , 2003 ) was an American college basketball player and coach . A Kentucky native , he began playing the sport in the sixth grade and , after a year at Transylvania University , transferred to the University of Kentucky to study chemistry and play on the school 's basketball squad . He captained the team to victory at the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association Championship and was named an All @-@ American for his efforts – the first basketball player to earn the honor at the University of Kentucky . After graduating in 1922 Hayden took on a number of different jobs and was called to coach the University of Kentucky 's basketball team in 1926 following the departure of Ray Eklund . After a 3 – 13 record in his first year he was replaced with John Mauer and returned to his previous occupations . When he died in 2003 , at the age of 103 , he was the University of Kentucky 's oldest former athlete , and his jersey is among those hung in the school 's Rupp Arena . = = Early life = = Hayden was born in Stanford , Kentucky ; his father Joseph was a grocer , and his mother Annie ( née : Brown ) was a tutor . He moved to Paris , Kentucky at an early age and began playing basketball in the sixth grade , which he continued upon entering Paris High School . He was drafted into the United States Army during World War I , but the conflict ended before he was shipped out . He entered Transylvania University in 1918 , intending to become a minister , but switched to the University of Kentucky the following year to study industrial chemistry . While there , he played tennis and competed in the javelin throw , setting a school record . = = Basketball career = = Hayden joined the school 's basketball team for the 1919 @-@ 1920 season and was the squad 's leading scorer with 133 points in 12 games , leading to an average of 11 @.@ 8 points per game ; no other player on the team scored more than 56 points or had an average greater than 7 . While he slipped to 9 @.@ 71 points per game the following year ( and finished second in both points and average to rookie William King ) , he found success captaining the team to the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association Championship – the University of Kentucky 's first victory at a major basketball tournament . He was named an All @-@ American in 1921 , the first University of Kentucky basketball player to be so honored . He also had his highest @-@ scoring game ever that season , scoring 20 points against Georgetown College . He injured his knee in the high jump prior to his final 1921 @-@ 1922 season but still finished with an average of 4 @.@ 92 points per game , the third best average on the team that season and the fourth highest amount of points . At the peak of his playing career he was 5 ' 11 " , weighed 165 pounds , and was nicknamed " The Blond Adonis " . His overall career statistics saw him amass 333 points in 39 games – an average of about 8 @.@ 5 points per game . After his graduation Hayden moved to Detroit to work for Dodge but returned to Kentucky after the first summer because of homesickness . During the 1922 @-@ 23 basketball season he coached at Kentucky Wesleyan College which was in Winchester at the time . In his one season at Kentucky Wesleyan he went 8 @-@ 1 . He then taught and coached at George Rogers Clark High School while taking a job in the insurance business in Richmond , Kentucky . In 1926 he was called to replace Ray Eklund as the head basketball coach at the University of Kentucky but was given only one week to prepare for the task with a team made up of unskilled members . The squad consisted primarily of football players , many of whom lacked the incentive to fully participate . The team finished with a 3 – 13 record , winning once against the University of Florida and twice against Centre College . When Harry Gamage was named the new head coach of the university 's football squad , he had Hayden replaced with John Mauer . The team would not have another losing season until 1988 – 89 under Eddie Sutton . = = Later life = = After his experiment with coaching , Hayden went returned to the insurance business and also worked as a banker , accountant , a hospital administrator , school teacher , and Kentucky state bank inspector . He also worked as the treasurer of a Methodist church until his mid @-@ 70s . He was a lifetime member of Rotary International and the Kappa Sigma Fraternity . He was married to Mary Hardin for 67 years until her death ; he would remarry to Edna Lytle . At the time of his death on January 9 , 2003 , at the age of 103 , his jersey was one of 41 retired jerseys hanging in Rupp Arena , ( with his name only , as the jerseys did not have numbers during his era ) , and he was the oldest living former University of Kentucky athlete . As of 2009 , he is the only one of the 49 University of Kentucky basketball All @-@ Americans to have been born in the 19th century , as well as probably being the shortest . He is a member of the Paris High School Greyhound Hall of Fame . = = Head coaching record = =
= Beer = Beer is the world 's most widely consumed and probably the oldest alcoholic beverage ; it is the third most popular drink overall , after water and tea . The production of beer is called brewing , which involves the fermentation of starches , mainly derived from cereal grains — most commonly malted barley , although wheat , maize ( corn ) , and rice are widely used . Most beer is flavoured with hops , which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative , though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included . The fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect , although this is often removed during processing , and replaced with forced carbonation . Some of humanity 's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer : the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours , and " The Hymn to Ninkasi " , a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer , served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people . Beer is sold in bottles and cans ; it may also be available on draught , particularly in pubs and bars . The brewing industry is a global business , consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries . The strength of beer is usually around 4 % to 6 % alcohol by volume ( abv ) , although it may vary between 0 @.@ 5 % and 20 % , with some breweries creating examples of 40 % abv and above . Beer forms part of the culture of beer @-@ drinking nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals , as well as a rich pub culture involving activities like pub crawling , and pub games such as bar billiards . = = History = = Beer is one of the world 's oldest prepared beverages , possibly dating back to the early Neolithic or 9500 BC , when cereal was first farmed , and is recorded in the written history of ancient Iraq and ancient Egypt . Archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilizations . Approximately 5000 years ago , workers in the city of Uruk ( modern day Iraq ) were paid by their employers in beer . During the building of the Great Pyramids in Giza , Egypt , each worker got a daily ration of four to five liters of beer , which served as both nutrition and refreshment that was crucial to the pyramids ' construction . The earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500 – 3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran . Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer ; examples include a prayer to the goddess Ninkasi , known as " The Hymn to Ninkasi " , which served as both a prayer as well as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people , and the ancient advice ( Fill your belly . Day and night make merry ) to Gilgamesh , recorded in the Epic of Gilgamesh , by the ale @-@ wife Siduri may , at least in part , have referred to the consumption of beer . The Ebla tablets , discovered in 1974 in Ebla , Syria , show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC . A fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC . Unlike sake , mould was not used to saccharify the rice ( amylolytic fermentation ) ; the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by mastication or malting . Almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation . It is likely that many cultures , on observing that a sweet liquid could be obtained from a source of starch , independently invented beer . Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies and contributed to the building of civilizations . Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC , and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale . The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today . Alongside the basic starch source , the early European beers might contain fruits , honey , numerous types of plants , spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs . What they did not contain was hops , as that was a later addition , first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot and again in 1067 by Abbess Hildegard of Bingen . In 1516 , William IV , Duke of Bavaria , adopted the Reinheitsgebot ( purity law ) , perhaps the oldest food @-@ quality regulation still in use in the 21st century , according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water , hops and barley @-@ malt . Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale , although by the 7th century AD , beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries . During the Industrial Revolution , the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture , and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century . The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results . Today , the brewing industry is a global business , consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries . As of 2006 , more than 133 billion liters ( 35 billion gallons ) , the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side , of beer are sold per year , producing total global revenues of $ 294 @.@ 5 billion ( £ 147 @.@ 7 billion ) . In 2010 , China 's beer consumption hit 450 million hectolitres ( 45 billion litres ) , or nearly twice that of the United States , but only 5 percent sold were premium draught beers , compared with 50 percent in France and Germany . = = Brewing = = The process of making beer is known as brewing . A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery , though beer can be made in the home and has been for much of its history . A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company . Beer made on a domestic scale for non @-@ commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made , though most homebrewed beer is made in the home . Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries , which from the late 19th century largely restricted brewing to a commercial operation only . However , the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963 , followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978 , allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby . The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic beverage known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast . The first step , where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source ( normally malted barley ) with hot water , is known as " mashing " . Hot water ( known as " liquor " in brewing terms ) is mixed with crushed malt or malts ( known as " grist " ) in a mash tun . The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours , during which the starches are converted to sugars , and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains . The grains are now washed in a process known as " sparging " . This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible . The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation . The traditional process for wort separation is lautering , in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium . Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames which allow a more finely ground grist . Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge , collecting the original wort and the sparge water together . However , it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not quite spent grains as separate batches . Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus a weaker beer . This process is known as second ( and third ) runnings . Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing . The sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle , or " copper " ( so called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper ) , and boiled , usually for about one hour . During boiling , water in the wort evaporates , but the sugars and other components of the wort remain ; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer . Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage . Hops are added during boiling as a source of bitterness , flavour and aroma . Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil . The longer the hops are boiled , the more bitterness they contribute , but the less hop flavour and aroma remains in the beer . After boiling , the hopped wort is now cooled , ready for the yeast . In some breweries , the hopped wort may pass through a hopback , which is a small vat filled with hops , to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter ; but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter , where the yeast is added . During fermentation , the wort becomes beer in a process which requires a week to months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer . In addition to producing ethanol , fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during fermentation . Once fermentation is complete , the yeast also settles , leaving the beer clear . Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages , primary and secondary . Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation , the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation . Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity . When the beer has fermented , it is packaged either into casks for cask ale or kegs , aluminium cans , or bottles for other sorts of beer . = = Ingredients = = The basic ingredients of beer are water ; a starch source , such as malted barley , able to be saccharified ( converted to sugars ) then fermented ( converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide ) ; a brewer 's yeast to produce the fermentation ; and a flavouring such as hops . A mixture of starch sources may be used , with a secondary starch source , such as maize ( corn ) , rice or sugar , often being termed an adjunct , especially when used as a lower @-@ cost substitute for malted barley . Less widely used starch sources include millet , sorghum and cassava root in Africa , and potato in Brazil , and agave in Mexico , among others . The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill . Water Beer is composed mostly of water . Regions have water with different mineral components ; as a result , different regions were originally better suited to making certain types of beer , thus giving them a regional character . For example , Dublin has hard water well @-@ suited to making stout , such as Guinness ; while the Plzeň Region has soft water well @-@ suited to making Pilsner ( pale lager ) , such as Pilsner Urquell . The waters of Burton in England contain gypsum , which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as Burtonisation . Starch source The starch source in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer . The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain . Grain is malted by soaking it in water , allowing it to begin germination , and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln . Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars . Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain . Darker malts will produce darker beers . Nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch . This is because its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing . After malting , barley is milled , which finally removes the hull , breaking it into large pieces . These pieces remain with the grain during the mash , and act as a filter bed during lautering , when sweet wort is separated from insoluble grain material . Other malted and unmalted grains ( including wheat , rice , oats , and rye , and less frequently , corn and sorghum ) may be used . Some brewers have produced gluten @-@ free beer , made with sorghum with no barley malt , for those who cannot consume gluten @-@ containing grains like wheat , barley , and rye . Hops Flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops . The flower of the hop vine is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today . The flowers themselves are often called " hops " . The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer was from 822 AD in monastery rules written by Adalhard the Elder , also known as Adalard of Corbie , though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century . Before the thirteenth century , and until the sixteenth century , during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring , beer was flavoured with other plants ; for instance , grains of paradise or alehoof . Combinations of various aromatic herbs , berries , and even ingredients like wormwood would be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used . Some beers today , such as Fraoch ' by the Scottish Heather Ales company and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie @-@ Lancelot company , use plants other than hops for flavouring . Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer . Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt ; the bitterness of beers is measured on the International Bitterness Units scale . Hops contribute floral , citrus , and herbal aromas and flavours to beer . Hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer 's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and aids in " head retention " , the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last . The acidity of hops is a preservative . Yeast Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer . Yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains , which produces alcohol and carbon dioxide , and thereby turns wort into beer . In addition to fermenting the beer , yeast influences the character and flavour . The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are the top @-@ fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bottom @-@ fermenting Saccharomyces pastorianus . Brettanomyces ferments lambics , and Torulaspora delbrueckii ferments Bavarian weissbier . Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood , fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts . A few styles such as lambics rely on this method today , but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures . Clarifying agent Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents to beer , which typically precipitate ( collect as a solid ) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product . This process makes the beer appear bright and clean , rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers . Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass , obtained from swimbladders of fish ; Irish moss , a seaweed ; kappa carrageenan , from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii ; Polyclar ( artificial ) ; and gelatin . If a beer is marked " suitable for Vegans " , it was clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents . = = Brewing industry = = The brewing industry is a global business , consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries . More than 133 billion litres ( 35 billion gallons ) are sold per year — producing total global revenues of $ 294 @.@ 5 billion ( £ 147 @.@ 7 billion ) in 2006 . The history of breweries in the 21st century has been one of larger breweries absorbing smaller breweries in order to ensure economy of scale . In 2002 South African Breweries bought the North American Miller Brewing Company to found SABMiller , becoming the second largest brewery , after North American Anheuser @-@ Bush . In 2004 the Belgian Interbrew was the third largest brewery by volume and the Brazilian AmBev was the fifth largest . They merged into InBev , becoming the largest brewery . In 2007 , SABMiller surpassed InBev and Anheuser @-@ Bush when it acquired Royal Grolsch , brewer of Dutch premium beer brand Grolsch in 2007 . In 2008 , when InBev ( the second @-@ largest ) bought Anheuser @-@ Busch ( the third largest ) , the new Anheuser @-@ Busch InBev company became again the largest brewer in the world . As of 2015 AB InBev remains the largest brewery , with SABMiller second , and Heineken International third . A microbrewery , or craft brewery , produces a limited amount of beer . The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a microbrewery varies by region and by authority , though is usually around 15 @,@ 000 barrels ( 1 @.@ 8 megalitres , 396 thousand imperial gallons or 475 thousand US gallons ) a year . A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other eating establishment . The highest density of breweries in the world , most of them microbreweries , exists in the German Region of Franconia , especially in the district of Upper Franconia , which has about 200 breweries . The Benedictine Weihenstephan Brewery in Bavaria , Germany , can trace its roots to the year 768 , as a document from that year refers to a hop garden in the area paying a tithe to the monastery . The brewery was licensed by the City of Freising in 1040 , and therefore is the oldest working brewery in the world . Brewing at home is subject to regulation and prohibition in many countries . Restrictions on homebrewing were lifted in the UK in 1963 , Australia followed suit in 1972 , and the US in 1978 , though individual states were allowed to pass their own laws limiting production . = = Varieties = = While there are many types of beer brewed , the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries . The traditional European brewing regions — Germany , Belgium , England and the Czech Republic — have local varieties of beer . English writer Michael Jackson , in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer , categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names . Fred Eckhardt furthered Jackson 's work in The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989 . Top @-@ fermented beers are most commonly produced with Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a top @-@ fermenting yeast which clumps and rises to the surface , typically between 15 and 24 ° C ( 60 and 75 ° F ) . At these temperatures , yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products , and the result is often a beer with slightly " fruity " compounds resembling apple , pear , pineapple , banana , plum , or prune , among others . After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century , " ale " referred to an unhopped fermented beverage , " beer " being used to describe a brew with an infusion of hops . The word ale comes from Old English ealu ( plural ealoþ ) , in turn from Proto @-@ Germanic * alu ( plural * aluþ ) , ultimately from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European base * h ₂ elut- , which holds connotations of " sorcery , magic , possession , intoxication " . The word beer comes from Old English bēor , from Proto @-@ Germanic * beuzą , probably from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * bʰeusóm , originally " brewer 's yeast , beer dregs " , although other theories have been provided connecting the word with Old English bēow , " barley " , or Latin bibere , " to drink " . On the currency of two words for the same thing in the Germanic languages , the 12th @-@ century Old Icelandic poem Alvíssmál says , " Ale it is called among men , but among the gods , beer . " Real ale is the term coined by the Campaign for Real Ale ( CAMRA ) in 1973 for " beer brewed from traditional ingredients , matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed , and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide " . It is applied to bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers . Pale ale Pale ale is a beer which uses a top @-@ fermenting yeast and predominantly pale malt . It is one of the world 's major beer styles . Stout Stout and porter are dark beers made using roasted malts or roast barley , and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast . There are a number of variations including Baltic porter , dry stout , and Imperial stout . The name " porter " was first used in 1721 to describe a dark brown beer popular with the street and river porters of London . This same beer later also became known as stout , though the word stout had been used as early as 1677 . The history and development of stout and porter are intertwined . Mild Mild ale has a predominantly malty palate . It is usually dark coloured with an abv of 3 % to 3 @.@ 6 % , although there are lighter hued milds as well as stronger examples reaching 6 % abv and higher . Wheat Wheat beer is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of malted barley . Wheat beers are usually top @-@ fermented ( in Germany they have to be by law ) . The flavour of wheat beers varies considerably , depending upon the specific style . Lambic Lambic , a beer of Belgium , is naturally fermented using wild yeasts , rather than cultivated . Many of these are not strains of brewer 's yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness . Yeast varieties such as Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics . In addition , other organisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness . Lager Lager is cool fermented beer . Pale lagers are the most commonly consumed beers in the world . The name " lager " comes from the German " lagern " for " to store " , as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months . These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment , and to also clear of sediment , when stored in cool conditions . Lager yeast is a cool bottom @-@ fermenting yeast ( Saccharomyces pastorianus ) and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7 – 12 ° C ( 45 – 54 ° F ) ( the fermentation phase ) , and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0 – 4 ° C ( 32 – 39 ° F ) ( the lagering phase ) . During the secondary stage , the lager clears and mellows . The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts , resulting in a " cleaner " -tasting beer . Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by Gabriel Sedlmayr the Younger , who perfected dark brown lagers at the Spaten Brewery in Bavaria , and Anton Dreher , who began brewing a lager ( now known as Vienna lager ) , probably of amber @-@ red colour , in Vienna in 1840 – 1841 . With improved modern yeast strains , most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage , typically 1 – 3 weeks . = = Measurement = = Beer is measured and assessed by bitterness , by strength and by colour . The perceived bitterness is measured by the International Bitterness Units scale ( IBU ) , defined in co @-@ operation between the American Society of Brewing Chemists and the European Brewery Convention . The international scale was a development of the European Bitterness Units scale , often abbreviated as EBU , and the bitterness values should be identical . = = = Colour = = = Beer colour is determined by the malt . The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts . Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried with coke . Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642 , but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used . In terms of sales volume , most of today 's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of Pilsen in the present @-@ day Czech Republic . The modern pale lager is light in colour with a noticeable carbonation ( fizzy bubbles ) and a typical alcohol by volume content of around 5 % . The Pilsner Urquell , Bitburger , and Heineken brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager , as are the American brands Budweiser , Coors , and Miller . Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade . Other colourants — such as caramel — are also widely used to darken beers . Very dark beers , such as stout , use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer . Some have roasted unmalted barley . = = = Strength = = = Beer ranges from less than 3 % alcohol by volume ( abv ) to around 14 % abv , though this strength can be increased to around 20 % by re @-@ pitching with champagne yeast , and to 55 % abv by the freeze @-@ distilling process . The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style . The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4 – 6 % , with a typical abv of 5 % . The customary strength of British ales is quite low , with many session beers being around 4 % abv . Some beers , such as table beer are of such low alcohol content ( 1 % – 4 % ) that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools . The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation . The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer . Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content , and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer ( primarily " light " beers ) to convert more complex carbohydrates ( starches ) to fermentable sugars . Alcohol is a by @-@ product of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast ; typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12 % by volume . Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content . Strongest beer The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century . Vetter 33 , a 10 @.@ 5 % abv ( 33 degrees Plato , hence Vetter " 33 " ) doppelbock , was listed in the 1994 Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest beer at that time , though Samichlaus , by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann , had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14 % abv . Since then , some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers . Samuel Adams reached 20 % abv with Millennium , and then surpassed that amount to 25 @.@ 6 % abv with Utopias . The strongest beer brewed in Britain was Baz 's Super Brew by Parish Brewery , a 23 % abv beer . In September 2011 , the Scottish brewery BrewDog produced Ghost Deer , which , at 28 % , they claim to be the world 's strongest beer produced by fermentation alone . The product claimed to be the strongest beer made is Schorschbräu 's 2011 Schorschbock 57 with 57 @,@ 5 % . It was preceded by The End of History , a 55 % Belgian ale , made by BrewDog in 2010 . The same company had previously made Sink The Bismarck ! , a 41 % abv IPA , and Tactical Nuclear Penguin , a 32 % abv Imperial stout . Each of these beers are made using the eisbock method of fractional freezing , in which a strong ale is partially frozen and the ice is repeatedly removed , until the desired strength is reached , a process that may class the product as spirits rather than beer . The German brewery Schorschbräu 's Schorschbock , a 31 % abv eisbock , and Hair of the Dog 's Dave , a 29 % abv barley wine made in 1994 , used the same fractional freezing method . A 60 % abv blend of beer with whiskey was jokingly claimed as the strongest beer by a Dutch brewery in July 2010 . = = Serving = = = = = Draught = = = Draught beer from a pressurised keg is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world . A metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet . Some beers may be served with a nitrogen / carbon dioxide mixture . Nitrogen produces fine bubbles , resulting in a dense head and a creamy mouthfeel . Some types of beer can also be found in smaller , disposable kegs called beer balls . In the 1980s , Guinness introduced the beer widget , a nitrogen @-@ pressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense , tight head , similar to beer served from a nitrogen system . The words draft and draught can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers containing a beer widget , or which are cold @-@ filtered rather than pasteurised . Cask @-@ conditioned ales ( or cask ales ) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers . These beers are termed " real ale " by the CAMRA organisation . Typically , when a cask arrives in a pub , it is placed horizontally on a frame called a " stillage " which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle , and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature ( typically between 11 – 13 ° C or 52 – 55 ° F ) , before being tapped and vented — a tap is driven through a ( usually rubber ) bung at the bottom of one end , and a hard spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask , which is now uppermost . The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment , so it must be left for a suitable period to " drop " ( clear ) again , as well as to fully condition — this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days . At this point the beer is ready to sell , either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump , or simply being " gravity @-@ fed " directly into the glass . Draught beer 's environmental impact can be 68 % lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences . A life cycle study of one beer brand , including grain production , brewing , bottling , distribution and waste management , shows that the CO2 emissions from a 6 @-@ pack of micro @-@ brew beer is about 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 pounds ) . The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6 @-@ pack of micro @-@ brew beer is estimated to be 2 @.@ 5 square meters ( 26 square feet ) . Downstream emissions from distribution , retail , storage and disposal of waste can be over 45 % of a bottled micro @-@ brew beer 's CO2 emissions . Where legal , the use of a refillable jug , reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar , rather than buying pre @-@ bottled beer , can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption . = = = Packaging = = = Most beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans . However , bottle conditioned beers retain some yeast — either by being unfiltered , or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast . It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly , leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle . However , some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast ; this practice is customary with wheat beers . Typically , when serving a hefeweizen wheat beer , 90 % of the contents are poured , and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass . Alternatively , the bottle may be inverted prior to opening . Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers . Many beers are sold in cans , though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries . In Sweden in 2001 , 63 @.@ 9 % of beer was sold in cans . People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass . A technology developed by Crown Holdings for the 2010 FIFA World Cup is the ' full aperture ' can , so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process , turning the can into a drinking cup . Cans protect the beer from light ( thereby preventing " skunked " beer ) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles . Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer , then became commonly associated with less expensive , mass @-@ produced beers , even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles . Plastic ( PET ) bottles are used by some breweries . = = = Temperature = = = The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker 's experience ; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing . Most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled , a low- or medium @-@ strength pale ale to be served cool , while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature . Beer writer Michael Jackson proposed a five @-@ level scale for serving temperatures : well chilled ( 7 ° C or 45 ° F ) for " light " beers ( pale lagers ) ; chilled ( 8 ° C or 46 ° F ) for Berliner Weisse and other wheat beers ; lightly chilled ( 9 ° C or 48 ° F ) for all dark lagers , altbier and German wheat beers ; cellar temperature ( 13 ° C or 55 ° F ) for regular British ale , stout and most Belgian specialities ; and room temperature ( 15 @.@ 5 ° C or 60 ° F ) for strong dark ales ( especially trappist beer ) and barley wine . Drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s , was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager . Chilling beer makes it more refreshing , though below 15 @.@ 5 ° C the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness and reduces it significantly below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) . Beer served unchilled — either cool or at room temperature — reveal more of their flavours . Cask Marque , a non @-@ profit UK beer organisation , has set a temperature standard range of 12 ° – 14 ° C ( 53 ° – 57 ° F ) for cask ales to be served . = = = Vessels = = = Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels , such as a glass , a beer stein , a mug , a pewter tankard , a beer bottle or a can . The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style . Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion , as this increases sales . The pouring process has an influence on a beer 's presentation . The rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel , tilt of the glass , and position of the pour ( in the centre or down the side ) into the glass all influence the end result , such as the size and longevity of the head , lacing ( the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk ) , and the release of carbonation . A beer tower is a beer dispensing device , usually found in bars and pubs , that consists of a cylinder attached to a beer cooling device at the bottom . Beer is dispensed from the beer tower into a drinking vessel . = = Health effects = = = = = Short @-@ term effects = = = Beer contains ethyl alcohol , the same chemical that is present in wine and distilled spirits and as such , beer consumption has short @-@ term psychological and physiological effects on the user . Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person . The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk , the percentage of alcohol in the beer and the timespan over which the consumption took place , the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription , over @-@ the @-@ counter or street drugs , among other factors . Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration ( BAC ) of 0 @.@ 03 % -0.12 % typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria , increased self @-@ confidence and sociability , decreased anxiety , a flushed , red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination . A BAC of 0 @.@ 09 % to 0 @.@ 25 % causes lethargy , sedation , balance problems and blurred vision . A BAC from 0 @.@ 18 % to 0 @.@ 30 % causes profound confusion , impaired speech ( e.g. , slurred speech ) , staggering , dizziness and vomiting . A BAC from 0 @.@ 25 % to 0 @.@ 40 % causes stupor , unconsciousness , anterograde amnesia , vomiting ( death may occur due to inhalation of vomit ( pulmonary aspiration ) while unconscious and respiratory depression ( potentially life @-@ threatening ) . A BAC from 0 @.@ 35 % to 0 @.@ 80 % causes a coma ( unconsciousness ) , life @-@ threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning . As with all alcoholic drinks , drinking while driving , operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident ; many countries have severe criminal penalties against drunk driving . = = = Long @-@ term effects = = = The main active ingredient of beer is alcohol , and therefore , the health effects of alcohol apply to beer . Consumption of small quantities of alcohol ( less than one drink in women and two in men ) is associated with a decreased risk of cardiac disease , stroke and diabetes mellitus . The long term health effects of continuous , moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease . Alcoholism , also known as " alcohol use disorder " , is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems . It was previously divided into two types : alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence . In a medical context , alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present : a person drinks large amounts over a long time period , has difficulty cutting down , acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time , alcohol is strongly desired , usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities , usage results in social problems , usage results in health problems , usage results in risky situations , withdrawal occurs when stopping , and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use . Alcoholism reduces a person 's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States . No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine . A total of 3 @.@ 3 million deaths ( 5 @.@ 9 % of all deaths ) are believed to be due to alcohol . Beers vary in their nutritional content . Brewer 's yeast is known to be a rich source of nutrients ; therefore , as expected , beer can contain significant amounts of nutrients , including magnesium , selenium , potassium , phosphorus , biotin , chromium and B vitamins . Beer is sometimes referred to as " liquid bread " . It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly , rather than beer consumption . A 2004 study , however , found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly . But with most overconsumption , it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself . Several diet books quote beer as having an undesirably high glycemic index of 110 , the same as maltose ; however , the maltose in beer undergoes metabolism by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water , hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars , including maltose . = = Society and culture = = In many societies , beer is the most popular alcoholic drink . Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking , such as playing cards , darts , or other pub games ; attending beer festivals ; engaging in zythology ( the study of beer ) ; visiting a series of pubs in one evening ; visiting breweries ; beer @-@ oriented tourism ; or rating beer . Drinking games , such as beer pong , are also popular . A relatively new profession is that of the beer sommelier , who informs restaurant patrons about beers and food pairings . Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies and is consumed in countries all over the world . There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Syria , and in some African countries . Sales of beer are four times those of wine , which is the second most popular alcoholic drink . A study published in the Neuropsychopharmacology journal in 2013 revealed the finding that the flavour of beer alone could provoke dopamine activity in the brain of the male participants , who wanted to drink more as a result . The 49 men in the study were subject to positron emission tomography scans , while a computer @-@ controlled device sprayed minute amounts of beer , water and a sports drink onto their tongues . Compared with the taste of the sports drink , the taste of beer significantly increased the participants desire to drink . Test results indicated that the flavour of the beer triggered a dopamine release , even though alcohol content in the spray was insufficient for the purpose of becoming intoxicated . Some breweries have developed beers to pair with food . Wine writer Malcolm Gluck disputed the need to pair beer with food , while beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole contested that claim . = = Related drinks = = Around the world , there are many traditional and ancient starch @-@ based drinks classed as beer . In Africa , there are various ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet , such as Oshikundu in Namibia and Tella in Ethiopia . Kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet ; it is a low alcohol , somewhat porridge @-@ like drink called " Bozo " . Bhutan , Nepal , Tibet and Sikkim also use millet in Chhaang , a popular semi @-@ fermented rice / millet drink in the eastern Himalayas . Further east in China are found Huangjiu and Choujiu — traditional rice @-@ based beverages related to beer . The Andes in South America has Chicha , made from germinated maize ( corn ) ; while the indigenous peoples in Brazil have Cauim , a traditional beverage made since pre @-@ Columbian times by chewing manioc so that an enzyme ( amylase ) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars ; this is similar to Masato in Peru . Some beers which are made from bread , which is linked to the earliest forms of beer , are Sahti in Finland , Kvass in Russia and Ukraine , and Bouza in Sudan . = = Chemistry = = Beer contains the phenolic acids 4 @-@ hydroxyphenylacetic acid , vanillic acid , caffeic acid , syringic acid , p @-@ coumaric acid , ferulic acid and sinapic acid . Alkaline hydrolysis experiments show that the most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds . Hops , and beer made with it , contain 8 @-@ prenylnaringenin which is a potent phytoestrogen . Hop also contains myrcene , humulene , xanthohumol , isoxanthohumol , myrcenol , linalool , tannins and resin . The alcohol 2M2B is a component of hops brewing . Barley , in the form of malt , brings the condensed tannins prodelphinidins B3 , B9 and C2 . Tryptophol , tyrosol and phenylethanol are aromatic higher alcohols found in beer as secondary products of alcoholic fermentation ( products also known as congeners ) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae .
= Christy Jenkins = Christy Jenkins is a fictional character from the American television supernatural drama Charmed , which aired on the WB Television Network ( the WB ) from 1998 to 2006 . Charmed follows the supernatural adventures of the Charmed Ones , a trio of sisters known as the most powerful witches of all time . The character was created by executive producer Brad Kern and was portrayed by actress Marnette Patterson . Developed in response to the WB 's request for a new character , Christy was originally planned to expand the show in a new direction for a possible ninth season or spin @-@ off . Introduced as Billie Jenkins 's long @-@ lost sister , she secretly collaborates with the demonic council known as the Triad with their plans to destroy the Charmed Ones . She possesses the powers of telepathy and pyrokinesis and is referred to as the key to the " Ultimate Power " due to her connection to Billie , who is prophesied to be the " Ultimate Power " . She eventually convinces Billie that the Charmed Ones are corrupt , and use their power to fulfill their own personal desires , rather than help for the greater good . Billie kills Christy in self @-@ defense after being unable to convince her to understand the Halliwell sisters were good , and to return home with her . The character is further referenced in the canonical comic books Charmed : Season 9 as well as in one of the novels . The exact nature of Christy 's morality has been the subject of debate among critics and fans . After speculation as to whether the character would be featured in a spin @-@ off , it was confirmed that all future plans for the show were cancelled following the WB 's closure to launch CW Television Network ( The CW ) . Kern later felt that focusing the final season on Billie and Christy changed the show from its original meaning , while Patterson described the role as expanding her appreciation for science fiction . Critical response to the character was mixed : some critics praised her storyline with Billie , while others criticized Patterson 's acting , and the character 's development as a sign of the show 's declining quality . = = Development = = = = = Concept and creation = = = The WB Television Network ( the WB ) renewed Charmed for an eighth season on condition that it incorporate new characters that could either sustain a ninth season or a spin @-@ off series because lead actors Alyssa Milano , Holly Marie Combs , and Rose McGowan did not want to renew their contracts for future seasons . Brian Krause , who played Leo Wyatt , expressed confusion at the direction of the final season , stating : " I don 't know if they were trying to groom talent to go on to something else " . During the WB 's merge with United Paramount Network ( UPN ) to form the CW in 2006 , network executives said there was not enough room for a Charmed spin @-@ off . In an interview with E ! ' s Kristin Veitch , Cuoco confirmed that a spin @-@ off involving her character would not be developed , saying " Charmed is done " . Executive producer Brad Kern initially called the sisterhood between Billie and Christy a " poetic " way to preserve the show 's focus on family . Patterson said that the opportunity to be featured on an established series was " really great " , saying : " it was great to be a part of a highly anticipated finale . " She added that she had " instant chemistry " with Cuoco , and that their connection made it easier to act out their storyline as sisters . = = = Characterization and powers = = = Christy has been described as a " source of fandom controversy " over the definition of her morality . Kern called Christy " a little traumatized " and " mysterious " , raising the question if she was " the sweet child " or someone " Stockholm Syndrome 'd and now believes in the demonic way " . He cited the nature versus nurture debate as one of the factors behind the development of the character . Brittany Spanos of Vulture.com viewed Christy as an evil witch because of her betrayal of Billie and the Charmed Ones , and SpoilerTV 's Gavin Hetherington identified her as the season 's big bad . In their book The Book of Three , authors Diana G. Gallagher and Paul Ruditis write that she was the Triad 's protégée . Ruditis , who later became the lead writer on Charmed Season 9 , viewed Billie as a pawn , instead of a proper villain , and questioned the lack of a strong , female antagonist on the show . Demain of Television Without Pity compared Christy 's identification as the key to the " Ultimate Power " to Buffy the Vampire Slayer character Dawn Summers ( Michelle Trachtenberg ) , who was also known as the Key . Christy is the oldest of Carl and Helen Jenkins 's two daughters . Both of her parents are mortal , and her powers were inherited from her maternal grandmother , making her a carrier of the genes determining magical ability . As a witch , Christy possesses the basic ability to cast spells , perform rituals , brew potions , scry for lost people or objects through the use of a crystal pendent , and communicate with the dead . She also possesses an advanced form of telepathy , enabling her to hear and project her thoughts , as well as channeling other magical creatures ' powers . Carl and Helen Jenkins ( David Starzyk and Barbara Niven ) said Christy heard voices prior to her kidnapping , implying that this power was already active . As a firestarter , Christy had the power of pyrokinesis ; this power could be augmented by Billie 's projection powers to vanquish demons previously believed to be invincible . = = Appearances = = = = = Television = = = As a child , Christy was kidnapped by a demon called Reinhardt ( Brian Oerly ) as part of a plan by the demonic council known as the Triad ( Steven J. Oliver , Seren Oliver , and Leland Crooke ) to destroy the Charmed Ones : Piper Halliwell ( Holly Marie Combs ) , Phoebe Halliwell ( Alyssa Milano ) , and Paige Matthews ( Rose McGowan ) . Prior to her abduction , the Triad sent the demon Dumain ( Anthony Cistaro ) to pose as Christy 's imaginary friend and corrupt her . It is implied that Christy has some awareness about the Triad as her parents find the council 's symbol on the final page of her diary . During the fifteen years of her kidnapping , Christy is taught to believe that it is her destiny to unite with her sister Billie Jenkins and to stop the Charmed Ones since they have become corrupted by their selfish desires . After gaining the power to warp reality , Billie travels back in time to speak with an 11 @-@ year @-@ old Christy and track down her location . She rescues Christy off @-@ screen between the episodes " 12 Angry Zen " and " The Last Temptation of Christy " . With the Halliwells ' help , Billie attempts to help Christy reintegrate back into everyday life and to gain control over her powers . Billie and the Halliwells are unaware of Christy 's collaboration with the Triad . At this time , Billie is identified as the " Ultimate Power " foreshadowed in earlier episodes as the season 's big bad , and Christy as the key to the " Ultimate Power " . The Triad arranges for Christy 's parents to be killed by a pair of Noxon demons ( John Rosenfeld and David S. Lee ) , believing prolonged contact with them could sway her morality to the side of good . Billie becomes angry and feels betrayed by the Halliwell sisters when they decide to interrogate the demons to gather more information about the " Ultimate Power " rather than killing them to avenge her parents ' deaths . Christy uses this moment to turn Billie against the Charmed Ones . Billie and Christy vanquish the Noxon demons , who were previously believed to be invincible , and the Halliwell sisters realize that Billie is the " Ultimate Power " . Christy attempts to convince Billie that the Charmed Ones only use their powers for their own personal gain rather than to support the greater good , and it is their destiny to stop them . Billie agrees with Christy 's plans to kill the Halliwells after exploring the sisters ' dreams and believing their " inner @-@ truths " were driven by selfish desires . After turning the magical community against the Halliwells , Billie and Christy engage in the ultimate battle with the sisters , which destroys Halliwell Manor and kills Christy , Phoebe , and Paige . Billie uses her projection power to travel back in time to save Christy , but discovers that she was being manipulated by the Triad . She realizes that Christy is working with the Triad and begins to question her morality . Christy and Dumain steal the cupid Coop 's ( Victor Webster ) ring to travel back in time to warn the Triad about the outcome of the ultimate battle . Billie helps the sisters project back in time to vanquish the Triad and the past and present versions of Dumain . Billie attempts unsuccessfully to convince Christy to come back home with her . Christy throws a fireball at Billie and the Halliwell sisters , forcing Billie to telekinetically deflect it back at her and kill her . = = = Literature = = = Christy is also referenced in a novel and the comic books based on the Charmed television series . In " Trickery Treat " , Paige experiences guilt for being unable to prevent the massacre of the magic community because Christy puts her under a hex turning her inner truth into obsession . Charmed : Season 9 , a canonical comic book continuation of the television show written by Ruditis , reveals that Billie and Christy were not intended to be powerful enough to confront the Charmed Ones . The eldest sister Prue Halliwell 's bond to the Charmed Ones prophecy , even after death , restricted her sisters from reaching their true powers , and made them vulnerable to the Triad 's plot with Billie and Christy . = = Reception = = Throughout her run on Charmed , Christy Jenkins received mixed critical feedback . Sheldon Wiebe of the entertainment website Eclipsemagazine.com praised the Billie and Christy storyline for having a " dark undercurrent " reminiscent of the show 's first and second seasons . Vulture.com 's Brittany Spanos placed Christy as number three on its list of 161 " demons , warlocks , and baddies " as ranked by " scariness " . Jeffrey Robinson of DVD Talk felt that the Billie and Christy storyline was the strongest part of season eight . Demain of Television Without Pity praised Christy as an interesting character following the reveal that she was secretly working for the Triad , and parodied her as " Chrissssty " and " Ssssecretly Evil Chrissssty " from Cuoco 's pronunciation of the character 's name . Alternatively , SpoilerTV 's Gavin Hetherington wrote he was " impartial " about Christy and opined that the Jenkins sisters were disappointing villains for the show 's final season compared to those of previous seasons . Nadim of the television and film review website Nad 's Reviews praised the concept of the Charmed Ones engaging in an ultimate battle with another set of sisters , but described its execution as a " downright embarrassing affair " . Jon Langmead of PopMatters described the familial relationship between Christy and Billie as weak in comparison to those from previous seasons . Langmead was critical of Patterson 's performance , saying she " huffs and puffs through her on @-@ camera time " . Digital Spy 's Hugh Armitage listed the Jenkins sisters as " the gruesome twosome " and one of the eight things that derailed the show . Armitage criticized Patterson for having " a habit of pulling ' evil ' faces when no one could see her like a pantomime villain " .
= Kepler @-@ 11e = Kepler @-@ 11e is an exoplanet ( extrasolar planet ) discovered in the orbit of the sunlike star Kepler @-@ 11 . It is the fourth of six planets around Kepler @-@ 11 discovered by NASA 's Kepler spacecraft . Kepler @-@ 11e was found by using the transit method , in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured . Kepler @-@ 11e is most likely a gas giant like Neptune , having a density that is less than that of Saturn , the least dense planet in the Solar System . Its low density can probably be attributed to a large hydrogen and helium atmosphere . Kepler @-@ 11e has a mass eight times of Earth 's mass and a radius 4 @.@ 5 times that of Earth . The planet orbits its star every 31 days in an ellipse that would fit within the orbit of Mercury . Kepler @-@ 11e was announced on February 2 , 2011 with its five sister planets after it was confirmed by several observatories . = = Name and discovery = = At the time when Kepler @-@ 11 was first noted as a host to a potential transit event , the star was given the designation KOI @-@ 157 . It was later assigned the name " Kepler @-@ 11 " after the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA satellite tasked with discovering planets in transit of , or crossing in front of , their stars . This transit causes a slight and regular change in the host star 's brightness , which can then tested to prove the planet 's existence and , later , to extrapolate the orbital parameters of the planet . Kepler @-@ 11e is first given the designation by its host star , Kepler @-@ 11 . Since Kepler @-@ 11e was announced with five other planets , the letters added to the star are sorted by the planet 's distance from its star . Kepler @-@ 11e is the fourth planet from Kepler @-@ 11 , it is given the designation " e " . Follow @-@ up confirmation observations were made by the Keck 1 telescope at the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii , the Hale and Shane telescopes in California , the Harlan J. Smith and Hobby @-@ Eberly telescopes in west Texas , the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands , and by telescopes at the WIYN ( including MMT ) and Whipple observatories in Arizona . The Spitzer Space Telescope was also used . Kepler @-@ 11 's planetary system became the first discovered extrasolar system with more than three transiting planets , as well as the most compact and flattest system yet discovered , according to NASA . The planets of Kepler @-@ 11 , including Kepler @-@ 11e , were announced jointly at a press conference on February 2 , 2011 . The findings were published in the journal Nature on February 3 . = = Host star = = Kepler @-@ 11 is a G @-@ type star located in the Cygnus . It has a mass of .95 Msun and a radius of 1 @.@ 1 Rsun , and is thus almost the same mass and radius as the Sun . With an effective temperature of 5680 K , it is also almost as hot as the Sun , and with a metallicity of 0 , Kepler @-@ 11 is almost as metal @-@ rich as the Sun is . Metal @-@ rich stars tend to have easily detectable planets because higher metallicities tend to either facilitate the creation of gas giants or to promote planetary migration , in which the planet orbits more closely to its star . However , Kepler @-@ 11 is almost 1 @.@ 73 times older than the Sun , as it has an estimated age of eight billion years . Kepler @-@ 11 is 613 parsecs away from the Earth ; its distance contributes to its apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 2 ( V ) . It , thus , cannot be seen with the naked eye . Other than Kepler @-@ 11e , Kepler @-@ 11 is the host star of the planets Kepler @-@ 11b , Kepler @-@ 11c , Kepler @-@ 11d , Kepler @-@ 11f , and Kepler @-@ 11g . The inner five planets in the system orbit in a tightly knit configuration that would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury , while Kepler @-@ 11g , compared to its inner sister planets , orbits at a much further distance . = = Characteristics = = Kepler @-@ 11e , which formed within the first few million years of the star system 's formation , has a mass 8 @.@ 4 times that of Earth 's , and radius 4 @.@ 52 times that of Earth 's . With a density of 0 @.@ 5 grams / cm3 , Kepler @-@ 11e has a density that is half of that of pure water at standard temperature and pressure and slightly less than the density of Saturn . Kepler @-@ 11e has a surface equilibrium temperature of 617 K , and is thus has an equilibrium temperature approximately 2 @.@ 4 times hotter than Earth 's . Kepler @-@ 11e orbits its star at a mean distance of .194 AU , making it the fourth planet from its star . It completes an orbit every 31 @.@ 995990 days . In comparison , Mercury orbits the Sun every 87 @.@ 97 days at a distance of .387 AU . Kepler @-@ 11e 's orbital inclination is 88 @.@ 8 ° , making it almost entirely edge @-@ on to its star as seen from Earth . Because it isn 't as close to its star as its sister planets Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c , the Kepler team suggests that its light density may come from a large hydrogen and helium atmosphere that has not been blown away by the stellar wind .
= 1689 Boston revolt = The 1689 Boston revolt was a popular uprising on April 18 , 1689 , against the rule of Sir Edmund Andros , the governor of the Dominion of New England . A well @-@ organized " mob " of provincial militia and citizens formed in the city and arrested dominion officials . Members of the Church of England , believed by Puritans to sympathize with the administration of the dominion , were also taken into custody by the rebels . Neither faction sustained casualties during the revolt . Leaders of the former Massachusetts Bay Colony then reclaimed control of the government . In other colonies , members of governments displaced by the dominion were returned to power . Andros , commissioned governor of New England in 1686 , had earned the enmity of the local populace by enforcing the restrictive Navigation Acts , denying the validity of existing land titles , restricting town meetings , and appointing unpopular regular officers to lead colonial militia , among other actions . Furthermore , he had infuriated Puritans in Boston by promoting the Church of England , which was rejected by many Nonconformist New England colonists . = = Background = = In the early 1680s , King Charles II of England began taking steps to reorganize the colonies of New England . The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was revoked in 1684 after its Puritan rulers refused to act on his demands for reforms in the colony , when Charles sought to streamline the administration of the small colonies and bring them more closely under crown control . He died in 1685 and his successor , the Roman Catholic James II , continued the process , which culminated in the creation of the Dominion of New England . In 1686 , the former governor of New York , Sir Edmund Andros , was appointed as dominion governor . The dominion was composed of the territories of the Massachusetts Bay , Plymouth , Connecticut , New Hampshire , and Rhode Island colonies . In 1688 , its jurisdiction was expanded to include New York , and East and West Jersey . Andros 's rule was extremely unpopular in New England . He disregarded local representation , denied the validity of existing land titles in Massachusetts ( which had been dependent on the old charter ) , restricted town meetings , and actively promoted the Church of England in largely Puritan regions . He also enforced the Navigation Acts , unfavored laws that threatened the existence of certain trading practices of New England . The royal troops stationed in Boston were often mistreated by their officers who were supporters of the governor and often either Anglican or Roman Catholic . Meanwhile , in England , James became increasingly unpopular . The king alienated otherwise supportive Tories with his attempts to relax the Penal Laws , and in 1687 issued the Declaration of Indulgence , establishing some freedom of religion , a move opposed by the Anglican church hierarchy . He increased the power of the regular army , an action seen by many Parliamentarians as a threat to their authority , and placed Catholics in important military positions . James also attempted to place sympathizers in Parliament who he hoped would repeal the Test Act , which required a strict Anglican religious test for many civil offices . With the birth of his son and potential successor James in June 1688 , some Whigs and Tories set aside their political differences and conspired to replace James with his Protestant son @-@ in @-@ law , William , Prince of Orange . The Dutch prince , who had tried fruitlessly to get James to reconsider his policies , agreed to an invasion , and the nearly bloodless revolution that followed in November and December 1688 established William and his wife Mary as co @-@ rulers . The religious leaders of Massachusetts , led by Cotton and Increase Mather , were opposed to the rule of Andros , and they organized dissent targeted to influence the court in London . After King James published the Declaration of Indulgence , Increase Mather sent an appreciation letter to the king regarding the declaration , and suggested to other Massachusetts pastors that they also express gratitude to the king as a means to gain favor and influence . Ten pastors agreed to do so , and they decided to send Increase Mather to England to press their case against Andros . Despite dominion secretary Edward Randolph 's repeated attempts to stop him ( including pressing criminal charges ) , Mather was clandestinely spirited aboard a ship bound for England in April 1688 . He and other Massachusetts agents were received by James , who promised in October 1688 that the colony 's concerns would be addressed . The events of the revolution , however , halted this attempt to gain redress . The Massachusetts agents then petitioned the new monarchs and the Lords of Trade ( predecessors to the Board of Trade that oversaw colonial affairs ) for restoration of the Massachusetts charter . Mather furthermore convinced the Lords of Trade to delay notifying Andros of the revolution . He had already dispatched , to previous colonial governor Simon Bradstreet , a letter containing news of a report ( prepared before the revolution ) that the annulment of the Massachusetts charter had been illegal , and that the magistrates should " prepare the minds of the people for a change " . Rumors of the revolution apparently reached some individuals in Boston before official news arrived . John Nelson , a Boston merchant who would figure prominently in the revolt , wrote of the events in a letter dated late March , and the letter prompted a meeting of senior anti @-@ Andros political and religious leaders in Massachusetts . Andros first received a warning of the impending revolt against his control while leading an expedition to fortify Pemaquid ( present @-@ day Bristol , Maine ) , intending to protect the area against French and Indian attacks . In early January 1688 / 9 , he received a letter from James describing the Dutch military buildup . On January 10 he issued a proclamation warning against Protestant agitation and prohibiting an uprising against the dominion . The military force he led in Maine was composed of British regulars and militia from Massachusetts and Maine . The militia companies were commanded by regulars , who imposed harsh discipline that alienated the militiamen from their officers . Alerted to the meetings in Boston , and in receipt of unofficial reports of the revolution , Andros returned there from Maine in mid @-@ March . Amid wild rumors that Andros had brought them to Maine as part of a so @-@ called " popish plot " , the militia there mutinied , and those from Massachusetts began to make their way home . When a copy of a proclamation announcing the revolution reached Boston in early April , Andros had the messenger arrested , but his news was distributed , emboldening the people . Andros wrote to his commander at Pemaquid on April 16 that " there is a general buzzing among the people , great with expectation of their old charter " , even as he prepared to have the returning deserters arrested and shipped back to Maine . The threat of arrests by their own colonial militia increased tensions between the people of Boston and the dominion government . = = Revolt in Boston = = At about 5 : 00 am on April 18 , militia companies began gathering outside Boston at Charlestown just across the Charles River and at Roxbury , located at the far end of the neck connecting Boston to the mainland . At about 8 : 00 am the Charlestown companies boarded boats and crossed the river , while the Roxbury companies marched down the neck and into the city . Simultaneously , conspirators from the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company entered the homes of the regimental drummers in the city , confiscating their equipment . Joined by a growing mob , the militia companies met up at about 8 : 30 and began arresting dominion and regimental leaders . They eventually surrounded Fort Mary , where Andros was quartered . Among the first to be arrested was Captain John George of the HMS Rose , who came ashore between 9 : 00 and 10 : 00 , only to be met by a platoon of militia and the ship 's carpenter , who had joined the rebels . When George demanded to see an arrest warrant , the militiamen drew their swords and took him into custody . By about 10 : 00 , most of the dominion and military officials either had been arrested or had fled to the safety of Castle Island or other fortified outposts . Boston Anglicans , including a churchwarden and an apothecary , were rounded up by the mob . Sometime before noon an orange flag was raised on Beacon Hill , signaling another 1 @,@ 500 militiamen to enter the city . These troops formed up in the market square , where a declaration was read . In it , the leaders claimed to support " the noble Undertaking of the Prince of Orange " , and to rise up because of a " horrid Popish Plot " that had been uncovered . The old Massachusetts colonial leadership , headed by ex @-@ governor Simon Bradstreet , then urged Governor Andros to surrender for his own safety , citing the mob of which they claimed to be " wholly ignorant " . He refused and instead tried to escape to the Rose . A boat that came ashore from the Rose was intercepted by militia , and Andros was forced back into Fort Mary . Negotiations ensued and Andros agreed to leave the fort to meet with the rebel council . Promised safe conduct , he was marched under guard to the townhouse where the council had assembled . There he was told ( as an anonymous account of the exchange described it ) that " they must and would have the Government in their own hands " , and that he was under arrest . He was taken to the home of dominion official John Usher , and held under close watch . The Rose and Fort William on Castle Island refused to surrender immediately . On the 19th , when the ship 's crew on the Rose was told that the captain had planned to take the ship to France to join the exiled James , a struggle ensued , and the Protestants among the crew took down the ship 's rigging . After the troops on Castle Island saw this , they surrendered . = = Aftermath = = After Fort Mary fell on the 19th , Andros was moved there from Usher 's house . He was confined with Joseph Dudley and other dominion officials until June 7 , when he was transferred to Castle Island . A story circulated widely that he attempted an escape dressed in women 's clothing . This was disputed by the Anglican minister in Boston , Robert Ratcliff , who claimed that story and others had " not the least foundation of Truth " , and that they were " falsehoods , and lies " propagated to " render the Governour odious to his people " . Andros did make a successful escape from Castle Island on August 2 , after his servant bribed the sentries with liquor . He managed to flee to Rhode Island , but was recaptured soon thereafter and kept in what was virtually solitary confinement . He and others arrested in the wake of the revolt were held for 10 months before being sent to England for trial . Massachusetts agents in London refused to sign the documents listing the charges against Andros , so he was summarily acquitted and released . He later served as governor of Virginia and Maryland . = = Dissolution of the dominion = = When the other New England colonies in the dominion were informed of the overthrow of Andros , pre @-@ dominion colonial authorities moved to restore their former governments to power . Rhode Island and Connecticut resumed governance under their earlier charters , and Massachusetts resumed governance according to its vacated charter after being temporarily governed by a committee composed of magistrates , Massachusetts Bay officials , and a majority of Andros 's council . The committee was disbanded after some Boston leaders felt that radical rebels held too much sway over it . New Hampshire was temporarily left without formal government and was controlled by Massachusetts and its governor , Simon Bradstreet , who served as de facto ruler of the northern colony . Plymouth also resumed its previous form of governance . During his captivity , Andros had been able to send a message to Francis Nicholson , his New York @-@ based lieutenant governor . Nicholson received the request for assistance in mid @-@ May , but most of his troops had been sent to Maine , and with rising tensions in New York , he was unable to take any effective action . Nicholson himself was overthrown by a faction led by Jacob Leisler , and he fled to England . Leisler governed New York until 1691 , when a detachment of troops arrived , followed by Henry Sloughter , commissioned governor by William and Mary . Sloughter had Leisler tried on charges of high treason ; he was convicted and executed . After the suppression of Leisler 's Rebellion and the reinstatement of colonial governments in New England , no further effort was made by English officials to restore the " shattered " dominion . Once the fait accompli of Andros ' arrest was known , the discussion in London turned to dealing with Massachusetts and its revoked charter . Out of these discussions came the formation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691 , merging Massachusetts with the charterless Plymouth Colony and territories previously belonging to New York , including Nantucket , Martha 's Vineyard , the Elizabeth Islands , and parts of Maine . Increase Mather was unsuccessful in his attempts to restore the old Puritan rule : the new charter called for an appointed governor and religious toleration .
= Perijá tapaculo = The Perijá tapaculo ( Scytalopus perijanus ) is a species of passerine bird in the family Rhinocryptidae ( tapaculos ) . Endemic to the Serranía del Perijá mountain range on the Colombia – Venezuela border , the Perijá tapaculo is found at altitudes of 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 225 metres ( 5 @,@ 200 – 10 @,@ 600 feet ) . It measures 10 to 12 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 7 inches ) , and its tail is around 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . Specimens have long been stored in museums , but the species was only described in 2015 based on sixteen specimens found between July 2008 and February 2009 . It is considered endangered . Adults have neutral grey heads , brown necks , brown @-@ sepia striped backs , and grey @-@ white bellies , breasts , and throats . Males have some buff markings on their breasts , and less sharp brown spots on their napes than females . The Perijá tapaculo is a secretive bird and therefore difficult to observe ; as a result its ecology is poorly known . It feeds on insects and reproduces between April and July . Its range is partially within Chamicero de Perijá Bird Reserve in Colombia and the Sierra de Perijá National Park in Venezuela . = = Taxonomy = = Tapaculos are the most primitive family of suboscines , divided into 12 genera containing 60 species . Scytalopus , the genus to which the Perijá tapaculo belongs , has an abundance of similar species , many of which are difficult to classify through appearance . Some individual species from other genera are like Scytalopus in size and plumage , but have different behaviour and morphological features . Vocal studies and mitochondrial DNA analysis are often used to differentiate between species within the genus ; a number of visually identical species previously classified as subspecies of the Magellanic tapaculo ( S. magellanicus ) have been identified through these methods , and the majority of subspecies within the genus have subsequently been reclassified as separate species . Between 1941 and 1942 , American ornithologist Melbourne Armstrong Carriker collected 27 specimens of the Perijá tapaculo in six locations on the western side of the Serranía del Perijá . He identified them as specimens of the northern white @-@ crowned tapaculo ( S. atratus ) , despite size and colour differences , and sent them to the National Museum of Natural History in Washington , D.C. In 1953 , the specimens began to attract the attention of biologists , and were successively identified as the brown @-@ rumped tapaculo ( S. latebricola ) , the Caracas tapaculo ( S. caracae ) , and the Mérida tapaculo ( S. meridanus ) . Some further believed that the specimens could belong to an undescribed species , or constitute a subspecies of the pale @-@ bellied tapaculo ( S. griseicollis ) or the Mérida tapaculo based on morphological studies , but they were never classified as any of these . In September 2006 , biologists Juan Pablo López and Alexander Cortés Diago found two specimens in a cloud forest at an altitude of 2 @,@ 450 m ( 8 @,@ 000 ft ) on the western side of the Serranía del Perijá in Colombia , but the information collected was insufficient to identify a new species . Between July 2008 and February 2009 , sixteen new specimens were collected in an area previously explored by Carriker . New vocal , morphological , genetic , and ecological studies of these specimens confirmed that they constituted a new species , Scytalopus perijanus , first described by Jorge Enrique Avendaño et al. on 11 March 2015 following a three @-@ year expedition , and accepted by the South American Classification Committee . The Latin word perijanus refers to the Serranía del Perijá mountain range , and the genus name Scytalopus comes from the Greek skutale ( stick ) and pous ( foot ) . The type specimen of the Perijá tapaculo , an adult male , was found in the Serranía del Perijá near the El Cinco vereda of Manaure , Cesar Department , Colombia , at an altitude of 2 @,@ 450 m ( 8 @,@ 000 ft ) . Jorge Enrique Avendaño lured the specimen by playing a recording of its song on 10 July 2008 at the edge of a montane forest . Sequence analysis of the mitochondrial gene ND2 from the Perijá tapaculo showed that its nearest relatives are the brown @-@ rumped tapaculo , Caracas tapaculo , and Mérida tapaculo . = = Description = = The Perijá tapaculo is a small bird , 10 to 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) in length with an average mass of 17 to 18 grams ( around 0 @.@ 6 oz ) . The bill averages 6 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 27 inches ) long , 2 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) wide , and 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) high . The legs are about 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 83 in ) long . The Perijá tapaculo 's tarsus averages 21 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 83 in ) long . The wings measure 57 @.@ 4 mm ( 2 @.@ 26 in ) on average and the tail is about 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long with between 8 and 12 rectrices . The forehead , lores , crown , mantle , and scapular area are a neutral grey colour . There is a brown spot on the nape . The top of the tail is brown , and the bottom is faintly striped brown . The bird 's back and rump are striped brown @-@ sepia , and the throat , breast , and belly are grey @-@ white . Its lower belly and flanks are tawny . The iris is dark brown . Male specimens are distinguished by having less sharp brown spots on their napes , and the bottom of their breasts are mixed with a pale buff colour . The legs are brown on the back and whitish on the front . Young birds have a yellowish appearance with striped brown flanks . The bird 's plumage colouration is most similar to the pale @-@ bellied tapaculo . The S. g. morenoi subspecies of the pale @-@ bellied tapaculo can be differentiated from the Perijá tapaculo by its entirely brown back and nape , and its different calls . Juveniles of this subspecies have a dull ventral plumage , while the Perijá tapaculo has a more yellow plumage . It also resembles the Caracas tapaculo but has a duller ventral colour . = = Ecology and behaviour = = Like other species in genus Scytalopus , the Perijá tapaculo is secretive and therefore difficult to observe . The call and song differ from those of most other species in the genus , and the latter is composed of two short churrs repeating up to 65 times at 0 @.@ 5 to 3 second intervals . The diet of the species is little known , but studies of the stomach contents of seven specimens suggested that they fed exclusively on insects . Little is known about the reproduction of the species , but it is believed to nest between April and July . The species builds its globular nests in underground cavities about 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter and around 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) in height , lined with mosses , grasses , and plant roots around a central space about 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) wide . The nests are accessed by a short tunnel with a depth of 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) and a diameter of 4 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) . Young birds may leave the nest at the end of June . Like those of other Scytalopus species , male specimens have demonstrated involvement in parenting . = = Distribution and habitat = = The Perijá tapaculo is endemic to the Serranía del Perijá , a mountain range on the Colombia – Venezuela border known for its high rates of endemism . It has been observed in nineteen localities on both sides of the border between altitudes of 1 @,@ 600 and 3 @,@ 225 m ( 5 @,@ 200 and 10 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level ; in its northern range , there are no suitable forests below 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) . The bird has been observed at 1 @,@ 800 – 3 @,@ 120 m ( 5 @,@ 900 – 10 @,@ 200 ft ) on the Venezuelan side , and at 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 225 m on the Colombian side . The Perijá tapaculo lives in and on the edges of humid rainforests , as well as in elfin forests and amongst woody páramo shrubs in high @-@ mountain grassland areas , especially at altitudes of 2 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 m ( 8 @,@ 200 – 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Some specimens have been observed feeding in dense thickets within 1 m ( 3 ft ) of the ground , often near the forest . Others have been observed running through open grassy areas between bushes . The species has not been identified as being sympatric with any other species of the genus Scytalopus . However , there is a possibility that its range overlaps with that of the S. atratus nigricans , which occupies a different micro @-@ habitat on the eastern side of the Serranía del Perijá at altitudes of 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 900 m ( 4 @,@ 900 – 6 @,@ 200 ft ) ; or that it may be found within the range of the pale @-@ bellied tapaculo in the lower reaches of the Serranía de Los Motilones mountain range , south of the Serranía del Perijá . = = Threats and protection = = Jorge Enrique Avendaño et al. wrote in the original description of the Perijá tapaculo that the size and quality of the species ' range are being reduced , although it can tolerate a certain level of fragmentation of its range . Its natural habitat covers about 5 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 sq mi ) . The description suggests that this species meets the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) criteria for an endangered species . The authors believe that to protect the Perijá tapaculo , conservation measures on the Colombian side of the border should reflect those on the Venezuelan side , as the forests of the Serranía del Perijá have been largely destroyed on the Colombian side by logging activities and forest clearance for agriculture . On 28 January 2014 , prior to the formal description of the bird , the Chamicero de Perijá Bird Reserve was created by Fundación ProAves to maintain one of Colombia 's most fragile habitats . In addition to the Perijá tapaculo , several other Perijá @-@ endemic endangered species , such as the Perijá metaltail ( Metallura iracunda ) and Perijá thistletail ( Asthenes perijana ) are protected within this reserve 's 749 hectares ( 1 @,@ 850 acres ) . The Colombian section of the Serranía del Perijá is dangerous for scientific excursions due to the presence of the FARC guerrilla group in the region . In Venezuela , the Sierra de Perijá National Park covers 300 @,@ 000 hectares ( 740 @,@ 000 acres ) and partially protects the habitat of the Perijá tapaculo .
= Ron and Tammy = " Ron and Tammy " is the eighth episode of the second season of Parks and Recreation , and the fourteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 5 , 2009 . In the episode , the library department tries to take control of a vacant lot where Leslie plans to build a park . Ron 's ex @-@ wife , one of Leslie 's directors , tries to use Ron to get her way . The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Troy Miller . " Ron and Tammy " featured Megan Mullally , the real @-@ life wife of Parks actor Nick Offerman , in a guest appearance as Ron 's ex @-@ wife , Tammy . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was seen by 4 @.@ 93 million household viewers ; its rating of 2 @.@ 2 was the season 's highest to that point . " Ron and Tammy " received highly positive reviews and is widely considered one of the best Parks and Recreation episodes , with many commentators praising Offerman 's performance . Tammy later returned for the third season sequel episode , " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " and several subsequent episodes . = = Plot = = Andy ( Chris Pratt ) takes over as the shoeshiner at the Pawnee town hall , replacing " Old Gus " ( Jack Carter ) , who insults everybody during a farewell party . Later , Mark ( Paul Schneider ) breaks the bad news to Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) that the Pawnee library has placed a planning claim for Lot 48 , which Leslie has been working to turn into a park . Leslie and the rest of the parks department express hatred for the library , which Leslie declares a " diabolical , ruthless bunch of bureaucrats " , much to the confusion of Ann ( Rashida Jones ) . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) is particularly angry to learn his ex @-@ wife Tammy ( Megan Mullally ) , who he insists is evil incarnate , is the new library director . Leslie decides to confront Tammy directly , only to find Tammy seems to be a friendly woman who instantly agrees to let Leslie have Lot 48 as a " professional courtesy " . Impressed , Leslie brings Tammy to the parks department so she can talk to Ron and work out their differences . Tammy and an agitated Ron go off to have coffee , and Donna ( Retta ) insists to Leslie that the arrangement is a mistake because the two act crazy when they are together . At a local diner , Ron and Tammy immediately start a very loud argument in front of the other patrons . Moments later , however , the two are publicly making out on the table in front of everyone . The two rush off to a motel , where they are removing their clothing before even entering the building . Ann and her boyfriend Mark run into Andy , Ann 's ex @-@ boyfriend . Andy flirts with Ann in front of Mark , and openly admits he plans to win her back from him . Mark asks advice from Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , who suggests Mark should take the high road ( although Tom tells the documentary crew that he never takes the high road , but tells everyone else to do so , so there is more room for him on " the low road " ) . Mark tries to have a gentlemanly discussion with Andy , who continues to insist he loves Ann , pointing to the many photos he has of her around his shoeshine station . Finally , Ann confronts Andy and tells him to stop discussing her with Mark , as well as to remove her photos from the wall . A cheery and singing Ron ( who is wearing his " Tiger Woods " outfit , which is an outfit he wears after having sex ) openly discusses the details his sexual exploits with Tammy to an uncomfortable Leslie . Although she is initially pleased with the results of her meddling , Leslie soon realizes Tammy is using sex to manipulate Ron to give her control of Lot 48 . Leslie confronts Tammy , who admits to the plot and brags that this is how the library operates . Leslie tries to get Ron to break up with Tammy , but he insists he cannot confront her without Leslie 's help . The two go to the library , where Ron starts to cave in when Tammy flirts with him . Leslie tells Ron to do whatever will make him happy , even if it means giving up the lot . Ron , impressed that a woman would put his own needs first , decides instead to break up with Tammy and give the lot back to Leslie . After breaking the news to Tammy , he leaves the library with a push @-@ pin stuck in his forehead , and part of his mustache missing , and he and Leslie flee the library . The two share a drink , where Ron insults Tammy . = = Production = = " Ron and Tammy " was written by Mike Scully and directed by Troy Miller . The episode featured comedian and actress Megan Mullally in a guest appearance as Ron 's ex @-@ wife , Tammy . Mullally is the real @-@ life wife of Nick Offerman , who plays Ron . Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Michael Schur conceived the idea for the story , and asked Offerman whether he and Mullally would be opposed to her playing such a terrible character . Offerman was extremely responsive to the idea . Mullally said she enjoyed the script , particularly the dialogue of Ron describing Tammy , more than Tammy 's part herself . Offerman and Mullally improvised many of their on @-@ screen fights , as well as the varied methods of unusual kissing between the two characters . During the diner scene , in which Ron and Tammy switch between violent fighting and passionate kissing , Offerman accidentally pulled a diner table out of the wall after placing Mullally on top of it and kissing her . The scene was used in the final episode . Offerman said of filming the diner scenes , " At the end of doing that for a few hours , we said , you know that feels like it was five weeks worth of really good therapy . " During a scene with Ron and Tammy start stripping while running into a motel room , Mullally removed her top and appeared topless during filming . Mullally improvised the move and did not tell the crew she planned to do it . She said of filming the scene , " I didn 't care , it was six in the morning , who cares , I didn 't know anybody . " Offerman said his favorite scene in the episode was the one in which Leslie tried to break up with Tammy for him . He particularly enjoyed the rapport between Poehler and Mullally , and said he " just wanted to pinch himself " to prevent from laughing . After reuniting with Tammy , Ron puts a framed photo on his wall of a brunette woman holding a plate of breakfast , which he said symbolizes his relationship with Tammy and the breakfast she made him after sex . In the pilot episode of Parks and Recreation , a photo of retired basketball coach Bobby Knight is on the wall . When it had to be removed for legal reasons , Parks and Recreation Schur searched an image library for " things we thought Ron would like " and found the breakfast photo . Schur said he thought it was perfect for the character , and it inspired the prop and the dialogue in the episode . The character Tammy later returned for the third season sequel episode , " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " . Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , two deleted scenes from " Ron and Tammy " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . In the first two @-@ minute @-@ long clip , Ron describes Tammy to Leslie in increasingly horrible ways , and Leslie talks to Tammy about previous problem the two had , including an instance in which Tammy seduces Ron 's father . In the second 90 @-@ second clip , Tom directs customers to Andy 's shoeshine in exchange for a 40 percent commission , while Mark tries to get Ann to abandon her nursing patients to spend more time with him . Lawrence , a neighbor with a long @-@ standing feud with Andy , mocks him by giving him dozens of soiled shoes to clean . = = Cultural references = = The day after having sex with Tammy , Ron comes to work wearing a red shirt and black pants , which prompts Tom to observe that Ron always dresses like golf pro Tiger Woods after having sex . This joke was written before the story of Woods ' extramarital affairs scandal broke in the news in November 2009 . Andy is said to have auditioned for the reality television show Survivor and the television game show Deal or No Deal . During an audition tape , he is shown gutting a fish to prove he could perform on Deal or No Deal , even though the action is far more appropriate for Survivor . During one scene , to Leslie 's shock and confusion , Tammy said she would rather be Cleopatra , the last pharaoh of Egypt 's Ptolemaic dynasty , than Eleanor Roosevelt , the former First Lady and wife of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = In its original American broadcast on November 5 , 2009 , " Ron and Tammy " was seen by 4 @.@ 93 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . Among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , the episode drew a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 share ; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing . It was the highest rating to that point for the season , and a 10 percent jump from the previous episode , " Greg Pikitis " . = = = Reviews = = = " Ron and Tammy " received critical acclaim and is widely considered one of the best episodes of Parks and Recreation . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said " Ron and Tammy " was the funniest episode of the season , particularly for the dead @-@ pan performance of Nick Offerman . Sepinwall also praised the parks employees ' hatred for the library , and the fact that minor characters Jerry and Donna are further developing . Matt Fowler of IGN called it a " particularly solid episode " , and he enjoyed seeing Leslie serve as the voice of reason . Fowler said the Andy subplot was less funny than the main plot , but it advanced Andy 's character . Steve Heisler from The A.V. Club praised the episode and the performance of Offerman , whom he said showed a deeper comedic range than in previous episodes . Heisler also praised Pratt and Poehler , who he said shined in showing a more sensible side . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis called the episode " damn near perfect " and said it made her " fall truly , madly , deeply in love with Parks and Recreation . " Ross Luippold of The Huffington Post called " Ron and Tammy " one of the highlights of the season . Steve Kandell of New York magazine called " Ron and Tammy " one of the moments when Parks and Recreation " found its voice and its footing " . Dose writer Kat Angus said " Ron and Tammy " solidified Parks and Recreation as " the funniest show on TV this season " . Angus praised Offerman 's performance and his pairing with Mullally . TV Guide writer Matt Roush , who had previously been very critical of Parks and Recreation , called " Ron and Tammy " " unquestionably the show ’ s best episode to date " . Roush particularly praised the comedic chemistry between Offerman and Mullally , who he said " make beautiful comic music together " . Time magazine reviewer James Poniewozik called it an " excellent episode " , and said it balanced well the show 's formula of comedy focused on people and small @-@ town government . H.T. " Hercules " Strong , a regular columnist with Ain 't it Cool News , praised Poehler and Mullally , and said the editing , particularly during the diner scene with Ron and Tammy , was worthy of an Emmy Award nomination . CNN associated producer Henry Hanks praised the " uproarious performances " of both Offerman and Mullally , while another CNN review of called Mullally 's guest performance " Emmy @-@ worthy " , and praised the performances of Offerman , Poehler and Pratt . It also said , " Poehler ’ s development of her character this season has been great to watch " . = = DVD release = = " Ron and Tammy " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode . It also included a commentary track for " Ron and Tammy " featuring Nick Offerman , Megan Mullally , and series co @-@ creators Michael Schur and Greg Daniels .
= Louis Ngwat @-@ Mahop = Louis Clément Ngwat @-@ Mahop ( born 16 September 1987 ) is a Cameroonian footballer who plays for Austrian side SC Rheindorf Altach as a striker and a right winger . He started his career in his hometown 's club Dragon Club de Yaoundé before being signed by German giants FC Bayern Munich in 2006 . He played with them for one season , featuring mainly in matches of Bayern Munich II in the Regionalliga Süd . After being released by FC Bayern Munich in the summer of 2007 , due to issues that arose with his French passport , he signed for Austrian club Red Bull Salzburg . At first he was assigned to play in the Regionalliga West with the club 's reserve squad , Red Bull Salzburg Juniors , but he managed to make it to the first team . In total , Ngwat @-@ Mahop spent three and a half years with the Austrian club , managing to win the Austrian Bundesliga in no less than two occasions . In January 2011 he signed for Greek Superleague outfit Iraklis . He played for Karlsruher SC for the 2011 – 12 season before signing for Rheindorf Altach in 2012 . = = Career = = = = = Early life and career = = = Ngwat @-@ Mahop was born in Yaoundé on 16 September 1987 , and grew up having Samuel Eto 'o as his idol . He started his career for Cameroonian minnows Dragon Club de Yaoundé , being one of the most notable players ever to come out of the club . = = = Bayern Munich = = = In May 2006 , he went on trial at Bayern Munich II . Hermann Gerland , the club 's manager , was impressed by Ngwat @-@ Mahop 's athleticism and assertiveness and recommended his signing . Gerland characterised Ngwat @-@ Mahop as a rough diamond . He made his debut for Bayern Munich II in the opening day of the 2006 – 07 Regionalliga season . He started the match , but he was brought out in the 62nd minute , in a match that Bayern II lost at home by a 0 – 2 scoreline by KSV Hessen Kassel . Ngwat @-@ Mahop scored his first goal for Bayern II on 12 August 2006 . It was the sole goal of the match , helping Bayern Munich II overcome the obstacle of Hoffenheim . Two weeks later he managed to score once again , taking the credit for opening the score in a 4 – 4 goal glut against SV Elversberg . Ngwat @-@ Mahop continued to play regularly in Bayern II until the end of the season , featuring in 33 matches , out of 34 , all as a starter . He also added five more to his tally , to reach a total of seven goals in the 2006 – 07 Regionalliga campaign . While approaching the closing stages of the season , his good performances with Bayern Munich II made Ottmar Hitzfeld , the manager of Bayern 's first team , to call him to train with the professional squad . Due to the injuries of a lot of first team players , Ngwat @-@ Mahop was included in Bayern 's squad for a match against Borussia Mönchengladbach , although he did not get any playing time in that match . Ngwat @-@ Mahop was also included in Bayern 's squad for yet another match , this time against for an away contest against Energie Cottbus . In this match , on 12 May 2007 , he was brought in , to replace Ali Karimi in the 88th minute , wearing number 38 , to make his full professional debut for FC Bayern Munich , in what was an away 0 – 3 win for his team . That was his sole appearance in the Bundesliga for the 2006 – 07 season . = = = Passport issue = = = On 29 June 2007 , just before Bayern 's Asian tour in Hong @-@ Kong , Ngwat @-@ Mahop found out that he had lost his French passport and started the procedure to get a new one , so he could follow his team in the tour . Upon his request , French authorities found out that Ngwat @-@ Mahop 's passport had the same number as that of a woman residing in Paris . After the Bayern Munich officials were informed of the passport issue they decided to terminate his contract . After that Ngwat @-@ Mahop started travelling in France and Germany with the German police in his pursuit . Meanwhile , 1 . FC Saarbrücken , having just been relegated from Regionalliga Süd , sued Bayern for an alleged 1 million € losses due to its relegation . 1 . FC Saarbrücken asked FC Bayern Munich II to lose every game that Ngwat @-@ Mahop was included . This would result in Bayern 's II relegation instead of Saarbrücken . Saarbrücken finally lost the case in court , a case called ridiculous by Bayern 's president Uli Hoeneß . = = = Red Bull Salzburg = = = After being released by FC Bayern Munich Ngwat @-@ Mahop ended up as a trialist in Red Bull Salzburg . He managed to persuade FC Red Bull Salzburg 's manager Giovanni Trapattoni of his football skills and he signed a two @-@ year contract with the Austrian club . After the signing of his contract he was sent to Red Bull Salzburg Juniors to get playing time . There he made his debut in a 5 – 1 away defeat by FK Austria Wien II . In his second match with Red Bull Salzburg Juniors he handed two assists , to his teammates Vujic and Kitzbichler , to help them score the first and second goal of their team in a 2 – 2 home draw with SC @-@ ESV Parndorf . He scored his first goal for his team in an 1 – 3 away win against DSV Leoben in the 70th minute after an assist by Öbster . In his next match Ngwat @-@ Mahop scored once , in a 2 – 1 home win against Austria Lustenau . On 26 October , he netted a goal in the 80th minute of a 2 – 0 home win against Bad Aussee , to put the game beyond any doubt . In the next match against SK Schwadorf he proved himself a prolific forward by scoring the opening goal of the match , in the first minute , and serving the second to his teammate David Witteveen . Red Bull Salzburg Juniors finally lost the game by a 3 – 2 scoreline . Ngwat @-@ Mahop continued scoring for his team in 2 – 1 home win against FK Austria Wien II , by scoring the opening goal of the match . Ngwat @-@ Mahop featured in 13 matches and scored five goals for Red Bull Salzburg Juniors until the winter break . That resulted in him being called to play with FC Red Bull Salzburg 's first team . After playing in some friendly matches with Red Bull Salzburg during the winter break , he made his league debut for the club on 23 February 2008 , in a 3 – 1 away defeat from Austria Wien , as he replaced Alexander Zickler in the 52nd minute . Ngwat @-@ Mahop continued to feature regularly in Red Bull Salzburg 's playing squad until the end of the season , although mostly as a substitute . He also managed to score his first goal with Red Bull Salzburg in a 3 – 0 home win against Sturm Graz . At the end of the season he totalled one goal in 12 appearances . In April 2008 , Ngwat @-@ Mahop signed a contract extension with Red Bull Salzburg until the summer of 2011 . Ngwat @-@ Mahop contributed greatly in his club 's season opener , as he scored the fourth goal and assisted the sixth , in Red Bull Salzburg 's 6 – 0 home devastation against SV Mattersburg . A few days later he added two more to his tally , as his club won Armenian club Banants by a 7 – 0 scoreline at home , for the first Qualifying round of the 2008 – 09 UEFA Cup . He once again scored in his club 's first leg match for the second Qualifying round of the 2008 – 09 UEFA Cup , against Lithuanian club FK Sūduva . He continued his scoring trends three days later for the first round of the ÖFB @-@ Cup , in a 1 – 4 away win against Pasching . It took him almost a month to find the net again , as he scored the last goal in his club 's 4 – 2 home win against Vöcklabrucker for the 2nd round of the ÖFB @-@ Cup . A week later he managed to score the opening goal , in Red Bull Salzburg 's 2 – 2 away draw against Sturm Graz . Until the end of the season he featured regularly in his team 's matches , although mostly as a substitute , and only managed to score one more goal in a 4 – 1 home win against Austria Kärnten . At the end he counted 36 appearances with Red Bull Salzburg , of which 27 in the Bundesliga , six in the UEFA Cup and three in the ÖFB @-@ Cup . Out of these matches he scored a total of eight goals , of which three in the Bundesliga , three in the UEFA Cup and two in the ÖFB @-@ Cup . In the summer of 2009 there were rumours that 1860 Munich was interested in signing him . Finally Ngwat @-@ Mahop stayed with Red Bull Salzburg and he featured in the whole match , in what was Red Bull Salzburg 's first match of the season , an 1 – 1 home draw against Irish outfit Bohemians for the second Qualifying round of the 2009 – 2010 UEFA Champions League . He was , once again , a starter at Red Bull Salzburg ' opening match of the 2009 – 10 Bundesliga season , but he was substituted in the 40th minute by his fellow countryman Somen Tchoyi . Later it was known that Ngwat @-@ Mahop suffered a tear of the left anterior thigh muscle , an injury that would keep him out of action for months . He managed to fully heal from his injury and play again for Red Bull Salzburg almost nine months later , in a 4 – 2 home win against SC Magna Wiener Neustadt , as he came in as a late substitute for Somen Tchoyi . At the meantime Ngwat @-@ Mahop played in five games for Red Bull Salzburg Juniors managing to score four goals , two of them in a single match , a 3 – 0 home win against SC Austria Lustenau . At the end of the season he had only managed to play in two league games and one European game for Red Bull Salzburg and did not score any goals . Ngwat @-@ Mahop played in Red Bull Salzburg 's opening match for the 2010 – 11 Bundesliga season , on 17 July 2010 , coming in as a substitute in the 57th minute , in what was a 0 – 0 away draw against SV Kapfenberg . Three days later he once again played as a substitute for Jakob Jantscher , in his team 's second leg match , against Faroese champions HB Torshavn for the second Qualifying round of the 2010 – 11 UEFA Champions League . He scored his first goal of the season in a match for the 1st round of the ÖFB @-@ Cup against St. Pölten II , that Red Bull Salzburg won by 1 – 4 . On 24 August , he made the cross that resulted in Red BullSalzburg 's goal , in his team 's second leg match for the third Qualifying round of the 2010 – 11 UEFA Champions League against Hapoel Tel Aviv . Ngwat @-@ Mahop was substituted in the 65th minute of a match that ended an 1 – 1 draw , resulting in Red Bull Salzburg 's elimination . Later it was made known that he was again injured , and due to this he made his come back with Red Bull Salzburg almost three months later , in a 2 – 0 home win against Sturm Graz . That was meant to be Ngwat @-@ Mahop 's last game with the Red Bull Salzburg shirt , as in January he was sold to Greek Superleague outfit Iraklis Thessaloniki for an undisclosed fee . = = = Iraklis Thessaloniki = = = On 8 January 2011 , Greek club Iraklis Thessaloniki announced that it had signed Ngwat @-@ Mahop until the summer of 2012 . He debuted for the Greek club on 23 January 2011 , as he was in the starting line @-@ up in a 3 – 0 away defeat by AO Kavala . At the time he was substituted , in the 57th minute , the scoreline was 0 – 0 . Ngwat @-@ Mahop scored his first goal with Iraklis , by opening his club 's tally in an 1 – 2 away win against Panserraikos . His goal was scored after an assist by teammate Karim Soltani and helped Iraklis to record its first away win in eleven months . = = = Karlsruher SC = = = In 2011 , he returned to Germany , signing with Karlsruher SC . He made his league debut on 10 September 2011 , where he scored the club 's second consulation goal , in a 2 – 4 away defeat against Fortuna Düsseldorf . = = = Rheindorf Altach = = = Being a free agent , Ngwat @-@ Mahop signed for Rheindorf Altach in the summer of 2012 . One day after his commitment with the club , on 7 August 2012 , he made his debut in an 1 – 4 home defeat against St. Pölten , where he even managed to score his first goal . Throughout the season he appeared in 33 matches ending up being the club 's second league goalscorer with 10 goals . = = Career statistics = = = = = Club = = = As of 6 May 2015 . = = Honours = = Red Bull Salzburg Austrian Football Bundesliga : 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10 Rheindorf Altach Austrian Football First League : 2013 – 14
= Plegmund = Plegmund ( or Plegemund ; died 2 August either 914 or 923 ) was a medieval English Archbishop of Canterbury . He may have been a hermit before he became archbishop in 890 . As archbishop , he reorganised the Diocese of Winchester , creating four new sees , and worked with other scholars in translating religious works . He was canonised after his death . = = Early life = = Little is known of the early life of Plegmund except that he was of Mercian descent . A later tradition , dating 300 years after his death , stated that Plegmund lived as a hermit at Plemstall in Cheshire . His reputation as a scholar attracted the attention of King Alfred the Great , who was trying to revive scholarship . Some time before 887 , Alfred summoned Plegmund to his court . There he worked with three other scholars , Wærferth , Bishop of Worcester , Æthelstan and Wærwulf in working on translating Pope Gregory the Great 's treatise Pastoral Care into Old English . = = Archbishop of Canterbury = = Plegmund was selected for the see of Canterbury in 890 by King Alfred . Plegmund 's election to the Archbishopric of Canterbury is recorded in Manuscript E of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle : " Here Archbishop Plegmund was elected by God and all the people . " Fulk , Archbishop of Reims , praised the election of Plegmund , stating that he would help root out the last remnants of paganism in the people . However , there was a gap in time between the death of the previous Archbishop of Canterbury , Ethelred , and the consecration of Plegmund ; this may have been because the see had been offered to Grimbald , a Flemish monk and scholar , who refused it . Plegmund was granted his pallium by Pope Formosus . During the 9th century , the see of Canterbury was at a low point . As such , one of Plegmund 's responsibilities was to re @-@ establish its authority , and , in an attempt to do this , between 909 and 918 he created new sees within the existing Diocese of Winchester in Crediton , Ramsbury , Sherborne and Wells . This meant that each future shire of Wessex had its own bishop ; of Crediton for Devon and Cornwall , of Ramsbury for Wiltshire , of Sherborne for Dorset and of Wells for Somerset , as well as the diocese of Winchester for Hampshire . To do this , Plegmund had to gain the approval of Pope Sergius III , who had annulled all of the acts of Pope Formosus , and in 908 Plegmund travelled to Rome so that he could be regranted his pallium . He was the first archbishop of Canterbury to visit Rome for nearly a century , and he returned with the relics of Saint Blaise . Under Plegmund 's archbishopric , the quality of the Latin used by his scribes improved , surpassing the poor quality used by the scribes of the previous two archbishops , Ceolnoth and Æthelred . When Alfred died in 899 , Plegmund crowned his son Edward as king . In addition to his religious duties , Plegmund was involved in matters of state and he attended the formal councils held by Edward the Elder in 901 , 903 , 904 and 909 . He dedicated the tall tower of the New Minster at Winchester in 909 . = = Death and legacy = = Plegmund died on 2 August 914 or 2 August 923 . After his death Plegmund was considered a saint , with a feast day of 2 August . However , his cult dates only from the 13th century .
= Huế Phật Đản shootings = The Huế Phật Đản shootings were the deaths of nine unarmed Buddhist civilians on 8 May 1963 , in the city of Huế , South Vietnam , at the hands of the army and security forces of the Roman Catholic fundamentalist government of Ngô Đình Diệm . The army and police fired guns and launched grenades into a crowd of Buddhists who had been protesting against a government ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag on the day of Phật Đản , which commemorates the birth of Gautama Buddha . Diệm 's denial of governmental responsibility for the incident — he instead blamed the Việt Cộng — added to discontent among the Buddhist majority . The incident spurred a protest movement by Buddhists against the religious discrimination perpetrated by the Roman Catholic @-@ dominated Diệm regime , known as the Buddhist crisis , and widespread large @-@ scale civil disobedience among the South Vietnamese . On 1 November 1963 , after six months of tension and growing opposition to the regime , generals from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam conducted a coup , which saw the removal and assassination of Diệm on 2 November 1963 . = = Prelude = = In a country where surveys of the religious composition estimated the Buddhist majority to be between 70 and 90 percent , the policies of the staunchly Catholic President Ngô Đình Diệm generated claims of religious bias . As a member of the Catholic Vietnamese minority , he is widely regarded by historians as having pursued pro @-@ Catholic policies that antagonized many Buddhists . Specifically , the government was regarded as being biased towards Catholics in public service and military promotions , as well as the allocation of land , business favors and tax concessions . Diệm once told a high @-@ ranking officer , forgetting the man was of Buddhist descent , " Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places . They can be trusted . " Many officers in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam converted to Catholicism in the belief that their military prospects depended on it . Additionally , the distribution of firearms to village self @-@ defense militias intended to repel Việt Cộng guerrillas saw weapons only given to Catholics , with Buddhists in the army being denied promotion if they refused to convert to Catholicism . Some Catholic priests ran their own private armies , and in some areas forced conversions , looting , shelling and demolition of pagodas occurred . Some Buddhist villages converted en masse in order to receive aid or to avoid forcible resettlement by Diệm 's regime . The Catholic Church was the largest landowner in the country , and the " private " status that was imposed on Buddhism by the French , which required official permission to conduct public Buddhist activities , was not repealed by Diệm . Land owned by the Catholic Church was exempt from land reform measures . Catholics were also de facto exempt from the corvée labor that the government obliged all citizens to perform ; U.S. aid was disproportionately distributed to Catholic majority villages . Under Diệm , the Catholic Church enjoyed special exemptions in property acquisition , and in 1959 , he dedicated the country to the Virgin Mary . The white and gold Vatican flag was regularly flown at major public events in South Vietnam . A rarely enforced 1958 law known as Decree Number 10 was invoked on 7 May 1963 to prohibit the display of religious flags . This disallowed the flying of Buddhist flags on Phật Đản , the birthday of Gautama Buddha . The invoking official was the deputy province chief in charge of security , Major Đặng Sỹ , a Catholic who was charged with maintaining public security and was commander of the Huế garrison . The application of the law caused indignation among Buddhists on the eve of the most important religious festival of the year , since a week earlier Catholics had been allowed to display Vatican flags to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the appointment of Diệm 's brother Thục as Archbishop of Huế . The celebrations had been bankrolled by Diệm 's regime through a national committee which asked the population to donate money to Thục 's jubilee . Buddhists complained that they had been forced to give a month 's wages to pay for the celebration . Enforcing the law , the authorities tore down thousands of Buddhist flags that had already been unfurled on homes and pagodas in preparation for Phật Đản . The origin of the order to enforce the law on the Buddhists has been attributed to Thục . Despite protestations from the Saigon representative to the central provinces , the order was enacted upon consultation with Saigon . Villages in the central region had converted en masse to Catholicism , with priests allowed special access to government facilities and funds . The designation of Buddhism as an " association " prevented it from acquiring land for the construction of pagodas . = = Protest and shootings = = On Phật Đản , thousands of Buddhists defied the ban on flag flying . More than 500 people marched across the Perfume River , carrying signs and placards , congregating at the Từ Đàm Pagoda before a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong demonstration , calling for religious equality , took place in the city centre as government security officials surrounded the area with armoured personnel carriers and civil guardsmen . The signs were in both Vietnamese and English to convey the message to western observers . Despite the ban on religious flags , Vatican flags hoisted on the bridge from the Catholic celebration were never taken down . The leading Buddhist activist monk Thích Trí Quang addressed the crowd and exhorted them to rise up against Catholic discrimination against Buddhism . He called the Buddhists to congregate outside the government radio station in the evening for a rally . Tension increased throughout the day with demonstrators chanting and displaying anti @-@ government slogans as the crowd grew . They expected to hear another speech from Thích Trí Quang , but the speech was withdrawn from broadcast by the government censor . The Armed Forces were called in to disperse the discontented crowd . After two explosions shook the ground , the crowd thought that the troops had resorted to using bombs . Major Sy reportedly fired into the air and his men responded by launching grenades into the crowd as fire hoses were unleashed on the demonstrators . His troops fired directly into the crowd . In the end nine were killed and four severely injured . Two of the dead , both children , had been crushed underneath armored personnel carriers . Some people of nine had been mutilated and decapitated . = = Government reaction = = Diệm and his government alleged that a Việt Cộng guerrilla had caused the incident by setting off the initial explosion , sparking a stampede . He initially refused to take any disciplinary action against the local authorities , claiming that they had acted properly . The government claimed that only percussion grenades had been used , not lethal fragmentation grenades . The force of the explosion cast doubt on whether the Việt Cộng would have had access to sufficiently powerful explosives . Another theory at the time was that a CIA agent had caused the blasts with the aim of fomenting sectarian tension and destabilising the Diệm regime . Eyewitness testimony disputed the official version of events , citing amateur footage , which showed government troops firing on the crowd . A local doctor concluded that there was no evidence of the fatal injuries being inflicted by plastic explosives ; he was subsequently jailed . Diệm refused to be swayed from his account of the incident , and ordered the bodies of the victims to be buried without autopsy . Thích Trí Quang spent the night riding through the streets of Huế with a loudspeaker , accusing the government of firing on the demonstrators . U.S. Ambassador Frederick Nolting , known for his policy of appeasement of Diệm , attempted to spread the responsibility . He claimed all parties were responsible , the demonstrators for ( as he alleged ) trying to take over the radio station , the government for deploying the army , which later opened fire , and " agitators " for throwing the explosives . When the government later ignored his version and refused to assign responsibility , Nolting called its actions " objective , accurate and fair . " = = Buddhist reaction and protests = = At 11 am on 9 May , Major Sỹ announced to nearly 800 youthful pro @-@ Buddhist demonstrators that " oppositionist agitators " had forced troops to take the severe measures to maintain order in the face of Việt Cộng agitation . The protesters showed their anger at such an improbable explanation by marching around the old citadel quarter of Huế , chanting anti @-@ Catholic and anti @-@ Diệm slogans . A government organised counter @-@ demonstration to condemn the " Việtcộng terrorist act " under the leadership of Diệm 's brother , Ngô Đình Nhu attracted almost nobody . Thích Trí Quang , who had traveled throughout the country protesting against religious inequality and the flag ban , began rallying Buddhists in central Vietnam . He called them to attend a public mass funeral for the Huế victims scheduled for 10 May . Such an emotion @-@ charged spectacle would have attracted thousands of spectators and placed pressure on Diệm 's regime to grant reforms , so the government announced a curfew and put all armed personnel on duty around the clock to " prevent VC infiltration " . A confrontation was averted when Thích Trí Quang persuaded the protesters to lay down their flags and slogans and observe the 9 pm curfew . The following day , tensions increased again as a crowd of around 6 @,@ 000 Buddhists attended Tu Dam Pagoda for the funerals and a series of meetings . Major Sy was present with ARVN troops and armed police . Slogans and speeches calling for religious equality and anti @-@ government sentiment were prevalent . Quang called on Buddhists to use unarmed struggle and follow Gandhian principles , saying " Carry no weapons ; be prepared to die ... follow Gandhi 's policies " . After Sy echoed Buddhist calls for compensation and expressed sorrow for the victims , the meeting dissolved without violence . = = Buddhist demands for equality = = On 10 May , Quang proclaimed a five @-@ point " manifesto of the monks " that demanded freedom to fly the Buddhist flag , religious equality between Buddhists and Catholics , compensation for the victims ' families , an end to arbitrary arrests , and punishment for the officials responsible . On 13 May , a committee of Buddhist monks formalized their request to Diệm for the five demands . Although the signatories had couched the declaration as " requests " , they had expectations that these would be met . On 15 May , a delegation of six monks and two laymen met Diệm to present the document . After the meeting , the monks held a press conference at the Xá Lợi Pagoda . It was to be the first of many in which they attempted to publicise their cause to the foreign press corps . Diệm agreed to meet with a Buddhist delegation , but increased tension further by demeaning them . Initially , Diệm refused to pay compensation , believing it was a sign of weakness . He claimed there was no discrimination in South Vietnam and that all religions had been treated equally with respect to the flag issue . In regard to the classification of Buddhism as an " association " under Decree 10 , Diệm claimed it was an " administrative oversight " that would be fixed ( although no action was taken on the matter during his final six months of office ) ; Diệm labeled the Buddhists " damn fools " for demanding something that according to him , they already enjoyed . The government press release detailing the meeting also used the expression " damn fools " . As the demonstrations continued , Ambassador Nolting managed to extract theoretical concessions from Diệm on 18 May . Diệm agreed a modest compensation package of USD $ 7000 for the families of the victims as a conciliatory gesture . Diệm also agreed to dismiss those responsible for the shootings . However , the publicly stated reason for this action was that the officials had failed to maintain order , rather than that they had been responsible for the deaths of the protesters . Despite these concessions , Diệm maintained that his government was not responsible for the deaths , resolutely continuing to blame the Việt Cộng . It was enough to satisfy Nolting , who immediately departed for his vacation . His absence allowed the remaining American diplomatic staff led by William Trueheart , Nolting 's deputy , to end Nolting 's policy of appeasing Diệm . = = Trial = = After the fall of the Diệm regime in a coup on 1 November 1963 , Đặng Sỹ faced a trial held under a government led by Nguyễn Khánh . Some of the accusations were that Sy 's men had fired on the crowd and crushed the victims with armoured cars , or that the grenades had been launched at his orders and caused the deaths . Sy later reportedly revealed that Archbishop Thục had personally given him the order to shoot the Buddhists but refused to testify against Thục , who was by that time living in exile in Rome . Sy was sentenced to life imprisonment and ordered to compensate the victims ' families . His lawyer contended that the court had been unable to establish the nature and source of the lethal explosions . The Defense Minister , General Trần Thiện Khiêm , a Catholic who had helped Khánh in his January 1964 coup , later claimed Khánh had rigged the trial to gain Quang 's support , and released Sy from prison ; Sy later emigrated to the United States . In 1970 , the Saigon @-@ based Catholic newspaper , Hòa Bình ran a story claiming that CIA agents had used a secret new explosive to foment trouble for Diệm 's regime whose relations with the United States were deteriorating .
= Montreal Canadiens = The Montreal Canadiens ( French : Les Canadiens de Montréal ) are a Canadian professional ice hockey team based in Montreal , Quebec , that competes in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . They are members of the league 's Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference . The club 's official name is le Club de hockey Canadien . The team is frequently referred to in English and French as the Habs . French nicknames for the team include Les Canadiens ( or Le Canadien ) , Le Bleu @-@ Blanc @-@ Rouge , La Sainte @-@ Flanelle , Le Tricolore , Les Glorieux ( or Nos Glorieux ) , Les Habitants , Le CH and Le Grand Club . Founded in 1909 , the Canadiens are the longest continuously operating professional ice hockey team worldwide , and the only existing NHL club to predate the founding of the NHL . One of the oldest North American professional sports franchises , the Canadiens ' history predates that of every other Canadian franchise outside of football as well as every American franchise outside of baseball and the National Football League 's Arizona Cardinals . The franchise is one of the " Original Six " teams , a description used for the teams that made up the NHL from 1942 until the 1967 expansion . The team 's championship season in 1992 – 93 was the last time a Canadian team won the Stanley Cup . The Canadiens have won the Stanley Cup more times than any other franchise . They have won 24 championships , 22 of them since 1927 , when NHL teams became the only ones to compete for the Stanley Cup . On a percentage basis , as of 2014 , the franchise has won 25 @.@ 3 % of all Stanley Cup championships contested after the Challenge Cup era , making it the second most successful professional sports team of the traditional four major sports of Canada and the United States , behind only the Boston Celtics . Since 1996 , the Canadiens have played their home games at Centre Bell , originally known as Centre Molson . The team previously played at the Montreal Forum which housed the team for seven decades and all but their first two Stanley Cup championships . = = History = = The Canadiens were founded by J. Ambrose O 'Brien on December 4 , 1909 , as a charter member of the National Hockey Association , the forerunner to the National Hockey League . It was to be the team of the francophone community in Montreal , composed of francophone players , and under francophone ownership as soon as possible . The team 's first season was not a success , as they placed last . After the first year , ownership was transferred to George Kennedy of Montreal and the team 's fortunes improved over the next seasons . The team won its first Stanley Cup championship in the 1915 – 16 season . In 1917 , with four other NHA teams , the Canadiens formed the NHL , and they won their first NHL Stanley Cup during the 1923 – 24 season , led by Howie Morenz . The team moved from the Mount Royal Arena to the Montreal Forum for the 1926 – 27 season . The club began the 1930s decade successfully , with Stanley Cup wins in 1930 and 1931 . The Canadiens and its then @-@ Montreal rival , the Montreal Maroons , declined both on the ice and economically during the Great Depression . Losses grew to the point where the team owners considering selling the team to interests in Cleveland , Ohio , though local investors were ultimately found to finance the Canadiens . The Maroons still suspended operations , and several of their players moved to the Canadiens . Led by the " Punch Line " of Maurice " Rocket " Richard , Toe Blake and Elmer Lach in the 1940s , the Canadiens enjoyed success again atop the NHL . From 1953 to 1960 , the franchise won six Stanley Cups , including a record five straight from 1956 to 1960 , with a new set of stars coming to prominence : Jean Beliveau , Dickie Moore , Doug Harvey , Bernie " Boom Boom " Geoffrion , Jacques Plante and Richard 's younger brother , Henri . The Canadiens added ten more championships in 15 seasons from 1965 to 1979 , with another dynastic run of four @-@ straight Cups from 1976 to 1979 . In the 1976 – 77 season , the Canadiens set two still @-@ standing team records — for most points , with 132 , and fewest losses , by only losing eight games in an 80 @-@ game season . The next season , 1977 – 78 , the team had a 28 @-@ game unbeaten streak , the second @-@ longest in NHL history . The next generation of stars included Guy Lafleur , Yvan Cournoyer , Ken Dryden , Pete Mahovlich , Jacques Lemaire , Pierre Larouche , Steve Shutt , Bob Gainey , Serge Savard , Guy Lapointe and Larry Robinson . Scotty Bowman , who would later set a record for most NHL victories by a coach , was the team 's head coach for its last five Stanley Cup victories in the 1970s . The Canadiens won Stanley Cups in 1986 , led by rookie star goaltender Patrick Roy , and in 1993 , continuing their streak of winning at least one championship in every decade from the 1910s to the 1990s ( this streak came to an end in the 2000s ) . In 1996 , the Habs moved from the Montreal Forum , their home during 70 seasons and 22 Stanley Cups , to Centre Molson ( now called Centre Bell ) . Following Roy 's departure in 1995 , the Canadiens fell into an extended stretch of mediocrity , missing the playoffs in four of their next ten seasons and failing to advance past the second round of the playoffs until 2010 . By the late 1990s , with both an ailing team and monetary losses exacerbated by a record @-@ low value of the Canadian dollar , Montreal fans feared their team would end up relocated to the United States . Team owner Molson Brewery sold control of the franchise and the Molson Centre to American businessman George N. Gillett Jr. in 2001 , with the right of first refusal for any future sale by Gillett and a condition that the NHL Board of Governors must unanimously approve any attempt to move to a new city . Led by president Pierre Boivin , the Canadiens returned to being a lucrative enterprise , earning additional revenues from broadcasting and arena events . In 2009 , Gillett sold the franchise to a consortium led by the Molson family which included The Woodbridge Company , BCE / Bell , the QFL Solidarity Fund , Michael Andlauer , Luc Bertrand and the National Bank Financial Group for $ 575 million , more than double the $ 275 million he spent on the purchase eight years prior . During the 2008 – 09 season , the Canadiens celebrated their 100th anniversary with various events , including hosting both the 2009 NHL All @-@ Star Game , and the 2009 NHL Entry Draft . Said season also marked the Canadiens as the first team in NHL history to reach 3 @,@ 000 victories , reaching the milestone after their 5 – 2 victory over the Florida Panthers on December 29 , 2008 . = = Team identity = = The Canadiens organization operates in both English and French . For many years , public address announcements and press releases have been given in both languages , and the team Web site and social media outlets are in both languages as well . = = = Crest and sweater design = = = One of sport 's oldest and most recognizable logos , the classic ' C ' and ' H ' of the Montreal Canadiens was first used together in the 1917 – 18 season , when the club changed its name to " Club de hockey Canadien " from " Club athlétique Canadien " , before evolving to its current form in 1952 – 53 . The " H " stands for " hockey " , not " Habitants , " a popular misconception . According to NHL.com , the first man to refer to the team as " the Habs " was American Tex Rickard , owner of the Madison Square Garden , in 1924 . Rickard apparently told a reporter that the " H " on the Canadiens ' sweaters was for " Habitants " . The team 's colours since 1911 are blue , red , and white . The home sweater is predominantly red in colour . There are four blue and white stripes , one across each arm , one across the chest and the other across the waistline . The main road sweater is mainly white with a red and blue stripe across the waist , red at the end of both arm sleeves red shoulder yokes . The basic design has been in use since 1914 and took its current form in 1925 , generally evolving as materials changed . Because of the team 's lengthy history and significance in Quebec , the sweater has been referred to as ' La Sainte @-@ Flanelle ' ( the holy flannel sweater ) . The Canadiens used multiple designs prior to adopting the aforementioned design in 1914 . The original shirt of the 1909 – 10 season was blue with a white C. The second season had a red shirt featuring a green maple leaf with the C logo , and green pants . Lastly , the season before adopting the current look the Canadiens wore a " barber pole " design jersey with red , white and blue stripes , and the logo being a white maple leaf reading " CAC " , " Club athlétique Canadien " . All three designs were worn during the 2009 – 10 season as part of the Canadiens centenary . The Canadiens ' colours are a readily identifiable aspect of French Canadian culture . In the short story " The Hockey Sweater " , Roch Carrier described the influence of the Canadiens and their jersey within rural Quebec communities during the 1940s . The story was later made into an animated short , The Sweater , narrated by Carrier . A passage from the short story appears on the 2002 issue of the Canadian five dollar bill . = = = Motto = = = Nos bras meurtris vous tendent le flambeau , à vous toujours de le porter bien haut . To you from failing hands we throw the torch . Be yours to hold it high . The motto is from the poem " In Flanders Fields " by John McCrae which was written in 1915 , the year the Canadiens won their first Stanley Cup championship . The motto appears on the wall of the Canadiens dressing room . = = = Mascot = = = Beginning in the 2004 – 05 NHL season , the Canadiens adopted Youppi as their official mascot , the first costumed mascot in their long history . Youppi was the longtime mascot for the Montreal Expos baseball team , but was dropped from the franchise when they moved to Washington , D.C. in 2004 and became the Washington Nationals . With the switch , Youppi became the first mascot in professional sports to switch leagues . = = = Rivalries = = = The Canadiens have developed strong rivalries with two fellow Original Six franchises , with whom they frequently shared divisions and competed in post @-@ season play . The oldest is with the Toronto Maple Leafs , who first faced the Canadiens as the Toronto Arenas in 1917 . The teams met 15 times in the playoffs , including five Stanley Cup finals . Featuring the two largest cities in Canada and two of the largest fanbases in the league , the rivalry is sometimes dramatized as being emblematic of Canada 's English and French linguistic divide . From 1938 to 1970 , they were the only two Canadian teams in the league . The team 's other Original Six rival are the Boston Bruins , who since their NHL debut in 1924 have played the Canadiens more than any other team in both regular season play and the playoffs combined . The teams have played 34 playoff series , seven of which were in the finals . The Canadiens also had an intraprovincial rivalry with the Quebec Nordiques during its existence from 1979 @-@ 1995 , nicknamed the " Battle of Quebec . " = = Broadcasting = = Montreal Canadiens games are broadcast locally in both the French and English languages . On radio , Canadiens games are broadcast in French by CHMP 98 @.@ 5 , and in English by CKGM , TSN Radio 690 , who acquired the English broadcast rights under a 7 @-@ year deal which began in the 2011 @-@ 12 season . Regional television rights in French are currently held by Réseau des sports under a 12 @-@ year deal , effective as of the 2014 – 15 NHL season . A sister to the English @-@ language network TSN , RDS was the only French @-@ language sports channel in Canada until the 2011 launch of TVA Sports , and was also the previous national French rightsholder of the NHL ; as a result , the Canadiens forewent a separate regional contract , and allowed its games to be televised nationally as part of RDS 's national rights package . With TVA Sports becoming the national French rightsholder in the 2014 – 15 season through a sub @-@ licensing agreement with Rogers Communications , RDS parent company Bell Media subsequently announced a 12 @-@ year deal to maintain regional rights to Canadiens games not shown on TVA Sports . As a result , games on RDS are blacked out outside of the Canadiens ' home market of Quebec , Atlantic Canada and parts of Ontario shared with the Ottawa Senators . At least 22 Canadiens games per season ( primarily through its Saturday night La super soirée LNH ) , including all playoff games , are televised nationally by TVA Sports . Regional television rights in English are held by Sportsnet East in a 3 @-@ year deal announced by Rogers on September 2 , 2014 , with selected games ( three in its inaugural season ) airing on CJNT City Montreal . The remaining games are aired nationally through Rogers ' aforementioned NHL rights deal ( including additional games on Sportsnet , City , or on CBC during Hockey Night in Canada ) , thus giving Rogers rights to over all English @-@ language telecasts of the Canadiens . Regional Canadiens games on Sportsnet East and City are called by John Bartlett and Jason York . TSN previously held regional , English @-@ language television rights to the Canadiens from 2010 through 2014 . They were broadcast on a part @-@ time TSN feed with Dave Randorf on play @-@ by @-@ play ; these rights were not renewed by Bell Media past the 2013 – 14 season . = = Seasons and records = = = = = Season by season results = = = This is a list of the last five seasons completed by the Canadiens . For the full season @-@ by @-@ season history , see List of Montreal Canadiens seasons . Note : GP
= Games played , W = Wins , L
= Losses , T = Ties , OTL
= Overtime Losses , Pts = Points , GF
= Goals for , GA = Goals against = = Franchise individual records = = = = = Franchise scoring leaders = = = These are the top @-@ ten point @-@ scorers in franchise history . Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season . Note : Pos
= Position ; GP = Games Played ; G
= Goals ; A = Assists ; Pts
= Points ; P / G = Points per game Sources : " Statistics \| Historical Website of the Montreal Canadiens " . Montreal Canadiens . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 06 @-@ 27 . , " Hockey @-@ Reference.com " . 2010 @-@ 06 @-@ 17 . = = = Records – skaters = = = Career Most seasons : 20 , Henri Richard Most games : 1256 , Henri Richard Most goals : 544 , Maurice Richard Most assists : 728 , Guy Lafleur Most points : 1246 ( 518G , 728A ) , Guy Lafleur Most penalty minutes : 2248 , Chris Nilan Most consecutive games played : 560 , Doug Jarvis Season Most goals in a season : 60 , Steve Shutt ( 1976 – 77 ) ; Guy Lafleur ( 1977 – 78 ) Most powerplay goals in a season : 20 , Yvan Cournoyer ( 1966 – 67 ) Most powerplay goals in a season , defenceman : 19 , Sheldon Souray ( 2006 – 07 ) * Most assists in a season : 82 , Pete Mahovlich ( 1974 – 75 ) Most points in a season : 136 , Guy Lafleur ( 1976 – 77 ) Most penalty minutes in a season : 358 , Chris Nilan ( 1984 – 85 ) Most points in a season , defenceman : 85 , Larry Robinson ( 1976 – 77 ) Most points in a season , rookie : 71 , Mats Naslund ( 1982 – 83 ) ; Kjell Dahlin ( 1985 – 86 ) Most goals in a season , defenceman : 28 , Guy Lapointe ( 1974 – 75 ) * Indicates a league record . Source : " Season records – Individual records – Skaters \| Historical Website of the Montreal Canadiens " . Montreal Canadiens . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 . = = = Records – goaltenders = = = Career Most games played : 556 , Jacques Plante Most shutouts : 75 , George Hainsworth Most wins : 314 , Jacques Plante Season Most games in a season : 72 , Carey Price ( 2010 – 11 ) Most wins in a season : 44 , Carey Price ( 2014 – 15 ) Most shutouts in a season : 22 , George Hainsworth ( 1928 – 29 ) * * Indicates a league record . Source : " Season records – Individual records – goaltenders \| Historical Website of the Montreal Canadiens " . Montreal Canadiens . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 . = = Current roster = = Updated July 7 , 2016 . = = Leaders = = = = = Team captains = = = = = = Head coaches = = = Source : " Historical Website of the Montreal Canadiens " . Montreal Canadiens . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 . = = Honoured members = = = = = Retired numbers = = = The Canadiens have retired 15 numbers in honour of 18 players , the most of any team in the NHL . All of the honourees were born in Canada . Howie Morenz was the first honouree , on November 2 , 1937 . = = = Hockey Hall of Fame = = = Sixty @-@ two people associated with the Canadiens have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Thirty @-@ six of these players are from three separate notable dynasties : 12 from 1955 – 60 , 11 from 1964 – 69 and 13 from 1975 – 79 . Howie Morenz and Georges Vezina were the first Canadiens given the honour in 1945 , while Rogatien Vachon was the most recently inducted , in 2016 . The following are members of the Hockey Hall of Fame in the Builders category . The first inductee was Vice @-@ President William Northy in 1945 . The most recent inductee was head coach Pat Burns in 2014 .
= HalloWeekends = HalloWeekends is an annual Halloween event at Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky , Ohio . It was introduced in 1997 , and takes place during the Halloween season , usually from the second Friday after Labor Day until the Sunday before Halloween . The event is open on Friday nights , Saturdays and Sundays . It is included free with park admission . As of 2014 , HalloWeekends features 11 haunted houses and nighttime scare zones , and there are several children 's attractions including a parade that takes place on the main midway . It is advised that children under 13 years old be accompanied by an adult . HalloWeekend 's yearly slogan is " All You Fear is Here ! " . Other Cedar Fair parks including Dorney Park , Valley Fair , and Worlds of Fun all have formerly used the HalloWeekends name . The name has changed to Halloween Haunt at all 3 parks . Cedar Point is the only Cedar Fair park that still uses the HalloWeekends name . = = Overview = = HalloWeekends debuted in 1997 and was only open for three weekends . It has since grown to be held on Friday nights , Saturdays and Sundays during seven weekends in September and October . However , not all of the rides and attractions are open on Friday nights . Attractions include Haunted Houses and Scare Zones . The park is decorated with 1 @,@ 735 bales of hay , 28 @,@ 800 cornstalks , 23 @,@ 000 pounds of pumpkins and other Halloween related items . Located underneath the Sky Ride on the Main Midway in front of Raptor is the Cedar Point Graveyard , also known as " The Land of the Lost Thrills " , which was added to HalloWeekends in 2004 and features tombstones of the park 's rides that have been retired from the 1960s onwards . Cars from retired rides are placed around the park . For example , cars from Frontier Lift and Mantis lie in the Cedar Point Graveyard , one from WildCat lies near Gemini and a car from Disaster Transport lies near Power Tower . During HalloWeekends , the park offers an express ticketing system called Fright Lane for the haunt attractions , similar to Fast Lane . It offers front @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line access for one visit to Eternity Infirmary , CornStalkers , Eden Musee , Eerie Estate and Zombie High School , and unlimited visits through Fear Faire , Blood on the Bayou , Screamworks and Cut Throat Cove . HalloWeekends has been ranked as one of the best Halloween events in the US . It was ranked fifth for " Best Halloween Event " in the Golden Ticket Awards between 2005 and 2008 . In addition , it was ranked fifth again in 2013 and 2014 . = = Attractions = = = = = Historical = = = Cedar Fair , the park 's owner , acquired Knott 's Berry Farm — the first park with a Halloween Haunt — in 1997 , and implemented the event throughout the chain , starting with Cedar Point . At its debut , there were only two haunt attractions , Eerie Manor and Cedar Point Cemetery . Guests could travel on the Cedar Point Spooky Express through haunted lagoons and graveyards . The first new attraction , Toxic Tunnel of Terror , was introduced in 1998 . Camp Spooky debuted a year later with children 's activities in Camp Snoopy . In 2000 , Cedar Point Cemetery was re @-@ themed into Pharaoh 's Secret . The park added three attractions in 2001 , Eerie Manor was re @-@ themed into Undertaker U. , and Fright Zone and Magical House on Boo Hill were added . Werewolf Canyon debuted in 2003 in Thunder Canyon . 2004 saw the addition of CarnEvil and Lair of the Vampire . Werewolf Canyon was also expanded that year . Fear Faire , with a medieval theme , was added in 2006 . In 2007 , the park added the Monster Midway Invasion Celebration Parade which goes from Gemini to the main midway . In 2008 , HalloWeekends received a major expansion . CornStalkers replaced Werewolf Canyon , Club Blood replaced Lair of the Vampire , CarnEvil was relocated to Camp Snoopy and Terror Island was added under Millennium Force . The area near Blue Streak was turned into a children 's area , Magical House on Boo Hill was relocated and a haybale maze was added . HalloWeekends was extended to eight weekends for the first time . In 2009 , the park replaced Pharaoh 's Secret with Happy Jack 's Toy Factory and G.A. Boeckling 's Eerie Estate opened . Dr. D. Mented 's Asylum for the Criminally Insane was added in 2010 . For the 2011 HalloWeekends , Cedar Point renamed two attractions due to protests . Dr. D Mented 's Asylum for the Crimally Insane was renamed Eternity Infirmary and The Edge of Madness show became The Edge of Madness -- Six Feet Under . Screamworks replaced Fright Zone and Blood on the Bayou was added along the lagoons under Iron Dragon . When Disaster Transport closed in 2012 , so did Happy Jack 's Toy Factory . Terror Island was relocated under Maverick because the Dinosaurs Alive ! attraction was using the path for Terror Island . Its name was changed to Cut Throat Cove . A new haunted house called Eden Musee was built inside Mean Streak 's infield . For the 2013 event , Cedar Point introduced Zombie High School , which replaced Club Blood at the front of the park . Trick @-@ or @-@ Treat with the Dinosaurs , which takes place on Adventure Island , was also introduced for kids to collect candy from the dinosaurs . = = = Current = = = The outdoor attractions are run by the HalloWeekends ' Screamsters , a group of Cedar Point staff members who are commanded to scare visitors by The Overlord when night falls . The Overlord debuted in 2009 and he commands all the Screamsters to scare people at every opportunity . However , he did not appear for the 2013 season , Knott 's Scary Farm 's very own Sarah " The Green Witch " Morgan @-@ Marshall took over HalloWeekends as their new and 1st female leader of the Screamsters in 2014 . The Screamsters were introduced in 2005 , with 70 staff . As of 2013 , there are about 400 Screamsters , and 25 make @-@ up artists who provide their masks . Each Screamster has an individual character . As of 2014 , HalloWeekends features 11 attractions , including six scare zones and five haunted houses . The outdoor attractions are Blood on the Bayou , Cut Throat Cove , Screamworks , Tombstone Terror @-@ tory , CarnEvil , and CornStalkers . The indoor attractions are G.A. Boeckling 's Eerie Estate , Zombie High School , Eden Musee , Hexed and Eternity Infirmary . In March 2014 , the Halloween horror music duo , Midnight Syndicate , announced plans for a series of live multimedia concerts entitled Midnight Syndicate Live ! Legacy of Shadows that would run throughout the 2014 HalloWeekends event . They also announced that they would be teaming up with special effects artist , Robert Kurtzman ( From Dusk Till Dawn ) as well as director Gary Jones ( Axe Giant ) and Face Off contestants , Beki Ingram and David Greathouse . The show opened on September 12 to very positive reviews . The Akron Beacon Journal described it as " Part concert , part movie , part theater , part just plain creepy , " going on to call it " top @-@ notch and ambitious . " = = Children 's attractions = = The park features several attractions for children . Several live shows , including the Skeleton Crew acrobatics show that takes place in Celebration Plaza , are performed each day . The Monster Midway Invasion Celebration Parade , which travels along the Main Midway from Gemini to Pink 's on Saturdays , and travels the reverse route on Sundays , takes place at 4 pm . In 2013 , the park introduced Howl @-@ O @-@ Palooza in the Blue Streak plaza . It includes several Halloween attractions for children , including a haunted house named Magical House on Boo Hill , a haybale maze and a Kids ' Costume Contest . The Planet Snoopy children 's area is transformed into Planet Spooky .
= Follow the Leader ( Korn album ) = Follow the Leader is the third studio album by the American nu metal band Korn . The album was released on August 18 , 1998 , through Immortal / Epic . This was their first album not produced by Ross Robinson . Instead , it was produced by Steve Thompson and Toby Wright . The album peaked at number one on four charts , including the Billboard 200 with 268 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week of release , and is often credited with launching nu metal into the mainstream . The album received a 5 × Platinum certification in the United States on March 15 , 2002 as well as a 3 × Platinum in Australia and Canada . Its singles " Got the Life " , and " Freak on a Leash " , both charted on more than three charts , and their music videos are considered to be the first music videos retired from MTV , most notably the MTV show " Total Request Live " . The album generally received positive reviews by critics . Korn was praised by AllMusic saying the album is " an effective follow @-@ up to their first two alt @-@ metal landmarks . " The Family Values Tour promoted the album , along with its five singles . The song " Freak on a Leash " was nominated for nine MTV Video Music Awards , and won for the Best Rock Video award , as well as Best Editing . The music video for " Freak on a Leash " won Best Short Form Music Video at the 2000 Grammy Awards . Follow the Leader has sold over 7 million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan as of January 4 , 2013 and over 14 million copies worldwide , making it Korn 's most successful album . = = Recording and production = = By early 1998 , Korn returned to the studio to record Follow the Leader . Even though Korn was impressed by the work Ross Robinson had done on their previous albums , they decided to work with Steve Thompson and Toby Wright . Robinson did however work with singer Jonathan Davis as a vocal coach for the album . Korn was shown making the video on KornTV . The reason they exposed themselves making the album was because they wanted to let their fans see what they were doing in the studio and behind the scenes . Follow the Leader features numerous guest vocalists , including Ice Cube on " Children of the Korn " , Tre Hardson of The Pharcyde on " Cameltosis " and Limp Bizkit 's Fred Durst on " All in the Family " . In a 2013 interview , the band revealed that they partied heavily during the production of Follow the Leader , with massive amounts of alcohol , drugs , and women in the studio . Davis explained further , saying that while recording the vocals for " It 's On " , there were " people getting blowjobs right behind me , there was girls banging each other in front of me , people getting boned in the closet right behind me , it was the craziest shit I 've ever seen in my life and I sang that song . " According to Davis , he only agreed to begin tracking vocals when producer Toby Wright met his demands for an eight @-@ ball ( a one @-@ eighth ounce of cocaine ) . = = = Photography and illustration = = = The artwork for Follow the Leader was done by Todd McFarlane Entertainment , with McFarlane and fellow Image Comics artists Greg Capullo ( penciller ) and Brian Hagelin ( colorist ) doing the album cover , and designer Brent Ashe handling the graphics work . According to drummer David Silveria , the band got interested in McFarlane after hearing that " Todd had actually referred to us as ' the Doors of the 90 's ' " , leading to them recording a song for Spawn , a film based on a comic book by McFarlane , and eventually approaching the artist to make an album cover for them . The cover art depicts a child hopscotching off a cliff and a gathering of kids waiting to follow , a concept that begun with bassist Reginald " Fieldy " Arvizu and sketched by a friend of Jonathan Davis before being submitted to McFarlane . It marked the third straight Korn cover featuring children in a disturbing context , which Davis explained by saying that " Children are always scared when they 're all happy and stuff . They 're the most beautiful thing in the world , but when you see it in our artwork , the way we 've placed it , it 's just kinda fuckin ' weird . " The " Freak on a Leash " music video features animated segments by McFarlane featuring this cover art . = = Promotion = = Follow the Leader is recognized as Korn 's mainstream breakthrough , and the album that launched nu metal into the mainstream . Follow the Leader was released August 18 , 1998 , and was awarded multi @-@ platinum certification for shipments in excess of five million copies , by the RIAA on March 15 , 2002 . In fall of 1998 , Korn started the Family Values Tour . According to Arvizu , the tour name was due to " so many of their friends who were like family to us played in bands " . The tour started on September 22 , 1998 , ending on October 31 , 1998 . The tour grossed over 6 @.@ 4 million ( 6 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 ) . Korn maintained a generally low ticket price , usually no more than thirty dollars . Korn toured with the band Limp Bizkit , as well as Ice Cube , Orgy , Incubus , and Rammstein . The tour was considered to be a major success , and promoted Follow the Leader to sales that were considered to have " skyrocketed " . The album was also promoted through Concrete Marketing 's Concrete Corner program . The promotion saw 100 @,@ 000 copies of a compilation CD featuring tracks of breakthrough artists approved by Korn , as well as a previously unreleased Korn track , being shrink @-@ wrapped to the album at participating stores and given away for free with each purchase of the album . Band artists ( at the time ) featured on this CD included Kid Rock , Orgy , Powerman 5000 and Limp Bizkit . The album had five singles issued : " All in the Family " , " Got the Life " , " Freak on a Leash " , " Children of the Korn " , and " B.B.K. " = = Composition = = Follow the Leader is seventy minutes and eight seconds long . AllMusic said , " They write songs , but those wind up not being nearly as memorable as their lurching metallic hip @-@ hop grind . " Entertainment Weekly commented that Follow the Leader was Korn 's " gimmick " , while saying the album had " steely riffs " and " stomping beats " . Tower Records said the album " combines streamlined metal with ominous industrial touches and an undercurrent of hip @-@ hop rhythm , " and also said it was an " urban nightmare " . The album is considered to be nu metal , but also spans other genres such as alternative metal and heavy metal . The album features 25 tracks , 12 of which last five seconds of silence , making the first 60 seconds of the album all silent . Winston @-@ Salem Journal writer Ed Bumgardner described Korn 's work as having " shaped rap , metal and punk into a sonic maelstrom that is brutal , aggressive - and reasonably musical " . The Daily News said that " the band shovels chunky beats into an already complex sound ... " Michael Mehle of Rocky Mountain News said , " For the uninitiated , the classic Korn sound comes rumbling out of the speakers on the first cut : It 's On ! grinds fuzzy guitars , thunderous beats and shouts of gut @-@ wrenching rage into an anthem for the alienated " , and gave other positive remarks . The Charlotte Observer said the album was dark , but humble . A Zeeland high school assistant principal said in an interview for a Michigan newspaper that the music is " indecent , vulgar , obscene and intends to be insulting " . She said this after giving a student a one @-@ day suspension for wearing a shirt with Korn on it . = = Critical reception = = Follow the Leader received generally positive reviews . Stephan Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the album four out of five stars , saying that it " is an effective follow @-@ up to their first two alt @-@ metal landmarks . " Erlewine also said that the songs were " vehicles for the metal grind " . Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B – . Reviewer Jim Farber said that the lyrics " provide a new blend of metal and remnants of alt @-@ rock . " Jon Pareles from The New York Times said the album was " choppy " , and also said that lead singer Jonathan Davis was " wrestling with self @-@ hatred , violent impulses , parental execration , and a confused sexual identity ... " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice said that , although Korn " deny they 're metal " , they " nevertheless demonstrate that the essence of metal ... is self @-@ obliterating volume and self @-@ aggrandizing display . " Rolling Stone gave the album four out of five stars , while saying that Korn " have an ideal record for those long , black days when all you can do is say ' What the Fuck ! What the Fuck ! What the Fuck ! ' at bloody murder volume " . The album is featured in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . The album peaked at number one on four charts , including the Billboard 200 . Follow the Leader peaked at number five in the United Kingdom . The album received a 5 × Platinum certification in the United States , as well as a triple platinum in Australia and Canada . Follow the Leader also received a gold certification in the Netherlands . The album 's first charting single , " Got the Life " , released on July 24 , 1998 , peaked at number fifteen on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart , and received a gold certification in Australia . The album 's next charting single , " Freak on a Leash " , released in February 1999 , peaked at number six on the Alternative Songs chart , as well as number six on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 , and like " Got the Life " , received a gold certification in Australia . " Freak on a Leash " was nominated for nine MTV Video Music Awards , and won for the Best Rock Video award , as well as Best Editing . = = Track listing = = All songs written by Korn except " Earache My Eye " written by Tommy Chong , Gaye Delorme and Richard Marin . All guest appearances feature an extra writing credit by the guest . The original physical release features 25 tracks . The music begins on track 13 and ends on track 25 , Starting the album with 12 hidden tracks consisting of five seconds of silence each , totaling 1 minute of silence out of respect for a deceased fan , who also had track 10 ( Justin ) named after him . Later prints move the silent tracks after the music . In interviews Jon Davis also mentioned he was very superstitious and did not want to end an album on track 13 . " My Gift to You " stops at 7 : 12 and is followed by two minutes of silence . At 9 : 12 , a hidden track titled " Earache My Eye " starts playing after an anecdote from Fieldy during the studio session . = = Credits = = = = Charts = =
= Lost Our Lisa = " Lost Our Lisa " is the twenty @-@ fourth episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 10 , 1998 . The episode contains the last appearance of the character Lionel Hutz . When Lisa learns that Marge cannot give her a ride to the museum and forbids her to take the bus , she tricks Homer into giving her permission . After Lisa gets lost , Homer goes looking for her and the two end up visiting the museum together . The episode is analyzed in the books Planet Simpson , The Psychology of the Simpsons : D 'oh ! , and The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer , and received positive mention in I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide . = = Plot = = Bart and Milhouse visit a joke shop . Meanwhile , Marge and Lisa plan a trip to the Springsonian Museum so they can see the Egyptian Treasures of Isis exhibit and the Orb of Isis . Marge has to take Bart to a doctor instead , since he has superglued various novelty items to his face . Since this is Lisa 's last chance to see the exhibit , she phones Homer to ask him if she can take the bus . He seems uncertain , which prompts her to trick him into letting her take the bus . However , once on the bus , Lisa realizes she is on the wrong bus and is dropped off in the middle on nowhere . During his lunch break at work , Homer has a conversation with Lenny and Carl . He tells them that he let Lisa ride the bus alone . Lenny and Carl point out the error of his judgment , and Homer leaves work to go look for her . He heads to the museum and ends up in downtown Springfield . He uses a cherrypicker to get up higher . Homer and Lisa spot each other , but the vehicle 's wheels creak backwards and it rolls down a hill . It slides off the edge of a pier at the harbor into a river . Lisa tells the drawbridge operator to close the bridge so Homer can grab on . His head is caught between the two closing halves and he survives with nothing more than a few tire marks across his forehead . With Homer and Lisa re @-@ united , he tells her that it is all right to take risks in life . The two decide to go to the museum after all , by illegally entering since it is now closed . While there , they make a fascinating discovery that the Orb of Isis is a music box which had gone overlooked by scientists and museum staff . Lisa concludes that what her father said about risks was right – until the alarm goes off and guard dogs chase them out of the building . = = Production = = Writer Mike Scully came up with the idea for the plot because he used to live in West Springfield , Massachusetts and he would ask his parents if he could take the bus to Springfield , Massachusetts and they finally agreed to let him one day . The production team faced several challenges during development of this episode . The animators had to come up with a special mouth chart to draw Bart 's mouth with the joke teeth in . The pile of dead animals in the back of Cletus ' truck originally included dead puppies , but the animators thought it was too sad , so they removed them . Scully used to write jokes for Yakov Smirnoff so he called him up to get the signs in Russian . Dan Castellaneta had to learn proper Russian pronunciation so he could speak it during the chess scene in which he voiced the Russian chess player . In the season 9 DVD release of the episode , The Simpsons animators use a telestrator to show similarities between Krusty and Homer in the episode . This episode contains the last showing of character Lionel Hutz . He is seen standing at the bus stop with Lisa , but does not speak . Due to Phil Hartman 's death , the recurring characters of Lionel Hutz and Troy McClure were retired . = = Themes = = In his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner cites Lisa 's experiences on the bus as an example of " satirical laughs scored at the expense of Lisa 's idealism " . " Lost Our Lisa " is cited in The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer along with episodes " Lisa the Iconoclast " , " Lisa the Beauty Queen " , and " Lisa 's Sax " , in order to illustrate Homer 's " success bonding with Lisa " . In The Psychology of the Simpsons : D 'oh ! , the authors utilize statements made by Homer in the episode to analyze the difference between heuristic and algorithmic decision @-@ making . Homer explains to Lisa , " Stupid risks are what make life worth living . Now your mother , she 's the steady type and that 's fine in small doses , but me , I 'm a risk @-@ taker . That 's why I have so many adventures ! " The authors of The Psychology of The Simpsons interpret this statement by Homer to mean that he " relies on his past experiences of taking massive , death @-@ defying risks and winding up okay to justify forging ahead in the most extreme circumstances " . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Lost Our Lisa " finished 45th in ratings for the week of May 4 – 10 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Ally McBeal , and King of the Hill . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood write positively of the episode in their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide : " A smashing episode , loads of good jokes and clever situations ... and best of all , Lisa working intelligently . The teaming up of father and daughter has rarely been more enjoyable and lovely . Gives you a warm feeling . " A review of The Simpsons season 9 DVD release in the Daily Post notes that it includes " super illustrated colour commentaries " on " All Singing , All Dancing " and " Lost Our Lisa " .
= Euryoryzomys emmonsae = Euryoryzomys emmonsae , also known as Emmons 's Rice Rat or Emmons ' Oryzomys , is a rodent from Amazonian Brazil in the genus Euryoryzomys of the family Cricetidae . Initially misidentified as E. macconnelli or E. nitidus , it was formally described in 1998 . A rainforest species , it may be scansorial , climbing but also spending time on the ground . It occurs only in a limited area south of the Amazon River in the state of Pará , a distribution that is apparently unique among the muroid rodents of the region . Euryoryzomys emmonsae is a relatively large rice rat , weighing 46 to 78 g ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 oz ) , with a distinctly long tail and relatively long , tawny brown fur . The skull is slender and the incisive foramina ( openings in the bone of the palate ) are broad . The animal has 80 chromosomes and its karyotype is similar to that of other Euryoryzomys . Its conservation status is assessed as " Data Deficient " , but deforestation may pose a threat to this species . = = Taxonomy = = In 1998 , Guy Musser , Michael Carleton , Eric Brothers , and Alfred Gardner reviewed the taxonomy of species previously lumped under " Oryzomys capito " ( now classified in the genera Hylaeamys , Euryoryzomys , and Transandinomys ) . They described the new species Oryzomys emmonsae on the basis of 17 specimens from three locations in the state of Pará in northern Brazil ; these animals had been previously identified as Oryzomys macconnelli ( now Euryoryzomys macconnelli ) and then as Oryzomys nitidus ( now Euryoryzomys nitidus ) . The specific name honors Louise H. Emmons , who , among other contributions to Neotropical mammalogy , collected three of the known examples of the species in 1986 , including the holotype . The new species was placed in what they termed the " Oryzomys nitidus group " , which also included O. macconelli , O. nitidus , and O. russatus . In 2000 , James Patton , Maria da Silva , and Jay Malcolm reported on mammals collected at the Rio Juruá in western Brazil . In this report , they provided further information on the Oryzomys species reviewed by Musser and colleagues , including sequence data from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene . Their analysis reaffirmed that O. emmonsae was a distinct species and found that it was closest to O. macconnelli and O. russatus , differing from both by about 12 % in the cytochrome b sequence ; O. nitidus was more distantly related , differing by 14 @.@ 7 % . The average sequence difference between the three O. emmonsae studied was 0 @.@ 8 % . In 2006 , an extensive morphological and molecular phylogenetic analysis by Marcelo Weksler showed that species then placed in the genus Oryzomys did not form a single , cohesive ( monophyletic ) group ; for example , O. macconnelli , O. lamia ( placed under O. russatus by Musser and colleagues ) and O. russatus clustered together in a single natural group ( clade ) , but were not closely related to the type species of Oryzomys , the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) . Later in 2006 , Weksler and colleagues described several new genera to accommodate species previously placed in Oryzomys , among which was Euryoryzomys for the " O. nitidus complex " , including O. emmonsae . Thus , the species is now known as Euryoryzomys emmonsae . As a species of Euryoryzomys , it is classified within the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , which includes over a hundred species , mainly from South and Central America . Oryzomyini in turn is part of the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents . = = Description = = Euryoryzomys emmonsae is a fairly large , long @-@ tailed rice rat with long , soft fur . The hairs on the back are 8 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) long . It generally resembles E. nitidus in these and other characters , but has a longer tail . E. macconnelli is slightly larger and has longer and duller fur . In E. emmonsae , the upperparts are tawny brown , but a bit darker on the head because many hairs have black tips . The hairs of the underparts are gray at the bases and white at the tips ; overall , the fur appears mostly white . In most specimens , there is a patch on the chest where the gray bases are absent . The longest of the vibrissae ( whiskers ) of the face extend slightly beyond the ears . The eyelids are black . The ears are covered with small , yellowish brown hairs and appear dark brown overall . The feet are covered with white hairs above and brown below . There are six pads on the plantar surface , but the hypothenar is reduced . The ungual tufts , tufts of hair which surround the bases of the claws , are well @-@ developed . The tail is like the body in color above , and mostly white below , but in the 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) nearest the tail tip it is brown below . Compared to E. nitidus and E. macconnelli , the skull is relatively small and slender . It has broad and short incisive foramina ( perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars ) and lacks sphenopalatine vacuities which perforate the mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the palate . The animal is similar to other members of the genus in the pattern of the arteries of the head . The alisphenoid strut , an extension of the alisphenoid bone which separates two foramina ( openings ) in the skull ( the masticatory @-@ buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium ) is rarely present ; its presence is more frequent in E. nitidus . The capsular process , a raising of the bone of the mandible ( lower jaw ) behind the third molar , houses the back end of the lower incisor in most Euryoryzomys , but is absent in E. emmonsae and E. macconnelli . Traits of the teeth are similar to those of E. nitidus and other Euryoryzomys . The karyotype includes 80 chromosomes with a total of 86 major arms ( 2n
= 80 ; FN = 86 ) . The X chromosome is subtelocentric ( with one pair of long arms and one pair of short arms ) and the Y chromosome is acrocentric ( with only one pair of arms , or with a minute second pair ) . Among the autosomes ( non @-@ sex chromosomes ) , the four metacentric or submetacentric ( with two pairs of arms as long as or not much shorter than the other ) pairs of chromosomes are small , and the 35 pairs of acrocentrics range from large to small . Some of those have a minute second pair of arms and could also be classified as subtelocentric , which would raise FN to 90 . This karyotype is similar to other known karyotypes of members of Euryoryzomys . In thirteen specimens measured by Musser , head and body length ranges from 120 to 142 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 6 in ) , tail length ( 12 specimens only ) from 130 to 160 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 3 in ) , hindfoot length from 32 to 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) , ear length ( three specimens only ) from 23 to 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 to 0 @.@ 94 in ) , and body mass from 46 to 78 g ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 oz ) . = = Distribution and ecology = = The known distribution of Euryoryzomys emmonsae is limited to a portion of the Amazon Rainforest south of the Amazon River in the state of Pará , between the Xingu and Tocantins rivers , but the limits of its range remain inadequately known . No other South American rainforest muroid rodent is known to have a similar distribution . Musser and colleagues reported it from three locations and Patton and others added a fourth ; in some of those it occurs together with E. macconnelli or Hylaeamys megacephalus . Specimens of E. emmonsae for which detailed habitat data are available were caught in " viny forest " , a microhabitat that often included much bamboo . All were captured on the ground , some in bamboo thickets and another under a log . Musser and colleagues speculated that E. emmonsae may be scansorial , spending time both on the ground and climbing in vegetation , like the similarly long @-@ tailed rice rat Cerradomys subflavus . = = Conservation status = = The IUCN currently lists Euryoryzomys emmonsae as " Data Deficient " because it is so poorly known . It may be threatened by deforestation and logging , but occurs in at least one protected area , the Floresta Nacional de Tapirape @-@ Aquiri .

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