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= Kurt Brändle =
Kurt @-@ Werner Brändle ( 19 January 1912 – 3 November 1943 ) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 180 enemy aircraft shot down in over 700 combat missions . The majority of his victories were claimed over the Eastern Front , with 25 claims over the Western Front .
Born in Ludwigsburg , Brändle , who already was a civilian motor @-@ powered aircraft and glider pilot , volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1935 . He was posted to Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) in 1939 and claimed 14 aerial victories on the Western Front . In May 1942 he was given command of II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet " ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) . Fighting on the Eastern Front , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 1 July 1942 after 49 aerial victories . In July and August 1942 , he claimed a further 50 aerial victories in the southern sector of the Eastern Front . After claiming his 100th aerial victory he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 27 August 1942 .
On 5 July 1943 during the Battle of Kursk , Brändle achieved his 150th aerial victory and in August 1943 was transferred to the Western Front fighting in Defense of the Reich . There Brändle was killed in action on 3 November 1943 west of Amsterdam in the Netherlands . His body was washed ashore near Zandvoort on 30 December 1943 .
= = Early life and career = =
Brändle was born on 19 January 1912 in Ludwigsburg in the Kingdom of Württemberg , a federated state of the German Empire . His father was a Meister , a master craftsman , in the field of precision mechanics . Following school , Brändle learned the trade of a surgical instrument maker and worked in his father 's firm .
Since his early youth he was very enthusiastic about flying and volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich on 10 December 1935 . There he participated in a number of exercises and was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) of the Reserves on 1 December 1936 . In his civilian life , Brändle attained a pilot license and worked as a flight instructor . As an instructor , he trained roughly 150 students and logged more than 6 @,@ 000 starts and 8 @,@ 000 flight hours before he became a military aviator . In addition to his passion for motor power flight , he also was a glider pilot .
In early 1937 Brändle passed his Meister examination in aircraft construction and in the same year was trained as a fighter pilot with Jagdgeschwader 134 " Horst Wessel " ( JG 134 — 134th Fighter Wing ) , named after the martyr of the Nazi movement Horst Wessel . As of 1 February 1939 , Brändle served with Flieger @-@ Ausbildungs @-@ Regiment 22 ( 22nd Flight Training Regiment ) in Güstrow . There , he transferred from the reserve force to active service and was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 June 1939 . He was then transferred to the 4 . Staffel ( 4th Squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces invaded Poland . Brändle received the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) on 20 April 1940 . He claimed his first aerial victory on 10 May 1940 during the Battle of France , shooting down an Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 south of Sedan . In total Brändle claimed two victories over France before he was wounded on 26 May 1940 . During takeoff on a maintenance test flight he crashed into a Dornier Do 17 injuring himself in the head . He spent the next few weeks in the military hospital at Heidelberg .
After recovering from the hospital , Brändle claimed his second victory during the Battle of Britain over the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) on 11 August 1940 . On 26 August 1940 , he was tasked with the leadership of 5 . Staffel ( 5th Squadron ) of JG 53 . Following his fourth aerial victory , he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 1 . Klasse ) on 3 September 1940 . He was officially appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 5 . Staffel on 15 September 1940 . On 11 November 1940 he claimed his 6th and 7th aerial victories and was awarded the Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots ( Frontflugspange für Jagdflieger ) in Silver on 5 May 1941 and in Gold on 7 June 1941 .
The bulk of the Geschwader 's air elements were moved via Jever , in northern Germany , to Mannheim @-@ Sandhofen on 8 June 1941 . There the aircraft were given a maintenance overhaul prior to moving east . The II . Gruppe was transferred to Neusiedel in East Prussia , present @-@ day Malomožaiskojė in Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia , between 12 – 14 June . On 22 June the Geschwader crossed into Soviet airspace in support of Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union which opened the Eastern Front . There , Brändle claimed further victories and by the end of October 1941 was credited with 28 aerial victories .
Brändle 's unit was then relocated to the Western Front again in October 1941 where it was based at Leeuwarden in the Netherlands before it was moved to the Mediterranean theater in December 1941 . Based at Comiso airfield , Brändle flew combat missions against the RAF during the Siege of Malta . There he was awarded the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) on 25 February 1942 and four days later , on 1 March , he was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) .
= = = Group commander = = =
On 1 May 1942 , Brändle was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of II . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet " ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) , named after the World War I fighter ace Ernst Udet . Its former Gruppenkommandeur , Hauptmann Karl @-@ Heinz Krahl , had been killed in action over Malta on 14 April 1942 . At the time , the Gruppe was stationed at Plzeň for rest and refit before it was relocated to the Eastern Front on 18 May 1942 . Too late to participate in the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula , it was located on the left wing of Army Group South , assigned to an airfield at Chuguyev in the Kharkov area . Brändle scored the Gruppe 's first victory after the relocation , claiming a Polikarpov R @-@ 5 reconnaissance bomber aircraft at 3 : 49 am on 20 May 1942 . By this date , Brändle had accumulated 36 victories . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 1 July 1942 for 49 aerial victories . On this day , he claimed his 53rd aerial victory , after he shot down a Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 " Sturmovik " .
Brändle often claimed multiple victories per day , three victories on 8 July 1942 took his tally to 58 and further three claims made on 10 July took his score to 61 . On 16 July 1942 he filed four claims , numbers 64 – 67 . He became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the first time on 26 July 1942 when he shot down five enemy aircraft , aerial victories 73 – 77 , and again five on 7 August 1942 , 89 in total .
In July and August 1942 , he claimed 50 aerial victories in the southern sector of the Eastern Front , among them his 100th to 102nd victory on 23 August 1942 . He was the 17th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . For this achievement he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 27 August 1942 , the 114th officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht so honored . The presentation was made by Adolf Hitler personally .
Brändle was promoted to Major on 1 March 1943 . On 29 April 1943 , he claimed his 135th to 138th aerial victories . On 5 July 1943 , the first day of the Battle of Kursk ( Unternehmen Zitadelle ) , he claimed five victories taking his total to 151 . His II . Gruppe claimed 77 aircraft shot down on 12 July which included its 2 @,@ 000 aerial victory of the war .
= = = Defense of the Reich and death = = =
In early August 1943 , Brändle 's II . Gruppe was withdrawn from the Eastern Front for service in Defense of the Reich on the Western Front . The Gruppe spent one @-@ month training in northern Germany before they arrived at the Schiphol airfield near Amsterdam in the Netherlands on 12 September .
On 3 November 1943 , Brändle shot down two P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts fighters escorting a formation of Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses on a mission targeting Wilhelmshaven . Later that day , he was killed in action west of Amsterdam in the Netherlands . Following an attack by a group of Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders on Schiphol airfield , II . Gruppe scrambled to counter the attack . It is assumed that he was shot down in his Messerschmitt Bf 109 G @-@ 6 ( Werknummer 26058 — factory number ) by Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) fighters under the command of Wing Commander Lloyd Chadburn . His body was later washed ashore near Zandvoort on 30 December 1943 and was buried at the Heroes Cemetery in Amsterdam ( field 74 , grave 405 ) one day later . His remains were moved in January 1944 before they were reinterred for a last time on 2 December 1947 , this time at the cemetery Ysselsteyn ( block CW , row 1 , grave 25 ) .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 20 April 1940 )
1st Class ( 3 September 1940 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots
in Silver ( 5 May 1941 )
in Gold ( 7 June 1941 )
German Cross in Gold on 25 February 1942 as Oberleutnant in the 5 . / JG 53
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 1 July 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the II . / JG 3 " Udet "
114th Oak Leaves on 27 August 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the II . / JG 3 " Udet "
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= Phil Lamason =
Phillip ( Phil ) John Lamason DFC & Bar ( 15 September 1918 – 19 May 2012 ) was a pilot in the Royal New Zealand Air Force ( RNZAF ) during the Second World War , who rose to prominence as the senior officer in charge of 168 Allied airmen taken to Buchenwald concentration camp , Germany , in August 1944 . Raised in Napier , he joined the RNZAF in September 1940 , and by April 1942 was a pilot officer serving with the Royal Air Force in Europe .
On 8 June 1944 , Lamason was in command of a Lancaster heavy bomber that was shot down during a raid on railway marshalling yards near Paris . Bailing out , he was picked up by members of the French Resistance and hidden at various locations for seven weeks . While attempting to reach Spain along the Comet line , Lamason was double @-@ crossed by a traitor within the Resistance and handed over to the Gestapo . After interrogation , he was taken to Fresnes prison . Classified as a " Terrorflieger " ( terror flier ) , he was not accorded prisoner @-@ of @-@ war ( POW ) status , but instead treated as a criminal and spy . By 15 August 1944 , Lamason was senior officer of a group of 168 captured Allied airmen who were taken by train to Buchenwald concentration camp , arriving there five days later .
At Buchenwald , the airmen were fully shaved , starved , denied shoes , and for three weeks forced to sleep outside without shelter in one of the sub @-@ camps known as " Little Camp " . As senior officer , Lamason took control and instilled a level of military discipline and bearing . For several weeks Lamason negotiated with the camp authorities to have the airmen transferred to a POW camp , but his requests were denied . At great risk , Lamason secretly got word to the Luftwaffe of the Allied airmen 's captivity and , seven days before their scheduled execution , 156 of the 168 prisoners were transferred to Stalag Luft III . Most of the airmen credit their survival at Buchenwald to the leadership and determination of Lamason . After the war , he moved to Dannevirke and became a farmer until his retirement . During the 1980s and 1990s , he was a regular speaker at KLB Club and POW reunions .
= = Early career = =
Lamason was born and raised in Napier , a city in New Zealand 's North Island , on 15 September 1918 . He was educated at Napier Boys ' High School and Massey University ( Palmerston North campus ) where he was awarded a Diploma in Sheepfarming . During this period , Lamason described himself as " a bit of a ratbag " . Prior to the war , he worked for the Department of Agriculture at New Plymouth as a stock inspector . It was there Lamason took the opportunity of free flying lessons , clocking up 100 hours . He was described as a tall , good @-@ looking man with blue eyes and a broken nose .
Lamason joined the RNZAF in September 1940 . By April 1942 , he had been posted to the European theatre of operations as a pilot officer in No. 218 Squadron RAF . During a bombing raid on Pilsen , Czechoslovakia , he was in command of an aircraft that was attacked by an enemy fighter and badly damaged , but managed to return to base . As a result of his actions , he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) on 15 May 1942 . The citation read :
Pilot Officer Philip John . LAMASON , ( N.Z. 403460 ) , Royal New Zealand Air Force , No. 218 Squadron .
One night in April , 1942 , this officer was the captain of an aircraft which attacked Pilsen . During the return flight his aircraft was attacked by an enemy fighter and sustained damage ; the hydraulics were shot away and the turret rendered unserviceable , while a fire broke out in the middle of the fuselage . Displaying great presence of mind , Pilot Officer Lamason coolly directed his crew in the emergency and , while 2 of them dealt with the fire , he skilfully outmanoeuvred his attacker and finally shook him off . By his fine airmanship and great devotion to duty , Pilot Officer Lamason was undoubtedly responsible for the safe return of the aircraft and its crew . This officer has completed 21 sorties and he has at all times displayed courage and ability .
After his first tour ended flying Stirlings with 218 Squadron , Lamason then instructed other pilots at 1657 Heavy Conversion Unit . Returning to operations with No. 15 Squadron RAF , Lamason was twice Mentioned in Despatches , first on 2 June 1943 and again , having received promotion to acting squadron leader , on 14 January 1944 . He was awarded a Bar to his DFC on 27 June 1944 , for " courage and devotion to duty of a high order " and " vigorous determination " in attacks on Berlin and other heavily @-@ defended targets . Lamason was presented his award after the war by King George VI at Buckingham Palace , where he met and befriended a young Princess Elizabeth , later to be queen . A day after making an emergency landing at an American base in England , Lamason was introduced to , shook hands and spoke with Clark Gable .
Lamason was not afraid to speak his mind . On the night of 30 / 31 March 1944 , when 795 bombers were sent to attack Nuremberg , he was very critical of the route chosen , warning his station commander that heavy losses could be expected . On the moonlit night , 95 bombers were lost , its heaviest losses of the entire war during a single raid .
= = Buchenwald = =
On 8 June 1944 , Lamason was serving as a flight commander in a Lancaster LM575 LS @-@ H of No. 15 Squadron RAF , on his 45th operation , when he was shot down during a raid on railway marshalling yards at Massy @-@ Palaiseau near Paris . Lamason recalled :
On the night of the raid our bomber was spotted by a German fighter , which locked on to it . I decided to turn and fight him . Within seconds an incendiary round hit a wing and caught the fuel tank . I gave the order to bail out as the gas torched . But Robbie , our mid @-@ upper gunner , kept on firing . When he eventually did jump , we no longer had enough height . I saw his parachute open , but too late . He must have died on impact . I pushed the navigator out and managed to jump clear at the last minute .
Along with his English navigator , Flying Officer Ken Chapman , Lamason was picked up by members of the French Resistance and hidden at various locations for seven weeks . In August , while attempting to reach Spain along the Comet line , Lamason and Chapman were captured by the Gestapo in Paris after they were betrayed by the French double agent Jacques Desoubrie for 10 @,@ 000 francs each . After interrogation at the Gestapo headquarters in Paris , they were taken to Fresnes Prison . Many fliers were classified as " Terrorflieger " ( terror flier ) by the Germans , and were not given a trial . The most common act for allied airmen to be classified a terror flier was to be captured in civilian clothing and / or without their dog tags . The German Foreign Office decided that these captured enemy airmen should not be given the legal status of prisoner of war ( POWs ) but should instead be treated as criminals and spies . Consequently , Lamason was amongst a group of 168 allied airmen from Great Britain , United States , Australia , Canada , New Zealand and Jamaica who , along with over 2 @,@ 500 French prisoners , were taken by train — in overcrowded cattle boxcars — from Fresnes Prison outside Paris , to Buchenwald concentration camp . As the airmen were herded into the boxcars , Lamason protested about the poor treatment of the airmen , only to be struck in the face by a SS guard . Lamason fell to the ground and captured pilot Roy Allen watched as a SS Major pulled a Luger from his holster and thought Lamason would be shot on the spot . After five days travel , during which the airmen received very little food or water , they arrived at Buchenwald on 20 August 1944 .
Buchenwald was a labour camp of about 60 @,@ 000 inmates of mainly Russian POWs , but also common criminals , religious prisoners ( including Jews ) , and various political prisoners from Germany , France , Poland , and Czechoslovakia . It was known for its brutality and barbaric medical experiments . Upon arrival , Lamason , as ranking officer , demanded an interview with the camp commandant , Hermann Pister , which he was granted . He insisted that the airmen be treated as POWs under the Geneva Conventions and be sent to a POW camp . The commandant agreed that their arrival at Buchenwald was a " mistake " but they remained there anyway . The airmen were given the same poor treatment and beatings as the other inmates . For the first three weeks at Buchenwald , the prisoners were totally shaved , denied shoes and forced to sleep outside without shelter in one of Buchenwald 's sub @-@ camps , known as ' Little Camp ' . Little Camp was a quarantine section of Buchenwald where the prisoners received the least food and harshest treatment .
After their first meal , Lamason stepped forward and said :
Attention ! ... Gentlemen , we have ourselves in a very fine fix indeed . The goons have completely violated the Geneva Convention and are treating us as common thieves and criminals . However , we are soldiers . From this time on , we will also conduct ourselves as our training has taught us and as our countries would expect from us . We will march as a unit to roll call and we will follow all reasonable commands as a single unit .
Lamason then instructed the group not to trust the SS , or provoke them in any way because as they had experienced on the train , the guards were unpredictable and trigger @-@ happy . Also , they were not to explore the camp because of the chance of breaking unknown rules , but to stay together and keep as far away from the guards as possible . He further stated that acting on the group 's behalf , he would make further contact with the camp authorities for recognition of their rights . Lamason then proceeded to organise the airmen into groups by nationality and appointed a Commanding officer within each group . Lamason did not do this just to improve their morale but because he also saw it as his responsibility to carry on his war duties despite the adverse circumstances . Captured US pilot Joe Moser believed that Lamason also did this because if the right opportunity presented itself , the group would be able to operate much more effectively if military discipline and operations were applied . Lamason 's leadership boosted the airmen 's spirits and gave them hope while instilling a level of discipline and bearing . One of the first assignments Lamason gave was to mount a guard detail , both day and night , to prevent pilfering by other inmates , which had begun during their first night at camp . During their incarceration , Lamason also insisted the airmen march , parade and act as a military unit , a behavior which infuriated the camp authorities while simultaneously impressing them .
Within days of their arrival , Lamason met Edward Yeo @-@ Thomas , a British spy being held at Buchenwald under the alias Kenneth Dodkin . Lamason , who knew the real Dodkin quite well , immediately became suspicious and later confided in Christopher Burney , who assured Lamason the cover was legitimate . Through Yeo @-@ Thomas and Burney , Lamason was introduced to two Russian colonels , senior members of the International Camp Committee , an illegal underground resistance group of prisoners in the main camp . As senior officer , Lamason had access to the main camp and quickly built a rapport with the group . As a result , he was able to secure extra blankets , clothes , clogs and food for the airmen . Lamason also built a rapport with two other prisoners ; French Scientist Alfred Balachowsky and Dutch Olympian trainer Jan Robert . Both men had developed trustworthy contacts within the camp administrative area and were able to provide Lamason with reliable intelligence that assisted in the survival of the airmen .
For the next six weeks , Lamason negotiated with Pister and the German camp authorities , but his requests to have the airmen transferred to proper POW camps were denied . One captured British airman , Pilot Officer Splinter Spierenburg , was a Dutchman flying for the Royal Air Force . Spierenburg , who spoke fluent German , regularly acted as an interpreter for Lamason when he negotiated with the camp authorities . Because Buchenwald was a forced labor camp , the German authorities had intended to put the 168 airmen to work as slave @-@ labor in the nearby armament factories . Consequently , Lamason was ordered by an SS officer to instruct the airmen to work , or he would be immediately executed by firing squad . Lamason refused to give the order and informed the officer that they were soldiers and could not and would not participate in war production . After a tense stand @-@ off , during which time Lamason thought he would be shot , the SS officer eventually backed down .
Most airmen doubted they would ever get out of Buchenwald because their documents were stamped with the acronym " DIKAL " ( Darf in kein anderes Lager ) , or " not to be transferred to another camp " . At great risk , Lamason and Burney secretly smuggled a note through a trusted Russian prisoner , who worked at the nearby Nohra airfield , to the German Luftwaffe of their captivity at the camp . The message requested in part , that an officer pass the information to Berlin , and for the Luftwaffe to intercede on behalf of the airmen . Lamason understood that the Luftwaffe would be sympathetic to their predicament , as they would not want their captured men treated in the same way ; he also knew that the Luftwaffe had the political connections to get the airmen transferred to a POW camp .
Eventually , Lamason 's persistence paid off . Under the pretence of inspecting aerial bomb damage near the camp , two Luftwaffe officers ( including Hannes Trautloft ) made contact with the airmen and also spoke to Lamason . Convinced the airmen were not spies , but bona @-@ fide airmen , Trautloft reported his findings to command . After reading the report , an outraged Hermann Göring demanded ' at the highest level ' the transfer of the airmen to Luftwaffe control . Unknown to all airmen except Lamason , their execution had been scheduled for 26 October , if they remained at Buchenwald . News of the airmen 's scheduled execution had been conveyed to Lamason by a German political prisoner , Eugen Kogon , who had a reliable contact within the camp administrative area . Lamason discussed the information at length with Yeo @-@ Thomas , Burney and Robert and they concluded there was little that could be done to avert the mass execution . Lamason decided not to inform the airmen , but to keep this information to himself to keep morale high and in the slight hope the Luftwaffe would intervene in time . Then , on the night of 19 October , seven days before their scheduled execution , 156 of the 168 airmen , including Lamason , were transferred from Buchenwald to Stalag Luft III by the Luftwaffe .
Two airmen died at Buchenwald . The other ten , who were too ill to be moved with the main group , were transported to Stalag Luft III in small groups over a period of several weeks . In the two months at Buchenwald , Lamason had lost 19 kilograms ( 42 lbs ) and had contracted diphtheria and dysentery . At Stalag Luft III , he spent a month in the infirmary recovering . In late January 1945 , all Stalag Luft III POWs were force @-@ marched to other POW camps further inside Germany . Lamason and Chapman were marched to Stalag III @-@ A outside Luckenwalde , where they remained until liberated by the Russian army at the end of the war in Europe . Lamason and Chapman were taken to Hildesheim airfield and flown to Brussels and then onto England .
Many airmen credit their survival at Buchenwald to the leadership and determination of Lamason . Captured pilot Stratton Appleman stated that " they were very fortunate to have Lamason as their leader " . Another airman , Joe Moser , stated that Lamason was a great leader whom he would have been glad to follow anywhere he asked . British pilot James Stewart described Lamason as " a wonderful unsung hero " . In the book 168 Jump into Hell , Lamason was described as having single @-@ minded determination , selflessness , cold courage and forcefulness in the face of the threat of execution by the camp authorities because he was their leader and said that Lamason quickly established himself as a legendary figure in the airmen 's eyes . In the National Film Board of Canada 1994 documentary , The Lucky Ones : Allied Airmen and Buchenwald , captured pilot Tom Blackham stated that Lamason was not only the senior officer , but also their natural leader . Lamason emerged from Buchenwald with a giant reputation . In the book Destination Buchenwald , Lamason stated that he felt deeply honoured to have been the senior officer during the Buchenwald period .
= = Aftermath and later life = =
Following their liberation and return to England , Lamason was asked to consider commanding one of the Okinawa squadrons for the final attack on Japan . However , the RNZAF refused and Lamason returned to New Zealand , arriving there the day after the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima . After the war , Lamason was discharged from the air force on 16 December 1945 . In 1946 , Lamason was asked to be the lead pilot to test the flight paths for a new British airport . As part of the agreement , he was offered a farm in Berkshire . However , family said he needed to be home instead and Heathrow Airport went ahead without him . In 1948 , Lamason moved to Dannevirke , a small rural community north east of Palmerston North where he acquired 406 acres and became a farmer until his retirement .
During the 1980s and 1990s , Lamason was a regular speaker at KLB ( initials for Konzentrationslager Buchenwald ) Club reunions , a club formed by the allied airmen while detained in Buchenwald . Lamason was also a member of the Caterpillar Club , an informal association of people who have successfully used a parachute to bail out of a disabled aircraft .
Lamason hid the fact for 39 years that the order for the airmen 's execution was given and scheduled for 26 October 1944 , first mentioning it at a Canadian POW convention in Hamilton in 1983 . In May 1987 , the New Zealand government in Wellington approved a fund to compensate servicemen held in German concentration camps and Lamason was awarded $ 13 @,@ 000 . However , Lamason was never honoured by his homeland for his leading role in saving the lives of the allied airmen at Buchenwald .
In 1994 , the National Film Board of Canada released a documentary movie titled , “ The Lucky Ones : Allied Airmen and Buchenwald ” , in which former Allied airmen recounted their personal and collective stories of life before , during and after Buchenwald . Lamason was interviewed and mentioned throughout the documentary . Lamason was also portrayed in the History Channel ’ s 2004 documentary " Shot from the Sky " , about the real life saga of B @-@ 17 pilot Roy Allen , one of the captured airmen taken to Buchenwald . In April 2005 , Lamason , then 86 , recollected the events of Buchenwald on TV New Zealand . In June 2010 , Lamason , then 91 , was interviewed again about his experience at Buchenwald by Mike Dorsey . This and other interviews with Lamason are featured in Dorsey 's 2011 documentary film titled , Lost Airmen of Buchenwald , which tells the complete story of the 168 Allied airmen who were sent to Buchenwald , including Lamason . Mike Dorsey said Lamason remained scarred by his experiences to the extent that Dorsey said “ I have a feeling that Lamason , to put it in a word , has no time for the Germans . ”
Lamason died at his home on 19 May 2012 , on the farm outside Dannevirke where he had lived for over 60 years . He was 93 and at the time of his death , survived by two sons and two daughters , his wife ( Joan née Hopkins ) having died in 2009 . In November 2015 , it was announced that a book recounting and honouring Lamason 's life would be written by Waipukurau author Hilary Pedersen by September 2018 ( what would have been Lamason 's 100th birthday ) .
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= Cyclone Jasmine =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Jasmine ( RSMC Nadi designation : 12F , JTWC designation : 10P ) was a long @-@ lived annular tropical cyclone that affected several countries , particularly Vanuatu and Tonga , over a 19 @-@ day span in February 2012 . The system was the second cyclone and the only severe tropical cyclone of the relatively quiet 2011 – 12 South Pacific cyclone season . Cyclone Jasmine developed from an area of disturbed weather on 1 February in the Gulf of Carpentaria . Initially , the storm moved towards the east and across the Cape York Peninsula . As it moved across the South Pacific , earlier existing wind shear conditions lessened , and Jasmine began to strengthen at a faster rate . Steadily intensifying , Jasmine reached peak intensity on 8 February as a Category 4 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , while beginning to show annular characteristics .
The next day Jasmine entered an area of vertical wind shear , which consequently weakened the cyclone and caused its eye to expand . A high pressure area south of Jasmine later steered the weakening cyclone to the northeast on 12 February . Although it entered an area of warmer sea surface temperatures , Jasmine subsequently entered extratropical transition and later degenerated into an extratropical cyclone on 16 February , and later dissipated completely on 19 February .
Cyclone Jasmine affected five countries during its existence . The predecessor to Jasmine brought heavy rainfall to areas of extreme northern Queensland . Jasmine also brought rainfall to areas of the Solomon Islands . As a result , pest infestations occurred across the region . In Vanuatu , heavy rains and wind from Jasmine destroy numerous crops . Banana trees in particular are affected by the cyclone . Jasmine inundated areas of Tonga that had already been affected by Cyclone Cyril just a week prior . Nuku 'alofa recorded half of its average monthly rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour span due to rains associated with the cyclone . After the season , the name Jasmine was retired from the Australian list of tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
During 31 January the Australian Bureau of Meteorology started to monitor a tropical low , that had developed within the monsoon trough over the western Cape York Peninsula . Over the next day the system moved into the southeastern part of the Gulf of Carpentaria , before it moved back over the Cape York Peninsula during 2 February . The system subsequently emerged into the Coral Sea to the north of Cairns later that day , where a strong northwest monsoon flow with gales developed to the north of the low . The system subsequently moved eastwards and intensified into a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale .
On 1 February , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology 's Brisbane tropical cyclone warning centre ( TCWC Brisbane ) and the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began to monitor a tropical low that had developed within a monsoon trough about 135 km ( 85 mi ) to the north of Mornington Island . Over the next two days the low moved eastwards and passed over the Cape York Peninsula before it emerged into the Coral Sea to the north of Cairns . After emerging into the Coral Sea the low continued to develop , and on 4 February , the JTWC and TCWC Brisbane reported that the system had become a tropical cyclone with the latter naming it as Jasmine while it was located about 420 km ( 260 mi ) to the east of Cairns .
Tracking eastward , Jasmine entered a flow of dry air , which prevented the storm from strengthening quickly at the time . On 5 February , the low – level atmospheric circulation center of Jasmine became exposed due to the presence of strong vertical wind shear . However , the cyclone was able to maintain its intensity due to the existence of an area of moisture over Australia . Throughout the rest of the day , the wind shear subdued , and the system began to organize as convective banding wrapped around the center . As a result , Cyclone Jasmine intensified into the equivalent of a Category 2 on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , sustained for 10 minutes . The next day , Cyclone Jasmine began to track to the east – southeast in response to a strengthening subtropical ridge . The cyclone continued to steadily intensify as convection continued to wrap tightly around the center of Jasmine . At the same time , the storm moved out of the BOM 's area of responsibility and into the area of responsibility of the Fiji Meteorological Service 's ( FMS ) tropical cyclone warning center at Nadi , Fiji ( RSMC Nadi ) .
Late on 7 February , while still tracking to the east – southeast , Jasmine rapidly intensified , with wind speeds increasing to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , sustained for one minute . The cyclone developed a ragged eye stretching 40 km ( 25 mi ) across . Later that day , Jasmine reached its peak intensity as it passed 280 km ( 175 mi ) to the north – northeast of New Caledonia , with wind speeds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 4 cyclone on both the Australian and Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scales ( SSHS ) . Throughout 8 February , Jasmine began to show characteristics of an annular hurricane , maintaining a large , asymmetric eye and rather shallow convective features . In addition , multiple eyewall mesovorticies developed within the eye .
However , Jasmine did not maintain its peak intensity for an extended period of time . By 9 February , the cloud tops surrounding Jasmine began to warm , and thus weakened . In addition , the cyclone began to enter cooler SSTs . Although Jasmine 's convective bands continued to thin out , the cyclone maintained a gradually expanding eyewall and remained a compact system . By 10 February , the eyewall of Cyclone Jasmine measured 95 km ( 60 mi ) in diameter . The next day , the subtropical ridge that had been forcing Jasmine toward the southeast had weakened , and as a result the cyclone began to track east – northeast , toward a weakness in the ridge . The storm continued to disorganize , with its eye later becoming cloud – filled . By the end of 11 February , Jasmine had already weakened to a cyclone with wind speeds of just 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , sustained for one minute , due to the presence of strong vertical wind shear . The low – level circulation center of Jasmine became partly exposed for a period of time on 12 February , before convection redeveloped over the center . As a weakening cyclone , Jasmine only maintained an area of weak convection displaced to its east as it approached Tonga .
On 13 February , convection re @-@ developed and later strengthened over Jasmine 's center of circulation due to the presence of the South Pacific convergence zone and warm SSTs . Cyclone Jasmine was able to attain a secondary peak intensity of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , sustained for one minute , as the system 's banding features became better defined . Due to Jasmine 's position between two anticyclones , the cyclone erratically moved in a loop in the vicinity of Tonga from 14 to 15 February , before moving to the southeast . The system later exited the favorable conditions and moved into an area of strong wind shear once again . Convection became sheared apart and Jasmine 's center of circulation once again became ill – defined and exposed . Late on 15 February , the JTWC issued their last advisory on the system , and on the next day , RSMC Nadi reported that Cyclone Jasmine had degenerated into an extratropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
During its existence , parts of Queensland , the Solomon Islands , Vanuatu , New Caledonia , Fiji and Tonga were affected by Cyclone Jasmine . The name Jasmine was retired from the Australian list of tropical cyclone names after the season by the World Meteorological Organization , and was replaced by the name Jenna .
= = = Queensland = = =
Early in its existence , Jasmine produced numerous rain showers over northern areas of Queensland . Gusty winds in Weipa , Queensland from Jasmine damaged trees on 2 February . A strong rainband associated with the cyclone produced heavy rainfalls over southern parts of Queensland . After Jasmine entered the Coral Sea , a surface trough extending from the cyclone produced rainfall over coastal areas of eastern Australia . In Cairns , Queensland , several roads were closed due to severe weather associated with the cyclone , and trees were uprooted by strong winds . Power lines in the northern suburbs of Cairns were also damaged due to strong winds . Other areas of Queensland recorded rain totals in excess of 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) .
= = = Vanuatu = = =
Prior to Cyclone Jasmine , the Vanuatu National Disaster Management Office was preparing for the cyclone after the storm was forecast to impact the country . The aid agency Oxfam prepared for food and water shortages , using the previous year 's severe weather to gauge potential impacts from Cyclone Jasmine . The Save the Children Fund prepared materials prior to the cyclone that could supply area schools with materials , known as a " school @-@ in @-@ a @-@ box . " People in affected areas were evacuated to care centers prior to the storm .
Within Vanuatu , gale force winds caused damage to crops , houses and water systems . Across the southern islands of Vanuatu , Jasmine impacted the area with winds of 165 km / h ( 103 mph ) . Warnings for maritime activities including small craft warnings were issued for areas offshore the islands . The cyclone produced rough seas at Port Vila , Vanuatu . Damage associated with Jasmine was mostly of agricultural nature , primarily to crops and fruit trees . Casava and banana crops were hampered by the storm , but did not pose any threat to food security . Damage to infrastructure was reported in Tanna , though the island suffered from primarily losses to food crops . Areas that had traditions of not consuming severed crops were especially impacted by the damage to food crops . Water sources in southwest Tanna were destroyed , and other sources were contaminated from mud from runoffs . In addition , three classrooms at Enukas Primary School were destroyed by Jasmine . Aniwa Island also suffered from food damage , especially to banana and manioc crops , as well as orange trees . At Aniwa Airport , high frequency radio services were cut off . Futuna Island was also cut off due to loss of communication . At Dillon 's Bay , one of Erromango 's primary water sources , water became contaminated . In addition , several air strips were closed due to water logging and debris . An aerial and ground damage survey began in the southern areas of the island chain after cyclone effects had subsided .
= = = Solomon Islands = = =
Jasmine caused intense rain showers across the island chain . The Solomon Islands Meteorological Service ( SIMS ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Watch Advisory throughout the day for affected areas . Isabel Province reported damage to kumara vines after three days of rain from the cyclone . Pest infestations also resulted from the rains . Most of the damage in the province resulted from overflowing rivers and inundated gardens . Makira @-@ Ulawa Province also suffered from damaged food gardens . Cocoa bean , coconut , nut , and banana crops and plantations were damaged . In addition , bridges were washed out by flooding . The ship MV Haourosi was grounded in Maro ’ u Bay due to high waves offshore .
= = = Tonga = = =
Jasmine brought heavy rains and flooding to Tonga , which had already been impacted by heavy rains from Cyclone Cyril just a week prior . Power outages occurred across Tonga due to the storm , but power was quickly restored . International and domestic flights in Tonga were disrupted for two days due to Jasmine . Tongatapu suffered from severe flooding . Affected families were sent to evacuation shelters . Some houses reportedly collapsed and fell into creeks due to the flooding . In Nuku 'alofa , a total of 400 people were evacuated . In a 24 – hour period extending from 14 February to 15 February , 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of rain was recorded in Nuku 'alofa , equal to more than half of the city 's average recorded rainfall in the month of February . On Atata Island , a resort was closed for two weeks due to damage sustained from the storm . An offshore South Korean fishing boat sunk during the storm . However , its three crew members were rescued by Tongan police . An additional two fishing boats broke away from Nuku 'alofa Harbor and washed up on a nearby reef . The Tongan Ministry of Health monitored the potential for diseases after the storm , particularly in low – lying areas of the island chain , where septic leakage was a potential health threat .
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= Boy Scouting ( Boy Scouts of America ) =
Boy Scouting is a membership level of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) for boys and young men . It provides youth training in character , citizenship , and mental and personal fitness . Boy Scouts are expected to develop personal religious values , learn the principles of American heritage and government , and acquire skills to become successful adults .
To achieve these , Boy Scouting applies eight methods of Scouting : Ideals ( viz . , the Scout Oath , the Scout Law , the Scout Motto , and the Scout Slogan ) , the patrol method , participation in outdoor programs , advancement , adult association , personal growth , leadership development , and the uniform .
Boy Scouting is generally available to boys between the ages of 10 and eighteen . They are organized in Scout troops , administered by volunteers with support of paid professional staff . Youth and adult members are Scouts , the boys are referred to as Boy Scouts , and the adults as Scouters .
In 1994 , the Chronicle of Philanthropy , an industry publication , released the results of the largest study of charitable and non @-@ profit organization popularity and credibility . The study showed that the Boy Scouts was ranked as the 7th " most popular charity / non @-@ profit in America " of over 100 charities researched with 42 % of Americans over the age of 12 choosing Love and Like A lot for the Boy Scouts .
= = Program and activities = =
The troop program and activities are determined by the senior patrol leader and the patrol leaders council under the oversight of the Scoutmaster . Troops generally hold meetings weekly , although they can be irregular during the summer . Troop meeting activities may vary from training in Scout skills to planning camping trips or playing games .
Troops may plan outings and activities outside the troop meeting . These may involve camping , backpacking , hiking , canoeing , rafting , climbing , caving , rappelling , and other activities . These outings are an important place for Scouts to work on skills and rank advancement , have fun , and engage in productive outdoor activities .
Most councils own and operate one or more permanent camps . These camps may host a variety of activities throughout the year . The summer camp program provides a week @-@ long session for troops that includes merit badge advancement and adventure activities . Facilities may include ranges for shooting sports — archery , rifle , and shotgun — and for climbing and rappelling .
It is common for several troops within a district or council to gather at least once a year at a special weekend campout called a camporee . A camporee is a district- or council @-@ wide event where several units camp and engage in activities , Scoutcraft competitions and learn specialized skills .
The national Scout jamboree usually occurs every four years , and draws more than 30 @,@ 000 Scouts from across the country and the world . The last jamboree took place in 2013 at the BSA 's new property , The Summit in West Virginia . The Summit is to be a permanent place for the Jamboree and an opportunity to construct a new high @-@ adventure base .
= = = Ideals = = =
The Scout Law , Scout Oath , Scout Motto , Scout Slogan , and Outdoor Code are the cornerstones of Boy Scouting . Each Scout learns to make these ideals a part of their way of life and personal growth . Boy Scouts must memorize and understand these ideals . They also represent these ideals symbolically in official emblems .
The Scout Sign is used when giving the Scout Law or the Scout Oath and as a signal for silence . The Scout Salute is used when saluting the flag of the United States . The left @-@ handed handshake is used as a token of friendship and as an identity with Scouts worldwide .
= = = Emblems = = =
Boy Scouting uses a series of medals and patches as emblems . The badge for the Scout rank consists of a simple fleur @-@ de @-@ lis , which symbolizes a compass needle . The needle points the Scout in the right direction , which is onward and upward . The Tenderfoot badge takes the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis of the Scout badge and adds two stars and an eagle with an American shield . The stars symbolize truth and knowledge ; the eagle and shield symbolize freedom and readiness to defend it . The Second Class badge features a scroll inscribed with the Scout Motto , with the ends turned up and a knotted rope hanging from the bottom . The knot reminds each Scout to remember the Scout slogan , and the upturned ends of the scroll symbolize cheerfulness in service . The First Class badge combines the elements of the Tenderfoot and Second Class badges . For years , the First Class badge was used as the emblem of the BSA . Star has a First Class symbol on a five @-@ pointed yellow star , and initially indicated the five merit badges required to earn the rank . Life has a First Class emblem on a red heart , and initially symbolized the first @-@ aid and health @-@ related merit badges that the rank required . Now it signifies that the ideals of Scouting have become a part of the Scout 's life and character .
= = = Uniform and insignia = = =
The uniform and insignia of the Boy Scouts of America gives a Scout visibility and creates a level of identity within both the unit and the community . The uniform is used to promote equality while showing individual achievement . While uniforms are similar in basic design , they do vary in color and detail to identify the different divisions of Cub Scouts , Boy Scouts , Varsity Scouts , Venturers , and Sea Scouts .
Scouts and adult leaders wear the Boy Scout uniform . It generally consists of a khaki button @-@ up shirt , olive green pants or shorts , belt , and neckerchief . The Scouter dress uniform is appropriate for professional Scouters and Scouting leaders on formal occasions .
= = Organization = =
= = = Troop and patrols = = =
The troop is the fundamental unit of Boy Scouting . The troop size can vary from a minimum of five Scouts to several dozen . Each troop is sponsored by a community organization such as a business , service organization , private school , labor group or religious institution . The chartered organization is responsible for providing a meeting place and promoting a good program . A chartered organization representative manages the relationship between the troop , the chartered organization , and the BSA .
Each troop is divided into patrols of eight or so Scouts led by a patrol leader elected from within the patrol . Patrol meetings are generally held during the weekly troop meeting . The patrol 's independence from the troop varies among troops and between activities . Patrols ' autonomy becomes more visible at campouts , where each patrol may set up its own camping and cooking area . Divisions between patrols may disappear during an event which only a small part of the troop attends . Patrols may hold meetings and even excursions separately from the rest of the troop .
Troops mix older and younger Scouts in the same patrols , so that the older boys can teach the younger ones more effectively . When a Webelos den crosses over from Cub Scouting to Boy Scouting , the " new Scout patrol " method may be used . The new Boy Scouts are kept together as a group , elect their own patrol leader , and are assigned a troop guide — an older Scout who acts as a mentor .
Some troops establish Venture patrols as an optional program for boys thirteen through seventeen years old . Venture patrols experience more autonomy from the troop than ordinary patrols , and provide older Scouts with expanded social contact and physical challenges . The Venture patrol is guided by the assistant Scoutmaster @-@ Venture who is responsible for Venture patrol activities . Venture patrol members wear the standard Boy Scout uniform with the Venture strip over the right pocket . Patrol members are Boy Scouts and should never be referred to as Venture Scouts .
= = = Other sections = = =
The Lone Scout program serves boys who cannot take part in a nearby troop on a regular basis because of distance , weather , time , disability , or other difficulties . While the Scout does not participate in troop or patrol activities , he does learn the fun , values , and achievements of Scouting .
Varsity Scouting is part of the Boy Scouting division of the BSA . It is an alternative available to boys ages fourteen through seventeen that takes basic Boy Scouting and adds high adventure , sporting , and other elements that are more appealing to older youth to accomplish the aims of character development , citizenship training , and personal fitness . Varsity Scouts are organized into teams , which are separate chartered units from a Boy Scout troop . Varsity Scouts participate in the standard Boy Scouting advancement program along with programs unique to Varsity Scouting .
The Order of the Arrow ( OA ) is a program of the Boy Scout division of the BSA . It is the BSA 's national honor society for experienced campers , based on Native American traditions , and dedicated to the ideal of cheerful service . Scouts and Scouters must belong to a troop or team to become OA members . The OA is run by youths under the age of 21 with adult Scouters serving as advisers .
= = Advancement and recognition = =
= = = Youth advancement = = =
Boy Scouts has seven ranks , grouped into two phases . The first phase of Scout , Tenderfoot , Second Class , and First Class is designed to teach the boy Scoutcraft skills , teamwork , and self @-@ reliance . Scout is the first rank , awarded when a boy first joins the Scouts , and requires just a rudimentary knowledge of Scouting 's ideals . Further ranks have progressive requirements in the areas of Scoutcraft , physical fitness , citizenship , personal growth , and Scout Spirit . Scouts with a permanent mental or physical disability may use alternate requirements , based on their abilities and approved by the council .
The second phase of Star , Life , and Eagle is designed to develop leadership skills and encourage the Scout to explore potential vocations and avocations through the merit badge program . These ranks require that the boy serve in a position of responsibility and perform community service .
The Eagle Scout requires , in addition to merit badges and a position of responsibility , a community service project planned and led entirely by the Eagle Scout candidate . After attaining the rank of Eagle , a Scout may earn Eagle Palms for additional tenure and merit badges .
Although Eagle is the highest rank , for which Scouts should strive , the number of Scouts achieving First Class within one year of joining is still one of the key measures of unit effectiveness . Studies have shown that if a Scout achieves First Class within a year of joining , he typically stays in Scouting for at least three years . Scouts who do so are more likely to retain Scout values as an adult and achieve the BSA primary mission of " producing useful citizens " .
Ranks and other recognitions are presented in a troop awards ceremony called the court of honor . The Eagle Scout rank is usually presented in a separate and special court of honor .
= = = Adult recognition = = =
Boy Scout leaders who complete training , tenure , and performance requirements are recognized by a system of awards . The Scouters Training Award is available to leaders , while the Scouter 's Key and Scoutmaster Award of Merit are only available to the Scoutmaster . The pinnacle of Scout leader training is Wood Badge , for which successful participants receive a special neckerchief , woggle and wooden beads on a thong .
= = = Awards = = =
Several religious emblems programs are administered by various religious institutions and recognized by the BSA . These are generally recognized by a medal and an embroidered square knot . Other advancement and recognitions — such as the 50 @-@ miler award , Crime Prevention Awards , Emergency Preparedness Award and World Conservation Award — are available to Scouts who show proficiency in special areas . BSA 's National Court of Honor is responsible for lifesaving and meritorious awards . All Courts of Honor for Eagle Scout rank are convened as National Courts of Honor also .
= = Leadership in the troop = =
Every troop has two separate leadership structures : one consisting of Scouts and another consisting of adults . The adult leadership manages the logistics of troop activities , administers rank advancement and awards , maintains troop records and finance , and recruits new Scouts and adult leaders . The youth leadership keeps order and coordinates labor at activities . Scouts and adults cooperate to plan agendas for troop meetings , as well as the troop 's schedule of outings .
= = = Adult leadership = = =
The troop committee is made up of responsible adults who are approved by the local council and the chartered organization . The committee chairman leads the committee and appoints its members to specific tasks such as treasurer , secretary , advancement , activities , equipment and membership . The committee and the chartered organization representative are responsible for the selection of the Scoutmaster and assistant Scoutmasters . The Scoutmaster must be at least twenty @-@ one and is directly responsible for training and guiding the boy leaders , working with other adults to bring Scouting to boys , and for using the methods of Scouting to achieve the aims of Scouting . A troop may have a chaplain who helps to provide a spiritual element in the unit program , provides spiritual counseling as needed , and encourage Scouts to participate in the religious emblems program .
= = = Youth leadership = = =
The youth leader of the troop is the senior patrol leader ( SPL ) , elected by the Scouts in the troop . He is responsible for the overall performance of the troop , runs troop meetings and ensures that the program for troop meetings and other activities is carried out . He is advised by the Scoutmaster . There may also be one or more assistant senior patrol leaders . Each patrol elects a patrol leader who then appoints an assistant patrol leader and other positions within the patrol . Together , the senior patrol leader , assistant senior patrol leader and patrol leaders make up the patrol leaders council ( PLC ) , the group of Scouts that is responsible for developing the troop 's program with the advice of the Scoutmaster .
There are other youth positions of responsibility in a troop ; the use of these positions is dependent on the size of the troop and the program . The junior assistant Scoutmaster ( JASM ) is a 16- or 17 @-@ year @-@ old Scout who performs the same duties as an assistant Scoutmaster ; the scribe takes minutes at patrol leaders council meetings and troop meetings and is often responsible for taking attendance and collecting money or dues ; the quartermaster maintains the troop 's equipment ; the librarian maintains the troop library ; the chaplain aide works with the troop chaplain and promotes the religious program in the troop ; the troop historian maintains photos and records of troop functions , meetings and outings ; a den chief works with a den of Cub Scouts , assisting the den leaders and helps retain Cub Scouts when they cross over into Boy Scouts ; the troop guide is a senior Scout who provides guidance to new Scout patrols ; the Leave No Trace Coordinator ensures the Scouts are trained in and follow Leave No Trace Guidelines ; the Order of the Arrow representative provides a line of communication between the Order of the Arrow and the troop ; the bugler provides music as needed ; the instructor teaches Scout skills . These troop positions are appointed by the senior patrol leader with the advice and counsel of the Scoutmaster , except for the Junior Assistant Scoutmaster , who is appointed by the Scoutmaster .
= = = Development = = =
The BSA has a defined Youth Leadership Training Continuum to provide a growth path for youth leaders . The Scoutmaster provides Troop Leadership Training ( TLT ) at the troop level . Youth leaders are encouraged to attend National Youth Leadership Training ( NYLT ) at the council level and a select few may progress to National Advanced Youth Leadership Experience ( NAYLE ) at the national level . Those interested in staffing these courses may complete the Youth Staff Development Course ( YSDC ) at the regional level .
New adult leaders are encouraged to attend training for their position . Completion of such training becomes mandatory for Scoutmasters in January 2011 and for Assistant Scoutmasters in January 2012 . This training provides the essential information they need to provide a safe and successful quality program . Fast Start Training is the introduction for adult leaders new to the Boy Scout program ; it is self pace and provided as a video or online . " This is Scouting " is common online core training for adult leaders in BSA and gives an overview of the Scouting .
Youth Protection Training ( YPT ) covers the BSA policies on preventing child abuse , including types and signs of abuse , how to respond to disclosed abuse and how to report suspected abuse . All Adult leaders are required to complete the Youth Protection Program before becoming registered . YPT re certification is required every two years . At least one person with current YPT certification must be preset on outings .
Scoutmasters and assistants should then attend Scoutmaster and Assistant Scoutmaster Specific Training and Introduction to Outdoor Leader Skills for further instruction in Scouting and outdoor skills . This completes Basic Leader Training for these positions and the Trained emblem may be worn . The troop committee chairman and members should attend the Troop Committee Challenge for instruction in administering the program . This completes Basic Leader Training for these positions and the Trained emblem may be worn .
Supplemental training modules are designed to provide orientation beyond Basic Leader Training . These shorter training sessions are often provided at the Roundtable , a monthly meeting of leaders from the district , at a University of Scouting offered by the local councils , and at National Training Conferences held at the Philmont Training Center and the Florida National High Adventure Sea Base .
At least one leader with current Safe Swim Defense training is required for swimming activities . Boating activities require Safety Afloat and CPR training . Climb On Safely training and CPR certification are required for climbing and rappelling events .
Wood Badge is advanced training for leadership skills for adults in the BSA . Wood Badge consists of six days of training ( usually presented as two three @-@ day weekends ) and an application phase of several months . When training is complete , leaders are recognized with the Wood Badge beads , neckerchief , and woggle . Powder Horn is a high adventure resource course designed to help Scout leaders to safely conduct outdoor activities of a fun and challenging nature , provide an introduction to the resources necessary to successfully lead their youth through a program of high adventure and to understand what is involved in different high adventure disciplines .
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= A Night in Sickbay =
" A Night In Sickbay " is the thirty @-@ first episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the fifth episode of season two . It first aired on October 16 , 2002 on the UPN network within the United States . The episode was written by executive producers Brannon Braga and Rick Berman , and directed by David Straiton .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , after visiting the planet Kreetassa , Captain Archer 's ( Scott Bakula ) dog Porthos falls ill with an unknown pathogen . Archer stays overnight in sickbay to look after his dog with Doctor Phlox ( John Billingsley ) knowing that afterwards he must take part in an elaborate apology display to the Kreetassans .
The episode featured Vaughn Armstrong , who reprised his role of the Kreetassan Captain from the episode " Vox Sola " . Several scenes also proved challenging for the main dog actor who portrayed Porthos , who was named Breezy . She was required to lie still for long periods , jump into Bakula 's arms on command and also act on her own whilst her trainer was not on set . Berman compared the relationship between Archer and Phlox to The Odd Couple , saying that the episode was " a lot of fun " . The episode was nominated for the 2003 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( short form ) and received the highest Nielsen ratings for any episode of Enterprise during season two at that point . However , the critical reception was mixed .
= = Plot = =
After a five @-@ day away mission spent apologising on the planet Kreetassa , the away team consisting of Captain Archer , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol , Ensign Sato , and Archer 's dog , Porthos , return to the ship to decontaminate . Porthos has acquired a pathogen on the planet surface and must be quarantined . Archer learns from Commander Tucker of the ship 's need for an extra plasma injector from the Kreetassans , but negotiations break down after it is discovered that Porthos had urinated on a sacred tree , insulting the Kreetassans . Archer reacts poorly to the news and is given a list of requirements he must meet in order to apologise .
He and Doctor Phlox then tend to Porthos , and Archer spends the night in Sickbay to be with his pet . Throughout the night , as Porthos ' immune system weakens , Archer experiences Phlox 's side of life in Sickbay . During the night , as he dreams of Porthos ' funeral , Archer also deals with unresolved and suppressed sexual tension with T 'Pol . He also relates to Phlox how he met Porthos , and how he was the last in a litter of four male puppies , the ' Four Musketeers ' . Through it all , Archer struggles to reach an emotional understanding with Phlox and T 'Pol , as the two alien senior @-@ crew members have little grasp of the human @-@ pet relationship , and Phlox keeps offering Archer unsolicited advice about dealing with his apparent feelings for T 'Pol .
T 'Pol , working out in the gym , also keeps urging Archer to apologize to the Kreetassans for Porthos ' behavior , but Archer resists because he blames them for Porthos ' illness . In the end , Porthos recovers following a pituitary transplant from an alien chameleon . Finally swallowing his pride , Archer then goes down to the Kreetassan capital and delivers an intricate ritual apology which involves slicing a tree trunk with a chainsaw , arranging the pieces of wood in a complex pattern on the ground , and chanting phrases in the Kreetassan language . Having successfully apologised to the Kreetassans , the crew finally manage to procure three plasma injectors prior to their departure .
= = Production = =
Executive producers Rick Berman and Brannon Braga had worked together to write a series of episodes for Star Trek : Enterprise , with " A Night in Sickbay " amongst them . Berman originally described the episode as a press junket when talking about season two at an event held by UPN for the Television Critics Association . He said it was a " very humorous episode that has our good captain going and spending some time in sickbay , because his dog gets sick . He moves into sickbay the same way a mother will move into the hospital when her child gets sick , and it ends up being an ' Odd Couple ' kind of an episode between the captain and Dr. Phlox . It 's a lot of fun . " Bakula also explained in an interview with the website TrekWeb that the episode featured Archer 's dog Porthos as a background character and that it was also about Archer spending a night in sickbay with Phlox . He said that this meant that the viewer will " find out a lot of stuff about [ Phlox ] that we may not have wanted to know ; like what he does when he 's in his off hours ... he has things to cut and trim ! " Billingsley said later that he enjoyed working with Bakula on this episode and called " A Night in Sickbay " one of his favourites .
The episode was directed by David Straiton , who had previously directed " Desert Crossing " . The shoot took six and a half days , which concluded on August 8 , 2002 . " A Night in Sickbay " was intended to be a low @-@ cost episode as the majority of scenes required only the use of the standing sets for the series . The only credited guest star in " A Night in Sickbay " was Vaughn Armstrong , who played the Kreetassan Captain once again . Armstrong is better known for his recurring role in Enterprise as Admiral Maxwell Forrest , but had previously played the Kreetassan Captain in the first season episode " Vox Sola " . In order to appear as the Captain , some three and a half hours of make @-@ up time was required , with the actor needed to arrive to have his make @-@ up applied at 5 : 30am for his one day of shooting . Armstrong appeared in a variety of different roles in several different Star Trek programs , dating back to the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one episode " Heart of Glory " . Other make @-@ up effects during this instalment of Enterprise included a pair of prosthetic feet for Dr. Phlox , although other effects for the character were added in post @-@ production .
= = = Porthos = = =
There were two Beagles portraying Porthos , who were supplied by Performing Animal Troupe , an animal supply company for film and television . These dogs included a female Beagle called Breezy , who was the main dog actor who played Porthos during season two . Breezy was the original double for male dog actor Prada who appeared in the first season episodes of Enterprise up until " Two Days and Two Nights " , when Breezy became the main dog . She had also previously appeared as Lou in the 2001 film Cats & Dogs .
More than one scene proved problematic for Breezy during the filming of the episode , as the decontamination room set was an enclosed four wall set , meaning that in the scene where Archer rubs down Porthos with decontamination gel , Breezy 's trainer Scott Rowe couldn 't be on the set with her . Normally he would have been behind the camera assisting the director by ensuring the dog is looking wherever the scene required . He hoped that with him off the set , that Breezy would look where required and not directly at the camera . In order to prepare for the scene where Porthos leaps out of an immersion tank and into Archer 's arms , Rowe had a mock @-@ up created so he could practice it with Breezy . He said that " By the time we went into it on that one day to prep on set with Scott , she was jumping out of it into my arms , but I had to make sure that she 's going to jump out and do it into Scott 's arms . " In the final scene , not only did Breezy leap into Bakula 's arms , but she also licked him repeatedly on the face . This wasn 't due to training , but because they wiped food on Bakula 's face .
A further challenge for the dog actor was to lie still in an isolation tank and not move even when petted by Bakula or Billingsley during some long scenes whilst on screen . At times a stunt dog was used , but Breezy was required for any close @-@ ups . A prosthetic Beagle was also created for the scenes in the isolation tank and to be submersed in a super @-@ hydration tank . The prop was created by Joel Harlow , who had also created make @-@ up designs for the television series Carnivàle and the film The Chronicles of Riddick .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" A Night in Sickbay " was first aired in the United States on the UPN network on October 16 , 2002 . It received Nielsen ratings of a 3 @.@ 9 / 6 percentage share among all adults , including 6 percent of all adults watching television at the time of the broadcast . Although overnight figures had shown a slight decrease from the previous episode , the final numbers showed that the ratings were the highest seen so far during season two and the third week of increased ratings for Enterprise in succession . This meant that 6 @.@ 26 million viewers watched the episode , an increase of 860 @,@ 000 viewers from the previous week 's episode , making it the highest viewed episode since season one 's " Sleeping Dogs " . Alexander Chase at USA Today said the numbers " confirm a ratings turnaround for the newest Trek series " . The episode placed Enterprise fourth in a list of the most highly rated science fiction / fantasy shows on television for that week , behind Alias , Smallville , and John Doe .
The review by " Herc " for the website Ain 't It Cool News , praised the story about how Porthos was named and the elements of sexual tension between Archer and T 'Pol . However , he didn 't think the Odd Couple type relationship between Archer and Phlox worked all the time with some misfires amongst the comedic elements . He gave the episode a rating of three out of five , describing it as " actually worth your valuable time " . Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for TrekNation , saying that she enjoyed the episode on the whole and enjoyed the characterisation . However , she criticised the non @-@ moving Beagle prop as it made her son think the dog was dead , which was then followed by " what looks like a drowned dog in formaldehyde " . Jamahl Epsicokhan reviewed the episode for his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , giving it a score of one out of four . He called it " easily the dumbest concept for an episode of Star Trek since Voyager 's holodeck was hijacked by the residents of Fair Haven " . He felt that the episode made a mockery out of the characters and that some of the situations they were placed in were just ridiculous .
The episode was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( short form ) at the 2003 awards alongside " Carbon Creek " and episodes of Buffy the Vampire Slayer , Angel , and Firefly . The award went to the Buffy episode " Conversations with Dead People " .
The first home media release of " A Night in Sickbay " was part of the season two DVD box set , released in the United States on August 7 , 2005 . The release featured deleted scenes from the episode as well as a special feature on the episode entitled " Inside A Night in Sickbay " . A release on Blu @-@ ray Disc for season two occurred on August 20 , 2013 .
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= Lyman Linde =
Lyman Gilbert Linde ( September 30 , 1920 – October 24 , 1995 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for the Cleveland Indians in the American League for two seasons . In four career games , Linde pitched 10 ⅔ innings and had a 6 @.@ 75 earned run average ( ERA ) .
Born and raised in Wisconsin , Linde first played professionally with the Green Bay Bluejays . After a season with them , he enlisted in the armed forces for World War II , and joined the Greenville Spinners upon his return to baseball . During the next two seasons he spent some time with the Cleveland Indians , but mainly remained with the Indians ' minor league teams . After a year each in Oklahoma City , Baltimore , and San Diego , he spent the last four years of his career pitching for the Portland Beavers . He retired at the end of the 1953 season and died in 1995 .
= = Early life = =
Linde attended high school at Beaver Dam High School in Beaver Dam , Wisconsin . While there , he played basketball as well as baseball , and was part of the state champion Beaver Dam High School basketball team in 1937 . After graduating , he played amateur baseball in Wisconsin for several years . In a state amateur baseball tournament in 1941 , Linde , representing the Beaver Dam Beavers , pitched a one @-@ hitter to help lead his team to a 9 – 1 win over the representatives from Fond du Lac County , Wisconsin . Linde attended the University of Wisconsin @-@ Madison on and off between 1939 and 1947 .
= = Minor leagues = =
Linde 's first taste of minor league action came in 1942 , when he signed with the Green Bay Bluejays of the Wisconsin State League . His performances that season included a near @-@ no @-@ hitter that was lost in the ninth inning in a 5 – 2 victory over the Fond du Lac Panthers . Linde was also given the most valuable player award for a week in July after a pitching performance , also against Fond du Lac , in which he struck out 14 batters in a 5 – 0 shutout victory . He finished the season with 13 wins , eight losses , and a 2 @.@ 91 ERA in 22 pitching appearances . After the season ended , the league folded temporarily , and Linde enlisted with the United States Army Air Forces to serve in World War II .
After returning from military service , Linde joined the Greenville Spinners , the Chicago White Sox minor league affiliate of the Sally League . He tried out for the Milwaukee Brewers , but was unable to make the team , and as a result was sent to Greenville to gain experience . Linde pitched in 29 games for the Spinners . In those 29 games , he had ten wins , eight losses , a 3 @.@ 50 ERA , and 121 innings pitched . After the conclusion of the season , in early November , Linde was drafted by the Cleveland Indians in the rule 5 draft .
The following season , Linde pitched for the Oklahoma City Indians , the Indians minor league affiliate of the Texas League . He spent most of the season with Oklahoma City , and in a pitching appearance in August , threw a no @-@ hitter and narrowly missed pitching a perfect game . In 32 appearances for Oklahoma City , Linde won 14 games , lost 13 , and had an ERA of 2 @.@ 85 in 202 innings pitched . At the end of the minor league season , Linde was called up to the Indians ' major league roster along with Ernest Groth in order to build up the end of the bullpen .
= = Cleveland Indians and Portland = =
Linde made his major league debut with the Indians on September 11 , 1947 , which ended up being his only appearance of the season . In that one appearance , he pitched ⅔ of an inning and allowed two earned run , finishing the game and season with an ERA of 27 @.@ 00 . During the off @-@ season , Linde played basketball with the Olo Soaps , a team located in his native Beaver Dam . He took part in spring training with the rest of the Indians roster for the 1948 Cleveland Indians season . In late March , however , he was struck on the chin from a line drive hit by Indians manager Lou Boudreau , causing him to be sidelined for several days . By the end of spring training , Linde remained a part of the Indians roster . He pitched three games for the Indians early on in 1948 , pitching ten innings , allowing six earned runs and finishing the season with a 5 @.@ 40 ERA . After three games , he was demoted to the Baltimore Orioles of the International League . He spent the rest of the 1948 season as a starting pitcher for Baltimore . His performances included a one @-@ hit victory in his first appearance for the club . Linde finished the season with a 5 – 9 record and a 4 @.@ 50 ERA .
Linde spent 1949 with the San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) . He tried to earn a spot with the Indians during spring training but was unable to . He spent the season as a starting pitcher for San Diego , and threw three shutouts over the course of the season , allowing only three hits to the Los Angeles Angels in his third one . He finished the season with a 14 – 15 record in 35 pitching appearances ( 32 starts ) , a 4 @.@ 41 ERA , 105 strikeouts , and 226 ⅓ innings pitched . He brought the Padres to the playoffs , and pitched in game six of the championship against the Hollywood Stars , where he earned the 8 – 4 loss as the Stars won the PCL pennant and the Governors ' Cup .
At the start of the 1950 season , Linde signed a new contract with the Indians , but was released in February and sent to the Portland Beavers in the PCL . Over the course of the season , Linde won 5 games and lost 13 in 47 appearances , 18 of them starts , and amassed an ERA of 4 @.@ 66 . The following year , in 1951 , Linde became a regular starter on the team , and before the end of April he had won as many games as he had won all of last year . He finished the season with a 12 – 12 record and a 4 @.@ 29 ERA in 32 starts . In 1952 , Linde remained part of the core starting rotation of the past couple years alongside Red Adams and Marino Pieretti . His performances included one against the Angels in which Linde kept the team to five hits as the Beavers won 4 – 3 in 11 innings . He won 11 games , lost 15 , threw 119 strikeouts , and brought his ERA down to 3 @.@ 10 in 41 season appearances , 28 of them starts . In 1953 , Linde started the season strong unlike his fellow pitchers , opening his season with a 2 – 1 victory against the Angels on April 3 . In early May , he ended Ted Beard 's streak of hitting safely in 12 straight at @-@ bats , which tied the PCL record at the time . Shortly afterward , Linde won what was considered an odd performance as he allowed 15 hits and 20 runners on base , yet won a game against the Sacramento Solons 8 – 3 . In his final professional season , Linde pitched in 36 games and finished with a 13 – 10 record and a 3 @.@ 36 ERA .
= = Later life = =
After the 1953 season , Linde retired from baseball to tend to his wife , who was seriously ill . He died in Beaver Dam on October 24 , 1995 .
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= James Morris III =
James Morris III ( ( 1752 @-@ 01 @-@ 19 ) January 19 , 1752 – April 20 , 1820 ( 1820 @-@ 04 @-@ 20 ) ) was a Continental Army officer from Connecticut during the American Revolutionary War and founder of the Morris Academy , a pioneer in coeducation .
Born in Litchfield County , Connecticut , James Morris spent his early life hoping and training to be a minister . However , after graduating from Yale College , Morris accepted a commission of First Lieutenant from the Continental Army and joined the fight for American Independence . Morris was captured during the Battle of Germantown and spent most of the remaining war in captivity . Upon his release , Morris was promoted to the rank of Captain and supported Alexander Hamilton in the Siege of Yorktown . When he returned from the war , Morris began and ran an academy that trained both boys and girls together , a rarity at the time .
James Morris died in 1820 . In 1859 , Morris 's hometown of South Farms , Connecticut was renamed Morris in his honor .
= = Early life and education = =
James Morris was born to Deacon James Morris Jr. and Phebe Barns Morris in South Farms , Connecticut on January 19 , 1752 .
Even as a young man , Morris displayed a disposition for education , borrowing often from the library in nearby Bethlehem , where his father was a member . Through these studies , Morris hoped to eventually become a minister . When Morris was eighteen , his father sent him to live full @-@ time in Bethlehem and study under Dr. Joseph Bellamy . Morris continued with Bellamy until the spring of 1770 , when he spent the season studying under the South Farms minister Dr. Salmon Hurlburt . That fall Morris found yet another instructor in Mr. Nathan Hale , saying of him , " Mr. Hale was an accurate scholar and an able instructor . "
In September 1771 , Morris began more formal studies at Yale College . For his tutor at Yale , Morris was assigned future Yale president Timothy Dwight IV , who would be an influential force in coeducation in his own right . Morris was awarded his degree in July , 1775 , noting in his memoirs , " having had my share of honorary appointments . "
Upon graduation Morris returned to South Farms , where he helped his father with the harvest and took a post teaching grammar school in nearby Litchfield , where he received his first opportunity to teach and was paid " ' handsome wages ' hoping to reimburse his father for the heavy expenses of his college education . "
= = The War = =
= = = Commission and early service = = =
Morris 's tenure as an instructor in Litchfield was cut short when , within months of arriving , he received an unsolicited ensign 's commission in the Connecticut militia , which he accepted . While in the service of the Connecticut militia Morris saw his first action , fighting battles in both Long Island and White Plains . In his memoirs , Morris wrote of this time , stating that " The soldiers universally manifested a great respect for me , for my care of the sick and my attention to their wants , and for my sympathies in their distresses . "
In late December 1776 , Morris completed his commitment to the Connecticut militia and immediately accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a first lieutenant . After serving as a recruiting officer in Litchfield , Morris joined General George Washington and the army at Peekskill . On October 3 , 1776 , General Washington commanded this army in the Battle of Germantown . The American forces were ultimately unsuccessful in this battle and Morris was taken as a prisoner of war on October 4 , 1776 .
= = = Captivity = = =
The early part of Morris 's confinement were the most trying . He was taken to the " New Jail " in Philadelphia where he " was locked in a cold room ... destitute of everything by cold stone walls and bare floors — no kind of a seat to sit on — all total darkness , no water to drink or a morsel to eat ; without a blanket to cover [ him ] . "
Despite his meager accommodations , Morris decided to make the best of his imprisonment in Philadelphia by negotiating with his jailors to borrow books from the so @-@ called circulating library recently established by Benjamin Franklin in that city . One historian points to this time as when Morris was exposed to the philosophers that would be so influential in his later life as an educator : " From Milton , James Morris absorbed ideas in favor of healthy exercises to develop both body and mind at the same time ; from Rollin , the danger of following custom blindly rather than reason ; and form Locke , the novel idea that the English language was as important as Latin and Greek . "
In May 1778 , Morris convinced his captors to admit him to parole and was sent to Flatbush , Long Island , where he stayed with a Mr. Clarkson . In his memoir , Morris noted that Clarkson was " a man of science and large property , ... who owned the most extensive private library that [ Morris ] had ever known in the United States . " While still in captivity Morris found this situation rather comfortable and took every advantage of the library he so admired .
On January 3 , 1781 , Morris was freed as part of a prisoner exchange .
= = = Post @-@ release = = =
Upon his release , Morris returned to Peekskill where he discovered that he had been promoted to the rank of captain while in the custody of the British . Morris commanded a company back to White Plains until he received orders to head south to Virginia . Upon arrival , Morris 's company , under the overall command of General George Washington , aided in Siege of Yorktown , the last major battle of the American Revolution . Specifically , Morris 's company of light infantry provided support to the forlorn hope commanded by Colonel Alexander Hamilton .
= = Post @-@ war = =
James Morris returned to South Farms in December 1781 . Days after his return , on December 20 , he married Elizabeth Hubbard . Shortly thereafter , the people of South Farms made Morris both the Justice of the Peace and a Selectman . In the summer of 1782 Morris briefly returned to service , but was ultimately released from service in November of that year .
In the following years James and Elizbeth had five children :
Abigail Morris ( b . 8 / 2 / 1783 )
James Morris , IV ( b . 12 / 4 / 1784 ) : 1803 Yale graduate , Tutor of the University of Georgia , Head of the Academy in Sunbry , Georga .
Reuben Smith Morris ( b . 5 / 24 / 1786 ) : 1804 Yale graduate , attorney in Cayuga , New York .
Samuel Hubbard Morris ( b . 2 / 6 / 1788 ) ( d . 12 / 22 / 1793 )
Robert Hubbard Morris ( b . 7 / 25 / 1789 ) : " endowed with ' good academic education , ' " settled at Cayuga . "
In between the birth of James and Reuben , Morris became severely ill . During his illness , a man named Gad Farnam moved into the Morris 's home to care for him day and night . The two families became very close and Gad 's daughter Rhoda , only five years old at the time of the illness , later became Morris 's second wife . It was at this point in Morris 's life that he accepted that he would never realize his early dream of becoming a minister .
= = The Morris Academy = =
By 1790 , it had become common for children to come to Morris 's house for instruction and access to his library . Morris welcomed all of these students , both male and female . Morris 's coeducation caused some stir within the community when some claimed that his education of women was " ' blowing up their pride ' so that ' they would feel themselves above their mates and they would feel above labour . ' " In 1794 , these frustrations were brought to fruition when a hearing was held in the church . The charges were dismissed and the publicity from the controversy brought so much attention , that , by 1803 , he had instructed students " from all the New England States except Rhode Island , and from the States of New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Maryland , Virginia , South Carolina and Georgia . Also from the Island of St. Thomas in the West Indies , and from the Island of Bermuda . "
By the turn of the century , Morris found it necessary to formalize his instruction and construct a proper Academy building . The estimated cost was $ 1200 , so Morris enlisted wealthy residents of Litchfield and South Farms .
On November 28 , 1803 , The Morris Academy moved out of James Morris 's home and into the brand new building . For the period from 1803 to 1812 , the Morris Academy grew to an average of 50 @-@ 75 students .
The Academy was handed to several other heads of school , until , on April 12 , 1888 , the Morris Academy was closed for good .
In the introduction to her book on the academy , Barbara Nolen Strong noted :
The Morris Academy is entitled to be called a pioneer institution because of its ' open door ' policy in coeducation . It was not the first in the United States , not even in Connecticut , but none of the other early academies opened their doors as wide and kept them open as long . No other coeducational academy spread its influence so far .
= = Later life = =
In September 1814 Morris 's wife Elizabeth died . The following March , Morris married Rhonda Farnam and the marriage bore two children .
Jane Elizabeth Morris ( b . 1 / 30 / 1816 )
Timothy Dwight Morris ( b . 11 / 22 / 1817 )
During the " second war with Great Britain " , at the age of 61 , Morris was commissioned as a First Major of the Second Regiment of Volunteers in the State of Connecticut .
Toward the end of his life , Morris compiled his memoirs , which were subsequently published as Memoirs of James Morris of South Farms In Litchfield .
James Morris died on April 20 , 1820 and was buried in the graveyard at what is now commonly referred to as the East Morris cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
In June , 1859 , South Farms was incorporated as Morris , Connecticut in his honor .
The James Morris Museum is located in the center of the town of Morris and contains original artifacts and writings of James Morris .
The foundation of The Morris Academy remains intact on the grounds of James Morris Elementary School , in Morris .
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= Arbogast & Bastian =
Arbogast & Bastian ( also A & B Meats ) was the name of a slaughterhouse and meat packing plant located in Allentown , Lehigh County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . Once a national leader in hog slaughtering , the company had the capacity to process most of the 850 @,@ 000 hogs raised annually in Pennsylvania for slaughtering . In its heyday , Arbogast & Bastian slaughtered an average of 4 @,@ 000 hogs daily .
Arbogast & Bastian , which was founded in 1887 , operated for nearly one hundred years before filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1984 , citing cash flow issues brought about by market turmoil and labor disputes . The company filed Chapter 7 bankruptcy the following year .
With the sole exception of the company 's offices , the Arbogast & Bastian plant was demolished in the late 1990s . These surviving offices were later incorporated into the America On Wheels museum , which was opened on the site of the former Arbogast & Bastian plant in 2008 .
= = History = =
The Arbogast & Bastian Company was founded in 1887 by Wilson Arbogast and Morris Clinton Bastian . Arbogast , who was born in Freeburg , Snyder County , Pennsylvania , in 1851 , was a school teacher by training who entered the wholesale provisioning business in the early 1880s in Phillipsburg , New Jersey . Bastian , who was born in Lower Macungie Township , Lehigh County , Pennsylvania , in 1859 , operated a general store in Allentown .
The two partners built a two story building and stable at 25 Hamilton Street in Allentown , purchased two horses , and started supplying provisions and lard to local businesses and distributors . They used their building as a smoke house , and offered " freshly @-@ smoked " hams and bacon that were prepared using meat purchased ready @-@ cured from other suppliers . Ready @-@ cured meat is that which , after slaughter and butchery , has been treated by curing in order to prevent the growth of bacteria and to reduce the opportunity for botulism to grow , allowing for much safer transport and storage . This grew into a strong business for Arbogast & Bastian , as previously these goods had to be imported from larger cities , such as New York City and Philadelphia , and suffered in freshness and quality because of the additional time and handling required to get the finished product to Allentown .
In 1890 , the company added a hog slaughtering department , in order to offer fresh pork and sausages to their customers . The capacity of the plant increased from 150 hogs per week at inception , to over 1 @,@ 500 hogs per week in 1905 . Pork brands offered included " Pure Home Rendered Lard " and " Old Dutch " hams and bacon . With their venture in pork successful , Arbogast & Bastian soon expanded in a similar manner with beef , lamb , and mutton , first by purchasing ready @-@ cured meat from suppliers in the West to learn the trade , then by building a full @-@ scale abbatoir and cold @-@ storage facilities on @-@ site . By 1905 , the company was processing over 150 head of cattle , and a similar number of lambs and sheep , weekly .
Arbogast & Bastian Company was formally incorporated in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , with $ 200 @,@ 000 in capital ( $ 5 @.@ 47 million in 2016 dollars , adjusted for inflation ) , on June 19 , 1902 . The additional capital raised by the corporation was used to purchase more land and to build larger refrigeration facilities and a power plant . By 1905 , Arbogast & Bastian 's revenues exceeded $ 1 million per year ( $ 26 @.@ 3 million in 2016 dollars , adjusted for inflation . )
The large Arbogast & Bastian facility now occupied a prominent location at Hamilton and Front streets in Allentown , along the Lehigh River . The facility received livestock and transported goods via tracks run to the plant by the Lehigh Valley Railroad . On July 14 , 1905 , a large fire destroyed the original Arbogast & Bastian plant and the company rebuilt a larger , more modern facility . It was the first reinforced concrete meat packing plant in the United States . The Arbogast & Bastian plant , which allowed for more sanitary and safer operations , was designed and built in direct response to the unsanitary conditions in Chicago 's meat packing plants exposed by Upton Sinclair in his book , The Jungle , which led to the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 .
During World War II , 70 percent of Arbogast & Bastian 's output went to the United States armed forces and through the Lend @-@ Lease program to the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union , China , France and other Allied nations . By 1973 , Arbogast & Bastian had 700 employees processing 160 million pounds ( 73 million kg ) of meat a year , and the company had the capacity to butcher 7 @,@ 200 hogs and 1 @,@ 000 cattle a week .
Arbogast & Bastian filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on May 11 , 1984 , citing cash flow issues brought about by " two years of turbulent market conditions in the pork industry , " a labor dispute with the Teamsters labor union and the recent shutdown of A & B 's slaughtering operations . The bankruptcy was immediately triggered because one of the company 's customers had issued a stop @-@ payment on $ 800 @,@ 000 worth of checks paid to Arbogast & Bastian . The firm 's financial woes were further complicated by four large meat packing companies - Pork Cutters , Inc . , Rotches Pork Packers , Inc . , Otto Doerrer and Son , Inc. and Crissman , Inc . - who collectively failed to pay for nearly $ 5 million worth of pork carcasses and meat products purchased from Arbogast & Bastian in 1983 and 1984 , according to charges made by the United States Department of Agriculture . In total , about 380 workers lost their jobs . Within months of filing for bankruptcy , Purity Bacon Products Corp. , one of A & B 's most profitable divisions , was sold for $ 1 million to an investor group led by Richard A. Strouce , the president of Arbogast & Bastian at the time it filed for bankruptcy .
The corporation filed for Chapter 7 liquidation on January 9 , 1985 . With the closure of Arbogast & Bastian , only two major meat processing facilities remained operating in the state of Pennsylvania - Hatfield Quality Meats of Hatfield , Pennsylvania , and Martins Abattoir & Wholesale Meats , Inc . , with headquarters in Godwin , North Carolina .
= = Legacy = =
As early as 1989 , city officials in Allentown had announced plans to revitalize brownfield land along the Lehigh River , which included the abandoned Arbogast & Bastian plant . This redevelopment , which was to be known as " Lehigh Landing , " was originally to include a museum , a brewery , walking trails , a footbridge across the river , and a promenade for festivals . Allentown businessman Raymond E. Holland , former president of Holiday Hair Fashions , had purchased the abandoned Arbogast & Bastian plant for $ 250 @,@ 000 in 1985 and gave it to the Allentown Economic Development Corp. as a charitable contribution in 1990 . Development of " Lehigh Landing " was hindered by fundraising problems , environmental remediation issues , and even a national debate on pork barrel government spending . The iconic Arbogast & Bastian plant remained vacant for over a decade , often the victim of vandalism and suspicious fires . The plant was finally dismantled in late 1990s , and the company 's large heart @-@ shaped sign , long a fixture of the Allentown skyline , was taken down on June 30 , 1998 . The offices of Arbogast & Bastian , which had not been torn down , were later incorporated into the America On Wheels museum , which was opened on the site of the former Arbogast & Bastian plant in 2008 .
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= Prince John of the United Kingdom =
Prince John of the United Kingdom ( John Charles Francis ; 12 July 1905 – 18 January 1919 ) was the fifth son and youngest of the six children born to King George V and his wife , Queen Mary . At the time of John 's birth , his father was the Prince of Wales and heir apparent to the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom , Edward VII . In 1910 , George succeeded to the throne upon Edward 's death and John became the fifth in line of succession .
In 1909 , John was discovered to have epilepsy and was also believed to have some form of intellectual disability and possibly autism . As his condition deteriorated , he was sent to live at Sandringham House and was kept away from the public eye . There , he was cared for by his governess , " Lala " Bill , and befriended local children whom his mother had gathered to be his playmates . Prince John died at Sandringham in 1919 , following a severe seizure , and was buried at nearby St Mary Magdalene Church . His illness was released to the wider public only after his death .
Prince John 's alleged seclusion has subsequently been brought forward as evidence for the inhumanity of the royal family . However , records show that the Prince was in some ways given favourable treatment by his parents , in comparison to his siblings , and contrary to the belief that he was hidden from the public from an early age , John for most of his life was a " fully @-@ fledged member of the family " , appearing frequently in public until after his eleventh birthday .
= = Biography = =
= = = Birth = = =
Prince John was born at York Cottage on the Sandringham Estate on 12 July 1905 , at 3 : 05 a.m. He was the youngest child and fifth son of George Frederick , Prince of Wales and Mary , Princess of Wales ( née Mary of Teck ) . He was named John despite that name 's unlucky associations for the royal family , but was informally known as " Johnny " . At the time of his birth , he was sixth in the line of succession to the throne , behind his father and four older brothers . As a grandchild of the reigning British monarch in the male line , and a son of the Prince of Wales , he was formally styled His Royal Highness Prince John of Wales from birth .
John was christened on 3 August in the Church of St Mary Magdalene at Sandringham , the Reverend Canon John Neale Dalton officiating . His godparents were King Carlos I of Portugal ( his third cousin once removed , for whom the Prince of Wales stood proxy ) , the Duke of Sparta ( his first cousin once removed ) , Prince Carl of Denmark ( his uncle by marriage and first cousin once removed , for whom the Prince of Wales stood proxy ) , Prince John of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg ( his great @-@ great @-@ uncle , for whom the Prince of Wales stood proxy ) , Alexander Duff , 1st Duke of Fife ( his uncle by marriage , for whom the Prince of Wales stood proxy ) , the Duchess of Sparta ( his first cousin once removed , for whom Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom stood proxy ) , and Princess Alexander of Teck ( his first cousin once removed , for whom Princess Victoria stood proxy ) .
= = = Early life and illness = = =
Much of John 's early life was spent at Sandringham with his siblings — Prince Edward ( known as David to the royal family ) , Prince Albert , Princess Mary , Prince Henry and Prince George — under the care of their nanny Charlotte " Lala " Bill . Though a strict disciplinarian , the Prince of Wales was nonetheless affectionate toward his children ; the Princess of Wales was close to her children and encouraged them to confide in her . In 1909 , John 's great @-@ aunt , the Dowager Empress of Russia wrote to her son , Emperor Nicholas II , that " George 's children are very nice ... The little ones , George and Johnny are both charming and very amusing ... " Princess Alexander of Teck described John as " very quaint and one evening when Uncle George returned from stalking he bent over Aunt May and kissed her , and they heard Johnny soliloquize , ' She kissed Papa , ugly old man ! ' " George once said to U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt that " all [ his ] children [ were ] obedient , except John " — apparently because John alone , among George 's children , escaped punishment from their father .
Though a " large and handsome " baby , by his fourth birthday John had become " winsome " and " painfully slow " . That same year he suffered his first epileptic seizure and showed signs of a disability , probably autism . When his father succeeded as George V upon Edward VII 's death in 1910 , John was awarded the title " His Royal Highness The Prince John " . John did not attend his parents ' coronation on 22 June 1911 , as this was considered too risky for his health ; nonetheless , cynics said that the family feared their reputation would be damaged by any incident involving him . Although John was deemed not " presentable to the outside world , " George nonetheless showed an interest in him , offering him " kindness and affection " .
During his time at Sandring ham , John exhibited repetitive behaviour , which can be a sign of autism ; this is possibly a reason for his constant misbehaviour : " he simply didn 't under stand he needed to [ behave ] . " Nonetheless there was hope his seizures might lessen with time — . Contrary to the belief that he was hidden from the public from an early age , John for most of his life was a " fully @-@ fledged member of the family " , appearing frequently in public until after his eleventh birthday .
In 1912 Prince George , who was nearest in age to John and his closest sibling , began St. Peter 's Court Preparatory School at Broadstairs . The following summer , The Times reported that John would not attend Broadstairs the following term , and that George and Mary had not decided whether to send John to school at all . After the outbreak of World War I , John rarely saw his parents , who were often away on official duties , and his siblings , who were either at boarding school or in the military . John slowly disappeared from the public eye and no official portraits of him were commissioned after 1913 .
= = = Wood Farm = = =
In 1916 , as his seizures became more frequent and severe , John was sent to live at Wood Farm , with Bill having charge of his care . Though John maintained an interest in the world around him and was capable of coherent thought and expression , with his lack of educational progress the last of his tutors was dismissed and his formal education ended . Physicians warned that he would likely not reach adulthood .
At Wood Farm , John became " a satellite with his own little household on an outlying farm on the Sandring ham estate ... Guests at Balmoral remember him during the Great War as tall and muscular , but always a distant figure glimpsed from afar in the woods , escorted by his own retainers . " His grandmother Queen Alexandra maintained a garden at Sandring ham House especially for him , and this became " one of the great pleasures of [ John ] ' s life . "
After the summer of 1916 , John was rarely seen outside the Sandring ham Estate and passed solely into Bill 's care . After Queen Alexandra wrote that " [ John ] is very proud of his house but is longing for a companion , " Queen Mary broke from royal practice by having local children brought in to be playmates for John . One of these was Winifred Thomas , a young girl from Halifax who had been sent to live with her aunt and uncle ( who had charge of the royal stables at Sandring ham ) in hopes her asthma would improve . John had known Winifred years earlier , prior to the outbreak of World War I. Now they became close , taking nature walks together and working in Queen Alexandra 's garden . John also played with his elder siblings when they visited : once , when his two eldest brothers came to visit John , the Prince of Wales ( formerly Prince Edward ) " took him for a run in a kind of a push @-@ cart , and they both disappeared from view . "
= = = Death = = =
As John 's seizures intensified ( Bill later wrote ) " we [ dared ] not let him be with his brothers and sister , because it upsets them so much , with the attacks getting so bad and coming so often . " Biographer Denis Judd believes that " [ John ] ' s seclusion and ' abnormality ' must have been disturbing to his brothers and sister " , as he had been " a friendly , outgoing little boy , much loved by his brothers and sister , a sort of mascot for the family " . He spent Christmas Day 1918 with his family at Sandring ham House but was driven back to Wood Farm at night .
On 18 January 1919 , after a severe seizure , John died in his sleep at Wood Farm at 5 : 30 p.m. It is now known , due to modern autopsy techniques , that people with epilepsy may die of it , with no other illness or injury contributing to death nor to the etiology of the condition .
Queen Mary wrote in her diary that the news was " a great shock , tho ' for the poor little boy 's restless soul , death came as a great relief . [ She ] broke the news to George and [ they ] motored down to Wood Farm . Found poor Lala very resigned but heartbroken . Little Johnnie looked very peaceful lying there . "
Mary later wrote to Emily Alcock , an old friend , that " for [ John ] it is a great relief , as his malady was becoming worse as he grew older , & he has thus been spared much suffering . I cannot say how grateful we feel to God for having taken him in such a peaceful way , he just slept quietly into his heavenly home , no pain no struggle , just peace for the poor little troubled spirit which had been a great anxiety to us for many years , ever since he was four years old . " She went on to add that " the first break in the family circle is hard to bear , but people have been so kind & sympathetic & this has helped us much . " George described his son 's death simply as " the greatest mercy possible " .
On 20 January the Daily Mirror said that " when the Prince passed away his face bore an angelic smile " ; its report also made the first public mention of John 's epilepsy . His funeral was the following day at St Mary Magdalene Church , John Neale Dalton officiating . Queen Mary wrote that " Canon Dalton & Dr Brownhill [ John 's physician ] conducted the service which was awfully sad and touching . Many of our own people and the villagers were present . We thanked all Johnnie 's servants who have been so good and faithful to him . " Though nominally private , the funeral was attended by Sandring ham House staff ; " every single person on the estate went and stood around the gates and his grave was absolutely covered in flowers . " Queen Alexandra wrote to Queen Mary that " now [ their ] two darling Johnnies lie side by side " She was referring to her youngest son and John 's uncle , Prince Alexander John of Wales , who had died in 1871 one day after birth , and who was also buried at St Mary Magdalene .
= = Legacy = =
Prince Edward had hardly known John and consequently , saw his death as " little more than a regrettable nuisance . " He wrote to his mistress of the time that " [ he had ] told [ her ] all about that little brother , and how he was an epileptic . [ John ] ' s been practically shut up for the last two years anyhow , so no one has ever seen him except the family , and then only once or twice a year . This poor boy had become more of an animal than anything else . " He also wrote an insensitive letter to Queen Mary , which has since been lost . She did not reply , but he felt compelled to write her an apology , in which he stated that " [ he felt ] like such a cold hearted and unsympathetic swine for writing all that [ he ] did ... No one can realize more than [ she ] how poor little Johnnie meant to [ him ] who hardly knew him ... " He went on to state " I feel so much for you , darling Mama , who was his mother . " In her final mention of John in her diary , Queen Mary wrote simply " miss the dear child very much indeed . " She gave Winifred Thomas a number of John 's books , which she had inscribed , " In memory of our dear little Prince . " " Lala " Bill always kept a portrait of John above her mantelpiece , together with a letter from him which read " nanny , I love you . "
In recent years , Prince John 's seclusion has been brought forward as evidence towards the " heartlessness " of the Windsor family , According to a 2008 Channel 4 documentary , much of the existing information about John is " based on hearsay and rumour , precisely because so few details of his life and his problems have ever been disclosed , " and the British Epileptic Association has stated , " There was nothing unusual in what [ the King and Queen ] did . At that time , people with epilepsy were put apart from the rest of the community . They were often put in epilepsy colonies or mental institutions . It was thought to be a form of mental illness , " adding that it was another twenty years before the idea that epileptics should not be locked away began to take hold . The royal family believed that these afflictions flowed through their blood , which was believed to be purer than the blood of a commoner , and , as such , wished to hide as much as possible in regard to John 's illness . Others have suggested that John was sent to Wood Farm to give him the best environment possible under the " austere " conditions of World War I. Undoubtedly the royal family were " frightened and ashamed of John 's illness " , and his life is " usually portrayed either as tragedy or conspiracy " . At the time that Edward VIII ( formerly Prince Edward ) abdicated , an attempt was made to discredit Prince Albert , who had succeeded as George VI , by suggesting that he was subject to falling fits , like his brother . In 1998 , after the discovery of two volumes of family photographs , John was briefly brought to public attention .
= = Popular culture = =
In 2003 , The Lost Prince , a biographical film about John 's life , directed by Stephen Poliakoff , was released .
In the 2007 film My Boy Jack , the death of Prince John is referred to in the conversation between George V and Rudyard Kipling at the end of the story .
In 2008 , a documentary about John , titled Prince John : The Windsors ' Tragic Secret , was released by Channel 4 .
John is also briefly mentioned in the 2010 film The King 's Speech , which depicts Prince Albert and his struggle to overcome a childhood stammer . Lionel Logue , portrayed by Geoffrey Rush , asks the future George VI of the United Kingdom , played by Colin Firth , to describe his relationship with his youngest brother , called Johnny . George VI replies that Johnny was a " sweet boy " , leading the audience to believe that they had a good relationship , though when he died at thirteen , he was hidden from view , a common occurrence for diseased children in those days .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
12 July 1905 – 6 May 1910 : His Royal Highness Prince John of Wales
6 May 1910 – 18 January 1919 : His Royal Highness The Prince John
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Endnotes = = =
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= Hasan al @-@ Kharrat =
Abu Muhammad Hasan al @-@ Kharrat ( Arabic : حسن الخراط 1861 – 25 December 1925 ) was one of the principal Syrian rebel commanders of the Great Syrian Revolt against the French Mandate . His main area of operations was in Damascus and its Ghouta countryside . He was killed in the struggle and is considered a hero by Syrians .
As the qabaday ( local youths boss ) of the al @-@ Shaghour quarter of Damascus , al @-@ Kharrat was connected with Nasib al @-@ Bakri , a nationalist from the quarter 's most influential family . At al @-@ Bakri 's invitation , al @-@ Kharrat joined the revolt in August 1925 and formed a group of fighters from al @-@ Shaghour and other neighborhoods in the vicinity . He led the rebel assault against Damascus , briefly capturing the residence of French High @-@ Commissioner Maurice Sarrail before withdrawing amid heavy French bombardment .
After his aborted operation in Damascus , al @-@ Kharrat continued to lead forays against French forces in and around the city . Towards the end of 1925 , relations grew tense between al @-@ Kharrat and other rebel leaders , particularly Sa 'id al- ' As and Ramadan al @-@ Shallash , as they traded accusations of plundering villages or extorting local inhabitants . Al @-@ Kharrat was killed in a French ambush in the Ghouta , and the revolt dissipated by 1927 , but he gained a lasting reputation as a martyr of the Syrian resistance to French rule .
= = Early life and career = =
Al @-@ Kharrat was born to a Sunni Muslim family in Damascus in 1861 , during Ottoman rule in Syria . He served as the night watchman of the city 's al @-@ Shaghour quarter and as a guard for the neighborhood 's orchards . Damascus was captured by Arab rebels in October 1918 . Afterward , the Arab Club , an Arab nationalist organization , emerged in the city to raise support for the rebels . The club assisted the rebels ' leader , Emir Faisal , who formed a rudimentary government . Al @-@ Kharrat became an affiliate of the Arab Club and raised support for Faisal in al @-@ Shaghour . In July 1920 , Faisal 's government collapsed after its motley forces were defeated by the French at the Battle of Maysalun . Afterward , the French ruled Syria under the aegis of their League of Nations mandate .
In the early years of French rule , al @-@ Kharrat was al @-@ Shaghour 's qabaday ( pl. qabadayat ) , the traditional leader of a neighborhood 's local toughs . The qabaday was informally charged with redressing grievances and defending a neighborhood 's honor against local criminals or the encroachments of qabadayat from other neighborhoods . He was popularly characterized as an honorable man , noted for his personal strength , and protection of minorities and the poor . The qabaday was considered an " upholder of Arab traditions and customs , the guardian of popular culture " , according to historian Philip S. Khoury . Khoury asserts that al @-@ Kharrat was " probably the most respected and esteemed qabaday of his day " . Qabadayat normally shunned formal education , and historian Michael Provence maintains that al @-@ Kharrat was likely illiterate . Qabadayat were normally linked with particular city notables and could secure them political support in their neighborhoods . Al @-@ Kharrat was allied with Nasib al @-@ Bakri , a Damascene politician and landowner . The al @-@ Bakri family was the most influential in al @-@ Shaghour , and al @-@ Kharrat served as the family 's principal connection and enforcer in the quarter .
= = Commander in the Great Syrian Revolt = =
= = = Recruitment and early confrontations = = =
A revolt against French rule was launched in the mid @-@ summer of 1925 by the Druze sheikh ( chieftain ) , Sultan Pasha al @-@ Atrash , in the southern mountains of Jabal al @-@ Druze . As al @-@ Atrash 's men scored decisive victories against the French Army of the Levant , Syrian nationalists were inspired and the revolt spread northward to the countryside of Damascus and beyond . Al @-@ Bakri was the chief liaison between al @-@ Atrash and the emerging rebel movement in Damascus and the Ghouta . The Ghouta is the fertile plain surrounding Damascus , and its orchard groves and extensive waterways provided cover for the rebels and a base from which they could raid Damascus . In August , al @-@ Bakri convinced al @-@ Kharrat to join the uprising . According to Provence , al @-@ Kharrat was " ideal " for the job , possessing " a local following of young men , notoriety outside the quarter , good connections and a reputation for toughness " . The group of fighters he commanded was known as ′ isabat al @-@ Shawaghirah ( the band of al @-@ Shaghour ) . Though named after al @-@ Kharrat 's quarter , the band included twenty qabadayat and their armed retinues from other Damascus neighborhoods and nearby villages . His main areas of operation were in the vicinity of al @-@ Shaghour and the al @-@ Zur forest in the eastern Ghouta . Through his alliance with a Sufi religious leader , al @-@ Kharrat brought an Islamic holy war dimension to the largely secular revolt , something that was not welcomed by some involved .
Al @-@ Kharrat commenced guerrilla operations in September , targeting French forces posted in the eastern and southern Ghouta . His prominence rose as he led nighttime raids against the French in Damascus , during which he disarmed army patrols and took soldiers hostage . In al @-@ Shaghour , Souk Saruja and Jazmatiyya , al @-@ Kharrat and his band burnt down all French @-@ held buildings . In the first week of October , sixty French gendarmes were dispatched to the Ghouta to apprehend al @-@ Kharrat and his fighters . The gendarmes were quartered in the home of al @-@ Malihah 's mukhtar ( village headman ) . In the evening , the rebels attacked the residence , killing one gendarme and capturing the rest ; the prisoners were eventually all returned unharmed .
On 12 October , French troops backed by tanks , artillery and aerial support launched an operation to surround and eliminate al @-@ Kharrat 's rebels in the al @-@ Zur forest . Al @-@ Kharrat 's men were forewarned of the French deployment by the peasants of al @-@ Malihah . Positioned among the trees , the rebels used sniper fire against the French troops . The latter were unable to lure the rebels out and retreated .
As the French withdrew toward al @-@ Malihah , they looted the village and set it on fire . French intelligence officials justified the collective punishment of al @-@ Malihah as retaliation for the rebels ' capture and humiliation of the gendarmes during the previous week ; the French claimed a young boy from al @-@ Malihah had notified al @-@ Kharrat 's men of the French presence in the village . Though they were unable to engage al @-@ Kharrat and his forces directly , French troops executed around 100 civilians from Ghouta villages . Their corpses were brought to Damascus , and the bodies of sixteen men described by the French as " brigands " were put on display .
= = = Battle of Damascus and operations in Ghouta = = =
Spurred by French army actions in the Ghouta , al @-@ Bakri planned to capture the Citadel of Damascus , where French forces were concentrated , and the Azm Palace , where General Maurice Sarrail , the French high commissioner of Syria , would be residing on 17 – 18 October ( Sarrail was typically headquartered in Beirut ) . The high commissioner functioned as the overall administrator of Syria on behalf of France and exercised practically absolute power . The rebel units active in Damascus at the time were al @-@ Kharrat 's ′ isabat and a mixed force of Druze fighters and rebels from the al @-@ Midan quarter and the Ghouta . To compensate for the lack of rebel strength , al @-@ Bakri sent a letter to Sultan al @-@ Atrash requesting reinforcements . Al @-@ Atrash replied that he was currently occupied with operations in the Hauran , but would dispatch his entire force to back the Damascus rebels as soon as affairs there were settled . Before he received al @-@ Atrash 's reply , al @-@ Bakri decided to move ahead with the operation .
On 18 October , al @-@ Kharrat led forty rebels into al @-@ Shaghour from the old cemeteries adjacent to the southern gate of Damascus , announcing that the Druze had arrived to relieve the city from French occupation . Crowds of residents enthusiastically welcomed the rebels and many took up arms alongside them . Al @-@ Kharrat 's men captured the quarter 's police station , disarming its garrison . They were joined by Ramadan al @-@ Shallash , a rebel commander from Deir ez @-@ Zor , and twenty of his Bedouin fighters . The joint forces proceeded to the Hamidiyya Market and captured the Azm Palace , but Sarrail was not present , having already left to attend a meeting in the Hauran town of Daraa . The rebels plundered the palace and set it on fire . Provence asserts that capturing the palace without Sarrail " held no tactical importance " but was a highly symbolic achievement for the rebels because of the Azm Palace 's " importance as the historical seat of economic and political power in Damascus , now usurped by the French and totally undefended " .
While al @-@ Kharrat captured the Azm Palace , al @-@ Bakri and 200 rebels under his command rode through the city and were joined by civilians in increasing numbers . After sealing the Old City to prevent the entry of enemy reinforcements , al @-@ Kharrat issued an order to kill anyone linked to the French army . About 180 French soldiers were killed . Sarrail ordered the shelling and aerial bombardment of the city . About 1 @,@ 500 people were killed in the bombardment , which lasted two days . General chaos and scattered fighting ensued as whole neighborhoods , mosques and churches were leveled , French forces moved in , and hundreds of leading figures in the Syrian national movement were arrested , including al @-@ Kharrat 's son Fakhri . The latter was captured on 22 October during a botched nighttime raid by the rebels against the French , who by then were in control of Damascus . Al @-@ Kharrat was offered the release of his son in exchange for his own surrender , but refused .
The rebels withdrew from Damascus as a meeting was held between French army commander Maurice Gamelin and a delegation of Damascene notables . As a result of the meeting , the French agreed to end their bombardment in return for a payment of 100 @,@ 000 Turkish gold liras by 24 October . The fine was not paid by the French deadline , but the bombardment was not renewed , likely as a result of orders from the French government in Paris . International condemnation of Sarrail 's bombardment of Damascus and growing criticism in France of his mishandling of the revolt led to his dismissal on 30 October . He was replaced by politician Henry de Jouvenel , who arrived in Syria in December . On 22 November , al @-@ Kharrat commanded 700 rebels in a battle with about 500 French soldiers outside of Damascus . Al @-@ Kharrat 's men inflicted " trifling " losses on the French , but experienced heavy casualties themselves , with thirty dead and forty wounded according to Reuters . On 5 December , al @-@ Kharrat was one of the commanders of a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ strong force uniting rebels from disparate backgrounds , which assaulted the French Army barracks in al @-@ Qadam , south of Damascus . The French claimed to have inflicted significant casualties , but rebel activity continued .
= = = Tensions with rebel leaders = = =
Centralized order and oversight among the revolt 's armed participants was difficult to establish because of the diversity and independence of the rebel factions . A meeting of rebel leaders was held in the Ghouta village of Saqba on 26 November . Sa 'id al- ' As accused al @-@ Kharrat and others of plundering in the Ghouta , while al @-@ Kharrat alleged that al @-@ Shallash extorted the residents of al @-@ Midan and the Ghouta town of Douma . The meeting concluded with an agreement to elect a government to replace the French authorities , increase recruitment of the Ghouta 's inhabitants , coordinate military operations under a central command , and establish a revolutionary court to execute spies . The meeting also designated the area between the village of Zabdin and north of the Douma @-@ Damascus road as being part of al @-@ Kharrat 's zone of operations . Despite his leading role in the rebels ' military efforts , al @-@ Kharrat was not included in the newly formed rebel leadership council , nor were any of al @-@ Bakri 's allies . Instead , al- ' As served as the rebels ' overall head .
Sharp divisions among rebel factions became apparent during a second meeting in Saqba on 5 December . According to Syrian journalist Munir al @-@ Rayyes , hostility between al @-@ Kharrat and al @-@ Shallash was well @-@ known among the rebels . Because al @-@ Shallash had levied war taxes on the major landlords and city elites of the Ghouta , al @-@ Kharrat 's benefactor al @-@ Bakri viewed him as a threat to the traditional landowning class to which al @-@ Bakri belonged . Al @-@ Rayyis claimed the meeting was called for by al @-@ Kharrat , who ordered his fighters to capture and bring al @-@ Shallash to Saqba . However , according to al- ' As , the summit was called by al @-@ Shallash , and once the latter arrived in the village , al @-@ Kharrat personally detained him and confiscated his horse , weapons and money .
After his detention , al @-@ Shallash was given a brief trial during which al @-@ Kharrat accused him of making " impositions and ransoms and financial collections in the name of the revolt " , while al @-@ Bakri condemned him specifically for extorting the residents of Douma for 1 @,@ 000 giney ( Ottoman pounds ) , and imposing large fines on the inhabitants of Harran al @-@ Awamid , al @-@ Qisa and Maydaa for his own personal enrichment . Al @-@ Kharrat and al @-@ Bakri decided al @-@ Shallash 's verdict , and dismissed him from the revolt . While many rebels with officer backgrounds similar to al @-@ Shallash disapproved of the judgement , they did not intervene . In his account of the meeting , al @-@ Rayyis condemned the rebel commanders for complacency in the " ridiculous trial " and accused al @-@ Kharrat of being motivated solely by personal animosity . Al @-@ Shallash was able to escape — or was released by al- ' As — when French planes bombed the meeting . Al @-@ Shallash would later surrender to Jouvenel and collaborate with French authorities .
= = Death and legacy = =
Al @-@ Kharrat was killed in an ambush by French troops in the Ghouta on 25 December 1925 . He was succeeded as qabaday of al @-@ Shaghour and commander of the ′ isabat al @-@ Shawaghirah by Mahmud Khaddam al @-@ Srija . Al @-@ Kharrat 's men continued to fight the French until the revolt ended in 1927 , although historian Thomas Philipp states that al @-@ Kharrat 's group dissipated after his death . In January 1926 , al @-@ Kharrat 's son Fakhri was sentenced to death and publicly executed , along with two other rebels , in Marjeh Square , Damascus . The French had previously implored Fakhri to persuade his father to surrender in return for his release , but Fakhri had refused .
Abd al @-@ Rahman Shahbandar , a prominent Syrian nationalist leader , described al @-@ Kharrat as having played " the preeminent role " in the battle against the French in the Ghouta and Damascus . Historian Daniel Neep wrote that al @-@ Kharrat was the " best @-@ known " of all of the Damascus @-@ based rebel leaders , although other leaders of the rebel movement attributed the publicity and praise of al @-@ Kharrat to the efforts of the Cairo @-@ based Syrian @-@ Palestinian Committee , with which al @-@ Bakri was closely affiliated . Al @-@ Kharrat and his son Fakhri are today considered " martyred heroes " by Syrians for their nationalist efforts and their deaths in the Syrian struggle for independence from France .
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= Rare ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" Rare " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her third studio album , This Is What the Truth Feels Like ( 2016 ) . It was released on March 18 , 2016 , along with the rest of This Is What the Truth Feels Like by Interscope Records . The track was written by Stefani , Justin Tranter , Julia Michaels , and Greg Kurstin ; Kurstin was the track 's sole producer .
" Rare " is an electropop and folk pop influenced song and serves as the album 's closing track . Lyrically , the song discusses finding love when all hope was lost . Several media outlets speculated that " Rare " was written about Stefani 's boyfriend Blake Shelton and his ex @-@ wife Miranda Lambert . " Rare " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , some of which called the song " glamorous " and predicted that it would become a future " summer hit " .
= = Background = =
In 2013 , following Stefani 's work with No Doubt , she enlisted the help of Greg Kurstin to write and produce songs for her upcoming third studio album . After Stefani 's 2014 single releases , " Baby Don 't Lie " and " Spark the Fire " , received mixed responses , she scrapped all of her completed material for the opportunity to start fresh . A year later , Stefani enlisted other potential collaborators , like Justin Tranter and Julia Michaels , for work on the album shortly after she announced her divorce from Gavin Rossdale . Stefani later revealed that during the writing of several songs , including " Rare " , she and Michaels had taken " stream @-@ of @-@ conscious " lyrics from her computer and fit them into melodies .
" Rare " was written by Stefani , Justin Tranter , Julia Michaels , and Greg Kurstin ; Kurstin serves as the track 's sole producer . The track was mixed by Serban Ghenea , with John Hanes and Phil Seaford serving as assistant mixing engineers ; Julian Burg and Alex Pasco were in charge of recording , with Stephen Felix serving as an assistant recorder . " Rare " became available for purchase on March 18 , along with the rest of This Is What the Truth Feels Like .
Blake Shelton , Stefani 's boyfriend , declared on Twitter that " Rare " was his favorite song on This Is What the Truth Feels Like , to which Stefani tweeted back " Wonder who that one is about ? " , alluding to the fact that it was written about him . Several of the songs on This Is What the Truth Feels Like were written about Shelton , including the " Rare " and the album 's second single , " Make Me Like You " ; even though her writing sessions began with lyrics revolving her breakup with Rossdale , the songs slowly became centered on her newly found relationship with Shelton .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
Musically , " Rare " is an electropop and folk pop influenced ballad , that has " an acoustic guitar and galloping beat " . Lyrically , " Rare " discusses finding love in the " perfect " man , presumably Shelton . Patrick Ryan of USA Today called " Rare " an " outright declaration of love for Shelton " , summarizing the song as " a rare moment of vulnerability for the singer who , for the most part , keeps her emotions close to her vest . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly declared the song a " sweetly smitten confessional " . Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times described the lyrics as " her shock to have found someone this late in the game " , while Sarah Rodman of the The Boston Globe felt that the lyrics observe " that ' only a stupid girl ' would let the ' perfect ' man go . " Eliza Thompson from Cosmopolitan compliented the lyrics " Every day I believe you and me more and more / And it 's crazy , that 's for sure " ; Thompson also believed that the lyrics were about Stefani 's relationship with Shelton . Similarly , Jaja Agpalo of Parent Herald found the same meaning in the lines " You 're my answer , one that no one knows / I can 't believe it , that you even exist " .
After the release of This Is What the Truth Feels Like , several news outlets speculated that the lyrics of " Rare " may be written about Shelton 's ex @-@ wife , Miranda Lambert . An article from Fox News reported that " the lyrics appear to be a slam at Lambert for letting Shelton go " , particularly " You 're rare / And only a stupid girl would let it go " . Andrew Leung of Music Mic , who described the song as " a mid @-@ tempo love ballad " , also thought that the same lyrics pointed towards Lambert . Lauren DuBois of EnStars stated that " the song seems to allege that [ Lambert ] was the one who walked away from the relationship she had with Shelton , not the other way around . " Gossip website Hollywoodlife.com stated that in the song , Stefani praises Shelton but " totally disses Lambert " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Rare " received generally favorable reviews from contemporary music critics . Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times enjoyed the closing track , calling it " tender " . Leah Greenblatt , writing for Entertainment Weekly , said that Stefani " sound [ s ] like the world 's most glamorous high school sophomore , passing mash notes after study hall . " USA Today 's Patrick Ryan praised " Rare " and declared the track " one dance remix away from being a certifiable summer smash . " Stephen Sears of Idolator called the track " elegant and even @-@ keeled " and said Stefani " [ will ] buck modern radio " with " Rare " . Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic praised the song and called it an " album @-@ closing ode to joy " , further stating the track " uses its star 's distinctive voice for moments of multi @-@ tracked beauty or play ; often there 's a lovely sensation of floating upwards . " As the album 's closing track , Nicholaus James Jodlowski of Reporter appreciated the " vulnerable side of Stefani " and noted how it slows the album 's pace down . However , Chuck Campbell of Go Knoxville gave the song a negative review , describing Stefani 's vocals as " a pale facsimile of Ariana Grande " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at Ameraycan Recording Studios , North Hollywood , California ; and Echo Studio , Los Angeles , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of This Is What the Truth Feels Like
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= John Komnenos the Fat =
John Komnenos ( Latinized as Comnenus ) , nicknamed " the Fat " ( Greek : Ἰωάννης Κομνηνὸς ὁ παχύς ) , was a Byzantine noble who attempted to usurp the imperial throne from Alexios III Angelos in a short @-@ lived coup in Constantinople on 31 July 1201 ( or 1200 ) . The coup drew on opposition to the ruling Angelid dynasty among both rival aristocratic families and the common people , who were dissatisfied by the dynasty 's failures against external foes . Hitherto an obscure figure , John became the figurehead of the uprising because of his imperial blood , as he was descended from the illustrious Komnenian dynasty ( 1081 – 1185 ) , but the real driving force behind his coup was probably the ambitious Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos . With the support of the capital 's populace , the plotters managed to seize most of the Great Palace in Constantinople 's southeastern corner , which the mob proceeded to loot , and John Komnenos was crowned in the Hagia Sophia . Alexios III , however , secure in his residence in the northwestern Blachernae Palace , sent forces by sea to land in the part of the Great Palace still held by the loyal Varangian Guard . With most of the urban mob dispersed for the night , the Varangians had little difficulty in suppressing the coup . John Komnenos with many of his followers were captured and executed .
= = Origin and political background = =
John was the son of the distinguished protostrator Alexios Axouch . The Axouchoi were a prominent family of Turkish origin , which was closely associated with the Komnenian dynasty and provided a number of distinguished generals . The two families also intermarried : John 's mother Maria was the daughter of Alexios Komnenos , eldest son and co @-@ emperor of Emperor John II Komnenos ( r . 1118 – 1143 ) . John was thus able to claim a pedigree comparable , if not superior , to the reigning Angeloi , albeit from the maternal side .
The reign of Alexios III Angelos ( r . 1195 – 1203 ) had been troubled from the outset : the aristocracy conspired against him , his pressing demand for new sources of revenue was blocked by the refusal of Senate , clergy and merchants to contribute , while the lower and middle classes of the imperial capital frequently displayed their discontent with riots against corrupt officials . The most notable of these was a large @-@ scale uprising in February 1200 against the warden of the praetorium , Constantinople 's chief prison , John Lagos , which was bloodily suppressed by imperial troops .
John Komnenos himself was a rather unimportant figure in the court , and in a marginal note dating to the late 13th century , Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos , who briefly became emperor during Constantinople 's final siege by the Fourth Crusade , was named as the real mastermind behind the coup . He was certainly supported by a wider circle of nobles from the Komnenian era , possibly even the brothers Alexios Komnenos and David Komnenos , who later founded the Empire of Trebizond . Thus the historian Michael Angold traces the coup 's inception to the events of early 1199 , when Alexios III married his two daughters Irene and Anna to Alexios Palaiologos and Theodore Laskaris respectively . This marriage not only spoke of increasing confidence for the Emperor , but also provided for the imperial succession and began the establishment of a separate aristocratic power @-@ base , which must have displeased many noble families .
However , the revolt was also fuelled by a general feeling of discontent and humiliation at the failures of the Angeloi , especially in terms of foreign policy . This much is evident from the – albeit embellished – account of the eyewitness Nicholas Mesarites , whereby John Komnenos 's supporters proclaimed that henceforth everything would go well for Romania , that her enemies would be vanquished , and that the kings of all the earth would come to pay homage to Constantinople .
= = Coup = =
John 's coup was launched on 31 July 1201 , when the conspirators broke into the Hagia Sophia , where they swore to restore the Empire to its ancient bounds against the Vlach @-@ Bulgarians , Seljuk Turks and the Latin Crusaders . While John was being proclaimed emperor and crowned by a monk – since Patriarch John X Kamateros hid himself inside a cupboard – the capital 's populace rioted outside and set fire to a number of churches . Then the conspirators marched towards the Great Palace . Avoiding the Chalke Gate , which was held by the feared Varangian Guard , they made for the imperial box in the Hippodrome , the kathisma , which was connected to the palace precinct . John 's supporters indeed managed to drive off the Macedonian guard placed there and entered the palace through the Kareia Gate .
Having gained control of the western portions of the palace , John sat on the imperial throne , which broke under his great weight . He took no further actions to consolidate his position , other than appoint his chief followers to the Empire 's highest posts . At the same time , his supporters , who along with the urban mob included a sizeable group of Georgian and Italian mercenaries , began to loot the buildings . They even reached the Nea Ekklesia and the Church of the Virgin of the Pharos , the Empire 's chief depository of holy relics , which was defended by its skeuophylax , Nicholas Mesarites , with a small guard provided by John Komnenos . Mesarites and his men managed to drive the looters back , until he was wounded in the skirmish and withdrew to the Pharos Church .
With the coming of night , most of the crowd that had accompanied the storming of the palace earlier that day departed , intending to resume looting the next day . In the meantime , Alexios III , who resided in the Blachernae Palace in the city 's northwestern corner , rallied for a counter @-@ strike . A small force was dispatched with boats around the city 's peninsula to the Hodegetria Monastery north of the Great Palace . It was led by the emperor 's son @-@ in @-@ law Alexios Palaiologos , who at that point was likely regarded as his heir @-@ apparent , and quickly made contact with the Varangians who had held out in the palace 's northern parts .
The loyalist force marched to the Hippodrome , where they drove away most of John 's supporters . They then entered the palace , where they found scarce opposition from John 's attendants . John himself was captured after a short chase in the palace and his head was immediately cut off , to be displayed the next morning at the Forum of Constantine , while his body was displayed at Blachernae . A similar fate befell many of his supporters that night , while others were captured and tortured to extract the names of all the conspirators . Alexios Mourtzouphlos was likely put in prison for his role in this affair ( he is known to have been in prison in 1203 ) , and the two Komnenos brothers , Alexios and David , seem to have fled the capital immediately after the coup 's failure .
= = Family = =
Some modern genealogical researchers consider John a possible father to Theodora Axouchina , wife of Emperor Alexios I Megas Komnenos of Trebizond ( r . 1204 – 1222 ) , but that is conjectural : the family name Axouchina is ascribed to her because her eldest son , the Trebizondian emperor John I Megas Komnenos Axouchos ( r . 1235 – 1238 ) , bore it as well .
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= Battle of Orašje =
The Battle of Orašje was fought during the Bosnian War , from 5 May to 10 June 1995 , between the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) and the Bosnian Croat Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) for control of the town of Orašje and its surrounding area on the south bank of the Sava River . The offensive codenamed Operation Flame @-@ 95 ( Serbian : Operacija Plamen @-@ 95 ) and referred to by Croatian sources as Operation Revenge ( Croatian : Operacija Osveta ) was actually fought with varying intensity , with periods of combat interspersed by lulls lasting two to seven days . The heaviest fighting was reported on 15 May , when the VRS managed to break through a portion of the HVO defences near the village of Vidovice , but the breach was successfully contained and the lost ground was recovered by the HVO .
The HVO , supported by Croatian Army artillery deployed north of the river , managed to withstand the offensive and the front line remained unchanged from the commencement of the battle . This demonstrated the changed balance of power at this stage of the war . At the commencement of the war , the VRS had greater military capabilities than its opponents , particularly in terms of heavy weapons and organisation , but over three years from mid @-@ 1992 its capabilities had been matched by its adversaries .
= = Background = =
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina that took place between 29 February and 1 March 1992 . This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March 1992 . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , resulting in a cross @-@ border operation by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) 108th Brigade . On 4 April 1992 , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo . There were other examples of the JNA directly supported the VRS , such as during the capture of Zvornik in early April 1992 , when the JNA provided artillery support from Serbia , firing across the Drina River . At the same time , the JNA attempted to defuse the situation and arrange negotiations elsewhere in the country .
The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the HV , which occasionally supported HVO operations . In late April 1992 , the VRS was able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces . The HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons , while the ARBiH was largely unprepared with nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops , small arms for less than a half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons . Arming of the various forces was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo introduced in September 1991 . By mid @-@ May 1992 , when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The extent of the control was extended to about 70 percent of the country by the end of the year .
A significant portion of the territory controlled by the VRS was located in western Bosnia , including the Bosnian Serb capital of Banja Luka . This portion of Bosnian Serb @-@ held territory was dependent on resupply from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia using a single road spanning the Bosnian Sava Basin from west to east through Derventa and Brčko . The same road was also used to resupply the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , the Croatian Serb @-@ controlled areas of Croatia . After the capture of Derventa by the HVO and the HV in May 1992 , the VRS launched Operation Corridor 92 and regained control of the resupply route in late June . By October , it had eliminated all HV or HVO @-@ held pockets along the southern bank of the Sava and the border of Croatia , except a single bridgehead around the town of Orašje . Even though the fighting secured the route for the VRS , the corridor remained mere 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 miles ) wide at its narrowest point .
= = Prelude = =
The balance of military power in the Bosnian War had started to shift against the VRS in early 1994 , despite its advantages in heavy weapons . In early 1995 , the ARBiH exerted increasing pressure on the VRS , especially in the area of Mount Vlašić . While the HV and the HVO advanced west of Livno ( Operation Leap 1 ) , the VRS launched its own offensive — Operation Joint Action 95 ( Serbian : Operacija Sadejstvo 95 ) . Operation Joint Action 95 was intended as a war @-@ winning offensive , and was launched south of the Derventa – Brčko corridor , but was also designed to widen the critical resupply route . Launched on 19 April , the VRS offensive faced determined resistance from the ARBiH and the HVO and had bogged down by the end of the month .
In early May , the HV launched a successful offensive , codenamed Operation Flash , against a RSK @-@ held part of western Slavonia in Croatia . The move caused the VRS to reorient its attention to the Orašje pocket , the only territory outside its control between the Derventa – Brčko road and the Sava River . The shift of VRS focus to Orašje may have been the result of a desire to retaliate for the defeat suffered by the RSK in western Slavonia , or meant as a quick land @-@ grab before a peace settlement was accepted .
= = Order of battle = =
The VRS earmarked Tactical Group 5 ( TG @-@ 5 ) for the offensive , normally deployed against HVO positions in the Orašje pocket . TG @-@ 5 , commanded by Colonel Dragoslav Đurkić , normally consisted of approximately 6 @,@ 000 troops drawn from four infantry or light brigades , but for the offensive it received further 2 @,@ 000 reinforcements . Those included elite assault units assigned to the 1st Krajina Corps , elements of the 1st Armoured Brigade and corps @-@ level artillery . Furthermore , Colonel Generals Momir Talić and Ratko Mladić were present to directly supervise the operation .
The Orašje pocket was defended by the 6 @,@ 000 @-@ strong HVO Orašje Corps , consisting of one guards brigade and three Home Guard regiments . Overall command of the corps was held by Staff Brigadier Đuro Matuzović . The defences lacked depth , and did not exceed 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) . To offset this , the HVO had prepared strong forward defences , including trenches and bunkers , built along the 18 km ( 11 mi ) front line . The HVO positions were supported by HV artillery and multiple rocket launchers deployed north of the Sava River , in Croatia .
= = Timeline = =
On 5 May , the 1st Krajina Corps launched its offensive aimed at capturing the Orašje pocket , codenamed Operation Flame @-@ 95 ( Serbian : Operacija Plamen @-@ 95 ) . It is also referred to by Croatian sources as Operation Revenge ( Croatian : Operacija Osveta ) . The offensive started off with a substantial artillery bombardment and ground assault , directed at Oštra Luka , at the centre of the front line . According to Croatian sources , the 5 May attack was not coordinated very well and it gave the HVO the chance to bolster its defences . While the fighting was in progress , the VRS artillery bombarded the town of Orašje itself . The attack was quickly defeated , and after this initial setback , the VRS paused for five days .
The offensive resumed on 10 May , when a number of VRS 9K52 Luna @-@ M short @-@ range artillery rockets , commonly known by their NATO designation of " FROG – 7 " , were fired at HVO positions . The opposing forces blamed each other for the resumption of fighting — the VRS accused the HVO of bombarding the Derventa – Brčko road to interdict traffic , while the HVO accused the VRS of bombarding the town of Orašje first . During the morning of 10 May , UN observers counted more than 1 @,@ 000 explosions in the area and described the fighting as " intense " , but said that it had lost some momentum by the afternoon . The primary axes of the attacks , directed at the centre and the east of the pocket and aiming towards Orašje and the village of Vidovice failed to gain ground . The secondary effort on the left flank made some progress towards Grebnice before being beaten back by the HVO . During the fighting , rumours circulated that the Orašje area would be surrendered in exchange for territory lost to the HV in western Slavonia .
The VRS attacked at least seven more times over the next thirty days , with pauses of two to seven days between each attack . Some lasted for several days , and during each attack UN observers counted from 2 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 explosions . The most successful attack occurred on 14 – 15 May , when the VRS nearly reached Vidovice on the southern bank of the Sava River . On that occasion , a combined armour and infantry assault broke through three lines of trenches , with the assistance of strong artillery support including the bombardment of HVO positions with approximately 5 @,@ 000 shells and two 9K52 Luna @-@ M rockets . In the fierce combat to gain control of Vidovice , the VRS was pushed back by the 4th Guards Brigade and the 106th Home Guard Regiment to its start positions . According to Bosnian Serb sources , the HV fired six rockets from its positions in the Posavski Podgajci and Rajevo Selo areas against targets in Brčko , causing substantial damage but no casualties . Even though the fighting continued , including skirmishes between the VRS and the ARBiH in the area south of Orašje , its overall intensity had declined by 15 May . On 4 – 10 June , the HV and the HVO launched Operation Leap 2 against VRS @-@ held positions west of Livno . Even though the operation was not directly linked to the Battle of Orašje , its planners thought that it might force the VRS to redeploy a portion of its forces in the Orašje area to shore up its positions near the Livanjsko field . By 10 June , the VRS had called off Operation Flame @-@ 95 and the Battle of Orašje effectively ended .
= = Aftermath = =
The VRS failure in the battle demonstrated its declining capabilities relative to its adversaries over the preceding three years . The failure was despite the offensive being conducted competently , and applying VRS military doctrine calling for the use of armoured and assault infantry supported by artillery . By 1995 , the VRS was facing well @-@ organised militaries employing a comparable number of artillery pieces and good defensive fortifications . In consequence , the VRS was no longer capable of defeating its opposition by relying heavily on artillery superiority , and it was unwilling to commit its dwindling numbers of infantry to a decisive but risky attack . The battle resulted in no territorial changes , but both belligerents reported dozens of casualties , both military and civilian . Even though the battle was over , intermittent artillery exchanges continued in the area , and as early as 19 June , the VRS bombarded Orašje again .
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= Cley Marshes =
Cley Marshes is a 176 @-@ hectare ( 430 @-@ acre ) nature reserve on the North Sea coast of England just outside the village of Cley next the Sea , Norfolk . A reserve since 1926 , it is the oldest of the reserves belonging to the Norfolk Wildlife Trust ( NWT ) , which is itself the oldest county Wildlife Trust in the United Kingdom . Cley Marshes protects an area of reed beds , freshwater marsh , pools and wet meadows and has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , Special Area of Conservation ( SAC ) , Special Protection Area ( SPA ) , and Ramsar Site due to the large numbers of birds it attracts .
The reserve is important for some scarce breeding species , such as pied avocets on the islands , and western marsh harriers , Eurasian bitterns and bearded reedlings in the reeds , and is also a major migration stopoff and wintering site . There are also several nationally or locally scarce invertebrates and plants specialised for this coastal habitat . It has five bird hides and an environmentally friendly visitor centre and further expansion is planned through the acquisition of neighbouring land and improvements to visitor facilities .
The site has a long history of human occupation , from prehistoric farming to its use as a prisoner of war camp in the Second World War . The reserve attracts large numbers of visitors , contributing significantly to the economy of Cley village . Despite centuries of embankment to reclaim land and protect the village , the marshes have been flooded many times , and the southward march of the coastal shingle bank and encroachment by the sea make it inevitable that the reserve will eventually be lost . New wetlands are being created further inland to compensate for the loss of coastal habitats .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory to 1926 = = =
Norfolk has a long history of human occupation . Both Modern and Neanderthal people were present in the area before the last glaciation between 100 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago , and humans returned as the ice retreated northwards . The archaeological record is poor until about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , partly because of the prevailing conditions , but also because the coastline was much further north than at present . As the ice retreated during the Mesolithic , the sea level rose , filling what is now the North Sea . This brought the Norfolk coastline much closer to its present line , so that many ancient sites are now under the sea . The oldest signs of habitation on the marshes are prehistoric Clactonian flint blades possibly from 400 @,@ 000 years ago , but few other prehistoric remains have been recorded here .
Fragments of a Roman vase and jug have been found on the beach . A 1797 map showed what was described as the ruins of " Cley Chapel " , although it is more likely that they belonged to a barn . A 1588 map showed " Black Joy Forte " , which may have been intended as a defence against the Spanish Armada . There are a number of post @-@ medieval earthworks , presumably sea defences , and pits which may have been associated with salt @-@ making .
Until the mid @-@ 1600s , much of the area now known as Cley Marshes was part of a vast tidal marsh and was covered by seawater twice a day . The shoreline itself was hundreds of metres north of its present location . The raised area in the north @-@ west corner , called the " Eye " , has been farmed since the earliest human habitation . It was 28 ha ( 70 acres ) in extent in 1651 , but is now much reduced by coastal erosion . Access to the Eye was by an ancient causeway , passable at low tide . John Heydon started the process of embanking the marshes to reclaim the land in 1522 , and his banks were extended and improved by Dutchman Jan van Hasedunch from 1630 . Simon Britiff , Lord of the local Manor of Cley , completed the scheme by building the bank on the east side of the Cley channel . Only the east and west banks have survived ; the north bank was breached by the sea in 1897 , then rebuilt with a concrete facing , but abandoned after another bad storm in 1921 .
Cley and nearby Blakeney had been prosperous and important ports in the Middle Ages , but land reclamation schemes , especially those by Henry Calthorpe in 1640 just to the west of Cley , led to the silting up of the shipping channel and relocation of the wharf . Further enclosure in the mid @-@ 1820s aggravated the problem , and also allowed the shingle ridge at the beach to block the former tidal channel to the Salthouse marshes to the east of Cley . In an attempt to halt the decline , Thomas Telford was consulted in 1822 , but his recommendations for reducing the silting were not implemented , and by 1840 almost all of Cley 's trade had been lost to Blakeney and other Norfolk ports . The population stagnated , and the value of all property decreased sharply . In the mid @-@ nineteenth century , the Lord of the Manor constructed the present road to the beach in exchange for closing the ancient right of way across the marshes .
In the decades preceding World War I , this stretch of coast became famous for its wildfowling ; locals were looking for food , but some " Gentleman Gunners " hunted to collect rare birds . One of the best known of the latter was E. C. Arnold , who collected for more than fifty years , and gave his name to the marsh at the north @-@ east corner of the present reserve .
= = = Nature reserve era = = =
Cley Marshes reserve was created in 1926 when Norfolk birdwatcher Dr Sydney Long bought the land which now makes up the reserve for the sum of £ 5 @,@ 100 , to be held " in perpetuity as a bird breeding sanctuary " . Long then established the Norfolk Wildlife Trust .
The reserve was extended in 1962 through the lease of the adjacent 11 @-@ hectare ( 27 @-@ acre ) Arnold 's Marsh from the National Trust ; this had long been the primary feeding area for waders , but much of the best habitat had been lost to the advancing shingle ridge . New pools and hides were created on the reserve from 1964 , and the sale of permits for access to the hides became a useful source of income for the NWT . Further pools and hides were established during the 1970s , and a visitor centre was built in 1981 on the site of the current building .
Over the long history of the reserve , it has had only three wardens , all from the same family . Robert Bishop was warden from 1926 to 1937 , and was followed by his grandson , Billy , from 1937 to 1978 . Billy 's son , Bernard , who was appointed in 1978 , is still managing the reserve .
The reserve now covers 176 hectares ( 430 acres ) , and is of international importance for its breeding and wintering birds . It was designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) in 1954 , and in 1986 it was subsumed into the 7 @,@ 700 @-@ hectare ( 19 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ) North Norfolk Coast SSSI . The larger area is now additionally protected through Natura 2000 , Special Protection Area ( SPA ) and Ramsar listings , and is part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . The reserve has been referred to as " a Mecca for birdwatchers " .
= = = Second World War coastal fortifications = = =
During the Second World War , Royal Artillery military fortifications were established at the beach end of the reserve , including two 6 @-@ inch ( 15 @.@ 24 cm ) guns , five buildings , two pillboxes , a minefield , and concrete anti @-@ tank blocks . A spigot mortar emplacement and an Allan Williams Turret machine gun emplacement were sited closer to the village . One of the pillboxes and remains of the beach gun emplacements were still surviving as of 2012 .
The military camp held 160 men and was later used to hold prisoners of war . Italian , but not German , prisoners were allowed to attend dances at the anti @-@ aircraft camp at nearby Stiffkey . Near the end of the war , the camp was used to house East European refugees , and it was finally pulled down in 1948 . Many of the wartime buildings were destroyed by the Royal Engineers in 1955 , but the generator house was taken over by the coastguard service as an observation post . It was acquired by the NWT in 1983 , and the upper part was used as a look @-@ out , while the larger lower section became a beach café . The building was overwhelmed by shingle in a storm in 2008 and subsequently demolished .
= = Access and facilities = =
The reserve is to the north of the A149 coast road just east of the village of Cley next the Sea , 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) north of Holt . The visitor centre and car park are to the south of the road , opposite the reserve . The reserve can be reached by public transport using the bus service that stops outside the visitor centre .
The reserve is viewable from the visitor centre , footpaths next to the A149 and down the East Bank , the beach and the road running from the beach back to the main road . It can be accessed by footpaths at three points , each leading to one or more bird hides . Beach Road and the beach itself form part of the Peddars Way long distance footpath .
The present visitor centre , which opened in June 2007 , is on a small hill overlooking the reserve . It contains a café and shop , and is open daily . The reserve and hides are open at all times , with free access to NWT members , although non @-@ members must buy a permit .
The visitor centre is built on environmentally friendly principles . Its roof is covered with living sedum plants , rainwater is collected for re @-@ use , and the building 's energy profile is reduced using solar water heating , wind turbines and geothermal heat pumps . It has won a number of awards including the Emirates Glass LEAF architectural award for the sustainability category . The success of the centre has led to plans to develop it further , offering more services and educational facilities and enhancing its profitability for the Trust . The centre and four of the five bird hides are accessible to wheelchair users .
In 2012 the NWT launched a public appeal to raise £ 1 million to purchase 58 hectares ( 143 acres ) of private land immediately to the east of the existing reserve , and adjoining the existing 66 ha ( 163 acre ) Trust reserve at Salthouse Marshes . This purchase would create a unified 8 km ( 5 mi ) stretch of NWT @-@ owned coastal land and expand the Cley reserve by one @-@ third .
= = Fauna and flora = =
= = = Birds = = =
The key breeding species are reed bed specialists such as the marsh harrier , Eurasian bittern and bearded reedling , and the island @-@ nesting avocet . Other birds nesting in the wetland include northern lapwing , common redshank and sedge , reed and Cetti 's warblers . Eurasian spoonbills , ruffs and black @-@ tailed godwits are present for much of the year , and a pair of little egrets bred for the first time in 2010 – 2012 .
Spring migrants including little gull , black tern , Temminck 's stint and garganey may pass through on their way to breed elsewhere , and terns frequently visit from the colonies on Blakeney Point . In the autumn , birds arrive from the north . Some , such as whimbrels , curlew sandpipers and little stints , just pausing for a few days to refuel before continuing south , others staying for the winter . Offshore , great and Arctic skuas , northern gannets and black @-@ legged kittiwakes may pass close by in favourable winds . Large numbers of ducks winter on the reserve , including many Eurasian wigeons , Eurasian teals , mallards and gadwalls , goldeneyes and northern pintails . Red @-@ throated divers are usually on the sea , and brent geese feed on sea lettuce and other green algae . Barn owls and sometimes hen harriers quarter the marshes in winter , and snow bunting flocks can be found on the beach .
The reserve 's location means that migrants may be found , sometimes in huge numbers when the weather conditions are right . These may include vagrant rarities , including a western sandpiper in 2012 , a displaying great snipe in 2011 , a trumpeter finch in 2010 and a collared pratincole in 2009 . In order to maintain a good habitat , parts of the reed bed are cut and sold for thatch each year to establish a mosaic of plants of different ages .
= = = Other animals = = =
Water voles are a highly threatened species in the UK , with a huge decline in numbers of 70 – 90 % , mainly due to predation by the introduced American mink , but also habitat loss and water pollution . They are still common at Cley , which is one of a number of East Anglian sites now of national importance for this species . Brown hares are widespread , and European otters may be seen , with spraints regularly found at the southern end of East Bank . The common frog , common toad and common lizard all occur on the reserve .
Arnold 's Marsh and the other lagoons nearest the beach are salty due to the percolation of seawater through the shingle bank . These saline lagoons may cover mud , firm sand or submerged vegetation , and hold some rare and threatened invertebrates including starlet sea anemone , lagoon sand shrimp , Atlantic ditch shrimp , the mysid shrimps Paramysis nouveli and Neomysis integer , lagoon cockle , the bug Orthotylus rubidus and spire snail . Little whirlpool ramshorn snail has been found in a freshwater channel . Rare beetles associated with these coastal environments include yellow pogonus , Bembidion ephippium and Tachys scutellaris . These marshes are the only reliable UK site for the Pogonus species , and even here it is localised and hard to find .
= = = Plants = = =
The shingle ridge that protects the reserve from the sea and extends to Blakeney Point attracts biting stonecrop , sea campion , yellow horned poppy , sea thrift , bird 's foot trefoil and sea beet . Sea barley is a scarcer species of this habitat . In the damper areas , sea wormwood , sea lavender and scrubby sea @-@ blite also thrive . The saltmarsh contains glassworts and common cord grass in the most exposed regions , with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established : first sea aster , then mainly sea lavender , with sea purslane in the creeks and smaller areas of sea plantain and other common marsh plants . The uncommon spiral tasselweed and long @-@ bracted sedge are other saltmarsh specialists . The upper saltmarsh has a number of scarce species including lesser centaury , curved hard @-@ grass and sea pearlwort , with soft hornwort in the dykes .
The drier areas of the reserve contain maritime grasses such as sea couch grass and sea poa grass . The reedbeds are dominated by common reed with saltmarsh rush , brackish water crowfoot , sea clubrush and common bulrush also common in the various wetland habitats . The coastal pastures at Cley and the adjacent Salthouse Marshes have jointleaf rush , common silverweed and less common grasses such as annual beard grass , marsh foxtail and slender hare 's @-@ ear . The site is generally rich in plants , especially those that can cope with saline environments , but three species appear to have been lost : divided sedge was last recorded in 1999 , grey hair @-@ grass in 1982 and lax @-@ flowered sea lavender in 1977 . Lichens are not suited to the prevailing habitat , but the nationally rare soot lichen occurs on untreated wood . The locally rare bryophyte Heim 's pottia occurs in the saltmarsh , and the coastal variety piliferum of cuspidate earth @-@ moss is found at Salthouse .
= = Recreation = =
A 2005 survey at Cley and five other North Norfolk coastal sites found that 39 per cent of visitors gave birdwatching as the main purpose of their visit . The 7 @.@ 7 million day visitors and 5 @.@ 5 million who made overnight stays in the area in 1999 are estimated to have spent £ 122 million , and created the equivalent of 2 @,@ 325 full @-@ time jobs . Cley Marshes , like Titchwell Marsh RSPB and Holkham NNR , attracts 100 @,@ 000 or more visitors annually .
Of the six sites , Cley and Titchwell have the highest proportion of pre @-@ planned visits , and Cley , together with neighbouring Blakeney , had the highest per capita spend per visitor . The equivalent of 52 full @-@ time jobs in the Cley area are estimated to result from the £ 2 @.@ 45 million spent by the visiting public .
The large number of tourists can have negative effects ; wildlife may be disturbed , particularly species that breed in exposed areas , such as ringed plovers , and plants can be trampled , which is a particular problem in sensitive habitats such as sand dunes and vegetated shingle . Damage can be reduced by measures such as wardening the breeding colonies and using fences , boardwalks and signs to control access . The access paths to the hides , other than the northernmost , are largely boardwalked , and an extensive programme of fence replacement and improvements to the control of water levels on the reserve took place in 2010 – 2011 .
= = Threats = =
The reserve shelters behind a ridge of shingle that runs west from Weybourne along the Norfolk coast , before becoming a spit extending into the sea at Blakeney Point . Saltmarshes can develop behind the shingle , but the sea attacks the ridge and spit through tidal and storm action . The amount of shingle moved by a single storm can be " spectacular " ; the spit has sometimes been breached , becoming an island for a time , and this may happen again . The northernmost part of nearby Blakeney was lost to the sea in the early Middle Ages , probably due to a storm .
The spit is moving towards the mainland at about 1 m per year , and for the last two hundred years maps have been accurate enough for the encroachment of the sea to be quantified . Blakeney Chapel , just west of the reserve , was 400 m ( 440 yd ) from the sea in 1817 , but this had reduced to 195 m ( 215 yd ) by the end of the twentieth century . The landward movement of the shingle also means that the channel of the River Glaven becomes blocked increasingly often , leading to flooding of the reserve and Cley village . The Environment Agency considered a number of remedial options to protect these vulnerable areas , and a new route for the river to the south of its original line was completed in 2007 at a cost of about £ 1 @.@ 5 million .
The sea defences at Cley were badly breached in 1742 , 1897 , 1953 and 1996 , with smaller incursions in 1993 and 1998 . The massive 1953 flood reached 8 km ( 4 mi ) inland at Cley . A 2 m ( 6 ft ) storm surge in December 2013 flooded much of the English east coast , and breached the shingle ridge at Cley , flooding the reserve and damaging or destroying the hides . Restoration of the reserve was assisted by Natural England , and the removal of salt was helped by natural freshwater springs . As of 2015 , the reserve was fully restored and functioning .
Although the financial benefits from the recreational value of the reserve currently outweigh the costs of maintaining the sea defences , managed retreat is likely to be the long @-@ term solution to rising sea levels at Cley and along much of the rest of the North Norfolk coast , and has already been implemented at other major sites including Titchwell Marsh . The important reedbeds at Cley will inevitably be lost due to increased saltwater flow into the marshes . To compensate , the Environment Agency and the Norfolk Wildlife Trust have been working since 2010 to make a new wetland near Hilgay . The 60 @-@ hectare ( 150 @-@ acre ) Hilgay Wetland Creation Project is converting former farmland into a variety of wetland habitats by using banks , ditches and a lake to manage water levels . The Trust sees this as the first stage of a long @-@ term plan to create a roughly 10 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare ( 25 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ) Wissey Living Landscape .
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= Neifi Pérez =
Neifi Neftali Pérez ( / ˈneɪfi / or / ˈnɛfi / ; Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈneifi ] ; born June 2 , 1973 in Villa Mella , Dominican Republic ) is a former Major League baseball player . He stands 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall and weighs 175 pounds ( 79 kg ) . He was a switch hitter who threw right @-@ handed . During his career , he played with the Colorado Rockies , Kansas City Royals , San Francisco Giants , Chicago Cubs , and Detroit Tigers .
Pérez was originally signed by the Colorado Rockies in 1992 . Frequently praised for his defensive skills , Pérez reached the major leagues in 1996 and become the Rockies ' shortstop for good in 1997 . Over the next three years , he scarcely missed a game and won a Gold Glove in 2000 . During 2001 , he was traded to the Kansas City Royals , where he also played in 2002 . The trade proved to be unpopular with both teams , and Pérez joined the San Francisco Giants for 2003 and 2004 . He lost his starting job during the 2004 season and was released during that year . Pérez then signed with the Chicago Cubs , whom he finished the season with and spent most of the next two years with . He was the Cubs ' starting shortstop in 2005 but was used as a reserve player in 2006 before getting traded to the Detroit Tigers during the year . He finished his career in 2007 with the Tigers . As a Tiger , he turned a double play which saved Justin Verlander 's no @-@ hitter , but he also had a series of positive tests for amphetamines which effectively ended his career .
= = Career = =
= = = Colorado Rockies = = =
As a child , Pérez played for Liga Mercedes in the Dominican Republic . The Colorado Rockies signed him as an undrafted free agent in 1992 at the age of 18 . Assigned to the single @-@ A Bend Rockies for the 1993 season , Pérez posted a .260 batting average and stole 19 bases . The Rockies , confident in Pérez 's potential , promoted him to the single @-@ A Central Valley Rockies . Pérez exhibited strong defensive skills , executing the first unassisted triple play in the history of the California League in a game against the Bakersfield Blaze . Pérez batted just .239 on the year but made the California League All @-@ Star game and was considered to be one of the Rockies ' top prospects on the basis of his defense . Rockies player development chief Dick Balderson expressed confidence that Pérez 's hitting would improve : " He 's got all the skills ... He 's just in a rush right now , like most young guys . "
Pérez moved up to the double @-@ AA New Haven Ravens where he batted .253 and improved his fielding percentage to .967 and was considered the Rockies ' top prospect at shortstop . The Rockies promoted Pérez to triple @-@ A Colorado Springs Sky Sox at the end of the 1995 season with the intention of bringing him up to the major leagues the next year . In fact , although Pérez was invited to 1996 spring training , he spent most of year with the Sky Sox and was not called up until the end of August , making his major league debut on August 31 . In his season with the Sky Sox , his batting average had improved to .316 . Commented Rockies manager Don Baylor : " He is the guy who had the year that traditionally earns a call up . I want to see what he can do . " Pérez hit .156 over 17 games and returned to the Sky Sox for the beginning of the 1997 season .
Although invited to 1997 spring training Pérez did not make the 25 @-@ man roster and once again returned to the Sky Sox for the first half of the season , where he batted .363 with a .975 fielding percentage . In mid @-@ June the Rockies summoned him in place of Jason Bates , this time for good . Pérez batted .291 on the year and gradually replaced Walt Weiss as the starting shortstop . Pérez remained Colorado 's primary shortstop for the next three seasons ( 1998 – 2000 ) , appearing in all but five games . His batting average hovered around .280 ( .274 , .280 , .287 ) and he averaged thirty doubles a year . His fielding percentage never dropped below .975 and he won a Gold Glove for the 2000 season . Despite his later reputation for anemic hitting , Pérez managed several offensive feats with the Rockies . On July 25 , 1998 , he hit for the cycle against the St. Louis Cardinals . In 1999 he tied Bobby Abreu and José Offerman for the most triples in Major League Baseball with 11 . Pérez got off to a strong start in 2001 but there was doubt over his future with Colorado . The Rockies had offered him a 4 @-@ year , $ 17 million contract which he had rejected ; accepting a 1 @-@ year $ 3 @.@ 55 million deal via arbitration . In the end the Rockies dealt Pérez to the Kansas City Royals as part of a three @-@ way deal in which the Royals sent Jermaine Dye to the Oakland Athletics who then sent Mario Encarnación , José Ortiz and Todd Belitz to Colorado . Denver Post sportswriter Woody Paige criticized the move , calling Pérez " the best shortstop in the National League " who was " an extraordinary defensive player , a capable offensive player and a classy team player . "
= = = Kansas City Royals = = =
Pérez arrived in Kansas City amid widespread anger over the departure of fan @-@ favorite Dye . Facing off against Dye in one of his first games as a Royal , Pérez took the low @-@ key approach : " I 'm just going to play my game . " Pérez finished out the 2001 season in Kansas City , batting .241 over 49 games . Pérez started at shortstop for the 2002 season but his batting average sank to .236 , leading sportswriters to question whether the rarefied air at Coors Field had inflated Pérez 's numbers . Pérez also may have sealed his fate by refusing to enter a late @-@ season game at the request of manager Tony Peña . At the end of the year the Royals were looking to move Pérez and his $ 4 @.@ 1 million salary ; he was eventually claimed off waivers by the San Francisco Giants and signed a two @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 25 million contract .
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
At the Giants Pérez hoped for a fresh start ; rumors had swirled in Kansas City about problems in the clubhouse , and it was no secret that the trade had been deeply unpopular in both Denver and Kansas City . Commented Pérez : " I feel happy here . I like the National League . I was happy in Colorado and I am happy here . " Pérez hit .256 over the course of the 2003 season ; an improvement on his previous season but a far cry from the Colorado days . Pérez returned for the 2004 season , but the situation in San Francisco had become uncomfortable . Although signed as a starter at second base , he quickly became backup to José Cruz , Jr . , while he lost out at shortstop to Deivi Cruz . His batting average slumped to .232 . He had a staunch defender in manager Felipe Alou , but in the end he was the " odd man out " and the Giants released him on August 14 , 2004 . Almost immediately the Chicago Cubs signed Pérez to a minor @-@ league contract .
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
The Cubs assigned Pérez to the triple @-@ A Iowa Cubs , but he played only ten games before being called up to the expanded roster on September 1 . Pérez became a much needed spark plug in the lineup , going 6 for 6 in his first 6 at @-@ bats as a Cub and providing a needed backup to the ailing Nomar Garciaparra . In 23 games with the Cubs he hit .371 . The Cubs re @-@ signed Pérez to a one @-@ year contract worth $ 1 million , with up to an additional $ 1 @.@ 5 million in bonuses .
Manager Dusty Baker made Pérez the everyday shortstop in 2005 to replace Garciaparra , mainly on the strength of his defensive skills . His impatience at the plate led to a walk percentage of 3 @.@ 1 % , the worst in the National League . Pérez finished the season batting .274 , and his play at short won rave reviews from Baker : " It 's hard to play better shortstop defensively than Neifi has . " In the off @-@ season the Cubs signed Pérez to a two @-@ year , $ 5 million contract .
For the 2006 season Pérez lost the starting job at shortstop to Ronny Cedeño , and found himself playing a mixture of second base and short behind Cedeno and Todd Walker . Meanwhile , Pérez 's batting average sagged to .254 , while his on @-@ base percentage , never high , had fallen to .266 . In late August the Cubs traded him to the Detroit Tigers for minor @-@ league catcher Chris Robinson . The Tigers were seeking a replacement for their injured second baseman , Plácido Polanco , who had separated his shoulder .
= = = Detroit Tigers = = =
Pérez arrived in Detroit during the pennant chase which ended with their loss in the 2006 World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals . Pérez faced almost immediate criticism from fans after getting off to a .157 start , and manager Jim Leyland felt obliged to come to his defense : " These guys making a big deal about Neifi Pérez and Omar Infante don 't know what they 're talking about . They got no clue . " Pérez made 21 appearances during the regular season , with a batting average of .200 and an OBP of .235 . He appeared in three games during the playoffs but never reached base .
The Tigers retained Pérez for the 2007 season , although Leyland acknowledged that Pérez would have to improve his play : " I recommended that we trade for him . I take responsibility . I don 't want people to get the wrong impression . I like Neifi Pérez , but he did not perform well . It 's that simple . " Pérez , however , continued to struggle , posting a .172 batting average over the 33 games he played in a Tigers ' uniform . One bright spot came on June 12 , 2007 , when he saved Justin Verlander 's no @-@ hitter against the Milwaukee Brewers by turning a possible base hit into an inning @-@ ending double play .
On July 6 , 2007 , Pérez was suspended 25 games by MLB for a second positive test for amphetamines ; on August 3 he was suspended an additional 80 games for a third positive test . On October 31 , 2007 , Pérez filed for free agency , ending his association with Tigers .
= = = Possible comeback = = =
In February 2008 there was talk of the Colorado Rockies signing Pérez to a minor league contract worth $ 750 @,@ 000 , which manager Clint Hurdle characterized as a " lifeline . " In the end Colorado backed out , citing younger players competing for the same position .
= = Foreign = =
Pérez has also had a significant foreign career . He participated in the Caribbean Series and was named the Series MVP in 1998 and 1999 . In 2012 , he was inducted into the Caribbean Baseball Hall of Fame . He played in the Dominican Professional Baseball League for Leones del Escogido with personal success , batting over .300 . In 2004 , he helped Escogido score 18 runs in an inning . In 2006 , he played in the Dominican Republic @-@ Puerto Rico All @-@ Star Game .
= = Legacy = =
Pérez 's poor offense after Colorado traded him to the Royals overshadowed his defensive skills . He was widely criticized because of his low on @-@ base percentage ( career .297 ) and lack of power . Nate Silver , a baseball statistician who analyzed Pérez 's statistics ( specifically value over replacement player ( VORP ) ) , concluded that Pérez had a negative impact on the teams he played for . Chicago sportswriter Bruce Miles called Pérez " one of the worst offensive players in baseball history . "
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= William Bostock =
Air Vice Marshal William Dowling ( Bill ) Bostock , CB , DSO , OBE ( 5 February 1892 – 28 April 1968 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . During World War II he led RAAF Command , the Air Force 's main operational formation , with responsibility for the defence of Australia and air offensives against Japanese targets in the South West Pacific Area . His achievements in the role earned him the Distinguished Service Order and the American Medal of Freedom . General Douglas MacArthur described him as " one of the world 's most successful airmen " .
A veteran of World War I , Bostock first saw combat as a soldier in the Australian Imperial Force at Gallipoli , then as a pilot in the Royal Flying Corps on the Western Front , where he earned the Belgian Croix de guerre . He joined the newly formed RAAF in 1921 and by 1941 had risen to become its third most senior officer , serving as Director of Training from 1930 to 1931 , commanding officer of No. 3 Squadron from 1931 to 1936 , and Director of Operations and Intelligence from 1938 to 1939 .
The Deputy Chief of the Air Staff at the outbreak of World War II , Bostock was considered a leading candidate for the position of Chief of the Air Staff in 1942 but was passed over in favour of Air Commodore George Jones , a friend of twenty years . Appointed Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command soon after , Bostock became involved in a bitter and long @-@ running dispute with Jones over control of the Air Force in the South West Pacific . Following his retirement from the RAAF in 1946 , he became a journalist and later a Federal Member of Parliament .
= = Early life and World War I = =
Bostock was born in Surry Hills , an inner @-@ city suburb of Sydney , to an English father , also named William , and a Spanish mother , Mary . He was educated at The School , Mount Victoria , in the Blue Mountains region of New South Wales , where he completed his junior certificate . The family later moved to Burwood , in Sydney 's Inner West . After leaving school Bostock was employed as an apprentice with the Marconi Company for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , and spent time at sea as a wireless operator .
In November 1914 , Bostock joined the 2nd Signal Troop of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) as a sapper . He landed at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 , serving there until August , when he was evacuated suffering from dysentery . He returned to active duty in January 1916 , and was made lance corporal the following month . Promoted to sergeant , Bostock was posted to Egypt with the ANZAC Mounted Division in April 1916 , and saw action against Turkish forces in the Sinai Peninsula .
Bostock transferred from the AIF to the Royal Flying Corps Special Reserve on 18 February 1917 , and was commissioned as a probationary second lieutenant . He was posted to No. 48 Squadron in August , following pilot training in Egypt and England . Bostock fought on the Western Front and was awarded the Belgian Croix de guerre . He was invalided back to Britain in March 1918 , after which he transferred to the newly created Royal Air Force ( RAF ) .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Bostock married his Australian fiancée , Gwendolen Norton , in Southampton on 6 March 1919 . The couple had two daughters , one of whom , Gwendolen Joan , would serve as a cipher officer in the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) during World War II . Bostock retired from the RAF and returned to civilian life in Australia that October . In September 1921 , he joined the recently formed Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and was commissioned a flying officer . He became a friend and mentor to Flying Officer ( later Air Marshal Sir ) George Jones , another World War I veteran , who had flown with the Australian Flying Corps and had joined the Air Force in March . By mid @-@ 1922 Bostock had been promoted to flight lieutenant .
Having served at No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , Point Cook , since entering the RAAF , Bostock was posted to Britain in 1926 to attend RAF Staff College , Andover . While there he was admonished by the college 's commandant , via letter , due to the particular school he had chosen for his daughter and because he did his own gardening ; Bostock was said to have returned the letter marked " noted and ignored " . On his return to Australia as a squadron leader in 1928 , he took charge of No. 1 FTS , and became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , in December 1929 . From 1931 to 1936 Bostock was commanding officer ( CO ) of No. 3 Squadron , flying Westland Wapitis and , later , Hawker Demons . At the time , his position as No. 3 Squadron commander doubled as CO of the unit 's base , RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales . A wing commander from 1934 , he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the King 's Birthday Honours on 31 May 1935 . Following a two @-@ year posting in Britain on the staff of No. 1 Bomber Group , Bostock was promoted to group captain on 1 September 1938 and made Director of Operations and Intelligence . Within a year he had become Deputy Chief of the Air Staff .
= = World War II = =
= = = Deputy Chief of the Air Staff = = =
The Deputy Chief of the Air Staff position that Bostock occupied at the outbreak of World War II was a new one that initially augmented , and later supplanted , an existing Assistant Chief of the Air Staff role . Unlike the Assistant Chief , the Deputy had the authority to act in place of the Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) if required . This increased status saw Bostock given a place on Australia 's Joint Planning Committee . He was the RAAF 's delegate to a defence conference in Singapore in October 1940 , where the Australian contingent found the local forces ill @-@ prepared for an attack by the Japanese , and recommended significant increases in air capability , both in Australia and the Pacific Islands , to meet the threat . Bostock rose rapidly in rank during this period , becoming acting air commodore on 1 June 1940 and substantive air vice marshal on 1 October 1941 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1942 New Year Honours .
Third in seniority in the RAAF after Air Marshal Richard Williams and Air Vice Marshal Stanley Goble , and considered to be " among the Air Force 's best brains " at the time , Bostock was a prime candidate for the position of CAS in May 1942 . He was also first choice of the incumbent CAS , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , whose two @-@ year term was coming to an end . However , Bostock 's closeness to Burnett , who had made no secret of his contempt for John Curtin 's Federal Labor government , damaged his chances for selection and his friend , George Jones , then only a substantive wing commander and acting air commodore , took the position . Although he had expected to be made CAS , Bostock warmly congratulated Jones , possibly expecting that his ( Bostock 's ) new role as chief of staff to the Commander of Allied Air Forces , Lieutenant General George Brett , with responsibility for air operations in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , would prove the more important appointment in a time of war .
= = = Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command = = =
In August 1942 , General Douglas MacArthur , Supreme Commander SWPA , replaced Lieutenant General Brett with Major General ( later General ) George Kenney . Kenney created two new formations subordinate to Allied Air Forces Headquarters : the US Fifth Air Force and RAAF Command . Bostock was chosen to be Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command , with twenty @-@ four Australian squadrons at his disposal plus one each from the Netherlands , the United Kingdom and the United States . The only Australian air combat units in the SWPA not under Bostock 's command were those based in New Guinea as No. 9 Operational Group RAAF ( No. 9 OG ) , controlled by Fifth Air Force . RAAF Command was charged with defending Australia , except in the north @-@ east , protecting the sea lanes to New Guinea , and conducting operations against Japanese shipping , airfields and other installations in the Dutch East Indies .
By the end of 1943 , No. 9 OG , originally the RAAF 's mobile strike force , had become engaged in static garrison duties in New Guinea . Bostock proposed that it be renamed Northern Area Command to better reflect its current function . Kenney asked Bostock to raise a new RAAF mobile formation , which led to the establishment of No. 10 Operational Group ( No. 10 OG ) on 13 November 1943 at Nadzab , under the command of Group Captain Frederick Scherger . In February 1944 , RAAF Command took over many of the units of No. 9 OG , as well as responsibility for the Port Moresby and Milne Bay sectors . Bostock again recommended changing No. 9 OG 's name to Northern Area , and also proposed changing No. 10 OG 's name to Tactical Air Force , RAAF , in view of its increased strength from the infusion of new squadrons . On 11 April , No. 9 OG became Northern Command . On 14 September 1944 , Bostock had an audience with Prime Minister Curtin , wherein the latter outlined his preferences for the deployment of RAAF Command , particularly that it should be represented in forward Allied operations , and employed primarily in the support of Australian ground forces . Bostock concurred with Curtin ; the Prime Minister meanwhile authorised changing No. 10 OG 's name to First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) , with effect from 25 October . RAAF Command 's complement had now swelled to forty @-@ one Australian squadrons .
On 15 March 1945 , Bostock established a forward headquarters on Morotai Island to directly control No. 1 TAF for the upcoming Oboe operations , the reoccupation of Borneo . Kenney gave him responsibility for all Allied air operations south of the Philippines , and the Royal New Zealand Air Force ( RNZAF ) units which were based in the Solomon Islands to support the Bougainville Campaign were assigned to RAAF Command . Bostock wrote to Kenney , " I am particularly anxious that the 1st Tactical Air Force should continue to be employed as a forward offensive formation rather than in a garrison role " . In April , Kenney 's Allied Air Headquarters issued an order that Bostock would be named Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief RAAF Command , because he had several Air Officers Commanding ( AOCs ) reporting to him . Bostock duly passed on this change of nomenclature to his subordinate units but Air Force Headquarters in Melbourne vetoed the change in June .
Bostock had control of the USAAF Fifth and Thirteenth Air Forces , as well as No. 1 TAF , during Operation Oboe One , the invasion of Tarakan , commencing 1 May 1945 . By this time RAAF Command comprised some 17 @,@ 000 personnel . On Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of Labuan – Brunei in June , Bostock also had at his disposal aircraft based in Australia under Western and North @-@ Western Area Commands . For Operation Oboe Two , the invasion of Balikpapan in July , Bostock marshalled forty Allied squadrons . His aim , in concert with that of Kenney and I Corps commander Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead , was to deliver the heaviest aerial bombardment possible against enemy targets , to enable Australian assault forces to land with minimal casualties . Together with a naval barrage , this resulted in a " scene of indescribable ruin " on the battlefield , and allowed seventeen waves of troops to disembark their landing craft without loss . MacArthur called the Labuan air offensive " flawless " , while General Sir Thomas Blamey , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Australian Military Forces , congratulated Bostock on his " high order of control " and " ready and full cooperation " throughout the Borneo campaign .
= = = Rivalry with George Jones = = =
From 1942 , the structure of the RAAF was divided such that Bostock was in operational charge of the Air Force in the South West Pacific but relied on Air Vice Marshal Jones as CAS for supplies of manpower and equipment , while Jones was nominally in command of the entire RAAF but played no part in directing its major air operations against Japan . The situation was a source of " acute personal tension " between the two senior officers for the remainder of the war . It was exacerbated by the fact that while the CAS was de jure head of the RAAF , Jones ' rank of air vice marshal was no higher than Bostock 's . Air Force historian Alan Stephens later commented : " The system of divided command ... was not an ideal arrangement , but with men of goodwill it could have worked . Regrettably Bostock and Jones were not of that mind ... "
Bostock 's relationship to Kenney permitted him to ignore operational requests from Jones , while Jones continued to assert administrative control over Bostock 's command . When Jones tried to remove Bostock from RAAF Command in April 1943 and replace him with Air Commodore Joe Hewitt , AOC of No. 9 Operational Group , Bostock appealed to Kenney , who advised Jones that he was opposed to any such change of command . Kenney threatened to escalate the matter to the Australian government , and some time later MacArthur told Curtin that Hewitt " was not an adequate replacement " for Bostock . The matter was allowed to drop , but the rivalry continued . In January 1945 , an acrimonious series of cables was exchanged between the two Air Vice Marshals . Jones complained to Bostock of the latter 's " insubordinate tone " and " repeated attempts to usurp authority of this Headquarters " . Bostock replied that as AOC RAAF Command he was " responsible to Commander , Allied Air Forces , and not , repeat not , subordinate to you " , and that he would " continue to take the strongest exception to your unwarranted and uninformed interference " .
Their feud was blamed for contributing to the low morale that precipitated the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " of April 1945 , when a group of senior pilots in the First Tactical Air Force submitted their resignations rather than continue to attack what they believed to be worthless targets . Alerted to the issue by No. 1 TAF 's commander , Air Commodore Harry Cobby , Bostock appealed to the pilots to withdraw their resignations . His methods were construed as an attempt to " make the situation go away or to at least cover it up " ; one of the " mutineers " , Squadron Leader John Waddy , quoted Bostock as saying , " I will leave these applications on the table and if you pick them up , all records and all notes of any of this affair will be expunged from Air Force records and files and nothing will be heard about it " . When the pilots refused to drop the matter , Bostock signalled Jones , advising that he found morale on the island to be at a " dangerously low level " and recommending the CAS replace Cobby with Air Commodore Scherger . Kenney concurred with Bostock , and Jones sacked Cobby . A subsequent investigation vindicated the stand taken by the pilots ; one of them , Wing Commander Kenneth Ranger , told the inquiry of Jones and Bostock : " I deplore the fighting and wrangling between them which is common knowledge throughout the Air Force . Every week there are instances of it . "
The conflict between the commanders reached its nadir during the invasion of Tarakan in May 1945 , when Jones grounded RAAF bomber squadrons scheduled to take part in the attack due to their crews having exceeded their monthly quota of flying hours . Bostock was not consulted about the decision and fully expected to see Australian aircraft as he watched for the Allied formations from a US warship during the battle . He later said that he would have thankfully " fallen through a crack in the boards on the deck " when he saw only American aircraft flying overhead , and had to apologise to Kenney for the RAAF 's absence . Over all , the dual system of control and the tension between its two senior officers confused the RAAF 's efforts in the field and reduced its influence on Allied strategy in the Pacific .
= = Later life = =
Bostock and Jones represented the RAAF at the Japanese surrender aboard USS Missouri on 2 September 1945 . RAAF Command was disbanded the same day . Bostock was one of several senior Air Force commanders summarily retired early in 1946 , in his case six years before the compulsory retirement age of 60 . Among the reasons for Bostock 's dismissal were , according to private government papers , an " inability to work in harmony with certain other high ranking RAAF officers " , and " lack of balance and appreciation of responsibility " . He appealed the decision , citing a letter from MacArthur that described him as " one of the world 's most successful airmen ... superior in every respect " , but was unsuccessful . Newspapers raised questions about Bostock 's departure , The Herald in Melbourne speculating on the part played by rivalries within the service .
After his retirement from the military , Bostock went into journalism and become an aviation correspondent for The Herald . He wrote a series of articles criticising the Air Force 's organisation and presenting his side of the story of RAAF Command , motivated partly by his belief that the official history of Australia in World War II would fail to adequately cover it . The articles caused considerable controversy and prompted the Minister for Air , Arthur Drakeford , to make a formal response in Federal Parliament , labelling Bostock 's allegations " malicious and unjustified " .
Bostock was decorated twice in 1948 for his war service , in March with the Distinguished Service Order " in recognition of distinguished services whilst in command of air operations in the Borneo Campaign during the period March to September , 1945 " , and in April with the American Medal of Freedom with Silver Palm . He entered politics in 1949 , standing as a Liberal Party candidate for the Federal Division of Indi in Victoria . Elected to the House of Representatives , he retained his seat until being defeated in the 1958 poll . Bostock served on a joint committee for foreign affairs and sometimes came into conflict with his own party on matters of defence policy . He continued to contribute to The Herald while in government . During parliamentary debates in 1951 and again in 1957 , Bostock spoke for " an integrated defence force with a single minister " , advocating amalgamation of the four separate Departments of Defence , Air , Navy and Army into one Department of Defence , headed by the Minister for Defence . He further proposed that a single Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief lead the Army , Navy and Air Force ; the Chief of the General Staff , the Chief of the Naval Staff , and the Chief of the Air Staff would report directly to the new position . In 1973 the single @-@ service departments were abolished in favour of an all @-@ encompassing Department of Defence , and by 1984 a Chief of the Defence Force position had evolved to directly command all three armed services through their respective chiefs .
Bostock 's wife Gwendolen died in 1947 , and he married 33 @-@ year @-@ old Nanette O 'Keefe in Melbourne on 1 June 1951 ; they had three sons . He owned a property near Benalla , in rural Victoria , where he died in 1968 . Survived by his second wife and his five children , Bostock was accorded an Air Force funeral and cremated .
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= Fighting game =
Fighting game is a video game genre in which the player controls an on @-@ screen character and engages in close combat with an opponent . These characters tend to be of equal power and fight matches consisting of several rounds , which take place in an arena . Players must master techniques such as blocking , counter @-@ attacking , and chaining together sequences of attacks known as " combos " . Since the early 1990s , most fighting games allow the player to execute special attacks by performing specific button combinations . The genre is related to but distinct from beat ' em ups , which involve large numbers of antagonists .
The first video game to feature fist fighting was arcade game Heavyweight Champ in 1976 , but it was Karate Champ which popularized one @-@ on @-@ one martial arts games in arcades in 1984 . In 1985 , Yie Ar Kung @-@ Fu featured antagonists with differing fighting styles , while The Way of the Exploding Fist further popularized the genre on home systems . In 1987 , Street Fighter introduced hidden special attacks . In 1991 , Capcom 's highly successful Street Fighter II refined and popularized many of the conventions of the genre . The fighting game subsequently became the preeminent genre for competitive video gaming in the early to mid @-@ 1990s , especially in arcades . This period spawned numerous popular fighting games in addition to Street Fighter , including successful and long running franchises like Mortal Kombat , The King of Fighters , Tekken , Virtua Fighter , Marvel vs. Capcom , Guilty Gear , and Killer Instinct .
The genre 's popularity stagnated as games became more complicated and as arcades began to lose their audience to increasingly powerful home consoles near the end of the 1990s , though new franchises such as Dead or Alive and the Soul series achieved success . In the new millennium , the genre remains popular but retains a much smaller proportion of enthusiasts than it once did , due to the increasing popularity of other genres .
Fighting games are almost always asymmetric games as each player fights in a different way .
= = Definition = =
Fighting games are a type of action game where on @-@ screen characters fight each other . These games typically feature special moves that are triggered using rapid sequences of carefully timed button presses and joystick movements . Games traditionally show fighters from a side @-@ view , even as the genre has progressed from two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) to three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphics . Street Fighter II , though not the first fighting game , popularized and standardized the conventions of the genre , and similar games released prior to Street Fighter II have since been more explicitly classified as fighting games . Fighting games typically involve hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , but may also feature melee weapons .
This genre is distinct from beat ' em ups , another action genre involving combat , where the player character must fight many weaker enemies at the same time . During the 1980s publications used the terms " fighting game " and " beat ' em up " interchangeably , along with other terms such as " martial arts simulation " ( or more specific terms such as " judo simulator " ) . With hindsight , critics have argued that the two types of game gradually became dichotomous as they evolved , though the two terms may still be conflated . Fighting games are sometimes grouped with games that feature boxing , UFC , or wrestling . Serious boxing games belong more to the sports game genre than the action game genre , as they aim for a more realistic model of boxing techniques , whereas moves in fighting games tend to be highly exaggerated models of Asian martial arts techniques . As such , boxing games , mixed martial arts games , and wrestling games are often described as distinct genres , without comparison to fighting games and belong more into the Sports game genre .
= = Game design = =
Fighting games involve combat between pairs of fighters using highly exaggerated martial arts moves . They typically revolve around primarily brawling or combat sport , though some variations feature weaponry . Games usually display on @-@ screen fighters from a side view , and even 3D fighting games play largely within a 2D plane of motion . Games usually confine characters to moving left and right and jumping , although some games such as Fatal Fury : King of Fighters allow players to move between parallel planes of movement . Recent games tend to be rendered in three dimensions and allow side @-@ stepping , but otherwise play like those rendered in two dimensions .
Aside from moving around a restricted space , fighting games limit the player 's actions to different offensive and defensive maneuvers . Players must learn which attacks and defenses are effective against each other , often by trial and error . Blocking is a basic technique that allows a player to defend against attacks . Some games feature more advanced blocking techniques : for example , Capcom 's Street Fighter III features a move termed " parrying " which causes the attacker to become momentarily incapacitated ( a similar state is termed " just defended " in SNK 's Garou : Mark of the Wolves ) . In addition to blows such as punches and kicks , players can utilize throwing or " grappling " to circumvent " blocks " . Predicting opponents ' moves and counter @-@ attacking , known as " countering " , is a common element of gameplay . Fighting games also emphasize the difference between the height of blows , ranging from low to jumping attacks . Thus , strategy becomes important as players attempt to predict each other 's moves , similar to rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors .
= = = Special attacks = = =
An integral feature of fighting games includes the use of " special attacks " , also called " secret moves " , that employ complex combinations of button presses to perform a particular move beyond basic punching and kicking . Combos , in which several attacks are chained together using basic punches and kicks , are another common feature in fighting games and have been fundamental to the genre since the release of Street Fighter II . Some fighting games display a " combo meter " that displays the player 's progress through a combo . The effectiveness of such moves often relate to the difficulty of execution and the degree of risk . These moves are often beyond the ability of a casual gamer and require a player to have both a strong memory and excellent timing . Taunting is another feature of some fighting games and was originally introduced by Japanese company SNK in their game Art of Fighting . It is used to add humor to games , but can also have an effect on gameplay such as improving the strength of other attacks . Sometimes , a character can even be noted especially for taunting ( for example , Dan Hibiki from Street Fighter Alpha ) .
= = = Matches and rounds = = =
Fighting game matches generally consist of several rounds ( typically " best of three " ) ; the player who wins the most rounds wins the match . Fighting games widely feature life bars , which are depleted as characters sustain blows . Each successful attack will deplete a character 's health , and the game continues until a fighter 's energy reaches zero . Hence , the main goal is to completely deplete the life bar of one 's opponent , thus achieving a " knockout " . Beginning with Midway 's Mortal Kombat released in 1992 , the Mortal Kombat series introduced " Fatalities " in which the victor kills a knocked @-@ out opponent in a gruesome manner . Games such as Virtua Fighter also allow a character to be defeated by forcing them outside of the fighting arena , awarding a " ring @-@ out " to the victor . Round decisions can also be determined by time over ( if a timer is present ) , which judges players based on remaining vitality to declare a winner . Fighting games often include a single player campaign or tournament , where the player must defeat a sequence of several computer controlled opponents . Winning the tournament often reveals a special story – ending cutscene , and some games also grant access to hidden characters or special features upon victory .
= = = Character selection = = =
In most fighting games , players may select from a variety of characters who have unique fighting styles and special moves . This became a strong convention for the genre with the release of Street Fighter II , and these character choices have led to deeper game strategy and replay value . Although fighting games offer female characters , their image tends to be hypersexualized , and they have even been featured as pin @-@ up girls in game magazines . Male characters in fighting games tend to have extra @-@ broad chests and shoulders , huge muscles , and prominent jaws . Custom creation , or " create – a – fighter " , is a feature of some fighting games which allows a player to customize the appearance and move set of their own character . Super Fire Pro Wrestling X Premium was the first game to include such a feature , and later fighting games such as Fighter Maker , Soulcalibur III , Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , and Dragon Ball Z : Budokai Tenkaichi 2 adopted the concept .
= = = Multiplayer modes = = =
Fighting games may also offer a multiplayer mode in which players fight each other , sometimes by letting a second player challenge the first at any moment during a single player match . A few titles allow up to four players to compete simultaneously . Several games have also featured modes that involve teams of characters ; players form " tag teams " to fight matches in which combat is one @-@ on @-@ one , but a character may leave the arena to be replaced by a team mate . Some fighting games have also offered the challenge of fighting against multiple opponents in succession , testing the player 's endurance . Newer titles take advantage of online gaming services , although lag created by slow data transmission can disrupt the split @-@ second timing involved in fighting games . The impact of lag in some fighting games has been reduced by using technology such as GGPO , which keeps the players ' games in sync by quickly rolling back to the most recent accurate game state , correcting errors , and then jumping back to the current frame . Games using this technology include Skullgirls and Street Fighter III : 3rd Strike Online Edition .
= = History = =
= = = Late 1970s to 1980s = = =
Fighting games find their origin in boxing games but evolved towards battles between characters with fantastic abilities and complex special maneuvers . Sega 's black and white boxing game Heavyweight Champ , which was released in 1976 , is considered the first video game to feature fist fighting . 1979 's Warrior is another title sometimes credited as one of the first fighting games . In contrast to Heavyweight Champ and most later titles , Warrior was based on sword fighting duels and used a bird 's eye view . In 1983 , Sega released another boxing game Champion Boxing , which was Yu Suzuki 's debut title at Sega . However , Data East and its related developer Technōs Japan 's Karate Champ from 1984 is credited with establishing and popularizing the one @-@ on @-@ one fighting game genre . In it , a variety of moves could be performed using the dual @-@ joystick controls , it used a best @-@ of @-@ three matches format like later fighting games , and it featured training bonus stages . It went on to influence Konami 's Yie Ar Kung Fu , released in January 1985 , which expanded on Karate Champ by pitting the player against a variety of opponents , each with a unique appearance and fighting style . The player could also perform up to sixteen different moves , including projectile attacks . The martial arts game The Way of the Exploding Fist , released in June 1985 , achieved critical success and subsequently afforded the burgeoning genre further popularity on home systems . Numerous other game developers tried to imitate the financial successes of Karate Champ , Yie Ar Kung @-@ Fu and The Way of the Exploding Fist with similar games ; Data East took unsuccessful legal action against Epyx over the computer game International Karate . Also in 1985 , Elite 's Frank Bruno 's Boxing introduced high and low guard , ducking , lateral dodging , and a meter which was built up with successful attacks , and when full enabled a special , more powerful punch , to be thrown .
Both Karate Champ and Yie Ar Kung Fu later provided a template for Capcom 's Street Fighter in 1987 . Street Fighter found its own niche in the gaming world , partially because many arcade game developers in the 1980s focused more on producing beat @-@ em @-@ ups and shoot ' em ups . Part of the game 's appeal was the use of special moves that could only be discovered by experimenting with the game controls , which created a sense of mystique and invited players to practice the game , although similar controller motions used for grappling maneuvers in the earlier Brian Jacks Uchi Mata were deemed too difficult . Following Street Fighter 's lead , the use of command @-@ based hidden moves began to pervade other games in the rising fighting game genre . Street Fighter also introduced other staples of the genre , including the blocking technique as well as the ability for a challenger to jump in and initiate a match against a player at any time . The game also introduced pressure @-@ sensitive controls that determine the strength of an attack , though due to causing damaged arcade cabinets , Capcom replaced it soon after with a six @-@ button control scheme offering light , medium and hard punches and kicks , which became another staple of the genre . In 1988 , Home Data released Reikai Dōshi : Chinese Exorcist , also known as Last Apostle Puppet Show , the first fighting game to use digitized sprites and motion capture animation . Meanwhile , home game consoles largely ignored the genre . Budokan : The Martial Spirit was one of few releases for the Sega Genesis but was not as popular as games in other genres . Technical challenges limited the popularity of early fighting games . Programmers had difficulty producing a game that could recognize the fast motions of a joystick , and so players had difficulty executing special moves with any accuracy .
= = = Early 1990s = = =
The release of Street Fighter II in 1991 is often considered a revolutionary moment in the fighting game genre . Yoshiki Okamoto 's team developed the most accurate joystick and button scanning routine in the genre thus far . This allowed players to reliably execute multi @-@ button special moves , which had previously required an element of luck . The game was also highly successful because its graphics took advantage of Capcom 's CPS arcade chipset , with highly detailed characters and stages . Whereas previous games allowed players to combat a variety of computer @-@ controlled fighters , Street Fighter II allowed players to play against each other . The popularity of Street Fighter II surprised the gaming industry , as arcade owners bought more machines to keep up with demand . Street Fighter II was also responsible for popularizing the combo mechanic , which came about when skilled players learned that they could combine several attacks that left no time for the opponent to recover if they timed them correctly .
SNK released Fatal Fury a few months before Street Fighter II . It was designed by Takashi Nishiyama , the creator of the original Street Fighter , which it was envisioned as a spiritual successor to . Fatal Fury placed more emphasis on storytelling and the timing of special moves , and added a two @-@ plane system where characters could step into the foreground or background . Meanwhile , Sega experimented with Dark Edge , an early attempt at a 3D fighting game where characters could move in all directions . Sega however , never released the game outside Japan because it felt that " unrestrained " 3D fighting games were unenjoyable . Sega also attempted to introduced 3 @-@ D holographic technology to the genre with Holosseum in 1992 , though it was unsuccessful . Several fighting games achieved greater commercial success , including SNK 's Art of Fighting and Samurai Shodown as well as Sega 's Eternal Champions . Nevertheless , Street Fighter II remained the most popular , spawning a special Champion Edition that improved game balance and allowed players to use additional characters . The popularity of Street Fighter II led it to be released for home game consoles and allowed it to define the template for fighting games . Fighting games soon became the dominant genre in the arcade game industry of the early 1990s .
Many American developers tried to capitalize on the template established by Street Fighter II , but it was Chicago 's Midway Games who achieved unprecedented notoriety when they released Mortal Kombat in 1992 . The game featured digital characters drawn from real actors , numerous secrets , and a " Fatality " system of finishing maneuvers with which the player 's character kills their opponent . The game earned a reputation for its gratuitous violence , and was eventually adapted for home game consoles . The home version of Mortal Kombat was released on September 13 , 1993 , a day that was promoted as " Mortal Monday " . The advertising resulted in line @-@ ups to purchase the game and a subsequent backlash from politicians concerned about the game 's violence . The Mortal Kombat franchise would ultimately achieve iconic status similar to that of Street Fighter with several sequels as well as movies , television series , and extensive merchandising . Numerous other game developers tried to imitate Street Fighter II and Mortal Kombat 's financial success with similar games ; Capcom USA took unsuccessful legal action against Data East over the 1993 arcade game Fighter 's History . Data East 's largest objection in court was that their 1984 arcade game Karate Champ was the true originator of the competitive fighting game genre , which predated the original Street Fighter by three years .
Sega AM2 's first attempt in the genre was the 1993 arcade game Burning Rival , but began to attract attention with the release of Virtua Fighter for the same platform the same year . It was the first fighting game with 3D polygon graphics and a viewpoint that zoomed and rotated with the action . Despite the graphics , players were confined to back and forth motion as seen in other fighting games . With only three buttons , it was easier to learn than Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat , having six and five buttons respectively . By the time the game was released for the Sega Saturn in Japan , the game and system were selling at almost a one @-@ to @-@ one ratio . Meanwhile , the 1993 title Mortal Kombat II captivated Western audiences , and a 2008 review considered the best Mortal Kombat game in retrospect .
The 1994 PlayStation launch title Battle Arena Toshinden is credited for taking the genre into " true 3 @-@ D " due to its introduction of the sidestep maneuver , which IGN described as " one little move " that " changed the fighter forever . " The same year , SNK released The King of Fighters ' 94 in arcades , where players choose from teams of three characters to eliminate each other one by one . Eventually , Capcom released further updates to Street Fighter II , including Super Street Fighter II and Super Street Fighter II Turbo . These games featured more characters and new moves , some of which were a response to people who had hacked the original Street Fighter II game to add new features themselves . However , criticism of these updates grew as players demanded a true sequel . By 1995 , the dominant franchises were the Mortal Kombat series in America and Virtua Fighter series in Japan , with Street Fighter Alpha : Warriors ' Dreams unable to match the popularity of Street Fighter II . Throughout this period , the fighting game was the dominant genre in competitive video gaming , with enthusiasts popularly attending arcades in order to find human opponents .
= = = Late 1990s = = =
In the latter part of the 1990s , the fighting game genre began to decline in popularity , with specific franchises falling into difficulty . Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded the excess of fighting games the " Most Appalling Trend " award of 1995 . Although the release of Street Fighter EX introduced 3D graphics to the series and continued the success of Street Fighter II and Street Fighter Alpha , the Street Fighter : The Movie arcade game was regarded as a failure . Street Fighter : The Movie used digitized images from the Street Fighter film . While a home video game also titled Street Fighter : The Movie was released for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn , it is not a port but a separately produced game based on the same premise . Capcom later released Street Fighter III in 1997 which featured improved visuals and character depth , but was also unable to match the impact of Street Fighter II . Despite excitement in Japan over Virtua Fighter 3 in arcades , the limited hardware capabilities of the Sega Saturn led Sega to delay a console release . Sega eventually released the game for its Dreamcast console , but the company became unprofitable and was forced to discontinue the console . Meanwhile , SNK released several fighting games on their Neo @-@ Geo platform , including Samurai Shodown II in 1994 , Real Bout Fatal Fury in 1995 , The Last Blade in 1997 , and annual updates to their The King of Fighters franchise . Garou : Mark of the Wolves from 1999 was considered one of SNK 's last great games , and the company announced that it would close its doors in 2001 .
In retrospect , multiple developers attribute the decline of the fighting genre to its increasing complexity and specialization . This complexity shut out casual players , and the market for fighting games became smaller and more specialized . Furthermore , arcades gradually became less profitable throughout the 1990s due to the increased technical power and popularity of home consoles . Even as popularity dwindled , the fighting game genre continued to evolve ; several strong 3D fighting games also emerged in the late 1990s . Namco 's Tekken ( released in arcades in 1994 and on the PlayStation in 1995 ) proved critical to the PlayStation 's early success , with its sequels also becoming some of the console 's most important titles . The Soul series of weapon @-@ based fighting games also achieved considerable critical success , beginning with 1995 's Soul Edge ( known as Soul Blade outside Japan ) to Soulcalibur V in 2012 . Tecmo released Dead or Alive in Japanese arcades in 1996 , porting it for the PlayStation in 1998 . It spawned a long running franchise , known for its fast paced control system and innovative counterattacks . The series again included titles important to the success of their respective consoles , including Dead or Alive 4 for the Xbox 360 . In 1998 , Bushido Blade , published by Square , introduced a realistic fighting engine that featured three @-@ dimensional environments while abandoning time limits and health bars in favour of an innovative Body Damage System , where a sword strike to a certain body part can amputate a limb or decapitate the head .
Video game enthusiasts took an interest in gaming crossovers which feature characters from multiple franchises in a particular game . An early example of this type of fighting game was the 1998 arcade release Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes , featuring comic book superheroes as well as characters from other Capcom games . In 1999 , Nintendo released the first game in the Super Smash Bros. series , which allowed match @-@ ups such as Pikachu versus Mario .
= = = Early 2000s = = =
The early part of the decade saw the rise of major international fighting game tournaments such as Tougeki – Super Battle Opera and Evolution Championship Series , and famous players such as Daigo Umehara . Several more fighting game crossovers were released in the new millennium . The two most prolific developers of 2D fighting games , Capcom and SNK , combined intellectual property to produce SNK vs. Capcom games . SNK released the first game of this type , SNK vs. Capcom : The Match of the Millennium , for its Neo Geo Pocket Color handheld at the end of 1999 . GameSpot regarded the game as " perhaps the most highly anticipated fighter ever " and called it the best fighting game ever to be released for a handheld console . Capcom released Capcom vs. SNK : Millennium Fight 2000 for arcades and the Dreamcast in 2000 , followed by sequels in subsequent years . Though none matched the critical success of the handheld version , Capcom vs. SNK 2 EO was noted as the first game of the genre to successfully utilize internet competition . Other crossovers from 2008 included Tatsunoko vs. Capcom and Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe . The most successful crossover , however , was Super Smash Bros. Brawl , also released in 2008 for the Wii . Featuring characters from Nintendo 's various franchises , the game was a runaway commercial success in addition to being lavished with critical praise .
In the new millennium , fighting games became less popular and plentiful than in the mid @-@ 1990s , with multiplayer competition shifting towards other genres . However , SNK reappeared in 2003 as SNK Playmore and continued to release games . Arc System Works received critical acclaim for releasing Guilty Gear X in 2001 , as well as its sequel Guilty Gear XX , as both were 2D fighting games featuring striking anime inspired graphics . The fighting game is currently a popular genre for amateur and doujin developers in Japan . The 2002 title Melty Blood was developed by then amateur developer French @-@ Bread and achieved cult success on the PC . It became highly popular in arcades following its 2005 release , and a version was released for the PlayStation 2 the following year . While the genre became generally far less popular than it once was , arcades and their attendant fighting games remained reasonably popular in Japan in this time period , and still remain so even today . Virtua Fighter 5 lacked an online mode but still achieved success both on home consoles and in arcades ; players practiced at home and went to arcades to compete face @-@ to @-@ face with opponents . In addition to Virtua Fighter and Tekken , the Soul and Dead or Alive franchises continued to release installments . Classic Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat games were re @-@ released on PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade , allowing internet play , and in some cases , HD graphics .
= = = Late 2000s to present = = =
Street Fighter IV , which incorporated online multiplayer modes , was released in early 2009 to critical acclaim , having garnered praise since its release at Japanese arcades in 2008 . The console versions of the game as well as Super Street Fighter IV sold more than 6 million copies in total . Street Fighter 's successful revival has sparked a renaissance for the genre , introducing new players to the genre and with the increased audience allowing other fighting game franchises to achieve successful revivals of their own . Tekken 6 was positively received , selling more than 3 million copies worldwide as of August 6 , 2010 . Other successful titles that followed include BlazBlue : Calamity Trigger , Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds , Mortal Kombat ( 2011 ) , Street Fighter X Tekken , The King of Fighters XIII , and Guilty Gear Xrd .
Despite the critically acclaimed Virtua Fighter 5 releasing to very little fanfare in 2007 , its update Virtua Fighter 5 : Final Showdown has received much more attention in 2012 due to the renewed interest in fighting games . Dead or Alive 5 , is notable for making extensive use of destructible environments . Other titles following in the wake of the fighting game renaissance include Persona 4 Arena , Tekken Tag Tournament 2 , Soulcalibur V , and crossover titles such as PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale and Tekken X Street Fighter .
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= German battleship Tirpitz =
Tirpitz was the second of two Bismarck @-@ class battleships built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine ( navy ) during World War II . Named after Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the architect of the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , the ship was laid down at the Kriegsmarinewerft Wilhelmshaven in November 1936 and her hull was launched two and a half years later . Work was completed in February 1941 , when she was commissioned into the German fleet . Like her sister ship Bismarck , Tirpitz was armed with a main battery of eight 38 @-@ centimetre ( 15 in ) guns in four twin turrets . After a series of wartime modifications she was 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) heavier than Bismarck , making her the heaviest battleship ever built by a European navy .
After completing sea trials in early 1941 , Tirpitz briefly served as the centrepiece of the Baltic Fleet , which was intended to prevent a possible break @-@ out attempt by the Soviet Baltic Fleet . In early 1942 , the ship sailed to Norway to act as a deterrent against an Allied invasion . While stationed in Norway , Tirpitz was also intended to be used to intercept Allied convoys to the Soviet Union , and two such missions were attempted in 1942 . Tirpitz acted as a fleet in being , forcing the British Royal Navy to retain significant naval forces in the area to contain the battleship .
In September 1943 , Tirpitz , along with the battleship Scharnhorst , bombarded Allied positions on Spitzbergen , the only time the ship used her main battery in an offensive role . Shortly thereafter , the ship was damaged in an attack by British mini @-@ submarines and subsequently subjected to a series of large @-@ scale air raids . On 12 November 1944 , British Lancaster bombers equipped with 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) " Tallboy " bombs scored two direct hits and a near miss which caused the ship to capsize rapidly . A deck fire spread to the ammunition magazine for one of the main battery turrets , which caused a large explosion . Figures for the number of men killed in the attack range from 950 to 1 @,@ 204 . Between 1948 and 1957 the wreck was broken up by a joint Norwegian and German salvage operation .
= = Construction and characteristics = =
Tirpitz was ordered as Ersatz Schleswig @-@ Holstein as a replacement for the old pre @-@ dreadnought Schleswig @-@ Holstein , under the contract name " G " . The Kriegsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven was awarded the contract , where the keel was laid on 20 October 1936 . The hull was launched on 1 April 1939 ; during the elaborate ceremonies , the ship was christened by the daughter of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the ship 's namesake . Adolf von Trotha , a former admiral in the Imperial German Navy , spoke at the ship 's launching , which was also attended by Adolf Hitler . Fitting @-@ out work followed her launch , and was completed by February 1941 . British bombers repeatedly attacked the harbour in which the ship was being built ; no bombs struck Tirpitz , but the attacks did slow construction work . Tirpitz was commissioned into the fleet on 25 February for sea trials , which were conducted in the Baltic .
Tirpitz displaced 42 @,@ 900 t ( 42 @,@ 200 long tons ) as built and 52 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 51 @,@ 800 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 251 m ( 823 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 36 m ( 118 ft 1 in ) and a maximum draft of 10 @.@ 60 m ( 34 ft 9 in ) . She was powered by three Brown , Boveri & Cie geared steam turbines and twelve oil @-@ fired Wagner superheated boilers , which developed a total of 163 @,@ 023 PS ( 160 @,@ 793 shp ; 119 @,@ 903 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 30 @.@ 8 knots ( 57 @.@ 0 km / h ; 35 @.@ 4 mph ) on speed trials . Her standard crew numbered 103 officers and 1 @,@ 962 enlisted men ; during the war this was increased to 108 officers and 2 @,@ 500 men . As built , Tirpitz was equipped with Model 23 search radars mounted on the forward , foretop , and rear rangefinders . These were later replaced with Model 27 and then Model 26 radars , which had a larger antenna array . A Model 30 radar , known as the Hohentwiel , was mounted in 1944 in her topmast , and a Model 213 Würzburg fire @-@ control radar was added on her stern 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) Flak rangefinders .
She was armed with eight 38 cm SK C / 34 L / 52 guns arranged in four twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets forward — Anton and Bruno — and two aft — Caesar and Dora . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm L / 55 guns , sixteen 10 @.@ 5 cm L / 65 and sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 83 , and initially twelve 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) antiaircraft guns . The number of 2 cm guns was eventually increased to 58 . After 1942 , eight 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) above @-@ water torpedo tubes were installed in two quadruple mounts , one mount on each side of the ship . The ship 's main belt was 320 mm ( 13 in ) thick and was covered by a pair of upper and main armoured decks that were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and 100 to 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick , respectively . The 38 cm turrets were protected by 360 mm ( 14 in ) thick faces and 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
After sea trials , Tirpitz was stationed in Kiel and performed intensive training in the Baltic . While the ship was in Kiel , Germany invaded the Soviet Union . A temporary Baltic Fleet was created to prevent the possible break @-@ out of the Soviet fleet based in Leningrad . Tirpitz was briefly made the flagship of the squadron , which consisted of the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer , the light cruisers Köln , Nürnberg , Leipzig , and Emden , several destroyers , and two flotillas of minesweepers . The Baltic Fleet , under the command of Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax , patrolled off the Aaland Islands from 23 to 26 September 1941 , after which the unit disbanded and Tirpitz resumed training . During the training period , Tirpitz tested her primary and secondary guns on the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Hessen , which had been converted into a radio @-@ controlled target ship . The British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) continued to launch unsuccessful bombing raids on Tirpitz while she was stationed in Kiel .
= = = Deployment to Norway = = =
Grand Admiral Erich Raeder , the commander of the Kriegsmarine , proposed on 13 November that Tirpitz be deployed to Norway . The ship would be able to attack convoys bound for the Soviet Union , as well as act as a fleet in being to tie down British naval assets and deter an Allied invasion of Norway . Hitler , who had forbidden an Atlantic sortie after the loss of Bismarck , agreed to the proposal . The ship was taken into dock for modifications for the deployment . The ship 's antiaircraft battery was strengthened , and the 10 @.@ 5 cm guns on the superstructure next to the catapult were moved outboard to increase their field of fire . The two quadruple 53 @.@ 3 cm torpedo tube mounts were also installed during this refit . The ship 's commander , Kapitän zur See ( KzS — Captain at Sea ) Karl Topp , pronounced the ship ready for combat operations on 10 January 1942 . The following day , Tirpitz left for Wilhelmshaven , a move designed to conceal her actual destination .
The ship left Wilhelmshaven at 23 : 00 on 14 January and made for Trondheim . British military intelligence , which was capable of decrypting the Enigma messages sent by the German navy , detected the departure of the vessel , but poor weather in Britain prevented action by the RAF . Admiral John Tovey , the commander in chief of the British Home Fleet , was not made aware of Tirpitz 's activities until 17 January , well after the ship had arrived in Norway . On 16 January , British aerial reconnaissance located the ship in Trondheim . Tirpitz then moved to the Fættenfjord , just north of Trondheim . The movement was codenamed Operation Polarnacht ( Polar Night ) ; the battleship was escorted by the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z5 Paul Jakobi , Z8 Bruno Heinemann and Z29 for the voyage . She was moored next to a cliff , which protected the ship from air attacks from the southwest . The ship 's crew cut down trees and placed them aboard Tirpitz to camouflage her . Additional antiaircraft batteries were installed around the fjord , as were anti @-@ torpedo nets and heavy booms in the entrance to the anchorage . Life for the crew of Tirpitz was very monotonous during the deployment to Norway . Frequent fuel shortages curtailed training and kept the battleship and her escorts moored behind their protective netting . The crew was primarily occupied with maintaining the ship and continuously manning antiaircraft defences . Sports activities were organised to keep the crew occupied and physically fit .
= = = Operations against Allied convoys = = =
Several factors served to restrain Tirpitz 's freedom of operation in Norway . The most pressing were shortages of fuel and the withdrawal of the German destroyer forces to support Operation Cerberus , the movement of the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen up through the English Channel . These caused a planned attack against the outbound convoy PQ 8 at the end of January to be abandoned . A planned British air attack at the end of January by four @-@ engined heavy bombers was disrupted by poor weather over the target , which prevented the aircraft from finding the ship . In early February , Tirpitz took part in the deceptions that distracted the British in the run @-@ up to Operation Cerberus . These included steaming out of the fjord and the appearance of preparations for a sortie into the North Sea . Later that month , the ship was reinforced by the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Prinz Eugen and several destroyers . Prinz Eugen had been torpedoed by a British submarine at the entrance to the Fættenfjord , and was therefore temporarily out of action .
In March 1942 Tirpitz and Admiral Scheer , along with the destroyers Z14 Friedrich Ihn , Z5 Paul Jakobi , Z7 Hermann Schoemann and Z25 and a pair of torpedo boats , were intended to attack the homebound convoy QP 8 and the outbound Convoy PQ 12 as part of Operation Sportpalast ( Sports Palace ) . Admiral Scheer , with a design speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , was too slow to operate with Tirpitz , and was left in port , as was the destroyer Paul Jakobi . The two torpedo boats were also released from the operation . On 5 March , Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft spotted PQ 12 near Jan Mayen Island ; the reconnaissance failed to note the battleship HMS Duke of York or the battlecruiser HMS Renown , both of which escorted the convoy , along with four destroyers . Unknown to the Germans , Admiral Tovey provided distant support to the convoys with the battleship HMS King George V , the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious , the heavy cruiser HMS Berwick , and six destroyers . Enigma intercepts again forewarned the British of Tirpitz 's attack , which allowed them to reroute the convoys . Admiral Tovey attempted to pursue Tirpitz on 9 March , but Admiral Otto Ciliax , the commander of the German squadron , had decided to return to port the previous evening . An air attack was launched early on the 9th ; twelve Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers attacked the ship in three groups , and Tirpitz successfully evaded the torpedoes . Only three men were wounded in the attack . Tirpitz 's anti @-@ aircraft gunners shot down two of the British aircraft . After the conclusion of the attack , Tirpitz made for Vestfjord , and from there to Trondheim , arriving on the evening of 13 March . On 30 March , thirty @-@ three Halifax bombers attacked the ship ; they scored no hits , and five aircraft were shot down . The RAF launched a pair of unsuccessful strikes in late April . On the night of 27 – 28 April , thirty @-@ one Halifaxes and twelve Lancasters ; five of the bombers were shot down . Another raid , composed of twenty @-@ three Halifaxes and eleven Lancasters , took place the following night . Two of the bombers were shot down by the German anti @-@ aircraft defences .
The actions of Tirpitz and her escorting destroyers in March used up 8 @,@ 230 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 100 long tons ) of fuel oil , which greatly reduced the available fuel supply . It took the Germans three months to replenish the fuel spent in the attempt to intercept the two Allied convoys . Convoy PQ 17 , which left Iceland on 27 June bound for the Soviet Union , was the next convoy targeted by Tirpitz and the rest of the German fleet stationed in Norway , during Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) . Escorting the convoy were the battleships Duke of York and USS Washington and the carrier Victorious . Tirpitz , Admiral Hipper , and six destroyers sortied from Trondheim , while a second task force consisting of Lützow , Admiral Scheer , and six destroyers operated out of Narvik and Bogenfjord . Lützow and three of the destroyers struck uncharted rocks while en route to the rendezvous and had to return to port . Shortly after Tirpitz left Norway , the Soviet submarine K @-@ 21 fired two or four torpedoes at the ship , all of which missed . The Soviets claimed two hits on the battleship . Swedish intelligence had meanwhile reported the German departures to the British Admiralty , which ordered the convoy to disperse . Aware that they had been detected , the Germans aborted the operation and turned over the attack to U @-@ boats and the Luftwaffe . The scattered vessels could no longer be protected by the convoy escorts , and the Germans sank 21 of the 34 isolated transports . Tirpitz returned to Altafjord via the Lofoten Islands .
Following Operation Rösselsprung , the Germans moved Tirpitz to Bogenfjord near Narvik . By this time , the ship needed a major overhaul . Hitler had forbidden the ship to make the dangerous return to Germany , and so the overhaul was conducted in Trondheim . On 23 October , the ship left Bogenfjord and returned to Fættenfjord outside Trondheim . The defences of the anchorage were further strengthened ; additional anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed , and double anti @-@ torpedo nets were erected around the vessel . The repairs were conducted in limited phases , such that Tirpitz would remain partially operational for the majority of the overhaul . A caisson was built around the stern to allow the replacement of the ship 's rudders . During the repair process , the British attempted to attack the battleship with two Chariot human torpedoes , but before they could be launched , rough seas caused the human torpedoes to break away from the fishing vessel which was towing them . By 28 December , the overhaul had been completed , and Tirpitz began sea trials . She conducted gunnery trials on 4 January 1943 in the Trondheimfjord . On 21 February , Topp was promoted to Rear Admiral and was replaced by Captain Hans Meyer ; five days later the battleship Scharnhorst was ordered to reinforce the fleet in Norway . Vice Admiral Oskar Kummetz was given command of the warships stationed in Norway .
By the time Scharnhorst arrived in Norway in March 1943 , Allied convoys to the Soviet Union had temporarily ceased . To give the ships an opportunity to work together , Admiral Karl Dönitz , who had replaced Raeder in the aftermath of the Battle of the Barents Sea on 31 December 1942 , ordered an attack on the island of Spitzbergen , which housed a British weather station and refuelling base . Several settlements and outposts on Spitzbergen were defended by a garrison of 152 men from the Norwegian Armed Forces in exile . The two battleships , escorted by ten destroyers , left port on 6 September ; in a ruse de guerre , Tirpitz flew the white ensign on the approach to the island the following day . During the bombardment , Tirpitz fired 52 main @-@ battery shells and 82 rounds from her 15 cm secondaries . This was the first and only time the ship fired her main battery at an enemy surface target . An assault force destroyed shore installations and captured 74 prisoners . By 11 : 00 , the battleships had destroyed their targets and headed back to their Norwegian ports .
= = = British attacks on Tirpitz = = =
= = = = Operation Source = = = =
The British were determined to neutralise Tirpitz and remove the threat she posed to Allied lines of communication in the Arctic . Following the repeated , ineffectual bombing attacks and the failed Chariot attack in October 1942 , the British turned to the newly designed X Craft midget submarines . The planned attack , Operation Source , included attacks on Tirpitz , Scharnhorst , and Lützow . The X Craft were towed by large submarines to their destinations , where they could slip under anti @-@ torpedo nets to each drop two powerful 2 tonne mines on the sea bed under the bottom of the target . Ten vessels were assigned to the operation , scheduled for 20 – 25 September 1943 . Only eight of the vessels reached Norway for the attack , which began early on 22 September . Three of the vessels , X5 , X6 , and X7 , successfully breached Tirpitz 's defences , two of which — X6 and X7 — managed to lay their mines . X5 was detected some 200 m ( 660 ft ) from the nets and sunk by a combination of gunfire and depth charges .
The mines caused extensive damage to the ship ; the first exploded abreast of turret Caesar , and the second detonated 45 to 55 m ( 148 to 180 ft ) off the port bow . A fuel oil tank was ruptured , shell plating was torn , a large indentation was formed in the bottom of the ship , and bulkheads in the double bottom buckled . Some 1 @,@ 430 t ( 1 @,@ 410 long tons ) of water flooded the ship in fuel tanks and void spaces in the double bottom of the port side , which caused a list of one to two degrees , which was balanced by counter @-@ flooding on the starboard side . The flooding damaged all of the turbo @-@ generators in generator room No. 2 , and all apart from one generator in generator room No. 1 were disabled by broken steam lines or severed power cables . Turret Dora was thrown from its bearings and could not be rotated ; this was particularly significant , as there were no heavy @-@ lift cranes in Norway powerful enough to lift the turret and place it back on its bearings . The ship 's two Arado Ar 196 floatplanes were thrown by the explosive concussion and completely destroyed . Repairs were conducted by the repair ship Neumark ; historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin remarked that the successful repair effort was " one of the most notable feats of naval engineering during the Second World War . " Repairs lasted until 2 April 1944 ; full speed trials were scheduled for the following day in Altafjord .
= = = = Operation Tungsten = = = =
The British were aware that Neumark and the repair crews left in March , which intimated Tirpitz was nearly operational . A major air strike — Operation Tungsten — involving the fleet carriers Victorious and Furious and the escort carriers Emperor , Fencer , Pursuer , and Searcher , was set for 4 April 1944 , but rescheduled a day earlier when Enigma decrypts revealed that Tirpitz was to depart at 05 : 29 on 3 April for sea trials . The attack consisted of 40 Barracuda dive @-@ bombers carrying 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armor @-@ piercing bombs and 40 escorting fighters in two waves , scoring fifteen direct hits and two near misses . The aircraft achieved surprise , and only one was lost in the first wave ; it took twelve to fourteen minutes for all of Tirpitz 's antiaircraft batteries to be fully manned . The first wave struck at 05 : 29 , as tugs were preparing to assist the ship out of her mooring . The second wave arrived over the target an hour later , shortly after 06 : 30 . Despite the alertness of the German antiaircraft gunners , only one other bomber was shot down .
The air strike caused significant damage to the ship and inflicted serious casualties . William Garzke and Robert Dulin report the attack killed 122 men and wounded 316 others , while Hildebrand , Röhr , & Steinmetz report 132 fatalities and 270 wounded men , including the ship 's commander , KzS Hans Meyer . Two of the 15 cm turrets were destroyed by bombs , and both Ar 196 floatplanes were destroyed . Several of the bomb hits caused serious fires aboard the ship . Concussive shock disabled the starboard turbine engine , and saltwater used to fight the fires reached the boilers and contaminated the feed water . Some 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) of water flooded the ship , primarily through the two holes in the side shell created by shell splinters from near misses . Water used to fight the fires also contributed to the flooding . Dönitz ordered the ship be repaired , regardless of the cost , despite the fact that he understood Tirpitz could no longer be used in a surface action because of insufficient fighter support . Repair work began in early May ; destroyers ferried important equipment and workers from Kiel to Altafjord over the span of three days . By 2 June , the ship was again able to steam under her own power , and by the end of the month gunnery trials were possible . During the repair process , the 15 cm guns were modified to allow their use against aircraft , and specially @-@ fuzed 38 cm shells for barrage antiaircraft fire were supplied .
= = = = Operations Planet , Brawn , Tiger Claw , Mascot and Goodwood = = = =
A series of carrier strikes was planned over the next three months , but bad weather forced their cancellation . A repeat of Operation Tungsten , codenamed Operation Planet , was scheduled for 24 April . Operation Brawn , which was to have been carried out by 27 bombers and 36 fighters from Victorious and Furious , was to have taken place on 15 May , and Operation Tiger Claw was intended for 28 May . Victorious and Furious were joined by Indefatigable for Operation Mascot , which was to have been carried out on 17 July by 62 bombers and 30 fighters . The weather finally broke in late August , which saw the Goodwood series of attacks . Operations Goodwood I and II were launched on 22 August ; a carrier force consisting of the fleet carriers Furious , Indefatigable and Formidable and the escort carriers Nabob and Trumpeter launched a total of 38 bombers and 43 escort fighters between the two raids . The attacks failed to inflict any damage on Tirpitz , and three of the attacking aircraft were shot down . Goodwood III followed on 24 August , composed of aircraft from the fleet carriers only . Forty @-@ eight bombers and 29 fighters attacked the ship and scored two hits which caused minor damage . One , a 1600 @-@ pound bomb , penetrated the upper and lower armour decks and came to rest in the No. 4 switchboard room . Its fuze had been damaged and the bomb did not detonate . The second , a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb , exploded but caused only superficial damage . Six planes were shot down in the attack . Goodwood IV followed on the 29th , with 34 bombers and 25 fighters from Formidable and Indefatigable . Heavy fog prevented any hits from being scored . One Firefly and a Corsair were shot down by Tirpitz 's gunners . The battleship expended 54 rounds from her main guns , 161 from the 15 cm guns and up to 20 percent of her light antiaircraft ammunition .
= = = = Operations Paravane and Obviate = = = =
The ineffectiveness of the great majority of the strikes launched by the Fleet Air Arm in mid @-@ 1944 led to the task of Tirpitz 's destruction being transferred to the RAF 's No. 5 Group . The RAF used Lancaster bombers to carry 6 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 5 @.@ 4 t ) Tallboy bombs to penetrate the ship 's heavy armour . The first attack , Operation Paravane , took place on 15 September 1944 ; operating from a forward base at Yagodnik in Russia , 23 Lancasters ( 17 each carrying one Tallboy and six each carrying twelve JW mines ) , scored a single hit on the ship 's bow . The Tallboy penetrated the ship , exited the keel , and exploded in the bottom of the fjord . 800 to 1 @,@ 000 t ( 790 to 980 long tons ) of water flooded the bow and caused a serious increase in trim forward . The ship was rendered unseaworthy and was limited to 8 to 10 knots ( 15 to 19 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 to 11 @.@ 5 mph ) . Concussive shock caused severe damage to fire @-@ control equipment . The damage persuaded the naval command to repair the ship for use only as a floating gun battery . Repair work was estimated to take nine months , but patching of the holes could be effected within a few weeks , allowing Tirpitz to be moved further south to Tromsø . On 15 October , the ship made the 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) trip to Tromsø under her own power , the last voyage of her career .
The RAF made a second attempt on 29 October , after the ship was moored off Håkøya Island outside Tromsø . Thirty @-@ two Lancasters attacked the ship with Tallboys during Operation Obviate . As on Operation Paravane , No. 9 Squadron and No. 617 Squadron carried out the attack together , which resulted in only one near miss , partially the result of bad weather over the target . The underwater explosion damaged the port rudder and shaft and caused some flooding . Tirpitz 's 38 cm fragmentation shells proved ineffective in countering the high @-@ level bombers ; one aircraft was damaged by ground @-@ based anti @-@ aircraft guns . Following the attack , the ship 's anchorage was significantly improved . A large sand bank was constructed under and around the ship to prevent her from capsizing , and anti @-@ torpedo nets were installed . Tirpitz retained a one @-@ degree list to port from earlier damage , and this was not corrected by counter @-@ flooding to retain as much reserve buoyancy as possible . The ship was also prepared for her role as a floating artillery platform : fuel was limited to only what was necessary to power the turbo @-@ generators , and the crew was reduced to 1 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men .
= = = = Operation Catechism = = = =
Operation Catechism , the final British attack on Tirpitz , took place on 12 November 1944 . The ship again used her 38 cm guns against the bombers , which approached the battleship at 09 : 35 ; Tirpitz 's main guns forced the bombers to disperse temporarily , but could not break up the attack . A force of 32 Lancasters from Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons dropped 29 Tallboys on the ship , with two direct hits and one near miss . Several other bombs landed within the anti @-@ torpedo net barrier and caused significant cratering of the seabed ; this removed much of the sandbank that had been constructed to prevent the ship from capsizing . One bomb penetrated the ship 's deck between turrets Anton and Bruno but failed to explode . A second hit amidships between the aircraft catapult and the funnel and caused severe damage . A very large hole was blown into the ship 's side and bottom ; the entire section of belt armour abreast of the bomb hit was completely destroyed . A third bomb may have struck the ship on the port side of turret Caesar . The amidships hit caused significant flooding and quickly increased the port list to between 15 and 20 degrees . In ten minutes , the list increased to 30 to 40 degrees ; the captain issued the order to abandon ship . Progressive flooding increased the list to 60 degrees by 09 : 50 , though this appeared to stabilise temporarily . Eight minutes later , a large explosion rocked turret Caesar . The turret roof and part of the rotating structure were thrown 25 m ( 82 ft ) into the air and over into a group of men swimming to shore , crushing them . Tirpitz rapidly rolled over and buried her superstructure in the sea floor .
In the aftermath of the attack , 82 men trapped in the upturned hull were rescued by cutting through the bottom hull plates . Figures for the death toll vary from approximately 950 to 1 @,@ 204 . Approximately 200 survivors of the sinking were transferred to the heavy cruiser Lützow in January 1945 .
The performance of the Luftwaffe in the defence of Tirpitz was heavily criticised after her loss . Major Heinrich Ehrler , the commander of III . / Jagdgeschwader 5 ( 3rd Group of the 5th Fighter Wing ) , was blamed for the Luftwaffe 's failure to intercept the British bombers . He was court @-@ martialled in Oslo and threatened with the death penalty . Evidence was presented that his unit had failed to help the Kriegsmarine when requested . He was sentenced to three years in prison , but was released after a month , demoted , and reassigned to an Me 262 fighter squadron in Germany . Ehrler was exonerated by further investigations which concluded poor communication between the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe had caused the fiasco ; the aircrews had not been informed that Tirpitz had been moved off Håkøya two weeks before the attack .
The wreck of Tirpitz remained in place until after the war , when a joint German @-@ Norwegian company began salvage operations . Work lasted from 1948 until 1957 ; fragments of the ship are still sold by a Norwegian company . Ludovic Kennedy wrote in his history of the vessel that she " lived an invalid 's life and died a cripple 's death " .
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= New Jersey Route 37 =
Route 37 is a state highway located in Ocean County , New Jersey , United States . The route runs 13 @.@ 43 mi ( 21 @.@ 61 km ) from Lakehurst at an intersection with Route 70 to an interchange with Route 35 in Seaside Heights . A four – to six – lane divided highway its entire length , Route 37 serves as the major east – west route through the Toms River area as well as a main route to the Barnegat Peninsula , crossing the Barnegat Bay on the Thomas A. Mathis and J. Stanley Tunney Bridges . The route through Toms River Township is lined with many businesses and named Little League World Champions Boulevard in honor of Toms River East Little League 's victory in the 1998 Little League World Series . Route 37 intersects many major roads in the Toms River area , including County Route 527 , the Garden State Parkway / U.S. Route 9 , Route 166 , County Route 549 , and County Route 571 . The route experiences congestion from both development in the area and from traffic bound for the barrier islands in the summer .
Route 37 was first legislated in 1927 in two sections : one running from Trenton to White Horse along the current U.S. Route 206 alignment that replaced part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 and the other running from Lakehurst to Point Pleasant that replaced part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 18 between Lakehurst and Toms River . In 1953 , Route 37 was legislated along its current alignment , with the designation dropped on the Trenton – White Horse segment to avoid the concurrency with U.S. Route 206 and the Seaside Heights – Point Pleasant section becoming a realignment of Route 35 . Route 37 was then proposed in the 1960s as a freeway running from White Horse to Seaside Heights . This freeway proposal was eventually altered to create Interstate 195 , running from Trenton to Wall Township .
= = Route description = =
Route 37 begins at the Lakehurst Circle intersection with Route 70 in Lakehurst , heading east on a four – lane divided highway . Soon after beginning , the route crosses into Manchester Township . It intersects Commonwealth Boulevard , which provides access to the Leisure Village West @-@ Pine Lake Park community , before crossing into Toms River Township . Route 37 continues east with many intersections that feature jughandles and at the intersection with Industrial Way , the road widens to six lanes . Route 37 passes to the north of Holiday City - Silver Ridge Park , an age @-@ restricted community which contributes to the large population of senior residents in the area . The route meets County Route 642 ( Mule Road ) and County Route 527 ( Oak Ridge Parkway / Lakehurst Road ) . After the intersection with County Route 527 , the route crosses over the North Branch of the Toms River .
Route 37 features a cloverleaf interchange with the Garden State Parkway / U.S. Route 9 . Past the Garden State Parkway , the route crosses the former alignment of U.S. Route 9 , Route 166 . Past this intersection , Route 37 becomes a road lined with several businesses . The route intersects County Route 549 ( Hooper Avenue ) and County Route 38 ( Clifton Avenue ) . County Route 627 ( Vaughn Avenue / West End Avenue ) intersects next and Route 37 runs along the border of Toms River and Island Heights , with Toms River to the north and Island Heights to the south . Route 37 meets the southern terminus of County Route 627 ( Central Avenue ) and fully enters Toms River Township again at the Gilford Avenue intersection . Further east , the route intersects County Route 549 Spur / County Route 571 ( Fischer Boulevard ) .
Route 37 crosses the Barnegat Bay on the Thomas A. Mathis and J. Stanley Tunney Bridges with the eastbound bridge featuring a drawbridge that allows ships to pass through while the westbound bridge is a higher @-@ level span . The route continues onto Pelican Island in the Barnegat Bay , crossing into a small piece of Berkeley Township . Route 37 crosses over a part of the Barnegat Bay and enters Seaside Heights on the Barnegat Peninsula , where the route comes to its eastern terminus at an interchange with Route 35 .
Due to the area 's vacationers , many of which come from New York and Northern New Jersey , Route 37 is routinely congested with seasonal traffic in the summer , especially on and around the Mathis and Tunney Bridges and at the Garden State Parkway interchange as heavy tourist traffic converges on the shore . Additionally , the road sees congestion due to the area 's rapid growth in commercial development .
= = History = =
Prior to 1927 , the route between present @-@ day Route 70 in Lakehurst and present @-@ day County Route 527 in Toms River was a part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 18 , which was legislated in 1923 to run from Camden to Toms River . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 37 was legislated to run from Route 27 and Route 30 ( now U.S. Route 1 Business , U.S. Route 206 , and Route 31 ) in Trenton to Route 35 ( now Route 88 ) in Point Pleasant , passing through White Horse , Allentown , Lakehurst , Toms River , and Seaside Heights . The portion between Trenton and White Horse replaced part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 , while the portion between Lakehurst and Toms River replaced part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 18 .
Following the 1927 renumbering , Route 37 existed in two separate sections , one running from downtown Trenton to the White Horse Circle , concurrent with U.S. Route 206 , and one running from Route 40 ( now Route 70 ) in Lakehurst to Point Pleasant . The remainder of the route between White Horse and Lakehurst remained incomplete . There are , as of mid @-@ 2008 , a few old concrete bridges dating from the 1930s and 1940s between the White Horse Circle and Allentown , which list sections of what is now County Route 524 as having been Route 37 at that time , as well as one or two along County Route 539 south of Allentown . In addition , some maps labeled these routes as being part of Route 37 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 37 was legislated to run along its current alignment from Route 70 in Lakehurst to Route 35 in Seaside Heights . The number was dropped between Trenton and White Horse in favor of U.S. Route 206 , while the section between Seaside Heights and Point Pleasant became a realignment of Route 35 .
Route 37 was proposed in the late 1960s as a freeway that was to run from Route 29 in the Trenton area to Seaside Heights . It was suggested that this freeway be completed by 1975 in order to handle a rapid growth of population in Central New Jersey . In 1967 , this proposal was altered to build a road that compromised with the proposed Route 38 freeway between Camden and Wall Township . It soon received federal funding and was built as Interstate 195 , running from Trenton to Wall Township .
The portion of Route 37 within Toms River Township was officially named Little League World Champions Boulevard in 1998 following Toms River East Little League 's victory in the 1998 Little League World Series .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Ocean County .
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= Operation Winter Storm =
Operation Winter Storm ( German : Unternehmen Wintergewitter ) was a German offensive in World War II in which the German 4th Panzer Army unsuccessfully attempted to break the Soviet encirclement of the German 6th Army during the Battle of Stalingrad .
In late November 1942 , the Red Army completed Operation Uranus , encircling some 300 @,@ 000 Axis personnel in and around the city of Stalingrad . German forces within the Stalingrad pocket and directly outside were reorganized under Army Group Don , under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Erich von Manstein . Meanwhile , the Red Army continued to allocate as many resources as possible to the eventual launch of the planned Operation Saturn , which aimed to isolate Army Group A from the rest of the German Army . To remedy the situation , the Luftwaffe attempted to supply German forces in Stalingrad through an air bridge . When the Luftwaffe proved incapable of carrying out its mission and it became obvious that a successful breakout could occur only if launched as early as possible , Manstein decided on a relief effort .
Originally , Manstein was promised four panzer divisions . Due to German reluctance to weaken certain sectors by redeploying German units , the task of opening a corridor to the German 6th Army fell to the 4th Panzer Army . The German force was pitted against several Soviet armies tasked with the destruction of the encircled German forces and their offensive around the lower Chir River .
The German offensive caught the Red Army by surprise and made large gains on the first day . The spearhead forces enjoyed air support and were able to defeat counterattacks by Soviet troops . By 13 December , Soviet resistance slowed the German advance considerably . Although German forces took the area surrounding Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy , the Red Army launched Operation Little Saturn on 16 December . Operation Little Saturn defeated the Italian 8th Army on Army Group Don 's left flank , threatening the survival of Manstein 's entire group of forces . As resistance and casualties increased , Manstein appealed to Hitler and to the commander of the German 6th Army , General Friedrich Paulus , to allow the 6th Army to break out of Stalingrad ; both refused . The 4th Panzer Army continued its attempt to open a corridor to the 6th Army on 18 – 19 December , but was unable to do so without the aid of forces inside the Stalingrad pocket . Manstein was forced to call off the assault on 23 December and by Christmas Eve the 4th Panzer Army began to withdraw to its starting position . Due to the failure of the 6th Army to breakout and the attempt to break the Soviet encirclement , the Red Army was able to continue the destruction of German forces in Stalingrad .
= = Background = =
On 23 November 1942 , the Red Army closed its encirclement of Axis forces in Stalingrad . Nearly 300 @,@ 000 German and Romanian soldiers , as well as Russian volunteers for the Wehrmacht , were trapped in and around the city of Stalingrad by roughly 1 @.@ 1 million Soviet personnel . Amidst the impending disaster , German chancellor Adolf Hitler appointed Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Erich von Manstein as commander of the newly created Army Group Don . Composed of the German 4th Panzer and 6th Armies , as well as the Third and Fourth Romanian Armies , Manstein 's new army group was situated between German Army Groups A and B. Instead of attempting an immediate breakout , German high command decided that the trapped forces would remain in Stalingrad in a bid to hold out . The encircled German forces were to be resupplied by air , requiring roughly 680 t ( 750 short tons ) of supplies per day . However , the assembled fleet of 500 transport aircraft were insufficient for the task . Many of the aircraft were hardly serviceable in the rough Soviet winter ; in early December , more German cargo planes were destroyed in accidents than by Soviet fighter aircraft . The German 6th Army , for example , was getting less than 20 % of its daily needs . Furthermore , the Germans were still threatened by Soviet forces which still held portions of the Volga River 's west bank in Stalingrad .
Given the unexpected size of German forces closed off in Stalingrad , on 23 November Stavka ( Soviet Armed Forces High Command ) decided to strengthen the outer encirclement preparing to destroy Axis forces in and around the city . On 24 November , several Soviet formations began to entrench themselves to defend against possible German incursions originating from the West . The Soviets also reinforced the encircling forces in order to prevent a successful breakout operation by the German 6th Army and other Axis units . However , this tied down over ½ of the Red Army 's strength in the area . Planning for Operation Saturn began on 25 November , aiming for the destruction of the Italian 8th Army and the severing of communications between German forces west of the Don River and those operating in the Caucasus . Meanwhile , planning also began for Operation Koltso ( Ring ) , which aimed at reducing German forces in the Stalingrad pocket .
As Operation Uranus concluded , German forces inside the encirclement were too weak to attempt a breakout on their own . Half of their remaining armor , for example , had been lost during the defensive fighting , and there was a severe lack of fuel and ammunition for the surviving vehicles , given that the Luftwaffe was not able to provide adequate aerial resupply . Feldmarschall von Manstein proposed a counterstrike to break the Soviet encirclement of Stalingrad , codenamed Operation Winter Storm ( German : Wintergewitter ) . Manstein believed that — due to the inability of the Luftwaffe to supply the Stalingrad pocket — it was becoming more important to relieve them " at the earliest possible date " . On 28 November , Manstein sent Hitler a detailed report on Army Group Don 's situation , including the strength of the German 6th Army and an assessment on the available ammunition for German artillery inside the city . The dire strategic situation made Manstein doubtful on whether or not the relief operation could afford to wait to receive all units earmarked for the offensive .
Stavka postponed Operation Saturn until 16 December , as Soviet forces struggled to clear German defenders from the lower Chir River . The Red Army 's offensive in the area commenced on 30 November , involving around 50 @,@ 000 soldiers , which forced Manstein to use the 48th Panzer Corps in an attempt to hold the area . In response , the 5th Tank Army was reinforced by the newly created 5th Shock Army , drawn from existing formations of the South @-@ Western and Stalingrad Fronts ; the 5th Tank Army totaled nearly 71 @,@ 000 men , 252 tanks and 814 artillery guns . The Soviet offensive succeeded in tying down the 48th Panzer Corps , originally chosen to lead one of the main attacks on the Soviet encirclement . The Soviets were forewarned of the impending German assault when they discovered the German 6th Panzer Division unloading at the town of Morozovsk , and as a result , held back several armies from the attack on the lower Chir River to prepare for a possible breakout attempt by German forces inside Stalingrad .
= = Comparison of forces = =
= = = Participating German forces = = =
The relief operation was originally scheduled to include the LVII Panzer Corps of the 4th Panzer Army , under the command of General Friedrich Kirchner , including the 6th and 23rd Panzer Divisions , and Army Detachment Hollidt , consisting of three infantry divisions and two armored divisions ( 11th and 22nd Panzer Divisions ) . In total , it was expected that four panzer divisions , four infantry divisions and three Luftwaffe Field Divisions were to take part in Operation Winter Storm . They would be tasked with temporarily opening a passage to the 6th Army . The Luftwaffe field divisions — formed of non @-@ combat soldiers , headquarters staffs and unit @-@ less Luftwaffe and Heer personnel — were poorly trained and lacked seasoned officers and enlisted soldiers , as well as sufficient anti @-@ tank and artillery guns . Many of the personnel promised for the relief effort never arrived , partly due to the poor transportation service to the front , while some units originally chosen to be transferred under the command of Army Group Don were retained by their original commands . Other units in Army Group Don were in no shape to conduct offensive operations , due to losses sustained in the past month of combat , while many new formations which had been promised did not arrive on time .
On the other hand , the 11th Panzer Division was one of the most complete German armored divisions on the Eastern Front since it had just been transferred out of the German Army 's reserve . The 6th Panzer Division was also complete because it had been transferred to Manstein 's control from Western Europe . However , the usefulness of the 11th Panzer Division was compromised when the Soviets launched their offensive against forces in the lower Chir River area , as this tied Army Detachment Hollidt down on the defensive . Because of this , and because Manstein believed that a thrust originating from the position of Army Detachment Hollidt would be too obvious , the German field marshal decided to use the 4th Panzer Army and the XLVIII Panzer Corps as the main components of the relief operation . However , despite attempts by the Germans to build strength for the offensive , their position along the lower Chir River became tenuous ; the Soviet breakthrough was only blunted by the arrival of the 11th Panzer Division , which was able to destroy the bulk of two Soviet tank brigades . Consequently , the XLVIII Panzer Corps became embroiled in the defensive battles for the Chir River , as the Soviets pushed in an attempt to overrun the airfield at Tatsinskaya ( being used to resupply German forces in Stalingrad by air ) .
Although the LVII Panzer Corps was reluctantly released to Army Group Don , by Army Group A , the 17th Panzer Division was ordered back to its original area of concentration , and did not prepare to go back to Army Group Don until 10 days after it had been asked for . In light of the troubles in building up sufficient forces , and seeing that the Soviets were concentrating more mechanization on the Chir River , Manstein decided to launch Operation Winter Storm using the 4th Panzer Army . Manstein hoped that the 6th Army would launch an offensive of its own , from the opposite side , upon the receipt of the code signal Thunderclap . Manstein was gambling on Hitler accepting that the only plausible method to avoid the demise of the 6th Army was allowing it to break out , and assumed that General Paulus would agree to order his forces to escape the Stalingrad pocket . On 10 December , Manstein communicated to Paulus that the relief operation would commence in 24 hours .
= = = Participating Soviet forces = = =
For the purpose of Operation Uranus , Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov deployed eleven Soviet armies . In an effort to bolster the offensive capabilities of the Stalingrad Front , over 420 tanks , 111 @,@ 000 soldiers and 556 artillery guns were shipped over the Volga River in a period of three weeks . The Red Army and Red Air Force were able to amass over one million soldiers , 13 @,@ 500 artillery guns , 890 tanks and 1 @,@ 100 combat aircraft , organized into 66 rifle divisions , five tank corps , 14 tank brigades , a single mechanized brigade , a cavalry corps , and 127 artillery and mortar regiments . As the encirclement closed and the Soviets continued with secondary operations , the 51st Army was positioned on the edge of the outer encirclement with 34 @,@ 000 men and 77 tanks . South of them was the 28th Army , with 44 @,@ 000 soldiers , 40 tanks and 707 artillery guns and mortars . Concurrently , the Red Army began building its strength for Operation Saturn , in which it would aim to isolate and destroy German Army Group A in the Caucasus .
= = German offensive = =
On 12 December 1942 , Hoth 's Fourth Panzer Army 's LVII Panzer Corps began its north @-@ eastward drive toward German forces trapped in the Stalingrad pocket . The 6th and 23rd Panzer Divisions made large gains , surprising the Red Army and threatening the rear of the Soviet 51st Army . The German drive was due to be spearheaded by the 503rd heavy tank battalion ( Germany ) of Tiger I heavy tanks , but the unit did not reach the Don front until 21 December . Initial progress of the offensive was rapid . Some units were able to travel up to 50 km ( 31 mi ) in the first day . The Germans were aided by the element of surprise , as Stavka had not expected the German offensive to begin so soon , while General Vasilevsky was unable to detach the 2nd Guards Army to use it as a blocking force against Manstein 's spearheads . The initial advance had been so quick that the 6th Panzer Division was able to capture Soviet artillery equipment intact . Soviet resistance decreased noticeably after the 6th and 23rd Panzer Divisions had overrun the main body of Russian infantry . In fact , the 302nd Rifle Division of the 51st Army was overrun by the end of 12 December . Although Soviet infantry quickly reinforced villages in the path of the German drive , the Red Army 's cavalry in the area was exhausted from weeks of combat and was incapable of putting up serious resistance against the German offensive . Despite early gains , the LVII Panzer Corps was unable to achieve decisive results . There were also reports of heavy pressure building against the 23rd Panzer Division , despite headway made on the first day of the German offensive .
On 13 December , the 6th Panzer Division made contact with the Soviet 5th Tank Army , which was engaged in the reduction of German defenses around the Chir River . German forces were able to engage and defeat Soviet armor , as the former forced the crossing of the Alksay River . At this point , a major armored battle began around the village of Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy . Although they sustained heavy losses , the Soviet forces were able to push German forces back to the banks of the Alksay River by the end of the day , while failing to retake the town . However , the losses sustained by the Red Army in the vicinity of Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy allowed the 6th Panzer Division to enjoy a brief superiority in tank numbers thereafter . Fighting for Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy continued for three days , as the Red Army launched a series of counterattacks against the German bridgeheads across the Alksay River and German defenders in the town . German defenders were able to pin Soviet tanks in Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy and destroy them using well emplaced anti @-@ tank artillery guns . With heavy support from the Luftwaffe , the Germans were able to achieve a local success and began to push toward the Myshkova river . The 6th Panzer Division took heavy losses during its drive , and took a brief respite after the battle to recondition . Minor damage to surviving tanks was repaired and the majority of the tanks incapacitated during the fighting at Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy were brought back to serviceable conditions .
= = = Soviet response : 13 – 18 December = = =
The Fourth Panzer Army 's offensive forced Stavka to recalculate its intentions for Operation Saturn , and on 13 December Stalin and Stavka authorized the redeployment of the 2nd Guards Army from the Don Front to the Stalingrad Front , where it would be ready to be used against German forces on 15 December . This army had a strength of roughly 90 @,@ 000 soldiers , organized into three guards rifle corps ( the 1st , 13th and 2nd ) . Operation Saturn was redesigned into Operation Little Saturn , which limited the scope of the attack to breaking through the Italian 8th Army and then engaging Army Group Don in the rear . The offensive was also changed from a southward push to a drive in a southeastern direction , and the start date was pushed back to 16 December . In the meantime , the 4th Mechanized and 13th Tank Corps continued to counterattack against German forces in the vicinity of the Alksay River , trying to delay their advance in anticipation of the arrival of the 2nd Guards Army .
The Soviet 1st and 3rd Guard Armies , in conjunction with the Soviet 6th Army , launched Operation Little Saturn on 16 December . Despite early troubles due to stubborn resistance from Italian troops , the Red Army was able to partially overrun the Italian 8th Army by 18 December . The breakthrough -even if small and quickly contained- proved a possible threat to Army Group Don 's left flank , while the city of Rostov was threatened by the 3rd Guards Army . This , and mainly heavy losses sustained by the German armor divisions forcing their way to the Myshkova river , forced Manstein to reconsider continuing the offensive . The German field marshal decided that he could not defend his left flank while also sustaining the attempt to relieve the 6th Army . Although the 6th Panzer Division was able to cross the Myshkova River by the night of 19 December , the LVII Panzer Corps had still not made major advances against increased Soviet opposition , despite the arrival of the 17th Panzer Division ; in fact , it seemed as if the corps would have to go on the defensive . Furthermore , the Soviet raid on Tatsinskaya managed to destroy the airfield and several dozen aircraft being used by the Luftwaffe to resupply forces inside the Stalingrad pocket , forcing Manstein to order the XLVIII Panzer Corps on the defensive , instead of reserving it to bolster his forces directed toward the breakthrough to Stalingrad . To make matters worse for the Germans , on 18 December Hitler refused to allow the German 6th Army to begin a breakout operation towards the rest of Army Group Don , despite pleas from Manstein .
= = = Collapse : 19 – 23 December = = =
On 19 December , Manstein sent his chief intelligence officer — Major Eismann — into Stalingrad to give General Paulus an accurate image of the strategic situation which had befallen Army Group Don . Paulus was not impressed , although he agreed that the best option continued to be an attempted breakout as early as possible . The 6th Army 's Chief of Staff — Major General Arthur Schmidt — argued that a breakout was unfeasible and instead suggested that Army Group Don take steps to better supply entrapped Axis forces by air . Despite agreeing with Eismann earlier , Paulus then decided that a breakout was out of the question given the 6th Army 's incapability to conduct it and Hitler 's express orders against it . Although that day the LVII Panzer Corps managed to breakthrough the Alksay River and drive within 48 km ( 30 mi ) of the southern edge of the 6th Army 's front , the entrapped German forces made no attempt to link up with the relieving forces . Adam makes the point the 6th Army tanks only had fuel to go 30 km , after which they would need fuel and ammunition flown in to go any further . Thereafter , the 6th Army simply did not have the strength to attempt a breakout , operating less than 70 serviceable tanks , with limited supplies , while its infantry were in no condition to attempt an attack in the blizzard which had developed over the past few days .
Manstein ordered the 6th Panzer Division to end its offensive and redeploy to the southern Chir River , to bolster German defenses there against the continuing Soviet offensive , on 23 December . By 24 December , the Fourth Panzer Army was in full retreat , returning to its starting position . The inability to breakthrough to the 6th Army , and the latter formation 's refusal to attempt a breakout , caused Operation Winter Storm to collapse on 24 December , as Army Group Don returned to the defensive .
= = Aftermath = =
With the German relief effort defeated , Stavka was free to concentrate on the destruction of Axis forces in the Stalingrad pocket and the westward expansion of the Red Army 's Winter offensive . The Red Army was able to bring to bear almost 150 @,@ 000 personnel and 630 tanks against the retreating 4th Panzer Army and although Volsky 's 4th Mechanized Corps ( renamed 3rd Guard Mechanized Corps on 18 December 1942 ) was withdrawn to be refitted , the 51st Army , the 1st Guards Rifle and 7th Tank Corps struck at German units withdrawing between the Mushkova and Aksai Rivers . In three days , the attacking Soviet units broke through the Romanian positions guarding the LVII Panzer Corps ' flank and threatened the 4th Panzer Army from the south , forcing the Germans to continue withdrawing to the southwest . All the while , the XLVIII Panzer Corps — led mainly by the 11th Panzer Division — strove to maintain its position along the Chir River . Despite success , the XLVIII Panzer Corps was rushed to the defense of Rostov as a Soviet breakthrough seemed imminent after the partial collapse of the Italian 8th Army . As the Red Army pursued the 4th Panzer Army toward the Aksai River and broke through the German defense on the banks of the Chir River , it also began to prepare for Operation Ring — the reduction of the forces in Stalingrad .
German forces in Stalingrad soon began to run out of supplies , some soldiers were forced to live on horse meat . By the end of 1942 , the distance between the German 6th Army and forces outside of the encirclement was over 65 km ( 40 mi ) , and most of the German formations in the area were extremely weak . Hitler 's insistence in holding Stalingrad to the last risked the existence of the 6th Army . The end of the German offensive also allowed the Red Army to continue in its efforts to cut @-@ off German forces in the Caucasus , which would begin in the middle of January . On the other hand , the encirclement of the 6th Army and the operations to destroy it tied down a considerable number of Soviet troops , which affected Soviet operations on other sectors .
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= George Tucker ( politician ) =
George Tucker ( August 20 , 1775 – April 10 , 1861 ) was an American attorney , politician , historian , author , and educator . His literary works include the first fiction of colonial life in Virginia and another which is among the nation 's earliest science fictions . Tucker also published the first comprehensive biography of Thomas Jefferson , as well as a history of the United States .
Tucker was the son of the first mayor of Hamilton , Bermuda . He immigrated to Virginia at age 20 , was educated at the College of William and Mary , and was admitted to the bar . His first marriage ended with the death of his childless wife Mary Farley in 1799 ; he remarried and had six children with wife Maria Carter , who died at age 38 in 1823 . His third wife , of 30 years , was Louisa Thompson who died in 1858 .
Aside from his law practice , Tucker wrote distinctive monologues for various publications . His topics ranged widely from the conceptual to the technical — from slavery , suffrage , and morality to intracoastal navigation , wages , and banking . He was elected in 1816 to the Virginia House of Delegates for one term , and served in the United States House of Representatives from 1819 to 1825 . From his youth until early middle age , Tucker 's lofty social lifestyle was often profligate , and occasionally scandalous . Nevertheless , upon completion of his congressional term , his eloquent publications led Thomas Jefferson and James Madison to extend to him an appointment to serve as Professor of Moral Philosophy at the newly founded University of Virginia ; he accepted and held that post until 1845 .
After retiring , Tucker relocated to Philadelphia and continued to research , and expound upon , a variety of subjects including monetary policy and socio @-@ economics until his death in Virginia at the age of 86 .
= = Family and early life in Bermuda = =
George Tucker was born in Bermuda at St. George 's Island on August 20 , 1775 . He was the second son of Daniel and Elizabeth Tucker , who were distant cousins . Daniel and his brothers established a mercantile partnership with a fleet of vessels shipping goods to America , Newfoundland , and the West Indies . Daniel was also a founder and Mayor of the port of Hamilton , Bermuda .
Tucker was educated in Bermuda primarily by a tutor engaged from Great Britain and also by Josiah Meigs . His assigned reading included Tom Jones , The Vicar of Wakefield , and Arabian Nights , among the mainstays of an education on the American continent . At age fifteen he helped form a literary club , the Calliopean Society ; Meigs later became a professor and reprised the name of the club at Yale . Tucker at age 16 began to read the law under a successful and prosperous lawyer , George Bascomb . At Bascomb 's death , the firm 's clients urged Tucker to assume their representation , but feeling quite unqualified , he declined , deciding to begin plans for a career in the United States .
= = Immigration to America , education and first marriage = =
Shortly after his mother 's death in 1795 , Tucker sailed for Philadelphia , intending to continue his legal education in the United States . He briefly considered London for his studies but discarded the idea , in order to optimize his chances for " political advancement " . After a free @-@ spending time with other Bermudians in the capital city , he ran out of funds , and proceeded to Williamsburg , Virginia to seek advice and borrow money from his famous cousin St. George Tucker , a maneuver he would repeat . He was admitted at the College of William & Mary , where he studied law under St. George and graduated after two years . Tucker was pleased to find the academic work undemanding , and his social life entertaining , as he gained access to the finer homes through his cousin .
Tucker traveled to New York and Philadelphia and , with letters of introduction in hand , was able to further acquaint himself with his adopted country and meet noted leaders , including George Washington and New York governors John Jay and George Clinton . Despite his enjoyment of this high society , he returned to Williamsburg and there began a courtship with Mary Byrd Farley , who was possessed of much charm and fortune , and to whom he proposed . Though he had initially preferred to delay the wedding until he had passed the bar , he gave in to his heart 's desire , borrowed the needed funds from an uncle , and they married in October of 1797 . To help Mary , who was chronically ill with consumption , Tucker arranged a trip to his old home in Bermuda . The stay there provided Mary no relief from her illness and confirmed his desire to be in Virginia . They returned to Williamsburg , setting up residence , with his intention to read for the bar exam . Except for trips to North Carolina to collect rents on his wife 's property , Tucker avoided his work , attended horse races in Fredericksburg , and frequented fashionable watering places with friends and family ; he made Thomas Jefferson 's acquaintance at this time . Mary never recovered from her infirmities , and died childless in 1799 .
Mary 's death complicated Tucker 's facile life , as her considerable estate was fraught with legal problems . It included a sugar plantation , thousands of acres of land , and a share in the Dismal Swamp Company . After a prolonged trip to the sugar plantation in Antigua , and on to Martinique and Bermuda , he returned to Williamsburg and then determined his future was in the nearby state capital of Richmond , Virginia as a practicing attorney . Tucker ultimately succeeded in salvaging only part of his late wife 's fortune .
= = Richmond society , second marriage , slavery and politics = =
Tucker arrived in Richmond with a letter of introduction from St. George to Governor James Monroe . His cousin 's letter is said to have accurately portrayed Tucker 's character and also foretold his future there : " To the best qualities of the heart he unites an excellent understanding , which has been well cultivated , and a very comprehensive knowledge of the world ; nature has blessed him with a most exuberant flow of spirits , which sometimes betray him into acts of levity ... " Tucker effectively entered the desired social circles in Richmond , bolstered by a well @-@ furnished home near the Governor 's own , and soon could count among his acquaintances not only the Governor ( whom Tucker called " that slow dull man " ) , but also George Wythe , Edmund Pendleton , George Hay and most notably Charles Carter ( 1765 – 1829 ) , who introduced him to daughter Maria Ball Carter — the granddaughter of Betty Washington Lewis . They soon fell in love , and in February 1802 he married Maria , age seventeen and pregnant .
While Tucker began writing for publication , as an attorney he was initially deficient , being disabled by his fear of speaking in the courtroom ; he later gained the requisite self @-@ confidence . Tucker became a founding member of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society in Richmond , an effort led by John Marshall and John Floyd ; Tucker was named to the Society 's Standing Committee .
Politically , Tucker was a Jeffersonian Republican , delighted at the split in the Federalists between John Adams and Alexander Hamilton , and joined in the resentment toward Federalist attempts to " appoint a president " by party caucus . But in time he departed his near @-@ Jacobin leanings and became a pro @-@ bank Republican . He once gave a speech in support of a Federalist in a local election , and a staunch Republican , Lewis Harvey , called him a party traitor and liar . In reaction , the often hot @-@ tempered Tucker took a swing at him but missed due the intervention of a neutral party . Assuming his challenge unsuccessful , Tucker demanded satisfaction which Harvey accepted . Tucker carefully arranged the duel , stipulating an extraordinary distance in paces , so as to diminish the superior marksmanship of his opponent . Fortunately for Tucker the duel was avoided at the last moment — though not before he had completed his will and arranged his estate for his expecting wife . Their first child , Daniel George , was born November 23 , 1802 .
= = = Positions on slavery = = =
Tucker sought out the foremost authors in Richmond to advance his interest in literature and the arts , and soon published an essay entitled Letter to a Member of the General Assembly of Virginia on the Subject of the Late Conspiracy of the Slaves with a Proposal for Their Colonization ( 1801 ) , proposing a remedy to slavery . Tucker 's Letter expressed his early opposition to slavery , portraying it as unproductive and uneconomical . He wrote that no country " can attain great heights in manufactures , commerce or agriculture where one half of the community labours unwillingly , and the other half does not labour at all . " He recommended that revenues be secured ( with a tax on slaveholders ) and used to establish a colony for the slaves west of the Mississippi . He further asserted that the slave 's inferiority was a result of time and circumstance , and not natural causes .
In the 1820s however , Tucker 's views of slavery changed notably with personal experience , and profit , realized in his purchase and sale of slaves for his account and that of his father @-@ in @-@ law , Charles Carter . For years he opposed the concepts of abolition and colonization as impractical , then finally reverted to his earlier conclusion that a more beneficial , commercially oriented , society was inevitable . Though he recounted the insipid benefits of slavery , he predicted its eventual death . Indeed , he freed his own slaves in 1845 , 16 years prior to his death .
= = Scandal , rustic life and valor = =
= = = Rigged lottery = = =
Tucker 's law practice could not support the expenses essential to his extravagant social exploits , which included gambling at cards and races , and he proceeded to waste the capital from Mary Tucker 's estate . He was drawn to speculative investments and ultimately was embroiled in a financial scandal . In 1803 , he joined other prominent citizens in organizing a lottery to raise funds for the Richmond Academy . He allegedly bought several chances for himself and , as remaining chances dwindled , resold some of them for a profit ; he also was said to have positioned himself as one of four or five holders sure to be a winner . He held the winning stub when his ticket was purportedly found lodged in a joint of the drawing drum .
Tucker was asked for reimbursement , and after negotiation , paid it in part , borrowing the remainder from members of the academy board . He also acted as custodian of other funds , blended them with his own and spent it on overindulgence and land speculation . Later he was required to defend himself in these matters before the Virginia General Assembly . Though he was officially cleared of wrongdoing , the incidents tarnished his reputation and highlighted the style of his living in Richmond . Meanwhile , Maria gave birth to their eldest daughter , Eleanor Rosalie , on May 4 , 1804 .
= = = Rural settings = = =
Tucker relocated his family in 1806 , including a newborn daughter Maria , to the Carters ' home in Frederick County , Virginia , and attempted to put his financial house in order . Business required his frequent return to Richmond , and on one occasion he was arrested there for a delinquency owed to a loan company . The immediate problem was solved with the intervention of St. George . Tucker economized for two years , living a rural life with the Carters and other family and was able to purchase a home near the Dan River .
In May 1808 the family moved to " Woodbridge " in Pittsylvania County , where daughter Eliza was born in December . Maria was then faced with rearing four children in more rural , less favorable living conditions . For his part , Tucker was disappointed with an absence of the desired social life . While he thought all his neighbors " friendly and civil " , they were also " unpolished and plain " . With an increased effort in his law practice , Tucker discovered more success and acquired more clients , spread across four counties . He was also elected Commonwealth 's Attorney for Pittsylvania county . Maria gave birth to daughter Lelia in October 1810 and Harriett in May 1813 .
= = = Self @-@ proclaimed act of chivalry = = =
In 1811 , Tucker was in Richmond to attend a benefit performance , and put his life in danger during the infamous Richmond Theatre fire . The event , including a play entitled The Father , or Family Feuds and a pantomime afterwards named Raymond and Agnes , was held in December . It being Christmas time , the auditorium was packed — with 518 adults and 80 children .
In his autobiography Tucker relates that , " The play was over ... and there appearing to be much delay in bringing on the afterpiece ... I had fortunately quitted the [ play ] house while it was on fire , tho ' I did not know the fact ... but the cry of fire prevented my reaching my lodgings , and hurried me back to witness a spectacle of human woe which I have never seen equalled . I was instrumental in saving several females from the flames . " In the process , he suffered a head injury when struck by a falling timber , and was left with a permanent scar above his eye . The tragedy took the lives of 72 people , including the sitting Governor of Virginia George William Smith . Victims also included many of the upper echelons in Richmond society .
= = Elective office and early writing = =
Tucker 's maritime roots in Bermuda instilled an interest in navigation , and he began an intense campaign with the legislatures of North Carolina and Virginia to improve the waterways to Norfolk along the Roanoke , Dan , and Staunton Rivers , in order to avoid inefficient portage required to Petersburg and Richmond . This effort culminated in his own bids for election to a seat in the Virginia House of Delegates representing Pittsylvania County , which failed in 1813 and 1814 but then succeeded in 1816 . Tucker and Maria then suffered the first loss of a child , Harriett , from whooping cough at age three .
Tucker continued his work in literature along with that in the law , and in 1814 – 1815 the Philadelphia Port Folio published a series of his essays entitled Thoughts of a Hermit . Financial success was for once his as a result of these endeavors ; he also realized profits from land sales near the Dan River , and the sale of Woodbridge when the family moved again , to Lynchburg , Virginia in 1818 .
The death of daughter Harriett had been painful enough , but Maria 's depression became uncontrollable and chronic when daughter Rosalie died unexpectedly at age 14 in 1818 . Also during this period Maria 's father , Charles Carter , encountered his own financial setbacks , and prevailed upon Tucker for assistance ; Tucker , with the help of Lawrence Lewis , was able to settle the Carters at " Deerwood " , sharing part of the profits from Charles ' management there .
With financial success came more clients and opportunities to serve his community . Tucker received many cases in debt collection , and he was appointed trustee of the Lynchburg Female Academy and vestryman at St. Paul 's Episcopal Church . Tucker was also elected to serve in the United States House of Representatives from 1819 to 1825 , representing the Lynchburg area in the 16th , 17th , and 18th United States Congresses . His financial largess was short @-@ lived , as Tucker was unable to resist the allure of society and lavish living in Washington , not to mention the increased expenses of a larger immediate family .
Though Tucker and Maria were warned against her having more children in her vulnerable physical and emotional state , she again conceived , and died in pregnancy in February 1823 . In the carriage to Washington after the funeral , Tucker muffled his face with a handkerchief to hide his tears and feigned a toothache in response to inquirers . Maria 's death indeed weighed heavily upon him , as he reflected on his plausible neglect in the midst of her travails . He also was much concerned for his son Daniel 's indolence and unbalanced behavior which years later would result in the son 's hospitalization and ultimate death in 1838 in Philadelphia .
Due in part to these personal trials , he made no momentous contributions to Congress beyond his reliable positions representing Virginia 's interests , with a consistent Jeffersonian Republican voting record . He did serve as chairman of the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of War . There are notable disparities between Tucker 's more statist voting record and the nationalism predominant in his writings during this period and later . In his essay On Instructions to Representatives , he provides an explanation in political theory — an inevitable obligation to think one way and yet vote another , in compliance with constituent preferences .
= = Academics = =
Near the end of Tucker 's third congressional term in 1824 , Thomas Jefferson presented him with an offer on behalf of the fledgling University of Virginia , sanctioned by Trustees James Madison and Joseph C. Cabell , to serve as the first Professor of Moral Philosophy . The offer met the school 's desire to appoint a non @-@ Federalist to the post , and Tucker 's connections with Cabell and St. George would also have facilitated his selection . Another factor was Tucker 's recent 1822 Essays on Various Subjects of Taste , Morals , and National Policy , which included papers from the Port Folio . Madison had been provided a copy of these and recommended them to Jefferson , saying they were " among the best answers to the charges of our national ... backwardness . " Tucker 's selection may as well have been an accommodation to some of the school 's opponents , including Episcopalians , Federalists , and notable western Virginians , many of whom were friends of Tucker 's . Presumably , his prior monetary indiscretions were overlooked since no related formal charges were extant .
From Tucker 's perspective , the offer was most opportune , as he considered his congressional seat in jeopardy , as well as his pocketbook . The professorship included a steady income , extra fees from philosophy students , tenure , and rent @-@ free quarters on the University Lawn . Tucker accepted the offer , effective in 1825 , and also was chosen chairman of the faculty . As well as his primary discipline , he also assumed charge of the subjects of Political Economics and Rhetoric for the University . He was content with family life in Charlottesville , Virginia , though he " found solitude unbearable " after Maria 's death and began an earnest search for a wife , whom he found in Louisa A. Thompson , a widow from Baltimore . In their thirty years together Tucker later said he had found " the same warmth and devoted affection with which I have been previously blest " .
Tucker 's effectiveness in the lecture hall is not objectively certain , and he may well have encountered difficulty with public speaking as he had in the courtroom previously . His continued faculty chairmanship certainly testified to his relative popularity among colleagues , and he published numerous works — including one satire , a fiction , three books on economics and statistics , a Jefferson biography , as well as two pamphlets . Together with Robley Dunglison he founded and edited the Virginia Literary Museum ( 1829 – 1830 ) in which he published voluminous writings ; and he frequently sent essays to newspapers and magazines .
= = Later politics and major literary works = =
= = = Politics = = =
Some of Tucker 's writing reflected a growing political skepticism of the workings of democracy beginning with the 1796 election . By the late 1820s , he was persuaded that political leadership positions should be reserved primarily for prosperous people with a tangible , and taxable , interest in government . Andrew Jackson 's election in 1828 was for Tucker an example of the " triumph of democratic demagoguery which could bring about class warfare . " Tucker worked arduously in Virginia to oppose Jackson and was a solid supporter of Henry Clay , with his second choice being Daniel Webster .
He opposed universal suffrage , and favored limiting the franchise to half of free men , and allowing slaveholders to cast votes on behalf of three @-@ fifths of their slaves ; he also argued in favor of eliminating the secret ballot . Tucker also promoted the Second National Bank and strongly criticized Jackson for defunding it .
= = = Works of fiction = = =
Tucker 's premier literary work was The Valley of Shenandoah ( 1824 ) , the first fictional tale of life in Virginia . In relating the downfall of an aristocratic family in the Commonwealth 's valley , it drew upon his personal witness of the financial ruin of his in @-@ laws , the family of Charles Carter , and described the inability of an estate owner to manage his monetary affairs , such as he had personally experienced . Tucker further used the novel 's characters , again reflecting personal experience , to emphasize that happiness in love and life resulted from the moderation of one 's passions . The Valley stressed Tucker 's professorial objective , that history must inform the reader with " the progress of society and the arts of civilization ; with the advancement and decline of literature , laws , manners and commerce . " He also conveyed through the fiction his view that gentility was independent of wealth , that the relationship between masters and slaves was imbued with mutual trust and happiness , and that the strong currents of socio @-@ economic change were on the whole beneficent .
Using the pseudonym Joseph Atterley , in 1827 he wrote the satire A Voyage to the Moon : With Some Account of the Manners and Customs , Science and Philosophy , of the People of Morosofia , and Other Lunarians . It is one of the earliest American works of science fiction , and was relatively successful , earning Tucker $ 100 from the sale of 1000 copies . It received positive reviews from the American Quarterly Review and the Western Monthly Review . Tucker uses The Voyage to ridicule the social manners , religion and professions of some of his colleagues , and to criticize some erroneous scientific methods and results apparent to him at the time .
= = = First biography of Jefferson = = =
In 1836 , Tucker completed his manuscript of a comprehensive biography , The Life of Thomas Jefferson , Third President of the United States . He sent his composition to James Madison for his approval , as the latter had assisted in its formation . Tucker included for his sanction a proposed dedication to the recipient . Madison replied with his full approbation and signature on June 26 , 1836 , just hours before his death the following day .
This premier study of the life of Jefferson was published in two volumes the following year , and received complimentary review in the Edinburgh Review from Lord Brougham , as " a very valuable addition to the stock of our political and historical knowledge . In it , Professor Tucker does not always accord with the illustrious subject of his biography . The work , indeed , manifests a laudable desire to do justice , and to decide impartially on contested topics ; and hence , perhaps , it failed to give satisfaction to the ardent supporters , as well as to the bitter opponents , of Mr. Jefferson . "
= = Sabbatical abroad , retirement , and work of U.S. history = =
= = = Sojourn in Great Britain = = =
Tucker considered a trip abroad would enhance his insight and resume generally , and specifically prepare him for a possible , though not likely , diplomatic appointment . He expected there was much to be learned for his country 's benefit in the British factories , great estates and crowded cities . With his finances in order and a three @-@ month leave from the university , in 1839 he made a trip to Great Britain and after some time in Shakespeare country , Stratford @-@ Upon @-@ Avon , he settled in Liverpool . He did not succeed in making all the expected social connections , with the exception of the 1st Earl of Leicester and his wife , with whom he frequently discussed politics and agriculture . Though admiring the succinct debates in Parliament , he found Queen Victoria 's procession " more fit to amuse a child than one of my age " . On the whole he found conversation did not come easy with the British , and concluded " there were more churls in England than in all of Europe besides . " This journey , along with his interest in the doctrines of Thomas Robert Malthus on populace , inspired Tucker to expound upon the mixed blessings of a prospective urbanized world . Some of his hypotheses were included in The Progress of the United States in Population and Wealth ( Boston , 1843 ) . This work gained him one of his proudest honors , a membership in the Statistical Society of Paris .
His enthusiasm for teaching at the university ebbed in his final years there . He was also perturbed by an increase in religious enthusiasm on campus and a temperance movement , which he mildly protested . Tucker zealously defended higher salaries for more tenured professors , and he was enraged when the University reduced his annual salary from $ 1500 to $ 1000 . Having produced documentation proving that Jefferson had intended his salary be guaranteed for life , he convinced the university to reinstate his original salary .
= = = Resignation from faculty and relocation = = =
With the death of his last contemporary on the faculty in 1845 , Tucker resigned his professorship and moved to Philadelphia , where he enjoyed the availability of more libraries , meetings at the American Philosophical Society and a reunion with his friend Robley Dunglison . Nevertheless , there were drawbacks – for one , the lack of accommodation that slaveholding had brought him — he had emancipated all five of his slaves upon his departure from Charlottesville . He later expressed doubt about the wisdom of the latter decision when he learned that three of them had , by law , been exiled from Virginia , and shortly thereafter died . As well , the two freed slaves who accompanied him to Philadelphia immediately deserted their posts upon arrival there .
Social life in the urban setting did not initially live up to his expectations , but after a time his writing and lecturing upon a variety of subjects filled the void . He also joined The American Institute for the Advancement of Science and successfully urged its members to establish a section on Political Economics and Statistics . He as well engaged in a debate , as antagonist of Malthusian population theory with proponent Alexander Everett .
= = = History of the United States = = =
In 1856 , Tucker completed his four @-@ volume History of the United States , From Their Colonization to the End of the 26th Congress , in 1841 . Robley Dunglison commented as follows on the work : " To aid him in the execution of his work , as [ Tucker ] himself remarks , it had been his good fortune to have a personal knowledge of many , who bore a conspicuous part in the Revolution , and of nearly all those who were the principal actors in the political dramas which succeeded . The history extends to the elevation of General William Henry Harrison to the Presidency in 1841 , which is as far as Tucker thought he could prudently go . " The work includes a brief review of slavery , in which Tucker took issue with Jefferson 's decades @-@ old view in his Notes on the State of Virginia ( 1781 ) , that slavery still had a degenerative effect upon slaveholders .
= = Final years = =
Though Tucker may have displayed in his old age " a spirit of pugnacity becoming earlier years " , as one critic claimed , such a nature was not in evidence with his family . He corresponded positively and frequently with his children and vacationed with them in the summers in Virginia and New York . He appears to have been consistent in his devotion to his family , which was returned by them in kind . And his exchanges with them were replete with a concern for their financial well being . Musing his own past errors , he told them that " except for the loss of friends , a want of prudence in money matters has contributed nine tenths of the pain and vexation of [ my ] life " .
Even after the death of his wife Louisa in 1858 , Tucker 's vitality persisted and , not long before the American Civil War began , in January 1861 he journeyed south through Virginia , the Carolinas and Georgia to Alabama to visit a friend in Mobile . In reaction to Georgia 's secession from the union , speaking from his lingering southern loyalty , he commented , " it seems a poor remedy for an unpopular President " . He thought the overriding need for " a wise provident government " would bring the southern states back under a modified constitution . But after some time spent in the south , he was compelled to say the people " seemed to be crazed in the fancies of imaginary evils and their strange remedies . " Indeed , Tucker 's youthful loyalties to the agrarian south had in his own maturation given way to a belief in the necessity and value of a commercial @-@ industrial society . Nationalism had become the foundation of his politics over statism , and he could not understand why a compromise in lieu of war would not be embraced .
Tucker sustained head injuries at Mobile Bay when , awaiting his ship 's departure for return to the north , he was struck by a large bale of cotton being loaded on board . He was moved to the home of daughter Eleanor and husband George Rives in Albemarle County , Virginia , where he died on April 10 , 1861 , two days prior to the Battle of Fort Sumter and the beginning of the American Civil War . He was buried at the University of Virginia Cemetery .
= = Works ( by year ) = =
Letters on the Conspiracy of Slaves in Virginia ( Richmond , 1800 )
Letters on the Roanoke Navigation ( 1811 )
Recollections of Eleanor Rosalie Tucker ( Lynchburg , 1819 )
Essays on Subjects of Taste , Morals , and National Policy , under the pen @-@ name " A Citizen of Virginia " ( Georgetown , 1822 )
Tucker , George ( 1824 ) . The Valley of Shenandoah ; or , Memoirs of the Graysons . With an introd. by Donald R. Noble , Jr . ( 1970 Reprint of the 1824 ed . ) . Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 4055 @-@ 6 . LCCN 70123106 . This was reprinted in England and translated into German .
Tucker , George ( 1827 ) . A Voyage to the Moon . New York : E. Bliss . LCCN 03002392 .
Principles of Rent , Wages , and Profits ( Philadelphia , 1837 )
Public Discourse on the Literature of the United States ( Charlottesville , 1837 )
Tucker , George ( 1837 ) . The Life of Thomas Jefferson , Third President of the United States . Philadelphia : Carey , Lea & Blanchard .
The Theory of Money and Banks Investigated ( Boston , 1839 )
Essay on Cause and Effect ( Philadelphia , 1842 )
Essay on the Association of Ideas ( 1843 )
Public Discourse on the Dangers most Threatening to the United States ( Washington , 1843 )
Progress of the United , States in Population and Wealth in Fifty Years ( New York , 1843 )
Memoir of the Life and Character of Dr. John P. Emmet ( Philadelphia , 1845 )
Correspondence with Alexander H. Everett on Political Economy ( 1845 )
Tucker , George ( 1856 ) . The History of the United States . Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co . LCCN 02002948 .
Banks or No Banks ( New York , 1857 )
Autobiography ( 1858 )
Tucker , George ( 1859 ) . Political Economy for the People . Philadelphia : C. Sherman & Son . LCCN 05021928 .
Essays , Moral and Philosophical ( 1860 )
Autobiography , Bermuda Historical Quarterly ( 1961 ) , vol . 18 , nos . 3 and 4
Tucker , George ( 1977 ) . A Century Hence : or , A Romance of 1941 ; edited with an introd. by Donald R. Noble . Charlottesville : University of Virginia Press . LCCN 76041223 .
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= Hurricane Irene ( 2005 ) =
Hurricane Irene was a long @-@ lived Cape Verde @-@ type Atlantic hurricane during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . The storm formed near Cape Verde on August 4 and crossed the Atlantic , turning northward around Bermuda before being absorbed by an extratropical while situated southeast of Newfoundland . Irene persisted for 14 days as a tropical system , the longest duration of any storm of the 2005 season . It was the ninth named storm and fourth hurricane of the record @-@ breaking season .
Irene proved to be a difficult storm to forecast due to oscillations in strength . After almost dissipating on August 10 , Irene peaked as a Category 2 hurricane on August 16 before being absorbed by a larger extratropical system late on August 18 . Although there were initial fears of a landfall in the United States due to uncertainty in predicting the storm 's track , Hurricane Irene never approached land and caused no recorded damage ; however , swells up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) and strong rip currents resulted in one fatality in Long Beach , New York .
= = Meteorological history = =
A vigorous tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on August 1 , initially weakening due to cooler sea surface temperatures . It moved westward and passed near Cape Verde , where convection started to increase . The system became more organized and developed into Tropical Depression Nine on the afternoon of August 4 , 690 miles ( 1100 km ) southwest of the Cape Verde Islands . Early on August 5 , the depression abruptly turned to the northwest into an area of higher wind shear , causing some computer models to predict that the depression would dissipate , while others predicted steady strengthening . The sudden threat to the storm 's existence prompted National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) forecaster Dr Lixion Avila to comment , " How little we know about the genesis of tropical cyclones . " Despite the unfavorable conditions in its vicinity and its poor organization , Tropical Depression Nine continued to strengthen , becoming Tropical Storm Irene on August 7 .
Because Irene was in an environment laden with dry air and high shear , it soon weakened to a tropical depression , on August 8 . On the morning of August 10 , as it was passing north of the Lesser Antilles , Irene nearly dissipated into a remnant low , but forecasters predicted with " very low confidence " that the storm would survive . Contrary to these expectations , warmer waters and less wind shear allowed Irene to become gradually more organized while south of Bermuda , and it became a tropical storm once again early on August 11 .
Due to uncertainties about how the region 's subtropical ridge would interact with Irene , the models continued to give unclear signals of the storm 's future . Some of the models predicted that Irene would make landfall in North Carolina , while others continued to anticipate that Irene would dissipate . The uncertainty ended when a weakness in the subtropical ridge allowed Irene to turn sharply northward , which caused the storm to pass midway between the Outer Banks of North Carolina and Bermuda on August 15 . Soon after , upper @-@ level shear weakened greatly , and Irene rapidly intensified , first to a hurricane , then to its peak strength as a 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane on the afternoon of August 16 , while located 350 miles ( 560 km ) northeast of Bermuda ; at the same time it also attained minimum pressure of 970 mbar . Though NHC meteorologists thought it was likely that Irene would become a hurricane , they were not expecting an intensification of such a magnitude .
Irene entered a region of increased wind shear and began to weaken , and as a result it was downgraded to a tropical storm early on August 18 , when it was 520 miles ( 830 km ) south of Cape Race , Newfoundland . All convection within 230 mi ( 370 km ) of the cyclone dissipated on August 18 . Irene was subsequently absorbed by an extratropical cyclone later that day . Irene lasted for 14 days as a tropical system , the longest duration of any storm of the 2005 season .
= = Impact , records and naming = =
As Hurricane Irene stayed well away from land , no coastal warnings or watches were issued for it . Despite Irene 's long life there were no reports of tropical storm force winds affecting ships . There were no damage or fatalities as a result of Irene . However , the hurricane generated strong waves and increased the risk of rip currents along the East Coast of the United States . Many beaches in New Jersey restricted swimming activities , and lifeguards at one beach performed more than a hundred rescues over a three @-@ day period . Waves along the coastline of New York reached 4 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) . On August 14 , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy drowned after being caught in a rip current near Long Beach , New York on August 14 . His body was recovered on August 16 after washing ashore .
When Tropical Storm Irene formed on August 7 , it was the earliest date for the formation of the ninth tropical storm in an Atlantic hurricane season , beating the previous record held by a storm in the 1936 season by 13 days . This storm also marked the fifth occasion the name Irene had been used to name a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic . Due to the lack of effects on land from Hurricane Irene , the name was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization and was reused in the 2011 Atlantic season ; however , due to the extreme damage caused by the storm , it was retired in 2012 and was replaced with the name Irma .
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= Demographics of New Zealand =
The demographics of New Zealand encompass the gender , ethnic , religious , geographic , and economic backgrounds of the 4 @.@ 6 million people living in New Zealand . New Zealanders , informally known as " Kiwis " , predominantly live in urban areas on the North Island . The five largest cities are Auckland ( with one @-@ third of the country 's population ) , Christchurch ( in the South Island , the largest island of the New Zealand archipelago ) , Wellington , Hamilton and Tauranga . Few New Zealanders live on New Zealand 's smaller islands . Waiheke Island ( near Auckland ) is easily the most populated smaller island with 8 @,@ 900 residents , while Great Barrier Island , the Chatham and Pitt Islands and Stewart Island each have populations below 1 @,@ 000 . New Zealand is part of a realm and most people born in the realm 's external territories of Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands and Niue are entitled to New Zealand passports . In 2006 , more people who identified themselves with these islands lived in New Zealand than on the Islands themselves .
The majority of New Zealand 's population is of European descent ( 69 percent identify as " New Zealand European " ) , with the indigenous Māori being the largest minority ( 14 @.@ 6 percent ) , followed by Asians ( 9 @.@ 2 percent ) and non @-@ Māori Pacific Islanders ( 6 @.@ 9 percent ) . This is reflected in immigration , with most new migrants coming from Britain and Ireland , although the numbers from Asia are increasing . In 2001 an estimated 460 @,@ 000 New Zealanders lived abroad , mostly in Australia , representing nearly one @-@ quarter of NZ 's highly skilled workforce . The largest Māori iwi is Ngapuhi with 122 @,@ 211 people or 24 percent of the Māori population . Auckland is the most ethnically diverse region in New Zealand with 56 @.@ 5 percent identifying as Europeans , 18 @.@ 9 percent as Asian , 11 @.@ 1 percent as Māori and 14 @.@ 4 percent as other Pacific Islanders . The ethnicity of the population aged under 18 years is more diverse ( 72 percent European , 24 percent Māori , 12 percent Pacific and 10 percent Asian ) than the population aged 65 years or older ( 91 percent European , 5 percent Māori , 4 percent Asian and 2 percent Pacific ) . Recent increases in interracial marriages have resulted in more people identifying with more than one ethnic group .
Estimates based on the 2013 census in New Zealand classify 14 @.@ 90 % of the population of New Zealand as Maori , 11 @.@ 80 % of the population as Asian ( deriving from various nations in Asia ) , 7 @.@ 40 % as of Pacific Islander origin ( including from the Cook Islands , Niue , and Tokelau , all of which are dependent states of New Zealand in the Pacific ) , and 1 @.@ 20 % as individuals of Middle @-@ Eastern , Latin American , and African descent . Approximately three @-@ quarters of the population of New Zealand during the census were of European ethnicity .
English , Māori and New Zealand Sign Language are the official languages , with English predominant . New Zealand English is mostly non @-@ rhotic and sounds similar to Australian English , with a common exception being the centralisation of the short i . The Maori language ( te reo ) has undergone a process of revitalisation and is spoken by 4 @.@ 1 percent of the population . New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification . In the adult population 14 @.@ 2 percent have a bachelor 's degree or higher , 30 @.@ 4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22 @.@ 4 percent have no formal qualification . As of the 2013 census , just under half the population identify as Christians , with Hinduism , Buddhism and Islam being the most significant minority religions . New Zealand has no state religion and just over 40 % of the population do not have a religion .
Farming is a major occupation in New Zealand , although more people are employed as sales assistants . Most New Zealanders earn wage or salary income , with a median personal income in 2006 of $ 24 @,@ 400 . Unemployment stood at 6 @.@ 0 percent in May 2014 .
= = New Zealanders = =
While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander , the informal " Kiwi " is commonly used both internationally and by locals . The name derives from the kiwi , a native flightless bird , which is the national symbol of New Zealand . The Māori loanword Pākehā usually refers to New Zealanders of European descent , although some reject this appellation , and some Māori use it to refer to all non @-@ Polynesian New Zealanders . Most people born in New Zealand or one of the realm 's external territories ( Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands and Niue ) before 2006 are New Zealand citizens . Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards .
= = Population = =
In 2014 New Zealand has an estimated population of just over 4 @.@ 5 million , up from the 4 @,@ 027 @,@ 947 recorded in the 2006 census . The median child birthing age was 30 and the fertility rate is 2 @.@ 1 births per woman in 2010 . In Māori populations the median age is 26 and fertility rate 2 @.@ 8 . In 2010 the Age @-@ standardized mortality rate was 3 @.@ 8 deaths per 1000 ( down from 4 @.@ 8 in 2000 ) and the infant mortality rate for the total population was 5 @.@ 1 deaths per 1000 live births . The life expectancy of a New Zealand child born in 2008 was 82 @.@ 4 years for females , and 78 @.@ 4 years for males . Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline . In 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5 @.@ 3 million , the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older rising from 18 percent to 29 percent . During early migration in 1858 , New Zealand had 131 males for every 100 females , but following changes in migration patterns and the modern longevity advantage of women , females came to outnumber males in 1971 . As of 2012 there are 0 @.@ 99 males per female , with males dominating under 15 years and females dominating in the 65 years and older range .
= = Geographic locations = =
Over three @-@ quarters of New Zealands population live in the North Island ( 76 percent ) with one @-@ third of the total population living in the Auckland region . This region is also the fastest growing , accounting for 46 percent of New Zealand 's total population growth . Most Māori live in the North Island ( 87 percent ) , although less than a quarter ( 24 percent ) live in Auckland . New Zealand is a predominantly urban country , with 86 percent of the population living in an urban area . About 72 percent of the population live in the 16 main urban areas ( population of 30 @,@ 000 or more ) and 53 percent live in the four largest cities of Auckland , Christchurch , Wellington , and Hamilton .
Approximately 14 percent of the population live in four different categories of rural areas as defined by Statistics New Zealand . About 18 percent of the rural population live in areas that have a high urban influence ( roughly 12 @.@ 9 people per square kilometre ) , many working in the main urban area . Rural areas with moderate urban influence and a population density of about 6 @.@ 5 people per square kilometre account for 26 percent of the rural population . Areas with low urban influence where the majority of the residents work in the rural area house approximately 42 percent of the rural population . Remote rural areas with a density of less than 1 person per square kilometre account for about 14 percent of the rural population .
The vast majority of the population live on the main North and South Islands , with New Zealand 's major inhabited smaller islands being Waiheke Island ( 7 @,@ 689 ) , Great Barrier Island ( 850 ) , Chatham and Pitt Islands ( 609 ) , and Stewart Island ( 402 ) . In 2006 , 15 @,@ 342 people were residents of the Cook Islands , with two thirds living on Rarotonga , and the other third spread over the other 14 islands . The resident population of Tokelau and Niue was 1 @,@ 466 and 1 @,@ 625 respectively in 2006 . At the time 58 @,@ 008 Cook Islanders , 22 @,@ 476 Niueans and 6 @,@ 819 Tokelauans lived in New Zealand .
= = Migration = =
East Polynesians were the first people to reach New Zealand about 1280 , followed by the early European explorers , notably James Cook in 1769 who explored New Zealand three times and mapped the coastline . Following the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 when the country became a British colony , immigrants were predominantly from Britain , Ireland and Australia . Due to restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies limitations were placed on non @-@ European immigrants . During the gold rush period ( 1858 @-@ 1880s ) large number of young men came from California and Victoria to New Zealand goldfields . Apart from British , there were Irish , North Germans , Scandinavians , Italian and many Chinese . The Chinese were sent special invitations by the Otago Chamber of Commerce in 1866 . By 1873 they made up 40 percent of the diggers in Otago and 25 percent of the diggers in Westland . From 1900 there was also significant Dutch , Dalmatian , Italian , and German immigration together with indirect European immigration through Australia , North America , South America and South Africa . Following the Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased . In 2008 – 09 , a target of 45 @,@ 000 migrants was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service ( plus a 5 @,@ 000 tolerance ) .
Just over 25 percent of New Zealand 's population at the 2013 Census was born overseas , up from 23 percent in 2006 and 20 percent in 2001 . Over half ( 51 @.@ 6 percent ) of New Zealand 's overseas @-@ born population lives in the Auckland Region , including 72 percent of the country 's Pacific Island @-@ born population , 64 percent of its Asian @-@ born population , and 56 percent of its Middle Eastern and African- born population . In the late 2000s , Asia overtook the British Isles as the largest source of overseas migrants ; today around 32 percent of overseas @-@ born New Zealand residents were born in Asia ( mainly China , India , the Philippines and South Korea ) compared to 26 percent born in the UK and Ireland . The number of fee @-@ paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s , with more than 20 @,@ 000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002 .
To be eligible for entry under the skilled migrant plan applicants are assessed by an approved doctor for good health , provide a police certificate to prove good character and speak sufficient English . Migrants working in some occupations ( mainly health ) must be registered with the appropriate profession body before they can work within that area . Skilled migrants are assessed by Immigration New Zealand and applicants that they believe will contribute are issued with a residential visa , while those with potential are issued with a work to resident visa . Under the work to residency process applicants are given a temporary work permit for two years and are then eligible to apply for residency . Applicants with a job offer from an accredited New Zealand employer , cultural or sporting talent , looking for work where there has been a long @-@ term skill shortage or to establish a business can apply for work to residency .
While most New Zealanders live in New Zealand , there is also a significant diaspora abroad , estimated as of 2001 at over 460 @,@ 000 or 14 percent of the international total of New Zealand @-@ born . Of these , 360 @,@ 000 , over three @-@ quarters of the New Zealand @-@ born population residing outside of New Zealand , live in Australia . Other communities of New Zealanders abroad are concentrated in other English @-@ speaking countries , specifically the United Kingdom , the United States and Canada , with smaller numbers located elsewhere . Nearly one quarter of New Zealand 's highly skilled workers live overseas , mostly in Australia and Britain , more than any other developed nation . However many educated professionals from Europe and lesser developed countries have recently migrated to New Zealand . A common pathway for New Zealanders to move to the UK is through a job offer via the Tier 2 ( General ) visa , which grants a 3 @-@ year initial stay in the country and can later be extended with three more years . After 5 years the person can apply for permanent residency . Another popular option is the UK Working Holiday visa , also known as " Youth Mobility Scheme " ( YMS ) , which grants New Zealanders 2 @-@ year rights to live and work in the UK .
= = Ethnicity = =
New Zealand is a multiethnic society , and home to people of many different national origins . Originally composed solely of the Māori who arrived in the thirteenth century , the ethnic makeup of the population has been dominated since the mid 19th century by New Zealanders of European descent . Settlers brought diseases for which the Māori population had no immunity - by the 1890s , the Māori population was approximately 40 percent of its size pre @-@ contact . From about 1820 , a large number of children born were of mixed parentage , especially in the North of New Zealand where chiefs forced huge numbers of slave women and many children into prostitution with visiting sailors . One French captain described a chief forcing upwards of 150 girls and young women on his crew of 80 . Most New Zealanders are of British and Irish ancestry , with smaller percentages of other European ancestries such as French , Dutch , Scandinavian and German . In the 2006 census , 67 @.@ 6 percent identified ethnically as European and 14 @.@ 6 percent as Māori . Other major ethnic groups include Asian ( 9 @.@ 2 percent ) and Pacific peoples ( 6 @.@ 9 percent ) , while 11 @.@ 1 percent identified themselves simply as a " New Zealander " ( or similar ) and 1 percent identified with other ethnicities . This contrasts with 1961 , when the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Māori , with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent .
During the 2013 census in New Zealand , it was estimated that 14 @.@ 90 % of the population of New Zealand were Maori , 11 @.@ 80 % of the population were Asians ( deriving from various nations in Asia ) , 7 @.@ 40 % were of Pacific Islander origin ( including from the Cook Islands , Niue , and Tokelau , all of which are dependent states of New Zealand in the Pacific ) , and 1 @.@ 20 % were individuals of Middle @-@ Eastern , Latin American , and African descent .
The largest Māori iwi is Ngapuhi with 122 @,@ 211 people ( or 18 @.@ 97 per cent ) of the Māori population . The next largest iwi are Ngāti Porou , Ngāti Kahungunu , Ngāi Tahu / Kāi Tahu , Te Arawa , Ngāti Tūwharetoa , Ngāti Maniapoto , Waikato and Tūhoe . A total of 102 @,@ 366 people ( or 15 @.@ 90 per cent ) of Māori descent did not know their iwi . A group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands and developed their distinct Moriori culture . The Moriori population was decimated , first , by disease brought by European sealers and whalers and , second , by Taranaki Māori , with only 101 surviving in 1862 and the last known full @-@ blooded Moriori dying in 1933 . People identifying as having Moriori descents have increased in number in recent years , from 105 in 1991 to 945 in 2006 .
Auckland is the most ethnically diverse region in New Zealand with 56 @.@ 5 percent identifying as Europeans , 18 @.@ 9 percent as Asian , 11 @.@ 1 percent as Māori and 14 @.@ 4 percent as other Pacific Islanders . Recent increases in interracial marriages has resulted in the New Zealand population of Māori , Asian and Pacific Islander descent growing at a higher rate than those of European descent . In 2006 10 @.@ 4 percent of people , identified with more than one ethnic group in 2006 , compared with 9 @.@ 0 percent in 2001 . The ethnic diversity of New Zealand is projected to increase . Europeans ( including " New Zealanders " ) will remain the largest group , although it is predicted to fall to 70 percent in 2026 . The Asian , Pacific and Māori groups are the fastest growing and will increase to 3 @.@ 4 percent , 10 percent and 16 percent respectively . The ethnicity of the population aged under 18 years at 30 June 2006 was 72 percent European , 24 percent Māori , 12 percent Pacific and 10 percent Asian . The population aged 65 years or older consisted of 91 percent European , 5 percent Māori , 4 percent Asian and 2 percent Pacific .
The maps below show the percentages of people in each census area unit identifying themselves as European , Māori , Asian , or Pacific Islander ( as defined by Statistics New Zealand ) . As people could identify themselves with multiple groups , percentages are not cumulative .
= = Language = =
English is the predominant language in New Zealand , spoken by 98 percent of the population . New Zealand English is mostly non @-@ rhotic with an exception being the Southern Burr found principally in Southland and parts of Otago . It is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart . In New Zealand English the short i ( as in kit ) has become centralised , leading to the phrase fish and chips sounding like " fush and chups " to the Australian ear . The words rarely and really , reel and real , doll and dole , pull and pool , witch and which , and full and fill can sometimes be pronounced as homophones . Some New Zealanders pronounce the past participles grown , thrown and mown using two syllables , whereas groan , throne and moan are pronounced as one syllable . New Zealanders often reply to a question or emphasise a point by adding a rising intonation at the end of the sentence .
From 1880 Māori MPs in parliament were keen that Māori should be taught in English rather than Māori . At that time missionary schools still taught Māori . This trend was further enforced by the Young Maori Party of the early 20th century which consisted of highly qualified Western educated Māori graduates such as Pomare and Ngata who believed that learning English would help Māori integrate into the modern world . After WW2 Māori , who had previously lived mainly in isolated rural areas migrated into urban areas where there were few Māori speakers . Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language ( te reo Māori ) in schools and work places and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas . It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation , being declared an official language in 1987 , and is spoken by 4 @.@ 1 percent of the population . There are now Māori language immersion schools and two Māori Television channels , the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime @-@ time content delivered in Māori . Many places have officially been given dual Māori and English names in recent years . Samoan is the most widely spoken non @-@ official language ( 2 @.@ 3 percent ) , followed by French , Hindi , Yue and Northern Chinese . New Zealand Sign Language is used by approximately 28 @,@ 000 people and was made New Zealand 's third official language in 2006 .
= = Education = =
Education follows the three @-@ tier model , which includes primary schools , followed by secondary schools ( high schools ) and tertiary education at universities or polytechnics . The Programme for International Student Assessment ranked New Zealand 's education as the seventh highest in 2009 . The Education Index , published with the UN 's 2008 Human Development Index and based on data from 2006 , listed New Zealand at 0 @.@ 993 , tied for first with Denmark , Finland and Australia .
Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16 with most children starting at 5 . Early leaving exemptions may be granted to 15 @-@ year @-@ old students that have been experiencing some ongoing difficulties at school or are unlikely to benefit from continued attendance . Parents and caregivers can home school their children if they obtain approval from the Ministry of Education and prove that that their child will be taught " as regularly and as well as in a registered school " . There are 13 school years and attending state ( public ) schools is nominally free from a person 's fifth birthday until the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday .
The academic year in New Zealand varies between institutions , but generally runs from late January until mid @-@ December for primary and secondary schools and polytechnics , and from late February until mid @-@ November for universities . New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent , and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification . In the adult population 14 @.@ 2 percent have a bachelor 's degree or higher , 30 @.@ 4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22 @.@ 4 percent have no formal qualification .
= = Religion = =
Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand at just under half of the population at the 2013 New Zealand Census , although regular church attendance is probably closer to 15 percent . In the 2006 Census , 55 @.@ 6 percent of the population identified themselves as Christians , while another 34 @.@ 7 percent indicated that they had no religion ( up from 29 @.@ 6 percent in 2001 ) and around 4 percent affiliated with other religions . Immigrants make up 80 percent of most of the non @-@ Christian religions , with the traditional Māori religion , Judaism ( 24 percent immigrant ) and Bahá 'í ( 20 percent immigrant ) being the exceptions .
The traditional religion of the indigenous Māori population was animistic , but with the arrival of missionaries from the early 19th century most of the Māori population converting to Christianity . In 2006 , 2 @,@ 412 Māori still identify themselves as adhering to traditional Māori beliefs . The main Christian denominations are Roman Catholicism , Anglicanism , Presbyterianism and Methodism . There are also significant numbers of Christians who identify themselves with Pentecostal , Baptist , and Latter @-@ day Saint churches and the New Zealand @-@ based Ratana church has adherents among Māori . According to census figures , other significant minority religions include Hinduism , Buddhism , and Islam . New Zealand has no state religion and freedom of religion has been protected since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi .
= = Income = =
New Zealand 's early economy was based on sealing , whaling , flax , gold , kauri gum , and native timber . During the 1880s agricultural products became the highest export earner and farming was a major occupation within New Zealand . Farming is still a major employer , with 75 000 people indicating farming as their occupation during the 2006 census , although dairy farming has recently taken over from sheep as the largest sector . The largest occupation recorded during the census was sales assistant with 93 @,@ 840 people . Most people are on wages or salaries ( 59 @.@ 9 percent ) , with the other sources of income being interest and investments ( 24 @.@ 1 percent ) and self @-@ employment ( 16 @.@ 6 percent ) .
In 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per @-@ capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank . In 2010 the estimated gross domestic product ( GDP ) at purchasing power parity ( PPP ) per capita was roughly US $ 28 @,@ 250 , between the thirty @-@ first and fifty @-@ first highest for all countries . The median personal income in 2006 was $ 24 @,@ 400 . This was up from $ 15 @,@ 600 in 1996 , with the largest increases in the $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 70 @,@ 000 bracket . The median income for men was $ 31 @,@ 500 , $ 12 @,@ 400 more than women . The highest median personal income were for people identifying with the European or " other " ethnic group , while the lowest was from the Asian ethnic group . The median income for people identifying as Māori was $ 20 @,@ 900 .
Unemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992 , before falling to a record low of 3 @.@ 4 percent in 2007 ( ranking fifth from twenty @-@ seven comparable OECD nations ) . Unemployment rose back to 7 percent in late 2009 and was 6 @.@ 8 percent during the June 2010 quarter . The 2006 census reported that while the proportion of people with no source of income was the same as 2001 , the number of people receiving the unemployment benefit dropped 48 percent . Most New Zealanders do some form of voluntary work , more women volunteer ( 92 percent ) than males ( 86 percent ) . Home ownership has declined since 1991 , from 73 @.@ 8 percent to 66 @.@ 9 percent in 2006 .
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= I Corps ( United States ) =
I Corps " America 's Corps " is a corps of the United States Army headquartered in Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord , Washington . It is a major formation of United States Army Forces Command .
I Corps ' current mission is part of the United States ' Asia @-@ Pacific Shift . The Pacific Rim Rebalance will involve several combined and joint military exercises in Japan , Korea , Thailand , Philippines , and Australia . Part of I Corps ' objectives for these exercises will be Joint Task Force certification in support of United States Pacific Command missions .
Activated in World War I in France , I Corps oversaw US Army divisions as they repelled several major German offensives and led them into Germany . The corps was deactivated following the end of the war .
Reactivated for service in World War II , the corps took command of divisions in the south Pacific , leading US and Australian forces as they pushed the Japanese army out of New Guinea . It went on to be one of the principal leading elements in the Battle of Luzon , liberating the Philippines . It then took charge as one of the commanding headquarters in the occupation of Japan .
Deployed to Korea at the start of the Korean War , the corps was one of three corps that remained in the country for the entire conflict , commanding US , British , and South Korean forces through three years of back @-@ and @-@ forth campaigns against North Korean and Chinese forces . Following the end of the war , it remained in Korea for almost 20 years guarding the Korean Demilitarized Zone . Active today , the corps acts as a subordinate headquarters of United States Army Forces Command , and has also seen deployments in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
Following the American declaration of war on Germany , on 6 April 1917 , I Corps was organized and activated on 15 – 20 January 1918 , in the National Army in Neufchâteau , France , the first of several corps @-@ sized formations intended to command divisions of the American Expeditionary Force in Europe during World War I. Assisted by the French XXXII Corps , the headquarters was organized and trained ; on 20 January , Major General Hunter Liggett took command .
In February , the corps consisted of the 1st , 2nd , 26th , 32nd , 41st , and 42nd Infantry Divisions . From February to July , 1918 , the German Army launched four major offensives , attempting to secure victory before the full American forces could be mobilized . The final offensive , started in July 1918 , was an attempt to cross the Marne , in the area of Château @-@ Thierry , but I Corps and other formations on the American lines held , and the attack was rebuffed .
With the defeat of these German drives , I Corps conducted its first offensive mission , participating in the Second Battle of the Marne from 18 July until 6 August , which resulted in the reduction of the more important salients driven into Allied lines by the German offensives . After a brief period in the defensive sectors of Champagne and Lorraine between 7 August and 11 September , the corps took part in the St. Mihiel attack on 12 September , which reduced the German salient there during the next four days . Then followed another period on the defense in Lorraine as preparations advanced for what was to be the final Allied offensive of the war . On 26 September , I Corps troops began the attack northward that opened the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . From that day until 11 November 1918 when the war ended , I Corps was constantly moving forward .
The I Corps shoulder sleeve insignia was first worn by members of I Corps after approval from the AEF on 3 December 1918 , but it was not officially approved until 1922 . I Corps continued to train in France , until it was demobilized on 25 March 1919 .
During its time in World War I , I Corps commanded the 1st , 2nd , 3rd , 4th , 5th , 6th , 26th , 28th , 32nd , 35th , 36th , 41st , 43rd , 77th , 78th , 80th , 82nd , 90th , 91st , 92nd Infantry Divisions at one point or another . Also assigned to the corps were the French 62nd , 167th and 5th Cavalry Divisions .
= = = World War II = = =
On 15 August 1927 , XX Corps was reconstituted in the Regular Army . Two months later , on 13 October 1927 , the XX Corps was redesignated as I Corps . However , the corps headquarters remained inactive during peacetime , until the US Army 's buildup following the outbreak of War in Europe . On 1 November 1940 , I Corps was reactivated at Columbia , South Carolina . For the next nine months , the corps supervised training and large scale divisional maneuvers .
= = = = New Guinea Campaign = = = =
On 6 July 1942 Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger took command of the corps which he would lead through the majority of its service in the war . In the summer of 1942 the corps was ordered to Australia , closing into the area at Rockhampton on 17 October 1942 . This move was to be part of a larger overall offensive in the south Pacific region . The corps at this time comprised the 41st and 32nd Divisions , engaged in the defense of British New Guinea , the beginning of the New Guinea campaign . Though the Japanese advanced rapidly at first , a number of factors slowed their progress against the Allied forces . Stubborn resistance from two Australian brigades bought time for I Corps reinforcements to arrive while the terrain proved more difficult than the Japanese had anticipated . Supplies , which were already insufficient for the Japanese forces , were shortened even more as Japan 's high command diverted them to the Guadalcanal campaign . The Japanese attack stalled , and once the threat of a Japanese invasion of Australia was abated , I Corps launched an offensive to push back the Japanese . With the 32nd Division and the 163rd Infantry Regiment of the 41st Division , the offensive was launched across the Owen Stanley Mountains of New Guinea . This force , later augmented by the Australian 7th Division , fought the Battle of Buna @-@ Gona , slowly advancing north against a tenacious enemy under harsh weather and terrain conditions . Overstretched Japanese forces , low on supplies , were eventually overcome by US and Australian forces . Despite being surrounded , trapped , and outnumbered , the Japanese forces continued to fight until they were completely wiped out by Allied forces . Buna , on the north coast of the island , fell on 22 January 1943 . The campaign was the first major Allied victory against the Japanese Army , and I Corps received the Presidential Unit Citation . This victory marked the turn of the tide in the ground war against Japan .
After this campaign I Corps returned to Rockhampton , where it was engaged in the training of the Allied forces beginning to arrive in that area for the coming campaigns . From February 1943 until March 1944 I Corps prepared for its next assignment , Operation Cartwheel . That mission was the capture of Hollandia on the north coast of Dutch New Guinea ; the units allocated to the corps for this task were the 24th and 41st Infantry Divisions . The Task Force established itself ashore after a successful amphibious assault on 19 April 1944 . It then began an offensive in that area to remove Japanese forces , before establishing air bases there . The battle was a vicious one ; the jungles and swamps made difficult fighting ground , and it was not until 6 June that the area was secured . The entire Japanese 18th Army was cut off from its bases by the force . Following this campaign the corps directed the seizure of the island of Biak , which was secured by 24 June , to complete the advances necessary for the subsequent invasion of the Philippine Islands . On 20 August Major General Innis P. Swift succeeded General Eichelberger as commander of the corps .
= = = = Luzon = = = =
The corps was assigned to the Sixth United States Army in preparation for the offensive in the Philippines from the assets of the Philippine Commonwealth Army , Philippine Constabulary and the recognized guerrilla units . On 9 January 1945 , I Corps successfully landed on the coast of the Lingayen Gulf in Northern Luzon with the mission of establishing a base for future operations to the north and of denying the enemy northern access to the South China Sea . As a part of the Sixth Army with an overall force of 175 @,@ 000 men , the American forces faced over 260 @,@ 000 Japanese in Luzon . In a sustained drive of thirty @-@ four days which covered over 100 miles , I Corps crossed central Luzon and thus separated the Japanese forces in the north from those in southern Luzon , destroying Japanese armored units along the way . Additional landings at Samar and Palawan were conducted in February , reducing the pressure on the forces of I Corps . Following this accomplishment , the corps turned northward and began the systematic reduction of the enemy positions on the approach to the Cagayan Valley . The breakthrough into the valley was followed by a swift exploitation that took the corps to the north coast . This advance covered two hundred miles in little over 100 days ; eliminating effective enemy resistance in northern Luzon . Manila was recaptured by the Allies after heavy fighting that ravaged the city . The intense fighting that ensued cost 8 @,@ 000 killed and 30 @,@ 000 wounded in the Sixth Army , compared to 190 @,@ 000 dead for Japan . As the Sixth Army finished off the Japanese on Luzon , the Eighth United States Army in the south sent units all throughout the Philippines to eliminate remaining Japanese resistance on the islands . The Tenth United States Army in the north commenced securing Okinawa and Iwo Jima . With the defeat of the Japanese at each of these places , the US forces had locations from which to launch attacks into mainland Japan .
Allied forces then began preparing for the invasion of mainland Japan , Operation Downfall . I Corps was assigned as one of four Corps under the command of the Sixth Army , with a strength of 14 divisions . I Corps was to lead the assault on Miyazaki , in southern Kyūshū , with the 25th , 33rd , and 41st Infantry Divisions . Opposing them would be the Japanese 57th Army , with the 154th , 156th , and 212th Japanese Infantry Divisions . Before the assault could be launched , Japan surrendered , following the use of nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
During World War II , the 6th , 8th , 9th , 24th , 25th , 30th ( during training in U.S. only ? ) , 32nd , 33rd , 37th , 41st , 43rd , 77th and 98th Infantry Divisions were assigned to I Corps at one time or another , along with the 2nd Marine Division , 7th Australian Division , and elements of the 11th Airborne Division .
= = = = Occupation of Japan = = = =
After the end of hostilities , I Corps was assigned to occupation duty in Japan . On 19 September 1945 the corps , with the assigned 33rd Infantry Division , sailed from Lingayen Gulf for Japan , landing on the island of Honshū on 25 September , three weeks after Japan 's formal surrender . The next few years were a period during which the terms of the surrender were supervised and enforced ; Japanese military installations and material were seized , troops were disarmed and discharged , and weapons of warfare disposed of . The duties of the occupation force included conversion of industry , repatriation of foreign nationals , and supervision of the complex features of all phases of Japanese government , economics , education , and industry .
By 1948 , as the purely occupational mission was accomplished , troops of the corps focused more military training and field exercises designed to prepare them for combat . Its force was eventually downsized to the 24th Infantry Division on Kyūshū and 25th Infantry Division on mid @-@ Honshū . The US Army continued a slow and steady process of post @-@ war drawdown and demobilization on its own , and on 28 March 1950 , the corps was formally inactivated in Japan , and its command consolidated with other units .
= = = Korean War = = =
Only a few months later , the Korean War began , and units from Japan began streaming into South Korea . The Eighth United States Army , taking charge of the conflict , requested the activation of three corps headquarters for its growing command of U.N. forces . I Corps was reactivated at Fort Bragg , North Carolina , on 2 August 1950 .
= = = = Pusan Perimeter = = = =
Advance elements of the headquarters took their place in the Pusan perimeter on 27 August . The headquarters , designated " Task Force Jackson " , assumed control of the South Korean I Corps , the 21st Regimental Combat Team , and the 3rd Battalion Combat Team of the 9th Infantry Regiment . On 12 September , under command of Lieutenant General Frank W. Milburn , the corps became operational . It took command of the 1st Cavalry Division , 24th Infantry Division , and South Korean 1st Infantry Division , along with the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade , defending the Naktong River area against attacking North Korean units .
Amphibious landings at Inchon by X Corps hit North Korean forces from behind , allowing I Corps and IX Corps to break out of Pusan . Four days later I Corps troops pushed northward against crumbling enemy opposition to establish contact with forces of the 7th Infantry Division driving southward from the beachhead . Major elements of the North Korean Army were destroyed and cut off in this aggressive penetration ; the link @-@ up was effected south of Suwon on 26 September . The offensive was continued northwards , past Seoul , and across the 38th Parallel on 1 October . The momentum of the attack was maintained , and the race to the North Korean capitol , Pyongyang , ended on 19 October when elements of the South Korean 1st Infantry Division and U.S. 1st Cavalry Division both entered the city . The advance continued , but against unexpectedly stiffening enemy resistance . On 25 October the first Chinese prisoners on the Eighth Army front were taken by I Corps troops . By the end of October the city of Chongju , forty miles from the Yalu River border of North Korea , had been captured .
= = = = Chinese Intervention = = = =
On 27 November , China entered the war on the side of North Korea against the UN . Massed Chinese attacks were immediately launched against troops of the corps . The Eighth Army suffered heavy casualties , ordering a complete withdraw to the Imjin River , south of the 38th parallel , having been devastated by the overwhelming Chinese force . In the wake of the retreat , the disorganized Eighth Army regrouped and re @-@ formed . I Corps relinquished command of the 1st Cavalry Division , the 24th Infantry Division , and the 27th British Brigade , taking command of the 3rd Infantry Division and the 25th Infantry Division in their place . On 1 January 1951 , 500 @,@ 000 Chinese troops attacked the Eighth Army 's line at the Imjin River , forcing them back 50 miles and allowing the Chinese to capture Seoul . The Chinese eventually advanced too far for their supply lines to adequately support them , and their attack stalled . The Eighth Army , battered by the Chinese assault , began to prepare spring offensives to retake lost ground .
Following the establishment of defenses south of the capital city , General Matthew B. Ridgway ordered I , IX , and X Corps to conduct a general counteroffensive against the Chinese forces , Operation Thunderbolt . Between February and March , the corps participated in Operation Killer , pushing Chinese forces north of the Han River . This operation was quickly followed up with Operation Ripper , which retook Seoul in March . After this , Operations Rugged and Dauntless in April saw Eighth Army forces advance north of the 38th parallel and reestablish themselves along the Kansas Line and Utah Line , respectively .
As I Corps troops approached the Iron Triangle formed by the cities of Chorwon , Kumhwa , and Pyongyang , Chinese resistance increased . By that time , the 1st South Korean Infantry Division was relieved from the corps and assigned to one of the Korean corps . The 1st Cavalry Division was returned to the corps in its place .
In late April , the Chinese launched a major counterattack . Though the 24th and 25th Infantry Divisions were able to hold their ground against the Chinese 9th Chinese People 's Volunteers ( CPV ) Army Corps , the South Korean 6th Infantry Division , to the east , was destroyed by the 13th CPV Army Corps , which penetrated the line and threatened to encircle the American divisions . The 1st Marine Division and 27th British Commonwealth Brigade were able to drive the 13th Army Corps back while the 24th and 25th Divisions withdrew on 25 April . The line was pushed back to Seoul but managed to hold .
= = = = Stalemate = = = =
In September , the UN Forces launched another counteroffensive with the 24th Infantry Division at the center of the line , west of the Hwachon Reservoir . Flanked by the South Korean 2nd and 6th Divisions , the 24th advanced past Kumwha , engaging the 20th and 27th CPV Armies . In November , the Chinese attempted to counter this attack , but were unsuccessful . It was at this point , after several successive counteroffensives that saw both sides fighting intensely over the same ground , that the two sides started serious peace negotiations . In late 1951 , the 1st Cavalry Division , depleted after having suffered 16 @,@ 000 casualties so far in the conflict , was relegated to the Far East reserve to rebuild . It was replaced by the 45th Infantry Division of the Oklahoma Army National Guard , which was newly arrived in the theater .
In March 1952 , the corps grew in size as the 25th Infantry Division was relieved from its command and it gained command of 1st British Commonwealth Division and the South Korean 1st Division , 8th Division , and 9th Divisions . In June 1952 , a ten @-@ day attack against 45th Infantry Division outposts was repulsed . September 1952 began with renewed enemy attacks against the outposts that protected the main line . Enemy attacks up to regimental size against garrisons of platoon and company strength were turned back by Corps troops . Outposts at Bunker Hill , The Hook , Kelly , Old Baldy Hill , Nori , and Pork Chop Hill were defended in heavy fighting within I Corps ' area of responsibility . All along the front , the enemy was driven back with thousands of casualties .
In January 1953 , the corps underwent its last major reorganization of the war , losing command of the US 3rd , 24th , and 45th Infantry Divisions , the South Korean 8th and 9th Infantry Divisions , and the British 1st Commonwealth Division , while taking command of the US 2nd , 7th , and 25th Infantry Divisions and the 1st Marine Division . On 23 January 1953 , the first major action of the year was initiated with a raid by aggressive infantrymen of the South Korean 1st Infantry Division against the enemy 's Big Nori positions . The next months saw many such raids which harassed the enemy , captured prisoners , and destroyed defensive works . Beginning in March , the Communists continually attacked the corps outposts . In that month , troops on Old Baldy were withdrawn , on orders from I Corps , after suffering heavy casualties from the Chinese . On 10 April 1953 Lieutenant General Bruce C. Clarke , who was to see the corps through the remainder of its combat , assumed command .
The fighting on the outposts continued ; the 7th Infantry Division stopped wave after wave of troops that the Chinese threw against Pork Chop Hill . Troops of the Turkish Brigade , attached to the 25th Infantry Division , defended Outposts Berlin , Vegas , Carson , and Elko in fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . They were ordered to evacuate all but the Berlin position at the end of May . The 1st British Commonwealth Division ejected the Chinese after their assault on the Hook . The 1st ROK Division troops were ordered off the positions on Queen , Bak , and Hill 179 when heavy enemy assaults divested them of their tactical value . The closing days of the fighting saw the 7th Infantry Division withdrawn from Pork Chop and the 1st Marine Division ordered to evacuate the Berlin positions for the same reason .
= = = Cold War = = =
After the 1953 armistice , the defense of the Korean Demilitarized Zone was handled by the South Korean and American armies . The eastern half of the border was handled by the South Korean Army while I Corps took charge in the west . For the next 18 years , the corps oversaw US forces on the DMZ , seeing only occasional incidents with the North Korean army . In 1971 , under Nixon 's détente policy , the 7th Infantry Division was withdrawn , leaving the 2nd Infantry Division as the only US Army unit in Korea . I Corps remained in Korea as a two @-@ division formation until 1972 when it was reduced to zero strength and was replaced in 1982 by the Third Republic of Korea Army ( TROKA ) .
In 1980 , Fort Lewis , Washington was notified of a major change of structure . A corps headquarters was to be activated in March 1982 . I Corps was formally activated on 1 October 1981 , much earlier than expected . On 1 August 1983 , the corps expanded its operational control of active Army units outside Fort Lewis , to include the 7th Infantry Division at Fort Ord , California , and the 172nd Infantry Brigade in Alaska , which then became part of the 6th Infantry Division . In 1988 , the distinctive unit insignia was approved for the corps . This was the fourth design held by the corps , with previous versions being approved then retracted in 1942 , 1970 , and 1982 .
= = = Gulf War = = =
Following the end of the Cold War in 1989 , the US government conducted careful restructuring of national priorities and of the defense establishment . Fort Lewis , ideally located to act as a base for mobilization and power projection into the Pacific region , was one of few military bases that did not downsize with the US military overall . Thus , while most of the Army was downsizing , Fort Lewis began to grow , however , several tenant units such as the 9th Infantry Division were downsized .
The 3rd Brigade , 9th Infantry Division became the 199th Infantry Brigade , attached to I Corps , remaining under I Corps until its redesignation as the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment , and its departure for Fort Polk , Louisiana in 1993 .
Also in 1990 , the U.S. intervened in the Middle East with Operation Desert Storm . During that intervention , Fort Lewis deployed 34 active and 25 reserve component units to Saudi Arabia . I Corps also contributed to the command structure , with the I Corps Commander , LTG Calvin A. H. Waller and the Deputy I Corps Commander , MG Paul R. Schwartz , assisting General H. Norman Schwarzkopf , the Commander of the American Forces . I Corps expanded its contingency missions and became a quick @-@ response corps . For several months , I Corps was the nation 's worldwide contingency corps , while the XVIII Airborne Corps was engaged in the Gulf War . This caused a good deal of activity on Fort Lewis , as the post restructured itself to support the corps ' new mission , and to insure that it had a smooth , rapid departure in case they were needed anywhere in the world . This duty was returned to XVIII Airborne Corps upon its return to the United States . The corps then began to convert to a permanently structured , no @-@ mobilization contingency corps and was placed under the operational control of the United States Army Forces Command . This entailed the addition of a number of active component corps units .
In preparation for these new requirements , Fort Lewis began to receive new corps support units which were coming out of Europe . One of these was the 7th Engineer Brigade which was inactivated on 16 January 1992 and immediately reactivated as the 555th Engineer Group . On 16 February 1992 the 210th Field Artillery Brigade , also from Europe , was activated . In 1997 , the 35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade moved to Fort Bliss , Texas , to join other air defense brigades . The corps and Fort Lewis would see a reshuffling of units in and out of the area through 2000 . Plans were drawn up for emergency operations for I Corps should a major conflict emerge in the Pacific region . Plans exist for I Corps to rapidly deploy in defense of Japan or South Korea .
= = = War on Terrorism = = =
With the events of 11 September 2001 , I Corps began providing support for Army units deploying in support of the War on Terrorism . Its assets were active in providing combat support and combat service support missions , including Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan , Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq and the domestic Operation Noble Eagle .
On 4 February 2004 , I Corps forward headquarters deployed to Iraq . The element , called Task Force Olympia , deployed to Mosul , Iraq in January 2004 , where it assumed its mission from the 101st Airborne Division to form a headquarters to exercise command and control of all coalition and Iraqi forces in northern Iraq . It coordinated the efforts of both of the active Stryker Brigade Combat Teams , attached engineers , civil affairs , signal , and other supporting units as well as Iraqi security forces , eventually numbering more than 12 @,@ 000 . The Iraqi security forces included four Civil Defense Corps battalions , three Border Police battalions , several thousand members of the Iraq Facility Protection Security Forces and an Armed Forces battalion . After more than a year in Iraq , the corps forward headquarters handed over responsibility for northern Iraq to the soldiers of Task Force Freedom and 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment in February 2005 .
In 2008 , it was announced that I Corps was to deploy to Iraq in 2009 , to replace XVIII Airborne Corps in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . Soldiers of the corps trained for a year in preparation for the deployment , which began on 9 April 2009 . I Corps filled the role of Multi @-@ National Corps - Iraq at Al @-@ Faw Palace . In January 2010 , Multi @-@ National Corps - Iraq integrated with Multi @-@ National Forces - Iraq ( MNF @-@ I ) and Multi @-@ National Security Transition Command – Iraq ( MNSTC @-@ I ) to form United States Forces - Iraq ( USF @-@ I ) . Over its one @-@ year deployment , the corps oversaw the responsible drawdown of major components of US Forces in Iraq . I corps returned from Iraq in March 2010 following their RIP / TOA with III Corps .
= = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = =
I Corps headquarters deployed to Afghanistan to serve as the headquarters of the International Security Assistance Force Joint Command ( IJC ) for a period of one year . The commander of I Corps , LTG Scaparrotti , served concurrently as the commander of the International Security Assistance Force Joint Command and Deputy Commander , U.S. Forces – Afghanistan from July 11 , 2011 to July 11 , 2012 .
= = = Asia @-@ Pacific Shift = = =
I Corps shifted its mission to the Asia @-@ Pacific region in mid @-@ 2012 . I Corps Commander Lt. Gen. Robert Brown announced this Pacific Rim rebalance during his Change @-@ of @-@ Command Ceremony at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord . In late 2011 , President Barack Obama and Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta signaled the Asia @-@ Pacific pivot and have made several trips to the region .
= = Organization = =
I Corps is unique among the active US Army corps in that it is composed of a mixture of active duty and US Army Reserve units in 47 of the 50 U.S. states , for a total of around 20 @,@ 000 active duty and 20 @,@ 000 army reserve forces .
I Corps , Fort Lewis , Washington
7th Infantry Division
1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team , 2nd Infantry Division
2nd Stryker Brigade Combat Team , 2nd Infantry Division
2nd Infantry Division Artillery
16th Combat Aviation Brigade
17th Field Artillery Brigade
555th Engineer Brigade
201st Military Intelligence Brigade
593rd Expeditionary Sustainment Command
42nd Military Police Brigade
62nd Medical Brigade
= = Honors = =
The I Corps was awarded seven campaign streamers for service in World War I , three campaign streamers and two unit decorations in World War II , ten campaign streamers and one unit decoration in the Korean War , one unit award during Operation Iraqi Freedom , and one unit award in peacetime , for a total of 20 campaign streamers and five unit decorations in its operational history .
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= Andrianampoinimerina =
Andrianampoinimerina ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ anˈɖʐianˌmpuʲnˈmerʲnə ̥ ] ) ( 1745 – 1810 ) ruled the Kingdom of Imerina from 1787 until his death . His reign was marked by the reunification of Imerina following 77 years of civil war , and the subsequent expansion of his kingdom into neighboring territories , thereby initiating the unification of Madagascar under Merina rule . Andrianampoinimerina is a cultural hero and holds near mythic status among the Merina people , and is considered one of the greatest military and political leaders in the history of Madagascar .
Andrianampoinimerina took power upon deposing his uncle , King Andrianjafy , who had ruled over Imerina Avarandrano ( Northern Imerina ) . Prior to Andrianampoinimerina 's reign , Imerina Avarandrano had been locked in conflict with the three other neighboring provinces of the former kingdom of Imerina that had last been unified under King Andriamasinavalona a century before . Andrianampoinimerina established his capital at the fortified town of Ambohimanga , a site of great spiritual , cultural and political significance that was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001 . The king 's original royal lodgings can still be visited at Ambohimanga today . From this position , he progressively extended his domain first over all Imerina and then over the greater Highlands , absorbing the Betsileo , Sihanaka , Bezanozano and Bara territories . Having reigned for 23 years at the time of his death , Andrianampoinimerina had successfully reunited Imerina and vastly expanded the Merina kingdom , with the intent to ultimately unify all of Madagascar under Merina rule . His son and heir , Radama I , continued the conquests Andrianampoinimerina had begun , and over the next two decades largely achieved his father 's vision .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth = = =
Andrianampoinimerina was born Ramboasalamarazaka ( short form : Ramboasalama ) around 1745 in Ikaloy , in central Madagascar , to Princess Ranavalonandriambelomasina , daughter of King Andriambelomasina of Imerina ( 1730 @-@ 1770 ) , and her husband Andriamiaramanjaka , an andriana ( noble ) of the Zafimamy royal family in the independent kingdom of Alahamadintany to the north of Imerina . His mother 's brother Andrianjafy was named Andriambelomasina 's successor and was king of Imerina Avaradrano , the northern quadrant of the former Kingdom of Imerina , from 1770 to 1787 .
Ramboasalamarazaka was born during a period when conflict and famine afflicted Imerina . For almost a century , from the end of the reign of King Ralambo ( 1575 – 1600 ) to King Andriamasinavalona ( 1675 – 1710 ) , the Kingdom of Imerina in Madagascar 's central highlands had generally enjoyed prosperity , expansion and civil peace . This stability and the unity of Imerina collapsed after Andriamasinavalona divided the kingdom among his four favorite sons , leading to 77 years of civil war that weakened the ability of subsequent princes to respond effectively to the pressures of slave trading and a growing population . Merina kings had long intended to extend their kingdom to the North by absorbing the Zafimamy kingdom of Alahamadintany , and the Zafimamy kings of Alahamadintany had also wished to extend their land to the South by absorbing the Merina Kingdom . The marriage between Ramboasalamarazaka 's parents was a political alliance contracted as part of Andriambelomasina 's strategy to mitigate the threat of invasions by the Alahamadintany @-@ Zafimamy alliance to the North . The marriage agreement stipulated that after the reign of Andriambelomasina 's son , Andrianjafy , the throne would pass to his daughter 's son , Ramboasalamarazaka . The alliance between these two royal families represented a fair and peaceful compromise : the prince born of this union would rule over both states and unify the two kingdoms .
Andrianampoinimerina 's Zafimamy ancestors practiced endogamy and therefore rarely mixed with the descendants of the legendary first inhabitants of Madagascar , the Vazimba . However , Ramboasalamarazaka had partial Vazimba ancestry on his mother 's side through her antecedent , King Andriamanelo ( 1540 – 1575 ) , son of Vazimba Queen Rafohy ( 1530 – 1540 ) and her Merina husband Manelo . He was born during the first quarter of the moon ( tsinambolana ) of the month Alahamady , the sign of a highly auspicious birth according to popular belief . Following the Merina customs of the time , his parents gave him the humble name Ramboasalama ( Ra @-@ amboa @-@ salama , " The healthy dog " ) to protect him from attracting the undesirable attention of jealous rivals or evil spirits , before being changed in childhood to Ramboasalamarazaka .
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Ramboasalamarazaka spent his early childhood in his father 's Zafimamy court at Ikaloy . There he received a traditional education , including mastery of fanorona , a local board game believed to develop intelligence and the ability to think strategically . Young nobles being groomed for leadership roles typically learned to perform kabary ( a stylized form of public address ) , including the judicious use of ohabolana ( proverbs ) to persuasively make a point . Young Merina princes also often learned to play the valiha , a bamboo tube zither then reserved for Merina and Zafimamy nobles . Around the age of 12 , Ramboasalamarazaka continued his education under the supervision of his grandfather , King Andriambelomasina , at Amboatany and the royal court in Ambohimanga .
= = = Merchant = = =
As a young man , Ramboasalamarazaka worked as a merchant and may have also traded in slaves . During this period he gained a reputation as a champion of the commoner , committed to defending them against raids by Sakalava warriors and slave traders and fighting against corruption . Regarded as a self @-@ made man who did not rely on his privileges as a prince , his independence , temperament , tenacity and sense of justice made him popular among the commoners and the slaves of Ambohimanga . His popularity stood in contrast to public discontentment with his uncle , King Andrianjafy , who was viewed as a despotic and incompetent ruler . Ramboasalamarazaka frequently made promises to the populace regarding his future reign , which led Andrianjafy perceived as a threat to his authority , leading him to execute citizens of his territory who engaged his nephew in such promises ; contrary to his intentions , this response only served to turn popular opinion against Andrianjafy .
= = = Conflict with Andrianjafy = = =
Although Andrianjafy may have initially intended for Ramboasalamarazaka to succeed him , this appears to have changed following the birth of his son , whom his wife persuaded him to name as successor in disregard of his father 's earlier decree . Andrianjafy consequently made several attempts to have his nephew killed , but on each occasion Ramboasalamarazaka was warned by Andrianjafy 's brother and managed to avert the plot . In 1787 , when Ramboasalamarazaka was 42 years old , the conflict between the men reached a turning point : Andrianjafy decided to send a group of assassins to Ramboasalama 's residence in Ambohimanga . Andrianjafy 's brother again took action and warned Ramboasalamarazaka to flee , but rather than leave Ambohimanga , Ramboasalama followed the advice of an elder who instructed him to sacrifice a ram to invoke ancestral protection . The elder then gathered the twelve most respected men of Ambohimanga and thirty soldiers , and rallied them to enforce the decree of Andriambelomasina by overthrowing Andrianjafy and swearing allegiance to Ramboasalama . After the success of the coup , the new king adopted his ruling name , Andrianampoinimerina . The support of the Tsimahafotsy , inhabitants of Ambohimanga , ensured the defense of the city against efforts by Andrianjafy to reclaim his capital and his authority .
Andrianjafy rallied the people of his home village of Ilafy to fight against those of Ambohimanga . Both sides were armed with spears and firearms . An initial battle at Marintampona saw the Ilafy army defeated . Both sides regrouped for a second confrontation at Amboniloha , which took place at night and did not end in a definitive win for either side . In the morning , Andrianjafy moved his army north of Anosy and the two sides clashed again in a battle that lasted two days . The Ilafy army lost the skirmish and retreated to their village . After losing these battles , the residents of Ilafy decided to submit to Andrianampoinimerina . To rid themselves of Andrianjafy , the people encouraged him to travel to Antananarivo and Alasora to seek allies in the defense of their town . Once he had departed , the villagers barred the town gates and announced their desire to enforce the decree of Andriambelomasina . Seeking support to recapture the throne , Andrianjafy traveled to Antananarivo , Ambohipeto , Alasora and Anosizato to secure an alliance , but each time he was rebuffed . The conflict came to an end in 1787 when Andrianampoinimerina exiled his uncle ; varying sources report that shortly afterward Andrianjafy either died in exile or was killed by Andrianampoinimerina 's followers .
= = Reign and expansion of territory = =
= = = Reunification of historic Imerina = = =
Continuing his conquests in the 1790s , Andrianampoinimerina began establishing control over a comparatively large part of the highlands of Madagascar including the twelve sacred hills of Imerina . Andrianampoinimerina conquered Antananarivo in 1793 and concluded treaties with the kings of Antananarivo and Ambohidratrimo . He shifted the kingdom 's political capital back to Antananarivo in 1794 . By 1795 he had gained the allegiance and submission of all the territories that had formed Imerina at its largest extent under Andriamasinavalona , effectively achieving the reunification of Imerina . The former kings of Antananarivo and Ambohidratrimo periodically engaged in resistance against his authority in disregard of the treaties they had concluded , prompting Andrianampoinimerina to launch renewed campaigns to eliminate both kings ; the re @-@ pacification of Antananarivo began in 1794 and achieved definitive success in 1797 , with Ambohidratrimo reconquered shortly afterward . By 1800 , he had absorbed several other previously independent sections of Imerina into his kingdom . He reinforced alliances with powerful nobles in conquered regions of Imerina through marriage to local princesses , and is said to have wed 12 women in total . He placed each wife at a house built at each of the twelve sacred hills . After the political capital of Imerina was shifted back to Antananarivo , Andrianampoinimerina declared Ambohimanga to be the spiritual capital of Imerina .
= = = Conquest of greater Madagascar = = =
The latter half of Andrianampoinimerina 's reign from around 1800 was marked by an effort to unite the island 's 18 ethnic groups under his rule . This effort began with the sending of royal messengers bearing invitations to become vassal states under Andrianampoinimerina 's sovereignty , or face a military conquest . The first focus of this expansion was territory that had historically been inhabited by the Merina people but had come under the rule of other groups , particularly including the eastern lands held by the Sihanaka and Bezanozano peoples . Andrianampoinimerina then consolidated Merina power in neighboring southern central Betsileo territories , establishing military outposts to protect Merina settlers as far south as the Ankaratra mountains and Faratsiho . Kingdoms that united with Imerina as a result of diplomatic efforts included the Betsileo around Manandriana ; the Betsileo , Merina and Antandrano Andrandtsay of Betafo ; and the western region of Imamo . The Sakalava of Menabe and Manangina rejected these offers and actively resisted Merina domination ; the Bezanozano territories likewise resisted , although the Merina managed to preserve a tenuous hold over the area .
The gradual conquest of surrounding lands by Andrianampoinimerina and his Merina army was vigorously opposed by the Sakalava , who remained a major threat to Andrianampoinimerina and his people . Throughout his reign , bands of Sakalava mounted slave raids in Imerina and brought captured Merina to the coast for sale to European slave traders . Sakalava armies mounted repeated incursions into Imerina and nearly breached the capital city on more than one occasion . Andrianampoinimerina launched several campaigns to pacify the Sakalava but none were successful . He also sought to establish peace through marriages intended to form political alliances , but without achieving lasting peace or an end to the slave raids .
Certain Merina nobles and several members of the royal family also posed a threat to Andrianampoinimerina 's rule . After deposing Andrianjafy , the fallen king made an attempt on Andrianampoinimerina 's life . This assassination attempt was foiled by an informant who had learned about the conspiracy by chance . Andrianampoinimerina rewarded the informant by marrying his daughter to his son , future King Radama I. Andrianampoinimerina furthermore declared that any child from this union would be first in the line of succession after Radama . The marriage did not produce children , however , and following Radama 's death in 1828 , this royal wife would rule Madagascar for 33 years as Queen Ranavalona I. Andrianaimpoinimerina 's authority was also threatened by his adopted son , Rabodolahy , who plotted to kill Radama ; when these efforts failed , he attempted to assassinate Andrianampoinimerina , but was discovered and executed .
= = Governance of the Kingdom of Imerina = =
Beginning in 1797 , Andrianampoinimerina ruled his expanding kingdom from Antananarivo , the traditional capital of the Kingdom of Imerina . He is credited with major development and reorganization of the city . His vision for the capital was to serve as a microcosm of his kingdom and a model of urban planning that would be replicated in each new territory . In keeping with sacred Merina symbolism associated with height , space and cardinal orientation , he retained the royal compound - the Rova of Antananarivo - at the crest of the highest hill in the city , and in the center of the urban space that expanded around it . He also undertook significant expansion of the sacred rova compound and improved its venerable buildings . This included the reconstruction in 1800 of Besakana , the " throne of the kingdom " built by king Andrianjaka in the early 1600s as the first royal residence at Antananarivo - one of several houses used as residences by Andrianampoinimerina at the palace , the other principal residence being Mahitsielafanjaka after he moved his capital from Ambohimanga to Antananarivo . He implanted representatives of ethnic groups he had recently conquered in specified neighborhoods of the city . Each Merina social class had its designated districts : slaves lived south of the rova ( a disfavored direction in Merina cosmology ) , the mainty ( royal servant class ) lived to the southeast in Amparihy , important hova clans were allotted the district to the west of the royal compound , and each of the seven sub @-@ classes of andriana nobles were assigned to a district to the sacred north and northeast of the palace . Within this broad district structure , each clan ( foko ) was assigned a specific neighborhood in an orientation roughly corresponding to the orientation of their home village vis @-@ a @-@ vis the capital city . In the popular imagination of the residents of modern @-@ day Antananarivo , the city in the time of Andrianampoinimerina is envisioned as a perfect and harmonious urban space embodying the best of Merina ingenuity and spiritual significance .
The legitimacy of Andrianampoinimerina 's reign was bolstered by his characterization of other Merina rulers ' claims to power as fanjakana hova - rule by hova ( commoners ) , whose lineages were only weakly tied to the line of succession relative to his own . In addition , like Merina kings before him , he consolidated the power of the sampy ( royal idols ) and attributed the success and legitimacy of his reign to the proper respect shown toward these conduits of supernatural power . He balanced this strengthening of the supernatural and ancestral legitimacy of his kingship against inclusiveness of the commoner class by making several hova from the Tsimiamboholahy and Tsimahafotsy clans into powerful and trusted advisers . He also consulted a group of ombiasy ( royal advisers of the Antaimoro clan ) , who were literate in the sorabe script historically used on the east coast to inscribe a series of ancient texts considered to contain powerful magic and specialized scientific and ritual knowledge .
The population of Imerina was governed through a mixture of traditional practices and innovative measures . While all land technically belonged to the sovereign , its administration was carried out by andriana who were assigned a menakely ( subdivision of land ) to govern . These administrators were themselves overseen by roving royal advisers . The land was cultivated by commoners , who were given a parcel to farm based on the size of the family it was meant to feed , and each family paid taxes to the king in return . Andrianampoinimerina passed laws giving children the right to claim meat from the butcher that had not been sold by the day 's end , and allowing the poor to eat cassava from others ' fields , provided they took only what they could cook and consume on the spot . In this way , the basic nutritional needs of most citizens were met .
= = = Social organization = = =
The hierarchy of Merina andriana sub @-@ classes established in the 16th century under Andriamanelo was revised by Andrianampoinimerina , as it had been done by Andriamasinavalona . He decreed new rights and responsibilities for the andriana , including the privilege of placing sculptures or images of the voromahery ( black kite ) on their homes to indicate their noble status .
In order to strengthen relationships within clans and communities , and to promote moderation and equitable distribution of resources , Andrianampoinimerina decreed that families should build larger , monolithic stone tombs to hold the remains of all family members , and that the construction of these tombs was to be undertaken as a shared responsibility among members of the family to be entombed there .
Modifications and expansions on several traditional royal rituals under Andrianampoinimerina enabled him to develop a state religion in which he was the central figure . The tradition of the fandroana festival established by the 17th century Merina king Ralambo was made a much larger event intended to symbolically renew the nation and the cosmic power that legitimized and strengthened Andrianampoinimerina 's reign as well as the power of the state . This served to further unify his citizens while legitimizing and strengthening his rule .
= = = Public works = = =
The long @-@ established royal Merina tradition of fanompoana ( labor as a form of tax ) was continued and expanded under Andrianampoinimerina . Major public works were carried out under his reign , including the further expansion of irrigated paddy fields in the Betsimitatatra plains surrounding Antananarivo . He devised systems for organizing work teams , motivated their efforts by setting up competitions between teams , and punished those who failed to contribute their due share of effort . He mobilized groups of hiragasy village musicians to entertain work teams and later employed them to travel among towns and villages across the kingdom , broadcasting news , announcing new laws and promoting proper social behavior .
= = = Laws = = =
Andrianampoinimerina developed a legal system that applied throughout the territories he ruled . He was the first Merina king to establish formal civil and penal codes , the latter ameliorated and transcribed by his son Radama . He declared twelve crimes to be capital offenses , while many others entailed collective punishment for the guilty party and his or her family members including forced labor in chains and being reduced to slave status . These harsh penalties were intended to act as a strong disincentive to engage in antisocial acts ; the consumption of alcohol , marijuana and tobacco were also outlawed , although they remained prevalent . To judge infractions of his laws , the king often relied on the tradition of tangena , whereby surviving the ingestion of poison indicated an accused person 's innocence .
= = = Economy = = =
Under Andrianampoinimerina , regulations were established to manage trading in slaves and other commodities . Estimates put the number of slaves traded by the king at around 1 @,@ 800 per year , mainly in exchange for firearms and principally to French merchants who sold them on to Mauritius and Reunion . This brought order to the kingdom 's economy , enriched the crown , and enabled the king to monopolize trade in certain particularly lucrative goods , thereby weakening opportunities for political rivals to amass enough wealth and influence to unseat him . While this soured his relationship with certain andriana , it increased his popularity among the commoner and slave classes . His practice of commonly deciding in favor of commoners in disputes with nobles further strengthened his image as a fair ruler .
Andrianampoinimerina regulated commerce and the economy by creating official markets ( tsena ) and standardizing market scales ( fandanjana ) and other units of measurement , including length and volume . King Andrianampoinimerina established the first marketplace in Antananarivo on the grounds today occupied by the Analakely market 's tile @-@ roofed pavilions , constructed in the 1930s . Andrianampoinimerina decreed Friday ( Zoma ) as market day , when merchants would come to Analakely to erect stalls shaded with traditional white parasols . This sea of parasols extended throughout the valley , forming what has been called the largest open air marketplace in the world . Traffic congestion and safety hazards caused by the ever @-@ growing Zoma market prompted government officials to split up and relocate the Friday merchants to several other districts in 1997 . Prosperity for the masses in Imerina increased throughout Andrianampoinimerina 's reign , leading to growth in population density .
= = = Military organization = = =
Finally , he established a citizen army called the foloalindahy ( the " 100 @,@ 000 soldiers " ) . Men fit for military service were recruited to engage in Andrianampoinimerina 's campaigns of conquest between periods designated for public works projects . These campaigns served to enrich Imerina by capturing slaves for labor and service to the Merina andriana and hova classes , or for sale or trade to coastal communities in exchange for firearms . His military was equipped with the sizeable stock of arms he procured from coastal traders in western Madagascar .
= = Death and succession = =
Andrianampoinimerina died in the Mahitsielafanjaka house on the compound of the Rova of Antananarivo on 6 July 1810 at the age of 65 , having fathered eleven sons and thirteen daughters by his many wives . In the Vazimba tradition of Merina kings before him , the body of Andrianampoinimerina was placed in a canoe made of silver ( rather than the customary hollowed out log ) and interred in one of the royal tranomasina tombs at Ambohimanga . Shortly after the French established a colonial presence on the island in 1896 , they destroyed Andrianampoinimerina 's original tomb in March 1897 , removed his remains , and relocated them to the rova of Antananarivo where they were interred in the tomb of his son . This was done in an effort to desanctify the city of Ambohimanga , break the spirit of the Menalamba resistance fighters who had been rebelling against French colonization for the past year , weaken popular belief in the power of the royal ancestors , and relegate Malagasy sovereignty under the Merina rulers to a relic of an unenlightened past . Andrianampoinimerina was succeeded by his 18 @-@ year @-@ old son , Radama I. In order to fulfill his oath that the child of his son Radama would follow in the line of succession , Andrianampoinimerina had his oldest son , Ramavolahy , killed to prevent any contest for the throne .
= = Legacy = =
Historian Bethwell Ogot states Andrianampoinimerina is " regarded as the most important of Imerina 's kings " . Historian Catherine Fournet @-@ Guérin notes he is an " object of great admiration in the popular imagination . " A French trader who had conducted business with him declared in 1808 , " He is without doubt the richest , the most feared , the most enlightened , and has the largest kingdom , of all the kings of Madagascar . " Malagasy textbooks characterize him as a hero and the originator of the notion of a unified Malagasy national identity .
The primary source of information about the reign of Andrianampoinimerina is Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara , a Malagasy language book relating the oral history of the Merina kings as collected by a Jesuit missionary , Francois Callet , in the late 19th century . Prior to the eventual release of a French language translation in the 1950s , references to the king in academic and popular writing during the colonial period de @-@ emphasized his role as a conduit of traditional religious power and authority , instead glorifying his administrative practices in an attempt to bring greater credibility to the colonial government as a vehicle for building upon and strengthening the principles of good governance that he introduced . Beginning in the 1970s , historians began to focus more on the spiritual aspects of his role as king , and researchers questioned and compared sources in an effort to arrive at a more factual and balanced history of Andrianampoinimerina and his reign .
Innovations during the reign of Andrianampoinimerina were to have long @-@ standing consequences for the structure of Malagasy society in the 19th century . Madagascar specialist Francoise Raison @-@ Jourde attributes the widespread conversions of the masses following the conversion to Christianity of Ranavalona II in 1869 to the precedent established by Andrianampoinimerina of a state religion in which the sovereign is the head and the people are expected to follow . Similarly , Andrianampoinimerina 's decision to empower the hova and the two families of advisers in particular led over the next fifty years to the strengthening of the hova middle class that formed the backbone of the merchant , craftsman , farming and administrative cadres . By the reign of Radama II , hova power rivaled and ultimately exceeded the power of the nobles , leading to the aristocratic coup d 'etat that ended Radama 's reign and the absolute power of the monarch , and established a joint system of government in which the hova Prime Minister and his cabinet governed while the sovereign was reduced to a symbolic figurehead of ancestral power and authority . Ambohimanga , which Andrianampoinimerina declared the spiritual capital of Madagascar , remains among the country 's most important spiritual and cultural sites , and was recognized as Madagascar 's only cultural UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001 . A major street in Antananarivo , running parallel to the Avenue de l 'Independence and one block east , is named after him .
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= Abe Waddington =
Abraham " Abe " Waddington , sometimes known as Abram Waddington ( 4 February 1893 – 28 October 1959 ) , was a professional cricketer for Yorkshire , who played in two Test matches for England , both against Australia in 1920 – 21 . Between 1919 and 1927 Waddington made 255 appearances for Yorkshire , and in all first @-@ class cricket played 266 matches . In these games , he took a total of 852 wickets with his left arm fast @-@ medium bowling . Capable of making the ball swing , Waddington was admired for the aesthetic quality of his bowling action . He was a hostile bowler who sometimes sledged opposing batsmen and questioned umpires ' decisions , behaviour which was unusual during his playing days .
Waddington first played for Yorkshire after the First World War , when the team had been weakened by injuries and retirements . He made an immediate impression in 1919 , his first season ; he took 100 wickets and was largely responsible for Yorkshire 's victory in the County Championship that year . After a similarly successful season in 1920 , he was selected for the 1920 – 21 Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) tour of Australia , during which he appeared in two of the five Tests . However , the England team were outclassed ; used in an unfamiliar tactical role , Waddington took just one wicket and never played for England again . He continued to be effective for Yorkshire , particularly against the weaker counties , but was often inconsistent . His reputation as an uncompromising opponent was cemented when he was found guilty of dissent and inciting the crowd in a game against Middlesex . A succession of injuries reduced his effectiveness and he retired from first @-@ class cricket in 1927 . He continued to play league cricket and worked for the family business , a fat @-@ refining firm , but maintained his connection with Yorkshire cricket .
In the early 1920s , Waddington played several football matches for Halifax Town as a goalkeeper , and after his retirement from cricket enjoyed some success as an amateur golfer . He was in trouble with the police on more than one occasion and after the Second World War was charged with defrauding his wartime employers , the Ministry of Food ; he was found not guilty . He died in 1959 at the age of 66 .
= = Early life = =
Abraham Waddington was born in Clayton , Bradford , on 4 February 1893 , the eldest of three brothers . His family owned a fat @-@ refining business managed by his father , Sam . When he left school , Waddington joined the family firm as a lorry driver , occasionally working in the refinery . He began playing cricket for Crossley Hall in the West Bradford League at the age of 11 ; as a teenager he played in the Bradford League for Lidget Green and then Laisterdyke , gaining a local reputation as a fast @-@ medium bowler . He helped Laisterdyke win the League championship in 1913 , before moving to Wakefield for the 1914 season , where he took 98 wickets at an average of 12 @.@ 00 . He played for Yorkshire Second XI in August 1914 , alongside future First XI teammates Herbert Sutcliffe and Cec Tyson , but the outbreak of the First World War prevented him making any further appearances for the county .
When war was declared , Waddington volunteered for Lord Kitchener 's New Army , joining the Bradford Pals battalion of the West Yorkshire Regiment . On 1 July 1916 , during the first day of the Battle of the Somme , Waddington was wounded by shrapnel at Serre , and took shelter in a crater in no man 's land with other wounded soldiers . One of these was the Yorkshire cricketer Major Booth , who was mortally wounded . Waddington comforted Booth while the cricketer died in his arms , an experience which haunted Waddington for the rest of his life . After recovering , Waddington transferred to the Royal Flying Corps .
= = First @-@ class cricketer = =
= = = County debut = = =
Yorkshire 's bowling attack was severely depleted when cricket resumed in 1919 owing to a combination of retirements and deaths in the war . Additionally , George Hirst was past his best , meaning that Yorkshire needed to recruit new fast bowlers . In May and June , the team struggled to dismiss opposing sides on hard pitches ; their results were poor and when two important matches were lost in June , Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack suggested that " things looked very black " .
At this point in the season the Yorkshire cricketers Roy Kilner and Arthur Dolphin , who like Waddington had also been wounded at the Somme , recommended him to the Yorkshire committee , probably after seeing him take part in cricket matches in the army . Having returned to play for Laisterdyke in the Bradford League , Waddington was called into the Yorkshire side at the beginning of July for the County Championship match against Derbyshire . On his first @-@ class debut , he took four for 26 ( four wickets for 26 runs ) in 26 overs , and after missing the next match , he followed up with nine wickets against Essex in his second game , taking his first five wicket haul in the second innings of that match . From Waddington 's debut , Yorkshire 's results improved and the team won the Championship . Wisden judged that Waddington 's contribution was crucial : " Without him Yorkshire would certainly not have won the Championship " . He and Wilfred Rhodes formed an effective bowling partnership and , according to Wisden , " Rhodes and Waddington , with E. R. Wilson , for a few weeks , and [ Emmott ] Robinson to help them , carried the eleven from success to success " . It described Waddington as bowling " left @-@ hand , medium pace inclining to fast " , with a " delivery that seems part of himself — free from any suggestion of labour or undue effort " ; it noted that he always bowled a good length and made the ball bounce sharply after pitching . The writer judged Waddington 's first season had been one of " exceptional promise " and predicted that Waddington would go on to " great things " . In the official history of Yorkshire County Cricket Club , Derek Hodgson suggests that Waddington 's versatility brought him success , as did the line which he bowled to the batsmen . He finished with 100 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 74 , with eight five @-@ wicket returns . Waddington was only the sixth bowler in first @-@ class cricket history to reach 100 wickets in his debut year .
Yorkshire fell to fourth in the Championship in 1920 ; most of the bowling responsibility fell once more on Waddington and Rhodes , and the other bowlers provided little support . Despite a good start to the season , the team faded in the latter part of the year . Wisden suggested that " in the circumstances [ Rhodes and Waddington ] did wonders , Waddington having some irresistible days against the weaker counties . " He took 141 wickets in the season at an average of 16 @.@ 79 . His best figures came in the two matches against Northamptonshire : in the first game he took 11 wickets , and in the second took 13 wickets for 48 runs , including seven for 18 in the first innings , and a hat @-@ trick . Waddington 's season concluded with his selection for the professional " Players " teams in the prestigious Gentlemen v Players match at the Scarborough Festival . He was one of four players from Yorkshire chosen to tour Australia that winter with the MCC . Hodgson suggests that he was chosen as " the discovery of the first post @-@ war period " .
= = = Test selection and leading bowler = = =
The 1920 – 21 MCC tour to Australia was unsuccessful for the tourists . Captained by J. W. H. T. Douglas , the team was overwhelmed by Australia , losing all five Test matches . Wisden stated that the " chief cause of failure was the bowling " . The MCC had been reluctant to tour so soon after the war , and critics had predicted the bowling would be weak in Australian conditions , where the pitches were generally hard and good for batting .
At the beginning of November , before the first @-@ class matches began , Waddington was operated on for abscesses , and missed the first five games . He played only one first @-@ class match before the first Test , but took wickets in several minor matches . Selected for the first Test , he took the first wicket to fall in the game , that of Charlie Macartney , but failed to take another wicket in the match while conceding 88 runs , hampered by a leg injury in the later stages . He did not play another Test until the fourth , where he bowled five overs for 31 runs . Waddington ended the tour with seven wickets at an average of 46 @.@ 71 ; his single Test wicket was at a cost of 119 runs . The tour was a frustrating experience for Waddington , who found the heat difficult to deal with ; he was also unhappy that most of his appearances came in the non @-@ first @-@ class country matches , many against opponents fielding more than eleven players to make a more even fight . Throughout the tour , the press criticised Douglas for the way he used bowlers . Although Yorkshire used Waddington in short bursts with the objective of taking wickets , Douglas used him to bowl long defensive spells with the prime objective of run @-@ saving , a task to which Waddington was unsuited . Considered a failure — Wisden later described his tour as " a sad disappointment " — Waddington did not play for England again and was never seriously considered for a recall . He did have one batting success on the tour , scoring his maiden first @-@ class fifty against an " Australian XI " .
In the 1921 season , Waddington took 105 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 94 . The introduction of the pace bowler George Macaulay into the team gave him more support , but according to a later edition of Wisden , Waddington 's form was poor that year . The almanack 's review of the 1921 season suggested that , when at full strength , Yorkshire had the best bowling attack in the championship , but the team finished third . Both Waddington and Yorkshire were more successful the following year : the county won the first of four successive championships , and Waddington took 133 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 08 . He was often effective in the most important matches . Wisden suggested that " Yorkshire were very good at every point , but their main strength lay in the excellence and variety of their bowling ... [ Waddington ] was , on occasions , more successful against strong sides than he had ever been before . He had days of astonishing success and once , at least , bowled with a bewildering swerve [ i. e. swing bowling ] that recalled George Hirst at his best . " Among his best performances were figures of eight for 34 against Northamptonshire ( the best of his career ) , seven wickets for six runs in a Sussex total of 20 and eight for 35 against Hampshire . His season ended with festival games at Eastbourne , where he represented the North against the South and played for a team of ex @-@ Royal Air Force servicemen .
= = = Injury and controversy = = =
Waddington was less effective in 1923 , and despite a good bowling average , he was inconsistent . In July , he slipped on wet grass when he was about to bowl against Leicestershire at Fartown Ground , Huddersfield ; the subsequent shoulder injury effectively ended his season , apart from one match against Lancashire in which he bowled just six overs . In September , the injury required an operation to repair a torn ligament . The injury affected the remainder of his career and his bowling was never as effective . In total , before his injury , he took 65 wickets at 18 @.@ 23 in 1923 . That season , he recorded his best figures with the bat ; after never having a first @-@ class batting average better than 12 in an English season , he scored 317 runs at 24 @.@ 38 , including his first fifty in England .
On his return in 1924 , Waddington bowled little in his first matches , but was used more in Yorkshire 's defeat by Middlesex at Lord 's where he bowled 42 overs to take three for 116 . Several Yorkshire players were absent , playing representative matches , but the game had consequences later in the season . In the return match at Sheffield in July , the Yorkshire players seemed determined to have revenge but could only secure a draw . Critics thought that the Yorkshire bowlers appealed excessively to the umpires , and the Middlesex players were barracked by the crowd . The journalist Alfred Pullin described the match as " a sorry exhibition of ill feeling and bad manners . "
The umpires reported Waddington to the cricket committee of the MCC for inciting the crowd through his appeals and gestures of displeasure when batsmen were not given out . Waddington maintained his innocence but the MCC supported the umpires , finding him guilty of dissent , and the Yorkshire president Lord Hawke persuaded him to write a letter of apology to the MCC secretary . After the game , Middlesex threatened to cancel their future matches against Yorkshire ; rumours circulated that the Yorkshire captain Geoffrey Wilson had offered to resign and that Waddington would be dropped . Later in 1924 , Yorkshire had another controversial match , this time against Surrey , where there were disputes on the field , but no official complaint was made . The editor of Wisden suggested that a handful of players were the root cause of Yorkshire 's problem ; Geoffrey Wilson resigned at the end of the season , and these events probably cost Macaulay a place in the England Test team . The Yorkshire cricketer and journalist Bill Bowes later recalled a story in circulation that Waddington had deliberately tripped and injured the Middlesex player J. W. Hearne around this period , although he did not specify if it was during the 1924 Sheffield match . Waddington ended the season with 69 wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 55 , but appeared less effective than before his injury .
= = = Decline = = =
Waddington took more than 100 wickets in a season for the final time in 1925 . Although his form was mixed , he achieved some good performances . Wisden attributed Yorkshire 's championship victory to their bowlers and suggested that " Waddington enjoyed a well @-@ merited success " . In total , he took 109 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 24 . In 1926 both he and the other bowlers were less successful as Yorkshire slipped to second . Wisden noticed a decline in his bowling , but expected him to recover his form . He took 78 wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 30 , and scored his highest aggregate with the bat in a season , making 525 runs with two fifties . In the English winter of 1926 – 27 , he travelled to India and worked as a cricket coach .
Waddington 's bowling declined further in 1927 , to the point where Wisden suggested his record was poor and his " work was only occasionally worthy of his reputation " . The effectiveness of the other bowlers was similarly reduced , and combined with a cautious , safety @-@ first approach , Yorkshire had a mixed season and finished third . Waddington took 45 wickets at 32 @.@ 02 , and conceded a high number of runs on many occasions . However , in what was his last season , he scored his only first @-@ class century , an innings of 114 against Worcestershire . His final first @-@ class appearance was for the North against the South at the Folkestone Festival , where he bowled 16 overs without taking a wicket . At the end of the season , Waddington was offered a new contract despite his decline in bowling and continuing problems from his injured shoulder . He turned it down , ending his county cricket career . In all first @-@ class matches , Waddington took 852 wickets at an average of 19 @.@ 75 and scored 2 @,@ 527 runs at an average of 12 @.@ 89 with four fifties as well as the century . The following season , Yorkshire awarded him a testimonial of £ 1 @,@ 000 .
= = Style and personality = =
Waddington bowled with control , maintaining a good length while his action made the ball swing away from the batsman . For variation , he delivered an off @-@ cutter and when he bowled , the ball seemed to increase its speed after bouncing . He often bowled around the wicket . His curved run @-@ up began from the on side of the wicket , and he ran behind the umpire . He then released the ball from the corner of the bowling crease , creating a sharp angle for the batsman to face , sometimes using short deliveries with a ring of leg side fielders . Waddington modelled his bowling on that of George Hirst , a fellow left @-@ arm paceman who also acted as a coach and mentor to him in his early career , but Derek Hodgson notes that the two men were very different in personality : Waddington was far more quick @-@ tempered than Hirst . Waddington 's bowling action was noted for its excellence and perfection . Neville Cardus , the journalist and cricket writer , described it as " gloriously rhythmical " , and " so lovely that one simply cannot deny he is a good bowler . " But too often , Cardus suggested , he was " ever raising hopes that real greatness will come from him , only to disappoint again and again " .
Although Waddington scored a first @-@ class century in his final season , he did not live up to his batting potential despite a good style . A lower @-@ order batsman , he was inclined to be dismissed through playing irresponsible shots . Herbert Sutcliffe believed that , had he not been a bowler , Waddington may have developed into a leading batsman ; he wrote that Waddington " had as delightful a batting style as he had a bowling style . " But Sutcliffe suggested that Waddington did not possess the required patience : " He used to hit up a brilliant 30 or 40 before making a perfectly silly shot " .
Waddington resented the class divisions in English cricket , his feelings fuelled by experiences of officers in the war and possibly his tour to Australia in 1920 – 21 . He fully embraced Yorkshire 's hard @-@ edged competitiveness in the early 1920s : he questioned the decisions of umpires and sledged opposing batsmen , both of which were unusual at the time . His Times obituary noted that some disagreements came because Waddington played to win and was an enthusiastic appealer , although he was unlikely to win many appeals for leg before wicket because of the angle at which he bowled . Anthony Woodhouse , the cricket historian , describes Waddington as a " wild and irresponsible ... quick @-@ tempered individual " . But there was another side to his personality ; he was a good talker and liked to wear smart clothes , including monogrammed silk shirts . Sutcliffe , a close friend and team @-@ mate of Waddington , called him " a genial fellow in the dressing room ; a man with a rare personality , proof of which is shown by the fact that whenever there was a discussion of any kind in the dressing room , Abe generally ruled it , to all intents and purposes , the chairman . " The cricket writer Jim Kilburn wrote that " at his best , [ Waddington ] was a magnificently hostile bowler with one of the most beautiful actions ever seen in cricket , and his pace and break @-@ back were a problem for the greatest of batsmen " . The historian Leslie Duckworth summed him up : " Yes , a man of temper , Waddington , but a fine cricketer . "
= = Later life = =
When Waddington retired from first @-@ class cricket , he took over the family business . He played as a professional in the Birmingham League in 1928 , and for Accrington in 1929 and 1930 . He maintained friendships with several members of the Yorkshire team and was a pallbearer at Kilner 's funeral in 1928 . In 1954 – 55 , the Yorkshire player and England captain Len Hutton invited Waddington to accompany the members of the MCC team to Australia . En route by sea , the team visited the grave of Hedley Verity , the Yorkshire bowler who was killed in Italy in the Second World War and buried there . Including his visit as a player , Waddington made five trips to Australia .
Waddington had success in other sports , especially as an amateur football goalkeeper . He was with Bradford City in the 1920 – 21 football season , but did not play a match for them . For the 1921 – 22 season , he played for Halifax Town , making seven appearances in the Football League . He was a good enough golfer to represent Yorkshire , to partner Henry Cotton , and to play in the qualifying rounds of the Open Championship in 1935 and 1939 . Sutcliffe wrote that leading golfers told him that had Waddington not been a cricketer , he had the talent to have succeeded as a golfer , although he was prone to carelessness in his play . One Bradford golf club banned him after he poured a glass of beer over the captain , who Waddington believed had used inappropriate language in front of a woman . A motorcycling enthusiast , he regularly attended the Isle of Man TT , although his love of fast cars brought him trouble from the police at times . After one incident in 1938 , he was fined £ 5 for assaulting a policeman and using obscene language after being asked to dip his headlights . In 1950 , he was fined and banned from driving for a year after being found drunk while attempting to start up his car . In mitigation , his lawyer claimed he was suffering from " overwork , worry and insomnia . "
At the start of the Second World War , Waddington was appointed chairman of the North Eastern Division Advisory Committee for the Control of Oils and Fats and became an agent of the Ministry of Food . His responsibilities included arranging for the storage of fats . When the war concluded , he was charged with conspiracy to defraud the Ministry of Food when it was discovered that a letter detailing amounts of money had been altered . The prosecution alleged that between 1943 and 1944 , Waddington and the manager of another fat storage firm shared £ 1 @,@ 600 between them which should have gone to the latter 's company when the price paid by the Ministry for storage increased . Waddington denied all knowledge ; his brother Priestley , another director at the family firm , said that he made the arrangements to pay a portion of the increased fees to Waddington 's co @-@ defendant without the knowledge of Waddington . Waddington was acquitted when a judge ruled that there was no way that it could be proven that he had known of the alteration to the letter , or that he was in any way responsible .
Waddington was married twice . In 1925 , he married Mabel Fawell ; none of his Yorkshire team @-@ mates were aware that he was getting married . In 1952 , he married Doris Garforth ; on this occasion , many of his former cricketing colleagues attended . After a long illness , Waddington died in a Scarborough nursing home on 28 October 1959 aged 66 . He was cremated in Bradford .
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= 1995 Japanese Grand Prix =
The 1995 Japanese Grand Prix ( formally the XXI Fuji Television Japanese Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 29 October 1995 , at the Suzuka Circuit , Suzuka . It was the sixteenth and penultimate round of the 1995 Formula One season . The 53 @-@ lap race was won by Michael Schumacher for the Benetton team after he started from pole position . Mika Häkkinen finished second in a McLaren , and Johnny Herbert third in the other Benetton car .
Jean Alesi , driving for Ferrari , started second , alongside Schumacher . However , Alesi was forced to serve a 10 @-@ second stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty because his car moved forward before the start . Alesi climbed back up to second , before retiring on lap 25 . Schumacher 's rival in the Drivers ' Championship , Damon Hill , started fourth amidst pressure from the British media after poor performances at previous races . Hill moved up to second because of Alesi 's retirement , but spun off the track on lap 40 .
Schumacher 's win was his ninth of the season , matching the record set in 1992 by Nigel Mansell . Benetton was confirmed Constructors ' Champions as Williams could not pass its points total in the one remaining race .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Heading into the penultimate race of the season , Benetton driver Michael Schumacher had already won the season 's Drivers ' Championship , having clinched the title at the previous race , the Pacific Grand Prix . Schumacher led the championship with 92 points ; Damon Hill was second with 59 points . A maximum of 20 points were available for the remaining two races , which meant that Hill could not catch Schumacher . Although the Drivers ' Championship was decided , the Constructors ' Championship was not . Benetton were leading on 123 points and Williams were second with 102 points heading into the 16th race , with a maximum of 32 points available . In the week leading up to the race , Hill was criticised by the British media after poor performances in previous races ; there was continued speculation that Williams were going to replace him with Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen or Gerhard Berger for the 1996 season . Despite the rumours , Williams team boss Frank Williams gave Hill " an unequivocal vote of confidence " heading into the race .
There were two driver changes heading into the race . Having been in one of the two Sauber cars since the fifth race of the season at Monaco , Jean @-@ Christophe Boullion was released from the team and replaced by Karl Wendlinger . The Austrian was given another chance to prove himself after suffering an accident at the 1994 Monaco Grand Prix , which left him in a coma for weeks . The second driver change was Mika Häkkinen 's return to McLaren after missing the Pacific Grand Prix because of an operation for appendicitis .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Two practice sessions were held before the race ; the first was held on Friday morning and the second on Saturday morning . Both sessions lasted 1 hour and 45 minutes with weather conditions dry throughout . Schumacher was fastest in the first session , posting a time of 1 : 40 @.@ 410 , two @-@ tenths of a second quicker than Häkkinen . The Williams and Ferrari cars occupied the remaining top six positions ; Williams drivers Hill and David Coulthard third and fifth respectively . The Ferraris were fourth and sixth fastest ; Jean Alesi ahead of Berger . Häkkinen lapped faster than Schumacher in the second practice session with a time of 1 : 40 @.@ 389 . Eddie Irvine took second place in the Jordan car , three @-@ tenths of a second behind Häkkinen . Hill was third in the Williams , two @-@ tenths behind Häkkinen , with Schumacher fourth behind Hill . The Ferraris were fifth and eighth ; Alesi in front of Berger . Frentzen 's Sauber and Coulthard 's Williams split the Ferraris . Despite both the Williams cars going off into the gravel , Hill and Coulthard made the top 10 .
The qualifying session was split into two one @-@ hour sessions ; the first was held on Friday afternoon with the second held on Saturday afternoon . The fastest time from either sessions counted towards their final grid position . Schumacher clinched his tenth career pole position , in his Benetton B195 , with a time of 1 : 38 @.@ 023 . He was joined on the front row by Alesi , who was eight @-@ tenths of a second behind . Schumacher was particularly pleased with the performance of his Benetton , saying that " I have rarely had such a good car ... I think I can be confident for the race " . Alesi was satisfied about his performance , but worried about a mechanical problem which had caused him to crash on Friday , accusing the Ferrari team of withholding information from him . Alesi was scheduled to leave Ferrari for Benetton in a swap with Schumacher at the end of the season , and the relationship between him and the team was becoming increasingly strained . Häkkinen was third in the McLaren , with Hill fourth , a second slower than Schumacher . Despite Häkkinen 's best qualifying effort of the season alongside his Belgium third place , his teammate , Mark Blundell , had a disappointing qualifying session . In the first part of qualifying , Blundell crashed into the wall , meaning he could not set a time as his car was too badly damaged . Blundell had his second crash of the weekend at the 130R corner in Saturday practice , which was more serious than the first . Following medical advice , Blundell did not participate in the second qualifying session . He was unable to set a time , leaving him at the back of the grid . Aguri Suzuki crashed his Ligier during Saturday qualifying ; he was unable to start the race since he was in a hospital with a broken rib .
= = = Race = = =
The track surface was damp for most of the race , which meant that lap times were slower than the previous days ' qualifying sessions . The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 JST ( GMT + 9 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warmup session . Despite underperforming in qualifying , both Williams cars performed better in the wet weather warmup session ; Hill had the fastest time of 2 : 00 @.@ 025 . Coulthard was third in the other Williams car ; Schumacher split them in second position . Alesi completed the top four , eight @-@ tenths of a second behind Hill . Though 24 cars qualified for the race , only 22 took the start : Suzuki was unable to start because of his crash in qualifying and Roberto Moreno 's Forti car suffered a gearbox problem . For the first time since the Japanese Grand Prix was held at Suzuka in 1987 , tickets for the race did not sell out , despite the fact that three Japanese drivers entered the race .
The race started at 14 : 00 JST . All of the drivers opted to start on wet weather tyres as the track was damp from the morning rain . Schumacher , from pole position on the grid , held onto the lead into the first corner . Alesi , who started alongside Schumacher , was judged to have jumped the start , and served a 10 @-@ second stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty on lap three , from which he returned to the race in tenth place . Alesi 's teammate Berger also jumped the start and received the same penalty . Gianni Morbidelli , near the back of the field in one of the Footwork cars , spun at the first corner on lap one after being hit from behind by Wendlinger 's Sauber . Morbidelli stalled his car in the process , forcing him to retire from the race . On lap seven , Alesi stopped at the pits to change to dry weather slick tyres , as the track was beginning to dry . On returning to the race , he began to make his way through the field constantly recording fastest laps ; the first of which was 1 : 54 @.@ 416 , five seconds faster than the remainder of the field . Schumacher made a pit stop on lap 10 for slicks , handing the lead to Häkkinen for a lap before he too pitted . Alesi 's progress was interrupted when he spun attempting to pass Pedro Lamy 's Minardi for 15th place , but he made his way up to second by lap 10 , overtaking Hill around the outside in the final chicane to take the place . Alerted by Alesi 's pace on the slick tyres , the other drivers came into the pits to change to slick tyres .
The two Jordan cars collided on lap 15 . Rubens Barrichello spun in the final chicane when he attempted to brake later than his teammate Irvine . Barrichello hit a wall , which damaged his car 's rear wing and caused him to retire from the race . Irvine was involved in another collision at the chicane on lap 20 when Frentzen hit him from behind . Irvine continued without damage , but Frentzen had to pit for a new front wing . At the front , Alesi was lapping faster than Schumacher , even though Schumacher was on dry tyres . Alesi was only six seconds behind Schumacher when his Ferrari 412T2 suffered an apparent differential failure on lap 25 . It was later discovered that the problem was a driveshaft failure , possibly as a result of his earlier spin . Schumacher pitted for a second time on lap 31 , returning to the race in second place behind Hill . Schumacher set the fastest lap of the race on lap 33 , and regained his lead on the next lap when Hill made his pit stop . Behind them , Häkkinen and Coulthard were third and fourth respectively before their pit stops , but Coulthard pitted six laps later than Häkkinen and returned to the track in third place , one place ahead of the Finn . Johnny Herbert was fifth in the second Benetton car after the second round of pit stops , with Irvine rounding out the point @-@ scoring places in sixth .
At this stage , the rain began to fall again , but only at the Spoon Curve end of the track . The Williams drivers were second and third until Hill ran off the track at Spoon Curve two laps after his pit stop . He damaged his front wing in the process and returned to the track in fourth . Hill returned to the pits to let his pit crew replace the damaged wing . He rejoined fifth , but was then given a ten @-@ second stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty for speeding in the pitlane . Coulthard made the same mistake as his teammate by running through the gravel trap at the Spoon Curve but looked like he was going to escape with only minor damage . However , as he braked for 130R , the next corner , the gravel which had entered his sidepods flew out , causing him to lose control and get his car stuck in the gravel trap . Hill was told by his team on the radio to speed up as he had not yet taken his stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty , but later that lap he spun off at Spoon Curve and retired from the race without having taken the penalty . Blundell , Irvine and Frentzen also left the track at Spoon Curve but all finished the race . With his closest challenger out , Schumacher won the race after 53 laps to secure his ninth victory of the season in a time of 1 : 36 : 52 @.@ 930 . The win , along with Herbert 's third place and the retirements of Hill and Coulthard , gave Benetton the 1995 Constructors ' Championship . Häkkinen finished second in his McLaren , 20 seconds behind Schumacher . Irvine was fourth in his Jordan with Olivier Panis fifth in his Ligier . Mika Salo took sixth place and the final point in his Tyrrell . Despite starting last , Blundell finished in seventh , just 1 @.@ 6 seconds behind Salo . The delayed Frentzen , Luca Badoer , Wendlinger , Lamy and Taki Inoue completed the finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
This was Schumacher 's last win for Benetton , as he moved to the Ferrari team for the 1996 season . Herbert reiterated Schumacher 's opinion by stating that Benetton did " a fantastic job " . Hill was disappointed about the race and the season as a whole ; he said afterwards :
Just when you think that it couldn 't get any worse , it does . There is no easy way out of this , you just have to keep pressing on . The easiest thing to do is to give up , and it would probably be less painful that way , but that is not an option . While we were in the race we were competitive and I was in with a shout , I suppose , all the time I was on the track . But things took a massive turn for the worse , I am afraid . I drove through the rain and the second time I spun off I think it was oil rather than rain . It is not a glorious end to the season but the ingredients are all there and there is no reason why we should not get into the winning habit again .
As a result of Hill not taking his 10 @-@ second stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty because of his retirement , Williams were fined $ 10 @,@ 000 by Formula One 's governing body , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) . In an interview with Motor Sport magazine in 2008 , Hill said that the 1995 season , as a whole , " went down , mentally , and it all just got to me " . He also said he believed that it was in 1995 that Frank Williams and Patrick Head decided to replace him for the 1997 season .
1980 Formula One World Champion Alan Jones praised Alesi 's performance , saying that it " will go down as one of the great drives in Grand Prix racing " . Alesi stated that if his driveshaft had not failed , he would " have fought for it , all the way to the end " . Alesi added that he believed he did not jump the start , but admitted that " the car crept forwards by a few centimetres " because of the downhill slope of the grid . In an interview with Autosport magazine in 2009 , Alesi said that he went to see the race director before the race to see how he could avoid a penalty at the downhill start and that he was " totally fed up " with the penalty decision given . Berger also questioned his penalty , claiming that his car did not move before the green light went on .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates the World Champions .
Note , only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= German FK cruiser designs =
The German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) created a series of fleet cruiser designs — designated Flottenkreuzer — in 1916 to follow the Cöln @-@ class cruisers ordered in 1915 . They were initially intended to favor high speed for reconnaissance over the heavier gun armament of the Cöln class , though by the final iterations , they were as powerful as the earlier class . The design staff ultimately drew up five different designs : FK 1 , FK 1a , FK 2 , FK 3 , and FK 4 . The proposals ranged in size from 3 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ; 3 @,@ 300 short tons ) to 7 @,@ 500 t ( 7 @,@ 400 long tons ; 8 @,@ 300 short tons ) designed displacement and were armed with a main battery of between five and eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns . Each proposed design grew in size over the preceding draft , as the weaponry and propulsion systems were increased . None of the designs were built , owing to shifting construction priorities in the German Navy in the last year of World War I.
= = FK 1 and FK 1a = =
By 1916 , thirteen German light cruisers had been lost in the course of World War I. To replace them , the Kaiserliche Marine ordered ten new cruisers of the Cöln class . The next design , under the provisional name FK 1 , or Flottenkreuzer ( Fleet cruiser ) , was prepared in 1916 . The design , which emphasized the reconnaissance role and high speed over combat power , was based on the British C @-@ class cruisers at the request of Kaiser Wilhelm II . A modified design , named FK 1a , was a slightly larger vessel .
FK 1 was 128 meters ( 420 ft ) long at the waterline and 130 m ( 430 ft ) long overall . The design had a beam of 11 @.@ 6 m ( 38 ft ) ; its forward draft was 4 @.@ 9 m ( 16 ft ) and the aft draft was 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 ft ) . The ship would have had a double bottom of approximately 52 percent of the length of the hull , and fifteen watertight compartments . The hull was constructed with longitudinal steel frames . As designed , the ship would have had a displacement of 3 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ; 3 @,@ 300 short tons ) , with a full load combat displacement of 3 @,@ 800 t ( 3 @,@ 700 long tons ; 4 @,@ 200 short tons ) . The modified FK 1a was slightly larger , at 131 meters ( 430 ft ) long at the waterline and 136 m ( 446 ft ) long overall . The modified design had a beam of 12 @.@ 4 m ( 41 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) . The ship 's hull would have been constructed as in FK 1 , with the same number of watertight compartments and extent of double bottom . As designed , the ship would have had a displacement of 4 @,@ 025 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 961 long tons ; 4 @,@ 437 short tons ) , with a full load combat displacement of 4 @,@ 850 t ( 4 @,@ 770 long tons ; 5 @,@ 350 short tons ) .
Both designs would have been powered by two sets of Marine @-@ type steam turbines that each drove a three @-@ bladed screw 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) wide in diameter . FK 1 would have been equipped with five Marine @-@ type oil @-@ fired watertube boilers , while FK 1a would have had improved double @-@ ended models . The propulsion system of FK 1 was rated at a maximum of 48 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 36 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . The improved engines of FK 1a were rated at 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 39 @,@ 000 kW ) and a maximum speed of 33 kn ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The designs carried up to 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) and 1 @,@ 150 t ( 1 @,@ 130 long tons ; 1 @,@ 270 short tons ) of fuel oil , respectively , which permitted a cruising radius of 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 17 kn ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Both designs were equipped with three diesel generators that produced 300 kilowatts ( 400 hp ) at 220 volts . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
The armament of both designs consisted of five 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single mounts , one forward , two abreast of the conning tower , and two in a superfiring pair aft of the rear superstructure . The 15 cm gun fired a 45 @-@ kilogram ( 99 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . FK 1 and FK 1a were supplied with 500 and 650 shells for their main batteries , respectively . The guns had a range of 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . Both designs were equipped with a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns , mounted on the centerline amidships . The guns were equipped with 100 rounds of ammunition each . These guns fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) shells . Both ships would have carried four 60 cm ( 24 in ) torpedo tubes mounted on the deck in swivel launchers . FK 1a was also equipped with 100 mines . Both designs called for a crew of 15 officers and 342 enlisted men .
= = FK 2 , FK 3 , and FK 4 = =
Over the course of the design process that continued through 1916 , the size of the projected cruisers increased as the navy added new design requirements . This resulted in the FK 2 design . The length increased to 144 m ( 472 ft ) overall and 139 m ( 456 ft ) at the waterline . Their beam increased to 13 m ( 43 ft ) , as did their draft , to 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) . Their displacement correspondingly rose to 4 @,@ 500 t ( 4 @,@ 400 long tons ; 5 @,@ 000 short tons ) at normal load and 5 @,@ 350 t ( 5 @,@ 270 long tons ; 5 @,@ 900 short tons ) at combat load , significantly greater than the original design . The FK 2 design was armed with five 15 cm SK L / 45 guns and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . It was to carry the same 60 cm torpedo tubes in twin mounts as the earlier designs . The design retained the same propulsion system as the earlier designs , but with an improved engine type and an additional boiler , which produced an estimated 60 @,@ 000 shp ( 45 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 32 knots . Range was to have been 2 @,@ 800 miles at 17 knots , as in the original design .
The next iteration , FK 3 , brought even more increases . Displacement rose to 6 @,@ 000 t ( 5 @,@ 900 long tons ; 6 @,@ 600 short tons ) normal and 6 @,@ 900 t ( 6 @,@ 800 long tons ; 7 @,@ 600 short tons ) full load , double that of the original FK design . Length was 155 m ( 509 ft ) at the waterline and 159 m ( 522 ft ) overall , and the beam was 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) . The armament was also augmented by an additional two 15 cm and 1 8 @.@ 8 cm gun . Since the size of the ship had increased , a more powerful propulsion system was necessary ; a third set of turbines was added , and the number of boilers was increased to thirteen . This produced 70 @,@ 000 shp ( 52 @,@ 000 kW ) , for the same speed and range figures as in the previous designs .
The final design , FK 4 , was larger still . The standard displacement was 7 @,@ 500 t ( 7 @,@ 400 long tons ; 8 @,@ 300 short tons ) , and at combat load , this rose to 8 @,@ 650 t ( 8 @,@ 510 long tons ; 9 @,@ 530 short tons ) . The projected cruiser would have been 170 m ( 560 ft ) long at the waterline , with a beam of 15 @.@ 4 m ( 51 ft ) and a draft of 6 m ( 20 ft ) . The armament was increased again , with an additional 15 cm gun . The ship 's propulsion system would have included six coal @-@ fired boilers and nine oil @-@ fired models .
Ultimately , none of these designs were ever built , much like other late @-@ war German warship designs , such as the L 20 α @-@ type battleships and the Ersatz Yorck @-@ class battlecruisers . The German shipbuilding effort largely abandoned surface warship construction and instead focused on U @-@ boat construction in the final years of the war .
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= 2009 UEFA Champions League Final =
The 2009 UEFA Champions League Final was played on 27 May 2009 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome , Italy . The match determined the winners of the 2008 – 09 season of the UEFA Champions League , a tournament for the top football clubs in Europe . The match was won by Barcelona of Spain , who beat England 's Manchester United 2 – 0 . Samuel Eto 'o opened the scoring in the 10th minute , and Lionel Messi added another goal 20 minutes from the end to earn Barcelona a historic treble of La Liga , the Copa del Rey and the Champions League , a feat never before achieved by a Spanish club . The match was refereed by Swiss referee Massimo Busacca .
This was Barcelona 's third victory in the competition , 17 years after they first won the European Cup in 1992 . Manchester United went into the match as the competition 's defending champions , the first defending champions to reach the final since Juventus in 1997 . Manchester United also sought to be the first team to retain the European Cup since Milan in 1990 . It was the fifth year in a row in which the final involved at least one English team . The Stadio Olimpico had hosted three previous Champions League finals , following the 1977 , 1984 and 1996 matches .
As winners of the 2008 – 09 Champions League , Barcelona later played against 2008 – 09 UEFA Cup winners Shakhtar Donetsk in the 2009 UEFA Super Cup , and they represented UEFA at the 2009 FIFA Club World Cup . Despite winning the Champions League final , Barcelona won € 8 million less prize money from the tournament than Manchester United .
= = Background = =
Barcelona and Manchester United had previously faced each other nine times in European competitions : three times in the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup and six times in the UEFA Champions League . Of those nine matches , Manchester United had recorded three wins to Barcelona 's two , with the remaining four matches finishing in draws . The only time that the two teams met in a final came in 1991 , when they contested the 1991 Cup Winners ' Cup final . The first meeting between the two sides came in the third round of the 1983 – 84 Cup Winners ' Cup ; Barcelona won the first leg at the Camp Nou 2 – 0 , but Manchester United won the return leg 3 – 0 at Old Trafford to reach the semi @-@ finals . That result marked Manchester United 's biggest win over Barcelona ; Barcelona 's biggest win was a 4 – 0 home victory in the group stage of the 1994 – 95 Champions League . The most recent meeting between the teams came in the semi @-@ finals of the 2007 – 08 Champions League , when United held Barcelona to a 0 – 0 draw at the Camp Nou before beating them 1 – 0 at Old Trafford . Despite their record against Manchester United , Barcelona had an overall winning record against English clubs , having won 20 and lost 15 of their 52 matches against English opposition . Manchester United , on the other hand , had a losing record against Spanish teams ; they had lost 11 and won 10 of their 37 matches .
Both teams had won the UEFA Champions League before ; Manchester United had three titles , while Barcelona had two . The most recent of these had come only the season before , when Manchester United beat Chelsea on penalties in the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow . They won the first of their European Cups in 1968 , beating Benfica 4 – 1 at Wembley Stadium , while their second was achieved in 1999 via a last @-@ gasp 2 – 1 win over Bayern Munich at Barcelona 's home ground , the Camp Nou . Barcelona 's first European Cup was won as recently as 1992 , when they beat Sampdoria 1 – 0 after extra time at Wembley ; their only other title came in 2006 with a 2 – 1 win over another English side , Arsenal . Prior to 2009 , unlike Barcelona , Manchester United had never lost a European Cup final ; Barcelona had lost three – in 1961 , 1986 and 1994 , to Benfica , Steaua București and Milan respectively .
Both teams went into the match as the champions of their respective countries – the first time that the final had been contested by domestic champions since 1999 , when Manchester United beat Bayern Munich 2 – 1 at Barcelona 's home , the Camp Nou – both winning with games to spare . Manchester United won their 11th Premier League title with a 0 – 0 draw at home to Arsenal on 16 May , while Barcelona were confirmed as La Liga champions for the first time in three years when Real Madrid lost to Villarreal on the same day . Both Manchester United and Barcelona were also looking for another Champions League title to cap a season in which they had won multiple trophies : Manchester United had already won four out of a possible seven trophies in 2008 – 09 and were playing for the possibility of becoming the third team to retain the European Double ( the domestic league and the European Cup ) , while Barcelona were aiming to become the first Spanish club to win a Treble of La Liga , the Copa del Rey and the UEFA Champions League .
= = Road to Rome = =
= = = Barcelona = = =
By virtue of their third @-@ place finish in the 2007 – 08 Primera División , Barcelona entered the 2008 – 09 Champions League at the third qualifying round . Based on their UEFA coefficient , Barcelona were seeded for the third qualifying round draw , and drawn against Polish champions Wisła Kraków . A 4 – 0 win in the first leg at the Camp Nou made defeat in the second leg immaterial and Barcelona were entered into the group stage draw .
Barcelona 's UEFA coefficient placed them in the top eight seeds for the draw , meaning that they would avoid having to play against Internazionale , Liverpool , Chelsea or holders and their semi @-@ final opponents from 2007 – 08 , Manchester United . However , they could still draw Bayern Munich , Roma or Juventus . In the end , Barcelona were drawn into Group C against Sporting CP , Basel and Shakhtar Donetsk .
Four wins and a draw at home to Basel placed Barcelona on top of their group with a game to spare , and despite defeat to Shakhtar Donetsk on Matchday 6 , they still had the third @-@ best record amongst the qualifiers for the first knockout round . As group winners , Barcelona would avoid being drawn with other group winners , including Manchester United , Liverpool , Juventus and Bayern Munich , but they could still be drawn against runners @-@ up such as Chelsea , Internazionale and Arsenal . The draw eventually paired them with Olympique Lyonnais and , as group winners , they were given the right to play the second leg at home .
In the first leg in Lyon , Barcelona fell behind to a seventh @-@ minute free kick from Juninho , only for Thierry Henry to equalise halfway through the second half , giving Barcelona an away goal to take back to the Camp Nou . They needed a win or a no @-@ score draw to guarantee passage , but a 4 – 1 half @-@ time lead set the stage for a convincing 5 – 2 win . Two first @-@ half goals from Henry and one each from Lionel Messi and Samuel Eto 'o were followed by goals from Jean Makoun and Juninho either side of the interval to reduce Lyon 's deficit . However , a goal from Seydou Keita in the fifth minute of injury time secured a 6 – 3 aggregate win and passage to the next round .
In the quarter @-@ finals , Barcelona were drawn against their fellow leading @-@ scorers in the competition , Bayern Munich , who had beaten Barcelona 's group stage opposition , Sporting CP , 12 – 1 on aggregate in the previous round . However , despite Bayern 's impressive scoring record , goals from Messi and Eto 'o gave Barcelona a 2 – 0 lead within the first 12 minutes . Messi and Henry also scored to seal a 4 – 0 home victory before half @-@ time . The lack of an away goal meant that Bayern Munich would have to win by five clear goals to qualify for the semi @-@ finals ; after a goalless first half , they took the lead through Franck Ribéry in the 47th minute , but it was not enough for Bayern as Keita equalised in the 73rd minute to clinch a 5 – 1 aggregate win for the Spanish side .
The quarter @-@ final draw also determined the teams ' routes to the final , with Barcelona facing the prospect of meeting either Chelsea or Liverpool in the semi @-@ finals . After a 3 – 1 win at Anfield , Chelsea qualified for the semi @-@ finals with a 4 – 4 draw at Stamford Bridge . The semi @-@ final first leg was played at the Camp Nou ; although Barcelona enjoyed the majority of the possession , Chelsea 's defence was resolute and they became the first side to keep a clean sheet in Barcelona in this season 's competition , coming away with a goalless draw . Barcelona needed to avoid defeat to reach the final , but they found themselves a goal down within 10 minutes ; after they failed to clear Frank Lampard 's pass into the penalty area , Michael Essien fired a left @-@ footed volley past Víctor Valdés into the roof of the net . The rest of the match continued much the same as the first leg , with Barcelona retaining most of the possession . Despite this , they found themselves guilty of several fouls , while Chelsea made four unsuccessful penalty appeals during the match . Meanwhile , Dani Alves received his third yellow card of the knockout phase , ruling him out of Barcelona 's next match , and Éric Abidal was given a straight red card for a foul on Nicolas Anelka as the French forward was through on goal . However , television replays after the incident showed that there was little contact between Abidal and Anelka . Norwegian referee Tom Henning Øvrebø allowed a minimum of four minutes of injury time at the end of the second half ; in the third of those four minutes – just when it looked like Chelsea were about to secure a repeat of the 2008 final – Messi played the ball across the edge of the penalty area to Andrés Iniesta , who shot just past Petr Čech 's outstretched hand for the away goal that would send Barcelona to the final .
= = = Manchester United = = =
As the reigning champions of the UEFA Champions League , Manchester United began their title defence at the group stage , for which they were given the top seed . This position amongst the top eight European clubs meant that they would avoid drawing former European champions Barcelona , Internazionale and Real Madrid until at least the first knockout round , although they were faced with the prospect of drawing Bayern Munich or Roma . Nevertheless , United ended up being drawn into Group E with two teams they had played against before : Villarreal ( whom they had drawn in 2005 – 06 ) and Celtic ( 2006 – 07 ) ; and one they had not : Aalborg BK .
Two victories – away to Aalborg and at home to Celtic – and four draws were enough to secure passage to the knockout phase of the competition . Following a Celtic victory over Villarreal in the final group match , United went through as group winners . This meant that they would avoid Roma , Barcelona , Bayern Munich , Porto and Juventus in the first knockout round ; however , their potential opposition still included Internazionale , Lyon and Real Madrid . The draw paired Manchester United with José Mourinho 's Internazionale , but since United had won their group , they were rewarded by having the second leg at home .
United started the first leg the better of the two sides , and although Inter improved in the second half , neither side was able to find the net during the match , and United took a 0 – 0 draw back to Old Trafford . The draw was also United 's 20th match since their last defeat in the UEFA Champions League , breaking Ajax 's 19 @-@ match record that had stood for 13 years . The lack of an away goal at the San Siro meant that United could not afford to concede a goal in the event of a draw . A fourth @-@ minute headed goal from Nemanja Vidić , however , got the home side off to a good start , and Cristiano Ronaldo doubled United 's lead four minutes into the second half . Shots from both Zlatan Ibrahimović and Adriano hit the frame of the Manchester United goal in either half of the match , but they were unable to find the back of the net , and the 2 – 0 result sent the English champions through to the next stage of the competition .
The draw for the quarter @-@ finals paired United with Porto , against whom they had played in the first knockout round of the 2003 – 04 competition . The draw also determined the semi @-@ final pairings , with United or Porto drawn to play against Arsenal or Villarreal . The first leg of the quarter @-@ final was played at Old Trafford , giving Porto the chance to put the pressure on Manchester United with an away goal . That away goal came in the fourth minute of the game , but Wayne Rooney equalised ten minutes later and Carlos Tevez gave United the lead in the 85th minute . However , with only one minute left in the game , United suffered a defensive lapse , allowing Mariano González to score Porto 's second away goal . Those away goals meant that United travelled to the Estádio do Dragão in Porto needing a win or a score @-@ draw of 2 – 2 or higher to remain in the competition . A 40 @-@ yard goal from Ronaldo in the sixth minute put United into the lead , and although both sides pressed for another goal , it proved to be the only one of the game , making Manchester United the first English side to win in Porto .
Meanwhile , a 1 – 1 draw in Villarreal and a 3 – 0 win at the Emirates Stadium secured Arsenal 's status as United 's semi @-@ final opponents . The draw had determined that United would play the first leg at home , and after Rooney , Tevez and Ronaldo had early chances , John O 'Shea opened the scoring , firing home a Michael Carrick cross after Arsenal had failed to clear a corner . United continued to make chances throughout the game , but despite Arsenal making a couple of chances themselves , the match finished at 1 – 0 and United travelled to the Emirates Stadium a week later needing only to avoid defeat to become the first defending champions to reach the final since Juventus in 1997 . Although Arsenal only needed to overturn a one @-@ goal deficit , their chances of victory were drastically reduced within the first 11 minutes of the match ; Park Ji @-@ sung took advantage of a slip by Kieran Gibbs to double United 's aggregate lead in the eighth minute , before Ronaldo fired home a 41 @-@ yard free kick in the 11th . With two away goals on the United scoreboard , Arsenal now had to score four goals to reach the final . However , it was United who scored the next goal , as they hit Arsenal on the break and Ronaldo scored within 15 seconds of Arsenal losing the ball at the other end of the pitch . 15 minutes from time , Arsenal were awarded a penalty kick after Darren Fletcher brought Cesc Fàbregas down in the penalty area , a foul for which Fletcher was sent off – although replays showed that Fletcher knocked the ball away from Fàbregas immediately before bringing him down , resulting in some controversy as to whether Fletcher deserved a red card for the foul . Robin van Persie scored the penalty to make the score 3 – 1 , but it was not enough to prevent United from reaching the final unbeaten for the third time in their history .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
= = = Venue = = =
The Stadio Olimpico in Rome was selected as the venue for the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final at a meeting of the UEFA Executive Committee in Ljubljana , Slovenia , on 4 October 2006 . The committee – who decided the venue for the 2008 final and the 2008 and 2009 UEFA Cup Finals at the same meeting – based their decision on a number of factors , including stadium capacity , safety and security facilities , and accessibility .
The Stadio Olimpico in Rome had hosted three European Cup finals before 2009 : the 1977 and 1984 finals , both of which were won by Liverpool – Liverpool beat Borussia Mönchengladbach 3 – 1 in 1977 before beating home side Roma 4 – 2 on penalties after the match finished 1 – 1 after extra time ; the most recent final to be held at the Stadio Olimpico was the 1996 final , which Juventus also won 4 – 2 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw with Ajax .
The construction of the stadium was commissioned by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in the mid @-@ 1930s as the centrepiece of a new sports complex in the city , to be named Foro Mussolini . After the Second World War , the complex was renamed Foro Italico and the stadium was radically redesigned as a 54 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity arena for the 1960 Summer Olympics . After hosting the 1987 World Athletics Championships , the stadium was redeveloped in time for the 1990 FIFA World Cup , at which West Germany 's 1 – 0 win over Argentina in the final was played there . The stadium 's most recent renovation , in 2008 , brought the capacity to 72 @,@ 689 .
Since 1999 , the UEFA Champions League final has been given a unique visual identity in order to increase the marketing appeal of the event . Designed by London @-@ based design and branding agency Radiant , the theme for the 2009 final was revealed on 25 October 2008 , and it incorporated several typically Roman images ; the logo was centred around an outline of the European Champion Clubs ' Cup , upon which was written " MMIX " – " 2009 " in Roman numerals ; around the base of the trophy was a stylised laurel wreath , and in the background was a simplified image of the interior of the Colosseum . An alternative logo consisting of the UEFA Champions League logo surrounded by a laurel wreath was also released . The entire theme was based on a colour scheme of deep red and silver @-@ white .
A trophy handover ceremony was held in Rome on 21 April 2009 , at which Ole Gunnar Solskjær , representing Manchester United as the previous season 's champions , returned the trophy to UEFA president Michel Platini . Platini then presented the trophy to Gianni Alemanno , the Mayor of Rome , that it might be put on display in and around the city until the day of the final . Also present at the ceremony were the president and vice @-@ president of the Italian Football Federation , Giancarlo Abete and Demetrio Albertini , the ambassador for the final , Bruno Conti , and Emilio Di Toro on behalf of the Italian National Olympic Committee .
= = = Ticketing = = =
Although the usual capacity of the Stadio Olimpico is over 72 @,@ 000 , this was reduced to approximately 67 @,@ 000 for the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 tickets were made available to the general public , with recipients determined by a random ballot following an application period that ran from 2 to 16 March 2009 . Each club was also allocated approximately 20 @,@ 000 tickets for distribution to fans . Manchester United chose to limit ticket applications to season ticket holders , with preference given to those who had attended more of the club 's Champions League away fixtures that season . Barcelona , meanwhile , allotted 80 % of their ticket allocation to fans , with the remaining 20 % going to the club 's corporate sponsors . Unlike United , however , Barcelona opened ticket applications to all 150 @,@ 000 of their members . The remaining 17 @,@ 000 tickets were retained by UEFA for the " European football family " , which comprises UEFA itself , the local organising committee , UEFA 's member associations and its commercial partners .
Tickets for the 2009 final were similar to ATM cards , with an integrated chip storing the ticket holder 's personal information in order to ensure that the ticket is being presented by its legitimate owner . As further security , tickets also had to be presented with an adequate form of photographic identification . However , despite these security measures , counterfeit tickets were still produced , forcing UEFA to issue a statement warning people against buying tickets from touts .
Despite only receiving 20 @,@ 000 tickets for fans , it was expected that around 30 @,@ 000 Manchester United fans would be travelling to Rome for the final , leading to police warning ticketless fans not to travel amidst fears of potential hooligans making the trip . Fans were also warned to avoid certain areas of the city that are known to be frequented by members of Rome 's Ultra fan groups . Despite Rome 's reputation as a hotbed for knife @-@ related crime , dubbed " Stab City " by some , UEFA was confident that the 2009 final would pass without incident , but on the morning of the final , there were reports that a Manchester United fan had been stabbed in the leg the previous evening . It was also expected that a similar number of Barcelona fans would be arriving in Rome in the lead @-@ up to the match . After the match , UEFA president Michel Platini praised the Rome police for their arrangement of security for the final .
More than 3 @,@ 000 Manchester United fans congregated just outside the city in a field that came to be known as " Fergie 's Field " . The venue provided ticketless fans with the opportunity to watch the match on a giant screen , and kept them away from the streets of Rome 's city centre , although the alcohol ban that came into effect in the city at 17 : 00 ( Central European Summer Time ) on 26 May was still in force .
= = = Match ball = = =
The official match ball for the 2009 Champions League final was the adidas Finale Rome . Based on the " Starball " design that has been used for the Champions League final since 2001 and become synonymous with the UEFA Champions League , the Finale Rome was unveiled on 16 March 2009 . The colour scheme was a traditional Roman burgundy with a gold border around the stars . The ball used the same panel configuration as the Adidas Europass and the Adidas Teamgeist before it , and the same thermal bonding process was used to adhere the panels to each other , while the surface of the ball featured the same " PSC @-@ Texture " as was debuted with the Europass ; the surface of the ball was covered with thousands of tiny pimples , which was designed to improve the grip between boot and ball .
= = = Officials = = =
The referee for the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final was Massimo Busacca , representing the Swiss Football Association . Having been on FIFA 's list of internationally accredited referees since 1999 , Busacca had experience of officiating 32 UEFA Champions League matches , six of them during the 2008 – 09 season , and most recently the second leg of Manchester United 's quarter @-@ final against Porto on 15 April 2009 . He also took charge of the first leg of the semi @-@ final between Manchester United and Barcelona in the 2007 – 08 competition . Busacca also refereed at both the 2006 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2008 , and took charge of the 2007 UEFA Cup Final between Espanyol and Sevilla at Hampden Park , Glasgow , on 16 May 2007 .
As usual , the referee was supported by assistant referees and a fourth official from the same country ; in the 2009 final , Massimo Busacca was assisted by Matthias Arnet and Francesco Buragina , with Claudio Circhetta as the fourth official .
= = = Kits = = =
Having been designated as the official " home " team , Barcelona were given the first choice of kits for the final and opted to wear their traditional red and blue halved shirts . Since the Barcelona home kit clashed with both Manchester United 's home and European away kits , the Red Devils wore their white domestic away kit for the first time in a European Cup final . They wore blue for their first European Cup final against Benfica in 1968 , but wore red for both of their most recent finals in 1999 and 2008 . Manchester United had previously worn white against Barcelona in five matches , losing just one of them – a 2 – 0 defeat in 1984 – while the only win in white came in the 1991 Cup Winners ' Cup Final . The other three matches finished in draws : two 3 – 3 and one 0 – 0 . Barcelona , on the other hand , had won two of their five European Cup finals – they wore orange for their win over Sampdoria in 1992 but wore their usual blue and red stripes for their most recent win in 2006 against Arsenal . However , two of their European Cup final defeats came against teams wearing white – against Steaua București in 1986 and against Milan in 1994 .
= = = Opening ceremony = = =
The 2009 UEFA Champions League Final officially opened with the opening of the UEFA Champions Festival at Rome 's Arco di Constantino and the Parco di Colle Oppio above the Colosseum . The Champions Festival was opened by former Italian international goalkeeper Luca Marchegiani on 23 May 2009 and ran until the afternoon on the day of the final , culminating with a football match between a European side coached by Ruud Gullit and an all @-@ Italian team featuring Alessandro Costacurta and final ambassador Bruno Conti . Other attractions at the Champions Festival included appearances by representatives from both clubs ( Bryan Robson and Ole Gunnar Solskjær for Manchester United and Hristo Stoichkov for Barcelona ) , exhibitions featuring memorabilia from past UEFA Champions League tournaments and the European Champion Clubs ' Cup on display .
Immediately prior to the match itself came the opening ceremony for the final . The ceremony began with 64 members of the Rustavi Ensemble dance group performing a choreographed routine to a variation of the UEFA Champions League Anthem . At the culmination of the routine , the players emerged from the tunnel , accompanied by Italian tenor Andrea Bocelli singing Il Gladiatore – a song based on Earth from the soundtrack to the film Gladiator – before Bocelli sang supporting vocals to the UEFA Champions League Anthem . Before they emerged from their dressing room , manager Pep Guardiola played the Barcelona team a specially commissioned seven @-@ minute film showing their best moments from the season interspersed with clips from the film Gladiator . The film culminated with the late Luciano Pavarotti 's version of Nessun Dorma , and it left several of the players in tears . With his players motivated for the game , Guardiola said nothing as they emerged into the tunnel .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Two Barcelona players missed the final through suspension : right back Dani Alves , who picked up his third yellow card of the tournament in Barcelona 's semi @-@ final second leg against Chelsea on 6 May 2009 ; and left back Éric Abidal , who was sent off in the same game for a professional foul on Nicolas Anelka . Defender Rafael Márquez also missed the match after he picked up a knee injury in the first leg of the semi @-@ final , ruling him out for the rest of the season . Forward Thierry Henry and semi @-@ final @-@ winning midfielder Andrés Iniesta were also doubts for the final ; Henry damaged his right posterior cruciate ligament in Barcelona 's 6 – 2 league win over Real Madrid on 2 May 2009 , while Iniesta was discovered to have suffered a tear in his right thigh following Barça 's 3 – 3 draw with Villarreal on 10 May . Both Henry and Iniesta returned to light training on 22 May , but they had not yet resumed training with the main squad and remained doubts for the final . Carles Puyol , however , was available for selection after he served a one @-@ match suspension in the semi @-@ final second leg . In all , FC Barcelona started with seven players who had come up through the youth system , of whom five were Catalans .
Manchester United 's starting right @-@ winger from the 2008 final , Owen Hargreaves , missed the match as he was still in rehabilitation after a double knee operation to cure his tendinitis problems that had seen him play little part in the 2008 – 09 Champions League campaign . It had been expected that defender Wes Brown would also miss the match after suffering a recurrence of a foot injury , but he returned to training quicker than expected and was involved in United 's match against Hull City on 24 May , although he picked up a slight knock during the game . Rio Ferdinand was also a doubt following a calf injury that has kept him out of the United side since the semi @-@ final second leg against Arsenal ; Alex Ferguson had said that Ferdinand might not start in Rome if he was not fit to play against Hull , but he later admitted that Ferdinand was on course to recover in time to play in the match . Second @-@ choice goalkeeper Ben Foster also missed the match after requiring surgery to repair a ruptured ligament in his right thumb in May 2009 . On the other hand , following John O 'Shea 's winning goal in Manchester United 's semi @-@ final first leg victory over Arsenal , United manager Alex Ferguson suggested that the Irish utility player would be guaranteed a place in the starting line @-@ up were United to reach the final . O 'Shea 's place in the team was confirmed at Manchester United 's media day the week before the final . South Korean midfielder Park Ji @-@ sung was also promised a place in the team after he missed the 2008 final , finally making him the first Asian to appear in a European Cup final . Cristiano Ronaldo suffered a slight injury scare in training the night before the final , requiring a bandage on his lower right leg , but he was eventually fit enough to play in the match .
Meanwhile , midfielder Darren Fletcher was forced to miss the final after picking up a red card in the second leg of the semi @-@ final . While replays showed that Fletcher played the ball before felling Cesc Fàbregas in the penalty area , the UEFA appeals process only allows for cards to be rescinded in the case of mistaken identity . Despite this , an appeal was submitted by Manchester United on " compassionate " grounds . Barcelona decided to appeal against the suspensions of Abidal and Alves after United lodged an appeal against Fletcher 's red card . Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola came out in support of overturning all three players ' suspensions . The appeals were declared unsuccessful on 11 May , with UEFA saying in a statement that the appeals were not submitted within the required 24 @-@ hour deadline of the matches and that even if they had been submitted on time then " they would have been rejected as unfounded as there were no grounds for contesting the referees ' original decisions . " By upholding the suspensions , UEFA made Abidal , Alves and Fletcher the first players to miss a Champions League final through suspension since Juventus ' Pavel Nedvěd sat out the 2003 final at Old Trafford .
= = = Summary = = =
= = = = First half = = = =
Barcelona kicked the match off , but Manchester United showed their intent from the outset , forcing goalkeeper Víctor Valdés to concede a throw @-@ in after just 10 seconds . Further pressure on the attack resulted in Yaya Touré fouling Anderson within Cristiano Ronaldo 's shooting range . Ronaldo fired the free kick directly at Valdés , but the Spanish goalkeeper could only parry the ball and Gerard Piqué did well to divert Park Ji @-@ sung 's follow @-@ up effort over the bar . The resulting corner was cleared , but only as far as Wayne Rooney , whose snap @-@ shot was wayward and went out for a goal kick .
Both teams struggled to put a flowing move together in the opening exchanges , but it was United who had the better chances , both falling to Ronaldo . The first came in the seventh minute : having been played the ball by Michael Carrick , Ronaldo turned away from Piqué on the edge of the centre circle , before hitting a shot just wide from almost 40 yards ; the second saw the ball break to Ronaldo after Anderson and Patrice Evra had linked up well down the left flank . The Portuguese winger controlled the ball on the chest before hitting the ball just past the far post .
Despite United 's early pressure , it was Barcelona who scored the first goal of the match . Edwin van der Sar cleared the ball downfield for Manchester United , but it was headed away by Barcelona 's midfield anchor Sergio Busquets . Carrick was first to the ball for Manchester United , but he could only head it as far as Xavi , who passed to Andrés Iniesta . The Manchester United defence backed away from the Spaniard , who – after exchanging passes with Lionel Messi – played the ball into the path of Samuel Eto 'o in the Manchester United penalty area . Nemanja Vidić attempted to shepherd the Cameroonian striker towards the goal line , but Eto 'o easily stepped inside him and toe @-@ poked the ball past Van der Sar to make it 1 – 0 to Barcelona inside 10 minutes .
The goal shifted the balance of the game in Barcelona 's favour , as United had been on top in terms of shots and possession up to that point . Almost immediately after the restart , Vidić gave away an unnecessary corner . In a rehearsed corner move , Xavi played the ball back to the edge of the penalty area towards Messi , but the tournament 's top scorer was unable to make a proper connection . Nevertheless , Barça retained possession through some sharp inter @-@ passing involving Xavi and Iniesta . When United did manage to regain the ball , however , it was quickly given away by a poor pass from Carrick , while Anderson mis @-@ timed a kick and completely missed the ball . It was now Barcelona 's turn to pressurise the United players , forcing them into backward passes or long , hopeful balls forward .
The quality of the teams ' passing remained the main difference between them ; however , in the 16th minute , Barcelona lost the ball and Ryan Giggs sent a long ball forward to Ronaldo . Ronaldo 's first touch took him inside Piqué before going back outside the former Manchester United defender , who cynically blocked Ronaldo 's run , earning himself the first yellow card of the match . Ronaldo shaped to take the free kick himself , but it was Giggs who shot for goal , only to curl the ball just over the bar .
Barcelona responded quickly , as Carles Puyol found Eto 'o with a long throw @-@ in down the right wing . The Cameroonian then found Messi , who cut inside and hit a curling 25 @-@ yard shot that just shaved the top of the crossbar . A quick @-@ passing move from United followed , culminating with a through @-@ ball to Park in the inside right channel , only for Valdés to cut out the pass , taking out the South Korean in the process . The resulting throw @-@ in eventually broke to Ronaldo , whose 30 @-@ yard shot went just wide . Valdés ' clash with Park , however , left him requiring treatment , and although the injury was not sufficient to necessitate a substitution , Valdés chose to leave his next few goal kicks to Piqué .
In the 22nd minute , a lofted through @-@ pass from Carrick found Rooney on the left wing , but the Liverpudlian 's cross was blocked by Touré and went out for a corner kick . The corner , taken by Giggs , found Ronaldo , but the Portuguese got too far under the ball and headed over . Precise passing from the Barcelona midfield got the Catalans moving upfield until a shoulder charge from Anderson sent Iniesta stumbling to the ground in the inside @-@ left channel 30 yards from goal . The consequent free kick was taken by Xavi , who sent the ball just wide of the near post . Another free kick followed , as Messi was bundled over by a double @-@ challenge from Vidić and Carrick , but it came to nothing .
With ten minutes left until half @-@ time , the Manchester United defence effectively switched off and allowed Touré to dribble unopposed to within 15 yards of their penalty area before slipping the ball out wide to Puyol , whose low cross was diverted behind by Vidić . The corner kick was taken short and the eventual cross was headed behind for another corner on the opposite side by Evra . The second corner was crossed in towards Piqué , but he was unable to make contact with the ball .
With half @-@ time fast approaching , Barcelona 's confidence began to show : first , Messi attempted to flick a pass over the top of the United defence to Thierry Henry , which Rio Ferdinand intercepted ; Iniesta then tried an ambitious back @-@ heel that Van der Sar collected ; and finally Messi sped through three Manchester United defenders towards the by @-@ line , only for his cut @-@ back cross to be pounced upon by Van der Sar and then cleared by Vidić . On the stroke of half @-@ time , Iniesta himself then attempted to flick the ball through to Henry , but it was just too high for the French striker , and referee Massimo Busacca took that cue to blow the whistle for the interval .
= = = = Second half = = = =
After bringing on Carlos Tevez in place of Anderson at half time , Manchester United kicked off the second half in a different formation , with Tevez joining Ronaldo up front in a familiar 4 – 4 – 2 . Both teams attempted to settle into their customary passing rhythms , but – unlike the first half – it was Barcelona who settled first ; Manchester United 's passes in their attacking third of the field failed to find their targets , and Iniesta eventually came away with the ball before flicking a pass through to Xavi , who played a through @-@ ball to Henry on the left wing . The French forward turned Ferdinand inside @-@ out , but his shot from a narrow angle was straight at Van der Sar and ended up going out for a throw @-@ in . Xavi then again passed the ball out to the left flank , where Henry nonchalantly left it for the on @-@ rushing Sylvinho ; the Brazilian full @-@ back whipped in a cross for Eto 'o , but it was caught on the edge of the six @-@ yard box by Van der Sar .
Pressure high up the pitch from Barcelona kept Manchester United in their own half , forcing them into attempting long balls downfield . A scrappy few moments in and around the centre circle followed , but Manchester United eventually came away with the ball . However , a lapse in communication between Giggs and Evra on the left wing allowed Eto 'o to steal in and advance on the Manchester United goal . He cut in from the right wing and played a through @-@ ball just out of reach of Messi , who went to ground after O 'Shea had put his hand on Messi 's shoulder . A period of sustained pressure from Barcelona followed , culminating with a run from Iniesta , who could only be stopped by a foul from Tevez on the edge of the Manchester United penalty area . The consequent free kick was taken by Xavi , who curled the ball around the defensive wall and onto the post with Van der Sar beaten .
United responded with their first extended period of possession of the half , working the ball into wide areas to be crossed into the middle , but Rooney 's first couple of attempted centres were well cleared by Piqué . At the third attempt , though , Rooney 's cross evaded the Barcelona defence as Touré kicked at thin air ; however , it also failed to find a Manchester United player in the penalty area , both Ronaldo and Park going close . After Ronaldo was called offside in the 59th minute – despite appearing to be level with the last defender – Giggs stole the ball mid @-@ way inside the Barcelona half before playing the ball to Ronaldo on the left wing . The Portuguese forward stepped over the ball several times in an attempt to wrong @-@ foot Puyol , before cutting inside and playing the ball across the edge of the area towards Carrick . A sliding challenge from Busquets prevented a shot , only for the English midfielder to slide the ball out for a Barcelona goal kick while attempting to play Rooney through . Rooney was again played down the right wing a few moments later , but his low cross was diverted behind by Piqué , and the resulting corner came to nothing . A left @-@ wing attack from Ronaldo followed , but after cutting inside , he gave the ball away cheaply . Barcelona immediately went on the attack down the other end , but Henry was unable to get past O 'Shea and his shot was well saved by Van der Sar low at the near post .
In the 66th minute , Alex Ferguson completed his attacking quartet by bringing Dimitar Berbatov on in place of Park . Ronaldo was penalised for a high elbow when challenging for a header with Puyol a minute later , before Rooney forced another corner off Piqué in the 69th minute . However , United 's numbers up front in search of another goal left them wanting in defence ; a weak clearance from Van der Sar was cut out by Puyol who played the ball to Eto 'o on the right side of the penalty area . The ball broke to Xavi on the edge of the area , who crossed for Messi to send a looping header over the United goalkeeper and into the far side of the goal for a two @-@ goal lead . Immediately after the goal , Henry was replaced by Seydou Keita , allowing Barcelona to adopt a more defensive stance .
United responded to the goal immediately , as Giggs made a surging run through the Barcelona defence before playing the ball to Berbatov in the inside @-@ right channel . The Bulgarian forward 's low cross found Giggs in the centre , and the United captain 's shot was deflected to Ronaldo on the far side of the goal , only for the Portuguese 's shot to be blocked by Valdés . The resulting corner reached Berbatov on the far side of the goal , but it was deemed to have crossed the goal line first and Barcelona were awarded a goal kick , from which they launched another attack . Messi played a through @-@ ball to Puyol on the right flank , but as the Barcelona captain reached the goal line , he was fouled by Ronaldo , who – despite going in two @-@ footed – escaped the referee 's book . Puyol himself rose to head Xavi 's free kick towards goal , but it was directly at Van der Sar , who claimed the ball easily .
Manchester United used their third and final substitute in the 75th minute , replacing Giggs with Paul Scholes , who took over as team captain . Ronaldo and Scholes each received yellow cards in the 78th and 80th minutes , respectively ; Ronaldo 's yellow card was awarded for a robust shoulder @-@ charge on Puyol as the Barcelona right back shepherded the ball out for a goal kick , while Scholes was booked for a late challenge on Busquets . While the referee played advantage after Scholes ' foul , Iniesta cut inside from the left wing and hit a shot that was saved above the head of Van der Sar . An extended spell of Barcelona possession followed , as they strung a series of around 20 passes together , culminating with Puyol attempting to clip the ball over the onrushing Van der Sar , who blocked the shot . Both players went for the follow @-@ up , but the Dutch goalkeeper was first to the ball and sent Puyol sprawling .
In the 85th minute , Scholes clipped the ball over the top of the Barcelona defensive line to Rooney , who chested the ball down for Tevez , only to be given offside . Scholes then found Rooney again on the left wing with a raking ball from deep inside his own half , but Rooney 's first touch was heavy , allowing Puyol to get back and put the ball out for a corner . Rooney took the corner short to Tevez , whose cross was just beyond the reach of Berbatov and diverted behind again by Puyol . Rooney also took the second corner , which was met by Berbatov , but he put the ball high over the crossbar .
As the match entered its closing stages , the referee allotted a minimum of three minutes of injury time . The first of these saw Van der Sar make a poor pass after the ball was played back to him by Ferdinand , allowing Iniesta to steal in and play the ball towards Messi in the United penalty area , only for Vidić to get there ahead of the Argentine and knock the ball out for a corner . Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola brought Pedro Rodríguez on for Iniesta in the second minute of added time , before Vidić was immediately shown a yellow card for a clash of heads with Messi when going for a header . That was to be the final act of the match , as referee Massimo Busacca blew for full @-@ time as soon as Xavi took the free kick .
= = = = Trophy presentation = = = =
At the final whistle , Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola offered his commiserations to each of Manchester United 's players , while former Manchester United defender Gerard Piqué talked with his erstwhile team @-@ mates . Both teams then retreated to either end of the stadium to applaud their fans .
While match referee Massimo Busacca and his assistants collected their mementoes of the final , the Barcelona team formed a guard of honour for the Manchester United players , just as the English side had done for Chelsea in 2008 . Led by their manager , Alex Ferguson , and team captain , Ryan Giggs , the Manchester United team then ascended the specially constructed rostrum to collect their runners @-@ up medals from UEFA president Michel Platini and secretary David Taylor . Other dignitaries present included Manchester United chief executive David Gill ; The Football Association 's president Prince William , and chairman Lord Triesman ; Barcelona president Joan Laporta ; Juan Carlos I of Spain ; Royal Spanish Football Federation president Ángel María Villar ; and Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi . Ferguson also collected a commemorative plaque from Platini , but immediately handed it to Giggs .
After offering his commiserations to Manchester United 's players , Joan Laporta then joined the Barcelona team to lead them up the podium , closely followed by manager Guardiola . Laporta himself collected Barcelona 's commemorative plaque before accepting a medal from Platini . Once the entire Barcelona team had collected their medals , Platini made his way to the front of the podium to present Carles Puyol with the European Champion Clubs ' Cup . The Barcelona captain promptly held the trophy aloft with accompaniment from the UEFA Champions League Anthem and explosions of golden confetti , before leading his team on a lap of honour .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Reaction = =
During the match , UEFA.com users were able to vote for their man of the match ; the public vote went to the scorer of Barcelona 's second goal , Lionel Messi . The UEFA Technical Study Group , however , chose the man who provided the cross for Messi 's goal , Xavi , as their man of the match , citing his control of the tempo of the match as the reason for their decision . Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola took the time to give special praise to Messi , whom he said he moved back into the midfield in order to increase the team 's effectiveness when in possession of the ball . Messi had been withdrawn from his usual right @-@ wing role into a more central position , while Samuel Eto 'o , who had started the match as Barcelona 's lone centre @-@ forward , was moved out to the right . Guardiola also lauded the bravery of his entire team , stating that he believed that his team 's victory hinged on their hard work and propensity for taking risks in attack , but he admitted that although his side had had the best season in the history of the club , they were not yet the best Barcelona team .
In the Manchester United camp , manager Alex Ferguson admitted that his team had been beaten by the better side and that the game was all but lost after the first goal . United forward Cristiano Ronaldo , however , criticised his team 's tactics , saying that " everything went wrong " . Ferguson paid tribute to Messi and the midfield partnership of Xavi and Iniesta , while Wayne Rooney lauded Iniesta as " the best player in the world " . Ferguson also expressed his regret at the unavailability of midfielder Darren Fletcher , who was suspended for the match , and lamented at his side 's " shoddy " defending and ineffectiveness when in possession . Nevertheless , Ferguson paid tribute to Guardiola 's achievement of winning the Treble in his first season of management . Barcelona 's victory also made Guardiola only the sixth man to win the competition as both a player and a manager , following in the footsteps of Miguel Muñoz , Giovanni Trappatoni , Johan Cruyff , Carlo Ancelotti and , most recently , Frank Rijkaard , who also won the Champions League as Barcelona manager .
The match turned out to be the last for Cristiano Ronaldo and Carlos Tevez as Manchester United players , as Ronaldo completed a world record £ 80 million transfer to Real Madrid on 1 July , while Tevez chose not to make his loan spell with the club permanent and joined their local rivals , Manchester City . After announcing his intention to leave Manchester United , Tevez criticised Ferguson 's team selection for the 2009 Champions League final , saying that Ferguson should have included him in the starting line @-@ up , with the rationale that the match was the only final that Manchester United had lost in his time at the club .
Television audiences for the final reached more than 10 million in both Spain and the United Kingdom . 11 @.@ 3 million people watched the match on Spain 's Antena 3 network – the largest viewing figures for that station in the past year – while another 600 @,@ 000 watched on Canal + Spain . In the United Kingdom , however , although the match received the highest ratings of any programme that evening , viewing figures were down by 1 @.@ 5 million on the previous year 's final , with just 9 @.@ 6 million watching on ITV1 , although an additional 1 @.@ 79 million watched on Sky Sports 1 . Despite there being no Italian or French representative in the final , the figures were much the same in those two countries as they were in Spain and the United Kingdom , with Italy 's Rai Uno garnering an average viewership of 9 @.@ 63 million and France 's TF1 receiving 8 @.@ 25 million . Only 6 @.@ 55 million people watched the match on Germany 's Sat.1 channel . According to a survey , global viewing figures for the match averaged 109 million ; this put the UEFA Champions League final above the Super Bowl ( 106 million viewers in 2009 ) as the most @-@ watched annual sporting event in the world . Total figures , which included viewers who watched only part of the match , put the Champions League final even further ahead of the Super Bowl , with 206 million viewers compared to 162 million .
In the United Kingdom , bookmakers made a profit out of patriotic Britons placing bets on a Manchester United victory . William Hill reported two bets of around £ 20 @,@ 000 placed on Manchester United , while Paddy Power received one of £ 5 @,@ 500 and Ladbrokes one of £ 3 @,@ 000 . Ladbrokes also took a bet of £ 10 @,@ 000 on a Barcelona win , but bookmakers reported that most of the money was put on Manchester United . Extrabet.com paid out £ 12 @,@ 000 to a £ 3 @,@ 000 bet on Samuel Eto 'o to score the first goal at odds of 4 – 1 .
= = Rewards = =
Both teams received significant financial rewards for reaching the Champions League final . However , despite losing the match , it was Manchester United who earned the most money from their 2008 – 09 Champions League campaign , receiving € 38 @.@ 281 million compared to Barcelona 's € 30 @.@ 968 million . All 32 teams in the group stage of the competition received € 3 million for taking part in the competition and € 2 @.@ 4 million for their participation in the group stage matches , as well as further bonuses based on their performances in each match ( € 600 @,@ 000 for each win and € 300 @,@ 000 for each draw ) . For their four wins and one draw , Barcelona received a performance bonus of € 2 @.@ 7 million , while Manchester United earned € 2 @.@ 4 million for their two wins and four draws . Both teams then also received a total of € 7 @.@ 7 million for their participation in the rounds leading up to the final ; however , Barcelona received a win bonus of € 7 million for winning the final , while Manchester United received € 4 million for finishing as runners @-@ up . The biggest difference between the teams ' financial rewards came as a result of their share of the market pool , based on the value of the television market in their home countries . As the most successful of the English teams in the competition , Manchester United received the greatest share ( € 18 @.@ 781 million ) of approximately € 55 @.@ 5 million reserved for the English teams . However , although Barcelona were the most successful of the Spanish teams in the competition , they had finished in third place in La Liga the previous season , and so received the second @-@ smallest share of the € 33 @.@ 8 million given to the four Spanish clubs , taking home € 8 @.@ 168 million .
In addition to receiving almost € 31 million in prize money , as winners of the UEFA Champions League , Barcelona competed in the 2009 UEFA Super Cup , in which they beat 2008 – 09 UEFA Cup winners Shakhtar Donetsk 1 – 0 at Stade Louis II in Monaco on 28 August 2009 , and in the 2009 FIFA Club World Cup in Abu Dhabi , where they beat Estudiantes of Argentina in the final .
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= Clara Ng =
Clara Ng ( born 28 July 1973 ; née Clara Regina Juana , last name pronounced [ ŋ ̍ ] ) is an Indonesian writer who is known for both adult fiction and children 's literature .
During her childhood in Jakarta , Ng enjoyed reading and read at an advanced rate . After finishing her primary and secondary education in Indonesia , during which time she took up writing , Ng went to the United States to study at Ohio State University . After her graduation in 1997 , she worked in the US for a year before returning to Indonesia to work at a shipping company . After three years working there , in which time she married and had two miscarriages , Ng quit to become a professional writer . Her first novel , Tujuh Musim Setahun ( Seven Seasons in a Year ; 2002 ) , sold poorly , but her subsequent trilogy Indiana Chronicle was better received . Since then , she has released several novels , as well as numerous short stories ( including one anthology ) and twenty @-@ one children 's books , and some collections of fairytales .
Ng , who is a stay at home mother , writes in her spare time at home . Her topics are different depending on the genre she is writing in ; her adult @-@ oriented works often deal with minority groups , while her children 's books are meant to teach empathy . Her children 's works have won three Adhikarya Awards from the Indonesian Publishers Association , and LGBT groups have praised her novel Gerhana Kembar ( Twin Eclipse ; 2007 ) for avoiding stereotyping the group . However , some educators have protested the lack of an explicit moral message in her children 's books .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Ng was born in Jakarta on 28 July 1973 with the name Clara Regina Juana and raised in the Kemayoran sub @-@ district . She took up reading at a young age , reportedly capable of reading translations of The Adventures of Tintin by kindergarten . She also enjoyed Hans Christian Andersen 's fairytale The Snow Queen , which influenced her writing . By age 11 she was reading adult @-@ oriented works by Mira W. Ng attended Budi Mulia Elementary School from 1979 until 1986 , then attended Van Lith Middle School until 1989 ; it was while in middle school that she taught herself creative writing and began creating works . She completed her high school education at Bunda Hati Kudus , graduating in 1992 . While in high school , she became interested in social issues , including discrimination faced by ethnic Chinese , LGBT , and women .
After high school , Ng went to the United States and began studying at Ohio Dominican University in Columbus , Ohio , but later transferred to Ohio State University ; she graduated with a bachelour 's degree in interpersonal communications in 1997 . While in the US , she read numerous children 's books ; these later influenced her own writings . After graduating , she spent a year working in the US before returning to Indonesia in 1998 . Upon her return to Indonesia , she spent three years working in the human resources department of Hanjin Shipping but left after she had two miscarriages , the first when she was seven months pregnant and the second at seven weeks . While staying at home , she took up writing .
= = = Writing career = = =
Ng made her debut as a novelist with Tujuh Musim Setahun ( Seven Seasons A Year ) in 2002 , which sold poorly . She gained recognition with her Indiana Chronicle trilogy , which consists of Blues ( 2004 ) , Lipstick ( 2005 ) and Bridesmaid ( 2005 ) . These works were classified as pop literature , but readers identified with the main characters — urban working women . Tempo magazine notes that the trilogy pioneered the metropop genre in Indonesia . Between Lipstik and Bridesmaid , another novel , The ( Un ) Reality Show , was released in 2005 .
In 2006 , Ng 's short story " Rahasia Bulan " ( " The Moon 's Secret " ) was included in a lesbian and gay themed short story collection of the same name . The work also included stories by Alberthiene Endah , Djenar Maesa Ayu , and Indra Herlambang . That year , she published two novels : Dimsum Terakhir ( The Last Dim Sum ) and Utukki : Sayap Para Dewa ( Utukki : Wings of the Gods ) . The following year Ng published another two novels , Tiga Venus ( Three Venuses ) and Gerhana Kembar ( Twin Eclipse ) . The latter , which was initially run as a serial in the newspaper Kompas and later picked up by Gramedia , was about lesbianism . The title was a result of Ng combining the Sun ( commonly representative of men ) and the Moon ( commonly representative of women ) to create a united symbol to represent homosexuality . Ng launched a short story collection , Malaikat Jatuh ( Fallen Angel ) in 2008 . The collection dealt mainly with death . The collection was followed in 2009 by the novel Tea For Two , which was first published as a serial in Kompas .
Ng 's short story " Barbie " was adapted as a film by actor @-@ cum @-@ presenter Raffi Ahmad in 2010 , with Yuni Shara in the titular role . Barbie followed the story of a night @-@ club singer and her lover , a security guard at the club . The film premiered at the LA Lights Indie movie festival . That same year she released two other books , Dongeng Tujuh Menit ( The Seven @-@ Minute Fairytale ) and Jampi @-@ jampi Varaiya ( Varaiya 's Incantations ) . Another one of her short stories , " Mata Indah " , was included in the lesbian @-@ themed anthology Un Soir du Paris ( An Evening in Paris ) ; other writers in the anthology included Seno Gumira Ajidarma , Ucu Agustin , and Noor .
In 2010 , Ng , Agus Noor , and Eka Kurniawan established the Fiksimini community on Facebook as a way to critique each other 's work , later branching out to Twitter . As of 2011 the community , with approximately 70 @,@ 000 followers , allows writers , both professional and aspiring , to tweet an idea within the 140 @-@ character technical limitations of the software which could make the reader think . On 1 July 2011 , Ng published Ramuan Drama Cinta ( Love Potion Drama ) , and in November she released Dongeng Sekolah Tebing ( Fairytales from the School on the Cliff ) , a collection of 53 stories about children who attend a school on a cliff .
Aside from writing novels and short stories , she also writes children 's books , a genre which she entered due to a lack of Indonesian @-@ language works . As of 2008 , Ng has written 21 such books in three series : Berbagi Cerita Berbagi Cinta ( Sharing Stories , Sharing Love ; started in 2006 and numbering seven books ) , Sejuta Warna Pelangi ( A Million Colours of the Rainbow ; started in 2007 and numbering nine books ) , and Bagai Bumi Berhenti Berputar ( As If the Earth Stopped Rotating ; started in 2008 and numbering five books ) .
= = Style = =
Ng 's main characters are generally female . These characters generally do not hold the same employment ; some occupations held by her characters include office worker , animal nursery employee , and automotive repair shop owner . Her children 's stories are written simply , illustrated , and deal with children 's feelings ; they are intended to give children more empathy . The characters ' names are chosen to be easy to remember .
= = Reception = =
Ng has received several awards . Her 2006 children 's story Rambut Pascal ( Pascal 's Hair , from the Berbagi Cerita series ) won an Adhikarya Award for Best Children 's Book from the Indonesian Publishers Association ( Ikatan Penerbit Indonesia , or IKAPI ) . The following year she won the same award for Sejuta Warna Pelangi . Another followed suit in 2008 for Jangan Bilang Siapa @-@ Siapa ( Don 't Tell Anybody ) .
A. Junaidi , writing for The Jakarta Post , notes that Gerhana Kembar was well received by Indonesia 's LGBT community as it did not link homosexuality to negative issues like drug use .
Ng notes that her children 's stories have been generally well received . However , some educators disagree with the lack of an explicit moral message ; Ng argues that her books have multiple interpretations : those by children and those by adults .
= = Personal life = =
As of 2010 , Ng is married to Nicholas Ng , a Malaysian citizen whom she met while working at Hanjin Shipping ; the couple married in 2000 . Together they have two children . She lives in Tanjung Duren , West Jakarta . According to an interview with Kompas , Ng is a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother and writes in an office in her house . She writes in her spare time , usually in the morning , as in the afternoon she must pick up her children .
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= Lena Meyer @-@ Landrut =
Lena Johanna Therese Meyer @-@ Landrut ( born 23 May 1991 ) , known professionally as Lena ( pronounced [ ˈleːna ] ) , is a German singer @-@ songwriter . She represented Germany in the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in Oslo and won the contest with the song " Satellite " . With her three entries from the German national final Unser Star für Oslo ( Our Star for Oslo ) , Meyer @-@ Landrut set an all @-@ time chart record in her home country by debuting with three songs in the top five of the German singles chart . Both " Satellite " and her first album My Cassette Player debuted at number one in Germany , while the former has been certified double Platinum since , the album has been certified five times Gold for sales of over 500 @,@ 000 units . Meyer @-@ Landrut represented Germany for the second consecutive time in the Eurovision Song Contest at Düsseldorf in 2011 with the song " Taken by a Stranger " .
= = Early life = =
Lena Meyer @-@ Landrut was born in Hanover , Germany . She is the granddaughter of Andreas Meyer @-@ Landrut , the Estonian @-@ born West German ambassador to the Soviet Union in Moscow from 1980 to 1983 and 1987 to 1989 and Hanna Karatsony von Hodos who was of Hungarian nobility . She grew up as an only child , and started taking dancing lessons at the age of five ; initially doing ballet and later practising various modern styles , including hip @-@ hop and jazz dance . Meyer @-@ Landrut grew fond of singing and appeared as an extra in a number of German television series ; however she never received any formal acting or vocal training . In June 2010 she graduated from IGS Roderbruch Hannover , a comprehensive school , receiving her Abitur diploma .
= = Career = =
= = = 2009 – 2012 : Unser Star für Oslo and Eurovision Song Contest = = =
Meyer @-@ Landrut decided to take part in the talent show Unser Star für Oslo ( Our Star for Oslo ) , a newly created national television programme to select the German entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in Oslo . The show was organised by public broadcaster ARD and private television station ProSieben , as well as entertainer , music producer and former Eurovision entrant Stefan Raab . Among 4 @,@ 500 entrants , Meyer @-@ Landrut was picked as one of the 20 contestants for the show . Asked about her motivation to apply , she stated , " I like to test myself . I wanted to see how I am perceived , and I wanted to hear what people with knowledge have to say about it . I personally can 't judge myself at all . "
After her first appearance , performing " My Same " by British singer Adele , Meyer @-@ Landrut received much praise from the show 's jury panel and was instantly considered the favourite . The following week , Adele 's " My Same " entered the German singles chart at position number 61 . Meyer @-@ Landrut reached the final of Unser Star für Oslo , mainly performing lesser known songs of international artists such as The Bird and the Bee , Kate Nash , Paolo Nutini and Lisa Mitchell . Out of her eight cover performances , five of the original songs subsequently charted in Germany , with all but " Foundations " reaching their peak chart position . In the final on 12 March 2010 , Meyer @-@ Landrut sang three songs specifically written for the contest , " Bee " , " Satellite " and " Love Me " . Through televoting , the audience chose " Satellite " , written by American Julie Frost and Dane John Gordon , to be her designated song in case she won the show . In a second round of voting , Meyer @-@ Landrut was chosen as Germany 's entry for the 55th Eurovision Song Contest , beating the last remaining contestant , Jennifer Braun . The music video for " Satellite " was shot during the night of the final and premiered on German television stations four days later .
Throughout the show , Meyer @-@ Landrut was seen as the clear favourite . One day after winning Unser Star für Oslo , all three of her songs from the finals topped the German iTunes Store sales chart , making her the first singer to achieve that . " Satellite " sold over 100 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week , becoming Germany 's fastest selling digital release ever . Her three songs all entered the top five of the German singles chart , reaching positions number one , three and four , which no artist had ever achieved since charts were first established in Germany in 1959 . " Satellite " was certified gold after the first week and platinum after the fourth week of its release . The song has remained at number one for five consecutive weeks in Germany .
While competing at Unser Star für Oslo , Meyer @-@ Landrut continued to attend school . The last show was held one month before the start of her final exams . Following her exams , she released her debut album , My Cassette Player , on 7 May 2010 . Produced by Stefan Raab , it includes the singles " Satellite " , " Love Me " and " Bee " , as well as two cover songs and eight unreleased titles . Meyer @-@ Landrut is credited as a co @-@ writer for the lyrics of five songs . The album debuted at number one in the German albums chart . It peaked at number one in the Austrian albums chart , number three in the Swiss albums chart .
Following her success in Germany , Meyer @-@ Landrut has said she would enjoy pursuing a singing or acting career , but explained , " I 'm not fixated on doing music my whole life . " She stated she originally planned to study acting after graduating school , but now is unsure " if time allows " . She has said her musical influences include Adele , Kate Nash , Vanessa Carlton , as well as the singer Clueso and German pop rock band Wir sind Helden .
Representing a " big four " country , Meyer @-@ Landrut automatically qualified for the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 . Germany received a wild card during the running order draw , allowing the German representatives to pick the country 's position for the final . They chose position 22 out of the 25 spots . Meyer @-@ Landrut arrived one week before the show in Oslo , where she completed five rehearsals of her song " Satellite " . Prior to the final , she was considered one of the favourites . Bookmakers regarded her second favourite behind Azerbaijan 's Safura , while Google projected she would win based on search volume in the participating countries . According to Norway 's Aftenposten she received the most media attention of all participants .
The final was held on 29 May 2010 at Oslo 's Telenor Arena . Appearing fourth from last , Meyer @-@ Landrut wore a simple black dress and performed on a bare stage with four backing singers . Her pared @-@ back presentation was a break from recent Eurovision trends , as it did not feature any form of choreography , dancers or elaborate stage show . " Satellite " received a total of 246 points , giving Germany its first win since 1982 , and the first victory as a unified country . The song won over Turkey 's entry " We Could Be the Same " with a margin of 76 points , at that time the second @-@ biggest in Eurovision history , second only to Alexander Rybak 's margin of 169 points in the 2009 contest ( it would later be beaten by Loreen 's victory in 2012 , sporting a margin of 113 points ) . " Satellite " was awarded the maximum of 12 points nine times and received points from all but five countries .
The BBC called " Satellite " the first " contemporary pop hit Eurovision has produced in decades " , ushering in " a new era for the annual music jamboree " . Meyer @-@ Landrut 's victory received much attention in Germany and the show was seen by 15 million viewers on German television ( a 49 @.@ 1 percent market share ) . She returned to Hanover the following day , where she was greeted by 40 @,@ 000 people . In June , " Satellite " regained the top spot in the German singles chart for one week and also peaked at number one in Denmark , Finland , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland . It also topped European Hot 100 singles chart , being the first Eurovision song to achieve this .
In June 2010 in the German dubbed version of the computer @-@ animated film Sammy 's Adventures : The Secret Passage , Meyer @-@ Landrut provided the voice for the character originally spoken by Isabelle Fuhrman .
In January 2011 , the TV @-@ Show " Unser Song für Deutschland " was held and Meyer @-@ Landrut 's 2011 Eurovision song was determined via televoting . All twelve songs Meyer @-@ Landrut performed during that show were recorded on her second studio album Good News which was released on 8 February 2011 . The album reached Gold status in Germany within one week after its release .
On 18 February 2011 , the " Unser Song für Deutschland " final was held and it was decided through televoting that Meyer @-@ Landrut would perform the entry " Taken by a Stranger " in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2011 .
In April 2011 , she went on her first German tour in the largest concert halls in Berlin , Hanover , Frankfurt , Dortmund , Leipzig , Hamburg , Munich , Stuttgart and Cologne. though the concerts were not sold out .
In May 2011 , Meyer @-@ Landrut attempted to defend her title in the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest . She was the third winner to do so , and the first in over 50 years . She also appeared in the opening performance of the show , less than an hour before she came on stage to represent Germany .
= = = 2012 – 2014 : Stardust and The Voice = = =
On 24 May 2012 , Meyer @-@ Landrut performed as part of the interval act during the second semi @-@ finals of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 in Baku , Azerbaijan . She was joined by the last five Eurovision winners from 2007 to 2011 which included Marija Šerifović , Dima Bilan , Alexander Rybak , and Ell & Nikki . Meyer @-@ Landrut , Marija , Dima and Alexander performed their winning song entry accompanied by traditional Azeri instruments , being joined by Ell & Nikki for a rendition of " Waterloo " .
On 1 August , Meyer @-@ Landrut announced via her Twitter account that " Stardust " will be the first single from her new album with the eponymous title . The single was released on 21 September and was certified Gold for selling 150 @,@ 000 copies The album was released on 12 October and it debuted at No. 2 on German Albums chart . In late July and early August she went on a promotion tour called " Lenas Wohnzimmer " ( Lena ′ s Lounge ) , which led her to Munich , Cologne , Hamburg and Berlin and presented several of her new songs . Since October 2012 she performed the theme song in the opening credits of Sesamstraße , the German version of Sesame Street . In November 2012 she covered the Pippi Longstocking song Sjörövar Fabbe ( Seeräuber @-@ Opa Fabian ) for the compilation album Giraffenaffen .
On 18 January 2013 , it was announced that the second single from Lena 's album will be Neon . The music video for the single was shot in early February , by director Bode Brodmüller , who also directed Lena 's video for her first single from the third album , " Stardust " . It was shot in Rathenau @-@ Hallen . On 1 March , Lena 's video for Neon ( Lonely People ) premiered on Universal Music page . Lena 's sixth single was released on 15 March . The same day , video was also uploaded on Lena 's VEVO channel on YouTube . The single version is different from the original song version on her Stardust album . The single version is more of a dance record , remixed and a bit faster .
On 21 March , Lena Meyer @-@ Landrut attended to ECHO awards . She was nominated for two categories this year , " Best National Video " for " Stardust " and as " Best National Female Artist " . During the show , Lena received an only one award for " Best National Video " for her first single from same titled album , " Stardust " . Later during the show , Lena lost the " Best Female National Artist " award to singer Ivy Quainoo .
In April 2013 , Lena went on a club tour through thirteen German cities started in Stuttgart on 2 April and finished in Offenbach on 21 April . The last concert was streamed live in the Internet . The title " No One Can Catch Us Tour " was taken from a line from her first single from the album , " Stardust " .
In April and May 2013 she was one of the three judges on the show The Voice Kids alongside Tim Bendzko and Henning Wehland .
On 17 May 2013 " Mr. Arrow Key " , was released as third single from the Album " Stardust " and as seventh single overall . The song was written by Lena Meyer @-@ Landrut , Linda Carlsson and Sonny Boy Gustafsson , and the original track for album was produced by Sonny Boy Gustafsson .
Lena was president of the German jury ( including Carolin Niemczyk , Alina Süggeler , Tim Bendzko and Florian Silbereisen ) and the spokesperson for Germany , revealing the countries voting results at the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 final on 18 May .
In July 2013 , it was announced that she will be the German voice of Jane in the motion capture animated film Tarzan 3D which was released in German cinemas in February 2014 . In the same month she dubbed the voice of three characters in the two audiobooks Giraffenaffen – Wir sind da ! ( Giraffe @-@ monkeys – We are here ! ) and Giraffenaffen – Die Schatzssuche ( Giraffe @-@ monkeys – Treasure hunt ) , which were both published in October 2013 .
In October 2013 Lena re @-@ united with her Eurovision mentor Stefan Raab when she featured in " Revolution " , a single from Raab 's band Dicks on Fire . In June 2013 , this song was already used for a video about the shower head Doosh invented by Stefan Raab where Lena is posing as Lara Croft under the shower . In 2013 Lena became a L 'Oréal testimonial for hair coloring and skin care product series .
From March to May 2014 she returned as coach in the second season of The Voice Kids along with Henning Wehland ( from the band Söhne Mannheims ) and Johannes Strate ( from the band Revolverheld ) .
= = = 2014 – present : Crystal Sky = = =
In early 2014 , Meyer @-@ Landrut began principal work on her fourth studio album Crystal Sky . Taking her sound further into the electro and dance pop genre , she worked English production and songwriting team Biffco and Berlin @-@ based collective Beatgees on most of the album . In November 2014 , one of their collaborations , the children 's song " Schlaft alle " , appeared on the compilation album Giraffenaffen 3 . The same month , Meyer @-@ Landrut 's rendition of the Aladdin song " A Whole New World " was included on the compilation album I Love Disney . From February to April 2015 Meyer @-@ Landrut reprised her role as a coach in the third season of The Voice Kids along with singers Johannes Strate and Mark Forster . After four press concerts in Hamburg , Berlin , Munich , and Cologne from late February to early March 2015 she released Crystal Sky 's first single " Traffic Lights " to radios in March 2015 . It reached the top twenty of the German Singles Chart .
Crystal Sky was released in May 2015 . It marked her fourth consecutive album to reach the top two of the German Albums Chart , but was less successful in Austria and Switzerland , where it failed to reach the top twenty on both music markets . In September 2015 , Meyer @-@ Landrut released " Wild & Free " , the theme song for the motion picture Fack ju Göhte 2 as a single . The song peaked at number eight on the German Singles Chart , becoming her highest @-@ charting single in three years .
= = Media image = =
Meyer @-@ Landrut has been noted for her unconventional way of handling the press , which has been labelled " aloof " as well as " quick @-@ witted " and " intuitive " . She usually refuses to answer questions about her private life , including her family , friends and personal beliefs , sometimes calling questions " stupid " or responding with counterquestions instead . This has drawn praise as well as criticism , including allegations of being arrogant and disrespectful .
Meyer @-@ Landrut 's demeanour has been described as " carefree " , " laid @-@ back and self @-@ effacing " . She has been said to possess an " adequate youthful megalomania " , to " cultivate her forwardness " and to stand for " unadorned genuineness " and " sincerity " . She has also been said to give " infatuation a rhythm " and blur the " fine line between puppy love and psychotic obsession " . Her vocals have been both lauded and criticised . In an attempt to explain Meyer @-@ Landrut 's success , her appearance has been called a " mix of loveliness , professionalism and a little craziness " . She has also been lauded for her stage presence and charisma .
= = Appearances on Unser Star für Oslo = =
Jennifer Braun and Meyer @-@ Landrut both sang different versions of " Bee " and " Satellite " in the final
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Results = = =
= = Film and television = =
2016 Northvision Contest 19
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
2010 : My Cassette Player
2011 : Good News
2012 : Stardust
2015 : Crystal Sky
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= Death Cab for Cutie =
Death Cab for Cutie is an American alternative rock band , formed in Bellingham , Washington in 1997 . The band comprises Ben Gibbard ( vocals , guitar , piano ) , Nick Harmer ( bass ) and Jason McGerr ( drums ) . In 2014 , founding guitarist and producer Chris Walla announced that he would be departing from the band after recording their eighth studio album , Kintsugi .
The band was originally a solo project by Ben Gibbard , when he released the demo album , You Can Play These Songs with Chords , to positive reception . This led to a record deal with Barsuk Records . Gibbard decided to expand the project into a complete band , releasing their debut album Something About Airplanes in 1998 , and their second album , We Have the Facts and We 're Voting Yes , in 2000 ; both records were positively received in the indie community . Their third album , 2001 's The Photo Album , gave the band their first charting single , and the release of the group 's fourth album Transatlanticism , in 2003 , gained the band mainstream critical and commercial success . After signing with Atlantic Records , Death Cab For Cutie released their fifth album and major @-@ label debut Plans in 2005 , which received platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America . The band released their sixth album Narrow Stairs in 2008 , which served as a stylistic departure for the group . Their seventh album , 2011 's Codes and Keys , featured the band 's first number one single , " You Are a Tourist " . Their eighth studio album Kintsugi , the last to feature Walla , was released on March 31 , 2015 .
Death Cab for Cutie 's music has been labeled as indie rock , indie pop , and alternative rock . It is noted for its use of unconventional instrumentation , as well as Gibbard 's distinctive voice and unique lyrical style . Since their formation , the band has released eight full @-@ length studio albums , four EPs , two live EPs , one live album , and one demo album .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1997 – 2002 ) = = =
Death Cab for Cutie began as a solo project of Ben Gibbard in 1997 , while he was the guitar player for the band Pinwheel , and was recorded under the name All @-@ Time Quarterback . As Death Cab for Cutie , Gibbard released a cassette titled You Can Play These Songs with Chords the same year . The release was surprisingly successful , and Gibbard decided to expand the project into a complete band , recruiting Chris Walla ( who had also worked on the cassette ) as lead guitarist , Nick Harmer as bass player , and Nathan Good as drummer . Death Cab for Cutie was officially formed at Western Washington University in Bellingham , Washington , and lyrics from early songs include local references that were important to the band 's development . Many of the early songs were recorded in the basement of an Ellis Street home Gibbard lived in with several roommates in Bellingham .
The four released their debut full @-@ length studio album , Something About Airplanes , on August 18 , 1998 . The album was favorably reviewed in the independent music scene . In 1998 the band also met their long @-@ term manager Jordan Kurland . Kurland had heard good things about them , and after a failed attempt to see them play at South By Southwest finally hooked up with them when touring with his then client , the band Crumb .
The band released their follow @-@ up second album , We Have the Facts and We 're Voting Yes , in March 2000 . Nathan Good left the band at some point during this album 's production , and was briefly replaced by Jayson Tolzdorf @-@ Larson . Gibbard played drums on the majority of the album , with Good 's playing on “ The Employment Pages ” and “ Company Calls Epilogue ” being kept on the final release . Although Tolzdorf @-@ Larson did not contribute to the album , he did appear on the song " Spring Break Broke " , from the " Death Cab for Fiver " 7 @-@ inch record , and also joined the band on two tours , including their first full tour of the United States . Tolzdorf @-@ Larson was later replaced by Michael Schorr , who would first appear on The Forbidden Love EP , released on October 24 , 2000 .
In 2001 , Death Cab for Cutie released their third album , The Photo Album . Limited editions of this album contained three bonus tracks , which were later released separately as The Stability EP . The album produced the band 's first charting single " A Movie Script Ending " , which reached number 123 on the UK Singles Chart , and was the first of three songs by the band to be featured on the television show The O.C .. The Photo Album 's two other singles , " I Was a Kaleidoscope " and " We Laugh Indoors " , also reached numbers 115 and 122 on the UK Singles Chart , respectively .
= = = Transatlanticism ( 2003 ) = = =
In 2003 there was yet another change of drummer with Jason McGerr , who had previously played in the band Eureka Farm with Gibbard and Harmer , joining the band . McGerr 's debut would be playing drums on Death Cab for Cutie 's next release , their fourth album Transatlanticism , which was released in October 2003 . The album was received to critical acclaim , and launched the band into mainstream commercial success , with the two singles " The Sound of Settling " and " Title and Registration " , appearing in the soundtracks of the television shows The O.C. , Six Feet Under , CSI : Miami and Californication , and the films Wedding Crashers , Easy A , and Mean Creek .
= = = Signing to Atlantic and Plans ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
In early 2004 the band recorded a live EP , entitled The John Byrd EP , named for their sound engineer was released on Barsuk Records in March .
Death Cab for Cutie had been contacted by major labels on @-@ and @-@ off for several years , but it was only after the proven success of Transatlanticism that they decided to start talking to labels about a potential deal . The fact that they had already achieved considerable success allowed the band to negotiate with a lot of creative freedom . According to their manager Jordan Kurland , the band had spoken to " pretty much all of them " , and then decided they were most satisfied with their offer from Atlantic Records . In November 2004 , the band signed a “ long @-@ term worldwide deal ” with Atlantic , leaving their long @-@ time label Barsuk Records . Gibbard stated on the band 's official website that nothing would change , except that " next to the picture of Barsuk holding a 7 " , there will be the letter " A " on both the spine and back of our upcoming albums . " After signing to Atlantic , the band was still nervous about corporate economics , and encouraged fans to download its songs from the Internet .
The band released their fifth studio album and debut major @-@ label release , Plans , on August 30 , 2005 , to critical and commercial success . Two singles from the album , “ Soul Meets Body ” and “ Crooked Teeth ” , reached the top ten of the US Billboard Alternative Songs chart , while the single " I Will Follow You into the Dark " became the band 's best @-@ selling single to date . Death Cab for Cutie performed " Crooked Teeth " live on Saturday Night Live on January 14 , 2006 . Plans received a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Album of 2005 , as well as achieving gold certification in 2006 after being featured on the Billboard Album chart for 47 consecutive weeks , and later was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in early May 2008 .
The band released a touring DVD , Drive Well , Sleep Carefully , in 2005 . Copies of the DVD were given away to promote animal rights , and the band are supporters of the activist group PETA . In early 2006 , the band announced the upcoming release of Directions : The Plans Video Album , which features eleven short films inspired by songs from the Plans album , each directed by a different person . The videos were posted one at a time at the band 's website , and the DVD went on sale April 11 , 2006 . The iTunes Store began selling the videos ( formatted for iPod ) early on March 28 , 2006 . Lance Bangs , P.R. Brown , Ace Norton , Jeffrey Brown , Lightborne , Autumn de Wilde , Rob Schrab , Laurent Briet and Monkmus , as well as Aaron Stewart @-@ Ahn , are among directors that have contributed to the project . An episode of MTV2 's Subterranean played these videos for the whole hour , plus discussion with members of the band . Death Cab for Cutie made their first appearance at Neil Young 's annual Bridge School Benefit , and completed their lengthy 2006 tour of the United States on December 10 , 2006 , finishing with a show at the KeyArena in Seattle , Washington .
= = = Narrow Stairs and The Open Door EP ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
Walla claimed on October 18 , 2007 , that a new album was " in full swing " and that they had six songs completed . He went on to call the new music " weird , " " spectacular , " and " creepy , " saying that it contained " lots of blood . " He noted that the album had a " Can jam " that lasted 10 minutes , which Walla said that he would have never imagined doing in 1998 . In a Billboard piece in January 2008 , the band promised the album to be a " curve ball " and said that although it would have slower songs , there would be some surprises . Walla said , " I 'm really excited about it . It 's really got some teeth . The landscape of the thing is way , way more lunar than the urban meadow sort of thing that has been happening for the last couple of records . " Walla added that the album was " louder and more dissonant and ... abrasive . " They claimed that they were influenced by " synth @-@ punk band Brainiac . "
Their sixth full @-@ length album , Narrow Stairs , was released on May 12 , 2008 . The first single , " I Will Possess Your Heart " , was released on March 18 , 2008 . The album version of the song is over eight minutes in length , leading radio and promotional edits to remove the extended intro to shorten the song to four minutes . The second single , " Cath ... " , was released on July 21 , 2008 , and the third single " Grapevine Fires " , was released on March 3 , 2009 . The two singles " I Will Possess Your Heart " and " Cath ... " both reached the top ten of the Alternative Songs chart , while " Grapevine Fires " reached number 21 . In an album review , MTV writer James Montgomery said " Narrow Stairs is a great album , one that could make them very famous , but could very well also kill their careers , " and although " Death Cab for Cutie had gone insane , " he believed the LP could be " an early contender for the best album of 2008 . " Indeed , Narrow Stairs was nominated for " Best Alternative Music Album " and " I Will Possess Your Heart " received a nomination for " Best Rock Song " at the 51st Grammy Awards . The band lost in both categories , but prompted debate after appearing at the ceremony sporting blue ribbons to protest against what they view as the excessive use of Auto @-@ Tune in the music industry . Narrow Stairs was their first album to reach No.1 on the Billboard 200 chart on May 31 , 2008 . Though the album achieved strong success , Gibbard went on to call it the band 's most " depressing record " .
On March 31 , 2009 , the band released The Open Door EP , containing tracks left off Narrow Stairs as well as a demo for " Talking Bird " . The Open Door EP was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album at the 52nd Grammy Awards . In 2009 the band wrote the song , " Meet Me on the Equinox " for the The Twilight Saga : New Moon soundtrack . " Meet Me on the Equinox " was not the first song that Death Cab for Cutie contributed to a soundtrack , as they contributed " Soul Meets Body " to the soundtrack for Catch and Release in 2006 .
= = = Codes and Keys ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
The band 's seventh album , Codes and Keys , was released on May 31 , 2011 . Ben Gibbard and Nick Harmer have both been quoted as saying that the album was " a much less guitar @-@ centric album than we ’ ve ever made before " .
In March 2011 , Ben Gibbard performed a new Death Cab for Cutie song at a solo concert in San Francisco , which would later be revealed as the title track from Codes and Keys . The tracklist for the album was released on Death Cab for Cutie 's website on March 15 , 2011 .
The first single from the album , " You Are a Tourist " , was released on March 29 , 2011 . The song is notable for its music video being first ever live , scripted , one @-@ take music video shoot ever : the group streamed a live performance of the music video as it was being recorded on April 5 , 2011 . The video was accomplished in a single take , using multiple cameras , and no edits or re @-@ takes . The innovative and artistic production employed dancers , actors , and projected images . " You Are a Tourist " is also notable as Death Cab for Cutie 's first ( and to date , only ) single to reach number one , topping the Billboard US Alternative Songs , US Adult Alternative Songs , and Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles charts , as well as reaching number three on the US Rock Songs chart . The band released the video for the song " Home is a Fire " on May 9 , 2011 , featuring street artist Shepard Fairey plastering lyrics from the song around Los Angeles . " Stay Young , Go Dancing " was released as the second single on September 26 , 2011 , reaching number 31 on the Alternative Songs chart . " Underneath the Sycamore " was released as the third single on January 10 , 2012 , but did not chart . Codes and Keys was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album at the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012 .
The band was due to play at the Ottawa Bluesfest on July 17 , 2011 , but the outdoor stage collapsed earlier in the evening after sudden severe weather hit the area . On their website , the band posted : " Our hearts go out to those that were injured and we are so thankful that no one was killed . "
In 2012 the band toured across the globe , starting in Australia , New Zealand , Southeast Asia . In April and May , the band toured in the United States with members of the Magik * Magik Orchestra , who collaborated on tracks on Codes and Keys . After headlining the inaugural Bunbury Music Festival in Cincinnati , the band played summer festivals in Europe .
= = = Departure of Walla and Kintsugi ( 2013 – present ) = = =
On October 11 , 2013 , the band reportedly began working on their eighth studio album , Kintsugi , produced by Rich Costey . This was then confirmed by the group 's official Instagram profile in which an image was uploaded with the caption " DCFC LP8 begins " . In an interview with Stereogum , Gibbard said of the new album , " I do think from start to finish it 's a much better record than Codes And Keys . If that record turned anybody off , I feel pretty strongly that this one could win them back . There are threads in this one that connect back to our earliest stuff that people love . "
On October 29 , 2013 , the band released a remastered tenth @-@ anniversary version of their 2003 album Transatlanticism . The new album included a vinyl LP and MP3 download , with demos for all the songs from the album .
As part of the 2014 Record Store Day , the band released its first live album , a vinyl @-@ only double LP recorded during various 2012 tour dates with Magik * Magik Orchestra . Included within the packaging was a code for a digital download of the recording .
On August 13 , 2014 , after 17 years as a member of Death Cab for Cutie , guitarist and songwriter Chris Walla decided to part ways with the band , with his last performance occurring on September 13 , 2014 at the Rifflandia Music Festival in Victoria , British Columbia . Walla states that he plans to " ... continue making music , producing records , and erring on the side of benevolence and beauty whenever possible . " When asked in an interview about Walla 's involvement in the eighth album , McGerr confirmed that Walla " played on everything and has been involved all the way through , even in the mixing . Even though he 's played his last show with us , he 's still been involved in everything involving this record . "
An October 2014 Rolling Stone interview with Gibbard revealed new songs entitled " No Room In Frame " , " Black Sun " , " Beverly Drive " , and " Good Help " would feature alongside seven further tracks on the new record . On January 12 , 2015 , the band officially announced the Kintsugi album , which was released on March 31 , 2015 .
On January 16 , 2015 , the band announced their first 2015 show at the Crocodile Cafe in Seattle set for later that week , with new touring members Dave Depper ( guitar / keyboards ) and Zac Rae ( keyboards / guitar ) replacing Walla in the live band . At the show the band debuted several new songs from Kintsugi including first single " Black Sun " , which was later released on January 26 .
Kintsugi was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album .
= = Musical style = =
Death Cab for Cutie 's music has been labeled indie rock , indie pop , emo , and alternative rock . Death Cab for Cutie 's early work on You Can Play These Songs with Chords was described by Rolling Stone as " emotion through its lack of emotion " . Pitchfork Media also remarked that the work on the cassette was " ultra @-@ lo @-@ fi " . On Something About Airplanes the band 's style remained similar , with some new instrumental work introduced ; " flute , synth , or cello " were noted by Allmusic 's Nitsuh Abebe . On We Have the Facts and We 're Voting Yes the band again expanded their use of unorthodox instruments , including organ and glockenspiel . Pitchfork Media called them a " gentle niche " in the current rock climate , compared with bands such as Modest Mouse and Built to Spill .
Rolling Stone reviewed Transatlanticism and commented that it contained " melodic , melancholy songs about feeling both smart and confused , hopelessly romantic but wary of love . " Gibbard 's voice was described as " plaintive boy @-@ next @-@ door " Entertainment Weekly commented on the music on Plans , saying " The lush arrangements are long on hothouse organs and pianos , but short on the squirmy guitars and squirrelly beats that , on Gibbard 's best work , offset his sweet voice and borderline @-@ maudlin poetics with a sense of emotional danger . " The band 's music on Plans was described by the Dallas Morning News as " a literate , whispery style , the kind of stuff that normally sounds better in headphones than in large venues " .
In an interview with Shave Magazine , Ben Gibbard commented on his song writing saying that he " never sit [ s ] down to write an album number one . I just kind of sit down and write songs and the theme kind of makes itself apparent . But I would never say I was writing about searching for something as much as just trying to document with every song where I am in that moment when I ’ m writing that song . If a theme kind of makes itself apparent in a record , it has more to do with the fact that just what ’ s been on my mind recently . So I guess clearly I have been and was and am , but it was never a conscious decision . "
= = Band name = =
Gibbard took the band name from the song " Death Cab for Cutie " written by Neil Innes and Vivian Stanshall and performed by their group the Bonzo Dog Doo @-@ Dah Band . The song was performed by the Bonzos in the Beatles film Magical Mystery Tour . The song 's name was in turn taken from an invented pulp fiction crime magazine , devised by the English academic Richard Hoggart in his 1957 study of working class culture , The Uses of Literacy . In a 2011 interview , Gibbard stated , " The name was never supposed to be something that someone was going to reference 15 years on . So yeah , I would absolutely go back and give it a more obvious name . "
= = Members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Something About Airplanes ( 1998 )
We Have the Facts and We 're Voting Yes ( 2000 )
The Photo Album ( 2001 )
Transatlanticism ( 2003 )
Plans ( 2005 )
Narrow Stairs ( 2008 )
Codes and Keys ( 2011 )
Kintsugi ( 2015 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Grammy Award
MTV Video Music Award
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= The Technique =
The Technique , also known as the " ' Nique , " is the official student newspaper of the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta , Georgia and has referred to itself as " the South 's liveliest college newspaper " since 1945 . As of the Fall semester of 2011 , the Technique has a weekly circulation of 10 @,@ 000 , distributed to numerous locations on the Georgia Tech campus and a handful of locations in the surrounding area . The first issue of the Technique was published on November 17 , 1911 , and the paper has printed continuously since its founding . The paper publishes weekly throughout the regular school year and primarily covers news , events and issues specific to the Georgia Tech community . In 2004 it was one of 25 collegiate newspapers to receive the Pacemaker award from the Associated Collegiate Press .
= = History = =
A publication known as The Georgia Tech was Georgia Tech 's first student newspaper . It was established in 1894 and was the second student publication to be established on campus . The Georgia Tech published a " Commencement Issue " that reviewed sporting events and gave information about each class . The " Commencement Issue " was likely similar to the Technique 's Freshman Issue . The Technique was founded in 1911 ; its first issue was published on November 17 , 1911 by editors Albert Blohm and E.A. Turner , and the content revolved around the upcoming rivalry football game against the University of Georgia . The first issue also featured an article by legendary football coach John Heisman .
The Technique has been published weekly ever since , except for a brief period that the paper was published twice weekly . This period ran from January 14 , 1948 to September 6 , 1956 . The Georgia Tech and the Technique operated separately for several years following the Technique 's establishment , though the two publications eventually merged in 1916 . Several sources claim that The Technique is among a number of student organizations to be founded by the ANAK Society .
= = Present @-@ day publication = =
The Technique is published weekly during the Fall and Spring semesters , with the exceptions of " Dead Week , " finals week and Spring Break and is published biweekly during the Summer semester . As of the 2005 @-@ 2006 publication year , the paper has also taken a hiatus the week prior to Spring Break . General staff meetings are held on Tuesdays , when the majority of story assignments are made to a mostly volunteer writing staff . Deadline is on Wednesday nights during weeks when the paper is published , and the copy is sent to the printer on Thursday morning . The paper is then distributed around the campus on the Friday of that week . The Technique 's office is located in the northwest corner of the Student Services Building .
The paper is operated by a staff of approximately 50 paid and unpaid students , as well as two permanent , paid , non @-@ student staff members . As Georgia Tech has no journalism school , the Technique welcomes all students within the Institute to contribute to its content . The Technique is funded primarily by advertisements , and to a lesser extent by Tech 's Student Government Association .
= = Sections = =
The Technique is generally between 16 and 40 pages long , the length of an issue being dependent upon the number of advertisements purchased for a given week . The paper is organized into five sections :
News
Includes Georgia Tech @-@ specific crime reports and news .
Life ( previously Focus )
Includes human interest stories .
Entertainment
Includes reviews of music , movies , performance arts , and video games , cartoons , a crossword puzzle , and sudoku puzzles .
Opinions
Includes editorials , an editorial cartoon , op @-@ eds , and letters to the editor .
Sports
Includes summaries of recent Georgia Tech sports games and sports features .
= = Special editions = =
= = = To Hell With Georgia = = =
The most well @-@ known of the special issues the Technique publishes is a satire of The University of Georgia 's student newspaper ( The Red and Black ) . The tradition of this parody dates back to the very first issue of the Technique , which was published with the intent of taunting Georgia Tech 's rival school , and has its roots in the embittered rivalry between Georgia Tech and the University of Georgia . It is published just before the two schools compete in football and is one of the last issues of the Fall semester . The parody is known as " To Hell With Georgia , " after the school 's popular cheer . On years where the schools play their football match at UGA 's Sanford Stadium , Technique staff distribute the issue across UGA 's campus . In 2009 , the THWGA issue was printed with an incorrect year in the masthead , though the date was corrected in the version posted online .
= = = Freshman Issue = = =
The Freshman Issue is another special edition of the Technique . It is the first issue published each academic year and is by far the longest issue , with each of the sections about as long as a normal issue . The content usually centers on the themes of welcoming Freshmen and welcoming returning students back to Tech . The Freshman Issue also contains a special section dedicated to helping Freshmen become more acquainted with Tech and its customs . It is generally the only issue in which content from previous issues is reprinted .
= = = Other special editions = = =
Other special editions include the Homecoming issue , the April Fool 's issue ( historically known as the Techlique , which includes a section of fake news parodying Tech in a similar style to the " To Hell With Georgia " issue ) and the " Best of Tech " issue , which is the final issue of the Spring semester .
= = Recurring features = =
= = = Two Bits = = =
The Technique featured an anonymous humor column called " Two Bits , " which is authored by the mysterious Two Bits Man , a sarcastic , everyday virtuoso who concerns himself with Tech- and university @-@ specific subjects . His articles range from relentless sickly sniffles to school @-@ wide subjects of controversy or interest . Popular targets for his scorn include Georgia Tech 's Parking department and School of Physics , whereas he consistently praises the President Emeritus G. Wayne Clough , who he refers to as " Funk Masta G. Wayne " . The Two Bits column had been discontinued in 2010 , but was brought back in 2012 , to again be discontinued in 2013 .
= = = Sliver Box = = =
One of the Technique 's most popular features is the Sliver Box , an analogue of the Vent feature of the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , which allows readers to submit any comment they wish . Comments are submitted on the Technique 's website and as many Slivers that will fit appear in the week 's paper , usually in order of submission . Slivers are subject to minimal censorship , with only full names of non @-@ public figures , personal information and strong profanities typically removed or altered . Other entries are occasionally removed or truncated , usually in cases of spamming of the Sliver submission system . According to the paper , the Box is used to fill empty room left between advertisements in order to maintain a modular layout style . It is not uncommon for students to have conversations using the Sliver Box . Slivers were originally comments made by editorial board members during deadline night and were placed in narrow boxes ( " Slivers " ) at the bottom of each page . Comments made on deadline night and opinions of editorial board members still occasionally find their way into the Sliver Box .
= = Controversies = =
The only recent controversies related to the Technique have occurred when they have accepted or rejected advertisements deemed to be controversial or inappropriate . Their ad policy states ,
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= Boletus subluridellus =
Boletus subluridellus is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . Described as new to science in 1971 by American mycologists , the bolete is found in the eastern United States and Canada . It grows on the ground in coniferous and mixed forests in a mycorrhizal association with deciduous trees , especially oak . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have orangish @-@ red , broadly convex caps that are up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , with small , dark reddish pores on the underside . The pale yellow stipe measures 4 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) thick . All parts of the fruit body will quickly stain blue when injured or touched .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described by American mycologists Alexander H. Smith and Harry D. Thiers in their 1971 monograph on the bolete fungi of Michigan . The type collection was made by Smith on a golf course near Ypsilanti , Michigan in September 1961 ; it is kept at the University of Michigan herbarium .
Boletus subluridellus is classified in the section Luridi of the genus Boletus . Section Luridi is characterized by boletes that immediately turn blue with cutting or bruising , narrow pores that are usually red , and the occasional presence of toxins in the fruit bodies . According to the scheme proposed by Smith and Thiers , the form of the dermatocystidia ( cystidia on the cap cuticle ) is important to species delimitation in section Luridi . In a 1993 study , however , Roland Treu found no major consistent microscopic differences between B. subluridellus , B. rufocinnamomeus , and B. roseobadius .
The specific epithet subluridellus refers to its similarity to Boletus luridellus . Luridellus means " drab yellow to dirty brown " .
= = Description = =
Fruit bodies of Boletus subluridellus have convex caps that measure 5 – 10 cm ( 2 – 4 in ) in diameter . The cap surface is dry and slightly sticky , with a somewhat velvety texture . Its color is reddish to reddish @-@ brown to orange @-@ red . The flesh is bright yellow before staining blue where it has been cut . It has no discernible odor , and a slightly metallic taste . On the cap underside , the tubes comprising the pore surface are 6 – 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) long . Near to where the cap attaches to the stipe , they are either unattached , or slightly depressed . The dark reddish pores are small and round , numbering about 2 – 3 pores per mm . The stipe measures 4 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) thick . It is solid ( i.e. , not hollow or stuffed with a pith ) , and roughly the same width throughout its length . The stipe color is pale yellow , grading to reddish in the base , where it has pressed @-@ down yellow hairs . All parts of the fruit body ( cap surface , flesh , pores , and stipe ) will quickly stain blue when injured or touched .
The spore print is olive @-@ brown . Spores are somewhat fuse @-@ shaped in face view , and inequilateral in profile view . They have a smooth surface , a tiny apical pore , and dimensions of 11 – 15 by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 μm , with walls about 0 @.@ 2 μm thick . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 8 – 12 μm thick . Pleurocystidia ( on the tube walls ) are 28 – 42 by 6 – 11 μm with a 3 – μm neck , whereas the cheilocystidia ( on the pore edges ) are narrowly club @-@ shaped and slightly smaller , measuring 26 – 38 by 4 – 8 μm . Pleurocystidia tend to not protrude further than sporulating basidia . The cap cuticle comprises a 150 μm @-@ thick layer of narrow hyphae measuring 3 – 5 μm more or less arranged in a trichodermium ( wherein the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface ) . These hyphae stain red when mounted in Melzer 's reagent and yellow in potassium hydroxide . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Boletus roseolateritius , known from Mississippi , has a cap that changes color according to its age : it is initially dark reddish to orangish , later reddish brown at maturity , fading to brownish orange or brownish pink with dull yellow tints , and finally turning dull dingy yellow in age . Its pale yellow stipe lacks the reddish coloration and the hairs found on the base of B. subluridellus . Microscopically , it has smaller spores , measuring 8 @.@ 5 – 12 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm . Boletus rufocinnamomeus is also similar in appearance , but can be distinguished by its yellow stipe that is dotted with orange @-@ cinnamon to brownish dots . Boletus flammans , another blue @-@ bruising lookalike found in the southeastern United States , grows under conifers . It has a reddish stipe with fine reticulations on its upper half .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Boletus subluridellus is a mycorrhizal fungus , and grows in association with deciduous trees , especially oak ( genus Quercus ) . Fruit bodies grow scattered or in groups on the ground in deciduous or mixed forests , and appear from July to October . An eastern North American species , the mushroom is found from New England west to the Great Lakes , north to Quebec in Canada .
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= Far Cry 4 =
Far Cry 4 is an open world action @-@ adventure first @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by Ubisoft for the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , Xbox One , and Microsoft Windows . It is the successor to the 2012 video game Far Cry 3 , and the fourth main installment in the Far Cry series . The game was released on November 18 , 2014 .
The game takes place in Kyrat , a fictional Himalayan country that mostly consists of sprawling mountains and forests , vast water systems , and villages . The main story follows Ajay Ghale , a young Kyrati @-@ American , as he is caught in a civil war involving Kyrat 's Royal Army , controlled by tyrannical king Pagan Min , and a rebel movement called the Golden Path . Gameplay focuses on combat and exploration ; players battle enemy soldiers and dangerous wildlife using a wide array of weapons , while completing side missions , collecting useful items , and progressing through the game 's main story . The game features many elements found in role @-@ playing games , such as a branching storyline . In addition to the game 's campaign , the game features a map editor , a co @-@ operative multiplayer mode , and an asymmetrical competitive multiplayer mode which was developed by Red Storm Entertainment .
Announced in May 2014 , development on Far Cry 4 began immediately after the shipment of Assassin 's Creed III in late 2012 . The team originally intended to develop a direct sequel to Far Cry 3 that continues 3 's story , but the idea was later scrapped and the team decided to develop a new setting and new story for the game . Certain aspects of Far Cry 4 were inspired by the Nepalese Civil War , and the costume of the game 's antagonist Pagan Min was inspired by Japanese films Ichi the Killer and Brother .
Far Cry 4 was met with a mostly positive critical reception upon release . Critics praised the open world design , visuals , soundtrack , and characters , particularly antagonist Pagan Min . There was also praise for the new gameplay additions , such as the grappling hook , and the wealth of content . However , some critics disliked the story and found the game too similar to its predecessor . The game was a commercial success , selling 7 million copies by the end of 2014 , and was the biggest launch in the franchise 's history . Several downloadable content were subsequently released .
= = Gameplay = =
Far Cry 4 is a first @-@ person action @-@ adventure game . Players assume control of Ajay Ghale , a Kyrati @-@ American who is on a quest to spread his deceased mother 's ashes in the fictional country of Kyrat . Throughout the game , players can run , leap , and crouch , and have the ability to use weapons including shotguns , crossbows , sniper rifles , mines , throwing knives , bows , flamethrowers , and rocket launchers . The game allows players to take cover to avoid gunfights and to perform melee takedowns from above or up @-@ close . Unlike previous installments in the series , Far Cry 4 gives players the ability to kick objects and the ability to hide the corpses of enemies .
Players can use a variety of methods to approach missions . For instance , players can utilize stealth to evade enemies and complete objectives without being noticed , or they also have the option to assault enemies with firearms and vehicles . The player @-@ character is equipped with a digital camera , which allows him to mark and highlight all visible enemies , animals , and loots . Players are also able to ride on elephants , which serve as tank @-@ like , offensive weapons for players . Players can throw bait towards enemies , which attracts nearby wildlife that is hostile to both the player and enemies . Players can also hunt and skin animals .
The game features an open world environment that is free for players to explore . It features several environments , including forests , rivers , and mountains . To allow players to travel between places faster , the game features various vehicles , including buggies , trucks , and water vehicles like speedboats . Players can drive and shoot at the same time , and can enable auto @-@ drive , in which the game 's artificial intelligence takes over the role of controlling the vehicle and guides players to their objectives . Players can also hijack other vehicles while driving . The Buzzer , an aerial , helicopter @-@ like vehicle , is introduced in the game , allowing players to gain a tactical advantage from the air . Parachutes , wingsuits , and grappling hooks are also featured in the game ; these items help players swing across cliffs and quickly navigate the environment . Parts of the game take place in Shangri @-@ La , a mystical dreamland where players battle demons as the Kyrati warrior Kalinag . While in Shangri @-@ La , players are accompanied by an injured tiger which serves as their companion . Players can issue commands to the tiger , which assists them in battle .
The game world is divided into two halves : North and South Kyrat . Players start in South Kyrat and are free to explore it almost immediately , but can only unlock North Kyrat over the course of the story . The map is progressively opened by liberating bell towers , freeing them from Pagan Min 's influence and allowing the Golden Path to expand . These towers help players reveal new areas and mark new locations of interest on the map . The world is scattered with outposts controlled by Pagan Min , which can be infiltrated by players . Four larger outposts , or fortresses , can also be found , and feature stronger defenses and more difficult combinations of enemies . If players successfully liberate these outposts , they will serve as fast @-@ travel points , allowing quick navigation through the game 's world . Additional missions and quests also become available . There are many side @-@ missions that can be completed , including hostage rescues , bomb disposal quests , and hunting missions . The collected animals ' parts can then be used for crafting new pouches and belts .
Like its predecessors , the game features some role @-@ playing elements . Players can earn experience points by completing missions and defeating enemies , and these experience points can then be spent on performance boosts and upgrades . There are two sets of abilities for players to choose from , called The Tiger and The Elephant . The Tiger upgrades mainly improve players ' offensive abilities , while The Elephant upgrades improve players ' defensive skills . A variety of random events and hostile encounters take place throughout the game ; for example , the player may unexpectedly be attacked by an eagle , be hit by a car , or witness an animal attack . Players can accumulate karma by performing kind actions towards the rebels , such as by assisting them in battles when they are attacked by wildlife or enemies . Doing so will give players discounts when purchasing new items at trading posts , and will allow players to call in support and back @-@ up from members of the Golden Path . Players can also gain experience by collecting items like masks , propaganda posters , and mani wheels . There is also an Arena mode , in which players battle human enemies and animals for additional experience points and rewards .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Far Cry 4 features a co @-@ operative multiplayer mode known as " Guns for Hire " , which supports up to two players . The mode is separated from the game 's campaign , and players are free to explore the game 's world , defeat enemies , and infiltrate outposts with their companion . In addition to the co @-@ operative mode , players can gain access to several competitive multiplayer modes which have an asymmetrical structure . Players play as either a Rakshasa or a Golden Path member . The Ratshasa are equipped with bows and arrows , and have the ability to teleport and to summon wildlife to assist them , while Golden Path members are equipped with guns and explosives , and have access to armored vehicles . Known as " Battles of Kyrat " , players fight against each other in three modes , called Outpost , Propaganda , and Demon Mask . Far Cry 4 also contains a Map Editor that allows users to create and share custom content . Similar to that of Far Cry 3 , players can create their maps by customizing landscapes , and by placing buildings , trees , wildlife , and vehicles . However , the Map Editor did not support competitive multiplayer levels at launch . Multiplayer support was added to the game on February 3 , 2015 .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Premise = = =
The story was inspired by the ten @-@ year @-@ long Maoist insurgency in Nepal . The game follows Ajay Ghale , a young Kyrati @-@ American who returns to his native country of Kyrat ( a fictional Himalayan country derived from Kirati , a collection of Himalayan people originating from Tibet ) to spread his deceased mother 's ashes . Kyrat was once an autonomous state in the Himalayas ruled by a royal family before being engulfed in a series of civil wars . Ajay finds the country in a state of conflict between Kyrat 's Royal Army , led by the country 's eccentric and tyrannical King Pagan Min , and the Golden Path , a rebel movement fighting to free Kyrat from Min 's oppressive rule . The choices Ajay makes will determine the fate of Kyrat .
= = = Plot = = =
After the death of his mother Ishwari , Ajay Ghale ( James A. Woods ) returns to his home country of Kyrat to carry out Ishwari 's final wish by returning her ashes to Lakshmana . However , his mission is interrupted when the bus he is traveling on is attacked by the Royal Army and he is taken prisoner by Pagan Min ( Troy Baker ) , the country 's eccentric and violent king , who claims to have been romantically involved with Ishwari . After finding his way through Pagan 's mansion , Ajay escapes with the aid of Sabal ( Naveen Andrews ) , a commander in the Golden Path , a rebel movement established by Ajay 's father , Mohan Ghale . Ajay is not able to leave the country as the Royal Army has taken control of Kyrat 's only airport and sealed the borders .
In the twenty years since Ishwari and Ajay fled Kyrat , the rebellion has stagnated , with the Golden Path now fighting for their very existence . As the son of Mohan Ghale , Ajay becomes a symbol for the Golden Path to rally around . After freeing a group of hostages and liberating territory held by Pagan , the Golden Path plan on breaking Pagan 's stranglehold on power by targeting his three regional governors : Paul " De Pleur " Harmon ( Travis Willingham ) , who oversees opium production and runs Pagan 's torture chambers ; Noore Najjar ( Mylène Dinh @-@ Robic ) , who runs poaching and prostitution rings and who became a victim of Pagan 's cruelty herself after he kidnapped her family ; and Yuma Lau ( Gwendoline Yeo ) , Min 's adopted sister and trusted general who is obsessed with uncovering the secrets of the mystical realm of Shangri @-@ La .
However the Golden Path 's newfound momentum is threatened by deep divisions between its commanders , Sabal , who favors traditional values , and Amita ( Janina Gavankar ) , who argues for progress , which includes relying heavily on drug trade . Ajay is forced to intervene on several occasions , with his decisions influencing the direction the Golden Path takes . The first governor to fall is De Pleur after Noore helps Ajay find a way to infiltrate De Pleur 's stronghold , allowing the rebellion to capture him . Amita and Sabal later task Ajay with confronting and killing Noore . She dies in her fighting arena , either with Ajay killing her , or with Noore committing suicide upon learning Pagan had her family executed years beforehand .
As the Golden Path secures Kyrat 's southern provinces , Ajay is contacted by Willis Huntley ( Alain Goulem ) , a CIA agent who offers intelligence for the rebels and pages from his father 's diary in exchange for killing Yuma 's lieutenants . After Ajay kills several of them , Huntley admits they were in fact CIA assets , and that he was sent to clean up after the CIA as the agency did not see Pagan as a threat anymore . Huntley betrays Ajay to Pagan just as the Golden Path prepare to push into Northern Kyrat .
Ajay ends up in Yuma 's mountain prison , which he manages to escape from . In the process he finds out that Yuma has started despising Pagan , primarily because of his affections toward Ajay 's late mother . The Golden Path pushes into the north , and while Ajay attempts to reconnect with another faction of the rebels , Pagan , aware of Yuma 's plotting against him , betrays Yuma to the Golden Path . Ajay is drawn into a confrontation with her and prevails , but tensions between Amita and Sabal reach new heights , and Ajay is forced to make a final decision as to who will lead the Golden Path . Whichever leader he chooses then sends Ajay to kill the other to prevent them from starting another civil war , and Ajay can choose to either kill them as ordered or let them go . With the Golden Path now united under a single leader , Ajay joins them for an attack on Pagan 's fortress and pushes on alone to Pagan 's palace while the Golden Path holds off the military .
= = = = Endings = = = =
Ajay encounters Pagan , who chastises him for fleeing at the start of the game , claiming that he only ever intended to help Ajay . Pagan offers Ajay a final decision : shoot him now , or listen to him . If Ajay shoots Pagan , the game ends immediately and the credits roll . If Ajay instead chooses to listen , Pagan reveals that Ajay 's father sent Ishwari to spy on Pagan in the early days of the Golden Path . They fell in love and had a daughter together , Lakshmana , which would make her Ajay 's half @-@ sister . Ajay 's father , Mohan Ghale , killed Lakshmana for Ishwari 's betrayal , and Ishwari killed him in turn before leaving the country with the infant Ajay . Pagan shows Ajay to a shrine containing Lakshmana 's ashes , and Ajay places Ishwari 's ashes inside . Pagan then boards a helicopter and departs peacefully , leaving the country in Ajay 's hands .
Ajay can choose to shoot down Pagan 's helicopter as it flies away , killing Pagan in the process . In that case , Pagan 's body can be found in Kyrat next to the downed helicopter . Upon looting Pagan 's corpse , Ajay finds a golden pen with an inscription " For you my love , Ishwari " , and which he can sell for 300 @,@ 000 rupees .
In the aftermath of Pagan 's death or departure , the Golden Path seizes control of Kyrat . If Amita was placed in charge , she begins conscripting children into the group as soldiers to bolster their ranks against the remnants of the Royal Army , and also has her sister Bhadra taken away , " never to come again " , subtly implying she is dead . If Sabal was placed in charge , he brutally executes all of Amita 's supporters and turns Bhadra into Tarun Matara , a religious symbol for the country to rally around . Ajay then has one final choice ; to either kill the Golden Path 's leader or leave them alive .
An Easter egg ending can be found at the beginning of the game . To trigger it , Ajay must simply wait at the dinner table during Darpan 's torture ; Pagan returns shortly and thanks Ajay for being a " gentleman " , and leads him to Lakshmana 's shrine , telling Ajay of his family history before he plants his mother 's ashes at the shrine . After Ajay exits the shrine , Pagan then asks Ajay to join him to " finally shoot some goddamn guns " .
= = = Escape from Durgesh Prison = = =
Escape from Durgesh is an additional chapter of the story available as downloadable content . It expands upon Ajay 's escape from the Durgesh prison and return to the Golden Path , and on Yuma 's planned insurrection against Pagan Min .
Following Ajay 's escape , he is left stranded in the snow at high altitude where he is rescued by Pagan Min . After tending to Ajay 's wounds , Min leaves him in a tower in Northern Kyrat , as he is unable to return Ajay to the Golden Path directly . He then leaks news of Ajay 's escape to Sabal and Amita , and allows them to secure a Royal Army helicopter so that they can extract him . However , word of this has spread to Yuma , who marshals the forces loyal to her and plans to attack the landing site once Ajay tries to escape . Because of this , Ajay only has a limited window of opportunity to escape , but can buy more time by attacking Yuma 's forces . In exchange for disrupting Yuma 's plans for a coup , Min promises Ajay support and resources at the landing site . After killing Yuma 's lieutenants , disrupting her supply lines , and thwarting her plans to sabotage Min 's communications , Ajay ventures to the landing site where he is forced to fight off Yuma 's attack long enough for the helicopter to power up . With the landing site secured and Yuma 's forces in disarray , Ajay is successfully airlifted out and evacuated back to Southern Kyrat to rejoin the Golden Path , at which point the main story resumes .
= = = Valley of the Yetis = = =
Valley of the Yetis is a downloadable additional chapter of content which takes place directly after the events of the main game . The plot itself however is not considered canon or a true continuation of the original story .
Following the end of Pagan Min 's rule , Ajay is working with the Golden Path to clean up the last of the forces loyal to Min . While patrolling an isolated corner of Kyrat , his helicopter is shot down by an unknown assailant . Ajay survives the crash , but awakens to discover that the pilot has been abducted and taken deeper into the valley . Ajay follows him intent on rescue , only to discover that the valley is occupied by an aggressive army . Liberating a relay station in a bid to re @-@ establish contact with the Golden Path , he is forced to fight off wave after wave of attackers whilst being taunted by a voice over the radio . Investigating further , Ajay discovers the army is calling themselves the Disciples of Yalung , and is a cult worshiping a demon from Kyrati mythology . The Disciples have harnessed an evil that permeates the valley to transform their followers into " Awakened " , or yetis , and are amassing their forces to attack Kyrat . Realizing that he cannot return to Kyrat without dealing with the cult , Ajay gradually destroys their ranks before scaling a glacier to find the source of Yalung 's influence . After successfully destroying a tree that provides the Disciples with their power , Ajay is transformed into an Awakened himself .
= = Development = =
The game 's development was led by Ubisoft Montreal , which took over the development of the Far Cry franchise after the release of Far Cry : Instincts in 2005 . Additional development was handled by four other in @-@ house Ubisoft studios , Ubisoft Toronto , Red Storm Entertainment , Ubisoft Shanghai , and Ubisoft Kiev . The Montreal studio worked on the game 's campaign , the Toronto studio worked on the Shangri @-@ La segments of the campaign , Red Storm handled the development of the competitive multiplayer , the Shanghai studio worked on the hunting missions , and the Kiev studio developed the game 's PC version . Development of the game began in late 2012 , after the shipment of Assassin 's Creed III . The game 's creative director is Alex Hutchinson , who had previously worked on Maxis 's Spore as well as Assassin 's Creed III .
When brainstorming ideas for the new Far Cry game , the development team originally planned on developing a direct sequel to Far Cry 3 . The sequel would be set on the same tropical island , would extend upon the protagonist 's story , and would bring back characters , such as Far Cry 3 's secondary antagonist , Vaas . However , after four days , the team found that a sequel was not what they wanted to achieve . As a result , they decided to scrap the idea and build a brand new game with a new setting and a new set of characters . The team adapted a “ we want it all ” approach , in which they hoped to experiment with all kinds of ideas . Some team members hoped that the game would allow players to fly , which led to the game 's verticality . The game 's director also hoped that players would be able to ride a rampaging elephant , in a place with " exotic mountainsides " and " unique culture " . This led to the concept of a mountainous setting and the introduction of elephants in the game . The developers aimed for players to consider Far Cry 4 a standalone experience , and therefore they avoided bringing back any characters from Far Cry 3 except for Hurk . The decision to bring Hurk back was made because the team thought that they should provide some references to previous games in the series , as all of the games are set in the same universe even though they are not directly related .
Some of the gameplay elements were directly taken from Far Cry 3 . Exotic locations , hunting , and the freedom for players to complete missions through different approaches were maintained in Far Cry 4 . The team hoped that by incorporating and expanding upon on these ideas , while introducing new features , they could make Far Cry 4 an evolution for the series . As a result , the size of the game 's outposts became larger and players were given more options to customize their weapons . The team also realized that players spent a lot of time interacting with the open world of Far Cry 3 , and decided to put more effort and resources into the world 's design and add more quests to the game .
The game 's setting , Kyrat , is a fictional country in the Himalayas region . When building Kyrat , the developers merged elements from real @-@ world regions including Nepal and Tibet , but exaggerated those elements . The map 's size is similar to that of Far Cry 3 , but is more dense , diverse , and features more varied environments . The developers hoped that players could experience a sense of exploration when traveling between the different terrains . The team also hoped that the new location could be believable , while remaining interesting for players . As a result , they created an identify for Kyrat by doing such things as adding different signboards to the game and creating a fictional mythology and religion for Kyrat . The game 's world was also designed to accommodate new features such as the helicopter and the grappling hook . In an effort to make the world feel real , the team added improvements to the design of side @-@ quests . Instead of simply being activities for players to complete , the quests are narrative @-@ driven , which was done to increase the connection between them and the world . In order to increase the credibility of the game 's world , the studio sent a team to Nepal to experience and record the local culture , so that they could bring those ideas back to the studio . According to the developer , the trip changed the game 's design ; the focus shifted from the game 's civil war , which is inspired by the real @-@ world Nepalese Civil War , to developing unique and interesting characters .
One of the game 's most critically acclaimed characters is Pagan Min , the game 's major antagonist . The team hoped that players would be " shocked , amazed and intrigued " by him in every encounter . Min has a complex relationship with the playable character , Ghale , as the team wanted players to guess Min 's intentions and add a layer of mysteriousness to him . The team originally hoped to have a villain that had a " punk @-@ rock mentality " , but the idea was abandoned as the team thought that the concept was not original . The pink costume Min wears throughout the game was inspired by Beat Takeshi , a character from Brothers , and Ichi , a character from Ichi the Killer . Min is designed to be sadistic yet confident , and the team hired Troy Baker to provide the voice for Min , as they thought that Baker 's voice is charismatic enough to suit Min . According to Baker , Ubisoft gave him a script for the audition but he chose not to follow it , and instead decided to threaten to cut off the face of an assistant using Min 's tone . The interviewer was very pleased with Baker 's performance and decided to sign him for the job . As for Ghale , he was designed to be " thin " , and his backstory was designed to be revealed as players progressed through the game 's story . According to the game 's narrative director , Mark Thompson , Ghale learns the history and culture of Kyrat along with players . The developers also hoped that Ghale could be an accessible character for players .
In hindsight , the team considered the story of Far Cry 3 " great " , even though they thought that it was separated from the game 's world . In order to increase players ' agency and make the story to feel more connected to the world for players , the team introduced a branching storyline which required players to make choices that would lead to different results and alter the game 's ending . The team hoped that by adding choices , they could add additional depth and meaning to the game 's campaign . Thompson added that they twisted the story of Far Cry 3 for Far Cry 4 , and made outsiders the villains instead of the heroes . The team considered it a " risk " , but they wanted to try something different .
For the Shangri @-@ La mission , the team wanted to have a structure similar to 3 's mushroom missions ; a game within a game . The Shangri @-@ La missions are not related to Kyrat , but play an important role in the game 's narrative . When creating these segments , the team put a lot of emphasis on the use of colors . They hoped that the artistic vision for Far Cry 4 would not feature any resemblance to other typical shooter games . It was originally designed to be a small open world , but was later converted into a linear experience due to time constraints and huge creative differences between developers . The team later decided to simplify it , and re @-@ imagined it into an " ancient , natural world " . It is made up of five different colors . The main color of Shangri @-@ La is gold ; the developers thought that using gold as the foundation added " warmth " to the dreamland . Meanwhile , red was used heavily to add a sense of strangeness , as well as for establishing a tie to the game 's narrative and story . Orange was used as a color of interaction , while white was used to add purity to the world . Blue is the last of Shangri @-@ La 's main colors , and represents dangers and honor .
Ubisoft promised that Far Cry 4 would have much more of a multiplayer element than Far Cry 3 . Some elements that were scrapped for Far Cry 3 due to time constraints were featured in Far Cry 4 , such as the " Guns for Hire " co @-@ operative multiplayer mode . Building a co @-@ operative experience was the team 's goal starting from the beginning of the game 's development . Originally intended to be a separate mode , it was later made to be seamlessly integrated into the main campaign . The game 's competitive multiplayer was designed to give players freedom , allowing players to progress and defeat enemies through a variety of different ways . Red Storm Entertainment also considered players ' feedback from the multiplayer aspect of Far Cry 3 , and decided to include vehicles to the game . The company chose an asymmetrical structure for the match , so that players could have different experiences in different matches , as well as to make matches feel more chaotic . The developers originally planned to feature female playable characters , but the plan was scrapped due to animation problems . Ubisoft announced a ' Keys to Kryat ' offer for players that owned a copy of the game for the PlayStation 3 or PlayStation 4 . It allows those owners to send out game keys to up to ten other people who do not own a copy of the game . Players who are offered a key can join the person that sent them the key and play the co @-@ operative mode for two hours .
Cliff Martinez was hired to work on the game 's soundtrack . A two disc edition was released that contained 30 tracks heard in the game , and a deluxe edition was released that contained 15 extra tracks . The album was released just before the release of the game , and received positive reviews . Particular praise was directed towards the usage of traditional Nepalese instruments which , combined with electronic samples , suggested high octane action and mystical wondering .
= = = Release = = =
With Far Cry 3 being a commercial success , Ubisoft considered the Far Cry series one of their most important brands , and they hinted that a sequel was in development in June 2013 . On October 3 , 2013 , Martinez mentioned that he was working on the soundtrack for the game . In March 2014 the game 's setting and features were leaked . The game was officially announced on May 15 , 2014 , and the first gameplay footage was revealed during Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 . The game 's cover art , which shows the light @-@ skinned Pagan Min resting his hand on a dark @-@ skinned person , caused controversy and accusation of racism . Hutchinson later responded and clarified by saying that Pagan Min is not a white person , and that the other person depicted is not the game 's protagonist . Hutchinson added that the reaction of the community regarding the cover art was " uncomfortable " .
In addition to the standard version , a Limited Edition of the game could be purchased . This edition features additional in @-@ game missions and an Impaler Harpoon Gun . The Limited Edition was a free upgrade for players who pre @-@ ordered the game . A Kyrat Edition was also announced and it contains a collector 's box , a poster , a journal , a map of Kyrat , a figurine of Pagan Min , and the missions from the Limited Edition . Players can also purchase a season pass for the game , which grants them access to additional content , including a new competitive multiplayer mode , a mission called " the Syringe " , the missions from the Limited Edition , and the two other pieces of downloadable content .
A Complete Edition of the game was released in 2015 , containing all purchasable DLC , including the newly released Valley of the Yetis DLC and all other DLC exclusive to specific editions . It is only available for the PC and PS4 in Europe and Asia .
Far Cry 4 was released on November 18 , 2014 in North America , November 20 , 2014 in Europe , and November 21 , 2014 in the UK , for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 and Xbox One . The PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and PC versions feature higher visual fidelity , such as having a higher texture resolution and more animal fur . The game was supported by downloadable content upon launch . The first DLC , Escape From Durgesh Prison , featuring a new mission set during the main campaign , was released on January 13 , 2015 . It can be played solo or with another player . The Overrun DLC , which added new maps , a new vehicle , and a new mode to the game 's competitive multiplayer , was released on February 10 , 2015 for the consoles , and February 12 , 2015 for PC . The Hurk Deluxe Pack was released on January 28 , 2015 and added several story missions and weapons . The last downloadable content , Valley of the Yetis , features a new region and new story missions which can be played solo or co @-@ cooperatively with another player . Valley of the Yetis was released on March 10 , 2015 in North America and March 11 , 2015 in Europe .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Far Cry 4 received a positive reception upon release . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Xbox One version 85 @.@ 92 % based on 12 reviews and 82 / 100 based on 14 reviews , respectively . The PlayStation 4 version received 83 @.@ 76 % based on 57 reviews on GameRankings and 85 / 100 based on 83 reviews on Metacritic , and the Microsoft Windows version received 81 @.@ 00 % based on 9 reviews and 80 / 100 based on 17 reviews , respectively .
The game 's story received mixed responses . Chris Carter from Destructoid praised the personality of Ajay Ghale , which is " less in @-@ your @-@ face " than that of Far Cry 3 's protagonist Jason Brody . He also praised the villain , Pagan Min , who he considered took the spotlight every time he appeared in the game . Josh Harmon from Electronic Gaming Monthly thought that the characters in this game had more depth , and that the choices made by players throughout the game were meaningful . Aoife Wilson from Eurogamer thought that the game 's characters were memorable , but was disappointed by the story . Nick Tan , from Game Revolution , also praised Min 's personality , but he complained that the character appeared too seldom in the game . Edwin Evans @-@ Thirlwell , writing for GamesRadar , thought that the story grew tiresome as players progressed , even though some of its characters were interesting . He further criticized the game 's writing , which he thought was lackluster . Mike Splechta from GameZone praised the game 's voice acting and applauded its storyline , calling it satisfying .
The game 's setting received positive responses . Carter thought that the verticality nature of the game 's map created obstacles for players when they were traveling between places . However , he praised the interesting lore and wildlife found within the world , as well as the game 's long draw distance . Harmon had similar comments , praising the game 's graphics and Kyrat 's culture . Harmon thought that the hilly landscape of the game 's world gave players a sense of exploration , and hence made traversal enjoyable . Wilson thought , however , that the game 's setting was not as compelling as the tropical setting of Far Cry 3 . Nevertheless , she praised the Shangri @-@ la section , which she thought had changed the game 's landscape drastically . Matt Bertz from Game Informer praised the game 's setting , which he thought was vibrant , varied and rich . Ludwig Kietzmann from Joystiq praised the content found within the world , and thought that the world itself was absorbing and interesting .
The game 's design also received acclaim . Carter from Destructoid thought that the fortress and the outpost system provided players with a sense of accomplishment and success , and he considered having the freedom to use different ways to approach and complete missions one of the greatest parts of the game . In addition , Carter applauded the game 's driving mechanics and the auto @-@ drive feature , which he considered a significant improvement for the series . However he criticized the upgrade system , which he thought was directly converted from Far Cry 3 and was uninspiring . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Harmon thought that the introduction of the helicopter was dull . Mitch Dyer , from IGN , praised the game 's economy system , which he thought was satisfying . He added that it gives players motivations to complete side @-@ quests . Justin McElroy of Polygon praised the introduction of the grappling hook and the vertical map @-@ design , which he thought had allowed players to develop strategy before taking action . He also praised the game for allowing players to use multiple approaches towards a single objective .
The game 's multiplayer mode received mixed response . Carter compared the competitive multiplayer to that of Tomb Raider , and called it " skippable " . He considered the co @-@ operative multiplayer a fun addition to the game , but was disappointed by its limitations . He also added that the game would still be a strong title without these multiplayer elements . Bertz from Game Informer also found the multiplayer shallow and poorly @-@ executed . He also criticized the lack of a large player pool and dedicated servers . Evans @-@ Thirlwell of GamesRadar thought that the game 's co @-@ operative multiplayer were fun to play , but the asymmetrical competitive multiplayer was easy to forget . In contrast , GameZone 's Splechta thought that the competitive multiplayer mode was " a surprise " for him . Dyer echoed similar statement , and he thought that it had successfully captured the scale and freedom offered by both the game 's co @-@ op and campaign .
Harmon thought that Far Cry 4 was an improvement over Far Cry 3 , but he thought that the game felt and played too similarly to Far Cry 3 , and he added that the game was unambitious . Bertz thought that Ubisoft Montreal 's vision for Far Cry 4 is not as bold as its predecessors , and also thought that the experience delivered by Far Cry 4 did not stray far away from Far Cry 3 . Tan also noted that the game 's open world design felt not only similar to Far Cry 3 , but also other Ubisoft franchises like Assassin 's Creed and Watch Dogs . Evans @-@ Thirlwell thought that the experience offered by Far Cry 4 was hollow as it had failed to innovate or reinvent its wheel . Dyer thought that the game was not ambitious , but the experience delivered was still gratifying and rewarding .
= = = Sales = = =
Ubisoft expected the game to sell at least 6 million copies in its first year of release . Far Cry 4 became the fastest @-@ selling game and the most successful launch in the series in the first week of release . Far Cry 4 was the second best selling game in the United Kingdom for all @-@ formats during the week of its release , only behind Grand Theft Auto V. It was also the sixth best selling game in the US according to The NPD Group . As of December 31 , 2014 , the game has shipped 7 million copies .
= = = Awards = = =
The game received the Best Shooter Award from IGN . The game was nominated for Best Artistic Achievement , Best Game Design , Best Music , Best Performer ( Troy Baker ) , and Best Story at the 11th British Academy Games Awards . At the DICE Awards , it was nominated for Game of the Year , Action Game of the Year , Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design , Outstanding Technical Achievement and Outstanding Achievement in Game Design , and won the award for Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition . At the BAFTA Game Awards , Far Cry 4 received five nominations including best game design and best story eventually winning for best music .
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= Ohio Wesleyan University =
Ohio Wesleyan University ( also known as Wesleyan or OWU ) is a private liberal arts college in Delaware , Ohio , United States . It was founded in 1842 by Methodist leaders and Central Ohio residents as a nonsectarian institution , and is a member of the Ohio Five — a consortium of Ohio liberal arts colleges . Ohio Wesleyan has always admitted students irrespective of religion or race and maintained that the university " is forever to be conducted on the most liberal principles . "
The 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) site is 27 miles ( 44 km ) north of Columbus , Ohio . It includes the main academic and residential campus , the Perkins Observatory , and the Kraus Wilderness Preserve .
In 2010 , Ohio Wesleyan had the eleventh highest percentage of international students among liberal arts colleges for the seventeenth straight year . In its 2015 edition of U.S. college rankings , Niche ( company ) ranked Ohio Wesleyan the 56th ( out of 880 colleges ) most politically liberal college in the U.S. U.S. News & World Report ranked Ohio Wesleyan 99th among U.S. liberal arts colleges in its 2015 edition .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
In 1841 , Ohio residents Adam Poe and Charles Elliott decided to establish a university " of the highest order " in central Ohio . To that end , they purchased the Mansion House Hotel , a former health resort with its Sulfur Spring , using funds raised from local residents . Poe and Elliott wrote a charter emphasizing " the democratic spirit of teaching " , which was approved by the Ohio State Legislature . Early in the following year they opened the college preparatory Academy and formed a Board of Trustees . Ohio Wesleyan University , named ( like several other U.S. colleges and universities ) after John Wesley , founder of Methodism , opened on November 13 , 1844 as a Methodist @-@ related but nonsectarian institution , with a College of Liberal Arts for male students .
Ohio Wesleyan 's first president , Edward Thomson , stated in his inaugural address on August 5 , 1846 that the school was " a product of the liberality of the local people . " This liberal philosophy contributed to Ohio Wesleyan 's vocal opposition to slavery in the 1850s . In the annual celebration for George Washington 's birthday in 1862 , second president Frederick Merrick endorsed Ohio Wesleyan 's " ideals of democracy " during his oration .
= = = Curriculum growth and fundraising = = =
During the mid @-@ 19th century , Ohio Wesleyan focused on attracting students , adding fields of study , and fundraising , by which it significantly increased its endowment . Sturges Hall was constructed as the University 's first library in 1855 . In 1873 , the school added the Department of Natural History housed in Merrick Hall . The Ohio Wesleyan Female College , established in 1853 , merged with the university in 1877 . Between 1876 and 1888 , enrollment tripled and music education greatly increased , yet no major buildings were built in this time .
By the end of the 19th century , Ohio Wesleyan had added a School of Music ( 1877 ) , School of Fine Arts ( 1877 ) , School of Oratory ( 1894 ) , and Business School ( 1895 ) to the original College of Liberal Arts ( founded in 1844 ) . To address the need for new departments and specialized instruction , the administration improved the facilities and courses to make them on par with OWU 's new academic position . University Hall , Slocum Library , extensions to the Monnett campus , and athletic facilities were all constructed during that period .
Between 1891 and 1895 , Ohio Wesleyan specialized the curriculum by establishing departments for physics , zoology , geology , speech , history , French , English , and economics . This specialization encouraged undergraduates to continue studies at graduate level , allowed professional preparation for the Doctor of Philosophy degree , and promoted exchange study in Europe . Two professional schools for law and medicine were formed in 1896 .
In 1905 , the Board of Trustees decided to keep Ohio Wesleyan a college , despite the expansion of the curriculum and campus and the word " university " in the institution 's name . The Bachelor of Science degree was abolished , which left only the Bachelor of Arts . Two students were selected as Rhodes Scholars in 1905 and 1909 . Edwards Gymnasium was built in 1906 . In 1907 , the United Societies of Phi Beta Kappa , the oldest undergraduate honor society in the United States , installed the " Eta of Ohio " ΦΒΚ chapter on campus . In 1909 , the school added Sanborn Hall , housing the Music Department .
In the 1920s , academic requirements for the bachelor 's degree were reduced , and Latin and mathematics were no longer emphasized . During the presidency of John W. Hoffman ( 1916 – 1928 ) , the Academy and School of Business were closed ; the Academy had started in 1842 as a preparatory school , and throughout its seventy @-@ five years frequently outnumbered the college in enrollment . Also in the 1920s , the chapel service was dropped and sororities were formed . Ohio Wesleyan also increased the number of buildings on campus , including Selby Stadium , Austin Manor , and Perkins Observatory ; another building , Stuyvesant Hall , was in planning ; and Edgar Hall was opened .
= = = Years of change , 1930 – 1984 = = =
During the Great Depression , both enrollment and alumni donations shrank . While the faculty size remained stable , lack of tuition and alumni revenues precipitated financial problems which threatened the college 's survival in the administrations of Edmund D. Soper ( 1928 – 1938 ) , Acting President Edward Loranus Rice ( 1938 – 1939 ) , and Herbert John Burgstahler ( 1939 – 1949 ) .
The administration adjusted the curriculum during the early 1930s to address these problems . Greek and Latin declined , while business administration and economics thrived and the highest enrollments were in the social sciences , English , pre @-@ medicine , and history . The registrar reported that , in these years , the number of students from New England states , urban Ohio areas , and from international locations increased . By the 1930s , the Methodist students were a minority among the student body ; formal ties to the Methodist church were severed in the 1920s and led to debate among Board members in the 1930s , eventually resulting in the university 's current active but loose historical affiliation with the United Methodist Church . In a study into the relationship between American educational institutions and the Christian denominations they were historically affiliated with , James Tunstead Burtuchell writes that it was during this period that " in its personnel , its resources , and its students " , Ohio Wesleyan lost its " symbiotic intimacy with the United Methodist Church . "
In 1946 , Ohio Wesleyan introduced a new " Centennial Curriculum " , which enacted seven distribution requirements across the sciences and humanities ; the new requirement for a foreign language course was added to the existing humanities requirement . Thomson and Bashford Halls , originally men 's dorms , were built between 1951 and 1954 . In the 1960s , faculty , staff and administrators fought over administrative structure and control . They eventually settled on a new " statement of aims " that stressed values , rather than religious goal statements , and instituted a more internationalized curriculum , a new Women 's Studies Program , and an International Business major ; the faculty senate also introduced a new academic calendar with three 10 @.@ 5 @-@ week terms .
Thomas Wenzlau 's presidency ( 1968 – 1984 ) began with the challenge of campus unrest : Ohio Wesleyan students took over the ROTC building , demanded its shut @-@ down , and eventually eliminated ROTC in 1970 . Students also demanded participation in departmental meetings and faculty committees , and the democratic process in the governance of Ohio Wesleyan grew in this period . Wenzlau 's presidency witnessed decline in students ' test scores , an unusually high attrition rate , lack of adequate research to identify potential major donors and a growing " party school " image , leading to a rocky relationship between him and the student body . Between 1979 and 1982 , the campus newspaper The Transcript frequently criticized Wenzlau 's presidency , blaming it for " severely affecting the reputation of the college " . This exchange resulted in a Washington Post report on the school that eventually precipitated the end of Wenzlau 's presidency .
= = = 1984 – today = = =
The president , David Warren , increased admission standards in 1985 , engaged students in a " live @-@ in " presidency , expanded media exposure and established a National Colloquium focused on the liberal arts . Warren engaged in forty @-@ one interviews on the ABC and NBC networks . The current president is Rock Jones .
More recently , Ohio Wesleyan has achieved several academic and athletic recognitions . A 1986 study , titled " Educating America 's Scientists : The Role of the Research Colleges , " identified Ohio Wesleyan as one of 48 highly selective " science @-@ active " liberal arts institutions in the nation . The Battling Bishops won NCAA Division III national championships in men 's basketball ( 1988 ) and men 's ( 1998 , 2011 ) and women 's ( 2001 , 2002 ) soccer .
Ohio Wesleyan continues to undertake construction projects . The Hamilton Williams Campus Center opened in 1991 . The Memorial Union Building was renovated in 2001 to accommodate the Economics Department , the Academic Resource Center , the Information Services portion of the combined Libraries and Information Services department , and the Woltemade Center for Economics , Business and Entrepreneurship . The Schimmel @-@ Conrades Science Center opened in 2004 to provide 52 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 800 m2 ) of additional space for the science departments . As of 2010 , the university is engaged in a fundraising campaign to improve athletics facilities by adding a new turf facility , a new field house and a pool , and a gateway connecting all sports facilities on campus .
= = Academics = =
= = = Profile = = =
Ohio Wesleyan University is accredited by The Higher Learning Commission , and is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association , the Oberlin Group , and the Five Colleges of Ohio , a consortium of Ohio liberal arts colleges which also includes Kenyon College , Oberlin College , The College of Wooster , and Denison University . For 2011 , Ohio Wesleyan accepted approximately 52 % of its regular decision applicants , 33 % of its transfer applicants , and had a yield rate of 26 % . In 2010 , the college accepted 36 % of its international applicants . The middle 50 % range of matriculating students for the class of 2010 was 1125 – 1320 for the SAT ( old scale ) and 24 – 30 for the ACT . Approximately 35 % of accepted applicants were granted internal scholarships . Ohio Wesleyan follows a need @-@ blind admission policy ; financial circumstances are not considered when deciding whether to admit applicants . As of 2010 , OWU 's 1 @,@ 950 students come from 43 states and 57 countries ; 47 % are from Ohio , 11 % are international , and 54 % are female . The student body is about 10 % Asian , 6 % Hispanic , and 9 % Black . Fifty @-@ nine percent of Ohio Wesleyan students claim no religious affiliation . The student @-@ faculty ratio is 11 : 1 and faculty members teach all classes . Excluding independent studies and senior theses , nearly 60 % of Ohio Wesleyan 's class sections have fewer than twenty students enrolled . Ohio Wesleyan is generally known for a strong " left @-@ leaning " student body and an administration with a " permissive " attitude . In 2007 , 60 % of OWU students favored the Democratic Party . In its 2015 edition of U.S. college rankings , Niche ( company ) ranked Ohio Wesleyan 56th ( out of 880 colleges ) most politically liberal college in the U.S.
Ohio Wesleyan admits students of all cultures , lifestyles , and socio @-@ economic backgrounds . An index examining gay @-@ friendly policies places OWU among the nation 's gay @-@ friendly colleges , and the university enacts policies to meet the six criteria developed by the Campus @-@ Pride organization for recruiting and supporting students from a lesbian , gay , bi @-@ sexual , and transgender population . Nearly 18 % of students at Ohio Wesleyan receive Federal Pell Grants , which mostly go to students whose family incomes are below $ 40 @,@ 000 . This measure indicates the degree to which economically disadvantaged groups are represented at OWU .
The faculty consists of 142 tenured members . As of 2010 , all the university 's tenured or tenure @-@ track faculty members hold a PhD or other terminal degree . The faculty is 37 % female and 63 % male , with 10 % from underrepresented groups . Also as of 2010 , women constitute 37 % of the tenured professors and earn 93 @.@ 8 % of what male professors earn — numbers which suggest favorable gender circumstances .
= = = Curriculum , degrees and majors = = =
Freshmen are paired early in their first year with academic advisors who oversee their students ' academic progress . Upon completing 34 units of coursework , students may earn diplomas in Bachelor of Arts , Bachelor of Fine Arts , or Bachelor of Music . Ohio Wesleyan has research departments and teaching faculties in most academic disciplines ; as of 2005 , OWU offered 39 majors .
In its early days , OWU 's curriculum began with classical studies , for the course catalogue maintained that " the classical course in Greek and Latin and pure mathematics bring correctness in mental processes that an applied art , or a living and slightly inflected language , do not permit . " Scientific courses were added to Ohio Wesleyan 's curriculum in 1849 , and since then , scientific subjects have become a foundation to the liberal arts curriculum . OWU also has a highly respected music department .
= = = Emphasis on internationalism = = =
Ohio Wesleyan has upheld academic internationalism since its early years ; since the 19th century , the college has established links with several international schools . In 1879 , OWU alumna Elizabeth Russell founded Kwassui Women 's College in Nagasaki , Japan , when predominant Japanese culture considered women 's education unimportant . Today , Kwassui College is one of the top finishing schools for young women in Japan . In 1899 , William Ehnis ( from the class of 1898 ) traveled to Africa and opened a school in Mutare , Zimbabwe , that eventually became the Africa University . In March 1988 , Conrad Kent established the popular Salamanca Spanish Program for Ohio Wesleyan students . The school also manifests international interest in the percentage of international students it recruits and enrolls annually . Since 1983 , Ohio Wesleyan has been listed in U.S. News & World Report among colleges that attract the highest percentage of international students . The percentage of international students grew in the early and mid @-@ 1990s . In a study adjusted for school size , Ohio Wesleyan came ninth among 118 American colleges and universities in total aid awards to international students and 69th in average award per international student among both large universities and small liberal arts colleges . South East Asian students have significantly contributed to this growth . The United Nations flag , along with the flags of more than sixty represented nations and the U.S. flag , flies in University Hall in honor of the ideal of peaceful international relations .
High participation in formal exchange programs constitutes a third target of the school 's international focus . Under a Great Lakes Colleges Association agreement , OWU established an exchange program with Waseda University in 1962 to provide approximately 30 American students with opportunities to study in Japan and 30 Japanese students to study at Ohio Wesleyan each year . The Salamanca program , founded by Conrad Kent in 1988 , conducts the exchange of approximately one hundred students and faculty between OWU and the University of Salamanca in Spain . The academic collaboration frequently extends to joint participation in academic symposia : in 1993 , members of the Salamanca faculty participated in a symposium on the Golden Age in Salamanca .
= = Campus = =
The Ohio Wesleyan campus is next to downtown Delaware , and is bisected by Sandusky Street , the main north / south street through the heart of the city . The street informally divides the campus into an eastern sector composed mainly of academic buildings and a western sector composed mainly of residential and administrative buildings . Many facilities have been constructed in the last two years , with substantial benefit to science , art , and athletic programs on campus .
= = = Other facilities and off @-@ campus programs = = =
OWU operates several facilities outside campus : The Philadelphia Business Center , Wesleyan in Washington , The New York Arts Program for the performing , visual and media arts ( a GLCA arts program ) , Perkins Observatory , The Strand Theatre , and the Kraus Wilderness Preserve .
Perkins Observatory is situated in Delaware on land separate to the main campus . The observatory is named after Hiram Perkins , a former professor of mathematics and astronomy at the college . When the observatory was built in 1931 , it housed the third @-@ largest telescope in the world , which has since been moved to Arizona . The Perkins dome now houses a 32 @-@ inch ( 810 mm ) telescope , which is the second @-@ largest in Ohio .
The university also maintains offices for study abroad , US domestic study , and internship programs . Such programs include : Wesleyan in Washington , which allows students to study for a semester in Washington , D.C. , in research and internship positions . The Philadelphia Center offers students hundreds of internship and field placement opportunities off @-@ campus and the chance to live independently. and the New York Arts Program , which allows students of the arts to gain a semester of hands on experience in the arts in New York City .
= = = Community relations = = =
OWU has strong community ties with the City of Delaware . Students participate in Delaware 's community through a variety of educational , social , and cultural programs . The student @-@ led Columbus Initiative , founded in 1989 , is an experiential learning partnership between OWU and Columbus public schools . More than 150 Ohio Wesleyan students from this program tutor and mentor underprivileged pupils from Columbus .
The Ohio Wesleyan Ambassadors Program ( ISAP ) promotes cultural diversity and ethnic awareness within the local community , and exposes international students to American culture through the community . The program 's ambassadors visit local schools to give presentations and participate in events for local non @-@ profit community organizations .
Campus organizations cooperate with local residents on issues of civic engagement and activism . Progress OWU allows students from Ohio Wesleyan and local schools to express their voices on politics , public policy , and corporate and social issues , both on campus and in the local community .
Cultural programs also take part in community relations . In the 1960s , Ohio Wesleyan donated the Arts Castle , then part of the Fine Arts department , to the City of Delaware . It is now home to the Delaware County Cultural Arts Center . The Arts Castle hosts a variety of community programs in art , and offers classes ranging from ballet to fine arts . In 2004 , the OWU received a donation to rehabilitate the historic Strand Theatre in downtown Delaware .
The university and the City of Delaware sponsor several events in town throughout the year : the Delaware Arts Festival , the Little Brown Jug , the Delaware County Fair , and the Castle Arts Affair . The Delaware Arts Festival is an annual event held the weekend after Mother 's Day on the streets of Historic Downtown Delaware . The festival hosts over 170 booths featuring works of local , regional , and other artists . OWU professors chair the committees that select winners . The Little Brown Jug , a harness race , is run during the Delaware County Fair in September . The OWU president and the college mascot traditionally award the trophy for the first division of the first heat of the race .
= = Student life = =
= = = Organizations and activities = = =
Ohio Wesleyan University has 95 student clubs and organizations . The university offers three chapels as well as several Christian and other religious groups for its students . Its social organizations cover a wide range of interests , including chess , ultimate , finance , and medieval sword fighting . There are two a cappella singing groups on campus , " The OWtsiders , " a student @-@ run group formed in 1999 , and the all @-@ female " Pitch Black " established in 2005 . Another entertainment @-@ related club is " The Babbling Bishops " , an improvisational comedy troupe . The " Babbling Bishops " started in the fall of 1990 when a group of theatre concentration students formed a performance @-@ oriented project for their theatre degrees . The project became an improv comedy troupe , rehearsing in Stuyvesant Hall and performing with other college improv troupes since 1996 .
Socially conscious students can join organizations such as the activist group " ProgressOWU " or participate in student government groups , such as the Campus Programming Board and the Wesleyan Council on Student Affairs . The " PRIDE " organization offers support to OWU 's LGBT students .
Fewer than a third of Ohio Wesleyan 's students are involved in Greek life , but that percentage has fluctuated significantly throughout the university 's history . All twelve fraternities and seven sororities on campus are currently involved in many philanthropic and community programs .
Ohio Wesleyan has four religious chaplains : A Protestant minister , a Roman Catholic priest , and a Jewish rabbi . In addition to student groups and services associated with these three religions , there are groups associated with Islam , Buddhism and Unitarian Universalism , and even a group which holds services that are simply " spiritual " and separate from any organized religion . Services are also available for Quakers , Christian Scientists , Hindus , and Baha 'is , and there are many local religious groups in Delaware , Ohio .
OWU 's oldest student organizations are its literary clubs , including a number of student journals , magazines , and newspapers . The school 's student @-@ run weekly newspaper , The Transcript , is the oldest continuously published , independent , college newspaper in the United States . The OWL , an annual literary publication , features students ' work and is one of the nation 's oldest college literary magazines . Other student publications include The Civic Arts Review , the electronic Connect2OWU bulletin , and @ Wesleyan , a quarterly online magazine . Radio station WSLN broadcasts from Slocum Hall and is run by students supervised by the journalism department .
The university also has a student government , the Wesleyan Council on Student Affairs ( WCSA ) .
= = = Activism = = =
Activism as represented in OWU 's founding vision has had a significant role in Ohio Wesleyan 's history .
The first president , Edward Thomson , staunchly supported the abolition of slavery and liberalism . Other individuals associated with the university have fought racism . Branch Rickey , an alumnus , broke the racial barrier in baseball . Mary King , a civil rights activist , worked alongside Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in the U.S. civil rights movement while she was a staff member of OWU 's Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee ( SNCC ) . In the 1980s , Ohio Wesleyan 's administration , moved by student activism , pledged and eventually fully divested holdings connected to South Africa . As of September 2007 , Ohio Wesleyan joined a small group of liberal colleges that actively opposed the methodology and usefulness of US News and World Report college rankings , despite the fact that the magazine ranked Ohio Wesleyan among the top national liberal arts colleges . Ohio Wesleyan 's concern intensified with disclosures about institutions flagrantly manipulating data in order to move up in the rankings in U.S. News and other popular college guides .
OWU has partisan political groups ranging from liberal to conservative , such the College Republicans and the College Democrats , and several activism awareness groups such as ProgressOWU , Black Men of the Future , Student Union on Black Awareness , PRIDE , ECHO , Amnesty International , and Rafiki Wa Afrika . Due to the school 's proximity to Columbus , the Ohio state capital , many politically inclined students serve internships for state representatives . In the 2000s , students have been active on the Iraq war , race , globalization , and women 's reproductive rights .
= = = Traditions = = =
Many Ohio Wesleyan traditions originate from its early years . Monnett Weekend , beginning in 1896 , welcomes female alumni , parents , and friends of the university . Events include a " People 's Parade " with clowns , banners and marching , faculty lectures , Maypole dancing , Choral Arts Society , and an all @-@ campus carnival . It started as a girls ' athletic fête held at the Monnett Athletic Club for Mothers Day . All events were held at the Monnett Campus , where female students danced around the Maypole , while men were barred . The men , in turn , developed their own tradition : they arrived at Monnett Campus early in the morning , and concealed themselves in trees to watch the festivities , discreetly .
In 1884 , Ohio Wesleyan held its first Mock Convention , which has recurred in every United States presidential election year since 1920 . Its purpose is to inform participants , students , faculty staff , and Ohio residents about the presidential nominating convention , presidential candidate , and key issues in the upcoming election .
Beginning in the 1920s , all freshmen were required to wear " dinks " , red caps with black brims and a black W on the front . Disobedient students who refused to wear the " dink " were tossed into the Sulphur Spring ( see later reference ) . This tradition ended in the 1960s . The freshman class of 1957 wore dinks for half the first semester .
Ohio Wesleyan 's Homecoming takes place in early October , while the Ohio Wesleyan football team plays one of its traditional rivals . New events , such as a bonfire and a five kilometer run , have been added from as recently as 2004 .
The President 's Ball , a recent gala organized by the college president , takes place on the first Saturday of December . Other traditions include OWU vs. Denison , which stages a " fierce " athletic rivalry between Ohio Wesleyan and Denison University ; the Sagan Colloquium , spanning the fall semester , recently expanded to include the spring semester , which consists of speeches focusing on an issue of concern to the liberal arts ; and Orchesis , an annual celebration of modern dance and the arts , which occurs at the end of the academic year . " Fresh @-@ X " is an optional program for newly admitted students that occurs just before orientation in which students may choose between hiking , backpacking and other outdoor activities to make friends with their new classmates .
There are two major musical events , Unity through Music and Springfest . Unity through Music occurs once a year in the fall semester , and covers various musical styles in a carnival atmosphere , during the day ; while , during the evening , a huge dance is held in the Hamilton @-@ Williams Campus Center . Springfest , the second musical event , proceeds in mid @-@ April and in recent years has featured well @-@ known music groups such as Counting Crows , The Roots , Guster , Ben Folds , and most recently , Gym Class Heroes . It is organized by the Campus Programming Board .
A rock next to Hayes Hall has been part of the residential campus for the last 50 years , and students continually repaint it with graffiti and slogans .
= = = Housing = = =
The university can house up to 1 @,@ 600 students on campus . First @-@ year students are required to live on campus during their first two semesters . A lottery system matches second to fourth @-@ year students with dormitories and another lottery system determines how many students are allowed to live in off @-@ campus housing . Housing options include dormitories , small living units , fraternities , and cooperative housing .
Thomson , Bashford , Stuyvesant , and Smith Halls are large mid @-@ rise dormitories on campus . Welch Hall is designated as a " quiet " dorm for honors students . Hayes Hall is an all @-@ female dorm .
Approximately 200 non @-@ freshmen students live in Small Living Units ( SLUs ) , which are co @-@ ops united voluntarily to meet shared economic , social , and cultural needs and aspirations in democratically controlled houses . The houses allow students to live cooperatively with one another by sharing regularly scheduled house chores , participating in the decision process , and , in some , sharing the cooking duties . Each unit houses a group of 10 @-@ 17 students , and is organized to promote a common theme , usually indicated by the co @-@ op 's name . As of the 2013 – 2014 academic year , the SLUs consist of The Peace and Justice House , The Citizens of the World House , The House of Black Culture , The Sexuality and Gender Equality House , The Modern Foreign Language House , The House of Thought , The Tree House , and The Interfaith House . The University owns these houses ; the co @-@ ops , therefore , must follow the University 's living policies . The co @-@ ops do , however , elect their own members and do not have Resident Advisers or faculty in residence like other on @-@ campus residence halls . They have a House Moderator who is selected by Residential Life and undergoes the same training as a Resident Advisor . At the end of each calendar year , every existing and potential co @-@ op must submit a house proposal describing its plans for theme promotion for the next academic year . The University Housing office places co @-@ ops in houses every year on a competitive basis .
Off @-@ campus housing is available only to junior and senior students , and students residing in Delaware , OH while living with their spouse or direct family ; 17 % of students live off @-@ campus . Most students assert Ohio Wesleyan 's policy of off @-@ campus housing as one of the " worst things " about Ohio Wesleyan because of the resulting shortage of the number of lottery tickets allowing people to live off due to the off @-@ campus lottery cap .
= = Athletics = =
Ohio Wesleyan participates in the NCAA 's Division III as a member of the North Coast Athletic Conference ( NCAC ) . Known as the Battling Bishops , Ohio Wesleyan competes in 21 sports . The official school colors are red and black . Formal athletics at the college date to 1875 , when the first football teams were organized to play against other institutions . In the late 1880s , Ohio Wesleyan had perhaps the strongest amateur baseball team in the state of Ohio behind the pitching of Phil " Lefty " Saylor . The school joined the Ohio Athletic Conference along with Oberlin College , Kenyon College , Ohio State , and Case Western in 1902 . In 1983 , Ohio Wesleyan joined with nine other colleges in Ohio , Indiana and Pennsylvania to create the North Coast Athletic Conference . The NCAC seeks to bring together a group of liberal arts institutions that value the primacy of the academic mission over the athletic one .
The men 's lacrosse , golf and soccer teams are the most historically successful of the varsity teams , and soccer is the university 's most intently followed sport . For seven of the last twelve years , Ohio Wesleyan has won the NCAC conference All @-@ Sports Trophy for excellence in both women 's and men 's sports . In the Sears Director 's Cup standings , OWU is among the top 25 overall collegiate athletics programs in the country . Because of the North Coast Athletic Association athletic agreement , the university is not permitted to offer academic scholarships for athletic recruiting .
Ohio Wesleyan has won five NCAA Division III Championships , including men 's basketball ( 1988 ) , men 's soccer ( 1998 and 2011 ) , and women 's soccer ( 2001 and 2002 ) . In addition , Ohio Wesleyan 's varsity athletic teams have been NCAC champions over 100 times , leading the teams of Denison University and Kenyon College .
The nickname The Battling Bishops dates to 1925 . This is also the name of the university 's mascot , The Battling Bishop . Due to its ironic name , the mascot has been listed as one of the weirdest college mascots . Due to its red robe , The Battling Bishop looks actually like a Cardinal . Before 1925 , Ohio Wesleyan 's teams were referred to as " The Red and Black " and " The Methodists " . Many schools , including several other Methodist ones , also claimed crimson and black as their colors , so the university decided to change the name .
Ohio Wesleyan maintains athletic rivalries with other NCAC institutions . The men 's lacrosse team has a historic rivalry with Denison University , the football team with Wittenberg University , the soccer team with Kenyon College , and the field hockey team with Oberlin College . Both Denison and Ohio Wesleyan issued alerts to their fans specifically for the OWU @-@ Denison lacrosse game about unsportsmanlike behavior and profanity .
In addition to the school 's varsity athletics , club sports teams , including ultimate frisbee , chess , hockey , cricket , rugby , ski , and scuba , have been organized as student organizations under the auspices of the Office of Student Activities . Ohio Wesleyan 's intramural program includes 16 sports . Sports such as skiing , squash and water polo have been offered , as well as a sports trivia competition .
" Oh we 're from dear old Wesleyan " is Ohio Wesleyan University 's primary fight song . The song 's lyrics were written in 1914 by Chass Cupett ' 1916 .
= = People = =
= = = Administration = = =
Under the charter granted by the State of Ohio , the Board of Trustees possesses the legal authority to operate the college . The charter and bylaws stipulate a board of 34 trustees , of whom one is the president . In general , it is the board that elects the president . Since Ohio Wesleyan 's beginnings , sixteen people have held the title of president , and a few have served as interim president . Former presidents include lawyers , literary scholars , politicians , executives , and clergymen .
After several disagreements between Huddleston and the Ohio Wesleyan administration , Huddleston accepted a position as president of the University of New Hampshire and left Ohio Wesleyan on June 30 , 2007 , giving him the second shortest presidency , behind David Lockmiller , 1959 – 1961 . On May 29 , 2007 , the appointment of current university provost Dr. David O. Robbins as interim president was unanimously endorsed by OWU 's Board of Trustees . Dr. Robbins ' term as Interim President began on July 1 , 2007 .
On December 17 , 2007 , Dr. Rockwell " Rock " Jones was elected to serve as the 16th president of Ohio Wesleyan University . Dr. Jones ' inauguration ceremony took place on October 10 , 2008 in Ohio Wesleyan 's Grey Chapel , in University Hall .
= = = Alumni = = =
Ohio Wesleyan alumni are active in several annual events , organizations , and initiatives . The events and associations with significant alumni involvement are Homecoming , ' W ' Association , and A / PART ( the alumni admission team ) . For the 2005 – 2006 fiscal year , Ohio Wesleyan 's alumni giving rate was 35 % . A number of the school 's alumni have made notable contributions in the fields of government , law , academia , business , arts , journalism , and athletics , among others .
In academia , Frank Sherwood Rowland ( class of 1948 ) won the 1995 Nobel Prize for chemistry for his research on the depletion of the Earth 's ozone layer . Ezra Vogel ( 1950 ) is a prominent author on China @-@ Japan issues and was the director of Harvard 's Fairbank Center for East Asian Research from 1995 to 1999 . William Hsiao ( 1963 ) is an economist in the field of international health at Harvard , and the designer of a landmark study to examine the United States ' system of reimbursing physicians for medical services . Dennis R. Appleyard ( 1961 ) is the author of an international economics textbook .
In politics , John Wesley Hoyt ( 1849 ) was the third Governor of the Wyoming Territory , Charles Fairbanks ( 1872 ) was the 26th Vice @-@ President of the United States . Jo Ann Emerson ( 1972 ) serves as a U.S. Representative from Missouri . Arthur Flemming ( 1927 ) was a Secretary of Health , Education and Welfare , was known for his commitment to civil rights , was the recipient of two Presidential Medals of Freedom , and served as president of University of Oregon , Ohio Wesleyan University , and Macalester College . Lucy Webb Hayes ( 1853 ) , wife of U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes , was the first woman to be called First Lady , and the first First Lady to hold a college degree .
Notable journalists and media personalities include Frank Stanton ( 1930 ) , a president of CBS known for supporting broadcast journalism before Congress ; Byron Pitts ( 1982 ) , a national correspondent for CBS News ; Wendie Malick ( 1972 ) , an Emmy @-@ nominated actress known for her role on the NBC sitcom Just Shoot Me ! and now as " Victoria Chase " on the TV Land sitcom " Hot in Cleveland " ; Melvin Van Peebles ( 1953 ) , an actor , director , screenwriter , playwright , and composer ; Patricia Wettig ( 1974 ) , the actress who plays vice president Caroline Richards on Prison Break ; and Clark Gregg ( 1984 ) , the actor playing Richard in The New Adventures of Old Christine with Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus .
Numerous Ohio Wesleyan alumni have been associated with social justice . Branch Rickey ( 1904 ) was a baseball manager and executive known for signing Jackie Robinson as the first African @-@ American in Major League Baseball . Another graduate , Mary King ( 1962 ) , worked alongside the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. in the U.S. civil rights movement when she was a young student , and was a member of the staff of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee ( SNCC ) . Rev. Norman Vincent Peale ( 1920 ) was the author of The Power of Positive Thinking and the winner of a Presidential Medal of Freedom for his theological contributions . Others found fame in other forms : Mildred Elizabeth Sisk ( aka Axis Sally ) was the first American woman to be tried and sentenced for treason , convicted of broadcasting for Nazi Germany during World War II . In 1917 , she majored in dramatic arts , but did not graduate due to her failure to meet all university requirements . After serving a 12 @-@ year sentence , Sisk returned to OWU , where she received a bachelor 's degree in speech in 1973 .
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= Spin Alternative Record Guide =
Spin Alternative Record Guide is a musical reference book compiled by the American music magazine Spin and published in 1995 by Vintage Books . It was edited by rock critic Eric Weisbard and Craig Marks , who was the magazine 's editor @-@ in @-@ chief at the time . The book features essays and reviews from a number of prominent critics on albums , artists , and genres considered relevant to the alternative music movement . Contributors who were consulted for the book include Ann Powers , Rob Sheffield , Simon Reynolds , Michael Azerrad , and Robert Christgau .
When Spin Alternative Record Guide was published , it did not sell particularly well and received a mixed reaction from reviewers . The quality and relevance of the contributors ' writing were praised , while the editors ' concept and comprehensiveness of alternative music were seen as ill @-@ defined . Nonetheless , it inspired a number of future music critics and helped revive the career of 1960s folk artist John Fahey , whose entry in the book helped renew interest in his music at the time of its publication .
= = Content and scope = =
Spanning 468 pages , Spin Alternative Record Guide compiles essays by 64 music critics on recording artists and bands who either predated , were involved in , or developed from the alternative music movement . In the book , each artist 's entry is accompanied by their discography , with albums rated a score between one and ten . The book 's editors , critic Eric Weisbard and Spin editor @-@ in @-@ chief Craig Marks , consulted journalists such as Simon Reynolds , Alex Ross , Charles Aaron , Michael Azerrad , Ann Powers , and Rob Sheffield , who wrote most of the complete discography reviews . The artist entries are also accompanied by song lyrics and album artwork .
Although " alternative " had been used as a catchall term for rock bands outside the mainstream , Spin Alternative Record Guide covers approximately 500 artists from a variety of genres considered relevant to alternative music 's development . These include 1970s punk rock , 1980s college rock , 1990s indie rock , noise music , reggae , electronic , new wave , heavy metal , krautrock , synthpop , disco , alternative country , hip hop , grunge , worldbeat , and avant @-@ garde jazz . Most artists associated with classic rock are not covered , while some mainstream pop artists are given entries , including Madonna and ABBA . Other non @-@ rock artists reviewed in the book include jazz composer Sun Ra , country singer @-@ songwriter Lyle Lovett , and Qawwali singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan . Weisbard and Marks have said the book was meant to be " suggestive more than comprehensive " of alternative music .
An introductory essay on alternative rock and " alternative sensibilities " was written by Weisbard . In it , he explains alternative music as a category whose principles are " antigenerationally dystopian , subculturally presuming fragmentation " , and " built on an often neurotic discomfort over massified and commodified culture " . He and Marks consulted a number of artists for their top @-@ ten record lists , which were interspersed throughout the book . They also curated a " Top 100 Alternative Albums " list for the appendix , ranking the Ramones ' 1976 self @-@ titled debut album at number one .
= = Reception and impact = =
The first edition of Spin Alternative Record Guide was published on October 10 , 1995 , by Vintage Books . It was the first book compiled by Spin . Having edited their book , Weisbard put his pursuit of a PhD at UC Berkeley on hold and accepted a job offer from the magazine , which marked the beginning of his career as a rock critic . Although the book did not sell well , its entry on 1960s folk artist John Fahey , written by Byron Coley , helped renew interest in Fahey 's music . According to Ben Ratliff from The New York Times , this led to substantial interest in Fahey from record labels and the alternative music scene , helping revive his career .
In a contemporary review , Adam Mazmanian from Library Journal recommended Spin Alternative Record Guide to " both public and academic libraries " and said that while The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 1992 ) also offers complete discographies of artists ranging from Jonathan Richman to Throbbing Gristle , this book 's reviews are superior in " length and scope " . Mazmanian argued that " this guide fills a gap in the literature of modern music " at a time when " alternative " has developed a ubiquitous presence in the marketing of popular music . In New York magazine , Kim France called it " a well @-@ edited , unpretentious , and comprehensive look at all the crazy stuff the kids are listening to these days " . In a less enthusiastic review , Booklist critic Gordon Flagg was impressed by the accuracy of the artist entries and the quality of the contributors ' reviews , but found Weisbard 's idea of alternative ill @-@ defined and recommended The Trouser Press Record Guide ( 1991 ) as a more comprehensive alternative . Billboard magazine 's Beth Renaud was more critical of the book , calling much of the writing biased and the organization unencyclopedic . She said Weisbard 's " obligatory " essay is outdated and vague in defining alternative rock and that the contributors " gush " over artists usually covered by Spin , with many relevant artists omitted in place of more perplexing additions .
American pop culture critic Chuck Klosterman later cited Spin Alternative Record Guide as one of his five favorite books , saying in 2011 , " I fear this might be out of print , but it 's probably my favorite music book of all time . Since its 1995 publication , I doubt a year has passed when I didn 't reread at least part of it . " Robert Christgau , who contributed to the book , wrote that while most music guides and encyclopedia books he has consulted were unremarkable , Spin Alternative Record Guide was one of the few " useful exceptions " because of what he felt was the " sharpest writing " from contributors such as Weisbard and Sheffield . Maura Johnston , on the other hand , said in retrospect that the book 's list of the 100 best albums catered to " hipper , Gen @-@ Xier tastes " .
In 2011 , Spin Alternative Record Guide was included in Pitchfork 's list of their staff 's favorite music books . Contributing writer Matthew Perpetua said the book 's writers — either top critics at the time or those who have since become important figures in music journalism — outline the " alternative sensibility " by recognizing and connecting music from disparate genres in " an inclusive , open @-@ minded survey , but it 's defined as much by what 's left out — pretty much all Boomer @-@ oriented rock — as what it includes . " According to Perpetua , the " number of young readers [ who ] pursued music criticism " because of the book was far greater than the copies it sold . Matthew Schnipper , editor of The Fader , bought the book after it was published and said he used it as a consumer guide for 10 years . Along with its influence on future critics , the book was cited by guitarist William Tyler as his only source of music education growing up , having found it in a bookstore around the time it was published : " They had entries for all these different people that I had never heard of : Can , John Zorn , [ John ] Fahey , whatever ... That was before any sort of Internet presence " .
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= Adam Mickiewicz =
Adam Bernard Mickiewicz ( [ mit ͡ sˈkʲɛvit ͡ ʂ ] ; 24 December 1798 – 26 November 1855 ) was a Polish poet , dramatist , essayist , publicist , translator , professor of Slavic literature , and political activist . He is regarded as national poet in Poland , Lithuania and Belarus . A principal figure in Polish Romanticism , he is counted one of Poland 's " Three Bards " ( " Trzej Wieszcze " ) and is widely regarded as Poland 's greatest poet . He is also considered one of the greatest Slavic and European poets and has been dubbed a " Slavic bard " . A leading Romantic dramatist , he has been compared in Poland and Europe to Byron and Goethe .
He is known chiefly for the poetic drama Dziady ( Forefathers ' Eve ) and the national epic poem Pan Tadeusz . His other influential works include Konrad Wallenrod and Grażyna . All these served as inspiration for uprisings against the three imperial powers that had partitioned the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth out of existence .
Mickiewicz was born in the Russian @-@ partitioned territories of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which had been part of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , and was active in the struggle to win independence for his home region . After , as a consequence , spending five years exiled to central Russia , in 1829 he succeeded in leaving the Russian Empire and , like many of his compatriots , lived out the rest of his life abroad . He settled first in Rome , then in Paris , where for a little over three years he lectured on Slavic literature at the Collège de France . He died , probably of cholera , at Istanbul in the Ottoman Empire , where he had gone to help organize Polish and Jewish forces to fight Russia in the Crimean War .
In 1890 , his remains were repatriated from Montmorency , Val @-@ d 'Oise , in France , to Wawel Cathedral in Kraków , Poland .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Adam Mickiewicz was born 24 December 1798 , either at his paternal uncle 's estate in Zaosie ( now Zavosse ) near Navahrudak ( in Polish , Nowogródek ) or in Navahrudak itself in what was then part of the Russian Empire and is now Belarus . The region was on the periphery of Lithuania proper and had been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the Third Partition of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ( 1795 ) . The area had earlier been inhabited by ethnic Lithuanians , but by the time of his birth it was largely Belarusian @-@ populated . Its upper class , including Mickiewicz 's family , were either Polish or Polonized . The poet 's father , Mikołaj Mickiewicz , a lawyer , was a member of the Polish nobility ( szlachta ) and bore the hereditary Poraj coat @-@ of @-@ arms ; Adam 's mother was Barbara Mickiewicz , née Majewska . Adam was the second @-@ born son in the family .
Mickiewicz spent his childhood in Navahrudak , initially taught by his mother and private tutors . From 1807 to 1815 he attended a Dominican school following a curriculum that had been designed by the now @-@ defunct Polish Commission for National Education , which had been the world 's first ministry of education . He was a mediocre student , although active in games , theatricals , and the like .
In September 1815 , Mickiewicz enrolled at the Imperial University of Vilnius ( Polish name : Wilno ) , studying to be a teacher . After graduating , under the terms of his government scholarship , he taught secondary school at Kaunas from 1819 to 1823 .
In 1818 , in the Polish @-@ language Tygodnik Wileński ( Wilno Weekly ) , he published his first poem , " Zima miejska " ( " City Winter " ) . The next few years would see a maturing of his style from sentimentalism / neoclassicism to romanticism , first in his poetry anthologies published in Vilnius in 1822 and 1823 ; these anthologies included the poem " Grażyna " and the first @-@ published parts ( II and IV ) of his major work , Dziady ( Forefathers ' Eve ) . By 1820 he had already finished another major romantic poem , " Oda do młodości " ( " Ode to Youth " ) , but it was considered to be too patriotic and revolutionary for publication and would not appear officially for many years .
About the summer of 1820 , Mickiewicz met the love of his life , Maryla Wereszczakówna . They were unable to marry due to his family 's poverty and relatively low social status ; in addition , she was already engaged to Count Wawrzyniec Puttkamer , whom she would marry in 1821 .
= = = Imprisonment and exile = = =
In 1817 , while still a student , Mickiewicz , Tomasz Zan and other friends had created a secret organization , the Philomaths . The group focused on self @-@ education but had ties to a more radical , clearly pro @-@ Polish @-@ independence student group , the Filaret Association . An investigation of secret student organizations by Nikolay Novosiltsev , begun in early 1823 , led to the arrests of a number of students and ex @-@ student activists including Mickiewicz , who was taken into custody and imprisoned at Vilnius ' Basilian monastery in late 1823 or early 1824 ( sources disagree as to the date ) . After investigation into his political activities , specifically his membership in the Philomaths , in 1824 Mickiewicz was banished to central Russia . Within a few hours of receiving the decree on 22 October 1824 , he penned a poem into an album belonging to Salomea Bécu , the mother of Juliusz Słowacki . ( In 1975 this poem was set to music in Polish and Russian by Soviet composer David Tukhmanov . ) Mickiewicz crossed the border into Russia about 11 November 1824 , arriving in Saint Petersburg later that month . He would spend most of the next five years in Saint Petersburg and Moscow , except for a notable 1824 to 1825 excursion to Odessa , then on to Crimea . That visit , from February to November 1825 , inspired a notable collection of sonnets ( some love sonnets , and a series known as Crimean Sonnets , published a year later .
Mickiewicz was welcomed into the leading literary circles of Saint Petersburg and Moscow , where he became a great favorite for his agreeable manners and extraordinary talent for poetic improvisation . The year 1828 saw the publication of his poem Konrad Wallenrod . Novosiltsev , who recognized its patriotic and subversive message , which had been missed by the Moscow censors , unsuccessfully attempted to sabotage its publication and to damage Mickiewicz 's reputation .
In Moscow , Mickiewicz met the Polish journalist and novelist Henryk Rzewuski and the Polish composer and piano virtuoso Maria Szymanowska , whose daughter , Celina Szymanowska , Mickiewicz would later marry in Paris , France . He also befriended the great Russian poet Alexander Pushkin and Decembrist leaders including Kondraty Ryleyev . It was thanks to his friendships with many influential individuals that he was eventually able to obtain a passport and permission to leave Russia for Western Europe .
= = = European travels = = =
After serving five years of exile to Russia , Mickiewicz received permission to go abroad in 1829 . On 1 June that year , he arrived in Weimar . By 6 June he was in Berlin , where he attended lectures by the philosopher Hegel . In February 1830 he visited Prague , later returning to Weimar , where he received a cordial reception from the writer , scientist and politician Goethe .
He then continued on through Germany all the way to Italy , which he entered via the Alps ' Splügen Pass . Accompanied by an old friend , the poet Antoni Edward Odyniec , he visited Milan , Venice , Florence and Rome . In August that same year ( 1830 ) he went to Geneva , where he met fellow Polish Bard Zygmunt Krasiński . During these travels he had a brief romance with Henrietta Ewa Ankwiczówna , but class differences again prevented his marrying his new love .
Finally about October 1830 he took up residence in Rome , which he declared " the most amiable of foreign cities . " Soon after , he learned about the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising in Poland , but he would not leave Rome until the spring of 1831 .
On 19 April 1831 Mickiewicz departed Rome , traveling to Geneva and Paris and later , on a false passport , to Germany , via Dresden and Leipzig arriving about 13 August in Poznań ( German name : Posen ) , then part of the Kingdom of Prussia . It is possible that during these travels he carried communications from the Italian Carbonari to the French underground , and delivered documents or money for the Polish insurgents from the Polish community in Paris , but reliable information on his activities at the time is scarce . Ultimately he never crossed into Russian Poland , where the Uprising was mainly happening ; he stayed in German Poland ( historically known to Poles as Wielkopolska , or Greater Poland ) , where he was well received by members of the local Polish nobility . He had a brief liaison with Konstancja Łubieńska at her family estate . Starting in March 1832 , Mickiewicz stayed several months in Dresden , in Saxony , where he wrote the third part of his poem Dziady .
= = = Paris émigré = = =
On 31 July 1832 he arrived in Paris , accompanied by a close friend and fellow ex @-@ Philomath , the future geologist and Chilean educator Ignacy Domeyko . In Paris , Mickiewicz became active in many Polish émigré groups and published articles in Pielgrzym Polski ( The Polish Pilgrim ) . The fall of 1832 saw the publication , in Paris , of the third part of his Dziady ( smuggled into partitioned Poland ) , as well as of The Books of the Polish People and of the Polish Pilgrimage , which Mickiewicz self @-@ published . In 1834 he published another masterpiece , his epic poem Pan Tadeusz .
Pan Tadeusz , his longest poetic work , marked the end of his most productive literary period . Mickiewicz would create further notable works , such as Lausanne Lyrics , 1839 – 40 ) and Zdania i uwagi ( Thoughts and Remarks , 1834 – 40 ) , but neither would achieve the fame of his earlier works . His relative literary silence , beginning in the mid @-@ 1830s , has been variously interpreted : he may have lost his talent ; he may have chosen to focus on teaching and on political writing and organizing .
On 22 July 1834 , in Paris , he married Celina Szymanowska , daughter of composer and concert pianist Maria Agata Szymanowska . They would have six children ( two daughters , Maria and Helena ; and four sons , Władysław , Aleksander , Jan and Józef ) . Celina later became mentally ill , possibly with a major depressive disorder . In December 1838 , marital problems caused Mickiewicz to attempt suicide . Celina would die on 5 March 1855 .
Mickiewicz and his family lived in relative poverty , their major source of income being occasional publication of his work – not a very profitable endeavor . They received support from friends and patrons , but not enough to substantially change their situation . Despite spending most of his remaining years in France , Mickiewicz would never receive French citizenship , nor any support from the French government . By the late 1830s he was less active as a writer , and also less visible on the Polish émigré political scene .
In 1838 Mickiewicz became professor of Latin literature at the Lausanne Academy , in Switzerland . His lectures were well received , and in 1840 he was appointed to the newly established chair of Slavic languages and literatures at the Collège de France . Leaving Lausanne , he was made an honorary Lausanne Academy professor .
Mickiewicz would , however , hold the Collège de France post for little more than three years , his last lecture being delivered on 28 May 1844 . His lectures were popular , drawing many listeners in addition to enrolled students , and receiving reviews in the press . Some would be remembered much later ; his sixteenth lecture , on Slavic theater , " was to become a kind of gospel for Polish theater directors of the twentieth century . "
But he became increasingly possessed by religious mysticism as he fell under the influence of the Polish philosopher Andrzej Towiański , whom he met in 1841 . His lectures became a medley of religion and politics , punctuated by controversial attacks on the Catholic Church , and thus brought him under censure by the French government . The messianic element conflicted with Roman Catholic teachings , and some of his works were placed on the Church 's list of prohibited books , though both Mickiewicz and Towiański regularly attended Catholic mass and encouraged their followers to do so .
In 1846 Mickiewicz severed his ties with Towiański , following the rise of revolutionary sentiment in Europe , manifested in events such as the Kraków Uprising of February 1846 . Mickiewicz criticized Towiański 's passivity and returned to the traditional Catholic Church . In 1847 Mickiewicz befriended American journalist , critic and women 's @-@ rights advocate Margaret Fuller . In March 1848 he was part of a Polish delegation received in audience by Pope Pius IX , whom he asked to support the enslaved nations and the French Revolution of 1848 . Soon after , in April 1848 , he organized a military unit , the Mickiewicz Legion , to support the insurgents , hoping to liberate the Polish and other Slavic lands . The unit never became large enough to be more than symbolic , and in the fall of 1848 Mickiewicz returned to Paris and became more active again on the political scene .
In December 1848 he was offered a post at the Jagiellonian University in Austrian @-@ ruled Kraków , but the offer was soon withdrawn after pressure from Austrian authorities . In the winter of 1848 – 49 , Polish composer Frédéric Chopin , in the final months of his own life , visited his ailing compatriot and soothed the poet 's nerves with his piano music . Over a dozen years earlier , Chopin had set two of Mickiewicz 's poems to music ( see Polish songs by Frédéric Chopin ) .
= = = Final years = = =
In the winter of 1849 Mickiewicz founded a French @-@ language newspaper , La Tribune des Peuples ( The Peoples ' Tribune ) , supported by a wealthy Polish émigré activist , Ksawery Branicki . Mickiewicz wrote over 70 articles for the Tribune during its short existence : it came out between 15 March and 10 November 1849 , when the authorities shut it down . His articles supported democracy and socialism and many ideals of the French Revolution and of the Napoleonic era , though he held few illusions regarding the idealism of the House of Bonaparte . He supported the restoration of the French Empire in 1851 . In April 1852 he lost his post at the Collège de France , which he had been allowed to keep ( though without the right to lecture ) . On 31 October 1852 he was hired as a librarian at the Bibliothèque de l 'Arsenal . There he was visited by another Polish poet , Cyprian Norwid , who wrote of the meeting in his poem , " Czarne kwiaty " ( " Black Blossoms " ) ; and there Mickiewicz 's wife Celina died .
Mickiewicz welcomed the Crimean War of 1853 @-@ 1856 , which he hoped would lead to a new European order including a restored independent Poland . His last composition , a Latin ode Ad Napolionem III Caesarem Augustum Ode in Bomersundum captum , honored Napoleon III and celebrated the British @-@ French victory over Russia at the Battle of Bomarsund in the Åland Islands in August 1854 . Polish émigrés associated with the Hôtel Lambert persuaded him to become active again in politics . Soon after the Crimean War broke out ( October 1853 ) , the French government entrusted him with a diplomatic mission . He left Paris on 11 September 1855 , arriving in Istanbul , in the Ottoman Empire , on 22 September . There , working with Michał Czajkowski ( Sadyk Pasha ) , he began organizing Polish forces to fight under Ottoman command against Russia . With his friend Armand Lévy he also set about organizing a Jewish legion . He returned ill from a trip to a military camp to his apartment on Yenişehir Street in the Pera ( now Beyoğlu ) district of Istanbul and died on 26 November 1855 . Though Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński and others have speculated that political enemies might have poisoned Mickiewicz , there is no proof of this , and he probably contracted cholera , which claimed other lives there at the time .
Mickiewicz 's remains were transported to France , boarding ship on 31 December 1855 , and were buried at Montmorency , Val @-@ d 'Oise , on 21 January 1861 . In 1890 they were disinterred , moved to Austrian Poland , and on 4 July entombed in the crypts of Kraków 's Wawel Cathedral , a place of final repose for a number of persons important to Poland 's political and cultural history .
= = Works = =
Mickiewicz 's childhood environment exerted a major influence on his literary work . His early years were shaped by immersion in Belarusian folklore and by vivid memories , which he later reworked in his poems , of the ruins of Navahrudak Castle and of the triumphant entry and disastrous retreat of Polish and Napoleonic troops during Napoleon 's 1812 invasion of Russia . The year 1812 also marked his father 's death . Later , the poet 's personality and subsequent works were greatly influenced by his four years of living and studying in Vilnius .
His first poems , such as the 1818 " Zima miejska " ( " City Winter " ) and the 1819 " Kartofla " ( " Potato " ) , were classical in style , influenced by Voltaire . His poetry anthologies published in 1822 ( including the opening poem " Romantyczność " , " Romanticism " ) and 1823 mark the start of romanticism in Poland . Mickiewicz 's influence popularized the use of folklore , folk literary forms , and historism in Polish romantic literature . His exile to Moscow exposed him to a cosmopolitan environment , more international than provincial Vilnius and Kaunas in Lithuania . This period saw a further evolution in his writing style , with Sonety ( Sonnets , 1826 ) and Konrad Wallenrod ( 1828 ) , both published in Russia . The Sonety , mainly comprising his Crimean Sonnets , highlight the poet 's ability and desire to write , and his longing for his homeland .
One of his major works , Dziady ( Forefathers ' Eve ) , comprises several parts written over an extended period of time . It began with publication of parts II and IV in 1823 . Miłosz remarks that it was " Mickiewicz 's major theatrical achievement " , a work which Mickiewicz saw as ongoing and to be continued in further parts . Its title refers to the pagan ancestor commemoration that had been practiced by Slavic and Baltic peoples on All Souls ' Day . The year 1832 saw the publication of part III : much superior to the earlier parts , a " laboratory of innovative genres , styles and forms " . Part III was largely written over a few days ; the " Great Improvisation " section , a " masterpiece of Polish poetry " , is said to have been created during a single inspired night . A long descriptive poem , " Ustęp " ( Digression ) , accompanying part III and written sometime before it , sums up Mickiewicz 's experiences in , and views on , Russia , portrays it as a huge prison , pities the oppressed Russian people , and wonders about their future . Miłosz describes it as a " summation of Polish attitudes towards Russia in the nineteenth century " and notes that it inspired responses from Pushkin ( " The Bronze Horseman " ) and Joseph Conrad ( Under Western Eyes ) . The drama was first staged by Stanisław Wyspiański in 1901 , becoming , in Miłosz 's words , " a kind of national sacred play , occasionally forbidden by censorship because of its emotional impact upon the audience . " The Polish government 's 1968 closing down of a production of the play sparked the 1968 Polish political crisis .
Mickiewicz 's Konrad Wallenrod ( 1828 ) , a narrative poem describing battles of the Christian order of Teutonic Knights against the pagans of Lithuania , is a thinly veiled allusion to the long feud between Russia and Poland . The plot involves the use of subterfuge against a stronger enemy , and the poem analyzes moral dilemmas faced by the Polish insurgents who would soon launch the November 1830 Uprising . Controversial to an older generation of readers , Konrad Wallenrod was seen by the young as a call to arms and was praised as such by an Uprising leader , poet Ludwik Nabielak . Miłosz describes Konrad Wallenrod ( named for its protagonist ) as " the most committed politically of all Mickiewczi 's poems . " The point of the poem , though obvious to many , escaped the Russian censors , and the poem was allowed to be published , complete with its telling motto drawn from Machiavelli : " Dovete adunque sapere come sono due generazioni di combattere – bisogna essere volpe e leone . " ( " Ye shall know that there are two ways of fighting – you must be a fox and a lion . " ) On a purely literary level , the poem was notable for incorporating traditional folk elements alongside stylistic innovations .
Similarly noteworthy is Mickiewicz 's earlier and longer 1823 poem , Grażyna , depicting the exploits of a Lithuanian chieftainess against the Teutonic Knights . Miłosz writes that Grażyna " combines a metallic beat of lines and syntactical rigor with a plot and motifs dear to the Romantics . " It is said by Christien Ostrowski to have inspired Emilia Plater , a military heroine of the November 1830 Uprising . A similar message informs Mickiewicz 's " Oda do młodości " ( " Ode to Youth " ) .
Mickiewicz 's Crimean Sonnets ( 1825 – 26 ) and poems that he would later write in Rome and Lausanne , Miłosz notes , have been " justly ranked among the highest achievements in Polish [ lyric poetry ] . " His 1830 travels in Italy likely inspired him to consider religious matters , and produced some of his best religiously @-@ themed works , such as " Arcymistrz " ( " The Master " ) and " Do Marceliny Łempickiej " ( " To Marcelina Łempicka " ) . He was an authority to the young insurgents of 1830 – 31 , who expected him to participate in the fighting ( the poet Maurycy Gosławski wrote a dedicated poem urging him to do so ) . Yet it is likely that Mickiewicz was no longer as idealistic and supportive of military action as he had been a few years earlier , and his new works such as " Do matki Polki " ( " To a Polish Mother " , 1830 ) , while still patriotic , also began to reflect on the tragedy of resistance . His meetings with refugees and escaping insurgents around 1831 resulted in works such as " Reduta Ordona " ( " Ordon 's Redoubt " ) , " Nocleg " ( " Night Bivouac " ) and " Śmierć pułkownika " ( " Death of the Colonel " ) . Wyka notes the irony that some of the most important literary works about the 1830 Uprising were written by Mickiewicz , who never took part in a battle or even saw a battlefield .
His Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego ( Books of the Polish Nation and the Polish Pilgrimage , 1832 ) opens with a historical @-@ philosophical discussion of the history of humankind in which Mickiewicz argues that history is the history of now @-@ unrealized freedom that awaits many oppressed nations in the future . It is followed by a longer " moral catechism " aimed at Polish émigrés . The book sets out a messianist metaphor of Poland as the " Christ of nations " . Described by Wyka as a propaganda piece , it was relatively simple , using biblical metaphors and the like to reach less @-@ discriminating readers . It became popular not only among Poles but , in translations , among some other peoples , primarily those which lacked their own sovereign states . The Books were influential in framing Mickiewicz 's image among many not as that of a poet and author but as that of ideologue of freedom .
Pan Tadeusz ( published 1834 ) , another of his masterpieces , is an epic poem that draws a picture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the eve of Napoleon 's 1812 invasion of Russia . It is written entirely in thirteen @-@ syllable couplets . Originally intended as an apolitical idyll , it became , as Miłosz writes , " something unique in world literature , and the problem of how to classify it has remained the crux of a constant quarrel among scholars " ; it " has been called ' the last epos ' in world literature " . Pan Tadeusz was not highly regarded by contemporaries , nor by Mickiewicz himself , but in time it won acclaim as " the highest achievement in all Polish literature . "
The occasional poems that Mickiewicz wrote in his final decades have been described as " exquisite , gnomic , extremely short and concise " . His Lausanne Lyrics , ( 1839 – 40 ) are , writes Miłosz , " untranslatable masterpieces of metaphysical meditation . In Polish literature they are examples of that pure poetry that verges on silence . "
In the 1830s ( as early as 1830 ; as late as 1837 ) he worked on a futurist or science @-@ fiction work , A History of the Future . It predicted inventions similar to radio and television , and interplanetary communication using balloons . Written in French , it was never completed and was partly destroyed by the author . Other French @-@ language works by Mickiewicz include the dramas Les Confederes de Bar ( The Bar Confederates ) and Jacques Jasiński , ous les deux Polognes ( Jacques Jasiński , or the Two Polands ) . These would not achieve much recognition , and would not be published till 1866 . While Mickiewicz did not write any poems in Lithuanian , and his command of that language has been described as likely limited , on one occasion in the early 1850s he transcribed a short folk song in that language , Ejk Tatuszeli i bytiu darża .
= = Legacy = =
A prime figure of the Polish Romantic period , Mickiewicz is counted as one of Poland 's's Three Bards ( the others being Zygmunt Krasiński and Juliusz Słowacki ) and the greatest poet in all Polish literature . Mickiewicz has long been regarded as Poland 's national poet and is a revered figure in Lithuania . He is also considered one of the greatest Slavic and European poets . He has been described as a " Slavic bard " . He was a leading Romantic dramatist and has been compared in Poland and in Europe with Byron and Goethe .
Mickiewicz 's importance extends beyond literature to the broader spheres of culture and politics ; Wyka writes that he was a " singer and epic poet of the Polish people , and a pilgrim for the freedom of nations . " Scholars have used the expression " cult of Mickiewicz " to describe the reverence in which he is held as a " national prophet . " On hearing of Mickiewicz 's death , his fellow bard Krasiński wrote : " For men of my generation , he was milk and honey , gall and life 's blood : we all descend from him . He carried us off on the surging billow of his inspiration and cast us into the world . " Edward Henry Lewinski Corwin described Mickiewicz 's works as Promethean , as " reaching more Polish hearts " than the other Polish Bards , and affirmed Danish critic Georg Brandes ' assessment of Mickiewicz 's works as " healthier " than those of Byron , Shakespeare , Homer , and Goethe . Koropeckyi writes that Mickiewicz has " informed the foundations of [ many ] parties and ideologies " in Poland from the 19th century to this day , " down to the rappers in Poland 's post @-@ socialist blocks , who can somehow still declare that ' if Mickiewicz was alive today , he 'd be a good rapper . ' " While Mickiewicz 's popularity has endured two centuries in Poland , he is less well known abroad though , particularly in the 19th century , he won substantial international fame among " people that dared resist the brutal might of reactionary empires . "
Mickiewicz has been written about or had works dedicated to him by many authors in Poland ( Asnyk , Gałczyński , Iwaszkiewicz , Jastrun , Kasprowicz , Lechoń , Konopnicka , Teofil Lenartowicz , Norwid , Przyboś , Różewicz , Słonimski , Słowacki , Staff , Tetmajer , Tuwim , Ujejski , Wierzyński , Zaleski and others ) and by authors outside Poland ( Bryusov , Goethe , Pushkin , Uhland , Vrchlický and others ) . He has been a character in works of fiction , including a large body of dramatized biographies , e.g. , in 1900 , Stanisław Wyspiański 's Legion . He has also been a subject of many paintings , by Eugène Delacroix , Józef Oleszkiewicz , Aleksander Orłowski , Wojciech Stattler and Walenty Wańkowicz . Monuments and other tributes ( streets and schools named for him ) abound in Poland and Lithuania , and in other former territories of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth : Ukraine and Belarus . He has also been the subject of many statues and busts by Antoine Bourdelle , David d 'Angers , Antoni Kurzawa , Władysław Oleszczyński , Zbigniew Pronaszko , Teodor Rygier , Wacław Szymanowski and Jakub Tatarkiewicz . In 1898 , the 100th anniversary of his birth , a towering statue by Cyprian Godebski was erected in Warsaw . Its base carries the inscription , " To the Poet from the People " . In 1955 , the 100th anniversary of his death , the University of Poznań adopted him as its official patron .
A number of museums in Europe are dedicated to Mickiewicz . Warsaw has an Adam Mickiewicz Museum of Literature . His house in Navahrudak , Belarus , is now a museum ( Adam Mickiewicz Museum , Navahrudak ) ; as is the house where he lived and died in Istanbul ( Adam Mickiewicz Museum , Istanbul ) . There is a Musée Adam Mickiewicz in Paris , France .
Much has been written about Mickiewicz , though the vast majority of this scholarly and popular literature is available only in Polish . Works devoted to him , according to Koropeckyi , author of a 2008 English biography , " could fill a good shelf or two " . Koropeckyi notes that , apart from some specialist literature , only five book @-@ length biographies of Mickiewicz have been published in English . He also writes that , though many of Mickiewicz 's works have been reprined numerous times , no language has a " definitive critical edition of his works . "
= = Ethnicity = =
Adam Mickiewicz , whose works were written in the Polish language , is generally known as a Polish poet . He is described by some authors as " Polish @-@ Lithuanian " or Belarusian @-@ Polish . The Cambridge History of Russia describes him as Polish but sees his ethnic origins as " Lithuanian @-@ Belarusian ( and perhaps Jewish ) . " According to the Belarusian historian Rybczonek , Mickiewicz 's mother had Tatar roots .
Some sources assert that Mickiewicz 's mother was descended from a converted , Frankist Jewish family . Others view this as improbable . Polish historian Kazimierz Wyka , in his biographic entry in Polski Słownik Biograficzny ( 1975 ) writes that this hypothesis , based on the fact that his mother 's maiden name , Majewska , was popular among Frankist Jews , has not been proven . Wyka states that poet 's mother was the daughter of a noble ( szlachta ) family of Starykoń coat of arms , living on an estate at Czombrów in Nowogródek Voivodeship ( Navahrudak Voivodeship ) .
The Lithuanian scholar of literature Juozapas Girdzijauskas writes that Mickiewicz 's family was descended from an old Lithuanian noble family ( Rimvydas ) with origins predating Lithuania 's Christianization . The Lithuanian nobility in Mickiewicz 's time was heavily Polonized and spoke Polish . Mickiewicz had been brought up in the culture of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , a multicultural state that had encompassed most of what today are the separate countries of Poland , Lithuania , Belarus and Ukraine . To Mickiewicz , a splitting of that multicultural state into separate entities , due to trends such as Lithuanian separatism , was undesirable , if not outright unthinkable . According to Romanucci @-@ Ross , while Mickiewicz called himself a " Lithuanian " , in his time the idea of a separate " Lithuanian identity " , apart from a " Polish " one , did not exist . This multicultural aspect is evident in his works ; his most famous poetic work , Pan Tadeusz , begins with the Polish @-@ language invocation , " O Lithuania , my country , thou art like good health ... " ( " Litwo ! Ojczyzno moja ! ty jesteś jak zdrowie ... " . It is generally accepted , however , that Mickiewicz , when referring to Lithuania , meant a historical region rather than a linguistic and cultural entity , and he often applied the term " Lithuanian " to the Slavic inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania .
= = Selected works = =
Oda do młodości ( Ode to Youth ) , 1820
Ballads and Romances , 1822
Grażyna , 1823
The Crimean Sonnets , 1826
Konrad Wallenrod , 1828
The Books of the Polish People and of the Polish Pilgrimage , 1832
Pan Tadeusz , 1834
Lausanne Lyrics , 1839 – 40
Dziady ( Forefathers ' Eve ) , four parts , published from 1822 to after the author 's death
L 'histoire d 'avenir ( A History of the Future ) , unpublished
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= Hasta la Raíz ( song ) =
" Hasta la Raíz " ( English : " To the Root " ) is a song by Mexican recording artist Natalia Lafourcade . It was released on January 14 , 2015 by Sony Music Mexico . After attaining success from her previous album , Mujer Divina , a tribute to Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara , Lafourcade decided to record an album with original recordings . Lafourcade spent three years in the writing process , searching for inspiration in different cities , resulting in songs with personal feelings regarding love . The song was produced by Lafourcade and enlisted Argentinian musician Cachorro López to assist with the production , and wrote the track with Mexican artist Leonel García .
After its release as the lead single from the album of the same title , " Hasta la Raíz " received positive reviews from music critics . The song was also commercially successful , peaking at number 17 on the US Billboard Latin Pop Songs and number five in Mexico . A music video for the track was directed by Alonso Ruizpalacios and recorded at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , gathering 300 fans who responded to an invitation posted by Lafourcade in social networks . The video ranked on the list for the " 10 Best Latin Music Videos of 2015 " by Latin Post . " Hasta la Raíz " earned the accolades for Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Alternative Song at the 16th Latin Grammy Awards .
= = Background = =
In 2010 , Natalia Lafourcade joined Mexican orchestra conductor Alondra de la Parra on the album Travieso Carmesí , a musical project created to celebrate the Bicentennial of Mexico . Lafourcade analyzed Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara 's catalogue and decided to record a tribute album with his songs , since the singer wanted to give herself the opportunity to perform songs written by another person . In 2014 , Lafourcade wanted to find a balance between heart , mind and body , and traveled to Veracruz , Colombia and Cuba , searching for inspiration to write new music . " This [ new ] album was made parallel to the experience of singing the Lara 's music ... is the result of my need to be proud of my songs . " Lafourcade said to Vívelo Hoy . The album Hasta la Raíz is Lafourcade 's sixth studio album and is her first album of original material in six years , since Hu Hu Hu ( 2009 ) and was produced by Argentinean musician Cachorro López , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García and herself after another record producer became very expensive . The album version of the track was released as a digital download on January 14 , 2015 and a new version entitled " Canova 's Root Version " was available on May 19 , 2015 . Lafourcade included the song on the live EP Spotify Sessions . " Hasta la Raíz " is featured in the Italian edition of the album series Now Summer Hits 2015 .
= = Writing and recording = =
Lafourcade overcame writer 's block , but felt that the songs she wrote were too similar compared to her previous albums , so she sought inspiration from Lara 's repertoire and her native country , Mexico . " One of the things I wanted to happen with this record was to find the connection with Mexico and its people again . I am Mexican proud of the positive parts that Mexico have , which are many . " Musically , the singer wanted simplicity . Lafourcade forced herself to write " without judgement " , recording voice memos on her phone during the process . The singer was also inspired by the work of Latin American songwriters such as Simón Díaz , Violeta Parra , Mercedes Sosa , Chavela Vargas , and Caetano Veloso . While recording demos , Lafourcade realized that the songs were more direct and emotional than her previous work . The writing process took three years to complete , resulting in approximately 30 songs , from which the singer selected " the strongest ones " , since the album was about her personal life and wanted to record the best of the bunch to represent it , " more than making an album , I wanted to have songs ... songs that could stand on their own . "
" Hasta la Raíz " was written by Lafourcade and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García , since Lafourcade wanted to experiment with other composers on her music and they became friends while working on her album Mujer Divina and his album Todas Mías ( 2012 ) . García had an idea about the song , and they finished together the music . Laforcade referred to this collaboration as " magical " , with this song being an anthem to the human strength , without forgetting our roots , " It came out of a conversation about maintaining a sense of connection to where you come from . " García played a huapango riff , and Lafourcade started singing along while producer Cachorro López recorded everything , and the final result is from that session .
= = Critical reception = =
After its release , " Hasta la Raíz " received positive reviews from music critics . Luis Romero of the website Coffee and Saturday and the music editor of Televisa Espectáculos were in agreement that the song keeps a musical style similar to her previous album , Mujer Divina , with Agustin Lara 's influence being evident . Andrew Casillas of Club Fonograma stated that the song sounds " rich " , but resembles Chilean singer @-@ songwriter Camila Moreno , and that even if it " doesn ’ t sound like a bold step outward for Natalia , there ’ s certainly no need to lower your expectations " . Lissette Corsa , of MTV Iggy , declared that the " staccato strumming " of the track " evokes the huapango rhythm of Veracruz , Mexico , Lafourcade ’ s hometown " . Lafourcade performed the track at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 , where it won Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Alternative Song .
= = Commercial reception = =
" Hasta la Raíz " was released as a promotional single from the same @-@ titled album on January 14 , 2015 , and was later released as the second single , following " Nunca Es Suficiente " . The song peaked at number five in Mexico 's Monitor Latino Pop Songs chart , number nine in the Billbard 's Español Airplay , and 27 in the General Airplay charts , respectively . In the United States , the track peaked at number 17 in the U.S. Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , being the highest peak for a Lafourcade single , after " Mírame , Mírate " and " En el 2000 " reached 19 and 35 , respectively , in 2003 . Following Lafourcade 's performance at the Latin Grammys , the song climbed to number nine on the Billboard Latin Pop Digital Songs , with a sales increase of 86 % , selling 1 @,@ 000 downloads .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Alonso Ruizpalacios , at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , gathering 300 fans who responded to an invitation posted by Lafourcade in social networks . The singer asked her fans to send a thought inspired by the song or a personal story derived from their identification with " Hasta la Raíz " . " I thought that we would get few answers , but received almost 800 responses immediately , and later it turned into a riot and we did not know if they would get out of control , but nothing happened , my fans are super cool , " Lafourcade told Variety Latino . In the video , shot in black and white , Lafourcade is surrounded by several people who lead her to a stage to perform the last part of the song , in the meantime , Lafourcade throws flowers in the air , kisses a guy and plays a guitar . According to Milly Contreras of Latin Post the video " shows off the singer 's individuality and simplicity " and included it at number 7 in the list for the " 10 Best Latin Music Videos of 2015 " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Hasta la Raíz album liner notes .
Natalia Lafourcade – producer , vocals , keyboard , electric guitar , percussions
Cachorro López – producer
Leonel García – acoustic guitar , voice director
Alan Ortíz – programming
Gustavo Guerrero – electric guitar , percussion
Uriel Herrera – drums , percussion
José Lugo – percussion
Mariana Ruiz – bass guitar
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= Bath School disaster =
The Bath School disaster , sometimes known as the Bath School massacre , was a series of violent attacks perpetrated by Andrew Kehoe on May 18 , 1927 , in Bath Township , Michigan , that killed 38 elementary schoolchildren and 6 adults and injured at least 58 other people . Kehoe killed his wife and firebombed his farm , then detonated an explosion in the Bath Consolidated School , before committing suicide by detonating a final device in his truck . It is the deadliest mass murder to take place at a school in United States history .
Andrew Kehoe , the 55 @-@ year @-@ old school board treasurer , was angered by increased taxes and his defeat in the Spring 1926 election for township clerk . He was thought to have planned his " murderous revenge " after that public defeat . He had a reputation for difficulty on the school board and in personal dealings . In addition , in June 1926 , he was notified that his mortgage was going to be foreclosed . For much of the next year , a neighbor noticed Kehoe had stopped working on his farm and thought he might be planning suicide . During that period , Kehoe purchased explosives and discreetly planted them on his property and under the school .
Kehoe 's wife was ill with tuberculosis , he had stopped making mortgage payments , and he was under pressure for foreclosure . Some time between May 16 and the morning of May 18 , 1927 , Kehoe murdered his wife . Then on the morning of May 18 at about 8 : 45 a.m. , he set off various incendiary devices on his homestead that caused the house and other farm buildings to be destroyed by the explosives ' blasts and their subsequent fires .
Almost simultaneously , an explosion devastated the north wing of the school building , killing 36 schoolchildren and two teachers . Kehoe had used a timed detonator to ignite hundreds of pounds of dynamite and incendiary pyrotol , which he had secretly planted inside the school over the course of many months . As rescuers began working at the school , Kehoe drove up , stopped , and used a rifle to detonate dynamite inside his shrapnel @-@ filled truck , killing himself , the school superintendent , and several others nearby , as well as injuring more bystanders . During rescue efforts at the school , searchers discovered an additional 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) of unexploded dynamite and pyrotol connected to a timing device set to detonate at the same time as the first explosions ; the material was hidden throughout the basement of the south wing . Kehoe had apparently intended to blow up and destroy the entire school .
= = Background = =
= = = Bath Township = = =
Bath Township is a small community located ten miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Lansing , Michigan , and contains the unincorporated village of Bath . In the early 1920s , the area was primarily agricultural . In the early part of the 20th century , many small one @-@ room schools , where different grades shared the same classroom and teacher , were closed . Educators of the era believed that children would receive a better and more complete education if students could attend a single school at one location . The grades could be age @-@ divided into classes , and the facilities could be of a higher quality .
After years of debate , in 1922 Bath Township voters approved creation of the consolidated school district , and the increase in property taxes to pay for the new school . When the school opened , it had 236 students enrolled in grades 1 @-@ 12 . All area landowners had to pay higher property taxes . At the time of the bombing , the village had about 300 residents .
= = = Andrew Kehoe = = =
Andrew Philip Kehoe was born in Tecumseh , Michigan , on February 1 , 1872 . Kehoe 's mother died when he was young , and his father married a much younger widow . Reportedly , Kehoe often quarreled with his stepmother . When he was fourteen , the family 's oil stove exploded and set his stepmother on fire . Kehoe threw a bucket of water on her , but because the fire was oil @-@ based , his action spread the flames more rapidly over her body . She died from her injuries . Some of his neighbors believed that Kehoe had caused the stove explosion .
He studied electrical engineering at Michigan State College in East Lansing . After that , he moved to St. Louis , Missouri , where he worked as an electrician . After several years in Missouri , Kehoe returned to Michigan . At the age of 40 , he married Ellen " Nellie " Price in 1912 . Seven years later they moved to a farm they bought outside the village of Bath . Even though Kehoe was said to be dependable , doing favors and volunteer work for his neighbors , they also described him as being impatient with all who disagreed with him . They recounted that Kehoe had shot and killed a neighbor 's dog that had come on his property and annoyed him by barking . He was known to have beaten one of his horses to death when it did not perform as well as he wanted .
With a reputation for frugality , Kehoe was elected in 1924 as a trustee for three years and treasurer for one year on the school board . He argued endlessly for lower taxes The later superintendent of the board , M. W. Keys , said that Kehoe " fought the expenditure of money for the most necessary equipment . " He was considered extremely difficult to work with , often voting against the rest of the board and wanting his own way . Kehoe repeatedly accused Superintendent Emory Huyck of financial mismanagement .
He argued with township financial authorities , trying to get the valuation of his property reduced , and claimed that he had paid too much for the farm . He also tried to get the mortgage taken off but was not successful . In June 1926 , he was notified that the company was going to foreclose on his property . Kehoe was appointed in 1925 to temporarily fill the position of town clerk but , several months later , he was defeated in the regular spring 1926 election for the position . This public rejection by the community angered him . In his eyewitness account , The Bath School Disaster , Monty J. Ellsworth said he thought this rejection was the reason Kehoe had planned his " murderous revenge " of the bombings , to destroy the school and kill the community 's children and many of its members .
A. McMullen , another neighbor , noted that Kehoe had stopped working on his farm altogether for most of the preceding year , and thought he might be planning suicide . For this reason , when Kehoe gave him one of his horses about April 1927 , McMullen returned it .
It was discovered later that , as part of Kehoe 's preparations to destroy his farm , he had cut all his wire fences , girdled young shade trees to kill them , and cut off his grapevine plants before putting them back on their stumps to hide the damage . He gathered lumber and other materials and put them in the tool shed , which he later exploded with an incendiary bomb .
By the time of the bombing , Nellie Kehoe had become chronically ill with tuberculosis , for which there was no effective treatment or cure . Her frequent hospital stays may have contributed to the family 's debt . Kehoe had ceased making mortgage and homeowner 's insurance payments months earlier .
= = = Purchase and planting of explosives = = =
There is no clear indication when Kehoe conceived and planned the steps leading to the ultimate events , but his neighbor , M. J. Ellsworth , thought that Kehoe conceived his plan after being defeated in early 1926 for the election as town clerk . The general consensus of the townspeople was that Kehoe had worked on his plan at least since August of the previous year .
M.W. Keyes , a member of the Bath School Board was quoted by the New York Times as saying
I have no doubt that he made his plans last Fall [ 1926 ] to blow up the school ... He was an experienced electrician and the board employed him in November to make some repairs on the school lighting system . He had ample opportunity then to plant the explosives and lay the wires for touching it off .
Kehoe had free access to the building during the summer vacation of 1926 .
From mid @-@ 1926 , Kehoe began buying more than a ton of pyrotol , an incendiary explosive used by farmers during the era for excavation and burning of debris . In November 1926 , he drove to Lansing and bought two boxes of dynamite at a sporting goods store . As dynamite was also commonly used on farms , Kehoe 's purchase of small amounts of explosives at different stores and on different dates did not raise any suspicions . Neighbors reported hearing explosions set off on the farm , with one even calling him " the dynamite farmer " .
In December 1926 , according to the testimony of Lieutenant Lyle Morse , a Michigan State Police investigator with the Department of Public Safety , Kehoe purchased a .30 @-@ caliber Winchester bolt @-@ action rifle .
= = Day of the disaster = =
= = = Prior to the disaster = = =
Prior to May 18 , Kehoe had loaded the back seat of his truck with all sorts of metal debris capable of producing shrapnel during an explosion . He also bought a new set of tires for his truck so it wouldn 't break down when transporting the explosives . He didn 't want it to look suspicious that his truck was full of dangerous products . He made many trips to Lansing for more explosives , as well as the school , town , and his house . Many of his neighbors noticed how busy he was driving around , but never thought to make any comment about it . Multiple times , a neighbor to the school saw a man carrying objects into the building at night , but never thought to mention it to anyone .
Nellie Kehoe had been discharged on May 16 from Lansing 's St. Lawrence Hospital . Between her release and the bombings two days later , Kehoe killed his wife . He put her body in a wheelbarrow located in the rear of the farm 's chicken coop , where it was found after the farm explosions and fire in a heavily charred state . Piled around the cart were silverware and a metal cash box . Ashes of several bank notes could be seen through a slit in the cash box . Kehoe had placed and wired homemade pyrotol firebombs in the house and all the buildings of the farm . The burned remains of his two horses were found tied in their enclosures with their legs wired together , to prevent their rescue during the fire .
= = = Farm bombs = = =
At approximately 8 : 45 a.m. , Kehoe detonated the firebombs in his house and farm buildings , causing some debris to fly into a neighbor 's poultry brooding house . Neighbors noticed the fire , and volunteers rushed to the scene .
O. H. Bush , a fireman , and several other men crawled through a broken window of the farmhouse in search of survivors . When they determined no one was in the farmhouse , they salvaged what furniture they could before the fire spread into the living room . Discovering dynamite in the corner , Bush picked up an armful of explosives and handed it to one of the men . As Kehoe left his burning farm and house in his Ford truck , he stopped to tell those fighting the fire , " Boys , you 're my friends . You better get out of here . You better head down to the school " , and drove off .
= = = Explosion in north wing of school = = =
Classes began at 8 : 30 a.m. that morning . At about 8 : 45 a.m. , in the basement of the north wing of the school , an alarm clock set by Kehoe detonated the dynamite and pyrotol he had hidden there .
Rescuers heading to the scene of the Kehoe farm fire heard the explosion at the school building , turned back and headed toward the school . Parents within the rural community also began rushing to the school . The school building had turned into a war zone with thirty @-@ eight people , mostly children , being killed in the initial explosion .
First @-@ grade teacher Bernice Sterling told an Associated Press reporter that the explosion was like an earthquake :
" It seemed as though the floor went up several feet , " she said . " After the first shock I thought for a moment I was blind . When it came the air seemed to be full of children and flying desks and books . Children were tossed high in the air ; some were catapulted out of the building .
The north wing of the school had collapsed . Parts of the walls had crumbled , and the edge of the roof had fallen to the ground . Monty Ellsworth , a neighbor of the Kehoes , recounted ,
" There was a pile of children of about five or six under the roof and some of them had arms sticking out , some had legs , and some just their heads sticking out . They were unrecognizable because they were covered with dust , plaster , and blood . There were not enough of us to move the roof . "
Ellsworth volunteered to drive back to his farm and get a rope heavy enough to pull the school roof off the children 's bodies . Returning to his farm , Ellsworth saw Kehoe in the opposite direction heading toward the school . " He grinned and waved his hand ; when he grinned , I could see both rows of his teeth " , said Ellsworth .
The scene at the school building was chaotic . Robert Gates , a witness , said
" ... mother after mother came running into the school yard , and demanded information about her child and , on seeing the lifeless form lying on the lawn , sobbed and swooned ... In no time more than 100 men were at work tearing away the debris of the school , and nearly as many women were frantically pawing over the timber and broken bricks for traces of their children . "
= = = Truck explosion = = =
About a half hour after the explosion , Kehoe drove up to the school and saw Superintendent Huyck . Kehoe summoned the superintendent over to his truck . Charles Hawson testified at the Inquest that he saw the two men struggle over some type of long gun and that the car then went up in an explosion , killing Superintendent Huyck , Kehoe , Nelson McFarren ( a retired farmer ) and Cleo Clayton , an eight @-@ year @-@ old second grader . Clayton , a survivor of the first blast , had wandered out of the school building debris and was killed by the fragmentation from the exploding vehicle . The explosion also mortally wounded postmaster Glenn O. Smith ( who lost a leg and died later that day of his wounds ) and injured several others .
After Kehoe 's truck exploded , Ellsworth recounted ,
I saw one mother , Mrs. Eugene Hart , sitting on the bank a short distance from the school with a little dead girl on each side of her and holding a little boy , Percy , who died a short time after they got him to the hospital . This was about the time Kehoe blew his car up in the street , severely wounding Perry , the oldest child of Mr. and Mrs. Hart .
O. H. Bush , foreman of the road crew , recalled the scene after the final explosion :
I began to feel as though the world was coming to an end . I guess I was a bit hazy . Anyway , the next thing I remember I was out on the street . One of our men was binding up the wounds of Glenn Smith , the postmaster . His leg had been blown off . I went back to the building and helped with the rescue work until we were ordered to stop while a search was made for dynamite .
= = = Recovery and rescue = = =
Telephone operators stayed at their stations for hours to summon doctors , undertakers , area hospitals and anyone else who might help . The Lansing Fire Department sent several firefighters and its chief .
The local physician , Dr. J. A. Crum and his wife , a nurse , had both served in World War I , and had returned to Bath to open a pharmacy . After the explosion the Crums turned their drugstore into a triage center with the dead bodies being taken to the town hall , which was being used as a morgue .
Hundreds of people worked in the wreckage all day and into the night in an effort to find and rescue any children pinned underneath . Area contractors had sent all their men to assist , and many other people came to the scene in response to the pleas for help . Eventually , 34 firefighters and the Chief of the Lansing Fire Department arrived on the scene , as did several Michigan State Police officers , who managed traffic to and from the scene . The injured and dying were transported to Sparrow Hospital and St. Lawrence Hospital in Lansing . The construction of the latter facility had been financed in large part by Lawrence Price , Nellie Kehoe 's uncle and formerly an executive in charge of Oldsmobile 's Lansing Car Assembly .
Michigan Governor Fred W. Green arrived during the afternoon of the disaster and assisted in the relief work , carting bricks away from the scene . The Lawrence Baking Company of Lansing sent a truck filled with pies and sandwiches , which were served to rescuers in the township 's community hall .
The bombing had destroyed the north wing of the school . During the search , rescuers found an additional 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) of dynamite , which had failed to detonate , in the south wing . The search was halted to allow the Michigan State Police to disarm the devices . The State Police found an alarm clock timed to go off at 8 : 45 a.m. Investigators speculated that the initial explosion may have caused a short circuit in the second set of bombs , preventing them from detonating . They searched the building and then returned to the recovery work .
Police and fire officials gathered at the Kehoe farm to investigate the fires . State troopers had searched for Nellie Kehoe throughout Michigan , thinking she was at a tuberculosis sanitorium , but her charred body was found the following day , May 19 , among the ruins of the farm . All the Kehoe farm buildings were destroyed , and the two horses trapped inside the barn died . Investigators found a wooden sign wired to the farm 's fence with Kehoe 's last message , " Criminals are made , not born " , stenciled on it .
= = Aftermath = =
The American Red Cross , setting up operations at the Crum drugstore , took the lead in providing aid and comfort to the victims . The Lansing Red Cross headquarters stayed open until 11 : 30 that night to answer telephone calls , update the list of dead and injured and provide information and planning services for the following day .
The local community responded generously , as reported at the time by the Associated Press : " ... a sympathetic public assured the rehabilitation of the stricken community . Aid was tendered freely in the hope that the grief of those who lost loved ones might be even slightly mitigated . " The Red Cross managed donations sent to pay for both the medical expenses of the survivors and the burial costs of the dead . In a few weeks , $ 5 @,@ 284 @.@ 15 ( about $ 71 @,@ 984 today ) was raised through donations , including $ 2 @,@ 500 from the Clinton County board of supervisors and $ 2 @,@ 000 from the Michigan legislature . In addition to monetary donations , the Red Cross Headquarters received extensive donations of flowers from strangers .
The disaster received nationwide coverage in the days following , sharing headlines with Charles Lindbergh 's trans @-@ Atlantic crossing , though Lindbergh 's crossing received much more attention , and eliciting a national outpouring of grief . Newspaper headlines from Washington , D.C. to Los Angeles characterized Kehoe as a maniac , madman , and fiend .
People from all around the world provided sympathy to the families and the community of Bath , Michigan , including letters from some Italian schoolchildren . One 5th grader wrote : " Even though we are small , we understand all the sorrow and misfortune that has struck our dear brothers ... " And another : " We are praying to God to give to the unfortunate mothers and fathers , the strength to bear the great sorrow that has descent on them , we are near to you in spirit ... "
Andrew Kehoe 's body was eventually claimed by one of his sisters . Without ceremony , she had him buried in an unmarked grave in an initially unnamed cemetery . Later it was revealed that Kehoe was buried in the paupers ' section of Mount Rest Cemetery , St. Johns , Clinton County , Michigan . The Price family buried Nellie Price Kehoe in Lansing 's Mount Hope Cemetery under her maiden name .
Vehicles from outlying areas and surrounding states descended upon Bath by the thousands . Over 100 @,@ 000 vehicles passed through on Saturday alone , an enormous amount of traffic for the area . Some Bath citizens regarded this armada as an unwarranted intrusion into their time of grief , but most accepted it as a show of sympathy and support from surrounding communities . Many of the victims were buried starting Friday , May 20 .
= = = Coroner 's inquest = = =
The coroner arrived at the scene on the day of the disaster and swore in six community leaders to serve as a jury investigating the death of Superintendent Huyck . A coroner 's inquest into the matter was held the following week , starting on May 23 . The Clinton County Prosecutor conducted the examination , and more than 50 people testified before the jury . During his testimony , David Hart testified that Kehoe had told him that Kehoe had " killed a horse " . and the New York Times reported people as saying that Kehoe had " an ungovernable temper " and " seemed to have a mania for killing things . " Neighbors had seen him wiring his house in early April 1927 .
Kehoe 's neighbor Sidney J. Howell testified that after the fire began , Kehoe warned him and three boys to leave the farm , saying " Boys , you are my friends , you better get out of here , you better go down to the school . " Three telephone linemen working near Bath testified that Kehoe passed them on the road toward the school , and they saw him arrive there . He swerved his truck and stopped in front of the building . In the next instant , according to the linemen , the truck blew up , and one of them was struck by shrapnel . Other witnesses testified that Kehoe paused after stopping and called Superintendent Huyck over before blowing up his truck .
Although there was never any doubt that Kehoe was the perpetrator , the jury was asked to determine if the school board or its employees were guilty of criminal negligence . After more than a week of testimony , the jury exonerated the school board and its employees . In its verdict , the jury concluded that Kehoe " conducted himself sanely and so concealed his operations that there was no cause to suspect any of his actions ; and we further find that the school board , and Frank Smith , janitor of the school building , were not negligent in and about their duties , and were not guilty of any negligence in not discovering Kehoe 's plan . "
The inquest determined that Kehoe murdered Superintendent Emory Huyck on the morning of May 18 . It was also the jury 's verdict that the school was blown up as part of a plan and that Kehoe alone , without the aid of conspirators , murdered 43 people in total , including his wife Nellie . Suicide was determined to be the cause of Andrew Kehoe 's death , which brought the total number of dead to 44 at the time of the inquest .
On August 22 , three months after the bombing , fourth @-@ grader Beatrice Gibbs died following hip surgery . Hers was the 45th and final death directly attributable to the Bath School disaster , which made it the most deadly attack to ever occur in an American school . Richard Fritz , brother of Marjorie Fritz , was injured in the explosion and died almost one year later of myocarditis . Though Fritz is not included on many lists of the victims , his death from myocarditis is thought to have been brought on by an infection because of his injuries .
= = = Rebuilding = = =
Governor Fred Green quickly called for donations to aid the townspeople and created the Bath Relief Fund with the money supplied by donors , the state , and local governments . People from around the country donated to the fund .
School resumed on September 5 , 1927 , and , for the 1927 – 1928 school year , was held in the community hall , township hall , and two retail buildings . Most of the students returned . The board appointed O. M. Brant of Luther , Michigan , to succeed Huyck as superintendent . The Lansing architect Warren Holmes donated construction plans , and the school board approved the contracts for the new building on September 14 . On September 15 , Michigan 's Republican U.S. Senator James J. Couzens presented his personal check for $ 75 @,@ 000 ( roughly $ 1 @,@ 022 @,@ 000 in today 's money ) to the Bath construction fund to build the new school .
The board demolished the damaged portion of the school and constructed a new wing with the donated funds . The " James Couzens Agricultural School , " named for the senator , was dedicated on August 18 , 1928 . The Kehoe farm was completely plowed to ensure that no explosives were hidden in the ground and was sold at auction to pay the mortgage .
= = = Legacy = = =
In 1928 , artist Carlton W. Angell presented the board with a memorial statue titled Girl With a Cat . The statue is presently in the Bath School Museum located within the school district 's middle school .
In 1975 , the Couzens building was demolished and the site was redeveloped as the James Couzens Memorial Park , dedicated to the victims . At the center of the park is the original Bath Consolidated School 's cupola , which survived the disaster and remained on the school until the building was torn down .
In 1991 , a Michigan Historical Marker was installed at the park , a bronze plaque bearing the names of those killed and a brief description of events .
On November 3 , 2008 , the town announced that tombstones had been donated for Amelia and Robert Bromund , the last two bombing victims whose graves were still unmarked . A grant from a foundation paid for the grave markers .
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= Well @-@ Manicured Man =
The Well @-@ Manicured Man is a fictional character in the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . He serves as an antagonist to FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , being a member of the sinister Syndicate the agents seek to foil . Introduced in the third season , the Well @-@ Manicured Man served to highlight discord within the ranks of the Syndicate , and ultimately betrayed them by leaking information to Mulder before committing suicide in the series ' first feature film .
The character of the Well @-@ Manicured Man was portrayed by John Neville in all his appearances ( eight episodes , and the feature film ) . According to the series ' writers , the character represents a non @-@ violent " voice of reason " amongst the series ' antagonists . Neville 's portrayal of the Well @-@ Manicured Man has been positively received by critics , who have noted his " moral ambivalence " and " unnervingly genteel " manner .
= = Character arc = =
Introduced at the beginning of the third season , the Well @-@ Manicured Man is an English member of the Syndicate , a shadow organization within the United States government that exists to hide from the public the fact that aliens are planning to colonize the Earth . He is an important member of the Syndicate , along with The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) and The Elder , and was a friend of William Mulder earlier in his life .
The Well @-@ Manicured Man prefers subtlety to brute force , and will attempt to manipulate those in his way before using physical violence . Although the Syndicate 's goals are opposed to those of Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , the Well @-@ Manicured Man will , at times , aid them with clues or information , believing that letting out a certain amount of information would help to keep the two close , and consequently allow for them to be controlled . The Well @-@ Manicured Man openly despises The Smoking Man , seeing him as impulsive and unprofessional . The two maintain a bitter relationship within the Syndicate throughout the series . The Well @-@ Manicured Man is instrumental in the Syndicate 's secondary agenda , to develop a vaccination against the black oil used by the aliens as a means of mind control . To this end , he works with Russian double agent Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) to develop a vaccine , eventually testing it — successfully — on a Syndicate mole , Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) .
In the 1998 feature film The X @-@ Files , when Scully is infected with the black oil and taken to Antarctica , it is the Well @-@ Manicured Man who , having grown disillusioned with the Syndicate , gives Mulder the coordinates needed to find her and a sample of the vaccine needed to cure Scully . The colonists had kept secret a secondary characteristic of the black oil — that those infected with it for prolonged periods would gestate a new colonist lifeform , killing the host . Upon discovering this , the Syndicate vowed to work more closely with the colonists in the hope of being spared this fate , while only the Well @-@ Manicured Man wished to continue working on a vaccination for resistance . This rejection led to his betrayal of the Syndicate , and to him committing suicide by car bomb before his duplicity was discovered .
= = Conceptual history = =
John Neville has stated that he was originally hired for just two episodes of the series , but that his character " was regularly brought back , because the audience simply doesn 't know if he stands for good or evil " . Series creator Chris Carter has described the character in terms of his relationship with The Smoking Man , noting that the two characters can be seen as " differing in approach , differing in philosophy and differing in personality " . Writer Frank Spotnitz has described the Well @-@ Manicured Man as " sort of the white knight to the Cigarette @-@ Smoking Man 's black knight in this chess game that we were playing " .
The character has also been described by Carter and Spotnitz as the " voice of reason " within the Syndicate , who " believes that violence is the wrong way to protect the secret " which they guard . The Well @-@ Manicured Man 's suicide scene in the series ' film adaptation went through several conceptual iterations , with outcomes being considered including an imploding car or suicide by concussion grenade , although ultimately a car bomb scene was decided upon .
= = Reception = =
The character of the Well @-@ Manicured Man has been positively received by critics . MTV 's Tami Katzoff has called him a " legendary TV character " , noting his " moral ambivalence about the work of his shadow organization " and his ability to show " empathy for Mulder and Scully " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Sean O 'Neal praised the character 's " unnervingly genteel " manner , noting that he represented the polar opposite of The Smoking Man . Fellow A.V. Club writer Todd VanDerWerff has also been positive towards the Well @-@ Manicured Man , feeling that the series would have benefited from making more use of the character . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Bob Graham has praised Neville 's portrayal of the character in the feature film , calling his expository monologue " a Wagnerian demonstration of the art of declamation " . Writing for the Los Angeles Daily News , Michael Liedtke and George Avalos described the character as " white @-@ haired , urbane , genteel [ — ] and dangerous " , noting that he was " equally at ease in Virginia 's horse country , the tony rooms of Manhattan 's Upper West Side and the antiseptic halls of facilities that house bizarre medical experiments " . Den of Geek 's countdown of " The Top 10 X @-@ Files Baddies " described the Well @-@ Manicured Man as a " super @-@ smooth , super @-@ creep Brit " , noting that he served as " a ' boss ' of sorts " for the Smoking Man . Speaking of how the role eclipsed his other acting work , Neville has been quoted as saying " It 's OK , though . [ The X @-@ Files ] gave me a kind of profile that I didn 't have before , and one shouldn 't grumble about that " .
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= John Barbirolli =
Sir John Barbirolli , CH ( 2 December 1899 – 29 July 1970 ) , né Giovanni Battista Barbirolli , was a British conductor and cellist . He is remembered above all as conductor of the Hallé Orchestra in Manchester , which he helped save from dissolution in 1943 and conducted for the rest of his life . Earlier in his career he was Arturo Toscanini 's successor as music director of the New York Philharmonic , serving from 1936 to 1943 . He was also chief conductor of the Houston Symphony from 1961 to 1967 , and was a guest conductor of many other orchestras , including the BBC Symphony Orchestra , London Symphony Orchestra , the Philharmonia , the Berlin Philharmonic and the Vienna Philharmonic , with all of which he made recordings .
Born in London of Italian and French parentage , Barbirolli grew up in a family of professional musicians . After starting out as a cellist , he was given the chance to conduct , from 1926 with the British National Opera Company , and then with Covent Garden 's touring company . On taking up the conductorship of the Hallé he had less opportunity to work in the opera house , but in the 1950s he conducted productions of works by Verdi , Wagner , Gluck , and Puccini at Covent Garden with such success that he was invited to become the company 's permanent musical director , an invitation he declined . Late in his career he made several recordings of operas , of which his 1967 set of Puccini 's Madama Butterfly for EMI is probably the best known .
Both in the concert hall and on record , Barbirolli was particularly associated with the music of English composers such as Elgar , Delius and Vaughan Williams . His interpretations of other late romantic composers , such as Mahler and Sibelius , as well as of earlier classical composers , including Schubert , are also still admired .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Giovanni Battista Barbirolli was born in Southampton Row , Holborn , London , the second child and eldest son of an Italian father and a French mother . He was a British national from birth , and as Southampton Row is within the sound of Bow Bells , Barbirolli always regarded himself as a Cockney . His father , Lorenzo Barbirolli ( 1864 – 1928 ) , was a Venetian violinist who had settled in London with his wife , Louise Marie , née Ribeyrol ( 1870 – 1962 ) . Lorenzo and his father had played in the orchestra at La Scala , Milan , where they had taken part in the première of Otello in 1887 . In London they played in West End theatre orchestras , principally that of the Empire , Leicester Square .
The young Barbirolli began to play the violin when he was four , but soon changed to the cello . He later said that this was at the instigation of his grandfather who , exasperated at the child 's habit of wandering around while practising the violin , bought him a small cello to stop him from " getting in everybody 's way " . His education at St. Clement Danes Grammar School overlapped , from 1910 , with a scholarship at Trinity College of Music . As a Trinity student , he made his concert debut in a cello concerto in the Queen 's Hall in 1911 . The following year he won a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music , which he attended from 1912 to 1916 , studying harmony , counterpoint and theory under Dr. J. B. McEwen and the cello with Herbert Walenn . In 1914 he was joint winner of the academy 's Charles Rube Prize for ensemble playing , and in 1916 The Musical Times singled him out as " that excellent young ' cello player , Mr Giovanni Barbirolli . " The principal of the Academy , Sir Alexander Mackenzie , had forbidden students to play the chamber music of Ravel , which he regarded as " a pernicious influence " . Barbirolli was keenly interested in modern music , and he and three colleagues secretly rehearsed Ravel 's String Quartet in the privacy of a men 's lavatory in the Academy .
From 1916 to 1918 Barbirolli was a freelance cellist in London . He recalled , " My first orchestral engagement was with the Queen 's Hall Orchestra – I was probably the youngest orchestral musician ever , joining them in 1916 . We had an enormous repertory – six concerts a week , three hours or more rehearsal a day . In those days we were happy if we began and finished together " . While playing in the Queen 's Hall Orchestra , Barbirolli also played in the opera pit for the Beecham and Carl Rosa opera companies , in recitals with the pianist Ethel Bartlett , with orchestras in theatres , cinemas , hotels and dance @-@ halls , and , as he said , " everywhere except the street " . During the last year of World War I , Barbirolli enlisted in the army and became a lance @-@ corporal in the Suffolk Regiment . Here he had his first opportunity to conduct , when an orchestra of volunteers was formed . He later described the experience :
I was stationed on the Isle of Grain – a ghastly place but the first line of defence against invasion – and in our battalion of the Suffolks we had a number of professional musicians . So we formed an orchestra and played in the equivalent of the NAAFI during our spare time . I was the principal cello and we were conducted by the bandmaster , one Lieutenant Bonham . The other boys knew that I was longing to conduct and one day when Bonham fell ill with ' flu , they thought " old Barby " – as I was known – should have a go . It was really rather romantic – I was scrubbing the floor in the Officers ' Mess when they came and invited me to take over . We did the Light Cavalry overture and Coleridge @-@ Taylor 's Petite Suite de Concert but I can 't say I recall the rest of the programme .
While in the army , Barbirolli adopted the anglicised form of his first name for the sake of simplicity : " The sergeant @-@ major had great difficulty in reading my name on the roll @-@ call . ' Who is this Guy Vanni ? ' he used to ask . So I chose John . " After demobilisation he reverted to the original form of his name , using it until 1922 .
On re @-@ entering civilian life , Barbirolli resumed his career as a cellist . His association with Edward Elgar 's Cello Concerto began with its première in 1919 , when he played as a rank and file member of the London Symphony Orchestra . He was the soloist at another performance of the concerto just over a year later . The Musical Times commented , " Signor Giovanni Barbirolli was not entirely equal to the demands of the solo music , but his playing unquestionably gave a considerable amount of pleasure . " At the Three Choirs Festival of 1920 he took part in his first Dream of Gerontius , under Elgar 's baton , in the LSO cellos . He joined two newly founded string quartets as cellist : the Kutcher Quartet , led by his former fellow student at Trinity , Samuel Kutcher , and the Music Society Quartet ( later called the International Quartet ) led by André Mangeot . He also made several early broadcasts with Mangeot 's quartet .
= = = First conducting posts = = =
Barbirolli 's ambition was to conduct . He was the prime mover in establishing the Guild of Singers and Players Chamber Orchestra in 1924 , and in 1926 he was invited to conduct a new ensemble at the Chenil Gallery in Chelsea , initially called the " Chenil Chamber Orchestra " but later renamed " John Barbirolli 's Chamber Orchestra " . Barbirolli 's concerts impressed Frederic Austin , director of the British National Opera Company ( BNOC ) , who in the same year invited him to conduct some performances with the company . Barbirolli had never conducted a chorus or a large orchestra , but had the confidence to accept . He made his operatic debut directing Gounod 's Roméo et Juliette at Newcastle , followed within days by performances of Aida and Madama Butterfly . He conducted the BNOC frequently over the next two years , and made his debut at the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden , with Madama Butterfly in 1928 . The following year he was invited to conduct the opening work in Covent Garden 's international season , Don Giovanni , with a cast that included Mariano Stabile , Elisabeth Schumann and Heddle Nash .
In 1929 , after financial problems had forced the BNOC to disband , the Covent Garden management set up a touring company to fill the gap , and appointed Barbirolli as its musical director and conductor . The operas in the company 's first provincial tour included Die Meistersinger , Lohengrin , La bohème , Madama Butterfly , The Barber of Seville , Tosca , Falstaff , Faust , Cavalleria rusticana , Pagliacci , Il trovatore , and the first performances in English of Turandot . In later tours with the company Barbirolli had the chance to conduct more of the German opera repertory , including Der Rosenkavalier , Tristan und Isolde , and Die Walküre . During his years with the touring opera companies Barbirolli did not neglect the concert hall . In 1927 , deputising at short notice for Sir Thomas Beecham , he conducted the London Symphony Orchestra in a performance of Elgar 's Symphony No. 2 , winning the thanks of the composer . Barbirolli also won warm praise from Pablo Casals , whom he had accompanied in Haydn 's D major cello concerto at the same concert . He conducted a Royal Philharmonic Society concert at which Ralph Vaughan Williams was presented with the society 's Gold Medal , and another RPS concert at which Gustav Mahler 's music , rarely heard at that time , was given – Kindertotenlieder , with Elena Gerhardt as soloist . Although Barbirolli later came to love Mahler 's music , in the 1930s he thought it sounded thin .
When the Hallé Orchestra announced in 1932 that its regular conductor , Hamilton Harty , was to spend some time conducting overseas , Barbirolli was one of four guest conductors named to direct the orchestra in Harty 's absence : the other three were Elgar , Beecham and Pierre Monteux . Barbirolli 's programmes included works by composers as diverse as Purcell , Delius , Mozart and Franck . In June 1932 , Barbirolli married the singer Marjorie Parry , a member of the BNOC . In 1933 Barbirolli was invited to become conductor of the Scottish Orchestra . It was not then , as its successor the Scottish National Orchestra was later to be , a permanent ensemble , but gave a season lasting about six months of each year . Barbirolli remained with the Scottish Orchestra for three seasons , " rejuvenating the playing and programmes and winning most favourable opinions " . Notwithstanding his growing reputation in Britain , Barbirolli 's name was little known internationally , and most of the musical world was taken by surprise in 1936 when he was invited to conduct the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in succession to Arturo Toscanini .
= = = New York Philharmonic = = =
By the spring of 1936 , the management of the New York Philharmonic was confronted with a problem . Toscanini had left in search of higher fees with the NBC Symphony Orchestra . Wilhelm Furtwängler had accepted the orchestra 's invitation to fill the post , but he was politically unacceptable to a section of the Philharmonic 's audience because he continued to live and work in Germany under the Nazi government . Following a campaign of protest in New York he felt unable to take up the appointment . For want of any available conductor of comparable fame the management of the orchestra invited five guest conductors to divide the season among them . Barbirolli was allotted the first ten weeks of the season , comprising 26 concerts . He was followed by the composer @-@ conductors Igor Stravinsky , Georges Enescu and Carlos Chávez , each conducting for two weeks , and finally by Artur Rodziński of the Cleveland Orchestra , for eight weeks .
Barbirolli 's first concert in New York was on 5 November 1936 . The programme consisted of short pieces by Berlioz and Arnold Bax , and symphonies by Mozart ( the Linz ) and Brahms ( the Fourth ) . During his ten weeks , he programmed several American novelties including Charles Martin Loeffler 's tone @-@ poem Memories of My Childhood , a symphony by Anis Fuleihan , and Philip James 's Bret Harte overture . He also conducted Serge Koussevitzky 's Double Bass Concerto . The players told the Philharmonic management that they would be happy for Barbirolli to be appointed to a permanent position . The outcome of this was an invitation to him to become Music Director and Permanent Conductor for three years starting with the 1937 – 38 season . At the same time as this great change in his professional life , Barbirolli 's personal life was also transformed . His marriage had not lasted ; within four years he and Marjorie Barbirolli had been living apart . In 1938 she sued for divorce on the grounds of his desertion . The suit was undefended , and the divorce was granted in December 1938 . In 1939 , Barbirolli married the British oboist Evelyn Rothwell . The marriage lasted for the rest of Barbirolli 's life .
One of the features of Barbirolli 's time in New York was his regular programming of modern works . He gave the world premières of Walton 's second Façade Suite , and Britten 's Sinfonia da Requiem and Violin Concerto ; he also introduced pieces by Jacques Ibert , Eugene Goossens , and Arthur Bliss and by many American composers including Samuel Barber , Deems Taylor and Daniel Gregory Mason . The new works he presented were not avant @-@ garde , but they nevertheless alienated the conservative subscription audience , and after an initial increase in ticket sales in his early years sales declined . Barbirolli also had to cope with what The Gramophone described as " a rough press campaign in New York from interested parties who wished to evict him from his post " . The influential critic Olin Downes had opposed Barbirolli 's appointment from the outset , insisting that , though " we abhor chauvinism " , preference should have been given to " native conductors " . Downes had a grudge against the Philharmonic : shortly before Barbirolli 's appointment Downes was sacked as the commentator for the orchestra 's prestigious Sunday broadcasts . He and the composer Virgil Thomson continually wrote disparagingly about Barbirolli , comparing him unfavourably with Toscanini . The management of the orchestra nevertheless renewed Barbirolli 's appointment in 1940 . In 1942 , when his second contract was reaching its expiry , he was offered 18 concerts for the 1943 – 44 season , and the Los Angeles Philharmonic invited him to become its conductor , but he accepted neither offer as he had decided to return to England .
Barbirolli 's first reason for leaving was local musical politics . He later said , " The Musicians Union there ... brought out a new regulation saying that everyone , even soloists and conductors , must become members . Horowitz , Heifetz and the rest were shocked by this but there was little they could do about it . They also said that conductors must become American citizens . I couldn 't do that during the war , or at any time for that matter . " His second reason for leaving was that he felt strongly that he was needed in England . In the spring of 1942 he made a hazardous Atlantic crossing :
I was in America when the war broke out , as conductor of the New York Philharmonic . A. V. Alexander , who was First Sea Lord , wrote to me to say that , contrary to expectations , music was flourishing and would I come back as I was missed . I was longing to return and it was just a question of how it was to be managed . A.V. went to Churchill , who apparently said , " If he 's fool enough to come , let him come " . It took us 23 days to cross on a fruit trader and , of our convoy of 75 , only 32 ships arrived in Liverpool . I played here for ten weeks with the LSO and LPO for the benefit of the musicians , and then went back on a Fyffe banana boat of 5 @,@ 000 tons . We were spotted by U @-@ boats the moment we left Northern Ireland but that kind of thing never worries me as I 'm something of a fatalist . It had been wonderful anyhow to be back , to see England at its greatest , and to visit my old mother .
Barbirolli returned to New York to complete his contractual obligations to the Philharmonic . Shortly after his return he received an appeal from the Hallé Orchestra to become its conductor . The orchestra was in danger of extinction for lack of players , and Barbirolli seized the opportunity to help it .
= = = Hallé Orchestra = = =
In 1943 Barbirolli made another Atlantic crossing , avoiding death by a fluke : he changed flights with the actor Leslie Howard when the latter wished to postpone his own flight for a few days . Barbirolli 's plane landed safely ; Howard 's was shot down . In Manchester , Barbirolli immediately set about reviving the Hallé . The number of players in the orchestra was down to about 30 . Most younger players were serving in the armed forces , and to compound the shortage the management of the orchestra had ended the arrangement by which many of its players were also members of the BBC Northern Orchestra . The Hallé board resolved that its orchestra must follow the example of the Liverpool Philharmonic , which the Hallé 's former conductor Malcolm Sargent had transformed into a full @-@ time , permanent orchestra . Only four of the players shared with the BBC chose to join the Hallé .
The Times later wrote of Barbirolli 's first actions for the orchestra : " In a couple of months of endless auditions , he rebuilt the Hallé , accepting any good player , whatever his musical background – he found himself with a schoolboy first flute , a schoolmistress hornist , and various brass players recruited from brass and military bands in the Manchester area ... The reborn Hallé 's first concert somehow lived up to the Hallé 's great reputation . " The Musical Times also noted , " From his earliest days with the orchestra it was the string tone that commanded immediate attention and respect . There was a fiery intensity and glowing warmth that proclaimed the born string coach " . Barbirolli retained his reputation for training orchestras : after his death , one of his former players commented , " If you wanted orchestral experience you 'd be set for life , starting in the Hallé with John Barbirolli . " Further afield , critics , audiences and players in Europe and the United States commented on the improvement in the playing of their orchestras when Barbirolli was in charge . Later he extended his teaching skills to the Royal Academy of Music , where he took charge of the student orchestra from 1961 .
Barbirolli refused invitations to take up more prestigious and lucrative conductorships . Shortly after he took over the Hallé he received an offer from the sponsors of an ambitious scheme that would have put him in charge of the London Symphony Orchestra , and in the early 1950s the BBC sought to recruit him for the BBC Symphony Orchestra . Also in the early 1950s the head of the Royal Opera House , David Webster , wanted him to become the musical director there . Barbirolli conducted six operas for Webster , Turandot , Aida , Orfeo ed Euridice , Tristan und Isolde , La bohème and Madama Butterfly , 1951 – 53 , but he declined to be wooed away from the Hallé . His biographer Charles Reid wrote , " His Manchester kingdom is a kingdom indeed . He is not manacled or chivied in his choice of programmes . Broadly speaking he conducts only what he loves ... His kingdom approximates to a conductor 's paradise . " Nevertheless , in 1958 , after building the orchestra up and touring continually , conducting up to 75 concerts a year , he arranged a less onerous schedule , allowing him more time to appear as a guest conductor with other orchestras . He also appeared at the Vienna State Opera , and Rome Opera House , where he conducted Aida in 1969 . In 1960 he accepted an invitation to succeed Leopold Stokowski as chief conductor of the Houston Symphony in Texas , a post he held until 1967 , conducting an annual total of 12 weeks there in early spring and late autumn between Hallé engagements . In 1961 he began a regular association with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra , which lasted for the rest of his life .
From 1953 onwards , Barbirolli and the Hallé appeared regularly at the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts at the Royal Albert Hall in London . As well as major works from the mainstream repertory they gave an annual concert of music by Viennese composers , including Franz Lehár and Johann Strauss , which , like Sir Malcolm Sargent 's annual Gilbert and Sullivan nights , rapidly became a firm favourite with the promenaders . At one 1958 promenade concert Barbirolli and the Hallé played a replica of Charles Hallé 's first concert with the orchestra in 1858 .
Barbirolli 's interest in new music waned in post @-@ war years , but he and the Hallé appeared regularly at the Cheltenham Festival , where he premiered new works of a mostly traditional style by William Alwyn , Richard Arnell , Arthur Benjamin , Peter Racine Fricker , Gordon Jacob , Alan Rawsthorne , Kenneth Leighton and others . For its hundredth anniversary in 1958 the Hallé commissioned several new works , including Walton 's virtuosic divertimento Partita . Increasingly , Barbirolli concentrated on his core repertory of the standard symphonic classics , the works of English composers , and late @-@ romantic music , particularly that of Mahler . In the 1960s he made a series of international tours with the Philharmonia ( Latin America , 1963 ) , BBC Symphony Orchestra ( Czechoslovakia , Poland and the USSR , 1967 ) and the Hallé ( Latin America and West Indies , 1968 ) . It was a lasting disappointment to him that it never proved possible to take the Hallé on a tour of the United States .
In 1968 , after 25 years with the Hallé , Barbirolli retired from the principal conductorship ; no successor was appointed in his lifetime . He was appointed the orchestra 's Conductor Laureate . He reduced the number of his appearances with the Hallé , but nevertheless took it on another European tour in 1968 , this time to Switzerland , Austria and Germany . In his last years a propensity to concentrate on detail at the expense of the whole of a piece became marked . His loyal friend and admirer the critic Neville Cardus wrote privately in 1969 , " he seems so much to love a single phrase that he lingers over it , caressing it ; meanwhile the general momentum is lost . " His final year , 1970 , was dogged by heart trouble ; he suffered collapses in April , May , June and July . His last two concerts were with the Hallé at the 1970 King 's Lynn Festival . He produced " inspired " renderings of Elgar 's Symphony No. 1 and Sea Pictures . The last work he conducted in public was Beethoven 's Symphony No. 7 on the Saturday before his death . On the day he died , 29 July 1970 , he spent several hours rehearsing the New Philharmonia Orchestra for a forthcoming tour of Japan that he was scheduled to lead .
Barbirolli died at his London home of a heart attack , aged 70 . He was cremated and his ashes interred in his parents ' grave at Kensal Green Cemetery , London . Among planned engagements forestalled by his death were a production of Otello at the Royal Opera House , which would have been his first appearance there for nearly 20 years , and opera recordings for EMI , including Puccini 's Manon Lescaut and Verdi 's Falstaff .
= = Honours , awards and memorials = =
Among Barbirolli 's state awards were a British knighthood in 1949 and Companion of Honour in 1969 ; the Finnish Grand Star and Collar of Commander 1st Class of the Order of the White Rose in 1963 ; from Italy the Order of Merit in 1964 ; and from France , Officier de l 'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , 1966 , and Officier de l 'Ordre national du Mérite , 1968 . Awards from musical institutions included the Freedom of the Worshipful Company of Musicians , 1966 ; Honorary Academician of the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia , 1960 ; Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society , 1950 ; Bruckner Medal , Bruckner Society of America , 1959 ; and the Mahler Medal , Mahler @-@ Bruckner Society of America , 1965 .
There are memorials to Barbirolli in Manchester and London . Barbirolli Square in Manchester is named in his honour and features a sculpture of him by Byron Howard ( 2000 ) . The square includes the present base of the Hallé Orchestra , the Bridgewater Hall , in which the Barbirolli Room commemorates the conductor . At his old school , St Clement Danes , now relocated in Chorleywood , the main hall is named in his honour . A commemorative blue plaque was placed on the wall of the Bloomsbury Park Hotel in Southampton Row in May 1993 to mark Barbirolli 's birthplace . The Sir John Barbirolli Memorial Foundation of the Royal Philharmonic Society was instituted after his death to assist young musicians with the purchase of instruments . In 1972 the Barbirolli Society was set up with the principal aim of promoting the continued release of Barbirolli 's recorded performances . Its honorary officers have included Evelyn Barbirolli , Daniel Barenboim and Michael Kennedy . In April 2012 , he was voted into the inaugural Gramophone " Hall of Fame " .
= = Repertoire and recordings = =
Barbirolli is remembered as an interpreter of Elgar , Vaughan Williams and Mahler , as well as Schubert , Beethoven , Sibelius , Verdi and Puccini , and as a staunch supporter of new works by British composers . Vaughan Williams dedicated his Seventh and Eighth Symphonies to Barbirolli , whose nickname , " Glorious John " , comes from the inscription Vaughan Williams wrote at the head of the score of the Eighth : " For glorious John , with love and admiration from Ralph . " Barbirolli did not disdain lighter repertoire . The music critic Richard Osborne wrote that , if all Barbirolli 's recordings were to be lost except that of Lehár 's Gold and Silver Waltz , " there would be reason enough to say , ' Now , there was a conductor ! ' "
Barbirolli 's repertoire was not as wide as that of many of his colleagues because he insisted on exhaustive preparation for any work he conducted . His colleague Sir Adrian Boult liked and admired Barbirolli but teased him for his meticulousness : " We can 't all be like you and spend months studying these things and then have days of rehearsals before we conduct them . For some of us they 're only sporting events . " Barbirolli was shocked by such levity . His approach was illustrated by the care he took with Mahler 's symphonies . His biographer Michael Kennedy commented , " it is ironical that the effort of composing the symphonies shortened Mahler 's life ; interpreting them certainly put an enormous strain on Barbirolli in his last decade . " He found that mastering a Mahler symphony took between 18 months and two years , and he would spend hours meticulously bowing all the string parts in preparation for his performances . His first performance of Mahler 's Ninth took nearly 50 hours of rehearsal .
= = = Pre @-@ war = = =
From almost the start of his career Barbirolli was a frequent recording artist . As a young cellist he made four records for Edison Bell in 1911 , with piano accompaniment by his sister Rosa , and as part of the Kutcher and the Music Society string quartets he recorded music by Mozart , Purcell , Vaughan Williams and others in 1925 and 1926 . As a conductor he began recording in 1927 for the National Gramophonic Society ( an offshoot of The Gramophone ) . Among his records from that period was the first to be made of Elgar 's Introduction and Allegro for Strings . On hearing it , the composer said , " I 'd never realised it was such a big work . " Elgar , despite an extensive discography as a conductor , never recorded the work himself , and some have speculated that " the breadth , nobility and lyrical poetry " of Barbirolli 's interpretation left the composer disinclined to compete . In 1928 Barbirolli made some recordings for the Edison Bell label . The same year , he began his long association with the His Master 's Voice ( HMV ) label . Immediately after the LSO concert at which he had stood in for Beecham , he was approached by Fred Gaisberg , the chief recording producer for HMV who signed him for his company shortly afterwards . An HMV colleague of Gaisberg described Barbirolli as " a treasure " , because he " could accompany Chaliapin without provoking an uproar , win golden opinions from Jascha Heifetz , Artur Rubinstein , Fritz Kreisler and Pablo Casals , and conduct one of the finest recorded performances of the Quintet from Meistersinger " .
Many of Barbirolli 's pre @-@ war recordings for HMV were of concertos . His reputation as an accompanist tended to obscure his talents as a symphonic conductor , and later , his detractors in New York " damned him with faint praise by exalting his powers as an accompanist and then implying that that was where it all stopped . " Barbirolli became very sensitive on this point , and for many years after the war he was reluctant to accompany anyone in the recording studio . Among his early HMV records are works , mainly concertos , by Brahms , Bruch , Chopin , Dvořák , Glazunov , Mendelssohn , Mozart , Schumann , Sibelius , Tchaikovsky and Vieuxtemps . From the 1990s onwards , archive recordings of Barbirolli 's early concerts in New York have been issued on CD . Kennedy wrote in 2004 that they " prove that the orchestra played superbly for him and that the criticism of him was largely unjustified . " Recordings from this period include symphonies by Beethoven , Mendelssohn , Mozart , Schubert , Schumann , Sibelius and Tchaikovsky , and other orchestral music by Berlioz , Debussy , Menotti , Purcell , Ravel , Respighi , and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov .
= = = 1943 and later = = =
Within six months of his return to Britain in 1943 , Barbirolli resumed his contract with HMV , conducting the Hallé in the Third Symphony of Bax and the Fifth of Vaughan Williams , followed by works by a wide range of composers from Corelli to Stravinsky . In 1955 he signed a contract with Pye Records , with whom he and the Hallé recorded a wide repertoire , and made their first stereophonic recordings . These records were distributed in the US by Vanguard Records . A company was formed , named Pye @-@ Barbirolli , of which he was a director : the arrangement was designed to ensure an equal partnership between the company and the musicians . They made many recordings , including symphonies by Beethoven , Dvořák , Elgar , Mozart , Nielsen , Sibelius , Mahler , Tchaikovsky and Vaughan Williams , as well as a few concertos , short orchestral pieces and operatic excerpts .
In 1962 , HMV persuaded Barbirolli to return . With the Hallé he recorded a Sibelius symphony cycle , Elgar 's Second Symphony , Falstaff and The Dream of Gerontius , Schubert 's Ninth Symphony , Vaughan Williams 's A London Symphony , and works by Grieg and Delius . With other orchestras , Barbirolli recorded a wide range of his repertoire , including many recordings still in the catalogues in 2012 . Of these , his Elgar recordings include the Cello Concerto with Jacqueline du Pré , Sea Pictures with Janet Baker , and orchestral music including the First Symphony , Enigma Variations and many of the shorter works . His Mahler recordings include the Fifth and Sixth Symphonies ( with the New Philharmonia ) and Ninth Symphony ( with the Berlin Philharmonic ) . With the Vienna Philharmonic , he recorded a Brahms symphony cycle , and with Daniel Barenboim , the two Brahms Piano Concertos . He made three operatic sets for HMV : Purcell 's Dido and Aeneas with Victoria de los Ángeles ( 1966 ) , Verdi 's Otello with James McCracken , Gwyneth Jones and Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau ( 1969 ) , and a set of Madama Butterfly with Renata Scotto , Carlo Bergonzi and Rome Opera forces that has remained in the catalogues since its first issue in 1967 . The impact of the last was such that the head of the Rome Opera invited him to come and conduct " any opera you care to name with as much rehearsal as you wish . " HMV planned to record Die Meistersinger with Barbirolli in Dresden in 1970 , but following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 he refused to conduct in the Soviet bloc , and his place was taken by Herbert von Karajan .
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= Article 15 of the Constitution of Singapore =
Article 15 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore guarantees freedom of religion in Singapore . Specifically , Article 15 ( 1 ) states : " Every person has the right to profess and practise his religion and to propagate it . "
The terms profess , practise and propagate are not defined in the Constitution , but cases from Singapore and other jurisdictions may shed light on their meaning . The word profess in relation to a religion was defined in a 1964 Singapore case not involving the Constitution as meaning " to affirm , or declare one 's faith in or allegiance to " . A 2001 Malaysian decision suggested that the profession of religion does not encompass the renunciation of a religion or the profession of an irreligious viewpoint . As regards the word propagate , in 1977 the Supreme Court of India held that it confers on an individual the right to transmit or spread his or her religion by an exposition of its tenets , but not the right to convert another person who holds a pre @-@ existing religious belief to one 's own religion . These issues have not yet come before the Singapore courts for determination . On the other hand , in 1999 the Court of Appeal attempted to draw a line between religious practices and secular facts , taking the view that singing the National Anthem and saying the National Pledge were the latter . Thus , rules that compelled a teacher to engage in these activities in an educational institution could not be regarded as having infringed his right to practise his religion .
Freedom of religion under Article 15 ( 1 ) is not absolute as it is qualified by Article 15 ( 4 ) of the Constitution , which provides that the rights secured by Article 15 do not authorize any act contrary to any general law relating to public order , public health or morality . These limitations upon the freedom of religion are an important aspect of Singapore 's secularism . The Singapore courts have interpreted the term public order to be equivalent to the concepts of " public peace , welfare and good order " referred to in section 24 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Societies Act ( Cap . 311 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) , rather than taking the narrower view that public order means freedom from unlawful physical violence . There has also been academic criticism of the fact that the courts have not applied any form of balancing test to determine whether freedom of religion has been reasonably restricted . On the contrary , where national security is said to be involved , the courts have deferred to the Government as to the necessity for the restrictive legislation . The terms public health and morality in Article 15 ( 4 ) have yet to be judicially interpreted .
= = Text of Article 15 = =
Article 15 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore is entitled " Freedom of religion " and reads as follows :
15 . — ( 1 ) Every person has the right to profess and practise his religion and to propagate it .
( 2 ) No person shall be compelled to pay any tax the proceeds of which are specially allocated in whole or in part for the purposes of a religion other than his own .
( 3 ) Every religious group has the right —
( a ) to manage its own religious affairs ;
( b ) to establish and maintain institutions for religious or charitable purposes ; and
( c ) to acquire and own property and hold and administer it in accordance with law .
( 4 ) This Article does not authorise any act contrary to any general law relating to public order , public health or morality .
In Nappalli Peter Williams v. Institute of Technical Education ( 1999 ) , the Court of Appeal affirmed that the Constitution generally adopts what is known as accommodative secularism by " removing restrictions to one 's choice of religious belief " .
Article 15 ( 1 ) is in pari materia with Article 11 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of Malaysia , from which it was adopted following Singapore 's independence from Malaysia in 1965 . The latter states : " Every person has the right to profess and practice his religion and , subject to clause ( 4 ) , to propagate it . " Article 15 ( 1 ) also contains similarities to Article 25 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of India : " Subject to public order , morality and health and to the other provisions of this Part , all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess , practise and propagate religion . "
= = Meaning of profess , practise and propagate = =
= = = Profess = = =
The word profess in Article 15 ( 1 ) is not defined in the Constitution , but the case Re Mohamed Said Nabi , deceased ( 1964 ) may provide guidance . The issue in the case was the meaning of the word Muslim in the Muslims Ordinance 1957 which was defined as " a person who professes the religion of Islam " . The High Court held that to come within the definition , one must be shown to be an orthodox Muslim and must have outwardly manifested and practiced Islam ; merely having been born into that religion was insufficient . More specifically , Justice F.A. Chua referred to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary and noted that the word profess means " to affirm , or declare one 's faith in or allegiance to ( a religion , principle , God or Saint etc . ) " .
However , to determine if one has in fact " professed " a religion , a proper scrutiny of the entire circumstances is necessary . On the facts , the deceased was brought up as a Muslim , married under Muslim rites , and had held Muslim religious ceremonies in his house which he had taken part in . This was strong evidence that he professed the religion of Islam , despite the fact that he had also engaged in the heterodox practices of drinking alcohol and eating pork . The judge held that such practices did not amount to a renunciation of the religion , and added that someone who had been born into the religion must be held to be a member of that religion unless it is proved he has adopted some other religion .
The Malaysian interpretation of the term profess in Article 11 ( 1 ) of the Malaysian Constitution may be relevant as that provision is worded similarly to Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Singapore Constitution . In Daud bin Mamat v. Majlis Agama Islam ( 2001 ) , it was held that the act of exiting one 's religion does not fall under the meaning of professing and practising one 's religion . In the judge 's view , " to accept that professing no religion equated to ' a religion ' or the ' right to profess and practice it ' would stretch the definition in Article 11 too far " . On the other hand , it might be argued that the freedom to renounce one 's religion or to profess not to have a religion is a corollary of the freedom to profess a religion . This issue has not yet come before the Singapore courts for determination .
= = = Practise = = =
The Constitution is also silent on what constitutes practising a religion for the purposes of Article 15 ( 1 ) . The local courts have defined the word practise by indicating what types of acts are not considered religious practices . In Nappalli , the Court of Appeal held that singing of the National Anthem and reciting the National Pledge were not religious practices but rather expressions of national patriotism , which were secular acts . The Canadian case Donald v. The Board of Education for the City of Hamilton ( 1945 ) was distinguished ; in that case , singing the national anthem was held to constitute a religious practice because the anthem contained a prayer hymn which " unquestionably reflected some religious character " .
In Nappalli , the appellant was dismissed from an educational institution for his refusal to participate in the aforementioned acts . Central to his claim was the submission that these acts were religious practices that went against his belief as a Jehovah 's Witness and thus infringed his constitutional right to practice and profess his religion guaranteed by Article 15 . However , the Court held that since " religion " in Singapore under the Constitution is restricted to " a citizen 's faith in a personal God " and does not include " a system of belief in one 's own country " , the acts in question were not religious practices . Hence , the appellant 's rights had not been contravened . The Court took the view that " the appellant 's interpretation of the pledge and anthem ceremony as a religious ceremony was a distortion of secular fact into religious belief " . If the appellant 's interpretation was correct , this would result in Article 15 ( 1 ) losing operative effect , for " [ h ] ow can the same Constitution guarantee religious freedom if , by asking citizens to pledge their allegiance to country , it is ( as the appellant suggests ) coercing participation in a religious ceremony ? This excruciatingly absurd interpretation cannot have been what was envisaged by the authors of the Constitution . "
The courts in Malaysia have taken a similar approach in defining the meaning of religious practice under Article 11 of the Malaysian Constitution . Furthermore , they have also consulted religious texts to determine what type of acts might constitute religious practices . In Halimatussaadiah v. Public Service Commission , Malaysia ( 1992 ) , the appellant claimed she had been wrongfully dismissed from her employment due to her refusal to comply with employment conditions that prohibited any attire that covered a female public servant 's face while on duty . According to the appellant , this contravened her right to religious practice on grounds that the wearing of the purdah was part of her religious practice as a Muslim . However , the court disagreed and held that the purdah was not considered a religious practice as it was not a requirement under Islam since there was no express mention of such a requirement in the Quran .
However , in the Philippines , the courts have accorded the individual autonomy to decide what constitutes religious practice . It is up to the individual to decide what constitutes religious practice so long as such acts do not offend public interest . This was the view proffered in Ebralinag v. Superintendent of Schools of Cebu ( 1993 ) , in which the issue was whether the petitioners , who were Jehovah 's Witnesses , ought to be expelled from schools for refusing to salute the flag , sing the national anthem and recite the oath of allegiance as required by the Republic Act No. 1265 of 11 July 1955 and other legislation . Cruz J. held that the state could not interpret the Bible for the petitioners as " only they can read it as they see fit . Right or wrong , the meaning they derive from it cannot be revised or reversed except perhaps by their own acknowledged superiors . But certainly not the State . It has no competence in this matter . "
= = = Propagate = = =
Singapore courts have not yet interpreted the word propagate in Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Constitution .
Article 25 ( 1 ) of the Indian Constitution , which is in the same terms as in Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Singapore Constitution , guarantees to individuals the right to freely " profess , practise and propagate " their religions . The term propagate was considered by the Supreme Court of India in Stanislaus v. State of Madhya Pradesh ( 1977 ) . The Court adopted a dictionary definition of propagate , which was " to transmit or spread from person to person or from place to place " . Accordingly , it held that the word as used in Article 25 ( 1 ) confers on an individual the right to transmit or spread one 's religion by an exposition of its tenets . In other words , an individual has the right to spread his or her religion by explaining to others the principles and beliefs underlying that particular religion . However , in the Court 's opinion Article 25 ( 1 ) does not confer the right to convert another person who holds a pre @-@ existing religious belief to one 's own religion as this would impinge on the " freedom of conscience " provided for in the Article , which accords each individual with the freedom to hold or consider a thought , fact or viewpoint independent from those of others . In short , the constitutional right to propagate one 's own religion is protected insofar as an individual who exercises this right respects the freedom of persons following other religions . The Indian jurist Hormasji Maneckji Seervai has criticized Stanislaus and has said it should be overruled . He argued that when a person propagates his religion to another , that act does not violate the other person 's free conscience but allows that person an opportunity to freely choose a religion :
The right to propagate religion gives a meaning to freedom of choice , for choice involves not only knowledge but an act of will . A person cannot choose if he does not know what choices are open to him . To propagate religion is not to impart knowledge and to spread it more widely , but to produce intellectual and moral conviction leading to action , namely , the adoption of that religion . Successful propagation of religion would result in conversion .
= = Restrictions on the freedom of religion = =
Under Article 15 ( 4 ) of the Constitution , a person 's freedom of religion can be restricted by a general law relating to public order , public health or morality . The term general law is not defined in the Constitution , but may refer to a law that applies to all persons or places belonging to a particular class .
The restrictions on freedom of religion are an important reflection of Singapore 's secularism . Although the Constitution does not express the doctrine of secularism explicitly , the report of the 1966 Constitutional Commission described Singapore as a " democratic secular state " . Singapore 's secularism is similar to France 's secularism in that both models seek to " protect the state from religion " . However , unlike in Singapore , the principle of secularism in France is constitutionally expressed . In being secular , the Government of Singapore does not reject religion . Instead , it has been said to practise " accommodative secularism " .
The Government 's adherence to secularism has been criticized in that the unwritten principle of secularism has trumped the constitutional protection of freedom of religion . For instance , in 2002 a controversy arose upon the suspension of four Muslim girls from school when their parents insisted that they wear the tudung ( Islamic headscarf ) to national schools . Section 61 of the Education Act empowers the Minister for Education to regulate schools , including prohibiting students from wearing anything not forming part of an official school uniform . The parents of the schoolgirls took the view that the Ministry of Education 's school uniform policy was unconstitutional as it violated the girls ' freedom of religion under Article 15 ( 1 ) . While the parents eventually did not pursue legal proceedings against the Ministry , the controversy showed the Singapore Government 's steadfastness in insisting on secularism and the difficulties in reconciling secularism and freedom of religion in Singapore .
= = = Meaning of public order , public health and morality = = =
= = = = Public order = = = =
The term public order is not defined in the Constitution but has been judicially deliberated in a series of important legal cases involving the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses .
In Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Public Prosecutor ( 1994 ) , the Minister of Home Affairs had deregistered the Jehovah 's Witnesses by Order No. 179 / 1972 made pursuant to section 24 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Societies Act . This provision allows for the dissolution of registered organizations considered to be threats to public peace , welfare or good order . The Minister had also made Order No. 123 / 1972 and Order No. 405 / 1994 pursuant to section 3 ( 1 ) of the Undesirable Publications Act , prohibiting publications by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society relating to the Jehovah 's Witnesses . The appellants were convicted in a district court for possession of prohibited publications . They appealed and sought to challenge the constitutionality of the Minister 's prohibition order and the deregistration of the Jehovah 's Witnesses , arguing that their right to freedom of religion guaranteed by Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Constitution had been infringed .
Counsel for the appellants submitted that the Jehovah 's Witnesses in Singapore were a small , non @-@ violent group and that there was no evidence their activities were against public order in any manner . He relied on the Malaysian case Tan Boon Liat v. Menteri Hal Ehwal Dalam Negeri , Malaysia ( 1976 ) , which considered the meaning of public order in the context of section 4 ( 1 ) of the Emergency ( Public Order and Prevention of Crime ) Ordinance 1969 ( Malaysia ) :
The expression ' public order ' is not defined anywhere but danger to human life and safety and the disturbance of public tranquillity must necessarily fall within the purview of the expression ... [ T ] he test to be adopted in determining whether an act affects law and order or public order is this : Does it lead to disturbance of the current of life of the community so as to amount to disturbance of the public order or does it affect merely an individual leaving the tranquillity of the society undisturbed ?
Chief Justice Yong Pung How rejected this conception of public order . He noted that Singapore had a policy of compulsory military service known as National Service , and that the Minister had taken the view that the continued existence of the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses , which held the belief that military service was forbidden , was contrary to public peace , welfare and good order . As such , since the Minister had formed the view that the Jehovah 's Witnesses were a threat to national security , it was not open to the court to take a different view on the matter . Yong C.J. said in his judgment : " I could not see how the concept of public order as envisaged under Art 15 ( 4 ) is dissimilar to the notion of public peace , welfare and good order within s 24 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Societies Act . " He emphasized that the right to religious freedom was not an absolute right as it was subject to the inherent limitations set out in Article 15 ( 4 ) . The right of freedom of religion had to be reconciled with the " right of the state to employ the sovereign power to ensure peace , security and orderly living , without which the constitutional guarantee of civil liberty would be a mockery " . Accordingly , the appeal was dismissed .
In 1995 , the Minister for Information and the Arts made Order No. 405 / 1995 banning materials published by the International Bible Students Association , an organization associated with the Jehovah 's Witnesses . In Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts ( 1995 ) , the plaintiffs sought leave to apply for an order of certiorari to quash the order , alleging that it was ultra vires as it contravened , among other things , Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Constitution . Presiding over the case in the High Court , Justice Judith Prakash referred to Yong C.J. ' s holding in Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. P.P. ( 1994 ) concerning the meaning of public order .
In a 1995 commentary on Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. P.P. ( 1994 ) , Professor Thio Li @-@ ann noted that in other jurisdictions a lack of public order includes the notion of " endangerment to human life and safety as well as the disruption of public tranquillity " , and argued that " [ t ] o establish that public order is threatened , it appears that some degree of violence or unlawful physical violence must be shown " . Using this as a point of reference , she criticized Yong C.J. ' s equation of public order with " public peace , welfare or good order " .
= = = = Public health and morality = = = =
The Singapore courts have not yet interpreted the meaning of the terms public health and morality in Article 15 ( 4 ) .
The UK case of R. ( Ghai ) v. Newcastle City Council ( 2009 ) is therefore interesting for purposes of comparison . The claimant , an orthodox Hindu , applied to his local authority for land to be dedicated for traditional open air funeral pyres . The local authority refused the request , relying on subsidiary legislation that made it an offence to burn human remains other than in a crematorium . The claimant then applied for judicial review , submitting that the decision infringed his right to manifest his religion or belief which was protected by Article 9 ( 1 ) of the European Convention on Human Rights . The High Court found that the statutory interference with the claimant 's right was justified as it was necessary for the protection of public morals and of the rights and freedoms of others . The Court of Appeal reversed the judgment on grounds unrelated to Article 9 , holding that open air pyres were permissible on a proper construction of the legislation .
= = = Test for determining if restriction of right is appropriate = = =
= = = = Singapore = = = =
In Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. P.P. ( 1994 ) , counsel for the appellants argued that there had to be a " clear and immediate danger " to public order before the right of freedom of religion could be restricted , and in this case the restriction was unjustified since there had been no such threat at all . However , Yong C.J. said that attempt to apply the " clear and immediate danger " test was misplaced :
It cannot be said that beliefs , especially those propagated in the name of " religion " , should not be put to a stop until such a scenario exists . If not , it would in all probability be too late as the damage sought to be prevented would have transpired .
However , Yong C.J. did not articulate any alternative test for determining if a restriction upon freedom of religion is appropriate . Quoting Malaysian Chief Justice Hashim Yeop Sani 's judgment in the case Minister for Home Affairs , Malaysia v. Jamaluddin bin Othman ( 1989 ) , he agreed that " [ t ] he freedom to profess and practise one 's religion should not be turned into a licence to commit unlawful acts or acts tending to prejudice or threaten the security of the country " . Yong C.J. considered that since " the sovereignty , integrity and unity of Singapore are undoubtedly the paramount mandate of the Constitution " , religious beliefs and practices which tended to run counter to these objectives had to be restrained .
In the appeal against Prakash J. ' s judgment to the Court of Appeal , also called Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts ( 1996 ) , counsel for the appellants argued that the restriction placed by the Minister on the importation , sale and distribution of the Jehovah 's Witnesses publications was too wide and disproportionate . Applying an approach similar to that taken in Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. P.P. ( 1994 ) , the Court of Appeal noted that the appellants were essentially seeking to challenge the view taken by the Minister that Jehovah 's Witnesses ' refusal to carry out National Service was a threat to national security . The Court regarded this as a non @-@ justiciable issue and declined to allow the appellants to bring an application for judicial review of Order No. 405 / 1995 .
Professor Thio Li @-@ ann has argued that since Article 15 ( 1 ) is the general statement of principle that guarantees freedom of religion while Article 15 ( 4 ) is an exception to the general principle , Yong C.J. ' s assertion that " actions undertaken or flowing from [ religious ] beliefs must conform with the general law relating to public order and social protection " is incorrect . In making a case against judicial deference and for judicial balancing of interests , she says :
It is the judicial role to devise constitutional tests like a [ n ] Object of Act – Art 15 ( 4 ) nexus test or to ensure that a sufficient relationship exists between the means and end of the Act , with the end conforming to an Art 15 ( 4 ) ground . Any other interpretation runs the risk of the exception swallowing up the general , which would make a mockery of any constitutional liberty .
In Thio 's view , courts should adopt a three @-@ step proportionality approach when interpreting constitutional fundamental liberties . A judge should first " identify the interests behind two competing rights eg the value of religious liberty as a source of private and public virtue as well as being an aspect of free conscience as against the value of having public order and a stable environment . Secondly , these factors are all to be placed on the Libra @-@ like balancing scales of justice so that their merits and demerits can be assessed against each other . ... Thirdly , all things considered , the Judge is to deliver his judgment as to where the balance should lie . " In the light of this approach , Yong C.J. ' s acceptance of the Minister 's view " as conclusive , refusing to question it on the basis of not wanting to transgress the legal / merits dichotomy " resulted in a failure to balance the interest of the appellants against that of the State .
= = = = Other jurisdictions = = = =
The situation in Singapore may be contrasted with the application of a proportionality analysis in other jurisdictions vis @-@ à @-@ vis the constitutional protection of freedom of religion . Section 2 ( a ) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that the freedom of conscience and religion is a fundamental freedom enjoyed by everybody . It is subject to section 1 : " The rights and freedoms set out in the Canadian Charter are subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society . "
In the important decision R. v. Oakes ( 1986 ) , the Supreme Court of Canada held that a two @-@ part test must be satisfied before a limitation infringing a right can be " saved " by section 1 . First , the limitation must have " an objective related to concerns which are pressing and substantial in a free and democratic society " ; and , second , it must be shown " that the means chosen are reasonable and demonstrably justified " . The second part is described as a " proportionality test " which requires the invoking party to show :
First , the measures adopted must be carefully designed to achieve the objective in question . They must not be arbitrary , unfair or based on irrational considerations . In short , they must be rationally connected to the objective . Second , the means , even if rationally connected to the objective in this first sense , should impair " as little as possible " the right or freedom in question . Third , there must be a proportionality between the effects of the measures which are responsible for limiting the Charter right or freedom , and the objective which has been identified as of " sufficient importance " .
In Multani v. Marguerite @-@ Bourgeoys ( Commission scolaire ) ( 2006 ) , the issue was whether a ban in a public school on Sikh students carrying kirpans ( ceremonial daggers ) for religious purposes was justifiable . Justice Louise Charron , who delivered the Court 's majority opinion , applied the Oakes test to section 2 ( a ) of the Charter . She held that the school could not discharge its burden of proving that prohibiting the kirpan was a reasonable limit on the student 's constitutional freedom of religion .
The UK Human Rights Act 1998 makes Article 9 ( 1 ) of the European Convention on Human Rights , which protects freedom of religion , enforceable in UK domestic law . Article 9 ( 2 ) states when the freedom of religion may be restricted : " Freedom to manifest one 's religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety , for the protection of public order , health or morals , or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others . " R. ( Begum ) v. Headteacher and Governors of Denbigh High School ( 2006 ) was a House of Lords case involving a female Muslim student who wished to wear a jilbab ( a long , coat @-@ like garment ) to comply with her understanding of the requirements of her faith , but was disallowed from doing so . Lord Bingham of Cornhill said that under Article 9 ( 2 ) , for a restriction to be justified it must be " prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society for a permissible purpose , that is , it must be directed to a legitimate purpose and must be proportionate in scope and effect " . In the end , a majority of the Law Lords hearing the appeal ( including Lord Bingham ) held that the appellant 's rights had not been interfered with . However , the court held unanimously that even if they had been , there were justifiable grounds for such interference , one of which was the need to protect the rights of other female students at the school who would not wish to be pressured into adopting a more extreme form of Muslim dress .
In Prince v. President of the Law Society of the Cape of Good Hope ( 2002 ) , the appellant challenged , among other things , the constitutionality of the South African Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act 1992 before the Constitutional Court of South Africa . He claimed that his religion – the Rastafari movement – required him to use cannabis and argued that the Act , which prohibited the possession of this drug , infringed his right to freedom of religion protected by section 15 of Chapter 2 of the Constitution of South Africa . Similar to section 1 of the Canadian Charter , section 36 ( 1 ) of the South African Constitution provides :
The rights in the Bill of Rights may be limited only in terms of law of general application to the extent that the limitation is reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based on human dignity , equality and freedom , taking into account all relevant factors , including
the nature of the right ;
the importance of the purpose of the limitation ;
and extent of the limitation ;
the relation between the limitation and its purpose ; and
less restrictive means to achieve the purpose .
Justice Sandile Ngcobo , writing for the minority , said that " [ t ] he limitation analysis ... involves the weighing up of competing values and ultimately an assessment based on proportionality " , and that in weighing competing interests and evaluating proportionality it was " necessary to examine the relation between the complete ban on the sacramental use or possession of cannabis by the Rastafari and the purpose of the limitation as well as the existence of the less restrictive means to achieve this purpose " . Ultimately , though , a majority of the Court held that although the appellant 's freedom of religion had been infringed , the infringement was justifiable in that the restriction was proportionate to the " war on drugs " policy of the State – a general exemption for religious purposes would be virtually impossible to police and would interfere materially with the government 's ability to enforce its drug control legislation , and other proposed control schemes would be administratively unworkable .
A key distinction between the bills of rights of the Commonwealth jurisdictions referred to above and the Singapore Constitution is that in the latter document , the grounds set out in Article 15 ( 4 ) for restricting freedom of religion are not expressly subject to any requirement of reasonableness or necessity in a democratic society . One may query whether this is sufficient justification for a Singapore court to decline to apply a proportionality analysis to Article 15 ( 4 ) .
= = = Burden of proof = = =
An applicant has the burden of proving that a legislative restriction on the freedom of speech has nothing to do with public order , public health or morality . There must be some substance in the applicant 's complaint – the Government does not have an immediate duty to justify making a decision that restricts the applicant 's right to freedom of speech simply because the applicant complains of an alleged infringement of Article 15 ( 1 ) .
= = = Instances of restrictions = = =
= = = = Right of propagation = = = =
Propagation of religion is not protected when it amounts to an act contrary to any general law relating to public order , public health , or morality under Article 15 ( 4 ) of the Constitution . In Public Prosecutor v. Koh Song Huat Benjamin ( 2005 ) , a District Court held that the right to propagate an opinion is not an unfettered right :
The right of one person 's freedom of expression must always be balanced by the right of another 's freedom from offence , and tempered by wider public interest considerations . It is only appropriate social behaviour , independent of any legal duty , of every Singapore citizen and resident to respect the other races in view of our multi @-@ racial society . Each individual living here irrespective of his racial origin owes it to himself and to the country to see that nothing is said or done which might incite the people and plunge the country into racial strife and violence . These are basic ground rules .
In Public Prosecutor v. Ong Kian Cheong ( 2009 ) , the District Court said that the above statement , which referred to opinions on race , applied with equal force to insensitive and denigrating opinions about religious beliefs . The case involved two accused persons who were convicted under the Sedition Act and the Undesirable Publications Act for distributing religious literature that was considered seditious and objectionable to Muslims . Section 3 ( 1 ) ( e ) of the Sedition Act defines a seditious tendency as including a tendency to " promote feelings of ill @-@ will and hostility between different races or classes of the population of Singapore " . In the course of spreading their own faith , the accused persons had offended public order by distributing religious materials that were objectionable to Muslims , and the Court regarded this to be beyond the bounds of the constitutional right to propagate religion . The Court was of the view that although a person is free to choose his or her own religion and to practise it , religious fervour to spread faith must be constrained by considerations of sensitivity , tolerance and mutual respect for the faith and religious beliefs of another . Individuals cannot claim to be ignorant of the sensitivity of race and religion in Singapore 's multi @-@ racial and multi @-@ religious society .
Larissis v. Greece ( 1999 ) points to other grounds on which the right to propagate one 's religion might reasonably be restricted in Singapore . In that case , the European Court of Human Rights accepted that the right to try to persuade another of one 's own religious beliefs is included in the " right to manifest [ one 's ] religion or belief " provided for by Article 9 ( 1 ) of the European Convention on Human Rights . However , this right is not void of limitations . Article 9 ( 2 ) of the Convention prescribes limitations to the freedom to manifest one 's religion " in the interests of public safety , for the protection of public order , health or morals , or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others " . The Court clarified that Article 9 ( 1 ) does not protect improper proselytism , such as when one offers material or social advantages to entice another to adopt certain religious beliefs , or when one applies improper pressure with a view to gaining new members for a religious group . On the facts of the case , the Court found that Article 9 had not been infringed by the prosecution of three air force officers for proselytizing to their subordinates , since the hierarchical nature of military life meant it was difficult for a subordinate to rebuff the approaches of persons of superior rank . Thus , a conversation which might be regarded as a harmless exchange of ideas in a civilian context could be seen in a military setting as harassment or the imposition of undue pressure in abuse of power .
= = Other constitutional provisions = =
In addition to Article 15 , there are other provisions in the Constitution that protect religious freedom . Article 12 ( 2 ) prohibits discrimination against Singapore citizens on the ground of , among others , religion in any law ; in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority ; or in the administration of any law relating to the acquisition , holding or disposition of property , or the establishing or carrying on of any trade , business , profession , vocation or employment .
Related to this is Article 16 , subsection ( 1 ) of which prohibits discrimination against citizens of Singapore on the ground only of , among others , religion in the administration of public educational institutions ( and , in particular , as regards the admission of students or the payment of fees ) , and in providing financial aid from public funds for the maintenance or education of students in any educational institution . The Constitution declares that religious groups have the right to establish and maintain institutions for the education of children and to provide them religious instruction in those institutions , but provides that people cannot be discriminated against on the ground only of religion in laws relating to such institutions or the administration of such laws . Furthermore , no person may be compelled to receive instruction in or take part in any ceremony or act of worship of a religion apart from his or her own .
The Government has a constitutional responsibility " constantly to care for the interests of the racial and religious minorities in Singapore " . In particular , the Government must exercise its functions in such a way as to recognize the special position of the Malays , the indigenous people of Singapore . Accordingly , it has the responsibility to " protect , safeguard , support , foster and promote their political , educational , religious , economic , social and cultural interests and the Malay language . " The Constitution also requires the Legislature to enact legislation to regulate Muslim religious affairs and to establish a council to advise the President concerning matters relating to Islam . The legislation in question is the Administration of Muslim Law Act .
= = = Cases = = =
Re Mohamed Said Nabi , deceased [ 1965 ] M.L.J. [ Malayan Law Journal ] 121 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Public Prosecutor [ 1994 ] ICHRL 26 , [ 1994 ] SGHC 207 , [ 1994 ] 3 S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 209 , archived from the original on 26 October 2012 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts [ 1995 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 627 , H.C. ( Singapore ) .
Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts [ 1996 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 294 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) .
Nappalli Peter Williams v. Institute of Technical Education [ 1999 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 529 , C.A. ( Singapore ) .
Prince v. President of the Law Society of the Cape of Good Hope [ 2002 ] ZACC 1 , 2002 ( 2 ) S.A. 794 , Constitutional Court ( South Africa ) .
Public Prosecutor v. Ong Kian Cheong [ 2009 ] SGDC 163 , District Court ( Singapore ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( 1999 Reprint ) .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 1995 ) , " The Secular Trumps the Sacred : Constitutional Issues Arising from Colin Chan v Public Prosecutor " , Singapore Law Review 16 : 26 – 103 , archived from the original on 21 October 2012 .
= = = Articles = = =
Jayasuriya , Kanishka ( 2001 ) , " The Exception Becomes the Norm : Law and Regimes of Exception in East Asia " , Asia @-@ Pacific Law and Policy Journal 2 ( 1 ) : 108 – 124 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 11 November 2010 .
Tan , Eugene K [ heng ] B [ oon ] ( 2009 ) , " From Clampdown to Limited Empowerment : Hard and Soft Law in the Calibration and Regulation of Religious Conduct in Singapore " , Law and Policy 31 ( 3 ) : 351 – 379 , doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 9930.2009.00294.x , SSRN 1418729 .
Tan , Eugene K [ heng ] B [ oon ] ( 2007 ) , " Norming ' Moderation ' in an ' Iconic Target ' : Public Policy and the Regulation of Religious Anxieties in Singapore " , Terrorism and Political Violence 19 ( 4 ) : 443 – 462 , doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 09546550701590610 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( December 2009 ) , " Between Eden and Armageddon : Navigating ' Religion ' and ' Politics ' in Singapore " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 365 – 405 , SSRN 1543624 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2004 ) , " Constitutional ' Soft ' Law and the Management of Religious Liberty and Order : The 2003 Declaration on Religious Harmony " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 414 – 443 , SSRN 953599 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2006 ) , " Control , Co @-@ optation and Co @-@ operation : Managing Religious Harmony in Singapore 's Multi @-@ Ethnic , Quasi @-@ Secular State " , Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly 33 ( 2 & 3 ) : 197 – 253 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 30 October 2011 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2009 ) , " The Cooperation of Religion and State in Singapore : A Compassionate Partnership in Service of Welfare " , Review of Faith and International Affairs 7 ( 3 ) : 33 – 45 , doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 15570274 @.@ 2009 @.@ 9523404 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2009 ) , " Courting Religion : The Judge between Caesar and God in Asian Courts " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 52 – 79 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 11 November 2010 .
= = = Books = = =
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ( 2011 ) , " Fundamental Liberties III : Freedom of Expression • Association • Assembly • Religion " , An Introduction to Singapore 's Constitution ( rev. ed . ) , Singapore : Talisman Publishing , pp. 186 – 203 at 197 – 203 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 6456 @-@ 9 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ; Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " Freedom of Religion " , Constitutional Law in Malaysia and Singapore ( 3rd ed . ) , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 1197 – 1344 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 795 @-@ 2 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2012 ) , " Freedom of Religion " , A Treatise on Singapore Constitutional Law , Singapore : Academy Publishing , pp. 869 – 923 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 07 @-@ 1515 @-@ 1 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2008 ) , " Religion in the Public Sphere of Singapore : Wall of Division or Public Square ? " , in Turner , Bryan S. , ed . , Religious Pluralism and Civil Society : A Comparative Analysis , Oxford : Bardwell Press , pp. 73 – 104 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 905622 @-@ 11 @-@ 5 .
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= ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World =
" ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is a song by Super Furry Animals and was the second single taken from the band 's fifth album , Rings Around the World . The track reached number 28 on the UK Singles Chart on release in October 2001 . Singer Gruff Rhys has described the song as being about " rings of communication around the world . All the rings of pollution " .
Critical reaction to the track was generally positive with many reviewers comparing the song to the work of other groups such as Status Quo , ELO and The Beach Boys . A promotional music video was produced to accompany " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " ' s release as a single . Directed by Pedro Romhanyi the video features images of fictional television stations including " SFA TV " , which shows the band playing along with the track . An alternative video , directed by Sean Hillen , was included on the DVD version of Rings Around the World on its release in July 2001 . This video features the lyrics to the track scrolling slowly from the bottom of the screen upwards in front of an image of a globe . The DVD version of Rings Around the World also includes a Llwybr Llaethog remix of " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " .
= = Themes and recording = =
According to lead vocalist Gruff Rhys , " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is about " all the rings of communication around the world . All the rings of pollution , and all the radioactivity that goes around . If you could visualize all the things we don 't see , Earth could look like some kind of fucked @-@ up Saturn . And that 's the idea I have in my head – surrounded by communication lines and traffic and debris thrown out of spaceships . " Rhys has claimed that the theory was initially his girlfriend 's father 's . The track was recorded in 2000 at Monnow Valley Studio , Rockfield , Monmouthshire and was produced by the Super Furry Animals and Chris Shaw .
= = Musical structure = =
" ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is 3 minutes 29 seconds long and is in the key of B major . The track begins with feedback which plays while drums and a guitar , playing a riff based around a B chord , fade in . The first verse begins on 25 seconds with Gruff Rhys singing the lines " You expose the film in me , we 're drawing rings around the world " backed by harmony vocals on the title phrase . A short bridge plays , during which the guitar chords change from B , E and F ♯ to just E , F ♯ , E , F ♯ . Another verse , bridge and verse play before the last bridge which begins at 1 minute 23 seconds . The outro starts at 1 minute 32 seconds with Rhys singing " Ring ring , ring ring , rings around the world " over the chords B , D and F ♯ backed by harmony vocals . A guitar counter @-@ melody begins at 2 minutes 2 seconds and excerpts from phone calls the band made to random people around the world , including calls to the United States embassies in Madagascar and Moscow , a record shop in Osaka and a record company in Australia , play as the track fades out .
= = = Alternative version = = =
A Llwybr Llaethog remix of " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is included on the DVD version of Rings Around The World . The track is 3 minutes 33 seconds in length and begins with a reed organ playing a riff in the key of B major . The remix largely follows the arrangement of the original but , for the majority of its duration , dispenses with the instrumental backing , featuring just Gruff Rhys 's main vocals , the band 's backing vocals and excerpts from the random phonecalls the group made alongside occasional organ and cymbals . Towards the end of the track the original version 's guitar , drums and bass appear briefly before the song ends with the same reed organ riff that appeared at the start .
= = Critical response = =
Critical reaction to " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " was generally positive with many journalists comparing the song to the work of other groups . Writing for the NME , Ted Kessler described the track as " Status Quo for Generation X @-@ ers with a Manhattan Portage full of millennial tension " and went on to ask " who said there was anything wrong with that ? " in his review of the song on its release as a single , despite his earlier review of Rings Around the World claiming that the album would benefit from the removal of the " Status Quo @-@ ish title track " . Q described the track as " excellent " while PopMatters claimed the song " sounds so much like ELO that it blows away everything on last year 's ELO reunion album " and the Dallas Observer stated that " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is a " Beach Boys / Beatles / ELO homage as fine as the ' 70s heyday of Roy Wood 's Wizzard or very early Cheap Trick " .Pitchfork Media stated that the song " takes the upbeat Britpop of their debut album and layers on spectral details " while Uncut described the track as " tooled up rock ' n ' roll modelled on " Surfin ' USA " . The Guardian claimed the song 's lyrics tackle environmental issues with a " sharp wit " while Drowned in Sound saw them as evidence that chief songwriter Gruff Rhys was " taking his lyrics a little bit more seriously " . The song was placed at number 21 in the 2001 Festive Fifty on John Peel 's BBC Radio 1 show . " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " appeared on the soundtrack to the 2001 film Me Without You .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music videos = =
= = = Sean Hillen video = = =
A Sean Hillen @-@ directed music video was included on the DVD version of Rings Around the World released July 2001 . The video starts with a static shot of the 1994 collage The Great Pyramids of Carlingford Lough , Irelantis by Hillen , which shows a man in a red jumper sat in a wooded area overlooking a river and three pyramids ( this image was used for the front cover of all three formats of the single ) . The camera moves up to reveal a rotating globe in a stary sky . As " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " begins to play , the text " In the beginning ... No ! Long before that ... " scrolls slowly from the bottom of the screen upwards . The song 's lyrics are displayed in the same manner throughout the remainder of the video as several objects circle the globe including a flying saucer , metal cube and fireworks . Occasionally the camera switches to a close up view of the globe showing models of huge missile firing electricity pylons . As the song comes to an end the text " Every building has been built " appears in the middle of the screen and the camera pans down to show a black @-@ and @-@ white version of the Hillen collage used in the opening shot .
Keyboard player Cian Ciaran has stated that the band deliberately tried to avoid making videos that looked like just " another pop promo ... like MTV " for the DVD version of Rings Around the World and asked the directors to make the visuals as " extreme as possible " . Ciaran claims the directors had to " work even harder at creating something interesting " due to the limited budget available .
= = = Pedro Romhanyi video = = =
A promotional music video , directed by Pedro Romhanyi , was produced to accompany the release of " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " as a single . According to Gruff Rhys the band made separate videos for Rings Around the World 's three singles as they saw the videos included on the DVD release of the album as " pure art " whereas they needed promotional music videos that were more like adverts for the songs . The video begins with a shot of the band in an all white room playing along to the track . A station identification logo for " SFA television " is seen in the top left and a green graphic appears , showing the volume level being turned up . The camera pans back to reveal a TV which switches channel from " SFA " to a station showing golf . The rest of the video continues this pattern , continually flicking between the band and a variety of other stations , which generally feature similar logos to real life channels but with slightly different names e.g. " Cartoon Animals " ( Cartoon Network ) , " CVQ " ( QVC ) , " Animal Channel " ( Discovery Channel ) Actors , news presenters , puppets , a golfer , an astronaut and weatherman sing along with the track as the television stops on the channel each appears on . As the video ends , the camera pans back to show a television in a room with a man having a telephone conversation . The camera continues to pan back showing this image on a television on a shelf in a small room . The camera pans back through three more televisions , each showing an image of the last shot , ending with a TV in a wallpapered room next to an electric fire . A few seconds before the video ends the screen turns to static . The Pedro Romhanyi video appears on the DVD release of the band 's greatest hits album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 and the Enhanced CD version of the " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " single .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
Digipak Enhanced CD ( 6719082 )
" ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " – 3 : 30
" Edam Anchorman " – 3 : 23
" All the Shit U Do " – 2 : 30
" ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World ( Video ) " – 3 : 30
12 " ( 6719086 ) , MC ( 6719084 )
" ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " – 3 : 30
" Edam Anchorman " – 3 : 23
" All the Shit U Do " – 2 : 30
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
= = Singles chart positions = =
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= Super Bowl XLVI halftime show =
The Super Bowl XLVI halftime show , on February 5 , 2012 , was part of Super Bowl XLVI at the Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis . It featured Madonna and guests LMFAO , Nicki Minaj , M.I.A. and CeeLo Green . In 2011 , the National Football League ( NFL ) announced that Madonna would perform at the Super Bowl XLVI show . The singer collaborated with Cirque du Soleil on the show , where her longtime choreographer Jamie King was music director ; King , in turn , enlisted the multimedia @-@ show producer Moment Factory . Madonna performed four songs , beginning with " Vogue " in a Roman @-@ Egyptian setting and followed by " Music " with LMFAO . Minaj and M.I.A. joined Madonna for her new single , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " , and Madonna finished with Green on " Like a Prayer " .
Preparations began in January , with Madonna saying that the rehearsal was the most exhausting one in which she had ever participated . Costumes were designed by Riccardo Tisci , Givenchy , Miu Miu and Prada . The performance required 500 outfits , including customized costumes for the musical guests and assisting performers . The production team was allotted seven minutes to set up the stage , 12 minutes for the performance and eight minutes to take down the stage . The modular structure was assembled from a truck , with a large white fabric in front as media screens for Moment Factory . Projection mapping was used by video @-@ hardware manufacturer Barco , with films modified for the spectators and the television audience . The stadium was equipped with Sharpys lighting arrangements from Clay Paky , and the show used Sennheiser sound equipment .
Madonna was not paid for performing at the halftime show , which provides global exposure for an artist . The show was a success , setting a Super Bowl halftime @-@ show record of 114 million viewers ( higher than the viewership of the game itself ) . Keith Caulfield of Billboard reported a 17 @-@ fold sales increase for Madonna 's back catalog and strong preorder sales for her upcoming releases . Critics praised the show , noting Madonna 's cautious performance . However , M.I.A. extended her middle finger to the camera near the end of her verse of " Give Me All Your Luvn ' " in place of the word " shit " . The rapper was criticized , and the NFL apologized for its inability to blur out the image . The league later fined M.I.A. $ 16 @.@ 6 million , which was settled in a confidential 2014 agreement .
= = Synopsis = =
The halftime show was broadcast on NBC . It began as a procession to the stage , with men dressed as gladiators pulling a large structure hidden from view by large gold @-@ colored flags . As " Vogue " began the flags were removed , revealing Madonna in a long , gold @-@ colored cape and an ancient @-@ Egyptian headdress seated on a large throne . The procession reached the stage , and the singer began performing " Vogue " . During the chorus , the stadium floor lit up to reveal animated Vogue magazine covers featuring Madonna . As " Vogue " segued into " Music " , two large boom boxes appeared on the ground screens and the stadium handrails were lit with moving lights . Madonna and her dancers moved towards the stands . Slacklining performer Andy Lewis accompanied the singer , who danced on a tall pedestal . Madonna pretended to shoot Lewis and moved to the other end of the stage , where LMFAO sang " Party Rock Anthem " in a segue from " Music " . They and Madonna danced to " Sexy and I Know It " .
" Music " ended with a group of female dancers in cheerleading uniforms joining Madonna onstage for " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " . Nicki Minaj and M.I.A. joined her onstage , dressed in Egyptian @-@ style clothing , and they danced as cheerleaders with pom @-@ poms . During the song they stood on separate , elevated platforms , where Minaj and M.I.A. performed their respective verses . CeeLo Green came onstage with a marching band at the end of the song , and he and Madonna performed portions of " Open Your Heart " and " Express Yourself " . " Like a Prayer " opened to a darkened stadium , with small specks of light visible , and a large choir dressed in black joined Madonna onstage . She reached the top of the bleachers and sang the final line before being pulled beneath the stage , surrounded by smoke . The show ended with " World peace " appearing on the ground screens with an image of the continents .
= = Background = =
According to CBS News , Madonna had been asked to perform in the 1998 and 2000 Super Bowl halftime shows but cancelled both . In January 2000 she was scheduled to perform her new single , " American Pie " , at the Super Bowl XXXV halftime show . However , she withdrew from the commitment due to a conflict with her recording schedule . In a statement at the time , Madonna expressed " sincere apologies " to the league and said : " I look forward to the possibility of doing something with the NFL in the future . "
In late 2011 Madonna was busy with the release of her film W.E. and with recording her twelfth studio album , MDNA . The singer was reportedly signed by the NFL for the Super Bowl halftime show , and in December the league confirmed that Madonna would perform in the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis . The game was scheduled for February 5 , 2012 , and its organizers continued their practice of inviting global musicians to perform . Artists who had previously performed in the show included the Black Eyed Peas , Bruce Springsteen , the Rolling Stones , the Who , Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers , U2 , Paul McCartney and Prince . The show coincided with the release of W.E. in United States .
Madonna collaborated with Cirque du Soleil to produce the show , and her longtime choreographer Jamie King was its music director . King suggested hiring Moment Factory . The production studio , which had worked on Celine Dion 's Las Vegas residency shows , specializes in multimedia effects . Jacques Methe , Cirque du Soleil executive producer for special events , said that it was " contributing to the creative process that will lead to the creation of this very special moment ... For us , it 's an interesting opportunity . It 's not something that we do very often , working with other stars " . According to Methe , Cirque du Soleil was involved with the creative side of the halftime show and its logistical challenges . The circus had previously put together a nine @-@ minute pregame show at the 2007 Super Bowl . " Our work has been done mostly to help magnify and create an environment for the artists " , said Moment Factory executive producer Eric Fournier , citing shows in which the studio had used lighting and video projections for special effects .
= = Development = =
= = = Rehearsals = = =
Rehearsals began in January 2012 in a New York studio , and lasted for 12 hours . Rappers Nicki Minaj and M.I.A. , who had collaborated on Madonna 's single " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " , said that the rehearsals were " the most grueling thing [ they had ] ever done and wouldn 't expect anything else , calling it an ' epic learning experience ' " . Minaj confirmed her performance in the show with a Twitter message , and rapper will.i.am confirmed that the American electronic dance music group LMFAO would also join Madonna for the event .
According to the Los Angeles Times , the NFL had coyly revealed the show 's set list in its magazine : " Though Madonna 's set list was not officially announced at press time , fans might expect her to give all her luvin ' , provide a ray of light and be in vogue with her music " . Before the show , Madonna expressed concern about the physical and time constraints of the event . " I have eight minutes to set up my stage , 12 minutes to put on the greatest show on Earth , and I have seven minutes to take it down . So , that football field is clean for the second half of the game " , she said . " How do you do that ? This is a Midwesterner girls dream to be performing at the Super Bowl half @-@ time show . In over 25 years of performing that I 've done , I have never worked so hard or been so scrupulous or detail @-@ orientated or freaked out . " The singer 's plan to have 100 drummers descend from the stadium ceiling was cancelled , since the structure could not support the weight .
= = = Fashion = = =
Madonna had promised that there would be no wardrobe malfunction during the show , alluding to controversy surrounding Janet Jackson 's performance in the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show . Madonna 's show 's fashion theme was the Roman Empire , with gladiator influences combined with modern Roman elements . Costume designer B. Akerlund created the dresses , which took over three months . Akerlund called on other designers to contribute to the costumes , which included Givenchy haute couture , boots by Miu Miu and earrings by Bvlgari . She worked closely with Madonna , who was involved with details including costuming the show 's gladiators . According to Akerlund :
This was by far the biggest challenge I have ever taken on in my career , and I could not be more honored to be a part of such an amazing and historical event . Nothing could ever come close to working with Madonna on this Super Bowl performance , her attention to detail and commitment to all of her projects is truly inspiring and life changing .
Madonna 's first dress was black , with a gold @-@ colored , pleated overskirt designed by Riccardo Tisci for Givenchy . The singer wore heavy jewelry , her blonde hair long and tightly waved , with diamond earrings by Bvlgari . Her first costume also had a gold @-@ sequined cape with a leopard @-@ print chiffon lining and Philip Treacy headgear . For " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " , Madonna , Minaj and M.I.A. wore red @-@ and @-@ black cheerleader outfits and carried gold @-@ colored pom @-@ poms . The singer wore a long @-@ sleeved black gown over the short black dress for her last performance . Riccardo Tisci said that he had made all of Madonna 's clothes , gloves , belts , hats and underwear . He had 28 choices for the singer , who decided on the gold cape . Although Tisci and his team had designed a shorter version of the cape , they had to re @-@ do it for the singer . The performance featured 500 outfits customized for LMFAO , Minaj , M.I.A. , Green , 100 drumline performers , 150 gladiators ( who wore black Calvin Klein underwear ) and 200 choir singers .
= = = Stage setup = = =
The 1 @,@ 500 crew members were allotted seven minutes to set up the stage , with the California @-@ based Torrence All Access Staging and Productions handling the required equipment . Erik Eastland of the company , who oversaw the setup , had been associated with the Grammy Awards and the Daytime Emmy Awards . About 70 percent of the workers were volunteers who underwent six months of screening , and the remainder were stage @-@ vendor employees . The main stage was 120 feet ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) long and modular , assembled in segments from six large trucks . The crew also set up the lighting , video , special effects and audio equipment .
The challenge may come from working outside in the elements . It could be 50 degrees when we rehearse and 50 below on game day , we 're working under the pretext that we can be doing this in snow or rain ... In a normal indoor environment we have seven minutes to install the stage and get it camera ready . That can be stretched to nine minutes . It 's the same time frame for this .
According to setup coordinator Douglas Cook , the rehearsals enabled them to reduce the setup time to under five minutes . Cook , who had worked on previous halftime shows , understood the details and guided the team . Drawings of the performances depicted what was expected for each setup , with the volunteers assembling the stage in segments and moving them to the field with carts . Madonna 's entrance had to be rehearsed several times for coordination . Although Cook learned during the game that the New England Patriots were scheduled to exit on the route used by volunteers carrying the stage equipment , he resolved the issue by talking with the team .
Set designer Bruce Rodgers , who had worked with Madonna on the Drowned World Tour in 2001 , was familiar with the singer 's work ethic . Rodgers , director Hamish Hamilton and executive producer Ricky Kirshner met several times with Madonna 's team , represented by choreographer Jamie King ( who presented the show 's initial concept ) . Rodgers developed a large , cross @-@ shaped stage with a central platform accessible by five hidden lifts , bleachers with an escape system at the rear , four positions for the band to play , an area for slacklining at one edge and ramps at the two ends of the cross . At the front of the stage was a 149 ft × 90 ft ( 45 m × 27 m ) white fabric , the main screen for the Moment Factory projections . Props included a Jimmie Martin @-@ designed gold @-@ leaf throne on a barge carried by 150 gladiators . Rodgers ' greatest challenges were getting the barge onstage and rehearsing the procession .
= = = Multimedia and video = = =
The stage used multimedia projection and technology conceived by Moment Factory and Cirque du Soleil . After Madonna 's entrance , the ground and stage floor revealed animated Vogue magazine covers featuring the singer . The effect was achieved by projection mapping , which turns an object ( often irregularly @-@ shaped ) into a surface for video projection . Although projection mapping had been used to introduce the Nokia Lumia and project images of NBA players on the Hudson River in 2011 , it had never been used on such a large scale . Moment Factory partner and executive producer Eric Fournier said that since the studio had been associated with technology @-@ dependent shows , preparing for and accommodating the requirements of the Super Bowl were easy . When Moment Factory began the halftime @-@ show preparations , Madonna 's team had already selected the songs , and the studio developed visual effects complementing the songs ' choreography . According to Moment Factory creative director Sakchin Bessette , using video projections was the most efficient method for the visual effects , as this required moving less equipment to the field than other methods . Fournier said , " It all came from the decision at the beginning to make a show out of it , not just a performance . Madonna 's a perfectionist , and she wanted to do something extraordinary , so that was the objective of everybody . "
The show 's major concepts included the shifting magazine covers , the Egyptian @-@ inspired procession , " intergalactic " boomboxes during " Music " and an effect which made the " stage appear to suck up the grass and chalk from the football field " . Some visuals were synchronized with the dancers and Madonna 's movements . When the visuals were decided , the Moment Factory and Cirque du Soleil staff watched the performances closely to adapt the backdrops to the choreography . Fournier relied on a " disciplined " team enlisted by the NFL and experienced with the video setup , which totaled 32 HD Barco projectors . The projectors were attached to eight pods of four projectors each to cover the entire stadium . Barco 's Projector Toolset was used to operate the screens and display the show 's videos . According to Fournier , " On TV there were a lot of closeups of Madonna and the dancers , but from the audience in the stadium , the show covered 50 yards . That was the idea : that the show , in essence , must eclipse the size of the stadium . " A consistent 10 to 12 people worked on the project to create , in essence , two shows : one for those at the stadium and one for the TV audience . Moment Factory coordinated with the show 's producers so it would be projected properly on television . Bessette said that the video resolution of the videos was very high ( almost 18 times that of normal high definition ) and moving the video files to proper locations was a problem : " We had to find a solution that would be spectacular and that would fit within those parameters " .
Rodgers used LMG , Inc for video , light and audio equipment . LMG , in turn , collaborated with the live @-@ event production company DWP Live on the show 's projection . According to DWP founder Danny Whetstone , using Barco helped with seamless projection and brightness adjustment : " It was essential that we hang the projectors straight down , 151 feet in the air , lens to field , in order to fill the enormous visual area with the converged image " . Barco 's HD20 has a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ lumen lighting capacity , rendering clear , bright images with high contrast .
= = = Lighting and sound = = =
Lucas Oil Stadium was equipped with Sharpys lighting arrangements from Clay Paky for the halftime show . Lighting designer Al Gurdon of Incandescent Designs enlisted console group PRG to help him install 204 Sharpys across the main stage . According to Gurdon , Madonna conceived the main idea ; the choreography @-@ driven show , centered on the main stage , was less logistically challenging than those in previous years . However , Gurdon had to ensure that the audience could enjoy the show from a distance and that Madonna was highlighted properly for the cameras . He and board operator Mike Owen brainstormed in England and tried a number of schemes for a week with CAST software . A " cleaner " approach was taken to prevent interference between the video projections and lighting . Gurdon placed the Sharpys together in rectangular areas , with 16 to 20 lights in each . This resulted in a strong , compact , moving light which could be split into smaller beams as needed .
Since the arrangement had to be set up in seven minutes , Gurdon developed a rig . He flew equipment to the roof of Lucas Oil , attaching it at a height of 175 feet ( 53 @.@ 3 m ) so that it would not interfere with camera movement during the game . At halftime , it was lowered to light the stadium . Golden light was used for the opening sequence , followed by black and white strobes for " Vogue " . A multicolored palette illuminated " Music " , and red predominated during " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " . " Like a Prayer " had another stream of gold Sharpys , evoking rays of sunlight .
Sennheiser sound equipment was used for the audio . According to Matt Napier , Madonna 's monitor engineer , they used Sennheiser 's Wireless Systems Manager software to tweak frequencies . Madonna used an HSP 4 headset at the beginning of the show , later switching to a Sennheiser SKM 5200 @-@ II handheld transmitter . Sennheiser transmitters were also used by Minaj , M.I.A. and LMFAO , and Green 's microphone used an MD 5235 capsule . Napier said in a Mix article that they needed gold @-@ plated transmitters for Madonna and Green , which were provided by Sennheiser the day of the show . Professional Wireless Systems ( PWS ) , a Masque Sound company , were in charge of wireless sound monitoring ; in a series of trial runs , PWS chose a frequency that eliminated interference from other systems .
According to LMG video technologist Ken Gay , lighting , sound and television teams met at the Orange County Convention Center to test the setup . They used simple fabrics on the ground to test the lighting projections for the stage . Sakchin Bessette had samples to be used for projections , which helped LMG in its tests . The team 's Mark Sanford monitored the cameras for any reflections from the fabric caused by the projections , calculating their effect during the show and adjusting camera placement accordingly . LMG tested the projection pods used from the ceilings at its Orlando headquarters . The pods were positioned 150 feet ( 46 m ) above the ground , using the fabric from the previous test . Concerned that the stadium grass would affect the projections , the company used Heavy Knit Bright White fabric from All Access .
= = Critical response = =
The halftime show received critical acclaim . Said Marc Schneider of Billboard : " It 's Madonna Louise Ciccone 's world , we 're just living in it " . Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times wrote that although the choice of Madonna as halftime @-@ show performer was a subject of discussion , the singer was " defiantly unconcerned with the more conservative red state wing of the football fanbase who 'd never be caught dead singing along to one of her songs ... and her halftime show was pure spectacle by the Cleopatra of the game ... Madonna is Madonna for a reason . And we saw it firsthand Sunday . " Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot called the show an " S & M party to Ancient Egypt " . Along with reminding the audience of her older hits , Madonna had " important career @-@ advancing work to do ... [ The singer ] , after all , never does anything unless she 's got something to sell , and with a new studio album due out in March and a tour to follow , she had plenty on her to @-@ do list " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that although the singer was not as " indefatigable " as she had been , she was a " party girl turned regent : a queen on her throne , a homecoming queen strutting in the bleachers , a church singer fronting a choir " . Pareles called Madonna " grown @-@ up " , and wrote that she put on a show appropriate for the NFL . Peter Robinson of The Guardian called the performance low @-@ key for the singer , despite the large audience . Robinson wrote that the show 's budget would " [ make ] your average James Cameron effort look like Homes Under the Hammer " , and called Madonna 's entrance and exit his favorite parts of the show .
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said that Madonna delivered a " joyous , unironic , openhearted " show rather than a cautious performance . According to Tucker , the singer was in " full command " ; although the visuals lacked flow , the song transitions meshed " perfectly " . Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph called the show a " tribute to Madonna " and a " shameless " promotion of the singer 's return to the music scene after directing W.E. : " The message [ of the show ] is that she is back in business . I suspect she ’ d settle for a global number one over global harmony " . Troy Patterson of Slate wrote that Madonna retained her " greatest marketing agent " title with the show and praised its costumes , sets and the singer 's repeated self @-@ referencing . Linda Holmes of NPR said , " What 's curious , given how much ' ewww , she 's too old ' stuff went around on Twitter , is that everything she did Sunday night is exactly what it should mean to age gracefully " . Miriam Coleman of Rolling Stone called the show a " serious spectacle " , and Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News called it a " high @-@ concept music video " : " Madonna brilliantly manipulates the combined impact of visuals and sonics . The 13 @-@ minute performance was an eye @-@ popping marvel " . A Huffington Post reviewer wrote , " Love her or hate her , there 's no doubt that only Madonna can bring a certain level of pop flair to a performance " . Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic praised the show 's choreography and cinematography : " With so , so much to look at , Madonna remained the center of attention . That is , until the end , when white light and smoke engulfed her and she dropped down through the stage , out of sight " . According to Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle , Madonna controlled her nerves and he liked her selection of songs .
Cara Kelly of The Washington Post gave the show a mixed review ; although it was " revolutionary " after Janet Jackson 's wardrobe malfunction , it was a " pathetic attempt at a comeback " . According to Lou Harry of the Indianapolis Business Journal , Madonna lacked focus and energy and the audience response was lukewarm . Harry called the show an " awkward celebration " , but praised its overall production . USA Today 's Elyssa Gardner wrote , " Madonna herself , stylish but hardly provocative in tailored tops and skirts that showed off her yoga @-@ toned gams , delivered [ the songs ] and other flourishes with a winking sense of humor " . David Zurawik of The Baltimore Sun called the show " Madonna 's zombie halftime " , criticizing its song choices and overall concept : " [ Madonna 's ] acting as if she 's almost singing . I say almost , because there is not a whit of artistic aspiration in the star performer or the production as far I can tell . But hey , that 's our sad @-@ sack , super @-@ sized , gross American culture these days , isn 't it . And it is perfectly suited for empty Super Bowl half @-@ time spectacle " .
= = Commercial impact = =
Like previous performers , Madonna was not paid for the show . According to Zack O 'Malley Greenburg of Forbes , " Typically , the entertainers for the Super Bowl do not get a cash payment ... This is the kind of exposure that entertainers would give their right arm for ; they could do 20 Leno and Letterman appearances and still not reach that [ kind of ] audience " . Greenburg wrote that with 30 @-@ second commercial spots commanding over $ 3 million apiece , the 12 minutes of free television exposure had a total value of $ 84 million for Madonna 's enterprises and the singer did not have to pay for accommodations , travel , backup dancers , stage setup , advertising and publicity : " Given all these benefits , playing the Super Bowl halftime show for free is more than worth the trouble . In fact , it 's incredibly lucrative – and such a good deal for artists that some suspect a major change might be on the horizon " .
Madonna 's performance was the most @-@ watched Super Bowl halftime show in history , with 114 million viewers – more than the game itself , which had 111 @.@ 3 million viewers . According to the Nielsen ratings , the show had a 47 @.@ 4 household rating ; among adults 18 – 49 it had a 41 @.@ 5 rating , compared with the game average of 40 @.@ 5 . Reuters noted that the half @-@ hour from 9 : 30 to 9 : 58 ET peaked at a 50 @.@ 7 household rating and a 72 share , with 117 @.@ 7 million viewers . The record was broken by Bruno Mars in 2014 ( 115 million ) and Katy Perry in 2015 ( 118 million ) . Madonna set a record as the most @-@ tweeted subject on Twitter ( 10 @,@ 245 posts in one second , with an average of 8 @,@ 000 tweets per second for five minutes ) and was the most @-@ searched term on Google during the show . Wired CEO Mark Ghuneim tweeted that less than one @-@ third of the tweets were negative , 59 percent were positive and 11 percent were neutral . According to Billboard , the day after the show its ratings and economic impact were discussed .
The show 's chief impact was on Madonna 's music . Keith Caulfield of Billboard wrote that about 50 @,@ 000 pre @-@ orders for Madonna 's 12th studio album , MDNA , were placed within three days of its availability on the iTunes Store . That week , according to Nielsen SoundScan , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " had 115 @,@ 000 digital downloads and the singer 's catalog of older albums had a 410 percent increase in sales ( from 5 @,@ 000 to 26 @,@ 000 copies ) . A week after the Super Bowl , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " had an additional 165 @,@ 000 digital downloads ( a 44 @-@ percent increase ) and her other songs sold a combined 166 @,@ 000 copies ( up from 94 @,@ 000 the previous week ) . " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " reached number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart ; the singer 's 38th top @-@ ten hit , it increased her record as the artist with the most top @-@ ten singles on the chart . Madonna 's back catalog of albums also had increased sales due to discounting and publicity generated by the single and her performance . Billboard estimated that her top @-@ 10 digital sales collectively increased over 1 @,@ 700 percent . Madonna 's bestselling album was the 2009 greatest @-@ hits collection , Celebration , which sold 16 @,@ 000 copies ( up 1 @,@ 341 percent ) and reentered the Billboard 200 album chart . The following week Celebration fell 105 spots on the chart to number 157 , with sales falling to 4 @,@ 000 copies . " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " fell to number 39 on the Hot 100 , with sales falling by 58 percent to 69 @,@ 000 copies . The show had an impact on slacklining ; The New York Times reported , " [ Andy Lewis ] and his sport had never appeared before an audience like the one commanded by Madonna at halftime of the Super Bowl " . According to professional slackliner Frankie Najera , " That was by far the biggest thing that has happened for the sport " .
= = M.I.A. controversy = =
M.I.A. extended her middle finger to the camera near the end of her verse in " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " instead of singing the word " shit " , and the media compared the incident to Janet Jackson 's 2004 wardrobe malfunction . According to People , " Call it a finger malfunction ? Madonna was supposed to be the center of attention during the Super Bowl halftime show Sunday , but the Queen of Pop was upstaged by her collaborator M.I.A. , who flipped off the camera at one point during the performance , prompting swift apologies from the NFL and NBC . " Madonna expressed her disappointment in an interview with host Ryan Seacrest on his talk show , On Air with Ryan Seacrest . She said that it was a " teenager ... irrelevant thing " for M.I.A. to do , and was " out of place " in the show : " I was really surprised . I didn 't know anything about it . I wasn 't happy about it . I understand it 's punk rock and everything , but to me there was such a feeling of love and good energy and positivity ; it seemed negative . "
According to NFL spokesman Brian McCarthy , " Our system was late to obscure the inappropriate gesture and we apologize to our viewers . The NFL hired the talent and produced the halftime show . There was a failure in NBC 's delay system . The obscene gesture in the performance was completely inappropriate , very disappointing , and we apologize to our fans " . McCarthy said that the gesture was not made during rehearsals , and M.I.A. improvised it on stage . The Federal Communications Commission received 222 complaints about the rapper 's gesture , and Rolling Stone reported that the commission might " punish " the NFL and NBC despite their apologies . Any fine imposed on the NFL would be charged to M.I.A. , since the rapper had signed a contract indemnifying the league against FCC fines . A year later , it was reported that the NFL had filed a $ 1 @.@ 5 million arbitration claim against M.I.A. for " breach of her contract and flagrant disregard for the values that form the cornerstone of the NFL brand and the Super Bowl " . Her lawyer , Howard King , filed a counterclaim calling the NFL 's action " hilarious in light of the weekly felonies committed by its stars " . M.I.A. enlisted the help of fans in documenting objectionable actions by the NFL to refute the league 's claim of damage to its reputation .
In September 2013 , M.I.A. released a video statement about the lawsuit . The rapper said , " They 're basically [ saying ] it 's OK for me to promote being sexually exploited as a female , than to display empowerment , female empowerment , through being punk rock . That 's what it boils down to , and I 'm being sued for it " . In March 2014 , Rolling Stone reported that the NFL had added $ 15 million to its arbitration claim for a total of $ 16 @.@ 6 million . M.I.A. said on Twitter that the NFL wanted a portion of her income , which lacked " any basis in law , fact , or logic " , and blamed NBC for its " dereliction " in not blurring out the gesture during the live telecast . M.I.A. tweeted Madonna with a request to borrow $ 16 million , later deleting the tweet . In August 2014 , ESPN reported that the NFL had reached a confidential agreement with M.I.A. Neither attorney Howard King nor the NFL provided any further details .
= = Set list = =
" Vogue "
" Music " ( featuring LMFAO , contains elements of " Party Rock Anthem " and " Sexy and I Know It " )
" Give Me All Your Luvin ' " ( featuring Nicki Minaj and M.I.A. )
" Open Your Heart / Express Yourself " ( featuring CeeLo Green , the Avon High School Drumline , the Center Grove High School Drumline , the Fishers High School Drumline and the Franklin Central High School Drumline )
" Like a Prayer " ( featuring CeeLo Green and a choir of 200 local Indianapolis singers )
Source for the set list performed at the show .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from the halftime show 's name reel .
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= Washington State Route 173 =
State Route 173 ( SR 173 ) is an 11 @.@ 86 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 19 @.@ 09 km ) state highway serving Douglas and Okanogan counties in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway travels northwest along the Columbia River from SR 17 in Bridgeport to U.S. Route 97 ( US 97 ) in Brewster . It serves as an alternate route to SR 17 , which travels north of the Columbia River , and serves the Chief Joseph State Park and the Bridgeport Bar State Wildlife Recreation Area . SR 173 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering and codified in 1970 , but it has been a part of the state highway system since 1931 as a branch of State Road 10 , later Primary State Highway 10 ( PSH 10 ) . The highway crosses the Columbia River on the Brewster Bridge , which originally opened in 1928 and was destroyed in 1967 before being re @-@ built a decade later .
= = Route description = =
SR 173 begins at an intersection with SR 17 southwest of the Bridgeport Bridge in Bridgeport , a city in rural Douglas County . The two @-@ lane street travels northwest through Bridgeport as Foster Creek Avenue and turns northeast onto 17th Avenue and later northwest as Columbia Avenue to Bridgeport Park , where SR 173 turns southwest onto 10th Street and Maple Street to leave the city . The highway turns northwest , following the Columbia River towards Chief Joseph State Park . SR 173 continues west , forming the southern boundary of the Bridgeport Bar State Wildlife Recreation Area before crossing the Columbia River into Okanogan County on the Brewster Bridge . The highway enters Brewster and becomes Bridge Street , traveling north over Swamp Creek to end at an intersection with US 97 .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 970 and 3 @,@ 400 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly in Brewster .
= = History = =
SR 173 follows the route of wagon roads built in the late 19th century between Brewster Ferry and Bridgeport Ferry on the east side of the Columbia River . The Brewster Bridge was completed in June 1928 and the roadway was first codified in 1931 as part of a State Road 10 branch that connected Brewster to Coulee City . State Road 10 became PSH 10 and retained the branch during the creation of the primary and secondary state highway system in 1937 as the state purchased the Brewster Bridge . The branch was moved to the west side of the Columbia River , located north of Bridgeport , in 1951 and a new branch between Bridgeport and Brewster was created to continue maintenance of the paved highway . During the 1964 highway renumbering , SR 173 was established on the route of the PSH 10 branch between Bridgeport and Brewster , later re @-@ aligned into a straighter highway and codified in 1970 . The Brewster Bridge later was destroyed in a fire in August 1967 , being replaced by a 15 @-@ minute ferry until the new span was opened in the 1970s . No major revisions to the route of the highway have occurred since 1970 , however the state tried unsuccessfully to transfer ownership of SR 173 and the Brewster Bridge in 1986 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Minotaur @-@ class cruiser ( 1906 ) =
The Minotaur class was a three @-@ ship class of armoured cruisers built in the first decade of the twentieth century for the Royal Navy . They initially served with the Home Fleet , generally as the flagships of cruiser squadrons . Minotaur became flagship of the China Station in 1910 and Defence served as flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron in the Mediterranean from 1912 ; Shannon remained at home as flagship of several different squadrons .
When World War I began in August 1914 , Defence participated in the pursuit of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau and Minotaur hunted for the German East Asia Squadron and German commerce raiders in the Pacific and Indian Oceans . Shannon remained with the Grand Fleet , as the Home Fleet was renamed , for the entire war . All three were present at the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 , where Defence was sunk with heavy loss of life . The surviving pair spent most of the rest of the war assigned to the Northern Patrol unsuccessfully searching for German warships and commerce raiders . They were scrapped after the war .
= = Design and description = =
The Minotaur @-@ class ships were the last armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy . They were significantly larger and more heavily armed than their predecessors , although their armour was reduced in an attempt to compensate for the additional weight of the armament . The design was criticized for this weakness as well as the wide dispersal of the 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 191 mm ) turrets along the length of the ship . They have been described by naval historian R. A. Burt as " cruiser editions of the Lord Nelson @-@ class battleship " .
The Minotaur class displaced 14 @,@ 600 long tons ( 14 @,@ 800 t ) as built and 16 @,@ 630 long tons ( 16 @,@ 900 t ) at deep load . Defence and Minotaur had an overall length of 519 feet ( 158 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 74 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 7 m ) and a mean draught of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . Shannon had 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) more beam and one foot less draught than her sister ships to evaluate the theory that she might be faster with these proportions than her sisters . The class displaced 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) more , was 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) longer overall , was one foot broader in beam and had more freeboard than their predecessors of the Duke of Edinburgh class . At normal load they had a metacentric height of 3 @.@ 05 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) , and at deep load , 3 @.@ 25 feet ( 1 @.@ 0 m ) . The Minotaurs were designed to carry 779 officers and enlisted men , but mustered 802 – 842 between 1908 and 1912 .
The ships were powered by a pair of four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 27 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 20 @,@ 130 kW ) intended to give a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 24 water @-@ tube boilers with a working pressure of 275 psi ( 1 @,@ 896 kPa ; 19 kgf / cm2 ) . They carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 060 long tons ( 2 @,@ 090 t ) of coal and an additional 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , the ships could steam for 8 @,@ 150 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 090 km ; 9 @,@ 380 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . During her sea trials on 6 December 1907 , Minotaur made her designed speed when she reached 23 @.@ 01 knots from 27 @,@ 049 ihp ( 20 @,@ 170 kW ) during her eight @-@ hour full @-@ power test . Shannon proved to be the slowest of the three and only reached 22 @.@ 324 knots ( 41 @.@ 344 km / h ; 25 @.@ 690 mph ) from 27 @,@ 372 ihp ( 20 @,@ 411 kW ) during her trial three days before Minotaur 's .
= = = Armament = = =
The Minotaurs carried only four 50 @-@ calibre BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk XI guns , compared to the six of the earlier ships , but the guns were mounted in twin hydraulically powered centreline turrets , which gave them the same four @-@ gun broadside as the Duke of Edinburghs . The guns had an elevation range of − 5 ° / + 15 ° . They fired 380 @-@ pound ( 172 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 875 ft / s ( 876 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 16 @,@ 200 yd ( 14 @,@ 813 m ) with armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells . The rate of fire of these guns was up to four rounds per minute and the ships carried 100 rounds per gun .
The secondary armament was much heavier than the older ships , with five single hydraulically powered turrets equipped with 50 @-@ calibre BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk II guns mounted on each side . The guns could be depressed to − 7 @.@ 5 ° and elevated to + 15 ° . Using 4crh AP shells , they had a maximum range of 15 @,@ 571 yd ( 14 @,@ 238 m ) . Their 200 @-@ pound ( 91 kg ) projectiles were fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 841 ft / s ( 866 m / s ) at four rounds per minute . Each gun was provided with 100 rounds .
Anti @-@ torpedo boat defence was provided by sixteen QF 12 @-@ pounder 18 @-@ cwt guns . Eight of these were mounted on the tops of the 7 @.@ 5 inch gun turrets and the other eight in the superstructure ( four fore and four aft ) , as per the deck plan illustration . They fired 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) , 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 660 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) ; this gave a maximum range of 9 @,@ 300 yd ( 8 @,@ 500 m ) at their maximum elevation of + 20 ° . They also mounted five submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two on each broadside , plus one mounted in the stern .
= = = Armour = = =
Armour in the Minotaur class was reduced compared to the earlier ships . The upper belt , considered superfluous after the elimination of the main deck casemates , was eliminated as were the transverse bulkheads that connected the waterline belt to the barbettes that protected the ships from raking fire . The 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) waterline armour belt of Krupp cemented armour extended past the fore and aft 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch gun turrets ; its lower edge was about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below the waterline at normal load . Forward the armour was 4 inches ( 102 mm ) up to about 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) from the bow when it was reduced to three inches ; aft the belt armour was three inches thick all the way to the stern . In addition to this , the engine cylinders were protected by armour plates 1 @.@ 5 – 2 inches ( 38 – 51 mm ) thick .
The faces of the primary gun turrets were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick and they had 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) sides . The face armour for the 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch turrets was also eight inches thick , but their sides were only 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick . The main barbettes were protected by seven inches of armour as were the ammunition hoists , although the armour for those thinned to two inches between the lower and main decks . The thickness of the lower deck ranged from 1 @.@ 5 inches on the flat amidships to two inches on the slope connecting it to the lower edge of the waterline belt for the length of the ship . At the ends of the ship , the thickness of the deck armour increased to two inches . The sides of the forward conning tower were 10 inches thick while those of the rear conning tower were three inches in thickness .
= = = Modifications = = =
The funnels were raised 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in 1909 to eliminate smoke interference with the bridge . During 1915 – 16 , a 12 @-@ pounder was fitted to the rear superstructure and a three @-@ pounder to the quarterdeck , both guns on high @-@ angle mounts for anti @-@ aircraft defence . In 1916 , reinforcing legs were added to the foremast to support the weight of a fire @-@ control director ; Shannon received her director that same year and Minotaur in 1917 – 18 . In the last year of the war , the reinforced foremast was replaced by a stronger tripod mast and the 12 @-@ pounder was moved to the top of the forward turret .
= = Ships = =
= = Careers = =
The sisters were all initially assigned to the Home Fleet upon commissioning with Shannon frequently serving as the flagship of the 5th , 2nd and 3rd Cruiser Squadrons before reverting to the flagship of the 2nd Squadron in 1914 . Minotaur became the flagship of the China Station in 1910 and she was briefly joined by Defence in 1912 before the latter was transferred to the Mediterranean at the end of the year to serve as flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron there .
When the war began , Minotaur searched unsuccessfully for the German East Asia Squadron in the Pacific and the commerce @-@ raiding light cruiser Emden in the Indian Ocean before she was transferred to the Grand Fleet at the end of 1914 . She became flagship of the 7th Cruiser Squadron and was assigned to the Northern Patrol . Defence participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau , but Rear @-@ Admiral Ernest Troubridge decided not to engage Goeben due to the latter 's more powerful guns , heavier armour and faster speed . She then blockaded the German ships inside the Dardanelles . The Admiralty ordered the ship to the South Atlantic in October to join Rear @-@ Admiral Christopher Cradock 's squadron searching for the German ships . Defence , however , had only reached Montevideo , Uruguay by 3 November when she received word that most of Admiral Cradock 's squadron had been destroyed two days previously at the Battle of Coronel . The ship was then ordered to South Africa to escort a troop convoy to Great Britain . Defence departed Table Bay , Cape Town in December and rejoined the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet as its flagship upon her arrival .
In early 1915 , the sisters were all assigned to the Grand Fleet , each as flagship of their respective squadrons . Just before the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 , the 2nd and 7th Cruiser Squadrons were combined with Minotaur as the flagship . During the battle the 2nd Cruiser Squadron was unengaged and did not fire their guns . In contrast the 1st Cruiser Squadron was engaged at close range by the German capital ships during the battle ; Defence was hit by two salvoes from the German ships that caused the aft 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch magazine to explode . The resulting fire spread via the ammunition passages to the adjacent 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch magazines which detonated in turn . The ship exploded with the loss of all men on board ; between 893 and 903 men were killed .
Shannon and Minotaur were also present during the attempted interception of the High Seas Fleet by the Grand Fleet on 19 August although no combat occurred . For the rest of the war , the ships were assigned to the Northern Patrol . On 11 December 1917 , the sisters and four destroyers were assigned to patrol the convoy route between Lerwick and Norway , but the Germans successfully destroyed a convoy off the Norwegian coast on the following day and returned home without being spotted . The British ships were only able to rescue survivors and escort the sole surviving ship from the convoy , the crippled destroyer Pellew , back to Scapa Flow .
The sisters were paid off in 1919 , although Shannon temporarily became a training ship before the two were sold for scrap in 1920 . Shannon was not actually broken up until January 1923 .
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= Cervix =
The cervix or cervix uteri ( Latin : neck of the uterus ) is the lower part of the uterus in the human female reproductive system . In a non @-@ pregnant woman , the cervix is usually 2 to 3 cm long ( ~ 1 inch ) and roughly cylindrical in shape . The narrow , central cervical canal runs along its entire length , connecting the uterine cavity and the lumen of the vagina . The opening into the uterus is called the internal os , and the opening into the vagina is called the external os . The lower part of the cervix , known as the vaginal portion of the cervix ( or ectocervix ) , bulges into the top of the vagina . The cervix has been documented anatomically since at least the time of Hippocrates , over 2 @,@ 000 years ago .
The cervical canal is a passage through which sperm must travel to fertilize an egg cell after sexual intercourse . Several methods of contraception , including cervical caps and cervical diaphragms aim to block or prevent the passage of sperm through the cervical canal . Cervical mucus is used in several methods of fertility awareness , such as the Creighton model and Billings method , due to its changes in consistency throughout the menstrual period . During vaginal childbirth , the cervix must flatten and dilate to allow the fetus to progress along the birth canal . Midwives and doctors use the extent of the dilation of the cervix to assist decision @-@ making during childbirth .
The endocervical canal is lined with a single layer of column @-@ shaped cells , while the ectocervix is covered with multiple layers of cells topped with flat cells . The two types of epithelia meet the squamocolumnar junction . Infection with the human papillomavirus ( HPV ) can cause changes in the epithelium , which can lead to cancer of the cervix . Cervical cytology tests can often detect cervical cancer and its precursors , and enable early successful treatment . Ways to avoid HPV include avoiding sex , using condoms , and HPV vaccination . HPV vaccines , developed in the early 21st century , reduce the risk of cervical cancer by preventing infections from the main cancer @-@ causing strains of HPV .
= = Structure = =
The cervix is part of the female reproductive system . Around 2 – 3 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) in length , it is the lower narrower part of the uterus continuous above with the broader upper part — or body — of the uterus . The lower end of the cervix bulges through the anterior wall of the vagina , and is referred to as the vaginal portion of cervix ( or ectocervix ) while the rest of the cervix above the vagina is called the supravaginal portion of cervix . A central canal , known as the cervical canal , runs along its length and connects the cavity of the body of the uterus with the lumen of the vagina . The openings are known as the internal os and external orifice of the uterus ( or external os ) respectively . The mucosa lining the cervical canal is known as the endocervix , and the mucosa covering the ectocervix is known as the exocervix . The cervix has an inner mucosal layer , a thick layer of smooth muscle , and posteriorly the supravaginal portion has a serosal covering consisting of connective tissue and overlying peritoneum .
In front of the upper part of the cervix lies the bladder , separated from it by cellular connective tissue known as parametrium , which also extends over the sides of the cervix . To the rear , the supravaginal cervix is covered by peritoneum , which runs onto the back of the vaginal wall and then turns upwards and onto the rectum , forming the recto @-@ uterine pouch . The cervix is more tightly connected to surrounding structures than the rest of the uterus .
The cervical canal varies greatly in length and width between women or over the course of a woman 's life , and it can measure 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 inch ) at its widest diameter in premenopausal adults . It is wider in the middle and narrower at each end . The anterior and posterior walls of the canal each have a vertical fold , from which ridges run diagonally upwards and laterally . These are known as palmate folds , due to their resemblance to a palm leaf . The anterior and posterior ridges are arranged in such a way that they interlock with each other and close the canal . They are often effaced after pregnancy .
The ectocervix ( also known as the vaginal portion of the cervix ) has a convex , elliptical shape and projects into the cervix between the anterior and posterior vaginal fornices . On the rounded part of the ectocervix is a small , depressed external opening , connecting the cervix with the vagina . The size and shape of the ectocervix and the external opening ( external os ) can vary according to age , hormonal state , and whether natural or normal childbirth has taken place . In women who have not had a vaginal delivery , the external opening is small and circular , and in women who have had a vaginal delivery , it is slit @-@ like . On average , the ectocervix is 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) wide .
Blood is supplied to the cervix by the descending branch of the uterine artery and drains into the uterine vein . The pelvic splanchnic nerves , emerging as S2 – S3 , transmit the sensation of pain from the cervix to the brain . These nerves travel along the uterosacral ligaments , which pass from the uterus to the anterior sacrum .
Three channels facilitate lymphatic drainage from the cervix . The anterior and lateral cervix drains to nodes along the uterine arteries , travelling along the cardinal ligaments at the base of the broad ligament to the external iliac lymph nodes and ultimately the paraaortic lymph nodes . The posterior and lateral cervix drains along the uterine arteries to the internal iliac lymph nodes and ultimately the paraaortic lymph nodes , and the posterior section of the cervix drains to the obturator and presacral lymph nodes . However , there are variations as lymphatic drainage from the cervix travels to different sets of pelvic nodes in some people . This has implications in scanning nodes for involvement in cervical cancer .
After menstruation and directly under the influence of estrogen , the cervix undergoes a series of changes in position and texture . During most of the menstrual cycle , the cervix remains firm , and is positioned low and closed . However , as ovulation approaches , the cervix becomes softer and rises to open in response to the higher levels of estrogen present . These changes are also accompanied by changes in cervical mucus , described below .
= = = Development = = =
As a component of the female reproductive system , the cervix is derived from the two paramesonephric ducts ( also called Müllerian ducts ) , which develop around the sixth week of embryogenesis . During development , the outer parts of the two ducts fuse , forming a single urogenital canal that will become the vagina , cervix and uterus . The cervix grows in size at a smaller rate than the body of the uterus , so the relative size of the cervix over time decreases , decreasing from being much larger than the body of the uterus in fetal life , twice as large during childhood , and decreasing to its adult size , smaller than the uterus , after puberty . Previously it was thought that during fetal development , the original squamous epithelium of the cervix is derived from the urogenital sinus and the original columnar epithelium is derived from the paramesonephric duct . The point at which these two original epithelia meet is called the original squamocolumnar junction . New studies show , however , that all the cervical as well as large part of the vaginal epithelium are derived from Müllerian duct tissue and that phenotypic differences might be due to other causes .
= = = Histology = = =
The endocervical mucosa is about 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) thick , lined with a single layer of columnar mucous cells , and contains numerous tubular mucous glands which empty viscous alkaline mucus into the lumen . In contrast , the ectocervix is covered with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium , which resembles the squamous epithelium lining the vaginal . The junction between these two types of epithelia is called the squamocolumnar junction . Underlying both types of epithelium is a tough layer of collagen . The mucosa of the endocervix is not shed during menstruation . The cervix has more fibrous tissue , including collagen and elastin , than the rest of the uterus .
In prepubertal girls , the functional squamocolumnar junction is present just within the endocervical canal . Upon entering puberty , due to hormonal influence , and during pregnancy , the columnar epithelium extends outwards over the ectocervix as the cervix everts . Hence , this also causes the squamocolumnar junction to move outwards onto the vaginal portion of the cervix , where it is exposed to the acidic vaginal environment . The exposed columnar epithelium can undergo physiological metaplasia and change to tougher metaplastic squamous epithelium in days or weeks , which when mature is very similar to the original squamous epithelium . The new squamocolumnar junction is therefore internal to the original squamocolumnar junction , and the zone of unstable epithelium between the two junctions is called the transformation zone of the cervix . After menopause , the uterine structures involute and the functional squamocolumnar junction moves into the endocervical canal .
Nabothian cysts ( or Nabothian follicles ) form in the transformation zone where the lining of metaplastic epithelium has replaced mucous epithelium and caused a strangulation of the outlet of some of the mucous glands . A build up of mucus in the glands forms Nabothian cysts , usually less than about 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) in diameter , which are considered physiological rather than pathological . Both gland openings and Nabothian cysts are helpful to identify the transformation zone .
= = Function = =
= = = Fertility = = =
The cervical canal is a pathway through which sperm enter the uterus after sexual intercourse , and some forms of artificial insemination . Some sperm remains in cervical crypts , infoldings of the endocervix , which act as a reservoir , releasing sperm over several hours and maximising the chances of fertilisation . A theory states the cervical and uterine contractions during orgasm draw semen into the uterus . Although the " upsuck theory " has been generally accepted for some years , it has been disputed due to lack of evidence , small sample size , and methodological errors .
Some methods of fertility awareness , such as the Creighton model and the Billings method involve estimating a woman 's periods of fertility and infertility by observing physiological changes in her body . Among these changes are several involving the quality of her cervical mucus : the sensation it causes at the vulva , its elasticity ( Spinnbarkeit ) , its transparency , and the presence of ferning .
= = = Cervical mucus = = =
Several hundred glands in the endocervix produce 20 – 60 mg of cervical mucus a day , increasing to 600 mg around the time of ovulation . It is viscous as it contains large proteins known as mucins . The viscosity and water content varies during the menstrual cycle ; mucus is composed of around 93 % water , reaching 98 % at midcycle . These changes allow it to function either as a barrier or a transport medium to spermatozoa . It contains electrolytes such as calcium , sodium , and potassium ; organic components such as glucose , amino acids , and soluble proteins ; trace elements including zinc , copper , iron , manganese , and selenium ; free fatty acids ; enzymes such as amylase ; and prostaglandins . Its consistency is determined by the influence of the hormones estrogen and progesterone . At midcycle around the time of ovulation — a period of high estrogen levels — the mucus is thin and serous to allow sperm to enter the uterus , and is more alkaline and hence more hospitable to sperm . It is also higher in electrolytes , which results in the " ferning " pattern that can be observed in drying mucus under low magnification ; as the mucus dries , the salts crystallize , resembling the leaves of a fern . The mucus has stretchy character described as Spinnbarkeit most prominent around the time of ovulation .
At other times in the cycle , the mucus is thick and more acidic due to the effects of progesterone . This " infertile " mucus acts as a barrier to sperm from entering the uterus . Women taking an oral contraceptive pill also have thick mucus from the effects of progesterone . Thick mucus also prevents pathogens from interfering with a nascent pregnancy .
A cervical mucus plug , called the operculum , forms inside the cervical canal during pregnancy . This provides a protective seal for the uterus against the entry of pathogens and against leakage of uterine fluids . The mucus plug is also known to have antibacterial properties . This plug is released as the cervix dilates , either during the first stage of childbirth or shortly before . It is visible as a blood @-@ tinged mucous discharge .
= = = Childbirth = = =
The cervix plays a major role in childbirth . As the fetus descends within the uterus in preparation for birth , the presenting part , usually the head , rests on and is supported by the cervix . As labour progresses , the cervix becomes softer and shorter , begins to dilate , and rotates to face anteriorly . The support the cervix provides to the fetal head starts to give way when the uterus begins its contractions . During childbirth , the cervix must dilate to a diameter of more than 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) to accommodate the head of the fetus as it descends from the uterus to the vagina . In becoming wider , the cervix also becomes shorter , a phenomenon known as effacement .
Along with other factors , midwives and doctors use the extent of cervical dilation to assist decision making during childbirth . Generally , the active first stage of labour , when the uterine contractions become strong and regular , begins when the cervical dilation is more than 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The second phase of labor begins when the cervix has dilated to 10 cm ( 4 in ) , which is regarded as its fullest dilation , and is when active pushing and contractions push the baby along the birth canal leading to the birth of the baby . The number of past vaginal deliveries is a strong factor in influencing how rapidly the cervix is able to dilate in labour . The time taken for the cervix to dilate and efface is one factor used in reporting systems such as the Bishop score , used to recommend whether interventions such as a forceps delivery , induction , or Caesarean section should be used in childbirth .
Cervical incompetence is a condition in which shortening of the cervix due to dilation and thinning occurs , before term pregnancy . Short cervical length is the strongest predictor of preterm birth .
= = = Contraception = = =
Several methods of contraception involve the cervix . Cervical diaphragms are reusable , firm @-@ rimmed plastic devices inserted by a woman prior to intercourse that cover the cervix . Pressure against the walls of the vagina maintain the position of the diaphragm , and it acts as a physical barrier to prevent the entry of sperm into the uterus , preventing fertilisation . Cervical caps are a similar method , although they are smaller and adhere to the cervix by suction . Diaphragms and caps are often used in conjunction with spermicides . In one year , 12 % of women using the diaphragm will undergo an unintended pregnancy , and with optimal use this falls to 6 % . Efficacy rates are lower for the cap , with 18 % of women undergoing an unintended pregnancy , and 10 – 13 % with optimal use . Most types of progestogen @-@ only pills are effective as a contraceptive because they thicken cervical mucus making it difficult for sperm to pass along the endocervical canal . In addition , they may also sometimes prevent ovulation . In contrast , contraceptive pills that contain both oestrogen and progesterone , the combined oral contraceptive pills , work mainly by preventing ovulation . They also thicken cervical mucus and thin the lining of the uterus enhancing their effectiveness .
= = Clinical significance = =
= = = Cancer = = =
In 2008 , cervical cancer was the third @-@ most common cancer in women worldwide , with rates varying geographically from less than one to more than 50 cases per 100 @,@ 000 women . It is a leading cause of cancer @-@ related death in poor countries , where delayed diagnosis leading to poor outcomes is common . The introduction of routine screening has resulted in fewer cases of ( and deaths from ) cervical cancer , however this has mainly taken place in developed countries . Most developing countries have limited or no screening , and 85 % of the global burden occurring there .
Cervical cancer nearly always involves human papillomavirus ( HPV ) infection . HPV is a virus with numerous strains , several of which predispose to precancerous changes in the cervical epithelium , particularly in the transformation zone , which is the most common area for cervical cancer to start . HPV vaccines , such as Gardasil and Cervarix , reduce the incidence of cervical cancer , by inoculating against the viral strains involved in cancer development .
Potentially precancerous changes in the cervix can be detected by cervical screening , using methods including a Pap smear ( also called a cervical smear ) , in which epithelial cells are scraped from the surface of the cervix and examined under a microscope . The colposcope , an instrument used to see a magnified view of the cervix , was invented in 1925 . The Pap smear was developed by Georgios Papanikolaou in 1928 . A LEEP procedure using a heated loop of platinum to excise a patch of cervical tissue was developed by Aurel Babes in 1927 . In some parts of the developed world including the UK , the Pap test has been superseded with liquid @-@ based cytology .
A cheap , cost @-@ effective and practical alternative in poorer countries is visual inspection with acetic acid ( VIA ) . Instituting and sustaining cytology @-@ based programs in these regions can be difficult , due to the need for trained personnel , equipment and facilities and difficulties in follow @-@ up . With VIA , results and treatment can be available on the same day . As a screening test , VIA is comparable to cervical cytology in accurately identifying precancerous lesions .
A result of dysplasia is usually further investigated , such as by taking a cone biopsy , which may also remove the cancerous lesion . Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia is a possible result of the biopsy , and represents dysplastic changes that may eventually progress to invasive cancer . Most cases of cervical cancer are detected in this way , without having caused any symptoms . When symptoms occur , they may include vaginal bleeding , discharge , or discomfort .
= = = Inflammation = = =
Inflammation of the cervix is referred to as cervicitis . This inflammation may be of the endocervix or ectocervix . When associated with the endocervix , it is associated with a mucous vaginal discharge and the sexually transmitted infections such as chlamydia and gonorrhoea . As many as half of pregnant women having a gonorrheal infection of the cervix are asymptomatic . Other causes include overgrowth of the commensal flora of the vagina . When associated with the ectocervix , inflammation may be caused by the herpes simplex virus . Inflammation is often investigated through directly visualising the cervix using a speculum , which may appear whiteish due to exudate , and by taking a Pap smear and examining for causal bacteria . Special tests may be used to identify particular bacteria . If the inflammation is due to a bacterium , then antibiotics may be given as treatment .
= = = Anatomical abnormalities = = =
Cervical stenosis refers to an abnormally narrow cervical canal , typically associated with trauma caused by removal of tissue for investigation or treatment of cancer , or cervical cancer itself . Diethylstilbestrol , used from 1938 to 1971 to prevent preterm labour and miscarriage , is also strongly associated with the development of cervical stenosis and other abnormalities in the daughters of the exposed women . Other abnormalities include : vaginal adenosis , in which the squamous epithelium of the ectocervix becomes columnar ; cancers such as clear cell adenocarcinomas ; cervical ridges and hoods ; and development of a cockscomb cervix appearance .
Cervical agenesis is a rare congenital condition in which the cervix completely fails to develop , often associated with the concurrent failure of the vagina to develop . Other congenital cervical abnormalities exist , often associated with abnormalities of the vagina and uterus . The cervix may be duplicated in situations such as bicornuate uterus and uterine didelphys .
Cervical polyps , which are benign overgrowths of endocervical tissue , if present , may cause bleeding , or a benign overgrowth may be present in the endocervical canal . Cervical ectropion refers to the horizontal overgrowth of the endocervical columnar lining in a one @-@ cell @-@ thick layer over the ectocervix .
= = Other mammals = =
Female marsupials have paired uteri and cervices . Most eutherian ( placental ) mammal species have a single cervix and single , bipartite or bicornuate uterus . Lagomorphs , rodents , aardvarks and hyraxes have a duplex uterus and two cervices . Lagomorphs and rodents share many morphological characteristics and are grouped together in the clade Glires . Anteaters of the family myrmecophagidae are unusual in that they lack a defined cervix ; they are thought to have lost the characteristic rather than other mammals developing a cervix on more than one lineage .
= = Etymology and pronunciation = =
The word cervix ( / ˈsʌrvɪks / ) came to English from Latin , where it means " neck " , and like its Germanic counterpart , it can refer not only to the neck [ of the body ] but also to an analogous narrowed part of an object . The cervix uteri ( neck of the uterus ) is thus the uterine cervix , but in English the word cervix used alone usually refers to it . Thus the adjective cervical may refer either to the neck ( as in cervical vertebrae or cervical lymph nodes ) or to the uterine cervix ( as in cervical cap or cervical cancer ) .
Latin cervix came from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root ker- , referring to a " structure that projects " . Thus , the word cervix is linguistically related to the English word " horn " , the Persian word for " head " ( sar ) , the Greek word for " head " ( Greek : koryphe ) , and the Welsh word for " deer " ( Welsh : carw ) .
The cervix was documented in anatomical literature in at least the time of Hippocrates ; cervical cancer was first described more than 2 @,@ 000 years ago , with descriptions provided by both Hippocrates and Aretaeus . However , there was some variation in word sense among early writers , who used the term to refer to both the cervix and the internal uterine orifice . The first attested use of the word to refer to the cervix of the uterus was in 1702 .
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= Sir John Fowler , 1st Baronet =
Sir John Fowler , 1st Baronet , KCMG , LLD , FRSE ( 15 July 1817 – 20 November 1898 ) was an English civil engineer specialising in the construction of railways and railway infrastructure . In the 1850s and 1860s , he was engineer for the world 's first underground railway , London 's Metropolitan Railway , built by the " cut @-@ and @-@ cover " method under city streets . In the 1880s , he was chief engineer for the Forth Railway Bridge , which opened in 1890 . Fowler 's was a long and eminent career , spanning most of the 19th century 's railway expansion , and he was engineer , adviser or consultant to many British and foreign railway companies and governments . He was the youngest president of the Institution of Civil Engineers , between 1865 and 1867 , and his major works represent a lasting legacy of Victorian engineering .
= = Early life = =
Fowler was born in Wadsley , Sheffield , Yorkshire , England , to land surveyor John Fowler and his wife Elizabeth ( née Swann ) . He was educated privately at Whitley Hall near Ecclesfield . He trained under John Towlerton Leather , engineer of the Sheffield waterworks , and with Leather 's uncle , George Leather , on the Aire and Calder Navigation and on railway surveys . From 1837 he worked for John Urpeth Rastrick on railway projects including the London and Brighton Railway and the unbuilt West Cumberland and Furness Railway . He then worked again for George Leather as resident engineer on the Stockton and Hartlepool Railway and was appointed engineer to the railway when it opened in 1841 . Fowler initially established a practice as a consulting engineer in the Yorkshire and Lincolnshire area , but , a heavy workload led him to move to London in 1844 . He became a member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1847 , the year the Institution was founded , and a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1849 . On 2 July 1850 he married Elizabeth Broadbent ( died 19 November 1901 ) , daughter of J. Boadbent of Manchester . The couple had four sons .
= = Railways = =
Fowler established a busy practice , working on many railway schemes across the country . He became chief engineer for the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway and was engineer of the East Lincolnshire Railway , the Oxford , Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway and the Severn Valley Railway . In 1853 , he became chief engineer of the Metropolitan Railway in London , the world 's first underground railway . Constructed in shallow " cut @-@ and @-@ cover " trenches beneath roads , the line opened between Paddington and Farringdon in 1863 . Fowler was also engineer for the associated District Railway and the Hammersmith and City Railway . Today these railways form the majority of the London Underground 's Circle line . For his work on the Metropolitan Railway Fowler was paid the great sum of £ 152 @,@ 000 ( £ 12 @.@ 2 million today ) , with £ 157 @,@ 000 ( £ 12 @.@ 6 million today ) , from the District Railway . Although some of this would have been passed on to staff and contractors , Sir Edward Watkin , chairman of the Metropolitan Railway from 1872 , complained that " No engineer in the world was so highly paid . "
Other railways that Fowler consulted for were the London Tilbury and Southend Railway , the Great Northern Railway , the Highland Railway and the Cheshire Lines Railway . Following the death of Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1859 , Fowler was retained by the Great Western Railway . His various appointments involved him in the design of Victoria station in London , Sheffield Victoria station , St Enoch station in Glasgow , Liverpool Central station and Manchester Central station . The latter station 's 210 @-@ foot ( 64 m ) wide train shed roof was the second widest unsupported iron arch in Britain after the roof of St Pancras railway station .
Fowler 's consulting work extended beyond Britain including railway and engineering projects in Algeria , Australia , Belgium , Egypt , France , Germany , Portugal and the United States . He travelled to Egypt for the first time in 1869 and worked on a number of , mostly unrealised , schemes for the Khedive , including a railway to Khartoum in Sudan which was planned in 1875 but not completed until after his death . In 1870 he provided advice to an Indian Government inquiry on railway gauges where he recommended a narrow gauge of 3 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 07 m ) for light railways . He visited Australia in 1886 , where he made some remarks on the break of gauge difficulty . Later in his career , he was also a consultant with his partner Benjamin Baker and with James Henry Greathead on two of London 's first tube railways , the City and South London Railway and the Central London Railway .
= = Bridges = =
As part of his railway projects , Fowler designed numerous bridges . In the 1860s , he designed Grosvenor Bridge , the first railway bridge over the River Thames , and the 13 @-@ arch Dollis Brook Viaduct for the Edgware , Highgate and London Railway .
He is credited with the design of the Victoria Bridge at Upper Arley , Worcestershire , constructed between 1859 and 1861 , and the near identical Albert Edward Bridge at Coalbrookdale , Shropshire built from 1863 to 1864 . Both remain in use today carrying railway lines across the River Severn .
Following the collapse of Sir Thomas Bouch 's Tay Bridge in 1879 , Fowler , William Henry Barlow and Thomas Elliot Harrison were appointed in 1881 to a commission to review Bouch 's design for the Forth Railway Bridge . The commission recommended a steel cantilever bridge designed by Fowler and Benjamin Baker , which was constructed between 1883 and 1890 .
= = Locomotives = =
To avoid problems with smoke and steam overwhelming staff and passengers on the covered sections of the Metropolitan Railway , Fowler proposed a fireless locomotive . The locomotive was built by Robert Stephenson and Company and was a broad gauge 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tender engine . The boiler had a normal firebox connected to a large combustion chamber containing fire bricks which were to act as a heat reservoir . The combustion chamber was linked to the smokebox through a set of very short firetubes . Exhaust steam was re @-@ condensed instead of escaping and fed back to the boiler . The locomotive was intended to operate conventionally in the open , but in tunnels dampers would be closed and steam would be generated using the stored heat from the fire bricks .
The first trial on the Great Western Railway in October 1861 was a failure . The condensing system leaked , causing the boiler to run dry and pressure to drop , risking a boiler explosion . A second trial on the Metropolitan Railway in 1862 was also a failure , and the fireless engine was abandoned , becoming known as " Fowler 's Ghost " . The locomotive was sold to Isaac Watt Boulton in 1865 ; he intended to convert it into a standard engine but it was eventually scrapped .
On opening , the Metropolitan Railway 's trains were provided by the Great Western Railway , but these were withdrawn in August 1863 . After a period hiring trains from the Great Northern Railway , the Metropolitan Railway introduced its own , Fowler designed , 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tank engines in 1864 . The design , known as the A class and , with minor updates , the B class , was so successful that the Metropolitan and District Railways eventually had 120 of the engines in use and they remained in operation until electrification of the lines in the 1900s .
= = Other activities and professional recognition = =
Fowler stood unsuccessfully for parliament as a Conservative candidate in 1880 and 1885 . His standing within the engineering profession was very high , to the extent that he was elected president of the Institution of Civil Engineers for the period 1866 @-@ 67 , its youngest president . Through his position in the Institution and through his own practice , he led the development of training for engineers . In 1857 , he purchased a 57 @,@ 000 acres ( 23 @,@ 000 ha ) estate at Braemore in Ross @-@ shire , Scotland , where he spent frequent holidays and where he was a Justice of the Peace and a Deputy Lieutenant of the County . He listed his recreations in Who 's Who as yachting and deerstalking and was a member of the Carlton Club , St Stephen 's Club , the Conservative Club and the Royal Yacht Squadron . He was also President of the Egyptian Exploration Fund .
In 1885 he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George as thanks from the government for allowing the use of maps of the Upper Nile valley he had had made when working on the Khedive 's projects . They were the most accurate survey of the area and were used in the British Relief of Khartoum . In 1887 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Scotland .
Following the successful completion of the Forth Railway Bridge in 1890 , Fowler was created a baronet , taking the name of his Scottish estate as his territorial designation . Along with Benjamin Baker , he received an honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of Edinburgh in 1890 for his engineering of the bridge . In 1892 , the Poncelet Prize was doubled and awarded jointly to Baker and Fowler .
Fowler died in Bournemouth , Dorset , at the age of 81 and is buried in Brompton Cemetery , London . He was succeeded in the baronetcy by his son , Sir John Arthur Fowler , 2nd Baronet ( died 25 March 1899 ) . The baronetcy became extinct in 1933 on the death of Reverend Sir Montague Fowler , 4th Baronet , the first baronet 's third son .
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= Chose Promise =
Chose Promise ( French : [ ʃoz pʁɔmiz ] ; Promised Thing ) is a one @-@ man show performed by the French comedian Arnaud Tsamere from 2007 to 2014 . Written by Tsamere , François Rollin and Arnaud Joyet , it features the character Patrice Valenton , a teacher who is performing a comedy show because of a promise he made to his friend Rémi , who died in a car accident . After explaining this , he attempts ventriloquism , shadow puppetry , a vaudeville play and a song about Rémi . Tsamere then comes out of character and does a routine about bulbs around mirrors in dressing rooms .
The show 's title comes from the expression chose promise , chose due ( " a promise is a promise " ) and it deals with the theme of death ; the character of a teacher was chosen to depict failure . Chose Promise was released on DVD on 6 March 2013 after being recorded at the Sébastopol Theatre in Lille , and its final performances were at the Olympia in February 2014 — it has been broadcast on the television channels Comédie + and D17 . It was well received by critics , who praised Tsamere 's performance , particularly in the vaudeville sequence .
= = Synopsis = =
This summary is based on the DVD version of the show .
Patrice Valenton ( Arnaud Tsamere ) introduces himself as an economics teacher at the University Institute of Technology in Vincennes . He explains that he is there to honour a promise he made to his best friend Rémi , who was hospitalised by a car accident . Patrice arrived to see Rémi on his deathbed , and Rémi asked Patrice to perform a one @-@ man show on his behalf . Patrice answered " I promise ... " , and Rémi died , not knowing that the end of the sentence was " ... that you 'll get better " and that Patrice did not want to perform . Patrice explains that he will keep his promise because becoming a comedian was Rémi 's dream , but that he is not a comedian and is not there to get laughs or applause .
Patrice begins the show , explaining that he will use memories and objects relating to Rémi to perform . He says that Rémi loved ventriloquism , and performs his own routine with a monkey puppet called Falzouille , in which the puppet never speaks . He talks about how the puppet is not alive as it has Velcro pads , and imitates a cat and mouse with Velcro on their paws . He tells a story of when he removed the batteries from his colleague 's calculator , then takes out Rémi 's notebook , which contains the telephone numbers of prostitutes and vomit stains . Patrice performs a shadow puppetry routine in which an Armenian soldier rescues his daughter from 25 duduk players . It becomes clear that Patrice is not actually making the shadows , and he gets annoyed at three stagehands called David .
Patrice decides to perform the final scene of a vaudeville play he has written called La Pendule ( The Clock ) . He explains the complex plot and characters : set in 1929 in a townhouse in Provence , the play involves the Duke of Ponfouy and his family , associates and household servants . He performs the scene , playing all the characters himself and exaggerating their voices and mannerisms . For Patrice 's final act , he plays a recording of Rémi and himself from 1985 , then sings a song he has written about Rémi and the accident . When the audience applauds the song , he criticises them as he does not want to be a famous comedian . After imitating a marionette , he performs his curtain call with a toy dragon ; he dances with it and a sparkler , and flaps its wings to Johann Strauss I 's Radetzky March .
Tsamere comes out of character , thanks the audience , writers and producers of the show , and explains that the preceding story is a fiction . He talks about his stage fright and goes off on a tangent about the bulbs around mirrors in dressing rooms ; he asks a row of the audience to stand repeatedly to check whether pillars in the theatre are load @-@ bearing . He ends by saying that he does not need the mirror , as he does not wear make @-@ up .
= = Background and themes = =
The French expression chose promise , chose due , which is the equivalent of " a promise is a promise " in English , and to which Chose Promise responds , dates from the 17th century . After his first show Réflexions profondes sur pas mal de trucs ( Profound reflections on quite a few things ) , written with Arnaud Joyet and inspired by a videotape of François Rollin , Tsamere met Rollin at the Dinard Comedy Festival . He joined Tsamere and Joyet to write a new show . Rollin had seen his previous show , which played on theatrical " flops " , and told Tsamere that he could not perform this humour as himself without showing at the end that he could really do ventriloquism and play the guitar , which he could not . Therefore , the character of a teacher was created to play on failure .
Tsamere has described Valenton 's profession as " not far from the style of what I am , [ but ] very far in substance " ; he said of the character : " Under his generous side as a friend who is keeping his promise ... we have a guy who is ... in the end quite megalomaniacal . " The show deals with the theme of death , which Tsamere said is " a bit strange , but it has the virtue of attracting the public 's attention " . He said that he and his co @-@ authors thought that " the most irrefutable reason to go on stage ... was to talk about something strong " . Tsamere has described how the show changed as the size of its audiences grew and he incorporated improvisations .
= = Performances = =
Chose Promise was produced by 20h40 Productions and Troyes dans l 'Aube Prod and directed by Rollin and Joyet . It was written in 2007 , and has been performed at the Européen theatre and the Casino de Paris ; Tsamere has done three tours of the show . In early 2014 , the show was performed in Tours , Strasbourg , Lille , Petite @-@ Forêt , Rennes , Bourg @-@ les @-@ Valence , Voiron , Annecy and Chalon @-@ sur @-@ Saône in France , as well as in Geneva and Montreux in Switzerland . The two final performances took place at the Olympia in February 2014 .
After it was recorded at the Sébastopol Theatre in Lille on 5 October 2012 , the show was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and video on demand on 6 March 2013 ; it includes a commentary track by Rollin and Joyet , and a making @-@ of documentary called La boucle est bouclée ( " We 've come full circle " ) filmed by Simon Astier , who followed Tsamere around with a camera on the day of the recording . Tsamere said he chose Lille for the recording because he has a " special relationship " with the place . On 23 September 2013 , the show was broadcast on the television channel Comédie + — it was later shown on D17 on 31 August 2014 , when it was seen by 254 @,@ 000 people ( a 1 @.@ 1 % audience share ) .
= = Reception = =
Pariscope 's Julien Barret praised Tsamere 's " unbridled imagination [ and ] oratorical ease " , and called his vaudeville performance " exceptional " ; Marie @-@ Céline Nivière , of the same publication , said " [ Tsamere 's ] talents as an actor are remarkable " and also praised the vaudeville act . Michèle Bourcet of Télérama called it " an acting performance with mastered folly " and rated it " TT " , meaning " We like it a lot " . Le Parisien described " the meticulous writing , the absurd universe and the hilarious digressions " of Chose Promise , calling it a " masterpiece of the genre " . Le Figaro 's Nathalie Simon wrote of Tsamere 's " bubbly disposition [ and ] tremendous energy " , noting that his appearances on On n 'demande qu 'à en rire " have brought him an audience of appreciative fans whatever he does " .
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= Break the Ice ( Britney Spears song ) =
" Break the Ice " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fifth studio album , Blackout ( 2007 ) . It was released on March 4 , 2008 by Jive Records as the third single from the album . The song was written by Nate " Danja " Hills , James " Jim Beanz " Washington , Keri Hilson and Marcella Araica , while production was handled by Hills and vocal production was handled by Washington . " Radar " was originally planned to be released as the third single from Blackout , but " Break the Ice " was released after it was chosen by a poll on Spears 's official website . Musically , " Break the Ice " is an electro @-@ R & B song with influences of rave and crunk . The song opens with a choir and features synthesizers . Its lyrics deal with an attraction between two people . " Break the Ice " received positive reviews from music critics , who deemed it as a strong electronic track from the album .
The song was a moderate success , reaching the top ten in Belgium , Canada , Finland and Sweden and charting within the top forty in Australia , New Zealand and many European countries . In the United States , the song reached number forty @-@ three on Billboard Hot 100 , while peaking at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . An accompanying music video , directed by Robert Hales , was released on March 12 , 2008 . The anime @-@ influenced animation video was based on the superheroine character of Spears ' " Toxic " music video , and portrays her destroying a highly secured laboratory with several clones , including one of herself . A remix of " Break the Ice " was used as a video interlude during The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) and was performed for the first time during her Las Vegas residency at Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino , Britney : Piece of Me .
= = Background = =
" Break the Ice " was written by Nate " Danja " Hills , Marcella " Ms. Lago " Araica , Keri Hilson , James Washington and produced by Danja . Spears started working with Danja in July 2006 . He explained that the creative process was not difficult at first since he was " left to do pretty much whatever I wanted to " , and " if she felt it , she was gonna ride with it . If she didn 't , you ’ d see it in her face . " Spears began recording the track in Las Vegas in August 2006 , while she was seven months pregnant with her second child , Jayden James . Recording continued at Spears ' house in Los Angeles , California , three weeks after she gave birth . Hilson commented that " She gave 150 percent . [ ... ] I don ’ t know any other mother that would do that . " " Radar " was originally planned to be released as the third single from Blackout , according to Ezekiel Lewis of The Clutch . " Break the Ice " was chosen as a single by a poll on Spears ' official Jive Records website . On February 11 , 2008 , it was announced that the song had won , receiving a 39 % of the total votes .
= = Composition = =
" Break the Ice " is an electro @-@ R & B song with influences of rave and crunk . It is performed in a moderate pop groove . The song is composed in the key of F minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . According to Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly , " Break the Ice " sounds similar to Nelly Furtado 's " Say It Right " ( 2006 ) . It opens with Spears singing the lines " It 's been a while / I know I shouldn 't keep you waiting / But I 'm here now " , which serve as an apology for being gone so long from the music industry as well as away from her love interest in the song . After the first line , Spears sings over a choir . According to Chuck Arnold of People , Spears delivers her " trademark breathy vocals " . In the first verse , synthesizers kick in and run until the end of the second chorus . After it , Spears stops the song and sings " I like this part / It feels kind of good " , mimicking Janet Jackson in " Nasty " ( 1986 ) . The music changes , as described by Tom Ewing of Pitchfork Media , to " [ something that ] sounds like spacehoppers [ are ] bouncing in slow motion round a padded cell " . The song is constructed in the common verse @-@ chorus form . Lyrically , the song is about two people , in which one of them asks the other to get to know each other and break the ice .
= = Critical reception = =
Eric R. Danton of The Hartford Courant deemed it as a " crunk @-@ style thumper " , while calling it one of the " killer tracks " off the album along with " Radar " and " Hot as Ice " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy called it " a booming slice of multi @-@ layered electro R & B " and said that along with " Radar " , " are as avant @-@ garde as pop gets in 2007 " . A reviewer from Popjustice said " [ it ] is a really brilliant track " , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said some of the songs of Blackout , " really show off the skills of the producers " , exemplifying " Gimme More " , " Radar " , " Break the Ice " , " Heaven on Earth " and " Hot as Ice " . He also referred to the song as a " stuttering electro @-@ clip " .
Jennifer Vineyard of MTV said the song " might have been a stronger album leadoff track than ' Gimme More ' , [ ... ] since [ Spears ] re @-@ introduces herself at the top and apologizes for being gone for so long . " Kelefe Sanneh of The New York Times said the song was " nearly as good " as previous singles " Gimme More " and " Piece of Me " , and described it as a " rave @-@ inspired flirtation " . A reviewer from the Ottawa Citizen said that " [ t ] here 's also a lot to like about Break The Ice , Why Should I Be Sad and Perfect Love [ r ] " . Jim Abbott of the Orlando Sentinel said that " Musically , songs such as ' Piece of Me , ' ' Radar ' and ' Break the Ice ' are one @-@ dimensional , robotic exercises . " Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe called it " numbing club filler . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Break the Ice " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number one hundred on the issue dated March 15 , 2008 . It peaked at number forty @-@ three on May 24 , 2008 . Two weeks later , it peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs , becoming the third consecutive single from the album to reach the top position of the chart . As of July 2010 , " Break the Ice " has sold 688 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States . In Canada , the song entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number ninety @-@ seven on March 1 , 2008 . On April 26 , 2008 , it reached its peak position of number nine . On May 5 , 2008 , the track debuted at number forty @-@ one on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart . It peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the issue dated May 19 , 2008 . In New Zealand , the single debuted at number thirty @-@ seven on April 7 , 2008 . It peaked at number twenty @-@ four three weeks later . " Break the Ice " entered the UK Singles Chart at number thirty @-@ six on March 31 , 2008 . On April 20 , 2008 , it peaked at number fifteen . The song also had moderate success through Europe , reaching the top ten in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) and Finland , and the top twenty in Denmark and Sweden . In Denmark , it was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for sales over 7 @,@ 5000 copies .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Break the Ice " was made in an anime @-@ influenced animation style in South Korea and was directed by Robert Hales . The concept was reportedly Spears 's idea , who asked Jive Records to come up with an animated music video based on the superheroine character of the " Toxic " music video . It premiered on March 12 , 2008 at BlackoutBall.com , a website created exclusively for the premiere , in which fans could access a chat room .
The video begins with Spears wearing a short black bodysuit and knee @-@ high black boots , standing in the roofs of a futuristic city . As the first verse begins , she breaks into a research facility and battles with suited henchmen . Spears ends up gaining access to a highly secured laboratory and walks through aisles of clones held in liquid cocoons . She sees that one is a clone of her , kisses her and plants a bomb on the tank . After this , Spears infiltrates the base of the apparent villain , kissing him , and then destroying him , revealing him to be a robot also . From there , she dodges a bullet and sets off a panic among the newly arrived henchmen , meanwhile the bomb 's timer runs lower and lower . Next , there is a wide shot of the building exploding , while Spears is jumping and " Victory " is depicted on the side of the structure . The video ends with the phrase " To be continued ... " . Originally , the remix with Fabolous was initially to be released as the album 's third single and have a music video , before the animated video was used .
= = Live performances = =
A remix of " Break the Ice " was used as a video interlude during The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) . The song was performed for the first time in 2013 during Spears ' Las Vegas Residency at PH Live , Britney : Piece of Me . Halfway through the performance of " Gimme More " Spears and her dancers , wearing cowboy @-@ inspired plaid and denim outfits , performed a fragment of " Break the Ice " , which was then followed by a dance routine which pays tribute to Michael Jackson and then " Piece of Me " . In the 2016 revamp of the concert , the song was moved to the first act of the show and has different choreography .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Break the Ice " are taken from Blackout 's liner notes .
Britney Spears – lead vocals
Nate " Danja " Hills – songwriting , production
Marcella Araica – songwriting , instruments , programming , mixing
Keri Hilson – recording , background vocals
James Washington – songwriting
Jim Beanz – background vocals
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Menkauhor Kaiu =
Menkauhor Kaiu ( also known as Ikauhor and in Greek as Mencherês , Μεγχερῆς ) was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Old Kingdom period . He was the seventh ruler of the Fifth Dynasty at the end of the 25th century BC or early in the 24th century BC .
Menkauhor ruled for possibly eight or nine years , following king Nyuserre Ini , and was succeeded in turn by Djedkare Isesi . Although Menkauhor is well attested by historical sources , few artifacts from his reign have survived . Consequently , his familial relation to his predecessor and successor is unclear , and no offspring of his have been identified . Khentkaus III may have been Menkauhor 's mother , as indicated by evidence discovered in her tomb in 2015 .
Beyond the construction of monuments , the only known activity dated to Menkauhor 's reign is an expedition to the copper and turquoise mines in Sinai . Menkauhor ordered the construction of a sun temple , called the " Akhet @-@ Ra " , meaning " The Horizon of Ra " . The last ever to be built , this sun temple , known from inscriptions found in the tombs of its priests , is yet to be located . Menkauhor was buried in a small pyramid in Saqqara , which the Ancient Egyptians named Netjer @-@ Isut Menkauhor , " The Divine Places of Menkauhor " . Known today as the Headless Pyramid , the ruin had been lost under shifting sands until its rediscovery in 2008 .
The figure of Menkauhor was at the centre of a long lasting funerary cult until the end of the Old Kingdom period , with at least seven agricultural domains producing goods for the necessary offerings . The cult of a deified Menkauhor , then known by the titles " Strong Lord of the Two Lands , Menkauhor the Justified " reappeared during the New Kingdom period ( c . 1550 – c . 1077 BC ) , and lasted until at least the Nineteenth Dynasty ( c . 1292 – c . 1077 BC ) , some 1200 years after his death .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Historical = = =
Menkauhor is attested by three hieroglyphic sources , all from the much later New Kingdom period . His name is given on the 31st entry of the Abydos King List , which was inscribed on the walls of a temple during the reign of Seti I ( 1290 – 1279 BC ) . He is also mentioned on the Saqqara Tablet ( 30th entry ) and on the Turin canon ( third column , 23rd row ) , both of which were written during the reign of Ramesses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) . The Turin canon credits Menkauhor with a reign of eight years . These sources indicate that Menkauhor succeeded Nyuserre Ini and preceded Djedkare Isesi on the throne , making him the seventh pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty .
Menkauhor was likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BC ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho , but no copies of the text survive , and it is known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh " Mencherês " reigning for nine years as the seventh king of the Fifth Dynasty . Mencherês is believed to be a Hellenized form of Menkauhor , and Africanus ' nine @-@ year figure fits well with the eight years of reign given to Menkauhor on the Turin canon , the latter figure being considered by some Egyptologists , including Hartwig Altenmüller , as more likely than the former .
= = = Contemporaneous = = =
Relatively few attestations dating to Menkauhor 's reign have survived compared to the other kings of the Fifth Dynasty . Nonetheless , Menkauhor 's name is well attested in the names and titles of priests and officials of the Fifth Dynasty as well as in the names of the agricultural estates associated with his funerary cult . Surviving artefacts contemporaneous with Menkauhor 's reign include two stone vessels inscribed with his name from the mortuary temple of Neferefre – possibly gifts from Menkauhor for the funerary cult of Neferefre – as well as a few sealings from the same temple and from an area known as " Djedkare 's Family Cemetery " in Abusir . Cylinder seal impressions showing Menkauhor 's Horus name or the name of his pyramid have also been unearthed in the mortuary complex of Nyuserre Ini , and in the necropolises of Giza and Gebelein .
A gold cylinder seal bearing Menkauhor 's cartouche as part of the name of his pyramid together with the serekh of Djedkare Isesi is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston . The seal , purportedly discovered near the Pactolus river valley in western Anatolia , could attest to wide ranging trade @-@ contacts during the Fifth Dynasty , but its provenance remains unverifiable .
The only secure depiction of the king dating to the Old Kingdom that has survived to this day is a rough , possibly unfinished , alabaster statuette showing Menkauhor enthroned and wearing the tight @-@ fitting ceremonial robe of the Heb @-@ sed . The statue was discovered in a cachette built during the late New Kingdom beneath the floor of a room to the west of the sacred lake at the temple of Ptah in Memphis . The Egyptologist Jocelyn Berlandini proposed that another statuette , usually attributed to Teti , belongs instead to Menkauhor Kaiu . Berlandini bases her hypothesis on stylistic grounds , noting the resemblance with Menkauhor 's seated statue , as well as the location of the second statue , which was uncovered east of Teti 's pyramid , in close proximity to Menkauhor 's pyramid .
Monumental attestations of Menkauhor are limited to a rock inscription at the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai , showing his titulary and a rough stele inscribed with his cartouche from Mastaba 904 at Saqqara .
= = Family = =
= = = Name = = =
The name of Menkauhor is a departure from those of other kings of the Fifth Dynasty . Menkauhor , whose name means " Eternal are the Kas of Horus " , is the first pharaoh in 80 years whose name does not refer to the sun god Ra . The name of Menkauhor instead finds its peers among the princes of the Fifth Dynasty with , for example , prince Khentykauhor " The forces of Horus are at the fore " , a son of Nyuserre Ini , and prince Neserkauhor , a son of Djedkare Isesi .
= = = Filiation = = =
Owing to the paucity of contemporaneous sources for Menkauhor , his relation to his predecessor , Nyuserre Ini , and to his successor , Djedkare Isesi , cannot be ascertained beyond doubt . Menkauhor may have been a son of Nyuserre Ini ; indeed Nyuserre Ini is known to have fathered a prince Khentykauhor as shown by a relief mentioning the prince from the mortuary complex of queen Khentkaus II , the mother of Nyuserre Ini . The similarity of Khentykauhor 's name to that of Menkauhor led the Egyptologists Miroslav Verner and Vivienne Callender to propose that the two are the same person , with Khentykauhor taking the name " Menkauhor " upon ascending the throne . This hypothesis is possibly contradicted by an inscription discovered in 2008 in the mastaba of Werkaure , the eldest son of an unnamed king . The inscription mentions a " Menkauhor " , but does not ascribe any royal attributes to him . The Egyptologists Hana Vymazalová and Filip Coppens suggest this might refer to the future pharaoh Menkauhor Kaiu at a time when he was still a prince . They note that Menkauhor might have offered high @-@ quality stone blocks for the construction of the tomb of his ( possible ) relative , which would explain the inscription . This contradicts the identification of Menkauhor with Khentykauhor ; Vymazalová and Coppens theorize that Khentykauhor and Menkauhor were brothers and sons of Nyuserre Ini .
The identity of Menkauhor 's mother is equally uncertain . In January 2015 the tomb of the " King 's wife " and " King 's mother " , Khentkaus III , was discovered by a team of Czech archaeologists in the necropolis surrounding the pyramid of Neferefre in Abusir . Mud seals in the tomb indicate that Khentkaus III was buried during Nyuserre Ini 's reign . Since Nyuserre Ini 's own mother is known to have been Khentkaus II , the discovery suggests that she was Menkauhor Kaiu 's mother . The position of her tomb close to the pyramid of Neferefre could indicate that she was this king 's consort and thus that Neferefre was Menkauhor 's father .
= = = Consorts = = =
No queen consort of Menkauhor has been identified for certain . The Egyptologist Wilfried Seipel has proposed that Khuit I was a queen of Menkauhor . Based on the dating of the tombs surrounding Khuit 's burial , Seipel argues that she lived during the mid @-@ Fifth Dynasty . By the process of elimination , he attributes known queens to each king of the period , which leaves only Menkauhor as a candidate for her king . These arguments are criticized by the Egyptologist Michel Baud , who observes that pharaohs could have had more than one queen .
Queen Meresankh IV has also been suggested as a consort for Menkauhor based on the dating and location of her tomb in Saqqara . It is possible however that she was a wife of Djedkare Isesi .
= = = Descendants = = =
There is no evidence either for or against the hypothesis that Menkauhor 's successor Djedkare Isesi was his son . Two sons have been suggested for Menkauhor based on the dating and general location of their tombs in Saqqara : princes Raemka and Kaemtjenent , both believed to be children of Meresankh IV . By the same reasoning , they could instead be sons of Djedkare Isesi .
= = Reign = =
= = = Duration = = =
Given the scarcity of contemporaneous attestations for Menkauhor , modern Egyptologists consider his reign to have been perhaps eight or nine years long , as indicated by the much later historical sources . The small seated statue of Menkauhor wearing the robe of the Sed festival might suggest a longer reign , since this festival was typically celebrated only after a ruler had spent 30 years on the throne . However , Egyptologist Hartwig Altenmüller deems this hypothesis unlikely . Mere depictions of the festival do not necessarily imply a long reign ; for example , a relief showing pharaoh Sahure in the tunic of the Sed festival was found in his mortuary temple , although both historical sources and archaeological evidence suggest Sahure ruled Egypt for less than 14 full years .
= = = Activities = = =
Owing to the scarcity of artefacts and inscriptions relating to Menkauhor 's reign , few of his activities are known . Menkauhor sent an expedition to Sinai to exploit the mines of turquoise and copper in the Wadi Maghareh . The expedition is evidenced by a damaged rock inscription showing Menkauhor 's titulary which is one of the few attestations dating to his lifetime . The mines of Sinai had been exploited since the Third Dynasty ( 2686 BC – 2613 BC ) , and both Menkauhor 's predecessor Nyuserre Ini and successor Djedkare Isesi sent expeditions to the Wadi Maghareh .
= = Construction activities = =
Menkauhor Kaiu is known to have ordered the construction of two major monuments during his reign : a sun temple for the veneration of Ra and a pyramid for his burial , known today as the " Headless Pyramid " .
= = = Sun temple = = =
Following a tradition which started with Userkaf , the founder of the Fifth Dynasty , Menkauhor built a temple to the sun god Ra . He was the last pharaoh to do so . His successors , Djedkare Isesi and Unas , abandoned this practice as the cult of Ra declined at the expense of that of Osiris . Given the paucity of documents relating to Menkauhor 's sun temple , it probably functioned for only a short time or was never completed .
Menkauhor 's sun temple was called Akhet @-@ Ra , which is variously translated as " The Horizon of Ra " or " The Place where Ra Issues Forth " . The temple has yet to be located and could be lying under the sands of Saqqara or Abusir . Its existence is known thanks to inscriptions found in the tombs of Fifth and Sixth Dynasties officials who served as priests of Ra in the temple . These include Hemu , buried in Giza , and Neferiretptah and Raemankh , who were both buried in Saqqara @-@ north . In addition to his service in the Akhet @-@ Ra , Neferiretptah was a priest in Menkauhor 's pyramid and held the office of " royal ornament " , making him responsible for the precious items in the palace of the king .
Besides these inscriptions , a single seal bearing the name of the Akhet @-@ Ra is known from the tomb of princess Khamerernebti , located near the mortuary temple of Niuserre in Abusir . The seal was placed on a large vessel indicating that provisions for the tombs of members of the royal family were dispatched from Menkauhor 's temple to Niuserre 's pyramid complex .
= = = Pyramid = = =
Menkauhor Kaiu built a pyramid in North @-@ Saqqara , thereby abandoning the royal necropolis of Abusir , where kings of the Fifth Dynasty had been buried since the reign of Sahure , some 80 years earlier . The reason for this choice may be that the Abusir plateau had become overcrowded by the beginning of Menkauhor 's reign .
Originally named Netjer @-@ isut @-@ Menkauhor by the Ancient Egyptians , meaning " The divine places of Menkauhor " , the pyramid is known today as Lepsius XXIX after the number given to it by the archaeologist Karl Richard Lepsius who discovered the pyramid in 1843 . Owing to the ruined state of the structure , it is known in Arabic as the " Headless Pyramid " , a name that has been retained . The pyramid was lost under shifting sands in the early 20th century and its attribution to Menkauhor was consequently debated . Instead , it was proposed that the Headless Pyramid was that of Merikare , a structure dating to the First Intermediate Period and which has yet to be found . In 2008 , the structure identified by Lepsius was rediscovered by a team of archaeologists under the direction of Zahi Hawass , and excavations at the site quickly established a Fifth Dynasty date as indicated by the construction techniques used in its making . Although the excavations failed to yield the name of the king who built the pyramid , Menkauhor was the last pharaoh of the dynasty whose pyramid remained undiscovered . Thus , proceeding by elimination , archeologists and egyptologists have formally recognized the Headless Pyramid as that of Menkauhor .
The pyramid is estimated to have been around 50 – 60 m ( 160 – 200 ft ) at the base , so that the edifice would have stood 40 – 50 m ( 130 – 160 ft ) high at the time of its construction , making it one of the smallest royal pyramids of the Old Kingdom . There is evidence that Menkauhor had the time to complete his pyramid , whose small dimensions are thus consistent with his short eight to nine years of reign .
On the north side lies the entrance to the underground chamber system , which was sealed by two granite portcullises indicating that a burial took place . A broken sarcophagus lid of blue @-@ grey basalt was found in the burial chamber by Cecil Mallaby Firth during his brief excavations of the pyramid in 1930 .
= = Funerary cult = =
= = = Old Kingdom = = =
After his death Menkauhor enjoyed a funerary cult centered on his pyramid complex . The cult lasted at least until the second half of the Sixth Dynasty , nearly 150 years later . Provisions for this cult were produced in dedicated agricultural domains that were established during Menkauhor 's lifetime . Products of these domains were delivered to Menkauhor 's sun and mortuary temples and distributed to the priests of the cult , who could use them for their sustenance or their own funerary cults . Personified representations of Menkauhor 's agricultural domains are depicted bringing offerings on the walls of the mastabas of these priests . Most of the depictions are located in Saqqara North , near the pyramid complex of Djoser . This area comprises the tombs of Neferiretptah , Raemankh , Duare , Iti , Sekhemnefer , Snofrunefer , Akhethotep , Ptahhotep and Qednes , all priests of the funerary cult of Menkauhor . Further tombs of priests of this cult are found to the north , in Abusir South , with the mastaba of Isesiseneb and Rahotep and in Giza .
The complete names of at least seven domains of Menkauhor are known : " Ikauhor is perfect in favor " and " the favor of Ikauhor " , both mentioned in the tombs of Ptahhotep and Akhethotep ; " Ikauhor is perfect of life " , from the tomb of Ptahhotep II ; " Horus Qemaa causes Ikauhor to live " ; " Ikauhor is strong " ; " Seshat loves Ikauhor " and " Matyt loves Ikauhor " from the tombs of viziers Senedjemib Inti , Senedjemib Mehi and Hemu in Giza . In addition the Ḥwt domain of the king , which comprises the land holdings of the mortuary temple of Menkauhor , was named " Menkauhor is perfect of appearances " .
= = = New Kingdom = = =
The cult of Menkauhor enjoyed a revival during the New Kingdom period ( 1550 – 1077 BC ) . At this point Menkauhor had been deified as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis acting as a divine intercessor , and qualified of " Strong Lord of the Two Lands , Menkauhor the Justified " . This cult is evidenced by reliefs showing Menkauhor in the tombs of the " Chief of the artisans and jewelers " Ameneminet and of the physician Thuthu in Saqqara @-@ North , both of whom lived at the time of the late Eighteenth Dynasty ( 1550 – 1292 BC ) , during the reigns of Tutankhamun , Ay and Horemheb .
An inscribed block dating to the later Ramesside period ( 1292 – 1077 BC ) and now in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin , was uncovered by Lepsius in a house in Abusir and shows Menkauhor enthroned beside four other deified kings of the Old Kingdom : the name of the first , partially lost , but probably Sneferu is then followed by Djedefre , Menkaure , Menkauhor and finally Neferkare . The owner of the tomb stands before the kings , in worship . Another relief dating to the same period shows a similar scene . It was inscribed on the lintel of the tomb chapel of Mahy buried in Saqqara North . Four deified kings of the Old Kingdom are shown , all of whom built their pyramids at Saqqara : Djoser , Teti , Userkaf and Menkauhor .
The persistence of the cult of Menkauhor during the late Eighteenth to Nineteenth Dynasty possibly results from the location of his pyramid , which stood on the way to the necropolis of the Apis bulls , which later became the Serapeum .
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= Salmon Creek Dam =
The Salmon Creek Dam is a concrete arch dam on the Salmon Creek , 3 miles ( 5 km ) northwest of Juneau , Alaska . Built in 1914 , it is the world 's first constant @-@ angle arch variable radius dam . Since it was built , over 100 such dams have been constructed all over the world .
The dam was built by the Alaska @-@ Gastineau Mining Company to meet the electrical energy needs for mining operations . The dam continues to be fully functional for hydroelectric generation , as one of the drinking water sources to Juneau city and for aquaculture and fishing . When built , adoption of the constant arch design for the dam reduced costs by 20 % because less concrete was needed to construct the dam . Of the two hydroelectric power stations built at the initial stage ( one at the upper level and the other at the lower level ) – the latter one is still in use after a new powerhouse was built adjoining the old one – it produces the inexpensive electricity in Alaska while meeting 10 % of the energy needs of Juneau city . When built , the dam and its two power plants were considered engineering wonders . Both are operated and maintained by the Alaska Electric Light & Power ( AEL & P ) .
= = Topography = =
The dam was built in a forested , scenic and narrow valley of the Salmon creek , which runs from Salmon Creek Reservoir and flows southwest for 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the Gastineau Channel . The dam ( marked as Juneau B @-@ 2 in USGS maps ) is located at the terminus of the tram @-@ way that was built specifically by the Alaska Gastineau Mining Co . The tram @-@ way was built for hauling material for constructing the dam and its associated power stations . The power supply was for the mines located at a site 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the south at Sheep Creek . However , a 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long road had been built by AEL & P to the upper powerhouse at the base of the Salmon Creek Dam , which has since been de @-@ commissioned .
The creek runs for a length of 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) within the watershed , which has a creek divide of 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) and a ridge line of 2 @.@ 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 km ) . The stream bed has large gravel and bedrock substrata and its gradient decreases downstream of the dam . The average width of the stream is 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) and depth of water is about 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) . The basin is surrounded by hills with steep slopes and with elevation above 980 feet ( 300 m ) above sea level . The distance from the dam to Juneau city is 2 @.@ 9 miles ( 4 @.@ 7 km ) , to the Juneau harbor is 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) , and to the Juneau Harbor Seaplane Base is 3 @.@ 4 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) .
= = Evolution of the arch dam design = =
During the Roman period , the theory of building a curved dam ( arch dam ) was known as a means to withstand the water pressure and hold the masonry joints . However , in the background of masonry arch dams which dominated dam building scenario in the 19th century and with introduction of concrete technology for building dams , the structural design of arch dams underwent a dramatic change in its economic evolution to minimize use of construction material and inter alia , the cost of construction . Basically , an arch dam is a structure that curves upstream and the water pressure is transferred either directly to the valley sides or indirectly through concrete abutments . Theoretically , the ideal constant angle arch in a " V " -shaped valley for such an arch dam has a central angle of 133 ° of curvature . This theory led to the development of the " constant @-@ angle " ( or variable radius ) arch dam , which was also thinner in design . The theory was first initiated in North America for several dams , and in Alaska in particular , in 1913 with the building of the Salmon Creek Dam , which was completed in 1914 . In this regard , Bartlett Lee Thane , the mining engineer , who made a lasting impact in the mining industry – in the Alaska @-@ Gastineau Mining Company – was instrumental in introducing this design of thin arch dam with help from his former football team mates . Lars Jorgensen evolved the specific first design of the constant arch dam . However , AEL & P gives design credit to their then Chief Engineer Harry L. Wallenberg for the Salmon Creek Dam . The idea for building such a dam had been thought about 30 years earlier to economize on the use of construction material for building the dam . However , it was only in 1913 that the concept was transformed on ground by the pioneer mining engineer Thane .
= = Theory and design = =
In arch dam design , two basic shapes are adopted . These are the constant – radius arch and the constant @-@ angle arch , the latter design is more complex . In the constant @-@ radius arch design , which is also known as the single @-@ radius arch , the shape of the dam is cylindrical with vertical upstream face while the downstream face is battered . The constant @-@ angle arch design has also a variable – radius arch . In this design , the central opening angle is constant whereas the arch radius increases from the base to the crest ; this increase towards the crest is proportional to the increase of the canyon width of the gorge . Further , according to the theory of constant @-@ arch design , the arch action at the base of the dam exerts the maximum pressure on the base . A " V " shaped gorge in particular is considered an ideal feature for building this type of dam . This design ensures substantial savings in use of construction material as opposed to the constant – radius arch design . Lars R. Jorgenson who had conceived this concept had proved that the most economic design of the dam was obtained with an optimum opening angle of 133 @.@ 6 ° , with the least quantity of concrete . This design was applied with some modifications for the Salmon Creek Dam , which was designed with constant opening angle of 113 ° with radius varying from 147 @.@ 5 feet ( 45 @.@ 0 m ) at the base to 331 feet ( 101 m ) at the crest .
The " V " shape of the gorge at the dam site was adjudged ideal for building this type of dam at Salmon Creek site .
An ice pressure of 10 tons per square foot ( 500 kPa ) was considered based on the rim conditions of the reservoir and the design was also checked for an ice pressure of 20 tons per square foot ( 1 @,@ 000 kPa ) ; in the latter case the safety factor in concrete under resultant compression values was considered to be 5 and safe . The dam was designed with a base width of 47 @.@ 5 feet ( 14 @.@ 5 m ) ( width of 37 @.@ 5 feet ( 11 @.@ 4 m ) is also mentioned in one source ) and it tapers to a width of 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) ( 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) is also mentioned in one source ) at the top over a dam height of 168 feet ( 51 m ) . The geological condition at the base of the dam also dictated the type of dam as a flat rocky bed of 75 feet ( 23 m ) width was available to lay the foundation for the arch dam without resorting to large @-@ scale excavations . The dip of the rock was also steep both on upstream and downstream side of the flat base . Bank to bank , the crest length is 640 feet ( 200 m ) . The dam envisaged storage of about 18 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) at the full reservoir level while it is 445 acre feet ( 549 @,@ 000 m3 ) when the water is 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) deep . A steel outlet pipe of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) diameter was proposed to be embedded in the mid base of the dam as a spillway . The dam was planned with a top elevation of 343 feet ( 105 m ) above sea level . The reservoir water spreads to an area of 192 acres ( 78 ha ) , while the catchment drained is 7 @.@ 5 square miles ( 19 km2 ) .
Concurrently , two power houses were planned to generate power for the mining industry from the reservoir 's water – an upper power station with a 3 MW capacity about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream of the dam and a lower power station with a 3 MW capacity near the shore of the Gastineau Channel . The variable @-@ radius type shape of the dam adopted for Salmon Creek became a standard for many high and large dams , particularly in western USA . An article from the National Science Foundation 's SimScience project notes the following :
The upstream bulging served to offset the undercutting by the stronger curved lower arches near the abutments while the pronounced downstream toe reduced the tensile stresses at the upstream heel . The full realization of the new design was made possible by building the dam entirely out of concrete .
= = Construction = =
Based on the plans prepared for the concrete arch dam and the two power stations , construction was started in May 1912 . Construction of the lower power house on the shore at the confluence of Salmon Creek with Gastineau Channel was initiated first ; a transmission line was erected from here to the mines in March 1913 and the construction of the dam was started in April 1913 . Construction facilities for the dam were established upstream where aggregates ( fine and coarse ) were produced by crushing rocks at the crushing plant . The aggregates were mixed in designed proportions with cement and with a small admixture of lime to manufacture concrete for placing on the dam . The first batch of concrete was placed on the dam on July 14 , 1913 . The dam was completed , over a 13 months period , on August 13 , 1914 . A concrete quantity of 54 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 41 @,@ 000 m3 ) was placed on the dam . Concrete was placed at the rate of 400 cubic yards ( 310 m3 ) per day .
Between 1912 and 1914 , two power stations were built to utilize the water stored in the reservoir created by the dam . The first power station , the upper powerhouse titled ‘ Powerhouse 2 ’ , was located 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) below the dam and had an installation of two units of 1 @.@ 5 MW capacity each operating under a hydraulic head of 600 feet ( 180 m ) . The tail waters from this power station was conveyed through a 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) long power channel to the second power station titled ‘ Powerhouse 1 ’ located on the shore of the Gastineau Channel . The power house at this location also had two units of 1 @.@ 5 MW capacity each operating under a head of 500 feet ( 150 m ) . Thus , the total generation from the two power stations was 6 @,@ 000 kW ( 8 @,@ 000 hp ) . In 1916 , the average load on the two power stations was 5 @,@ 187 horsepower ( 3 @,@ 868 kW ) . Near Powerhouse 1 on the shore , office buildings , machine shops , saw mills , canteen and housing facilities for staff were also built .
= = Rehabilitation = =
Since its completion , the dam and its two power stations have gone through many rehabilitation measures . Power House 2 was damaged in a fire in 1923 . It was rehabilitated in 1935 . It was finally abandoned in 1998 .
With aging , the dam also needed to be rehabilitated and work was carried out in 1967 . Deteriorated concrete was removed , the dam body was regrouted and the upstream face of the dam was provided with a layer of high strength concrete in the top 45 feet ( 14 m ) .
The lower power house also underwent major rehabilitation measures . It was shut down in December 1974 due to the high cost of operation and maintenance . In 1984 a new power plant was built adjoining the old powerhouse , with installation of 6 @.@ 7 MW capacity .
= = Benefits = =
Even though the project was initially built for hydroelectric power generation to meet the mining requirements , it has over the years evolved into a multipurpose reservoir with benefits of power generation , drinking water and fisheries .
= = = Hydroelectricity = = =
The rehabilitated dam and the new power house facility at the lower house site are now fully functional . The generating capacity of the power station is 29 @.@ 5 GWh annually , which accounts for nearly 10 % of Juneau 's power demand . Alaska Electric Light and Power operates and maintains the system .
= = = Drinking water supply = = =
Salmon Creek reservoir is a secondary source of drinking water which is provided in conjunction with Alaska Electric Light and Power Company ( AEL & P ) . Water is drawn from near the Salmon Creek power generation plant , which is located near sea level . Tail waters from the power station are then pumped to a water treatment plant for chlorination , and pH and alkalinity adjustment with soda ash before the water is supplied to the distribution system . This system was commissioned by the City Borough of Juneau ( CBJ ) in 1984 , after the lower Salmon Creek Powerhouse was re @-@ commissioned with new generating units . The reservoir is also used as chlorine contact tanks , where chlorine is added for purification and given time to react with any pathogens , before it is supplied to the city . However , this source is subject to seasonal high turbidity and also interruptions due to the annual maintenance of the generator units . This system is able to supply 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 3 @,@ 800 m3 ) of water , which covers about one third area of Juneau . The water resources are generally pollution @-@ free and quality is monitored and tested every month to check for drinking @-@ water standards set by the EPA and Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation ( ADEC ) .
= = = Fisheries = = =
In 1880 , the Salmon Creek was named by Richard Harris and Joe Juneau ( during their first visit to the area for gold prospecting ) . The local people called it Tilhini meaning " dog salmon " a native name used by Tingit Alaskan Indian ; this name is also shown in some early topographic maps . In 1917 , fish propagation was established in Salmon Creek Reservoir by introducing 50 @,@ 000 fry lings ( small and young recently hatched fish ) in the reservoir with assistance from Alaska Fish and Game Club , which maintained a hatchery at Juneau . This helped in propagating fish reserves of Salmon in the reservoir . It is reported that by the time the lake was opened for fishing , the fish measured 6 inches ( 150 mm ) and could be caught with a fly of 6 – 8 inches ( 150 – 200 mm ) . Salmon Creek Reservoir is now open for bait fishing all the year round . Salmon fish varieties are many . Some fish species identified are : Dolly Varden , Brook Trout , Freshwater Trout , Salmon family , Chum Salmon and Coho Salmon .
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= Telengard =
Telengard is a 1982 role @-@ playing dungeon crawler video game developed by Daniel Lawrence and published by Avalon Hill . The player explores a dungeon , fights monsters with magic , and avoids traps in real time without any set mission other than surviving . Lawrence first wrote the game as DND , a 1976 version of Dungeons & Dragons for the DECsystem @-@ 10 mainframe computer . He continued to develop DND at Purdue University as a hobby , rewrote the game for the Commodore PET 2001 after 1978 , and ported it to Apple II + , TRS @-@ 80 , and Atari 800 platforms before Avalon Hill found the game at a convention and licensed it for distribution . Its Commodore 64 release was the most popular . Reviewers noted Telengard 's similarity to Dungeons and Dragons . RPG historian Shannon Appelcline noted the game as one of the first professionally produced computer role @-@ playing games , and Gamasutra 's Barton considered Telengard consequential in what he deemed " The Silver Age " of computer role @-@ playing games preceding the golden age of the late 1980s . Some of the game 's dungeon features , such as altars , fountains , teleportation cubes , and thrones , were adopted by later games such as Tunnels of Doom .
= = Gameplay = =
In Telengard , the player travels alone through a dungeon fraught with monsters , traps , and treasures in a manner similar to the original Dungeons & Dragons . The game has 50 levels with two million rooms , 20 monster types , and 36 spells . It has no missions or quests , and its only goal is to survive and improve the player character . The game is set in real time and cannot be paused , so the player must visit an " inn " to save their game progress . In the early releases ( e.g. , Apple II ) , the game world has no sound and is represented by ASCII characters , such as slashes for stairs and dollar signs for treasure . Unless the player enters a special cheat , they cannot resume progress upon dying .
The single @-@ player adventure begins by personalizing a player character . Each character has randomly generated values for their statistical character attributes : charisma , constitution , dexterity , intelligence , strength , and wisdom . While the algorithm stays the same , the player can randomize repeatedly for new character attribute distributions until satisfied . The player begins with a sword , armor , shield , and no money , and can only see his immediate surroundings , rather than the whole level . Monsters spawn randomly , and players have three options in battle : fight , use magic , or evade . Magic includes combative missiles , fireballs , lightning bolts , and turning the undead , as well as health regeneration and trap navigation . The effects of the game 's most complex spells are not outlined in the instruction manual and must be learned by trial and error . Like the game , the battle events are carried out in real time instead of in turns . Enemies increase in difficulty as the player progresses through the dungeon . They include both living and undead monsters such as elves , dragons , mummies , and wraiths . Defeating enemies awards experience points , which accrete to raise the player 's experience level and increase player stats . The player is rewarded with treasures that include magical weapons , armor items , and potions . Players can code their own features into the game .
= = Development = =
While a computer science student at Purdue University , Daniel Lawrence wrote several hobbyist computer games for the university 's PDP @-@ 11 RSTS / E mainframe computer , and one grew into Telengard . In his 1976 and 1977 college summers at home , he worked at BOCES in Spencerport , New York , where he wrote a dungeon crawl game called DND ( not to be confused with dnd ) in the BASIC programming language for the DECsystem @-@ 10 's TOPS @-@ 10 operating system . He had been influenced by the pen and paper Dungeons & Dragons . At college , he ported the game to Purdue 's PDP @-@ 11 RSTS / E. The game 's mechanics grew from conversations at the Purdue engineering building . Part of its " real @-@ time " nature descended from the need to not have players occupy the few shared computer terminals for long .
In 1978 , Lawrence purchased the Commodore PET 2001 and no longer needed the university 's computer . He rewrote DND as Telengard within eight kilobytes of memory . Due to a lack of space , he designed the dungeon to be procedurally generated based on the player @-@ character 's position so the maps would not have to be stored in memory . Lack of memory was Lawrence 's primary design obstacle . Nevertheless , the final version almost completely used 32 kilobytes of memory . It was easily ported to the Apple II + and TRS @-@ 80 platforms due to their similar usage of the 8K BASIC programming language . The later Atari 800 port required a more complicated handling of string variables . The three ports were finished before Avalon Hill saw the game at a gaming convention and licensed it in 1982 as one of its first computer games . The IBM PC port required a rewrite into the C programming language ; the source code for this version was later lost . The Heath / Zenith CP / M version requires MBASIC . The game 's most popular port was for the Commodore 64 .
Matt Barton of Gamasutra reported that Lawrence 's DND ( and consequently , his Telengard ) was directly inspired by Whisenhunt and Wood 's dnd for PLATO , with its randomized dungeons and minimalist graphics , though Lawrence recalled in an interview that he had not seen or known of their game . Computer Gaming World 's " resident adventure game expert " wrote that Telengard was based on the earlier , public domain software Castle Telengard .
As the game 's BASIC source code was available , ports and remaster exist therefore by the fan community .
= = Reception and legacy = =
RPG historian Shannon Appelcline identifies Telengard as one of the first professionally produced computer role @-@ playing games . Gamasutra 's Barton described the game as a " pure dungeon crawler " for its lack of diversions , and noted its expansive dungeons as a " key selling point " . AllGame 's Earl Green remarked that the game 's mechanics were very similar in practice to Dungeons & Dragons , and Computer Gaming World 's Dick McGrath also thought the game " borrowed heavily " from the original such that he expected its creators to be thanked in the end credits , and Scorpia cited four specific similarities with Dungeons & Dragons .
Green described the game as both " exceedingly simple ... yet very addictive " and rated it four of five stars . McGrath wrote that he wanted to have more control over his money , and added that a store for purchasing upgrades would have been useful . He thought that games such as Dunjonquest and Maces and Magic handled this aspect better . McGrath suggested that the player draw their own map in the absence of an overview mapping system . He felt that his appreciation for the game grew with time and that it had the necessary hook to make him continually return and play again . Tony Roberts of Compute ! considered the Commodore 64 version of the game best for its enhanced graphics . Scorpia in 1993 stated that while Telengard was " interesting for its time , the game would be pretty dated today " compared to the Gold Box games ; " back then , however , it was hot stuff , and a fun way of passing the time " .
Barton of Gamasutra placed Telengard alongside Wizardry and the early Ultima series in what he deemed " The Silver Age " of computer role @-@ playing games that preceded the golden age of the late 1980s . Yet in 1992 , Computer Gaming World 's Gerald Graef wrote that Telengard and Temple of Apshai were " quickly overshadowed " by the Wizardry and Ultima series . Some of the game 's dungeon features , such as altars , fountains , teleportation cubes , and thrones , were adopted by later games such as Tunnels of Doom . The 1982 Sword of Fargoal similarly shared features . Barton wrote in 2007 that Telengard " still enjoys considerable appreciation today " and questioned whether the Diablo series was " but an updated Telengard " .
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= Tang dynasty =
The Tang dynasty ( Chinese : 唐朝 ) was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . It is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization , and a golden age of cosmopolitan culture . Its territory , acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers , rivaled that of the Han dynasty , and the Tang capital at Chang 'an ( present @-@ day Xi 'an ) was the most populous city in the world .
The dynasty was founded by the Lǐ family ( 李 ) , who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire . The dynasty was briefly interrupted when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne , proclaiming the Second Zhou dynasty ( 690 – 705 ) and becoming the only Chinese empress regnant . In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries , the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people . Yet , even when the central government was breaking down and unable to compile an accurate census of the population in the 9th century , it is estimated that the population had grown by then to about 80 million people . With its large population base , the dynasty was able to raise professional and conscripted armies of hundreds of thousands of troops to contend with nomadic powers in dominating Inner Asia and the lucrative trade routes along the Silk Road . Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court , while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it indirectly controlled through a protectorate system . Besides political hegemony , the Tang also exerted a powerful cultural influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea , Japan , and Vietnam .
The Tang dynasty was largely a period of progress and stability in the first half of the dynasty 's rule , until the An Lushan Rebellion and the decline of central authority in the later half of the dynasty . Like the previous Sui dynasty , the Tang dynasty maintained a civil service system by recruiting scholar @-@ officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office . This civil order was undermined by the rise of regional military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century . Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era ; it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry . Two of China 's most famous poets , Li Bai and Du Fu , belonged to this age , as did many famous painters such as Han Gan , Zhang Xuan , and Zhou Fang . There was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars , as well as encyclopedias and geographical works . The adoption of the title Tängri Qaghan by the Tang Emperor Taizong in addition to his title as emperor was eastern Asia 's first " simultaneous kingship " .
There were many notable innovations during the Tang , including the development of woodblock printing . Buddhism became a major influence in Chinese culture , with native Chinese sects gaining prominence . However , Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state , subsequently declining in influence . Although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century , art and culture continued to flourish . The weakened central government largely withdrew from managing the economy , though the country 's mercantile affairs stayed intact and commercial trade continued to thrive regardless , at least until agrarian rebellions in the latter half of the 9th century brought the dynasty to its knees , resulting in damaging atrocities such as the Guangzhou Massacre .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The Li family belonged to the northwest military aristocracy prevalent during the Sui dynasty and claimed to be paternally descended from the Daoist founder Laozi ( whose personal name was Li Dan or Li Er ) , the Han dynasty General Li Guang , and Western Liang ruler Li Gao . This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage ( 隴西李氏 ) which includes Li Bai . The Tang Emperors had Xianbei maternal ancestry , from Emperor Gaozu of Tang 's Xianbei mother Duchess Dugu .
Li Yuan was Duke of Tang and governor of Taiyuan during the Sui dynasty 's collapse , which was caused in part by the Sui failure to conquer the northern part of the Korean peninsula during the Goguryeo – Sui War . He had prestige and military experience , and was a first cousin of Emperor Yang of Sui ( their mothers were sisters ) . Li Yuan rose in rebellion in 617 , along with his son and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang ( d . 623 ) , who raised and commanded her own troops . In winter 617 , Li Yuan occupied Chang 'an , relegated Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang or retired emperor , and acted as regent to the puppet child @-@ emperor , Emperor Gong of Sui . On the news of Emperor Yang 's murder by General Yuwen Huaji on June 18 , 618 , Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty , the Tang .
Li Yuan , known as Emperor Gaozu of Tang , ruled until 626 , when he was forcefully deposed by his son Li Shimin , the Prince of Qin . Li Shimin had commanded troops since the age of 18 , had prowess with bow and arrow , sword and lance and was known for his effective cavalry charges . Fighting a numerically superior army , he defeated Dou Jiande ( 573 – 621 ) at Luoyang in the Battle of Hulao on May 28 , 621 . In a violent elimination of royal family due to fear of assassination , Li Shimin ambushed and killed two of his brothers , Li Yuanji ( b . 603 ) and Crown prince Li Jiancheng ( b . 589 ) , in the Xuanwu Gate Incident on July 2 , 626 . Shortly thereafter , his father abdicated in his favor and Li Shimin ascended the throne . He is conventionally known by his temple name Taizong .
Although killing two brothers and deposing his father contradicted the Confucian value of filial piety , Taizong showed himself to be a capable leader who listened to the advice of the wisest members of his council . In 628 , Emperor Taizong held a Buddhist memorial service for the casualties of war , and in 629 he had Buddhist monasteries erected at the sites of major battles so that monks could pray for the fallen on both sides of the fight . This was during the campaign against Eastern Tujue , a Göktürk khanate that was destroyed after the capture of its ruler , Illig Qaghan , by the famed Tang military officer Li Jing ( 571 – 649 ) , who later became a Chancellor of the Tang dynasty . With this victory , the Turks accepted Taizong as their khagan , a title rendered as Tian Kehan in addition to his rule as Emperor of China under the traditional title " Son of Heaven " .
= = = Wu Zetian 's usurpation = = =
Although she entered Emperor Gaozong 's court as the lowly consort Wu Zhao , Wu Zetian rose to the highest seat of power in 690 , establishing the short @-@ lived Wu Zhou . Empress Wu 's rise to power was achieved through cruel and calculating tactics : a popular conspiracy theory stated that she killed her own baby girl and blamed it on Gaozong 's empress so that the empress would be demoted . Emperor Gaozong suffered a stroke in 655 , and Wu began to make many of his court decisions for him , discussing affairs of state with his councilors , who took orders from her while she sat behind a screen . When Empress Wu 's eldest son , the crown prince , began to assert his authority and advocate policies opposed by Empress Wu , he suddenly died in 675 . Many suspected he was poisoned by Empress Wu . Although the next heir apparent kept a lower profile , in 680 he was accused by Wu of plotting a rebellion and was banished . ( He was later obliged to commit suicide . )
In 683 , Emperor Gaozong died . He was succeeded by Emperor Zhongzong , his eldest surviving son by Wu . Zhongzong tried to appoint his wife 's father as chancellor : after only six weeks on the throne , he was deposed by Empress Wu in favor of his younger brother , 12 @-@ year @-@ old Emperor Ruizong . This provoked a group of Tang princes to rebel in 684 ; Wu 's armies suppressed them within two months . She proclaimed the Tianshou era of Wu Zhou on October 16 , 690 , and three days later demoted Emperor Ruizong to crown prince . He was also forced to give up his father 's surname Li in favor of the empress 's Wu . She then ruled as China 's only empress . A palace coup on February 20 , 705 , forced her to yield her position on February 22 . The next day , her son Zhongzong was restored to power ; the Tang was formally restored on March 3 . She died soon after . To legitimize her rule , she circulated a document known as the Great Cloud Sutra , which predicted that a reincarnation of the Maitreya Buddha would be a female monarch who would dispel illness , worry , and disaster from the world . She even introduced numerous revised written characters to the written language , which reverted to the originals after her death . Arguably the most important part of her legacy was diminishing the power of the northwest aristocracy , allowing people from other clans and regions of China to become more represented in Chinese politics and government .
= = = Emperor Xuanzong 's reign = = =
There were many prominent women at court during and after Wu 's reign , including Shangguan Wan 'er ( 664 – 710 ) , a poetess , writer , and trusted official in charge of Wu 's private office . In 706 the wife of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang , Empress Wei ( d . 710 ) , persuaded her husband to staff government offices with his sister and her daughters , and in 709 requested that he grant women the right to bequeath hereditary privileges to their sons ( which before was a male right only ) . Empress Wei eventually poisoned Zhongzong , whereupon she placed his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son upon the throne in 710 . Two weeks later , Li Longji ( the later Emperor Xuanzong ) entered the palace with a few followers and slew Empress Wei and her faction . He then installed his father Emperor Ruizong ( r . 710 – 712 ) on the throne . Just as Emperor Zhongzong was dominated by Empress Wei , so too was Ruizong dominated by Princess Taiping . This was finally ended when Princess Taiping 's coup failed in 712 ( she later hanged herself in 713 ) and Emperor Ruizong abdicated to Emperor Xuanzong .
During the 44 @-@ year reign of Emperor Xuanzong , the Tang dynasty reached its height , a golden age with low economic inflation and a toned down lifestyle for the imperial court . Seen as a progressive and benevolent ruler , Xuanzong even abolished the death penalty in the year 747 ; all executions had to be approved beforehand by the emperor himself ( these were relatively few , considering that there were only 24 executions in the year 730 ) . Xuanzong bowed to the consensus of his ministers on policy decisions and made efforts to staff government ministries fairly with different political factions . His staunch Confucian chancellor Zhang Jiuling ( 673 – 740 ) worked to reduce deflation and increase the money supply by upholding the use of private coinage , while his aristocratic and technocratic successor Li Linfu ( d . 753 ) favored government monopoly over the issuance of coinage . After 737 most of Xuanzong 's confidence rested in his long @-@ standing chancellor Li Linfu , who championed a more aggressive foreign policy employing non @-@ Chinese generals . This policy ultimately created the conditions for a massive rebellion against Xuanzong .
= = = An Lushan Rebellion and catastrophe = = =
The Tang Empire was at its height of power up until the middle of the 8th century , when the An Lushan Rebellion ( December 16 , 755 – February 17 , 763 ) destroyed the prosperity of the empire . An Lushan was a half @-@ Sogdian , half @-@ Turk Tang commander since 744 , had experience fighting the Khitans of Manchuria with a victory in 744 , yet most of his campaigns against the Khitans were unsuccessful . He was given great responsibility in Hebei , which allowed him to rebel with an army of more than one hundred thousand troops . After capturing Luoyang , he named himself emperor of a new , but short @-@ lived , Yan state . Despite early victories scored by Tang General Guo Ziyi ( 697 – 781 ) , the newly recruited troops of the army at the capital were no match for An Lushan 's die @-@ hard frontier veterans , so the court fled Chang 'an . While the heir apparent raised troops in Shanxi and Xuanzong fled to Sichuan province , they called upon the help of the Uyghur Turks in 756 . The Uyghur khan Moyanchur was greatly excited at this prospect , and married his own daughter to the Chinese diplomatic envoy once he arrived , receiving in turn a Chinese princess as his bride . The Uyghurs helped recapture the Tang capital from the rebels , but they refused to leave until the Tang paid them an enormous sum of tribute in silk . Even Abbasid Arabs assisted the Tang in putting down An Lushan 's rebellion . The Tibetans took hold of the opportunity and raided many areas under Chinese control , and even after the Tibetan Empire had fallen apart in 842 ( and the Uyghurs soon after ) the Tang were in no position to reconquer Central Asia after 763 . So significant was this loss that half a century later jinshi examination candidates were required to write an essay on the causes of the Tang 's decline . Although An Lushan was killed by one of his eunuchs in 757 , this time of troubles and widespread insurrection continued until rebel Shi Siming was killed by his own son in 763 .
One of the legacies that the Tang government left since 710 was the gradual rise of regional military governors , the jiedushi , who slowly came to challenge the power of the central government . After the An Lushan Rebellion , the autonomous power and authority accumulated by the jiedushi in Hebei went beyond the central government 's control . After a series of rebellions between 781 and 784 in today 's Hebei , Shandong , Hubei and Henan provinces , the government had to officially acknowledge the jiedushi 's hereditary ruling without accreditation . The Tang government relied on these governors and their armies for protection and to suppress locals that would take up arms against the government . In return , the central government would acknowledge the rights of these governors to maintain their army , collect taxes and even to pass on their title to heirs . As time passed , these military governors slowly phased out the prominence of civil officials drafted by exams , and became more autonomous from central authority . The rule of these powerful military governors lasted until 960 , when a new civil order under the Song dynasty was established . Also , the abandonment of the equal @-@ field system meant that people could buy and sell land freely . Many poor fell into debt because of this , forced to sell their land to the wealthy , which led to the exponential growth of large estates . With the breakdown of the land allocation system after 755 , the central Chinese state barely interfered in agricultural management and acted merely as tax collector for roughly a millennium , save a few instances such as the Song 's failed land nationalization during the 13th @-@ century war with the Mongols .
With the central government collapsing in authority over the various regions of the empire , it was recorded in 845 that bandits and river pirates in parties of 100 or more began plundering settlements along the Yangtze River with little resistance . In 858 , enormous floods along the Grand Canal inundated vast tracts of land and terrain of the North China Plain , which drowned tens of thousands of people in the process . The Chinese belief in the Mandate of Heaven granted to the ailing Tang was also challenged when natural calamities occurred , forcing many to believe the Heavens were displeased and that the Tang had lost their right to rule . Then in 873 a disastrous harvest shook the foundations of the empire ; in some areas only half of all agricultural produce was gathered , and tens of thousands faced famine and starvation . In the earlier period of the Tang , the central government was able to meet crises in the harvest , as it was recorded from 714 – 719 that the Tang government responded effectively to natural disasters by extending the price @-@ regulation granary system throughout the country . The central government was able then to build a large surplus stock of foods to ward off the rising danger of famine and increased agricultural productivity through land reclamation . In the 9th century , however , the Tang government was nearly helpless in dealing with any calamity .
= = = Rebuilding and recovery = = =
Although these natural calamities and rebellions stained the reputation and hampered the effectiveness of the central government , the early 9th century is nonetheless viewed as a period of recovery for the Tang dynasty . The government 's withdrawal from its role in managing the economy had the unintended effect of stimulating trade , as more markets with less bureaucratic restrictions were opened up . By 780 , the old grain tax and labor service of the 7th century was replaced by a semiannual tax paid in cash , signifying the shift to a money economy boosted by the merchant class . Cities in the Jiangnan region to the south , such as Yangzhou , Suzhou , and Hangzhou prospered the most economically during the late Tang period . The government monopoly on the production of salt , weakened after the An Shi Rebellion , was placed under the Salt Commission , which became one of the most powerful state agencies , run by capable ministers chosen as specialists . The commission began the practice of selling merchants the rights to buy monopoly salt , which they would then transport and sell in local markets . In 799 salt accounted for over half of the government 's revenues . S. A. M. Adshead writes that this salt tax represents " the first time that an indirect tax , rather than tribute , levies on land or people , or profit from state enterprises such as mines , had been the primary resource of a major state . " Even after the power of the central government was in decline after the mid 8th century , it was still able to function and give out imperial orders on a massive scale . The Tangshu ( Old Book of Tang ) compiled in the year 945 recorded that in 828 the Tang government issued a decree that standardized irrigational square @-@ pallet chain pumps in the country :
In the second year of the Taihe reign period [ 828 ] , in the second month ... a standard model of the chain pump was issued from the palace , and the people of Jingzhao Fu ( d footnote : the capital ) were ordered by the emperor to make a considerable number of machines , for distribution to the people along the Zheng Bai Canal , for irrigation purposes . |
The last great ambitious ruler of the Tang dynasty was Emperor Xianzong ( r . 805 – 820 ) , his reign period aided by the fiscal reforms of the 780s , including the government monopoly on the salt industry . He also had an effective well trained imperial army stationed at the capital led by his court eunuchs ; this was the Army of Divine Strategy , numbering 240 @,@ 000 in strength as recorded in 798 . Between the years 806 and 819 , Emperor Xianzong conducted seven major military campaigns to quell the rebellious provinces that had claimed autonomy from central authority , managing to subdue all but two of them . Under his reign there was a brief end to the hereditary jiedushi , as Xianzong appointed his own military officers and staffed the regional bureaucracies once again with civil officials . However , Xianzong 's successors proved less capable and more interested in the leisure of hunting , feasting , and playing outdoor sports , allowing eunuchs to amass more power as drafted scholar @-@ officials caused strife in the bureaucracy with factional parties . The eunuchs ' power became unchallenged after Emperor Wenzong 's ( r . 826 – 840 ) failed plot to have them overthrown ; instead the allies of Emperor Wenzong were publicly executed in the West Market of Chang 'an , by the eunuchs ' command .
= = = End of the dynasty = = =
In addition to natural calamities and jiedushi amassing autonomous control , the Huang Chao Rebellion ( 874 – 884 ) resulted in the sacking of both Chang 'an and Luoyang , and took an entire decade to suppress . Although the rebellion was defeated by the Tang , it never recovered from that crucial blow , weakening it for the future military powers to take over . There were also large groups of bandits , in the size of small armies , that ravaged the countryside in the last years of the Tang , who smuggled illicit salt , ambushed merchants and convoys , and even besieged several walled cities .
Zhu Wen , originally a salt smuggler who had served under the rebel Huang , surrendered to Tang forces . By helping to defeat Huang , he was granted a series of rapid military promotions . In 907 the Tang dynasty was ended when Zhu Wen , now a military governor , deposed the last emperor of Tang , Emperor Ai of Tang , and took the throne for himself ( known posthumously as Emperor Taizu of Later Liang ) . He established the Later Liang , which inaugurated the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . A year later the deposed Emperor Ai was poisoned by Zhu Wen , and died .
= = Administration and politics = =
= = = Initial reforms = = =
Taizong set out to solve internal problems within the government which had constantly plagued past dynasties . Building upon the Sui legal code , he issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon , as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam , Korea , and Japan . The earliest law code to survive was the one established in the year 653 , which was divided into 500 articles specifying different crimes and penalties ranging from ten blows with a light stick , one hundred blows with a heavy rod , exile , penal servitude , or execution .
The legal code clearly distinguished different levels of severity in meted punishments when different members of the social and political hierarchy committed the same crime . For example , the severity of punishment was different when a servant or nephew killed a master or an uncle than when a master or uncle killed a servant or nephew .
The Tang Code was largely retained by later codes such as the early Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) code of 1397 , yet there were several revisions in later times , such as improved property rights for women during the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) .
The Tang had three departments ( Chinese : 省 ; pinyin : shěng ) , which were obliged to draft , review , and implement policies respectively . There were also six ministries ( Chinese : 部 ; pinyin : bù ) under the administrations that implemented policy , each of which was assigned different tasks . These Three Departments and Six Ministries included the personnel administration , finance , rites , military , justice , and public works — an administrative model which would last until the fall of the Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) .
Although the founders of the Tang related to the glory of the earlier Han dynasty ( 3rd century BC – 3rd century AD ) , the basis for much of their administrative organization was very similar to the previous Northern and Southern dynasties . The Northern Zhou ( 6th century ) fubing system of divisional militia was continued by the Tang , along with farmer @-@ soldiers serving in rotation from the capital or frontier in order to receive appropriated farmland . The equal @-@ field system of the Northern Wei ( 4th – 6th centuries ) was also kept , although there were a few modifications .
Although the central and local governments kept an enormous number of records about land property in order to assess taxes , it became common practice in the Tang for literate and affluent people to create their own private documents and signed contracts . These had their own signature and that of a witness and scribe in order to prove in court ( if necessary ) that their claim to property was legitimate . The prototype of this actually existed since the ancient Han dynasty , while contractual language became even more common and embedded into Chinese literary culture in later dynasties .
The center of the political power of the Tang was the capital city of Chang 'an ( modern Xi 'an ) , where the emperor maintained his large palace quarters and entertained political emissaries with music , sports , acrobatic stunts , poetry , paintings , and dramatic theater performances . The capital was also filled with incredible amounts of riches and resources to spare . When the Chinese prefectural government officials traveled to the capital in the year 643 to give the annual report of the affairs in their districts , Emperor Taizong discovered that many had no proper quarters to rest in and were renting rooms with merchants . Therefore , Emperor Taizong ordered the government agencies in charge of municipal construction to build every visiting official his own private mansion in the capital .
= = = Imperial examinations = = =
Following the Sui dynasty 's example , the Tang abandoned the nine @-@ rank system in favor of a service system . Students of Confucian studies were potential candidates for the imperial examinations , the graduates of which could be appointed as state bureaucrats in the local , provincial , and central government . There were two types of exams that were given , mingjing ( ' illuminating the classics examination ' ) and jinshi ( ' presented scholar examination ' ) . The mingjing was based upon the Confucian classics and tested the student 's knowledge of a broad variety of texts . The jinshi tested a student 's literary abilities in writing essay @-@ style responses to questions on matters of governance and politics , as well as their skills in composing poetry . Candidates were also judged on their skills of deportment , appearance , speech , and level of skill in calligraphy , all of which were subjective criteria that allowed the already wealthy members of society to be chosen over ones of more modest means who were unable to be educated in rhetoric or fanciful writing skills . There was a disproportionate number of civil officials coming from aristocratic as opposed to non @-@ aristocratic families . The exams were open to all male subjects whose fathers were not of the artisan or merchant classes , although having wealth or noble status was not a prerequisite in receiving a recommendation . In order to promote widespread Confucian education , the Tang government established state @-@ run schools and issued standard versions of the Five Classics with selected commentaries .
This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talent into government . But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers , aware that imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords would have destabilizing consequences , was to create a body of career officials having no autonomous territorial or functional power base . The Tang law code ensured equal division of inherited property amongst legitimate heirs , allowing a bit of social mobility and preventing the families of powerful court officials from becoming landed nobility through primogeniture . As it turned out , these scholar @-@ officials acquired status in their local communities and in family ties , while they also shared values that connected them to the imperial court . From Tang times until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912 , scholar @-@ officials functioned often as intermediaries between the grassroots level and the government . Yet the potential of a widespread examination system was not fully realized until the Song dynasty , when the merit @-@ driven scholar official largely shed his aristocratic habits and defined his social status through the examination system . As historian Patricia Ebrey states of the Song period scholar @-@ officials :
The examination system , used only on a small scale in Sui and Tang times , played a central role in the fashioning of this new elite . The early Song emperors , concerned above all to avoid domination of the government by military men , greatly expanded the civil service examination system and the government school system .
Nevertheless , the Sui and Tang dynasties institutionalized and set the foundations for the civil service system and the new elite class of exam @-@ drafted scholar @-@ officials .
= = = Religion and politics = = =
From the outset , religion played a role in Tang politics . In his bid for power , Li Yuan had attracted a following by claiming descent from the Daoist sage Laozi ( fl . 6th century BC ) . People bidding for office would have monks from Buddhist temples pray for them in public in return for cash donations or gifts if the person was selected . Before the persecution of Buddhism in the 9th century , Buddhism and Daoism were accepted side by side , and Emperor Xuanzong ( r . 712 – 56 ) invited monks and clerics of both religions to his court . At the same time Xuanzong exalted the ancient Laozi by granting him grand titles , wrote commentary on the Daoist Laozi , set up a school to prepare candidates for examinations on Daoist scriptures , and called upon the Indian monk Vajrabodhi ( 671 – 741 ) to perform Tantric rites to avert a drought in the year 726 . In 742 Emperor Xuanzong personally held the incense burner during a ceremony led by Amoghavajra ( 705 – 74 , patriarch of the Shingon school ) reciting " mystical incantations to secure the victory of Tang forces . "
While religion played a role in politics , politics also played a role in religion . In the year 714 , Emperor Xuanzong forbade shops and vendors in the city of Chang 'an to sell copied Buddhist sutras , instead giving the Buddhist clergy of the monasteries the sole right to distribute sutras to the laity . In the previous year of 713 , Emperor Xuanzong had liquidated the highly lucrative Inexhaustible Treasury , which was run by a prominent Buddhist monastery in Chang 'an . This monastery collected vast amounts of money , silk , and treasures through multitudes of anonymous people 's repentances , leaving the donations on the monastery 's premise . Although the monastery was generous in donations , Emperor Xuanzong issued a decree abolishing their treasury on grounds that their banking practices were fraudulent , collected their riches , and distributed the wealth to various other Buddhist monasteries and Daoist abbeys , and to repair statues , halls , and bridges in the city .
= = = Taxes and the census = = =
The Tang dynasty government attempted to create an accurate census of the size of their empire 's population , mostly for effective taxation and matters of military conscription for each region . The early Tang government established both the grain tax and cloth tax at a relatively low rate for each household under the empire . This was meant to encourage households to enroll for taxation and not avoid the authorities , thus providing the government with the most accurate estimate possible . In the census of 609 , the population was tallied by efforts of the government at a size of 9 million households , or about 50 million people . The Tang census of 742 again approximated the size of China 's population at about 50 million people . Patricia Ebrey writes that even if a rather significant number of people had avoided the registration process of the tax census , the population size during the Tang had not grown significantly since the earlier Han dynasty ( the census of the year 2 recording a population of roughly 58 million people in China ) . S.A.M. Adshead disagrees , estimating that there were about 75 million people by 750 .
In the Tang census of the year 754 , there were 1 @,@ 859 cities , 321 prefectures , and 1 @,@ 538 counties throughout the empire . Although there were many large and prominent cities during the Tang , the rural and agrarian areas comprised the majority of China 's population at some 80 to 90 % . There was also a dramatic migratory shift of the population from northern to southern China , as the North held 75 % of the overall population at the dynasty 's inception , but by its end was reduced to 50 % .
Chinese population size would not dramatically increase until the Song dynasty period , when the population doubled to 100 million people because of extensive rice cultivation in central and southern China , coupled with rural farmers holding more abundant yields of food that they could easily provide to the growing market .
= = Military and foreign policy = =
= = = Protectorates and tributaries = = =
The 7th and first half of the 8th century are generally considered to be the era in which the Tang reached the zenith of its power . In this period , Tang control extended further west than any previous dynasty , stretching from north Vietnam in the south , to a point north of Kashmir bordering Persia in the west , to northern Korea in the north @-@ east .
Some of the kingdoms paying tribute to the Tang dynasty included Kashmir , Nepal , Khotan , Kucha , Kashgar , Korea , Champa , and kingdoms located in Amu Darya and Syr Darya valley . Turkic nomads addressed the Emperor of Tang China as Tian Kehan . After the widespread Göktürk revolt of Shabolüe Khan ( d . 658 ) was put down at Issyk Kul in 657 by Su Dingfang ( 591 – 667 ) , Emperor Gaozong established several protectorates governed by a Protectorate General or Grand Protectorate General , which extended the Chinese sphere of influence as far as Herat in Western Afghanistan . Protectorate Generals were given a great deal of autonomy to handle local crises without waiting for central admission . After Xuanzong 's reign , military governors ( jiedushi ) were given enormous power , including the ability to maintain their own armies , collect taxes , and pass their titles on hereditarily . This is commonly recognized as the beginning of the fall of Tang 's central government .
= = = Soldiers and conscription = = =
By the year 737 , Emperor Xuanzong discarded the policy of conscripting soldiers that were replaced every three years , replacing them with long @-@ service soldiers who were more battle @-@ hardened and efficient . It was more economically feasible as well , since training new recruits and sending them out to the frontier every three years drained the treasury . By the late 7th century , the fubing troops began abandoning military service and the homes provided to them in the equal @-@ field system . The supposed standard of 100 mu of land allotted to each family was in fact decreasing in size in places where population expanded and the wealthy bought up most of the land . Hard @-@ pressed peasants and vagrants were then induced into military service with benefits of exemption from both taxation and corvée labor service , as well as provisions for farmland and dwellings for dependents who accompanied soldiers on the frontier . By the year 742 the total number of enlisted troops in the Tang armies had risen to about 500 @,@ 000 men .
= = = Turkic and Western regions = = =
The Sui and Tang carried out very successful military campaigns against the steppe nomads . Chinese foreign policy to the north and west now had to deal with Turkic nomads , who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia . To handle and avoid any threats posed by the Turks , the Sui government repaired fortifications and received their trade and tribute missions . They sent four royal princesses to form marriage alliances with Turkic clan leaders , in 597 , 599 , 614 , and 617 . The Sui stirred trouble and conflict amongst ethnic groups against the Turks . As early as the Sui dynasty , the Turks had become a major militarized force employed by the Chinese . When the Khitans began raiding northeast China in 605 , a Chinese general led 20 @,@ 000 Turks against them , distributing Khitan livestock and women to the Turks as a reward . On two occasions between 635 and 636 , Tang royal princesses were married to Turk mercenaries or generals in Chinese service . Throughout the Tang dynasty until the end of 755 , there were approximately ten Turkic generals serving under the Tang . While most of the Tang army was made of fubing Chinese conscripts , the majority of the troops led by Turkic generals were of non @-@ Chinese origin , campaigning largely in the western frontier where the presence of fubing troops was low . Some " Turkic " troops were nomadisized Han Chinese , a desinicized people .
Civil war in China was almost totally diminished by 626 , along with the defeat in 628 of the Ordos Chinese warlord Liang Shidu ; after these internal conflicts , the Tang began an offensive against the Turks . In the year 630 , Tang armies captured areas of the Ordos Desert , modern @-@ day Inner Mongolia province , and southern Mongolia from the Turks . After this military victory , Emperor Taizong won the title of Great Khan amongst the various Turks in the region who pledged their allegiance to him and the Chinese empire ( with several thousand Turks traveling into China to live at Chang 'an ) . On June 11 , 631 , Emperor Taizong also sent envoys to the Xueyantuo bearing gold and silk in order to persuade the release of enslaved Chinese prisoners who were captured during the transition from Sui to Tang from the northern frontier ; this embassy succeeded in freeing 80 @,@ 000 Chinese men and women who were then returned to China .
While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region ( former territory of the Xiongnu ) , the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe . Like the earlier Han dynasty , the Tang dynasty ( along with Turkic allies ) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s . During Emperor Taizong 's reign alone , large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks , but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun , the Xiyu states , and the Xueyantuo . Under Emperor Gaozong , a campaign led by the general Su Dingfang was launched against the Western Turks ruled by Ashina Helu .
The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia , which was at times settled with marriage alliances such as the marrying of Princess Wencheng ( d . 680 ) to Songtsän Gampo ( d . 649 ) . A Tibetan tradition mentions that Chinese troops captured Lhasa after Songtsän Gampo 's death , but no such invasion is mentioned in either Chinese annals or the Tibetan manuscripts of Dunhuang .
There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the Tarim Basin between 670 – 692 , and in 763 the Tibetans even captured the capital of China , Chang 'an , for fifteen days during the An Shi Rebellion . In fact , it was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now Gansu and Qinghai , which the Tibetans then occupied along with the territory of what is now Xinjiang . Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821 . The terms of this treaty , including the fixed borders between the two countries , are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa .
During the Islamic conquest of Persia ( 633 – 656 ) , the son of the last ruler of the Sassanid Empire , Prince Pirooz , fled to Tang China . According to the Old Book of Tang , Pirooz was made the head of a Governorate of Persia in what is now Zaranj , Afghanistan . During this conquest of Persia , the Islamic Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan ( r . 644 – 656 ) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang 'an . By the 740s , the Arabs of Khurasan had established a presence in the Ferghana basin and in Sogdiana . At the Battle of Talas in 751 , Qarluq mercenaries under the Chinese defected , helping the Arab armies of the Islamic Caliphate to defeat the Tang force under commander Gao Xianzhi . Although the battle itself was not of the greatest significance militarily , this was a pivotal moment in history ; it marks the spread of Chinese papermaking into regions west of China as captured Chinese soldiers revealed secrets of Chinese papermaking to the Arabs . These techniques ultimately reached Europe by the 12th century through Arab @-@ controlled Spain . Although they had fought at Talas , on June 11 , 758 , an Abbasid embassy arrived at Chang 'an simultaneously with the Uyghur Turks bearing gifts for the Tang Emperor . From even further west , a tribute embassy came to the court of Taizong in 643 from the Patriarch of Antioch . In 788 – 9 the Chinese concluded a military alliance with the Uighur Turks who twice defeated the Tibetans , in 789 near the town of Kuch 'eng in Jungharia , and in 791 near Ning @-@ hsia on the Yellow River .
= = = Korea and Japan = = =
In the east , the Chinese military campaigns were less successful than elsewhere . Like the emperors of the Sui dynasty before him , Taizong established a military campaign in 644 against the kingdom of Goguryeo in the Goguryeo @-@ Tang War ; however , this led to its withdrawal in the first campaign because they failed to overcome the successful defense led by General Yeon Gaesomun . Allying with the Korean Silla Kingdom , the Chinese fought against Baekje and their Yamato Japanese allies in the Battle of Baekgang in August 663 , a decisive Tang – Silla victory . The Tang dynasty navy had several different ship types at its disposal to engage in naval warfare , these ships described by Li Quan in his Taipai Yinjing ( Canon of the White and Gloomy Planet of War ) of 759 . The Battle of Baekgang was actually a restoration movement by remnant forces of Baekje , since their kingdom was toppled in 660 by a joint Tang – Silla invasion , led by Chinese general Su Dingfang and Korean general Kim Yushin ( 595 – 673 ) . In another joint invasion with Silla , the Tang army severely weakened the Goguryeo Kingdom in the north by taking out its outer forts in the year 645 . With joint attacks by Silla and Tang armies under commander Li Shiji ( 594 – 669 ) , the Kingdom of Goguryeo was destroyed by 668 .
Although they were formerly enemies , the Tang accepted officials and generals of Goguryeo into their administration and military , such as the brothers Yeon Namsaeng ( 634 – 679 ) and Yeon Namsan ( 639 – 701 ) . From 668 to 676 , the Tang Empire would control northern Korea . However , in 671 Silla began fighting the Tang forces there . At the same time the Tang faced threats on its western border when a large Chinese army was defeated by the Tibetans on the Dafei River in 670 . By 676 , the Tang army was driven out of Korea by Unified Silla . Following a revolt of the Eastern Turks in 679 , the Tang abandoned its Korean campaigns .
Although the Tang had fought the Japanese , they still held cordial relations with Japan . There were numerous Imperial embassies to China from Japan , diplomatic missions that were not halted until 894 by Emperor Uda ( r . 887 – 897 ) , upon persuasion by Sugawara no Michizane ( 845 – 903 ) . The Japanese Emperor Temmu ( r . 672 – 686 ) even established his conscripted army on that of the Chinese model , his state ceremonies on the Chinese model , and constructed his palace at Fujiwara on the Chinese model of architecture .
Many Chinese Buddhist monks came to Japan to help further the spread of Buddhism as well . Two 7th @-@ century monks in particular , Zhi Yu and Zhi You , visited the court of Emperor Tenji ( r . 661 – 672 ) , whereupon they presented a gift of a south @-@ pointing chariot that they had crafted . This 3rd century mechanically driven directional @-@ compass vehicle ( employing a differential gear ) was again reproduced in several models for Tenji in 666 , as recorded in the Nihon Shoki of 720 . Japanese monks also visited China ; such was the case with Ennin ( 794 – 864 ) , who wrote of his travel experiences including travels along China 's Grand Canal . The Japanese monk Enchin ( 814 – 891 ) stayed in China from 839 to 847 and again from 853 to 858 , landing near Fuzhou , Fujian and setting sail for Japan from Taizhou , Zhejiang during his second trip to China .
= = Trade and spread of culture = =
Through use of the land trade along the Silk Road and maritime trade by sail at sea , the Tang were able to gain many new technologies , cultural practices , rare luxury , and contemporary items . From the Middle East , India , Persia , and Central Asia the Tang were able to acquire new ideas in fashion , new types of ceramics , and improved silver @-@ smithing . The Chinese also gradually adopted the foreign concept of stools and chairs as seating , whereas the Chinese beforehand always sat on mats placed on the floor . To the Middle East , the Islamic world coveted and purchased in bulk Chinese goods such as silks , lacquerwares , and porcelain wares . Songs , dances , and musical instruments from foreign regions became popular in China during the Tang dynasty . These musical instruments included oboes , flutes , and small lacquered drums from Kucha in the Tarim Basin , and percussion instruments from India such as cymbals . At the court there were nine musical ensembles ( expanded from seven in the Sui dynasty ) representing music from throughout Asia .
There was great contact and interest in India as a hub for Buddhist knowledge , with famous travelers such as Xuanzang ( d . 664 ) visiting the South Asian subcontinent . After a 17 @-@ year @-@ long trip , Xuanzang managed to bring back valuable Sanskrit texts to be translated into Chinese . There was also a Turkic – Chinese dictionary available for serious scholars and students , while Turkic folksongs gave inspiration to some Chinese poetry . In the interior of China , trade was facilitated by the Grand Canal and the Tang government 's rationalization of the greater canal system that reduced costs of transporting grain and other commodities . The state also managed roughly 32 @,@ 100 km ( 19 @,@ 900 mi ) of postal service routes by horse or boat .
= = = Silk Road = = =
Although the Silk Road from China to the West was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu ( 141 – 87 BC ) during the Han , it was reopened by the Tang in 639 when Hou Junji ( d . 643 ) conquered the West , and remained open for almost four decades . It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678 , but in 699 , during Empress Wu 's period , the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640 , once again connecting China directly to the West for land @-@ based trade .
The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722 , lost it to the Tibetans in 737 , and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo @-@ Korean General Gao Xianzhi . When the An Lushan Rebellion ended in 763 , the Tang Empire had once again lost control over its western lands , as the Tibetan Empire largely cut off China 's direct access to the Silk Road . An internal rebellion in 848 ousted the Tibetan rulers , and Tang China regained its northwestern prefectures from Tibet in 851 . These lands contained crucial grazing areas and pastures for raising horses that the Tang dynasty desperately needed .
Despite the many western travelers coming into China to live and trade , many travelers , mainly religious monks , recorded the strict border laws that the Chinese enforced . As the monk Xuanzang and many other monk travelers attested to , there were many Chinese government checkpoints along the Silk Road that examined travel permits into the Tang Empire . Furthermore , banditry was a problem along the checkpoints and oasis towns , as Xuanzang also recorded that his group of travelers were assaulted by bandits on multiple occasions .
The Silk Road also had an impact on Tang dynasty art . Horses became a significant symbol of prosperity and power as well as an instrument of military and diplomatic policy . Horses were also revered as a relative of the dragon .
= = = Seaports and maritime trade = = =
Chinese envoys had been sailing through the Indian Ocean to India since perhaps the 2nd century BC , yet it was during the Tang dynasty that a strong Chinese maritime presence could be found in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea , into Persia , Mesopotamia ( sailing up the Euphrates River in modern @-@ day Iraq ) , Arabia , Egypt , Aksum ( Ethiopia ) , and Somalia in the Horn of Africa .
During the Tang dynasty , thousands of foreigners came and lived in numerous Chinese cities for trade and commercial ties with China , including Persians , Arabs , Hindu Indians , Malays , Bengalis , Sinhalese , Khmers , Chams , Jews and Nestorian Christians of the Near East , and many others . In 748 , the Buddhist monk Jian Zhen described Guangzhou as a bustling mercantile center where many large and impressive foreign ships came to dock . He wrote that " many big ships came from Borneo , Persia , Qunglun ( Indonesia / Java ) ... with ... spices , pearls , and jade piled up mountain high " , as written in the Yue Jue Shu ( Lost Records of the State of Yue ) . During the An Lushan Rebellion Arab and Persian pirates burned and looted Guangzhou in 758 , and foreigners were massacred at Yangzhou in 760 . The Tang government reacted by shutting the port of Canton down for roughly five decades , and foreign vessels docked at Hanoi instead . However , when the port reopened it continued to thrive . In 851 the Arab merchant Sulaiman al @-@ Tajir observed the manufacturing of Chinese porcelain in Guangzhou and admired its transparent quality . He also provided a description of Guangzhou 's mosque , its granaries , its local government administration , some of its written records , the treatment of travelers , along with the use of ceramics , rice @-@ wine , and tea . However , in another bloody episode at Guangzhou in 879 , the Chinese rebel Huang Chao sacked the city , and purportedly slaughtered thousands of native Chinese , along with foreign Jews , Christians , Zoroastrians , and Muslims in the process . Huang 's rebellion was eventually suppressed in 884 .
Vessels from Korean Silla , Balhae and Hizen Province of Japan were all involved in the Yellow Sea trade , which Silla dominated . After Silla and Japan reopened renewed hostilities in the late 7th century , most Japanese maritime merchants chose to set sail from Nagasaki towards the mouth of the Huai River , the Yangzi River , and even as far south as the Hangzhou Bay in order to avoid Korean ships in the Yellow Sea . In order to sail back to Japan in 838 , the Japanese embassy to China procured nine ships and sixty Korean sailors from the Korean wards of Chuzhou and Lianshui cities along the Huai River . It is also known that Chinese trade ships traveling to Japan set sail from the various ports along the coasts of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces .
The Chinese engaged in large @-@ scale production for overseas export by at least the time of the Tang . This was proven by the discovery of the Belitung shipwreck , a silt @-@ preserved shipwrecked Arabian dhow in the Gaspar Strait near Belitung , which had 63 @,@ 000 pieces of Tang ceramics , silver , and gold ( including a Changsha bowl inscribed with a date : " 16th day of the seventh month of the second year of the Baoli reign " , or 826 , roughly confirmed by radiocarbon dating of star anise at the wreck ) . Beginning in 785 , the Chinese began to call regularly at Sufala on the East African coast in order to cut out Arab middlemen , with various contemporary Chinese sources giving detailed descriptions of trade in Africa . The official and geographer Jia Dan ( 730 – 805 ) wrote of two common sea trade routes in his day : one from the coast of the Bohai Sea towards Korea and another from Guangzhou through Malacca towards the Nicobar Islands , Sri Lanka and India , the eastern and northern shores of the Arabian Sea to the Euphrates River . In 863 the Chinese author Duan Chengshi ( d . 863 ) provided a detailed description of the slave trade , ivory trade , and ambergris trade in a country called Bobali , which historians suggest was Berbera in Somalia . In Fustat ( old Cairo ) , Egypt , the fame of Chinese ceramics there led to an enormous demand for Chinese goods ; hence Chinese often traveled there ( this continued into later periods such as Fatimid Egypt ) . From this time period , the Arab merchant Shulama once wrote of his admiration for Chinese seafaring junks , but noted that their draft was too deep for them to enter the Euphrates River , which forced them to ferry passengers and cargo in small boats . Shulama also noted that Chinese ships were often very large , with capacities up to 600 – 700 passengers .
= = Society and culture = =
Both the Sui and Tang Dynasties had turned away from the more feudal culture of the preceding Northern Dynasties , in favor of staunch civil Confucianism . The governmental system was supported by a large class of Confucian intellectuals selected through either civil service examinations or recommendations . In the Tang period , Daoism and Buddhism reigned as core ideologies as well , and played a large role in people 's daily lives . The Tang Chinese enjoyed feasting , drinking , holidays , sports , and all sorts of entertainment , while Chinese literature blossomed and was more widely accessible with new printing methods .
= = = Leisure in the Tang = = =
Much more than earlier periods , the Tang era was renowned for the time reserved for leisure activity , especially for those in the upper classes . Many outdoor sports and activities were enjoyed during the Tang , including archery , hunting , horse polo , cuju football , cockfighting , and even tug of war . Government officials were granted vacations during their tenure in office . Officials were granted 30 days off every three years to visit their parents if they lived 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) away , or 15 days off if the parents lived more than 167 mi ( 269 km ) away ( travel time not included ) . Officials were granted nine days of vacation time for weddings of a son or daughter , and either five , three , or one days / day off for the nuptials of close relatives ( travel time not included ) . Officials also received a total of three days off for their son 's capping initiation rite into manhood , and one day off for the ceremony of initiation rite of a close relative 's son .
Traditional Chinese holidays such as Chinese New Year , Lantern Festival , Cold Food Festival , and others were universal holidays . In the capital city of Chang 'an there was always lively celebration , especially for the Lantern Festival since the city 's nighttime curfew was lifted by the government for three days straight . Between the years 628 and 758 , the imperial throne bestowed a total of sixty @-@ nine grand carnivals nationwide , granted by the emperor in the case of special circumstances such as important military victories , abundant harvests after a long drought or famine , the granting of amnesties , the installment of a new crown prince , etc . For special celebration in the Tang era , lavish and gargantuan @-@ sized feasts were sometimes prepared , as the imperial court had staffed agencies to prepare the meals . This included a prepared feast for 1 @,@ 100 elders of Chang 'an in 664 , a feast for 3 @,@ 500 officers of the Divine Strategy Army in 768 , and a feast for 1 @,@ 200 women of the palace and members of the imperial family in the year 826 . Drinking wine and alcoholic beverages was heavily ingrained into Chinese culture , as people drank for nearly every social event . A court official in the 8th century allegedly had a serpentine @-@ shaped structure called the ' Ale Grotto ' built with 50 @,@ 000 bricks on the groundfloor that each featured a bowl from which his friends could drink .
= = = Chang 'an , the Tang capital = = =
Although Chang 'an was the capital of the earlier Han and Jin dynasties , after subsequent destruction in warfare , it was the Sui dynasty model that comprised the Tang era capital . The roughly square dimensions of the city had six miles ( 10 km ) of outer walls running east to west , and more than five miles ( 8 km ) of outer walls running north to south . The royal palace , the Taiji Palace , stood north of the city 's central axis . From the large Mingde Gates located mid @-@ center of the main southern wall , a wide city avenue stretched from there all the way north to the central administrative city , behind which was the Chentian Gate of the royal palace , or Imperial City . Intersecting this were fourteen main streets running east to west , while eleven main streets ran north to south . These main intersecting roads formed 108 rectangular wards with walls and four gates each , and each ward filled with multiple city blocks . The city was made famous for this checkerboard pattern of main roads with walled and gated districts , its layout even mentioned in one of Du Fu 's poems . During the Heian period , the city of Heian kyō ( present @-@ day Kyoto ) of Japan like many cities was arranged in the checkerboard street grid pattern of the Tang capital and in accordance with traditional geomancy following the model of Chang 'an . Of these 108 wards in Chang 'an , two of them ( each the size of two regular city wards ) were designated as government @-@ supervised markets , and other space reserved for temples , gardens , ponds , etc . Throughout the entire city , there were 111 Buddhist monasteries , 41 Daoist abbeys , 38 family shrines , 2 official temples , 7 churches of foreign religions , 10 city wards with provincial transmission offices , 12 major inns , and 6 graveyards . Some city wards were literally filled with open public playing fields or the backyards of lavish mansions for playing horse polo and cuju football . In 662 , Emperor Gaozong moved the imperial court to the Daming Palace , which became the political center of the empire and served as the royal residence of the Tang emperors for more than 220 years .
The Tang capital was the largest city in the world at its time , the population of the city wards and its suburban countryside reaching 2 million inhabitants . The Tang capital was very cosmopolitan , with ethnicities of Persia , Central Asia , Japan , Korea , Vietnam , Tibet , India , and many other places living within . Naturally , with this plethora of different ethnicities living in Chang 'an , there were also many different practiced religions , such as Buddhism , Nestorian Christianity , Manichaeism , Zoroastrianism , Judaism , and Islam being practiced within . With widely open access to China that the Silk Road to the west facilitated , many foreign settlers were able to move east to China , while the city of Chang 'an itself had about 25 @,@ 000 foreigners living within . Exotic green @-@ eyed , blonde @-@ haired Tocharian ladies serving wine in agate and amber cups , singing , and dancing at taverns attracted customers . If a foreigner in China pursued a Chinese woman for marriage , he was required to stay in China and was unable to take his bride back to his homeland , as stated in a law passed in 628 to protect women from temporary marriages with foreign envoys . Several laws enforcing segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed during the Tang dynasty . In 779 the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs in the capital , Chang 'an , to wear their ethnic dress , stopped them from marrying Chinese females , and banned them from passing off as Chinese .
Chang 'an was the center of the central government , the home of the imperial family , and was filled with splendor and wealth . However , incidentally it was not the economic hub during the Tang dynasty . The city of Yangzhou along the Grand Canal and close to the Yangtze River was the greatest economic center during the Tang era .
Yangzhou was the headquarters for the Tang 's government monopoly on salt , and the greatest industrial center of China ; it acted as a midpoint in shipping of foreign goods that would be organized and distributed to the major cities of the north . Much like the seaport of Guangzhou in the south , Yangzhou boasted thousands of foreign traders from all across Asia .
There was also the secondary capital city of Luoyang , which was the favored capital of the two by Empress Wu . In the year 691 she had more than 100 @,@ 000 families ( more than 500 @,@ 000 people ) from around the region of Chang 'an move to populate Luoyang instead . With a population of about a million , Luoyang became the second largest capital in the empire , and with its close proximity to the Luo River it benefited from southern agricultural fertility and trade traffic of the Grand Canal . However , the Tang court eventually demoted its capital status and did not visit Luoyang after the year 743 , when Chang 'an 's problem of acquiring adequate supplies and stores for the year was solved . As early as 736 , granaries were built at critical points along the route from Yangzhou to Chang 'an , which eliminated shipment delays , spoilage , and pilfering . An artificial lake used as a transshipment pool was dredged east of Chang 'an in 743 , where curious northerners could finally see the array of boats found in southern China , delivering tax and tribute items to the imperial court .
= = = Literature = = =
The Tang period was a golden age of Chinese literature and art . There are over 48 @,@ 900 poems penned by some 2 @,@ 200 Tang authors that have survived until modern times . Skill in the composition of poetry became a required study for those wishing to pass imperial examinations , while poetry was also heavily competitive ; poetry contests amongst guests at banquets and courtiers were common . Poetry styles that were popular in the Tang included gushi and jintishi , with the renowned poet Li Bai ( 701 – 762 ) famous for the former style , and poets like Wang Wei ( 701 – 761 ) and Cui Hao ( 704 – 754 ) famous for their use of the latter . Jintishi poetry , or regulated verse , is in the form of eight @-@ line stanzas or seven characters per line with a fixed pattern of tones that required the second and third couplets to be antithetical ( although the antithesis is often lost in translation to other languages ) . Tang poems remained popular and great emulation of Tang era poetry began in the Song dynasty ; in that period , Yan Yu ( 嚴羽 ; active 1194 – 1245 ) was the first to confer the poetry of the High Tang ( c . 713 – 766 ) era with " canonical status within the classical poetic tradition . " Yan Yu reserved the position of highest esteem among all Tang poets for Du Fu ( 712 – 770 ) , who was not viewed as such in his own era , and was branded by his peers as an anti @-@ traditional rebel .
The Classical Prose Movement was spurred in large part by the writings of Tang authors Liu Zongyuan ( 773 – 819 ) and Han Yu ( 768 – 824 ) . This new prose style broke away from the poetry tradition of the ' piantiwen ' style begun in the Han dynasty . Although writers of the Classical Prose Movement imitated ' piantiwen ' , they criticized it for its often vague content and lack of colloquial language , focusing more on clarity and precision to make their writing more direct . This guwen ( archaic prose ) style can be traced back to Han Yu , and would become largely associated with orthodox Neo @-@ Confucianism .
Short story fiction and tales were also popular during the Tang , one of the more famous ones being Yingying 's Biography by Yuan Zhen ( 779 – 831 ) , which was widely circulated in his own time and by the Yuan dynasty ( 1279 – 1368 ) became the basis for plays in Chinese opera . Timothy C. Wong places this story within the wider context of Tang love tales , which often share the plot designs of quick passion , inescapable societal pressure leading to the abandonment of romance , followed by a period of melancholy . Wong states that this scheme lacks the undying vows and total self @-@ commitment to love found in Western romances such as Romeo and Juliet , but that underlying traditional Chinese values of inseparableness of self from one 's environment ( including human society ) served to create the necessary fictional device of romantic tension .
There were large encyclopedias published in the Tang . The Yiwen Leiju encyclopedia was compiled in 624 by the chief editor Ouyang Xun ( 557 – 641 ) as well as Linghu Defen ( 582 – 666 ) and Chen Shuda ( d . 635 ) . The encyclopedia Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era was fully compiled in 729 by Gautama Siddha ( fl . 8th century ) , an ethnic Indian astronomer , astrologer , and scholar born in the capital Chang 'an .
Chinese geographers such as Jia Dan wrote accurate descriptions of places far abroad . In his work written between 785 and 805 , he described the sea route going into the mouth of the Persian Gulf , and that the medieval Iranians ( whom he called the people of Luo @-@ He @-@ Yi ) had erected ' ornamental pillars ' in the sea that acted as lighthouse beacons for ships that might go astray . Confirming Jia 's reports about lighthouses in the Persian Gulf , Arabic writers a century after Jia wrote of the same structures , writers such as al @-@ Mas 'udi and al @-@ Muqaddasi . The Tang dynasty Chinese diplomat Wang Xuance traveled to Magadha ( modern northeastern India ) during the 7th century . Afterwards he wrote the book Zhang Tianzhu Guotu ( Illustrated Accounts of Central India ) , which included a wealth of geographical information .
Many histories of previous dynasties were compiled between 636 and 659 by court officials during and shortly after the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang . These included the Book of Liang , Book of Chen , Book of Northern Qi , Book of Zhou , Book of Sui , Book of Jin , History of Northern Dynasties and the History of Southern Dynasties . Although not included in the official Twenty @-@ Four Histories , the Tongdian and Tang Huiyao were nonetheless valuable written historical works of the Tang period . The Shitong written by Liu Zhiji in 710 was a meta @-@ history , as it covered the history of Chinese historiography in past centuries until his time . The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions , compiled by Bianji , recounted the journey of Xuanzang , the Tang era 's most renowned Buddhist monk .
Other important literary offerings included Duan Chengshi 's ( d . 863 ) Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang , an entertaining collection of foreign legends and hearsay , reports on natural phenomena , short anecdotes , mythical and mundane tales , as well as notes on various subjects . The exact literary category or classification that Duan 's large informal narrative would fit into is still debated amongst scholars and historians .
= = = Religion and philosophy = = =
Since ancient times , the Chinese believed in a folk religion and Taoism that incorporated many deities . The Chinese believed Tao and the afterlife was a reality parallel to the living world , complete with its own bureaucracy and afterlife currency needed by dead ancestors . Funerary practices included providing the deceased with everything they might need in the afterlife , including animals , servants , entertainers , hunters , homes , and officials . This ideal is reflected in Tang dynasty art . This is also reflected in many short stories written in the Tang about people accidentally winding up in the realm of the dead , only to come back and report their experiences .
Taoism was the official religion of the Tang . Buddhism , originating in India around the time of Confucius , continued its influence during the Tang period and was accepted by some members of imperial family , becoming thoroughly sinicized and a permanent part of Chinese traditional culture . In an age before Neo @-@ Confucianism and figures such as Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) , Buddhism had begun to flourish in China during the Northern and Southern dynasties , and became the dominant ideology during the prosperous Tang . Buddhist monasteries played an integral role in Chinese society , offering lodging for travelers in remote areas , schools for children throughout the country , and a place for urban literati to stage social events and gatherings such as going @-@ away parties . Buddhist monasteries were also engaged in the economy , since their land property and serfs gave them enough revenues to set up mills , oil presses , and other enterprises . Although the monasteries retained ' serfs ' , these monastery dependents could actually own property and employ others to help them in their work , including their own slaves .
The prominent status of Buddhism in Chinese culture began to decline as the dynasty and central government declined as well during the late 8th century to 9th century . Buddhist convents and temples that were exempt from state taxes beforehand were targeted by the state for taxation . In 845 Emperor Wuzong of Tang finally shut down 4 @,@ 600 Buddhist monasteries along with 40 @,@ 000 temples and shrines , forcing 260 @,@ 000 Buddhist monks and nuns to return to secular life ; this episode would later be dubbed one of the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China . Although the ban would be lifted just a few years after , Buddhism never regained its once dominant status in Chinese culture . This situation also came about through new revival of interest in native Chinese philosophies , such as Confucianism and Daoism . Han Yu ( 786 – 824 ) — who Arthur F. Wright stated was a " brilliant polemicist and ardent xenophobe " — was one of the first men of the Tang to denounce Buddhism . Although his contemporaries found him crude and obnoxious , he would foreshadow the later persecution of Buddhism in the Tang , as well as the revival of Confucian theory with the rise of Neo @-@ Confucianism of the Song dynasty . Nonetheless , Chán Buddhism gained popularity amongst the educated elite . There were also many famous Chan monks from the Tang era , such as Mazu Daoyi , Baizhang , and Huangbo Xiyun . The sect of Pure Land Buddhism initiated by the Chinese monk Huiyuan ( 334 – 416 ) was also just as popular as Chan Buddhism during the Tang .
Rivaling Buddhism was Daoism , a native Chinese philosophical and religious belief system that found its roots in the book of the Daodejing ( attributed to Laozi in the 6th century BC ) and the Zhuangzi . The ruling Li family of the Tang dynasty actually claimed descent from the ancient Laozi . On numerous occasions where Tang princes would become crown prince or Tang princesses taking vows as Daoist priestesses , their lavish former mansions would be converted into Daoist abbeys and places of worship . Many Daoists were associated with alchemy in their pursuits to find an elixir of immortality and a means to create gold from concocted mixtures of many other elements . Although they never achieved their goals in either of these futile pursuits , they did contribute to the discovery of new metal alloys , porcelain products , and new dyes . The historian Joseph Needham labeled the work of the Daoist alchemists as " proto @-@ science rather than pseudo @-@ science . " However , the close connection between Daoism and alchemy , which some sinologists have asserted , is refuted by Nathan Sivin , who states that alchemy was just as prominent ( if not more so ) in the secular sphere and practiced more often by laymen .
The Tang dynasty also officially recognized various foreign religions . The Assyrian Church of the East , otherwise known as the Nestorian Christian Church , was given recognition by the Tang court . In 781 , the Nestorian Stele was created in order to honor the achievements of their community in China . A Christian monastery was established in Shaanxi province where the Daqin Pagoda still stands , and inside the pagoda there is Christian @-@ themed artwork . Although the religion largely died out after the Tang , it was revived in China following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century .
= = = Tang women = = =
Concepts of women 's social rights and social status during the Tang era were notably liberal @-@ minded for the period . However , this was largely reserved for urban women of elite status , as men and women in the rural countryside labored hard in their different set of tasks ; with wives and daughters responsible for more domestic tasks of weaving textiles and rearing of silk worms , while men tended to farming in the fields . There were many women in the Tang era who gained access to religious authority by taking vows as Daoist priestesses . The head mistresses of the bordellos in the North Hamlet of the capital Chang 'an acquired large amounts of wealth and power . Their high @-@ class courtesans , who likely influenced the Japanese geishas , were well respected . These courtesans were known as great singers and poets , supervised banquets and feasts , knew the rules to all the drinking games , and were trained to have the utmost respectable table manners .
Although they were renowned for their polite behavior , the courtesans were known to dominate the conversation amongst elite men , and were not afraid to openly castigate or criticize prominent male guests who talked too much or too loudly , boasted too much of their accomplishments , or had in some way ruined dinner for everyone by rude behavior ( on one occasion a courtesan even beat up a drunken man who had insulted her ) . When singing to entertain guests , courtesans not only composed the lyrics to their own songs , but they popularized a new form of lyrical verse by singing lines written by various renowned and famous men in Chinese history .
It was fashionable for women to be full @-@ figured ( or plump ) . Men enjoyed the presence of assertive , active women . The foreign horse @-@ riding sport of polo from Persia became a wildly popular trend amongst the Chinese elite , and women often played the sport ( as glazed earthenware figurines from the time period portray ) . The preferred hairstyle for women was to bunch their hair up like " an elaborate edifice above the forehead " , while affluent ladies wore extravagant head ornaments , combs , pearl necklaces , face powders , and perfumes . A law was passed in 671 which attempted to force women to wear hats with veils again in order to promote decency , but these laws were ignored as some women started wearing caps and even no hats at all , as well as men 's riding clothes and boots , and tight @-@ sleeved bodices .
There were some prominent court women after the era of Empress Wu , such as Yang Guifei ( 719 – 756 ) , who had Emperor Xuanzong appoint many of her relatives and cronies to important ministerial and martial positions .
= = = Tea , food , and necessities = = =
During the earlier Northern and Southern dynasties ( 420 – 589 ) , and perhaps even earlier , the drinking of tea ( Camellia sinensis ) became popular in southern China . Tea was viewed then as a beverage of tasteful pleasure and with pharmacological purpose as well . During the Tang dynasty , tea became synonymous with everything sophisticated in society . The poet Lu Tong ( 790 – 835 ) devoted most of his poetry to his love of tea . The 8th @-@ century author Lu Yu ( known as the Sage of Tea ) even wrote a treatise on the art of drinking tea , called The Classic of Tea . Although wrapping paper had been used in China since the 2nd century BC , during the Tang dynasty the Chinese were using wrapping paper as folded and sewn square bags to hold and preserve the flavor of tea leaves . Indeed , paper found many other uses besides writing and wrapping during the Tang era .
Earlier , the first recorded use of toilet paper was made in 589 by the scholar @-@ official Yan Zhitui ( 531 – 591 ) , and in 851 an Arab Muslim traveler commented on how he believed the Tang era Chinese were not careful about cleanliness because they did not wash with water ( as was his people 's habit ) when going to the bathroom ; instead , he said , the Chinese simply used paper to wipe themselves .
In ancient times , the Chinese had outlined the five most basic foodstuffs known as the five grains : sesamum , legumes , wheat , panicled millet , and glutinous millet . The Ming dynasty encyclopedist Song Yingxing ( 1587 – 1666 ) noted that rice was not counted amongst the five grains from the time of the legendary and deified Chinese sage Shennong ( the existence of whom Yingxing wrote was " an uncertain matter " ) into the 2nd millenniums BC , because the properly wet and humid climate in southern China for growing rice was not yet fully settled or cultivated by the Chinese .
During the Tang , the many common foodstuffs and cooking ingredients in addition to those already listed were barley , garlic , salt , turnips , soybeans , pears , apricots , peaches , apples , pomegranates , jujubes , rhubarb , hazelnuts , pine nuts , chestnuts , walnuts , yams , taro , etc . The various meats that were consumed included pork , chicken , lamb ( especially preferred in the north ) , sea otter , bear ( which was hard to catch , but there were recipes for steamed , boiled , and marinated bear ) , and even Bactrian camels . In the south along the coast meat from seafood was by default the most common , as the Chinese enjoyed eating cooked jellyfish with cinnamon , Sichuan pepper , cardamom , and ginger , as well as oysters with wine , fried squid with ginger and vinegar , horseshoe crabs and red swimming crabs , shrimp and pufferfish , which the Chinese called " river piglet " .
Some foods were also off @-@ limits , as the Tang court encouraged people not to eat beef ( since the bull was a valuable working animal ) , and from 831 to 833 Emperor Wenzong of Tang even banned the slaughter of cattle on the grounds of his religious convictions to Buddhism .
From the trade overseas and over land , the Chinese acquired peaches from Samarkand , date palms , pistachios , and figs from Greater Iran , pine nuts and ginseng roots from Korea and mangoes from Southeast Asia . In China , there was a great demand for sugar ; during the reign of Harsha over North India ( r . 606 – 647 ) , Indian envoys to the Tang brought two makers of sugar who successfully taught the Chinese how to cultivate sugarcane . Cotton also came from India as a finished product from Bengal , although it was during the Tang that the Chinese began to grow and process cotton , and by the Yuan dynasty it became the prime textile fabric in China .
Methods of food preservation were important , and practiced throughout China . The common people used simple methods of preservation , such as digging deep ditches and trenches , brining , and salting their foods . The emperor had large ice pits located in the parks in and around Chang 'an for preserving food , while the wealthy and elite had their own smaller ice pits . Each year the emperor had laborers carve 1000 blocks of ice from frozen creeks in mountain valleys , each block with the dimension of 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) by 3 ft by 3 ½ ft ( 1 @.@ 06 m ) . There were many frozen delicacies enjoyed during the summer , especially chilled melon .
= = = Nobility = = =
The nobility 's power was eclipsed by scholar @-@ officials . The Anding origin noble Liang family produced Liang Su , a Confucian scholar . An anti @-@ meritocratic pro @-@ aristocratic faction was led by Li Linfu . During the Tang dynasty the Li family of Zhaojun 赵郡李氏 , theCui clan of Boling , the Cui clan of Qinghe , the Lu clan of Fanyang , the Zheng family of Xingyang 荥阳郑氏 , the Wang family of Taiyuan 太原王氏 , and the Li family of Longxi 隴西李氏 were the seven noble families between whom marriage was banned by law . Moriya Mitsuo wrote a history of the Later Han @-@ Tang period of the Taiyuan Wang . Among the strongest families was the Taiyuan Wang . The prohibition on marriage between the clans issued in 659 by the Gaozong Emperor was flouted by the seven families since a woman of the Boling Cui married a member of the Taiyuan Wang , giving birth to the poet Wang Wei . He was the son of Wang Chulian who in turn was the son of Wang Zhou . The marriages between the families were performed clandestinely after the prohibition was implemented on the seven families by Gaozong . The Zhou dynasty King Ling 's son Prince Jin is assumed by most to be the ancestor of the Taiyuan Wang . The Longmen Wang were a cadet line of the Zhou dynasty descended Taiyuan Wang , and Wang Yan and his grandson Wang Tong hailed from his cadet line . Both Buddhist monks and scholars hailed from the Wang family of Taiyuan such as the monk Tanqian . The Wang family of Taiyuan included Wang Huan . Their status as " Seven Great surnames " became known during Gaozong 's rule . The Taiyuan Wang family produced Wang Jun who served under Emperor Huai of Jin . A Fuzhou @-@ based section of the Taiyuan Wang produced the Buddhist monk Baizhang .
The title Duke Wenxuan ( 文宣公 ) . was bestowed upon the a descendant of Confucius , replacing the earlier Marquis Baosheng ( 褒聖侯 ) title .
The Tang Imperial family was watched over by the Zongcheng si 宗正寺 .
= = Science , technology , and medicine = =
= = = Engineering = = =
Technology during the Tang period was built also upon the precedents of the past . Advancements in clockworks and timekeeping included the mechanical gear systems of Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 ) and Ma Jun ( fl . 3rd century ) gave the Tang engineer , astronomer , and monk Yi Xing ( 683 – 727 ) inspiration when he invented the world 's first clockwork escapement mechanism in 725 . This was used alongside a clepsydra clock and waterwheel to power a rotating armillary sphere in representation of astronomical observation . Yi Xing 's device also had a mechanically timed bell that was struck automatically every hour , and a drum that was struck automatically every quarter @-@ hour ; essentially , a striking clock . Yi Xing 's astronomical clock and water @-@ powered armillary sphere became well known throughout the country , since students attempting to pass the imperial examinations by 730 had to write an essay on the device as an exam requirement . However , the most common type of public and palace timekeeping device was the inflow clepsydra . Its design was improved c . 610 by the Sui @-@ dynasty engineers Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai . They provided a steelyard balance that allowed seasonal adjustment in the pressure head of the compensating tank and could then control the rate of flow for different lengths of day and night .
There were many other mechanical inventions during the Tang era . This included a 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) tall mechanical wine server of the early 8th century that was in the shape of an artificial mountain , carved out of iron and rested on a lacquered @-@ wooden tortoise frame . This intricate device used a hydraulic pump that siphoned wine out of metal dragon @-@ headed faucets , as well as tilting bowls that were timed to dip wine down , by force of gravity when filled , into an artificial lake that had intricate iron leaves popping up as trays for placing party treats . Furthermore , as the historian Charles Benn describes it :
Midway up the southern side of the mountain was a dragon … the beast opened its mouth and spit brew into a goblet seated on a large [ iron ] lotus leaf beneath . When the cup was 80 % full , the dragon ceased spewing ale , and a guest immediately seized the goblet . If he was slow in draining the cup and returning it to the leaf , the door of a pavilion at the top of the mountain opened and a mechanical wine server , dressed in a cap and gown , emerged with a wooden bat in his hand . As soon as the guest returned the goblet , the dragon refilled it , the wine server withdrew , and the doors of the pavilion closed … A pump siphoned the ale that flowed into the ale pool through a hidden hole and returned the brew to the reservoir [ holding more than 16 quarts / 15 liters of wine ] inside the mountain .
Although the use of a teasing mechanical puppet in this wine @-@ serving device was certainly ingenious , the use of mechanical puppets in China date back to the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 207 BC ) while Ma Jun in the 3rd century had an entire mechanical puppet theater operated by the rotation of a waterwheel . There was also an automatic wine @-@ server known in the ancient Greco @-@ Roman world , a design of Heron of Alexandria that employed an urn with an inner valve and a lever device similar to the one described above . There are many stories of automatons used in the Tang , including general Yang Wulian 's wooden statue of a monk who stretched his hands out to collect contributions ; when the amount of coins reached a certain weight , the mechanical figure moved his arms to deposit them in a satchel . This weight @-@ and @-@ lever mechanism was exactly like Heron 's penny slot machine . Other devices included one by Wang Ju , whose " wooden otter " could allegedly catch fish ; Needham suspects a spring trap of some kind was employed here .
In the realm of structural engineering and technical Chinese architecture , there were also government standard building codes , outlined in the early Tang book of the Yingshan Ling ( National Building Law ) . Fragments of this book have survived in the Tang Lü ( The Tang Code ) , while the Song dynasty architectural manual of the Yingzao Fashi ( State Building Standards ) by Li Jie ( 1065 – 1101 ) in 1103 is the oldest existing technical treatise on Chinese architecture that has survived in full . During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ( 712 – 756 ) there were 34 @,@ 850 registered craftsmen serving the state , managed by the Agency of Palace Buildings ( Jingzuo Jian ) .
= = = Woodblock printing = = =
The popularization of woodblock printing during the Tang dynasty made the written word available to greater audiences . As a result of the much wider distribution and circulation of reading materials , the general populace were for the first time able to purchase affordable copies of texts , which correspondingly led to greater literacy . While the immediate effects of woodblock printing did not create a drastic change in Chinese society , in the long term , the accumulated effects of increased literacy enlarged the talent pool to encompass civilians of broader social @-@ economic circumstances and backgrounds , who would be seen entering the imperial examinations and passing them by the later Song dynasty . The extent of woodblock printing is attested to by one of the world 's oldest surviving printed documents , a miniature Buddhist dharani sutra unearthed at Xi 'an in 1974 , dating roughly from 650 to 670 . A copy of the Diamond Sutra found at Dunhuang is the earliest surviving full @-@ length book printed at regular size , complete with illustrations embedded within the text and dated precisely to 868 . Among the earliest documents to be printed were Buddhist texts as well as calendars , the latter essential for calculating and marking which days were auspicious and which days were not . The commercial success and profitability of woodblock printing was attested to by one British observer at the end of the nineteenth century , who noted that even before the arrival of western printing methods , the price of books and printed materials in China had already reached an astoundingly low price , primarily owing to the immense sales books enjoyed in China . Of this , he said :
We have an extensive penny literature at home , but the English cottager cannot buy anything like the amount of printed matter for his penny that the Chinaman can for even less . A penny Prayer @-@ book , admittedly sold at a loss , cannot compete in mass of matter with many of the books to be bought for a few cash in China . When it is considered , too , that a block has been laboriously cut for each leaf , the cheapness of the result is only accounted for by the wideness of sale .
Although Bi Sheng later invented the movable type system in the 11th century , Tang dynasty style woodblock printing would remain the dominant mode of printing in China until the more advanced printing press from Europe became widely accepted and used in East Asia . However it was not Gutenberg 's letterpress that made the decisive breakthrough for Western methods in China as it is commonly believed , but lithography , a nineteenth century technological marvel almost wholly forgotten in Europe .
= = = Medicine = = =
The Chinese of the Tang era were also very interested in the benefits of officially classifying all of the medicines used in pharmacology . In 657 , Emperor Gaozong of Tang ( r . 649 – 683 ) commissioned the literary project of publishing an official materia medica , complete with text and illustrated drawings for 833 different medicinal substances taken from different stones , minerals , metals , plants , herbs , animals , vegetables , fruits , and cereal crops . In addition to compiling pharmacopeias , the Tang fostered learning in medicine by upholding imperial medical colleges , state examinations for doctors , and publishing forensic manuals for physicians . Authors of medicine in the Tang include Zhen Chuan ( d . 643 ) and Sun Simiao ( 581 – 682 ) , the former who first identified in writing that patients with diabetes had an excess of sugar in their urine , and the latter who was the first to recognize that diabetic patients should avoid consuming alcohol and starchy foods . As written by Zhen Chuan and others in the Tang , the thyroid glands of sheep and pigs were successfully used to treat goiters ; thyroid extracts were not used to treat patients with goiter in the West until 1890 . The use of the dental amalgam , manufactured from tin and silver , was first introduced in the medical text Xinxiu Bencao written by Su Gong in 659 .
= = = Cartography = = =
In the realm of cartography , there were further advances beyond the map @-@ makers of the Han dynasty . When the Tang chancellor Pei Ju ( 547 – 627 ) was working for the Sui dynasty as a Commercial Commissioner in 605 , he created a well @-@ known gridded map with a graduated scale in the tradition of Pei Xiu ( 224 – 271 ) . The Tang chancellor Xu Jingzong ( 592 – 672 ) was also known for his map of China drawn in the year 658 . In the year 785 the Emperor Dezong had the geographer and cartographer Jia Dan ( 730 – 805 ) complete a map of China and her former colonies in Central Asia . Upon its completion in 801 , the map was 9 @.@ 1 m ( 30 ft ) in length and 10 m ( 33 ft ) in height , mapped out on a grid scale of one inch equaling one hundred li ( Chinese unit of measuring distance ) . A Chinese map of 1137 is similar in complexity to the one made by Jia Dan , carved on a stone stele with a grid scale of 100 li . However , the only type of map that has survived from the Tang period are star charts . Despite this , the earliest extant terrain maps of China come from the ancient State of Qin ; maps from the 4th century BC that were excavated in 1986 .
= = = Alchemy , gas cylinders , and air conditioning = = =
The Chinese of the Tang period employed complex chemical formulas for an array of different purposes , often found through experiments of alchemy . These included a waterproof and dust @-@ repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons , fireproof cement for glass and porcelain wares , a waterproof cream applied to silk clothes of underwater divers , a cream designated for polishing bronze mirrors , and many other useful formulas . The vitrified , translucent ceramic known as porcelain was invented in China during the Tang , although many types of glazed ceramics preceded it .
Ever since the Han dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) , the Chinese had drilled deep boreholes to transport natural gas from bamboo pipelines to stoves where cast iron evaporation pans boiled brine to extract salt . During the Tang dynasty , a gazetteer of Sichuan province stated that at one of these 182 m ( 600 ft ) ' fire wells ' , men collected natural gas into portable bamboo tubes which could be carried around for dozens of km ( mi ) and still produce a flame . These were essentially the first gas cylinders ; Robert Temple assumes some sort of tap was used for this device .
The inventor Ding Huan ( fl . 180 AD ) of the Han dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning , with seven wheels 3 m ( 10 ft ) in diameter and manually powered . In 747 , Emperor Xuanzong had a " Cool Hall " built in the imperial palace , which the Tang Yulin ( 唐語林 ) describes as having water @-@ powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains . During the subsequent Song dynasty , written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used .
= = Historiography = =
The first classic work about the Tang is the Old Book of Tang by Liu Xu ( 887 – 946 ) et al. of the Later Jin , who redacted it during the last years of his life . This was edited into another history ( labelled the New Book of Tang ) in order to distinguish it , which was a work by the Song historians Ouyang Xiu ( 1007 – 1072 ) , Song Qi ( 998 – 1061 ) , et al. of the Song dynasty ( between the years 1044 and 1060 ) . Both of them were based upon earlier annals , yet those are now lost . Both of them also rank among the Twenty @-@ Four Histories of China . One of the surviving sources of the Old Book of Tang , primarily covering up to 756 , is the Tongdian , which Du You presented to the emperor in 801 . The Tang period was again placed into the enormous universal history text of the Zizhi Tongjian , edited , compiled , and completed in 1084 by a team of scholars under the Song dynasty Chancellor Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) . This historical text , written with 3 million Chinese characters in 294 volumes , covered the history of China from the beginning of the Warring States ( 403 BC ) until the beginning of the Song dynasty ( 960 ) .
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= 1963 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1963 Atlantic hurricane season featured one of the deadliest tropical cyclones on record in the Atlantic basin : Hurricane Flora . The season officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 15 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . It was a near @-@ average season in terms of tropical storms , with a total of nine named storms . The first system , Hurricane Arlene , developed between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles on July 31 . The storm later impacted Bermuda , where strong winds resulted in about $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 1963 USD ) in damage . Other storms such as hurricanes Beulah and Debra , as well as an unnamed tropical storm , did not impact land . During the month of September , Hurricane Cindy caused wind damage and flooding in Texas , leaving three deaths and approximately $ 12 @.@ 5 million in damage . Hurricane Edith passed through the Lesser Antilles and the eastern Greater Antilles , causing 10 deaths and about $ 43 million in damage , most of which occurred on Martinique .
The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Flora , which peaked as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Drifting slowly and executing a cyclonic loop , Flora dropped very heavy rainfall in the Greater Antilles , including over 100 in ( 2 @,@ 500 mm ) in Cuba . Extreme flooding ensued , leaving behind at least 7 @,@ 193 fatalities and about $ 773 @.@ 4 million in damage . Flora is thus listed among the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes on record . In October , Hurricane Ginny moved erratically offshore the Southeastern United States , though eventually , the extratropical remnants struck Nova Scotia . Ginny caused at least three deaths and $ 400 @,@ 000 in damage in the United States alone . The final cyclone , Tropical Storm Helena , caused five deaths and over $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage on Guadeloupe . Overall , the storms in this season caused at least 7 @,@ 225 deaths and about $ 830 @.@ 1 million in damage .
= = Season summary = =
The 1963 hurricane season officially began on June 15 and ended on November 15 . It was a near @-@ average with nine tropical storms , slightly less than the 1950 – 2000 average of 9 @.@ 6 named storms . Seven of these reached hurricane status , which is above the 1950 – 2000 average of 5 @.@ 9 . Furthermore , two storms reached major hurricane status , which is Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early in the season , activity was suppressed by an abnormally intense trough offshore the East Coast of the United States as well as strong westerly winds . Later , tropical cyclone formation occurred more often after a portion of the trough weaken and easterly flow increased across much of the Atlantic . A total of four hurricanes made landfall during the season , causing at least 7 @,@ 225 deaths and $ 830 @.@ 1 million in damage . Hurricane Ginny and Tropical Storm Helena also caused damage and deaths , despite remaining offshore and then after becoming extratropical .
Tropical cyclogenesis began late , with Hurricane Arlene developing on July 31 . Another system formed in August , Hurricane Beulah . September was much more active , with an unnamed tropical storm , as well as hurricanes Cindy , Debra , Edith , and Flora all developing in that month . Flora was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season , peaking as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 940 mbar ( 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) . There were two other system in October , Hurricane Ginny and Tropical Storm Helena ; the latter dissipated on October 29 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an above average accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 118 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Arlene = = =
A cloud mass developed into the first tropical depression of the season at 18 : 00 UTC on July 31 while located about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . It headed west , becoming a tropical storm on August 2 . Arlene soon rapidly intensified , acquiring 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) maximum sustained winds – ranking it as a Category 2 hurricane – later that day . However , lack of outflow caused it to weaken to a tropical depression by August 4 . The storm failed to significantly reorganize until August 7 , by which time it restrengthened into a tropical storm . The following day , Arlene re @-@ intensified into a hurricane before passing directly over Bermuda . Several hours after passing the island , the hurricane reached its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) . On August 11 , Arlene transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before being absorbed by another cyclone later that day .
Along its track , several hurricane warnings and watches were issued for the Leeward Islands ; however , no damage was reported on any of the islands . The storm has its greatest impact in Bermuda , where high winds and near @-@ record rainfall of 6 @.@ 05 inches ( 154 mm ) downed trees , power lines , and caused flooding . Damages across the island amounted to $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 1963 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Beulah = = =
On August 20 , a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression while situated about 635 mi ( 1 @,@ 020 km ) north @-@ northwest of Cayenne , French Guiana . Moving west @-@ northwestward , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Beulah around 06 : 00 UTC on the following day . Later on August 21 , the first reconnaissance aircraft flight into the storm observed winds of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) . A subsequent flight into Beulah on August 22 recorded a well @-@ defined eye , winds of 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) , and a barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . As a result , the storm was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane around 12 : 00 UTC . Shortly thereafter , Beulah curved north @-@ northwestward and continued to deepen . Early on August 23 , it strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane .
The storm intensified into a Category 3 hurricane by early on August 24 , at which time Beulah attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Radar imagery depicted an elliptical eye with a diameter of 20 to 30 mi ( 32 to 48 km ) . The hurricane turned to the north , where an anticyclone that was favoring development to its south caused unfavorable conditions . Beulah weakened to a minimal hurricane , but briefly re @-@ intensified into a Category 2 hurricane before racing to the northeast under the influence of an upper @-@ level trough offshore the East Coast of the United States . Early on August 28 , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone about 250 mi ( 400 km ) east of Newfoundland .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
As early as September 8 , ships north of Puerto Rico reported a weak circulation . Drifting northward , the system developed tropical depression by 06 : 00 UTC on September 10 , while situated about 150 mi ( 240 km ) southwest of Bermuda . The cyclone was subtropical in nature , fueled by both latent heat and instability from contrasting cool and warm air masses . While passing Bermuda later on September 10 , sustained wind speeds of 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) and decrease in barometric pressure were observed . The system moved east @-@ northeastward and strengthening into a tropical storm early the following day . By late on September 12 , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Around that time , the Freiburg observed winds of 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) . Thereafter , the system accelerated ahead of a cold front and became extratropical on September 14 , while located about 725 mi ( 1 @,@ 167 km ) north @-@ northwest of Corvo Island in the Azores . The extratropical remnants moved rapidly eastward , until dissipating well west of Ireland early on September 15 .
= = = Hurricane Cindy = = =
In mid @-@ September , a trough of low pressure was situated in the Gulf of Mexico . The system developed into Tropical Storm Cindy at 12 : 00 UTC on September 16 , while located about 210 mi ( 340 km ) south of Cameron , Louisiana . Cindy strengthened quickly while moving north @-@ northwestward and reached hurricane intensity early on September 17 . Around that time , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Shortly after 12 : 00 UTC on September 17 , Cindy made landfall near High Island , Texas , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Early on September 18 , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm and further to a tropical depression about six hours later . Turning southwest , the depression dissipated at 00 : 00 UTC on September 20 .
In southwestern Louisiana , over 15 in ( 380 mm ) of rain fell in some areas . Rice crops were flooded , causing about $ 360 @,@ 000 in damage . However , the precipitation was described as more beneficial than detrimental . Along the coast , tides inundated roads leading to Cameron and Holly Beach . A man drowned offshore Cameron while evacuating from an oil rig . The storm brought flooding to the southeastern Texas , particularly in and around Port Arthur . Two people drowned in the Port Acres area . Water entered 4 @,@ 000 homes across Jefferson , Newton , and Orange counties . In Oklahoma , flooding in Guthrie prompted 300 residents to flee their homes ; water intruded into 25 businesses and 35 homes . Overall , Cindy caused about $ 12 @.@ 5 million in damage , of which $ 11 @.@ 7 million stemmed from property damage .
= = = Hurricane Debra = = =
On September 19 , a westward moving tropical wave became a tropical depression about 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) east of the southwestern @-@ most islands of Cape Verde . Initially , the depression moved west @-@ northwestward and remained weak . Despite the system 's intensity at the time , a reconnaissance aircraft flight observed a radar eye on September 20 . While curving northward early on September 21 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Debra . Several hours later , Debra became a Category 1 hurricane . The cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) late on September 22 . Debra soon began weakening and fell to tropical storm status early the following day . The system began losing extratropical characteristics and was absorbed by an extratropical low late on September 24 , while located about halfway between Bermuda and Flores Island in the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Edith = = =
An Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) disturbance developed into a tropical depression while east of the Windward Islands on September 23 . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Edith the next day . Only six hours later , Edith reached hurricane status . Edith fluctuated between Category 1 and 2 status as it moved west @-@ northwest ; its central pressure was analyzed at 978 mbar ( 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) on September 24 . After striking Saint Lucia on September 25 , the storm traversed the eastern Caribbean Sea . Curving north @-@ northwest on September 26 , Edith made landfall near La Romana , Dominican Republic , early on the following day as a minimal hurricane . Interaction with land and an upper @-@ level trough caused Edith to weaken to a tropical storm on September 28 and to a tropical depression by the next day . The storm dissipated just east of the Bahamas on September 29 .
In Martinique , a wind gust of 127 mph ( 204 km / h ) was observed at Le Lamentin Airport ; tides about 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal and heavy rainfall impacted the island . Throughout the island , about 6 @,@ 000 homes were demolished and 13 @,@ 000 other were severely impacted . Agriculture suffered significantly , with bananas and other food crops destroyed , while sugar cane experienced significant damage . Winds up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) caused significant damage on Dominica and strong winds on Saint Lucia ruined about half of the island 's banana crop . In Puerto Rico , the storm brought heavy rainfall to the southwest corner of the island and abnormally high tides to the south coast . Several beach front properties were badly damaged , particularly in the Salinas municipality . Overall , Edith caused 10 deaths , all on Martinique , and approximately $ 46 @.@ 6 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Flora = = =
On September 26 , another tropical depression developed from the ITCZ about 755 mi ( 1 @,@ 215 km ) southwest of the Cape Verde Islands . After remaining weak for several days , it rapidly organized on September 29 into Tropical Storm Flora . Quickly strengthening , Flora passed over Tobago on September 30 with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . Curving west @-@ northwestward , Flora peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) on October 3 . Early the next day , the hurricane made landfall in southwestern Haiti at the same intensity . Flora briefly re @-@ emerged into the Caribbean Sea on October 4 , where the storm weakened to a Category 3 . Late on October 4 , the cyclone made landfall near San Antonio del Sur , Cuba , with winds of 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) . A ridge to the north caused Flora to stall and move erratically over eastern Cuba for four days , and Flora eventually emerged into the Atlantic Ocean on October 8 as a weakened storm . After passing over the southeastern Bahamas early on October 9 , Flora began to restrengthen and became a major hurricane again on the next day . Thereafter , Flora continued northeastward and gradually weakened , falling to Category 1 intensity on October 11 . Flora gradually lost convection and became extratropical on October 12 while located 270 mi ( 430 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The extratropical remnants dissipated the next day .
In Trinidad and Tobago , abnormally high tides capsized six ships in Scarborough harbor , while strong winds caused severe effects to coconut , banana , and cocoa plantations , with 50 % of the coconut trees destroyed and 11 % severely damaged . About 2 @,@ 750 houses were destroyed , while 3 @,@ 500 others were impacted . The hurricane killed 24 people and resulted in $ 30 @.@ 1 million damage . Six additional drowning fatalities occurred in Grenada . The slow movement of the storm resulted in record rainfall totals for the Greater Antilles . In Dominican Republic , over 3 @,@ 800 sq mi ( 9 @,@ 800 km2 ) of land was flooded . Bridges and roads were significantly damaged , with many roads left unpassable for several months . The hurricane caused about $ 60 million in damage and over 400 deaths . In Haiti , flash floods washed out large sections of several towns , while mudslides buried some entire cities . In most areas , crops were entirely destroyed . Additionally , the combination of rough waves and strong winds destroyed three entire communities . About 3 @,@ 500 people were confirmed dead and damaged ranged $ 125 million and $ 180 million . In Cuba , the storm dropped 100 @.@ 39 in ( 2 @,@ 550 mm ) of rainfall at Santiago de Cuba . Nearly all crops in southeastern Cuba were affected by strong winds and flooding . Many citizens were left stranded at the tops of their houses . Several entire houses were swept away by the flooding , and many roads and bridges were destroyed , resulting in major disruptions to communications . Throughout the country , the hurricane destroyed as many as 30 @,@ 000 dwellings . Flora left at least 1 @,@ 750 fatalities and $ 500 million in damage in Cuba . Overall , Hurricane Flora caused at least 7 @,@ 193 deaths and over $ 783 @.@ 4 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Ginny = = =
On October 16 , a tropical depression formed near Turks and Caicos from the interaction of a trough and a tropical wave , although the system was not very tropical due to cold air . It moved to the north and northwest , becoming Tropical Storm Ginny on October 19 . The next day it attained hurricane status , and approached North Carolina before looping to the southwest due to a ridge over New England . By October 22 , Ginny crossed the Gulf Stream and intensified , developing an eye . It briefly weakened to a tropical storm the next day while approaching Florida , but regained hurricane intensity within ten hours . Ahead of an advancing trough , Ginny turned sharply northward and later northeastward , paralleling the coast of the Southeastern United States . For eight days , the storm was within 250 mi ( 400 km ) of the United States coastline . Moving farther offshore , Ginny gradually intensified to reach peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on October 29 . Later that day , it became extratropical before striking southwestern Nova Scotia ; its remnants dissipated on October 30 over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
Early in its existence , Ginny dropped heavy rainfall across the Dominican Republic and the Bahamas . In Florida and Georgia , Ginny produced above normal tides that caused minor damage and beach erosion . Rainfall was beneficial in South Carolina , and in North Carolina , high tides caused minor flooding and destroyed one house . In Massachusetts , wind gusts reached 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) in Nantucket , and 1 @,@ 000 homes lost power in Chatham . Ginny was the latest hurricane on record to affect Maine during a calendar year . During its passage , the storm brought an influx of cold air that produced up to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of snow in northern Maine , killing two people . Offshore , many boats were damaged or ripped from their moorings ; one person died from a heart attack while trying to rescue his boat . Damage from Ginny in the United States was estimated at $ 400 @,@ 000 . In Canada , high winds downed trees and caused power outages , leaving the entirety of Prince Edward Island without power .
= = = Tropical Storm Helena = = =
A tropical wave accompanied by a large area of convection moved westward in late October . On October 25 , the wave spawned a tropical depression , based on ship and Hurricane Hunter reports of southwest winds and heavy rainfall . Although poorly defined , the system gradually intensified and became Tropical Storm Helena . On October 26 , the storm reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , before quickly weakening when it passed between Dominica and Guadeloupe , potentially due to their high terrain . Helena was a weak tropical depression upon entering the eastern Caribbean Sea , but re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm after turning to the north on October 27 . Its slow , erratic movement and failure to intensify was due to a weak trough across the region . While passing near Antigua , the storm developed an intense rainband that produced winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) , as measured by reconnaissance aircraft between Dominica and Guadeloupe . However , Helena again weakened into a tropical depression on October 29 and dissipated shortly thereafter .
The threat of Helena prompted the San Juan Weather Bureau to issue a hurricane watch and later gale warnings for portions of the Lesser Antilles . On the Guadeloupe , the storm left 500 people homeless , killed 5 people , and seriously injured 14 others . Several boats were heavily damaged or sank . Damage was estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1963 . Storms were named Ginny and Helena for the first time in 1963 . The name Flora was later retired . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
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= Bertie 's Brainstorm =
Bertie 's Brainstorm is a 1911 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Bertie Fawcett , a dim @-@ witted fop , who erroneously believes to have won the heart of May Vernon . In reality , May loves Jack and the two are set to be married , but May 's father wishes he would prove his worth by earning his own living . Bertie chances upon the letter and sets off to make a living proceeds through a number of jobs with hope to claim May as his bride . The film ends with Bertie returning and finding out that May has married Jack . Little is known about the production of the film save that William Russell played an unknown role and that the scenario was written by Lloyd F. Lonergan . The foppish character of Bertie may have been inspired by Edwin Thanhouser 's role as Bertie Nizril in Thoroughbred . Originally conceived as a series , this ultimately singular work received praise from critics . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot and production = =
An official synopsis published in the Billboard states , " Bertie Fawcett is a dudish chap , who believes that he has won the heart of May Vernon . May , however , regards Bertie as very much of a joke , and is in love with Jack Mace , who is her ideal of manly beauty . May 's father has no objection to Jack personally , but he does not propose that the daughter he idolizes shall wed a weakling or a ne 'er do well . Therefore , he tells May in a letter that if ' that young man wants to marry you , he must show his ability by earning his own living during vacation . ' Unfortunately for Bertie , he sees the letter , and egotistically jumps to the conclusion that he is the person referred to . He starts out to make his own living , but soon finds that it is not as easy as it sounds . He is successfully a writer , a billposter , a village constable , and a living target in the baseball show , but fails to shine in any one sphere . And then to cap the climax , when he returns to claim his bride , he finds that May is married to Jack . "
The only known actor in the production for William Russell in an unknown role . A surviving film still appears to show Russell in the role of Jack at the climax of the film in which Bertie encounters the newly married couple . The other cast credits are unknown , but many Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . The scenario was written by Lloyd F. Lonergan and the character of Bertie may have been based on Edwin Thanhouser 's role of Bertie Nizril from Thoroughbred . The play was a three @-@ act comedy by Ralph Lumley and was first produced on February 13 , 1895 . The play would come to the Garrick Theatre in New York City on August 17 , 1896 and Edwin Thanhouser took over the role on August 29 , 1896 . A series of Bertie films was projected , but only this work was produced . Two other announced works included Bertie 's Bride and Bertie 's Baby .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on January 17 , 1911 . The film received favorable reviews from Billboard , The Moving Picture World and The New York Dramatic Mirror . Billboard would write , " The adventures of the unfortunate Bertie are such as will make the usual motion picture audience chuckle with appreciation . The film is , of course , a farce essentially . The photography is well up to the Thanhouser standard . " Walton of the Moving Picture News , would quip , " This beats the brainstorm in Les Miserables . It is a Doré nightmare . " The comedic farce of the dim @-@ witted fop proved to be successful if ultimately singular release of an expected series of films . The film is presumed lost because the film is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
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= Sega Genesis =
The Sega Genesis , known as the Mega Drive ( Japanese : メガドライブ , Hepburn : Mega Doraibu ) in most regions outside North America , is a 16 @-@ bit home video game console which was developed and sold by Sega Enterprises , Ltd . The Genesis was Sega 's third console and the successor to the Master System . Sega first released the console as the Mega Drive in Japan in 1988 , followed by a North American debut under the Genesis moniker in 1989 . In 1990 , the console was distributed as the Mega Drive by Virgin Mastertronic in Europe , by Ozisoft in Australasia , and by Tec Toy in Brazil . In South Korea , the systems were distributed by Samsung and were known as the Super Gam * Boy , and later the Super Aladdin Boy .
Designed by an R & D team supervised by Hideki Sato and Masami Ishikawa , the hardware was adapted from Sega 's System 16 arcade board , centered on a Motorola 68000 processor as a primary CPU and a Zilog Z80 as a secondary processor . The system supports a library of more than 900 games created both by Sega and a wide array of third @-@ party publishers and delivered on ROM @-@ based cartridges . It can play Master System games when the separately sold Power Base Converter is inserted . The Genesis has benefited from several peripherals and network services , as well as multiple first @-@ party and third @-@ party variations of the console that focus on extending its functionality .
In Japan , the Mega Drive did not fare well against its two main competitors , Nintendo 's Super Famicom and NEC 's PC Engine , although it achieved considerable success in North America , Brazil , and Europe . Contributing to its success were its library of arcade game ports , the popularity of the Genesis @-@ exclusive Sonic the Hedgehog series , several popular sports game franchises , and aggressive youth marketing that positioned the system as the cool console for adolescents . The release of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System two years after the Genesis resulted in a fierce battle for market share in the United States and Europe that has often been termed as a " console war " by journalists and historians . As this contest drew increasing attention to the video game industry among the general public , the Genesis and several of its highest @-@ profile games attracted significant legal scrutiny on matters involving reverse engineering and video game violence . Controversy surrounding violent titles such as Night Trap and Mortal Kombat led Sega to create the Videogame Rating Council , a predecessor to the Entertainment Software Rating Board .
Sega sold 30 @.@ 75 million units worldwide . In addition , Tec Toy sold an estimated 3 million licensed variants in Brazil , Majesco projected it would sell 1 @.@ 5 million licensed variants of the system in the United States , and much smaller numbers were sold by Samsung in South Korea . The console and its games continue to be popular among game fans , game music fans , collectors , and emulation enthusiasts . As of 2015 , licensed third party re @-@ releases of the console are being sold by AtGames in North America and Europe . Many games have been re @-@ released in compilations for newer consoles and offered for download on various online services , such as Virtual Console , Xbox Live Arcade , PlayStation Network , and Steam . The Genesis was succeeded by the Sega Saturn .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
In the early 1980s , Sega Enterprises , Inc . , then a subsidiary of Gulf & Western , was one of the top five arcade game manufacturers active in the United States , as company revenues rose to $ 214 million . A downturn in the arcade business starting in 1982 seriously hurt the company , leading Gulf & Western to sell its North American arcade manufacturing organization and the licensing rights for its arcade games to Bally Manufacturing . The company retained Sega 's North American R & D operation , as well as its Japanese subsidiary , Sega Enterprises , Ltd . With its arcade business in decline , Gulf & Western executives turned to Sega Enterprises , Ltd . ' s president , Hayao Nakayama , for advice on how to proceed . Nakayama advocated that the company leverage its hardware expertise gained through years working in the arcade industry to move into the home console market in Japan , which was in its infancy at the time .
Nakayama received permission to proceed with this project , leading to the release of Sega 's first home video game system , the SG @-@ 1000 , in July 1983 . The SG @-@ 1000 was not successful , and was replaced by the Sega Mark III within two years . In the meantime , Gulf & Western began to divest itself of its non @-@ core businesses after the death of company founder Charles Bluhdorn , so Nakayama and former Sega CEO David Rosen arranged a management buyout of the Japanese subsidiary in 1984 with financial backing from CSK Corporation , a prominent Japanese software company . Nakayama was then installed as CEO of the new Sega Enterprises , Ltd .
In 1986 , Sega redesigned the Mark III for release in North America as the Sega Master System . This was followed by a European release the next year . Although the Master System was a success in Europe , and later also Brazil , it failed to ignite significant interest in the Japanese or North American markets , which , by the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1980s , were both dominated by Nintendo . With Sega continuing to have difficulty penetrating the home market , Sega 's console R & D team , led by Masami Ishikawa and supervised by Hideki Sato , began work on a successor to the Master System almost immediately after that console launched .
In 1987 , Sega faced another threat to its console business when Japanese computer giant NEC released the PC Engine amid great publicity . To remain competitive against the two more established consumer electronics companies , Ishikawa and his team decided they needed to incorporate a 16 @-@ bit microprocessor into their new system to make an impact in the marketplace and once again turned to Sega 's strengths in the arcade industry to adapt the successful Sega System 16 arcade board into a home console architecture . The decision to use a Motorola 68000 as the system 's main CPU was made late in development , while a Zilog Z80 was used as a secondary CPU to handle the sound due to fears that the load to the main CPU would be too great if it handled both the visuals and the audio .
First announced in June 1988 in Beep ! , a Japanese gaming magazine , the developing console was referred to as the " Mark V , " but Sega management felt the need for a stronger name . After reviewing more than 300 proposals , the company settled on " Mega Drive . " In North America , the name of the console was changed to " Genesis . " The reason for this change is not known , but it may have been due to a trademark dispute .
= = = Launch = = =
Sega released the Mega Drive in Japan on October 29 , 1988 , though the launch was overshadowed by Nintendo 's release of Super Mario Bros. 3 a week earlier . Positive coverage from magazines Famitsu and Beep ! helped to establish a following , but Sega only managed to ship 400 @,@ 000 units in the first year . In order to increase sales , Sega released various peripherals and games , including an online banking system and answering machine called the Sega Mega Anser . Nevertheless , the Mega Drive was unable to overtake the venerable Famicom and remained a distant third in Japan behind Nintendo 's Super Famicom and NEC 's PC Engine throughout the 16 @-@ bit era .
Sega announced a North American release date for the system on January 9 , 1989 . At the time , Sega did not possess a North American sales and marketing organization and was distributing its Master System through Tonka . Dissatisfied with Tonka 's performance , Sega looked for a new partner to market the Genesis in North America and offered the rights to Atari Corporation , which did not yet have a 16 @-@ bit system . David Rosen made the proposal to Atari CEO Jack Tramiel and the president of Atari 's Entertainment Electronics Division , Michael Katz . Tramiel declined to acquire the new console , deeming it too expensive , and instead opted to focus on the Atari ST . Sega decided to launch the console through its own Sega of America subsidiary , which executed a limited launch on August 14 , 1989 , in New York City and Los Angeles . The Sega Genesis was released in the rest of North America later that year .
The European version was released on November 30 , 1990 . Building on the success of the Master System , the Mega Drive became the most popular console in Europe . Since the Mega Drive was two years old at the time of its release in the region , more games were available at launch compared to the launches in other regions . The ports of arcade titles like Altered Beast , Golden Axe and Ghouls ' n Ghosts , available in stores at launch , provided a strong image of the console 's power to deliver an arcade @-@ like experience . The release of the Mega Drive in Europe was handled by Virgin Mastertronic , which was later purchased by Sega in 1991 and became Sega of Europe .
Other companies assisted in distributing the console to various countries worldwide . Ozisoft handled the Mega Drive 's launch and marketing in Australia , as it had done before with the Master System . In Brazil , the Mega Drive was released by Tec Toy in 1990 , only a year after the Brazilian release of the Master System . Tec Toy produced games exclusively for the Brazilian market and began a network service for the system called Sega Meganet in 1995 . In India , Sega entered a distribution deal with Shaw Wallace in Spring 1995 in order to circumvent an 80 % import tariff , with each unit selling for INR ₹ 18 @,@ 000 . Samsung handled sales and distribution in Korea , where it was renamed the " Super Gam * Boy " and retained the Mega Drive logo alongside the Samsung name . It was later renamed " Super Aladdin Boy . "
= = = North American sales and marketing = = =
For the North American market , former Atari Corporation Entertainment Electronics Division president and new Sega of America CEO Michael Katz instituted a two @-@ part approach to build sales in the region . The first part involved a marketing campaign to challenge Nintendo head @-@ on and emphasize the more arcade @-@ like experience available on the Genesis , summarized by slogans including " Genesis does what Nintendon 't " . Since Nintendo owned the console rights to most arcade games of the time , the second part involved creating a library of instantly @-@ recognizable titles which used the names and likenesses of celebrities and athletes such as Pat Riley Basketball , Arnold Palmer Tournament Golf , James ' Buster ' Douglas Knockout Boxing , Joe Montana Football , Tommy Lasorda Baseball , Mario Lemieux Hockey , and Michael Jackson 's Moonwalker . Nonetheless , it had a hard time overcoming Nintendo 's ubiquitous presence in consumers ' homes . Tasked by Nakayama to sell one million units within the first year , Katz and Sega of America managed to sell only 500 @,@ 000 units .
In mid @-@ 1990 , Nakayama hired Tom Kalinske to replace Katz as CEO of Sega of America . Although Kalinske initially knew little about the video game market , he surrounded himself with industry @-@ savvy advisors . A believer in the razor and blades business model , he developed a four @-@ point plan : cut the price of the console , create a U.S.-based team to develop games targeted at the American market , continue and expand the aggressive advertising campaigns , and replace the bundled game Altered Beast with a new title , Sonic the Hedgehog . The Japanese board of directors initially disapproved of the plan , but all four points were approved by Nakayama , who told Kalinske , " I hired you to make the decisions for Europe and the Americas , so go ahead and do it . " Magazines praised Sonic as one of the greatest games yet made , and Sega 's console finally took off as customers who had been waiting for the release of the international version of Nintendo 's Super Famicom — dubbed the Super Nintendo Entertainment System or SNES — decided to purchase a Genesis instead . Nintendo 's console debuted against an established competitor , while NEC 's TurboGrafx @-@ 16 failed to gain traction , and NEC soon pulled out of the market . In large part due to the popularity of this game , the Sega Genesis outsold the SNES in the United States nearly two to one during the 1991 holiday season . This success led to Sega having control of 65 % of the 16 @-@ bit console market in January 1992 , making it the first time Nintendo was not the console leader since December 1985 .
To compete with Nintendo , Sega was more open to new types of games than its rival , but still tightly controlled the approval process for third @-@ party games and charged high prices for cartridge manufacturing . Technicians from American third @-@ party video game publisher Electronic Arts ( EA ) reverse engineered the Genesis in 1989 , following nearly one year of negotiations with Sega in which EA requested a more liberal licensing agreement than was standard in the industry before releasing its games for the system . The clean room reverse engineering was led by Steve Hayes and Jim Nitchals , lasting several months before EA secretly began game development . EA founder Trip Hawkins confronted Nakayama with this information one day prior to the 1990 Consumer Electronics Show ( CES ) , noting that EA had the ability to run its own licensing program if Sega refused to meet its demands . Sega relented , and the next day EA 's upcoming Genesis games were showcased at CES . EA signed what Hawkins described as " a very unusual and much more enlightened license agreement " with Sega in June 1990 : " Among other things , we had the right to make as many titles as we wanted . We could approve our own titles ... the royalty rates were a lot more reasonable . We also had more direct control over manufacturing . " After the deal was in place , EA chief creative officer Bing Gordon learned that " we hadn 't figured out all the workarounds " and " Sega still had the ability to lock us out , " noting " It just would have been a public relations fiasco . " EA released its first two Genesis games , Populous and Budokan : The Martial Spirit , within the month . The first Genesis version of EA 's John Madden Football arrived before the end of 1990 , and became what Gordon called a " killer app " for the system . Taking advantage of the licensing agreement , Gordon and EA 's vice president of marketing services Nancy Fong created a visual identifier for EA 's Genesis cartridges : A yellow stripe on their left side added during manufacturing .
Sega was able to outsell Nintendo four Christmas seasons in a row due to the Genesis ' head start , a lower price point , and a larger library of games when compared to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) at its release . Sega had ten games for every game on SNES , and while the SNES had an exclusive version of Final Fight , one of Sega 's internal development teams created Streets of Rage , which had bigger levels , tougher enemies , and a well @-@ regarded soundtrack . ASCII Entertainment reported in spring 1993 that Genesis had 250 titles versus 75 for Super Nintendo , but limited shelf space meant that stores typically offered 100 Genesis and 50 Super Nintendo titles . The NES was still the leader , with 300 titles and 100 on shelves .
Sega 's advertising positioned the Genesis as the cooler console , and as its advertising evolved , the company coined the term " blast processing " ( the origin of which is an obscure programming trick on the graphics hardware ) to suggest that its processing capabilities were far greater than those of the SNES . A Sony focus group found that teenage boys would not admit to owning a SNES rather than a Genesis . With the Genesis often outselling the SNES at a ratio of 2 : 1 , Nintendo and Sega both focused heavily on impression management of the market , even going to the point of deception , with Nintendo claiming they had sold more consoles in 1991 than they actually had , and forecasting they would sell 6 million consoles by the end of 1992 , while their actual U.S. install base at the end of 1992 was only just more than 4 million units . Due to these tactics , it was difficult to ascertain a clear leader in market share for several years at a time , with Nintendo 's dollar share of the U.S. 16 @-@ bit market dipping down from 60 % at the end of 1992 to 37 % at the end of 1993 , Sega claiming 55 % of all 16 @-@ bit hardware sales during 1994 , and Donkey Kong Country helping the SNES to outsell the Genesis from 1995 through 1997 . According to a 2004 study of NPD sales data that presents year by year charts through 2001 , the Sega Genesis was able to maintain its lead over the Super NES in the American 16 @-@ bit console market . According to a 2014 Wedbush Securities report based on revised NPD sales data , the SNES outsold the Genesis in the U.S. market .
= = = Sonic the Hedgehog = = =
While Sega was seeking a flagship series to compete with Nintendo 's Mario series along with a character to serve as a company mascot , several character designs were submitted as part of a company @-@ wide contest , including " an anime @-@ inspired egg and a teal hedgehog with red shoes created by Naoto Oshima that he called Mr. Needlehouse . " " Mr. Needlemouse " won the contest and was renamed Sonic the Hedgehog , spawning one of the best @-@ selling video game franchises in history . The gameplay of Sonic the Hedgehog originated with a tech demo created by Yuji Naka , who had developed an algorithm that allowed a sprite to move smoothly on a curve by determining its position with a dot matrix . Naka 's original prototype was a platform game that involved a fast @-@ moving character rolling in a ball through a long winding tube , and this concept was subsequently fleshed out with Oshima 's character design and levels conceived by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara . Sonic 's blue pigmentation was chosen to match Sega 's cobalt blue logo , and his shoes were a concept evolved from a design inspired by Michael Jackson 's boots with the addition of the color red , which was inspired by both Santa Claus and the contrast of those colors on Jackson 's 1987 album Bad ; his personality was based on Bill Clinton 's " can do " attitude .
Although Katz and Sega of America 's marketing experts disliked the idea of Sonic , certain that it would not catch on with most American kids , Kalinske 's strategy to place Sonic the Hedgehog as the pack @-@ in title paid off . Featuring speedy gameplay , Sonic the Hedgehog greatly increased the popularity of the Sega Genesis in North America . Bundling Sonic the Hedgehog with the Sega Genesis is credited with helping Sega gain 65 % of the market share against Nintendo .
= = = Trademark Security System and Sega v. Accolade = = =
After the release of the Sega Genesis in 1989 , video game publisher Accolade began exploring options to release some of their PC game titles onto the console . At the time , Sega had a licensing deal in place for third @-@ party developers that increased the costs to the developer . According to Accolade co @-@ founder Alan Miller , " One pays them between $ 10 and $ 15 per cartridge on top of the real hardware manufacturing costs , so it about doubles the cost of goods to the independent publisher . " To get around licensing , Accolade chose to seek an alternative way to bring their games to the Genesis . They did so by purchasing one in order to decompile the executable code of three Genesis games . Such information was used to program their new Genesis cartridges in a way that would allow them to disable the security lockouts on the Genesis that prevented unlicensed games from being able to be played . This strategy was used successfully to bring Ishido : The Way of Stones to the Genesis in 1990 . To do so , Accolade had copied Sega 's copyrighted game code multiple times in order to reverse engineer the software of Sega 's licensed Genesis games .
As a result of piracy from foreign countries and unlicensed development issues , Sega incorporated a technical protection mechanism into a new edition of the Genesis released in 1990 , referred to as the Genesis III . This new variation of the Genesis included a code known as the Trademark Security System ( TMSS ) , which , when a game cartridge was inserted , would check for the presence of the string " SEGA " at a particular point in the memory contained in the cartridge . If the string was present , the console would run the game , and would briefly display the message : " Produced by or under license from Sega Enterprises , Ltd . " This system had a twofold effect : it added extra protection against unlicensed developers and software piracy , and forced the Sega trademark to display when the game was powered up , making a lawsuit for trademark infringement possible if unlicensed software were to be developed . Accolade learned of this development at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1991 , where Sega showed the new Genesis III and demonstrated it screening and rejecting an Ishido game cartridge . With more games planned for the following year , Accolade successfully identified the TMSS file . They later added this file to the games HardBall ! , Star Control , Mike Ditka Power Football , and Turrican .
In response to the creation of these unlicensed games , Sega filed suit against Accolade in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California , on charges of trademark infringement , unfair competition , and copyright infringement . In response , Accolade filed a counterclaim for falsifying the source of its games by displaying the Sega trademark when the game was powered up . Although the district court initially ruled for Sega and issued an injunction preventing Accolade from continuing to reverse engineer the Genesis , Accolade appealed the verdict to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit .
As a result of the appeal , the Ninth Circuit overturned the district court 's verdict and ruled that Accolade 's decompilation of the Sega software constituted fair use . The court 's written opinion followed on October 20 , 1992 , and noted that the use of the software was non @-@ exploitative , although commercial . Further , the court found that the trademark infringement , being required by the TMSS for a Genesis game to run on the system , had been inadvertently triggered by a fair use act and the fault of Sega for having caused false labeling . Ultimately , Sega and Accolade settled the case on April 30 , 1993 . As a part of this settlement , Accolade became an official licensee of Sega , and later developed and released Barkley Shut Up and Jam ! while under license . The terms of the licensing , including whether or not any special arrangements or discounts were made to Accolade , were not released to the public . The financial terms of the settlement were also not disclosed , although both companies agreed to pay their own legal costs .
= = = Videogame Rating Council and Congressional hearings on video game violence = = =
In 1993 , American media began to focus on the mature content of certain video games . Games such as Night Trap for the Sega CD , an add @-@ on , received unprecedented scrutiny . Issues about Night Trap were brought up in the United Kingdom , with former Sega of Europe development director Mike Brogan noting that " Night Trap got Sega an awful lot of publicity ... it was also cited in UK Parliament for being classified as " 15 " due to its use of real actors . This came at a time when Sega was capitalizing on its image as an edgy company with attitude , and this only reinforced that image . The most controversial title of the year by far was Midway 's Mortal Kombat , ported to the Genesis and SNES by Acclaim . In response to public outcry over the game 's graphic violence , Nintendo decided to replace the blood in the game with " sweat " and the arcade 's gruesome " fatalities " with less violent finishing moves . Sega took a different approach , instituting America 's first video game ratings system , the Videogame Rating Council ( VRC ) , for all its current systems . Ratings ranged from the family friendly GA rating to the more mature rating of MA @-@ 13 , and the adults @-@ only rating of MA @-@ 17 . With the rating system in place , Sega released its version of Mortal Kombat , appearing to have removed all the blood and sweat effects and toning down the finishing moves even more than in the SNES version . However , all the arcade 's blood and uncensored finishing moves could be enabled by entering a " Blood Code " . This technicality allowed Sega to release the game with a relatively low MA @-@ 13 rating . Meanwhile , the tamer SNES version shipped without a rating .
The Genesis version of Mortal Kombat was well received by gaming press , as well as fans , outselling the SNES version three- or four @-@ to @-@ one , while Nintendo was criticized for censoring the SNES version of the game . Executive vice president of Nintendo of America Howard Lincoln was quick to point out at the hearings that Night Trap had no such rating , saying to Senator Joe Lieberman :
In response , Sega of America vice president Bill White showed a videotape of violent video games on the SNES and stressed the importance of rating video games . At the end of the hearing , Lieberman called for another hearing in February 1994 to check on progress toward a rating system for video game violence .
As a result of the Congressional hearings , Night Trap started to generate more sales and released ports to the PC , Sega 32X , and 3DO . According to Digital Pictures founder Tom Zito , " You know , I sold 50 @,@ 000 units of Night Trap a week after those hearings . " Although experiencing increased sales , Sega decided to recall Night Trap and rerelease it with revisions in 1994 due to the Congressional hearings . After the close of these hearings , video game manufacturers came together to establish the rating system that Lieberman had called for . Initially , Sega proposed the universal adoption of its system , but after objections by Nintendo and others , Sega took a role in forming a new one . This became the Entertainment Software Rating Board , an independent organization that received praise from Lieberman . With this new rating system in place , Nintendo decided its censorship policies were no longer needed , and the SNES port of Mortal Kombat II was released uncensored .
= = = 32 @-@ bit era and beyond = = =
In order to extend the life of the Genesis , Sega released two add @-@ ons to increase its capabilities : a CD @-@ based peripheral known as the Sega CD ( Mega @-@ CD outside North America ) , and a 32 @-@ bit peripheral known as the Sega 32X . 2 @.@ 24 million Sega CD units were sold worldwide , and an estimated 665 @,@ 000 32X units were sold by the end of 1994 .
Following the launch of the next @-@ generation 32 @-@ bit Sony PlayStation and the Sega Saturn , sales of 16 @-@ bit hardware and software continued to account for 64 % of the video game market in 1995 . Sega underestimated the continued popularity of the Genesis and did not have the inventory to meet demand for the product . Sega was able to capture 43 % of the dollar share of the U.S. video game market and claimed to have sold more than 2 million Genesis units in 1995 , while Genesis software such as Vectorman remained highly successful , but Kalinske estimated that " we could have sold another 300 @,@ 000 Genesis systems in the November / December timeframe . " Nakayama 's decision to focus on the Saturn over the Genesis , based on the systems ' relative performance in Japan , has been cited as the major contributing factor in this miscalculation . By contrast , Nintendo concentrated on the 16 @-@ bit home console market , as well as its successful handheld , the Game Boy . As a result , Nintendo took in 42 % of the video game market dollar share , without launching a 32 @-@ bit console to compete directly with the PlayStation or the Saturn . Following tensions with Sega Enterprises , Ltd. over its focus on the Saturn , Kalinske , who oversaw the rise of the Genesis in 1991 , grew uninterested in the business and resigned in mid @-@ 1996 .
Sega sold 30 @.@ 75 million Genesis units worldwide . Of these , 3 @.@ 58 million were sold in Japan , and sales in Europe and the U.S. are roughly estimated at 8 million and 18 million as of June 1997 ( at which time Sega was no longer manufacturing the system ) respectively . In 1998 , Sega licensed the Genesis to Majesco in North America so it could rerelease the console . Majesco began reselling millions of formerly unsold cartridges at a budget price , together with 150 @,@ 000 units of the second model of the Genesis . It released the Sega Genesis 3 , projecting to sell 1 @.@ 5 million units of the console by the end of 1998 . An estimated 3 million Genesis units were sold by Tec Toy in Brazil .
= = Technical specifications = =
The main microprocessor is a 16 / 32 @-@ bit Motorola 68000 CPU clocked at 7 @.@ 6 MHz . The console uses a Zilog Z80 sub @-@ processor , mainly used to control the sound hardware and provide backwards compatibility with the Master System . The system has 72 kB of RAM , 64 kB of video RAM , and can display up to 61 colors at once from a palette of 512 . The games are in ROM cartridge format and inserted in the top .
The system produces sound using a Yamaha YM2612 FM synthesizer and a Texas Instruments SN76489 PSG ; the latter is integrated with the Video Display Processor ( VDP ) . The Z80 processor is primarily used to control both sound chips to produce stereo music and sound effects . Most revisions of the original system contain a discrete YM2612 and a separate YM7101 VDP ; the functionality of these two chips was later integrated into a single custom ASIC ( FC1004 ) for the model 2 and later revisions .
The back of the model 1 console provides a radio frequency output port ( designed for use with antenna and cable systems ) and a specialized 8 @-@ pin DIN port , both of which provide video and audio output . Both outputs produce monophonic sound ; a headphone jack on the front of the console produces stereo sound . On the model 2 , the DIN port , radio frequency output port , and headphone jack are replaced by a 9 @-@ pin mini @-@ DIN port on the back for composite video , RGB and stereo sound , and the standard RF switch . Earlier model 1 consoles have a 9 @-@ pin extension port , although this was removed in later production runs and is absent in the model 2 . An edge connector on the bottom @-@ right of the console allows it to be connected to a peripheral .
= = = Peripherals = = =
The standard controller features a rounded shape , a directional pad , three main buttons , and a " start " button . Sega later released a six @-@ button version in 1993 . This pad is slightly smaller and features three additional face buttons , similar to the design of buttons on some popular arcade fighting games such as Street Fighter II . Sega released a wireless revision of the six @-@ button controller , the Remote Arcade Pad .
The system is backwards compatible with the Master System . The first peripheral released , the Power Base Converter ( Master System Converter in Europe ) , allows Master System games to be played . A second model , the Master System Converter 2 , was released only in Europe for use with the Mega Drive II .
Other peripherals were released to add functionality . The Menacer is a wireless , infrared light gun peripheral used with compatible games . Other third parties created light gun peripherals for the Genesis , such as the American Laser Games Pistol and the Konami Justifier . Released for art creation software , the Sega Mega Mouse features three buttons and is only compatible with a few games , such as Eye of the Beholder . A foam @-@ covered bat called the BatterUP and the TeeVGolf golf club were released for both the Genesis and SNES .
In November 1993 , Sega released the Sega Activator , an octagonal device that lies flat on the floor and translates the player 's physical movements into game inputs . Several high @-@ profile games , including Mortal Kombat and Street Fighter II : Special Champion Edition , were adapted to support the peripheral . The device was a commercial failure , due mainly to its inaccuracy and its high price point . IGN editor Craig Harris ranked the Sega Activator the third worst video game controller ever made .
Both EA and Sega released multitaps to allow more than the standard two players to play at once . Initially , EA 's version , the 4 Way Play , and Sega 's adapter , the Team Player , only supported each publisher 's titles . In response to complaints about this , Sega publicly stated that " We have been working hard to resolve this problem since we learned of it " and that a new Team Player which would work with all multitap games for the console would be released shortly . Later games were created to work on both the 4 Way Play and Team Player . Codemasters also developed the J @-@ Cart system , providing two extra ports on the cartridge itself , although the technology came late in the console 's life and is only featured on a few games . Sega planned to release a steering wheel peripheral in 1994 , and the Genesis version of Virtua Racing was advertised as being " steering wheel compatible , " but the peripheral was cancelled .
= = = Network services = = =
In its first foray into online gaming , Sega created Sega Meganet , which debuted in Japan on November 3 , 1990 . Operating through a cartridge and a peripheral called the " Mega Modem , " this allowed Mega Drive players to play seventeen games online . A North American version dubbed " Tele @-@ Genesis , " was announced but never released . Another phone @-@ based system , the Mega Anser , turned the Japanese Mega Drive into an online banking terminal .
In 1994 , Sega started the Sega Channel , a game distribution system using cable television services Time Warner Cable and TCI . Using a special peripheral , Genesis players could download a title from a library of fifty each month , and demos for upcoming games . Games were downloaded to internal memory and deleted when the console was powered off . The Sega Channel reached 250 @,@ 000 subscribers at its peak and ran until July 31 , 1998 , well past the release of the Sega Saturn .
In an effort to compete with Sega , third @-@ party developer Catapult Entertainment created the XBAND , a peripheral which allowed Genesis players to engage in online competitive gaming . Using telephone services to share data , XBAND was initially offered in five U.S. cities in November 1994 . The following year , the service was extended to the SNES , and Catapult teamed up with Blockbuster Video to market the service , but as interest in the service waned , it was discontinued in April 1997 .
= = Game library = =
The Genesis library was initially modest , but eventually grew to contain games to appeal to all types of players . The initial pack @-@ in title was Altered Beast , which was later replaced with Sonic the Hedgehog in 1991 . Top sellers included Sonic the Hedgehog , its sequel Sonic the Hedgehog 2 , and Disney 's Aladdin . During development for the console , Sega Enterprises focused on developing action games , while Sega of America was tasked with developing sports games . A large part of the appeal of the Genesis library during the console 's lifetime was the arcade @-@ based experience of its games , as well as more difficult entries such as Ecco the Dolphin , and sports games such as Joe Montana Football . Compared to its competition , Sega advertised to an older audience by hosting more mature games , including the uncensored version of Mortal Kombat .
As Sega was a prolific arcade developer in the 1980s , early Genesis games included arcade ports such as Altered Beast , Golden Axe , and Super Hang @-@ On . Console teams would develop titles in acclaimed series such as Castle of Illusion , Phantasy Star , Shinobi , and Streets of Rage . Alex Kidd was the mascot of Sega 's previous console , but he would not receive any Mega Drive sequels after Alex Kidd in the Enchanted Castle due to Sega of America wanting to replace him with the titular character from Sonic the Hedgehog as mascot . The Sonic the Hedgehog series was a big hit both commercially and critically , with the original game being the best selling game on the system . Sega of America would also help set up Sega Technical Institute and Sega Interactive , who worked on titles such as Comix Zone and Eternal Champions respectively in an attempt to appeal more to western audiences .
In addition to games developed by Sega 's internal studios , Sega would collaborate with various other developers to publish more games for the system . These developers include Ancient ( Beyond Oasis ) , BlueSky Software ( Vectorman ) , Camelot ( Shining Force ) , Climax Entertainment ( Landstalker ) , Johnson Voorsanger Productions ( ToeJam & Earl ) , Novotrade International ( Ecco the Dolphin ) , Technopop ( Zero Tolerance ) , Treasure ( Gunstar Heroes ) , Vic Tokai ( Decap Attack ) , and Virgin Games ( Disney 's Aladdin ) .
Initially , the Genesis suffered from limited third @-@ party support due to its low market share and Nintendo 's monopolizes practices . Notably , the arcade hit Street Fighter II by Capcom initially skipped the Genesis , instead only being released on the SNES . However , as the Genesis continued to grow in popularity , Capcom eventually ported a version of Street Fighter II to the system known as Street Fighter II ′ : Champion Edition , that would go on to sell over a million copies . One of the biggest third @-@ party companies to support the Genesis early on was Electronic Arts . Trip Hawkins , founder and then president of EA , believed the Genesis faster drawing speed made it more suitable for sport games than the SNES , and credits EA 's success on the Genesis for helping catapult the EA Sports brand . Another third @-@ party blockbuster for the system was the port of the original Mortal Kombat game . Although the arcade game was released on the SNES and Genesis simultaneously , the two ports were not identical . The SNES version looked more identical to the arcade game , but the Genesis version allowed players to bypass censorship , helping make it the more popular port . Ed Boon , co @-@ creator of the Mortal Kombat franchise , compared the two versions , stating that the SNES version did not play as well the Genesis version .
= = = Sega Virtua Processor = = =
In order to produce more visually appealing graphics , companies began adding special processing chips to their cartridges to effectively increase the console 's capabilities . On the SNES , these are several DSP chips and RISC processors , which allows the console to produce faster and more accurate 3D and pseudo @-@ 3D graphics . In particular , the Super FX chip was designed to offload complex rendering tasks from the main CPU , enabling it to produce visual effects that the console cannot produce on its own . The chip was first used in Star Fox , which renders 3D polygons in real time , and Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island demonstrated the ability to rotate , scale , and stretch individual sprites and manipulate large areas of the screen .
As these enhancements became more commonplace on the Super NES , the stock of existing Genesis games began to look outdated in comparison . Sega began work on an enhancement chip to compete with the Super FX , resulting in the Sega Virtua Processor . This chip enables the Genesis to render polygons in real time and provides an " Axis Transformation " unit that handles scaling and rotation . Virtua Racing , the only game released with this chip , runs at a significantly higher and more stable frame rate than similar games on the SNES . The chip was expensive to produce , and increased the cost of the games that used it . At US $ 100 , Virtua Racing was the most expensive Genesis cartridge ever produced . Two other games , Virtua Fighter and Daytona USA , were planned for the SVP chip , but were instead moved into the Saturn 's launch line @-@ up . There were plans to sell the SVP chip as a separate upgrade module for the Genesis , but this module was never released .
= = Add @-@ ons = =
In addition to accessories such as the Power Base Converter , the Sega Genesis supports two add @-@ ons that each support their own game libraries . The first is the Sega CD ( known as the Mega @-@ CD in all regions except for North America ) , a compact disc @-@ based peripheral that can play its library of games in CD @-@ ROM format . The second is the Sega 32X , a 32 @-@ bit peripheral which uses ROM cartridges and serves as a pass @-@ through for Genesis games . Sega produced a custom power strip to fit the peripherals ' large AC adapters . Both add @-@ ons were officially discontinued in 1996 .
= = = Sega CD = = =
By 1991 , compact discs had gained in popularity as a data storage device for music and software . PCs and video game companies had started to make use of this technology . NEC had been the first to include CD technology in a game console with the release of the TurboGrafx @-@ CD add @-@ on , and Nintendo was making plans to develop its own CD peripheral as well . Seeing the opportunity to gain an advantage over its rivals , Sega partnered with JVC to develop a CD @-@ ROM add @-@ on for the Genesis . Sega launched the Mega @-@ CD in Japan on December 1 , 1991 , initially retailing at JP ¥ 49 @,@ 800 . The CD add @-@ on was launched in North America on October 15 , 1992 , as the Sega CD , with a retail price of US $ 299 ; it was released in Europe as the Mega @-@ CD in 1993 .
In addition to greatly expanding the potential size of its games , this add @-@ on unit upgraded the graphics and sound capabilities by adding a second , more powerful processor , more system memory , and hardware @-@ based scaling and rotation similar to that found in Sega 's arcade games . It provided battery @-@ backed storage RAM to allow games to save high scores , configuration data , and game progress ; an additional data storage cartridge was sold separately .
Shortly after its launch in North America , Sega began shipping the Sega CD with the pack @-@ in game Sewer Shark , a full motion video ( FMV ) game developed by Digital Pictures , a company that became an important partner for Sega . Touting the benefits of the CD 's comparatively vast storage space , Sega and its third @-@ party developers produced a number of games for the add @-@ on that include digital video in their gameplay or as bonus content , as well as rereleasing several cartridge @-@ based games with high @-@ fidelity audio tracks . In 1993 , Sega released the Sega CD 2 , a smaller and lighter version of the add @-@ on designed for the Genesis II , at a reduced price compared to the original . A limited number of games were later developed that use both the Sega CD and the Sega 32X add @-@ ons .
The Mega @-@ CD sold only 100 @,@ 000 units during its first year in Japan , falling well below expectations . Although many consumers blamed the add @-@ on 's high launch price , it also suffered from a tiny software library ; only two titles being available at launch . This was due in part to the long delay before Sega made its software development kit available to third @-@ party developers . Sales were more successful in North America and Europe , although the novelty of FMV and CD @-@ enhanced games quickly wore off as many of the system 's later games were met with lukewarm or negative reviews . In 1995 , Sega announced a shift in focus to its new console , the Saturn , and discontinued all advertising for Genesis hardware , including the Sega CD . The add @-@ on sold 2 @.@ 24 million units worldwide .
= = = Sega 32X = = =
With the release of the Sega Saturn slated for 1995 , Sega began to develop a stop @-@ gap solution that would bridge the gap between the Genesis and the Saturn , and would serve as a less expensive entry into the 32 @-@ bit era .
At the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1994 , Sega of America research and development head Joe Miller took a phone call from Nakayama , in which Nakayama stressed the importance of coming up with a quick response to the Atari Jaguar . One potential idea for this came from a concept from Sega Enterprises , later known as " Project Jupiter , " an entirely new independent console . Project Jupiter was initially slated to be a new version of the Genesis , with an upgraded color palette and a lower cost than the upcoming Saturn , as well as with some limited 3D capabilities thanks to integration of ideas from the development of the Sega Virtua Processor chip . Miller suggested an alternative strategy , citing concerns with releasing a new console with no previous design specifications within six to nine months . At the suggestion from Miller and his team , Sega designed the 32X as a peripheral for the existing Genesis , expanding its power with two 32 @-@ bit SuperH @-@ 2 processors . The SH @-@ 2 had been developed in 1993 as a joint venture between Sega and Japanese electronics company Hitachi . At the end of the Consumer Electronics show , with the basic design of the 32X in place , Sega Enterprises invited Sega of America to assist in development of the new add @-@ on .
Although the new unit was a stronger console than originally proposed , it was not compatible with Saturn games . Before the 32X could be launched , the release date of the Saturn was announced for November 1994 in Japan , coinciding with the 32X 's target launch date in North America . Sega of America now was faced with trying to market the 32X with the Saturn 's Japan release occurring simultaneously . Their answer was to call the 32X a " transitional device " between the Genesis and the Saturn . This was justified by Sega 's statement that both platforms would run at the same time , and that the 32X would be aimed at players who could not afford the more expensive Saturn .
The 32X was released in November 1994 , in time for the holiday season . Demand among retailers was high , and Sega could not keep up orders for the system . More than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 orders had been placed for 32X units , but Sega had only managed to ship 600 @,@ 000 units by January 1995 . Launching at about the same price as a Genesis console , the price of the 32X was less than half of what the Saturn 's price would be at launch . Notwithstanding the lower priced console 's positioning as an inexpensive entry into 32 @-@ bit gaming , Sega had a difficult time convincing third @-@ party developers to create games for the new system . After an early run on the peripheral , news soon spread to the public of the upcoming release of the Sega Saturn , which would not support the 32X 's games . The Saturn was released early on May 11 , 1995 , four months earlier than its originally intended release date of September 2 , 1995 . The Saturn , in turn , caused developers to further shy away from the console and created doubt about the library for the 32X , even with Sega 's assurances that there would be a large number of games developed for the system . In early 1996 , Sega conceded that they had promised too much out of the 32X and decided to stop producing the system in order to focus on the Saturn . Prices for the 32X dropped to $ 99 and cleared out of stores at $ 19 @.@ 95 .
= = Variations = =
More than a dozen licensed variations of the Sega Genesis / Mega Drive have been released . In addition to models made by Sega , alternate models were made by other companies , such as Majesco , AtGames , JVC , Pioneer Corporation , Amstrad , and Aiwa . A number of bootleg clones were created during its lifespan .
= = = First @-@ party models = = =
In 1993 , Sega introduced a smaller , lighter version of the console , naming it the Genesis II in North America and the Mega Drive II everywhere else . This version omits the headphone jack in the front , replaces the A / V @-@ Out connector with a smaller version that supports stereo sound , and provides a simpler , less expensive mainboard that requires less power .
Sega released a combined , semi @-@ portable Genesis / Sega CD unit called the Genesis CDX ( marketed as the Multi @-@ Mega in Europe ) . This unit retailed at $ 399 @.@ 95 in the US ( roughly $ 100 more than the individual Genesis and Sega CD units put together , since the Sega CD dropped its price to $ 229 half a year before ) , and was bundled with Sonic the Hedgehog CD , Sega Classics Arcade Collection , and the Sega CD version of Ecco the Dolphin . It is incompatible with some games and cannot work with the Sega 32X due to overheating and electrical shock issues . The CDX features a small LCD screen that , when the unit is used to play audio CDs , displays the current track being played . With this feature and the system 's lightweight build ( weighing two pounds ) , Sega marketed it in part as a portable CD player .
Late in the 16 @-@ bit era , Sega released a handheld version of the Genesis called the Genesis Nomad . Its design was based on the Mega Jet , a Mega Drive portable unit featured on airplane flights in Japan . As the only successor to the Game Gear , the Nomad operates on 6 AA batteries , displaying its graphics on a 3 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 8 @.@ 25 @-@ mm ) LCD screen . The Nomad supports the entire Genesis library , but cannot be used with the Sega 32X , the Sega CD , or the Power Base Converter .
Exclusive to the Japanese market was the TeraDrive , a Mega Drive combined with a computer . Sega produced three arcade system boards based on the Mega Drive : the System C @-@ 2 , the MegaTech , and the MegaPlay , which support approximately 80 games combined .
= = = Third @-@ party models = = =
Working with Sega Enterprises , JVC released the Wondermega on April 1 , 1992 , in Japan . The system was later redesigned by JVC and released as the X 'Eye in North America in September 1994 . Designed by JVC to be a Genesis and Sega CD combination with high quality audio , the Wondermega 's high price ( $ 500 at launch ) kept it out of the hands of average consumers . The same was true of the Pioneer LaserActive , which requires an add @-@ on known as the Mega @-@ LD pack , developed by Sega , in order to play Genesis and Sega CD games . Although the LaserActive was lined up to compete with the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer , the combined price of the system and the Mega @-@ LD pack made it a prohibitively expensive option for Sega players . Aiwa released the CSD @-@ GM1 , a combination Genesis / Sega CD unit built into a boombox . Several companies added the Mega Drive to personal computers , mimicking the design of Sega 's TeraDrive ; these include the MSX models AX @-@ 330 and AX @-@ 990 , distributed in Kuwait and Yemen , and the Amstrad Mega PC , distributed in Europe and Australia .
After the Genesis was discontinued , Majesco Entertainment released the Genesis 3 as a budget version in 1998 . In 2009 , AtGames began producing two new variations : the Firecore , which can play original Genesis cartridges as well as preloaded games , and a handheld console preloaded with 20 Genesis games . Companies such as Radica Games have released various compilations of Genesis and Mega Drive games in " plug @-@ and @-@ play " packages resembling the system 's controller .
= = = Re @-@ releases and emulation = = =
A number of Genesis and Mega Drive emulators have been produced , including GenEM , KGen , Genecyst , VGen , St0rm , and Gens . The GameTap subscription gaming service included a Sega Genesis emulator and had several dozen licensed Genesis games in its catalog . The Console Classix subscription gaming service includes an emulator and has several hundred Sega Genesis games in its catalog . In addition to emulation , a number of Sega Genesis games have been released on compilation discs for other video game consoles . These include Sonic Mega Collection and Sonic Gems Collection for PS2 , Xbox , and Nintendo GameCube ; Sega Genesis Collection for PS2 and PSP , and most recently Sonic 's Ultimate Genesis Collection ( known as the Sega Mega Drive Ultimate Collection in PAL territories ) for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 .
During his keynote speech at the 2006 Game Developers Conference , Nintendo president Satoru Iwata announced that Sega was going to make a number of Genesis / Mega Drive titles available to download on the Wii 's Virtual Console . These games are available along with other systems ' titles under the Wii 's Virtual Console . There are select Sega Genesis titles available on the Xbox 360 through Xbox Live Arcade , such as Sonic the Hedgehog and Sonic 2 , as well as games available via the PlayStation Network and Steam .
= = = Later releases = = =
On May 22 , 2006 , North American company Super Fighter Team released Beggar Prince , a game translated from a 1996 Chinese original . It was released worldwide and was the first commercial Genesis game release in North America since 1998 . Super Fighter Team would later go on to release two more games for the system , Legend of Wukong and Star Odyssey . In December 2010 , WaterMelon , an American company , released Pier Solar and the Great Architects , the first commercial role @-@ playing video game specifically developed for the console since 1996 , and the biggest 16 @-@ bit game ever produced at 64Mb . Pier Solar is the only cartridge @-@ based game which can optionally use the Sega CD to play an enhanced soundtrack and sound effects disc . In 2013 , independent programmer Future Driver , inspired by the Disney film Wreck @-@ It Ralph , developed Fix @-@ It Felix Jr. for the Genesis .
On December 5 , 2007 , Tec Toy released a portable version of the Mega Drive with twenty built @-@ in games . Another version called " Mega Drive Guitar Idol " comes with two six @-@ button joypads and a guitar controller with five fret buttons . The Guitar Idol game contains a mix of Brazilian and international songs . The console has 87 built @-@ in games , including some from Electronic Arts based on the mobile phone versions .
In 2009 , Chinese company AtGames produced a Sega Genesis / Mega Drive @-@ compatible console , the Firecore . It features a top @-@ loading cartridge slot and includes two controllers similar to the six @-@ button controller for the original Genesis . The console has 15 games built @-@ in and is region @-@ free , allowing cartridge games to run regardless of their region . AtGames produced a handheld version of the console . Both machines have been released in Europe by distributing company Blaze Europe .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Sega Genesis has often been considered among the best video game consoles ever produced . In 2009 , IGN named it the fifth best video game console , citing its edge in sports games and better home version of Mortal Kombat , and lauding " what some consider to be the greatest controller ever created : the six button . " In 2007 , GameTrailers named the Sega Genesis as the sixth best console of all time in their list of top ten consoles that " left their mark on the history of gaming , " noting its great games and solid controller , and writing of the " glory days " of Sonic the Hedgehog . In January 2008 , technology columnist Don Reisinger proclaimed that the Sega Genesis " created the industry 's best console war to date , " citing Sonic the Hedgehog , superior sports games , and backwards compatibility with the Sega Master System . GamingExcellence also gave the Sega Genesis sixth place in 2008 , declaring " one can truly see the Genesis for the gaming milestone it was . " At the same time , GameDaily rated it ninth of ten for its memorable games . In 2014 , USgamer 's Jeremy Parish wrote that " If the Atari generation introduced video games as a short @-@ lived ' 70s fad ... and the NES generation established it into an enduring obsession for the young , Sega 's Genesis began pushing the medium toward something resembling its contemporary form " , expounding that the system served as " the key incubator for modern sports franchises " , made " consoles truly international " by providing Western third @-@ parties previously put at a disadvantage by Nintendo 's restrictive licensing policies with a more profitable alternative , created " an online subscription service " that foreshadowed " PlayStation Plus more than 15 years early " with the Sega Channel , and " played a key role in ensuring the vitality and future of the games industry by breaking Nintendo 's near @-@ monopolistic hold on the U.S. and awakening the U.K. to the merits of television gaming . " For his part , Kalinske highlighted Sega 's role in developing games for an older demographic and pioneering " the concept of the ' street date ' " with the simultaneous North American and European release of Sonic the Hedgehog 2 . John Sczepaniak of Retro Gamer noted " It was a system where the allure was born not only of the hardware and games , but the magazines , playground arguments , climate , and politics of the time . "
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= Shivers ( song ) =
" Shivers " is a song by the Australian post @-@ punk band the Boys Next Door , who would later become the Birthday Party . It is the tenth and final track from the band 's debut studio album Door , Door , released in 1979 on Mushroom Records . It was released as the album 's only single in May 1979 , backed with the B @-@ side " Dive Position " .
Written by guitarist Rowland S Howard at age 16 , " Shivers " is a post @-@ punk and new wave ballad featuring ironic lyrics regarding teenage relationships and suicide . Originally intended as humorous by Howard , he felt later it had been misinterpreted due to frontman Nick Cave 's vocal delivery on the Boys Next Door version . Despite later distancing himself from the song , " Shivers " remained Howard 's most requested song during his lifetime and was met with critical acclaim . It has since been cited as one of the most popular cult hits in Australian music .
Several versions of " Shivers " have been released — including demo and solo recordings by Howard — and it has been covered by a variety of artists , including Marie Hoy , Laura Jane Grace , the Screaming Jets , Courtney Barnett and Divine Fits .
= = Origin and recording = =
In 1976 , at age 16 and as a member of the Melbourne punk rock band Young Charlatans , Howard wrote " Shivers " . Discussing the song 's origins , Howard said that " Shivers " was " intended as an ironic comment on the way that I felt that people I knew were making hysterical things out of what were essentially high school crushes " . He further explained that the emotional responses of people he knew who were in relationships seemed " incredibly insincere and blown out of proportion " and inspired the cynical lyrics of the song .
Howard composed " Shivers " on an Ibanez Gibson Firebird copy , an electric guitar on which he performed on the first known recording of the song . Recorded as part of a series of demos for the Young Charlatans in 1978 , it featured Howard on vocals and guitar , Ollie Olsen on guitar , Janine Hall on bass and Jeff Wegener on drums .
During sessions for Door , Door at Richmond Recorders in Melbourne in January 1979 , the Boys Next Door recorded " Shivers " . Engineer Tony Cohen suggested that Howard perform the vocals for the track , arguing that his voice was best fitted for his own songs . However , the band 's regular vocalist , Nick Cave , insisted on singing on the recording . Howard said later that as a result of Cave 's vocals , " Shivers " was " interpreted completely differently and now the song , to most peoples ' minds , is something completely different from what I intended it to be " . In hindsight , Cave noted that Howard 's vocals should have been recorded , as Cave was " never able to do that song justice " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Shivers " is a post @-@ punk ballad featuring new wave elements , with a length of four minutes and thirty @-@ seven seconds . It is set in common time ( 44 ) and has a slow tempo of 60 beats per minute . The song is composed in the key of A major and on the Boys Next Door version , Nick Cave 's vocal range spans one octave from D4 to E5 .
Howard wrote intentionally cynical lyrics to " Shivers " regarding relationships and suicide . According to Kelsey Munro of the Sydney Morning Herald , the song " exhibits Howard 's enduring gallows humour in its wry treatment of the overwrought protagonist " . The first lyrics " I 've been contemplating suicide / but it really doesn 't suit my style " have been also branded by the Sydney Morning Herald 's Jake Wilson as " famous opening lines " and typical of Howard 's " wry , guarded romanticism " .
According to members of the Boys Next Door , Howard 's songwriting was " more precious and stolid " than Cave 's or guitarist – keyboardist Mick Harvey 's attempts , with " Shivers " and his other songs generally being centred " around a bassline " . The final version of " Shivers " featured on Door , Door reflected this , and included only a two @-@ chord progression and four musical instruments : guitar , bass , piano and violin .
= = Release and reception = =
" Shivers " was originally released by the Young Charlatans as part of a Fast Forward cassette compilation , which was issued in April 1981 after the band 's dissolution . It was rereleased on CD on the various artists compilation album Inner City Sound : Australian Punk & Post @-@ Punk ( 2006 ) . The Boys Next Door version was released as Door , Door 's only single in May 1979 on Mushroom Records . It was issued as a 7 @-@ inch single , backed with " Dive Position " . The single soon went out of print , and a second pressing was issued later the same year . The band changed their name to the Birthday Party after relocating to London , England in 1980 and all of their recordings of " Shivers " are credited to the Boys Next Door .
" Shivers " received critical acclaim and became a major underground success in Australia , bringing more national attention to the band . Nick Cave cited it in hindsight as the main reason for the Boys Next Door 's eminence . In a retrospective review for AllMusic , critic Will Lerner wrote that " it 's impressive how , even at this early stage , Nick Cave was a confident and unique singer , perfectly aware of the strengths and limitations of his voice … he knows how to come across in a scary and theatrical manner that perfectly complements the music . Nowhere is this more apparent than on … ' Shivers ' , an unashamedly melodramatic example of post @-@ adolescent anguish " . " Shivers " , along with other songs Howard composed , were " crucial to guiding the band in the darker , wilder direction " that defined the Birthday Party 's music , according to Dan Lawrence of Stereogum . The song has since been considered an Australian classic and labelled by ABC Television as " possibly Australia 's most enduring cult hit " .
A music video for " Shivers " was directed by Paul Goldman in 1979 . It is featured on Pleasure Heads Must Burn ( 1984 ) , a video album released by the Birthday Party .
= = Live performances = =
" Shivers " was first performed at Young Charlatans concerts in the late 1970s , of which there were only 13 during the band 's career . In 1978 , prior to the recording of Door , Door , the Boys Next Door performed " Shivers " with Howard on vocals and Cave on guitar . After the song 's release , and changing their name to the Birthday Party , the band performed " Shivers " with their standard line @-@ up of Cave on vocals , Howard and Mick Harvey on guitar , Tracy Pew on bass and Phill Calvert on drums . Cave commented that he " used to dread ' Shivers ' coming up in the set " due to the fact " it required a certain amount of efficiency [ and ] certain amount of talent to sing " because it was one of the band 's only melodic songs .
During Howard 's solo concerts from 1983 to 1999 , " Shivers " was the song most requested by audience members . However , by the time of his final tour in 2009 — the year he died — he had stopped receiving requests for it . In an October 2009 interview , Howard commented on his relationship with the song , and its position in his setlists , stating : " I have just tried , perhaps finally successfully , to divorce myself from the song . It 's impossible for me to recreate what I was trying to do when I wrote that song so whilst I can see that people have an attachment to it , I don 't . I feel like , when I did use to do it in shows , I was doing a cover of some song that had been around forever . That 's how it felt . And I guess that is a strange way to feel about a song you wrote , so yeah , I am happy to not have to do it these days " .
= = Cover versions = =
Since its original release , " Shivers " has been covered by several artists . A live version recorded in Melbourne in 1982 by the Big Bang Combo was issued on volume 13 of the cassette magazine Fast Forward in October of that year . Musician and actress Marie Hoy performed the song in the 1986 independent film Dogs in Space ; it appeared on the film 's supporting soundtrack released in February 1987 on Chase Records . In 1992 pub rock band the Screaming Jets featured a cover version of " Shivers " on their second studio album , Tear of Thought . It was subsequently released as a single in February 1993 and spent 15 weeks on the Australian Singles Chart , peaking at number 19 in its fourth week . In 1996 Nick Cave performed guest vocals with Israeli singer @-@ songwriter Inbal Perlmuter on a version of " Shivers " released by her band Ha @-@ Mechashefot ( The Witches ) on their covers album , Undercover . Against Me ! frontwoman Laura Jane Grace performed " Shivers " on her 2013 acoustic mini @-@ tour .
= = Track listing = =
Australia 7 @-@ inch single ( Mushroom Records , K7492 )
" Shivers " ( Howard ) – 4 : 37
" Dive Position " ( Cave ) – 2 : 42
= = Personnel = =
All personnel credits adapted from Door , Door 's album notes .
The Boys Next Door
Phill Calvert – drums
Nick Cave – vocals
Mick Harvey – guitar , keyboards
Rowland S Howard – guitar
Tracy Pew – bass
Additional musicians
Henry Vyhnal – violin
Technical personnel
The Boys Next Door – production
Tony Cohen – engineering
Andrew Duffield – electronics
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= Lytes Cary =
Lytes Cary is a manor house with associated chapel and gardens near Charlton Mackrell and Somerton in Somerset , England . The property , owned by the National Trust , has parts dating to the 14th century , with other sections dating to the 15th , 16th , 18th , and 20th centuries . " Yet all parts blend to perfection with one another and with the gentle sunny landscape that surrounds them , " comments Nikolaus Pevsner . The House is listed as Grade I by English Heritage .
The chapel predates the existing house , having been built around 1343 , and functioned as a chantry chapel , where masses could be said for the souls of the family , both living and dead . The great hall was added in the 15th century and the Oriel Room in the 16th . Various renovations were undertaken during the 16th and 17th centuries after which the house fell into disrepair with the north range being demolished by the early 19th century . In 1907 Sir Walter Jenner of the Jenner baronets bought the house and restored it in a period style , furnishing it with fine 17th century and 18th century oak furniture , antique tapestries and fabrics modelled after medieval textiles , along with historic and period paintings . On his death in 1948 he left the house to the National Trust .
The gardens are listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . The original 17th @-@ century gardens have disappeared . However , the Jenners laid them out in an Arts and Crafts style with a series of ' rooms ' , which are separated from each other by high , neatly clipped box and yew hedges . These are complemented by ponds and walks in and between each of the ' rooms ' .
= = History = =
The parkland surrounding the house includes the site of a deserted medieval settlement which is a scheduled monument .
The unusual name derives from the Lyte family who lived at Lytes Cary for over four centuries , and the River Cary which flows nearby . The first documentary evidence is from 1285 when it was known as Kari . William le Lyte was a feudal tenant of the estate in 1286 , and the Lyte family occupied and added to the house until the mid 18th century . The earliest surviving part of the manor and associated buildings is the chapel , which dates to the mid @-@ 14th century .
The Great Hall was built in the mid @-@ 15th century , and in the early 16th century the entrance porch and oriel room was added to the eastern side of the hall , and the great parlour and little parlour to the south of the hall , with bedrooms above . Sometime after the Lyte family sold the Manor in 1755 , tenants moved in and the house gradually fell into disrepair . In 1810 it was reported by a neighbour that the north range ' had lately been destroyed and a farm house built on the site ' , ( this north range is dated by architectural historians to the late 18th century ) and by the time John Buckler came to draw the house in 1835 the west range had also disappeared .
In 1907 Sir Walter Jenner of the Jenner baronets and son of the late Sir William Jenner , physician to Queen Victoria , bought Lytes Cary . At that time the Great Hall was being used as a cider store and the Great Parlour was full of farm equipment . Jenner 's brother Leopold had just bought and started to restore Avebury Manor in Wiltshire , and Jenner was inspired by his brother 's work there . He set about restoring Lytes Cary and decorating the interiors in period style , including fine 17th century and 18th century oak furniture , antique tapestries and fabrics modelled after medieval textiles . He had the west range rebuilt in a plain William and Mary style by the architect C.E. Ponting , but left the historic core of the house mostly untouched . It incorporates carvings believed to be from the demolished St Benet Gracechurch .
Jenner left the manor to the National Trust after he died in 1948 . The house was designated as a Grade I listed building in 1959 . The National Trust opened the west range as a holiday rental property in 2006 . Only the older parts of the house are open to the public .
= = Architecture = =
= = = House = = =
The two @-@ storey house and the chapel are built of the local Blue Lias stone . Parts of the house have mellow honey @-@ coloured Hamstone dressings , especially around windows and at quoins ; the later 18th century additions have brick dressings . The roofs are stone tiled with some later terracotta tiles .
= = = Chapel = = =
The chapel predates the existing house , and functioned as a chantry chapel , where masses could be said for the souls of the family , both living and dead . It was built by Peter Lyte in about 1343 , and was completed by 1358 , and would have served both the original manor which now no longer survives and later the existing house . It has a small window , or squint , that permitted servants and others to observe communion from the house .
The chapel was thoroughly renovated in 1631 by Thomas Lyte , who installed the arch @-@ braced @-@ collar truss roof , the communion rail , a rear screen and a frieze below the roof painted with the arms of the Lytes and their relations . A monument to the south of the altar records Thomas ' work on the chapel . In 1912 Sir Walter Jenner added the stained glass , including medieval glass said to have come from Charlton Mackrell church which William Le Lyte had commissioned before his death in 1316 .
= = = Great Hall = = =
This structure was built in the mid @-@ 15th century . At the southern end is a shallow raised dais on which the Lytes and favoured guests would have sat at a long table , facing the rest of the hall where the servants would have dined . The roof has arch @-@ braced @-@ collar trusses , with double purlins , and cusped curved windbraces . Typical of West Country design , these carved windbraces are both decorative and practical . Beneath is a cornice of pierced quatrefoils , and at the base of each main rafter is a carved wooden angel with a shield with the Lyte arms . The fireplace is 15th century , while the windows and the stained glass in them date from the early 16th century . The hall is entered from the east front porch via the screens passage , which would have divided the Hall from the kitchen and servants quarters ' which would have lain to the left of the hall . The screen and gallery are not original , having been inserted by Sir Walter Jenner in 1907 . He based the decoration on that of the arch from the Great Hall through to the Oriel Room . At the time of Jenner 's arrival in 1907 the Great Hall was being used as a cider store .
The Great Hall is furnished with mostly 17th century oak furniture , including tables , coffers and wainscot chairs , and a great dining table , on which stand two blue and white late 17th century Delftware pyramidal tulip vases . One treasure of the home is the Lytes Herbal , a 16th @-@ century botanical volume by noted horticulturist Henry Lyte , who was born and resided at the manor . Lyte 's Niewe Herball was published in 1578 and was a translation and elaboration of the Cruydeboeck of Flemish herbalist Rembert Dodoens . The herbal was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth . A copy is displayed in the Great Hall .
= = = Oriel Room = = =
This was added to the south of the Great Hall in the early 16th century to provide a small intimate room where the family could eat in private away from the servants . Above it is the small Oriel Bedroom , probably originally a dressing room for the Great Chamber as its only entrance is via that room . At the same time that the oriel room and bedroom were added , rooms were added or remodeled to the south of the Great Hall : the Great Parlour with Great Chamber above , and the Little Parlour with Little Parlour above . John Lyte , the builder , placed his coat of arms on the outside of the building .
= = = Great Parlour = = =
This was the main family sitting room on the ground floor , with the south @-@ facing grand window giving views to the gardens , and was remodelled by John Lyte in 1533 . In the early 17th century Thomas Lyte added the wood paneling ( including Ionic pilasters ) and the internal porch : these decorative features also had the practical benefit of keeping out the drafts . In the 20th century the room was being used as a store for farm equipment . Sir Walter Jenner had the paint stripped from the panelling to reveal the original warm @-@ coloured oak .
Above is the Great Chamber , an impressive room with a barrel ceiling with geometrical plaster decoration featuring John Lyte 's arms and those of his wife , Edith Horsey . This ceiling is a rare survival . The wall above the bed displays the royal coat of arms and Tudor roses , signifying Lyte 's loyalty to King Henry VIII ( whose government Lyte represented in Somerset ) . The panelling is 17th century , as are the great four poster bed and the tapestries on the walls . Some of the original oak panelling of the room may have been used in the construction of the canopy of the bed .
= = = Little Parlour = = =
This smaller room may have been used by Henry and Thomas Lyte for their studies . It too has later paneling and an alcove in which are displayed a collection of early glassware . Above this room is the Little Chamber , used by Sir Walter Jenner as his bedroom . The bed came from Burton Pynsent House in Somerset , a house given to William Pitt the Elder by an admirer of his achievements as prime minister .
= = = Paintings = = =
Sir Walter Jenner furnished the rooms with furniture and included historic and newly commissioned paintings . The paintings include : portraits of Lady Catherine Neville by Robert Peake James Scott , 1st Duke of Monmouth and Mary II of England by Sir Peter Lely and William III of England by Godfrey Kneller , along with landscapes by Jan Wyck and Jack Green . Oil paintings of horses by George Denholm Armour and George Richard Pain are also included in the extensive collection .
= = Gardens = =
All trace of Henry Lyte 's garden has disappeared . Records show that his son Thomas kept a very well @-@ stocked orchard , which included in 1618 " Apples , 3 skore severall sorts. pears and Wardens ( a type of pear ) , 44 sorts . Plummes , 15 divers kynds . Grapes , 3 severall sortes . Cherries , 1 . Walnuts , 3 . Peaches , 1 . " By the Victorian period the garden had run to seed , and so the Jenners had to start from scratch on their arrival in 1907 . They had the gardens designed and constructed to include a series of hedged and walled " rooms " with topiary , specimen trees , a pool , statuary , croquet lawn , walkways , an Elizabethan orchard , and a herbal border that includes plants described in the Lytes Herbal . The gate piers at the east and west entrances are listed buildings .
The gardens were constructed in a series of ' rooms ' , which are separated from each other by high , neatly clipped box and yew hedges . The gardens were influenced by the Arts and Crafts style popular at the time . The Jenners had a garden staff of four .
In 1965 Graham Stuart Thomas , the National Trust 's first Gardens Adviser designed the Main Border . From 1955 @-@ 1997 the Trust 's tenants at the Manor , Biddy and Jeremy Chittenden , transformed the garden , and Biddy rethought and replanted the main border in 1996 , using new plants but following Stuart Thomas 's colour scheme .
The gardens are listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . A barn and other outbuildings north west of the house are listed buildings .
The Apostle garden is aligned on the front door in the East front of the house and a building which has been described as a water tower , built by the Jenners in imitation of the dovecote at Avebury Manor , which was wrongly identified as a Dovecote by English Heritage . The garden is a severe , formal approach , flanked by topiarised yews , and is " deliberately low @-@ key and simple so as not to distract from the beauty of the building " . The main border is 35 metres ( 114 @.@ 8 ft ) long and at its best in midsummer . The flowers grade from blues and yellows , through creams and apricots to pinks , mauves and reds . There is a restful White Garden beyond for contrast .
The orchard contains fruit trees such as quinces , medlars , crab apples and pears are underplanted with spring @-@ flowering meadow plants such as snakeshead fritillaries , camassias , narcissus , cowslips and lady 's smock . The orchard is crossed by wide mown paths meeting at a central sundial . Originally four weeping elms were situated at the four corners of the garden , but they succumbed to Dutch elm disease in the early seventies and were replaced in 1973 by four weeping ash trees which make inviting ' houses ' . The orchard can be viewed from the raised walk on its east side , another idea copied from Avebury Manor . A main path known as the Long walk is based on the Long Walk at Hidcote Manor Garden in Gloucestershire , although it is on a smaller scale . It is a plain grassed walkway connecting the Raised Walk with the Pond Garden .
The pond garden , seat garden and croquet lawn are interlinked , with aligned openings to form a vista from the bay windows of the Great Parlour and Great Chamber on the south front of the house over to the Sparkford plain . A short tunnel of hornbeams link the Pond Garden to the Vase Garden , where variegated weigela is underplanted with euphorbia and vinca .
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= I Can Transform Ya =
" I Can Transform Ya " is a song by American singer Chris Brown from his third album Graffiti . The song features vocals from Lil Wayne and Swizz Beatz . The artists co @-@ wrote the song with Lonny Bereal , Trayce Green , and Jason " Poo Bear " Boyd , with Beatz producing the track . The song was released as the lead single from Graffiti on September 29 , 2009 , and was Brown 's first official release since his altercation with former girlfriend , Barbadian singer Rihanna . Originally known simply as " Transformer " , it is an electro @-@ composed song infused with hip @-@ hop , rock , crunk , and R & B influences , while making use of robotic tones . It is lyrically about introducing someone to a life of luxury .
" I Can Transform Ya " received mostly positive reviews , noting the song 's club feel and catchiness . The song peaked the highest in New Zealand , at number seven , and was also certified Platinum in the country . It peaked in the top twenty of the United States , at twenty @-@ one in Australia and Ireland . The song also charted in the top thirty in the United Kingdom , becoming a top ten hit on the UK R & B Chart . The dance @-@ heavy accompanying music video , coined a " shiny , sexy , throwback " features choreography with hooded ninjas , and makes puns on the Transformers series .
= = Background = =
The song was originally titled " Transformer " according to producer and featured guest Swizz Beatz in a September 2009 interview with MTV News . The song was set to be the first real record that Brown had released since his altercation with then @-@ girlfriend Rihanna at the beginning of the year . Another song " Changed Man " , an " apologetic ode to Rihanna " written by Brown , and several other tracks were leaked but Jive Records said the material was old . Swizz Beatz said that Brown had recorded " 60 or 70 " songs for the album , and that " He 's got something to prove . " Beatz also commented on Lil Wayne 's contribution to the song , saying , " " The Wayne part is just nothing to talk about , He really showed his ass on this one . It 's probably the best feature verse since the ' It 's Me [ Bitches ] ' remix . He really went in on the ' Transformer ' joint . " It was originally supposed released on September 30 , 2009 , but Brown stated on his Twitter that the song would be released a day early on September 29 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
The song , influenced by hip @-@ hop and rock , has been described as an " upbeat tune " , is composed of pounding drums , and features referee whistles and hand claps . It also has synthpop elements , featuring a " synthesized guitar riff . " Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times says the song has a robo @-@ crunk groove . According to James Montgomery of MTV News , the song is an " adult club track " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that the song is one of the album tracks featuring an " aggressive stance " and " club banger " that would " sound fantastic on the dancefloor " . The song is lyrically about introducing someone new to a luxurious life . The song makes references to the Transformers film and series .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews . Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune gave the song a positive review , calling it a " club banger " . Thomas Gonlianpoulous of Spin commended Swizz Beatz ' " bombastic production " , Wayne 's " energetic yet nonsensical rap " , and Brown 's " joyful , brisk vocals . " Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK said the song , serving as lead single , says " Brown 's promise for the future is to be an altogether more interesting kind of R & B artist . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly referred to the song as a " swaggering " lead single . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times referred to the song as a type that he has made his specialty , and called it an " electric , brassy collaboration . " Although Nick Levine of Digital Spy called the song " a brutal , tuneless hunk of industrial R & B - as musically ugly as something like ' With You ' was pretty " , he said " for that matter , this track rocks " , commenting " Whatever you may think of him , you can 't deny that Chris Brown lacks balls . " Jude Rogers of BBC Music the song was catchy , but was one of the album 's tracks that were a " pale imitation of Justin Timberlake album tracks . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number fifty @-@ two . After weeks of ascending and descending the charts the single reached a peak of twenty on its eighth week on the chart , giving Brown his eighth top twenty hit in the United States . Also in the U.S. , the song peaked at number eleven on the Hot R & B / Hip Hop Songs . In Canada , the song entered the charts at seventy @-@ five . The song fluctuated around the charts for seven weeks before finally peaking at fifty @-@ four on its eight week .
It reached five on the Flanders and Wallonia Belgian Tip Charts . The song peaked at number seven in New Zealand , where it spent seven weeks on the chart . " I Can Transform Ya " peaked in the top thirty in the United Kingdom , and Ireland , whilst reaching number nine on the UK R & B Chart . In Australia it peaked at twenty @-@ one , where it spent eighteen weeks on the chart . It reached fifty @-@ seven on the Mega Single Top 100 in the Netherlands , having a seven @-@ week stint . " I Can Transform Ya " ' s charting in European marks propelled it to debut and peak at seventy @-@ six on the European Hot 100 . The song was certified Platinum in New Zealand by the RIANZ and Gold in Australia by the ARIA .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The song 's music video was directed by Joseph Kahn . Kahn , who also directed the video for Brown and Ester Dean 's " Drop It Low " , said that Brown played him tracks from his album on the set , and had a clear idea of what he wanted for the " I Can Transform Ya " video . Kahn said ,
" ... obviously , him going in there and dancing and turning into cars and trucks is right up my alley . His interests , in terms of kung fu and special effects and science fiction and all the boy @-@ culture stuff , it falls directly in line with what I like . " His talent is phenomenal . I 'm still struggling to try and capture that talent on film , and it 's a challenge . Here 's a guy who can literally do anything . If you watch this thing , he 's doing nunchuck tricks , and I 'm a huge kung fu aficionado , and they 're mind @-@ blowing . I 've never seen stuff like that before in kung fu flicks . I would say it 's like a pure aesthetic dance video from the very fiber of it . Everything dances onscreen . Everything has movement . Everything has a certain mechanical rhythm . He actually created a dance style for this that is mechanical . It 's sort of a hyper @-@ intense version of the robot . Even the transformations go directly in line with the movements . "
Kahn also said that instead of taking the song 's lyrics and being " pretentious " about it , he wanted to show the audience exactly what Brown was singing about , commenting , " What if we just got ambitious and demonstrated the lyrics ? The trick is to do it in a creative way . Let 's try to display the lyrics and the feeling of the dance at the same time . " On October 2009 , Brown released screencaps for the video , coincidentally the same day Rihanna released her video for " Russian Roulette " . The photos showed several scenes , including Brown in the middle of a squadron of black storm troopers , Brown in a gray suit , and him giving a karate kick in mid @-@ air . Another was also of Brown , Wayne and Swizz Beatz standing confidently against a white backdrop .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video premiered on MTV Networks on October 27 , 2009 . The music video opens with Brown transforming from a black sports car , and spray painting the name of the single onto the screen , indirectly referencing his forthcoming album Graffiti . The video , set entirely on an all @-@ white backdrop , focuses on Brown 's dance moves , as Brown performs alongside hooded ninjas . Several other " transformations " are made in the video including from motorcycles and helicopters . Swizz Beatz appears in the clip , as well as Lil Wayne , playing an electric guitar . Transformers star Tyrese Gibson makes a cameo appearance .
Jocelyn Vena of MTV News described the video as " glossy " and " fast @-@ paced " . James Montgomery of MTV News called the video a " shiny , sexy throwback " . Montgomery also said , " It 's a blockbuster , loaded with eye @-@ popping special effects — the titular transformations are particularly great looking , as are the scene @-@ to @-@ scene transitions — and frighteningly precise pop @-@ and @-@ lock moves from Brown himself . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said the clip was " snazzy @-@ looking " , but commented , " it feels … kind of gross . " BET 's Sound Off Blog said , " the visual embodies exactly what the title represents- transforming into abnormal objects while doing splits and showing off some several thick wasted PYT ’ s . " The video 's choreography and dancers resembling " cyber ninjas " also drew comparisons to Janet Jackson 's " Feedback " by several critics .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = End @-@ of @-@ year charts = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Vocals - Chris Brown , Lil Wayne , Swizz Beatz
Songwriting - Chris Brown , Jason " Poo Bear " Boyd , J.Thomas , Kasseem Dean , Joeseph " Lonny " Bereal , Dwayne Carter
Production - Swizz Beatz
Mixing - Manny Marroquin , assisted by Christian Plata and Erik Madrid
Recording - Brian Springer
Guitar - Rayfield " Ray @-@ Ray " Holloman
Mastering - Chris Bellman
Source
= = Release history = =
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= Time Machine ( roller coaster ) =
The Time Machine is a steel roller coaster which is currently in @-@ storage at Ocean Park in Vietnam . Previously located at Freestyle Music Park in Myrtle Beach , South Carolina , the ride was manufactured by the Swiss company Bolliger & Mabillard , opened to the public on April 15 , 2008 under the name Led Zeppelin – The Ride as part of Hard Rock Park . Due to financial problems , Hard Rock Park was sold and renamed after one year . The new owners closed the park in 2009 , and it is still closed to this day .
= = History = =
Plans for a Hard Rock @-@ themed amusement park were released in 2003 ; at the time , however , funding and licensing agreements had yet to be finalized . By 2006 , a licensing agreement with the Hard Rock franchise was reached . Hard Rock Park was announced in early 2007 . The park 's flagship attraction , " Led Zeppelin – The Ride " , would be a Bolliger & Mabillard sit @-@ down roller coaster themed for the English rock band of the same name . By July 2007 construction for the ride was underway , with the lift hill completed .
" Led Zeppelin – The Ride " soft @-@ opened to the public on April 15 , 2008 , with the first seats auctioned for charity . The ride 's official opening was on May 9 , 2008 . During operation , the coaster would play Led Zeppelin 's " Whole Lotta Love " through an on @-@ board audio system . In September 2008 , Hard Rock Park filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy due to the inability to pay its debts . Its owners later filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 7 , allowing them to sell the park .
In February 2009 , FPI MB Entertainment purchased the park . As part of the acquisition it was renamed Freestyle Music Park , with all licensed themes removed . " Led Zeppelin – The Ride " was renamed " The Time Machine " , with the on @-@ board audio a selection of songs from the 1960s to the 2000s . The new park officially opened on May 23 , 2009 ; however , the fate of Freestyle Music Park was similar to that of its predecessor and the park closed in September 2009 . As of 2013 the park and its rides remain standing , but not operating .
According to Screamscape , on August 21 , 2014 , cranes had been set up next to the Time Machine to begin the process of dismantling , and elements of the finale had already been removed .
In 2016 , the ride will operate at Ocean Park in Vietnam .
= = Characteristics = =
The Time Machine featured six inversions over the 3 @,@ 738 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 139 m ) ride , including two vertical loops , a cobra roll , a zero @-@ g roll and a corkscrew . Riders reached a top speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . Throughout the ride , passengers could listen to five different soundtracks over speakers built into the trains . The trains had eight single @-@ row cars , seating riders four across for a total of thirty @-@ two seats per train .
= = Ride = =
After the train left the station , it climbed the 155 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 47 m ) chain lift hill . It then dropped 150 feet ( 46 m ) before entering the first 120 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 37 m ) vertical loop . This was followed by a 95 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 29 m ) cobra roll and a 75 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 23 m ) zero @-@ g roll . A second , smaller vertical loop would lead the train into a large helix before the mid @-@ course brake run . The ride then dropped into another small helix before navigating through a corkscrew . A third helix followed before the train slowed in the final brake run and returned to the station .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the Time Machine were mixed . The Coaster Critic , reviewing Led Zeppelin – The Ride , described its overall ride experience as a " great attraction " , praising its pre @-@ show and synchronized soundtrack and rating the ride 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Jeremy Thompson of Roller Coaster Philosophy gave a similar review , enjoying the ride and ranking it number 15 on his top @-@ coasters list ; however , he criticized the lack of elements during the ride 's second half . Arthur Levine of About.com expanded on Thompson 's criticism , calling the ride one of North America 's top @-@ 10 overrated roller coasters . Levine described it as an " impressive @-@ looking coaster " which " has almost no airtime , shudders a bit as it delivers a few head @-@ banging moments , and is largely nondescript " . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , the Time Machine peaked at number 102 in its debut year ( 2008 ) . In 2009 , it dropped to 138th out of 368 ranked steel roller coasters .
= = Sale and Acquisition = =
The ride was posted for sale on www.italintl.com included in a bundle of components of the former Freestyle Music Park . In 2014 Time Machine was purchased by an undisclosed park in Vietnam as part of this bundle from the former home of Time Machine , Freestyle Music Park .
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= The Deal ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Deal " is the ninth episode of the second season of NBC 's Seinfeld , and the show 's 14th episode overall . The episode centers on protagonists Jerry ( Jerry Seinfeld ) and Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) who decide to have a purely physical relationship , with a set of ground rules . However , as their " relationship " progresses , they experience difficulties maintaining their original friendship .
Series co @-@ creator Larry David wrote the episode in a response to NBC 's continued efforts to get the two characters back together . The main inspiration behind the episode was a similar agreement David once made with a woman . The episode , which introduced the character of Tina , Elaine 's roommate , first aired on May 2 , 1991 and was watched by approximately 22 @.@ 6 million viewers . Critics reacted positively to the episode , and David received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
As they are watching TV in Jerry 's apartment , Jerry and Elaine flip through the channels , stumbling upon the soft @-@ core pornography channel . Upon the realization that neither of them has had sexual relations in a while , they start toying with the idea of sleeping together . They refer to their friendship as " this " and sexual intercourse as " that " . However , as they do not wish to ruin their friendship , they establish a set of ground rules . Happy with their agreement , they make their way to the bedroom . The next day Jerry has lunch with his friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) , and makes him aware of his situation with Elaine . George remains skeptical , even after Jerry explains the rules system to him . He is proven right when Jerry and Elaine get into an argument over the second rule : " Spending the night is optional " . Jerry eventually does not spend the night , leaving their agreement on shaky terms .
With Elaine 's birthday coming up Jerry has to decide on what to get her . Since they are not in a relationship but they are still having sex he feels that the symbolism of the gift needs to be carefully thought out . He looks for a gift with George but is unable to think of anything , though he vaguely remembers her saying " something about a bench " . Elaine is unhappy with the eventual gift : $ 182 cash . When Jerry 's neighbor Kramer ( Michael Richards ) gives Elaine the bench she was looking for , for which she is much more grateful , she and Jerry talk over their agreement . They decide to start dating . When Kramer sees them again and asks what they are up to , Jerry notes that they now do " this , that and the other , " " the other " being their romantic relationship as a couple .
= = Production = =
Series co @-@ creator Larry David wrote the episode , which was directed by Tom Cherones . Since the start of the show , NBC executives , especially Warren Littlefield , had been pressuring the writing staff to get Jerry and Elaine back together . Larry David had been against this idea from the start . However , brainstorming for an episode idea , he remembered he had once made a deal with a woman to have a purely physical relationship , which he thought " would make a really funny show , even if they had never [ told us to get Jerry and Elaine back together ] " . Though Jerry and Elaine are still in a relationship at the end of the episode , they are no longer together by the end of the season . Seinfeld and David decided that they had satisfied the NBC executives and went back to the original format . Seinfeld and David have also noted that " The Deal " is the only Seinfeld episode ever to contain sincere emotions , during the scene in which Jerry and Elaine discuss the ending of their physical relationship .
On February 25 , 1991 , the table @-@ read of the episode was held , subsequent filming occurred at CBS Studio Center in Studio City , Los Angeles , California three days later . " The Deal " is the first episode in which Elaine 's apartment is shown . During rehearsals controversy arose over how Jerry and Elaine would sit during their " this and that " conversation . Several producers believed that , as the scene was intimate , the two should sit close together . David , however , believed the discussion was more of a transaction than an intimate scene and felt that Jerry and Elaine should sit further apart . On audio commentary recorded for the Seinfeld : Volume 1 DVD set , David commented that when he showed his idea of the scene , " I remember everybody saying ' there 's no heat , there 's no heat ' , and I said , that 's the point , there 's not supposed to be any " . David and producer Andrew Scheinman got into a big argument over the issue , which David eventually won .
Aside from showing Elaine 's apartment for the first time , " The Deal " also marks the first appearance of Elaine 's roommate Tina , who had been mentioned in earlier episodes . Siobhan Fallon was cast in the role ; she would reprise the character two more times , in season three 's " The Truth " and in the season five finale " The Opposite " . Norman Brenner , who worked as Richards ' stand @-@ in on the show for all its nine seasons , appears as an extra , working in the store George and Jerry visit to look for a gift for Elaine .
= = Reception = =
" The Deal " was first broadcast on May 2 , 1991 on NBC and received a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 5 and an audience share of 25 , indicating that 15 @.@ 5 percent of American households watched the episode , and that 25 percent of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . With averagely 22 @.@ 6 million homes watching the episode , the series was the eleventh most @-@ watched show in the week it was broadcast , tied with NBC 's The Golden Girls . David received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series , but lost the award to Gary Dontzig and Steven Peterman , writers of the Murphy Brown episode " Jingle Hell , Jingle Hell , Jingle All the Way " .
Critics reacted positively to the episode . Eric Kohanik of The Hamilton Spectator called " The Deal " a " hilarious episode " . Entertainment Weekly critics Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling commented " Jerry and Elaine 's circuitous verbal dance pondering the relative worth of that [ sex ] versus this [ the friendship ] is sublime . The show 's ability to be both explicit and vague will become a hallmark . "
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= Siege of Varaždin Barracks =
The Siege of Varaždin Barracks , also referred to locally as Varaždin 's Days of War ( Croatian : Varaždinski dani rata ) , was the blockade and capture of the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) barracks and other facilities in and around the city of Varaždin during the Croatian War of Independence . The blockade began on 14 September 1991 , quickly escalated into fighting , and ended on 22 September with the surrender of the JNA garrison . It was part of the Battle of the Barracks — an effort by Croatian armed forces to isolate JNA units based at barracks in Croatia , or capture the barracks to provide arms for Croatia 's nascent army .
The besieging force outnumbered the JNA garrison in Varaždin , which was divided among several barracks , storage depots and other facilities , but the JNA possessed substantially greater firepower . The balance shifted in favour of the Croatian forces after smaller JNA posts were captured in the first few days of the siege , until only one barracks along with the headquarters of the JNA 32nd Corps remained under JNA control . At that point , the commander of the 32nd Corps , Major General Vladimir Trifunović , and the civilian authorities in Varaždin agreed that the remaining JNA forces in the city would surrender , but all those wishing to leave would be permitted to do so , leaving their weapons behind .
The capture of the 32nd Corps ' weapons was the most significant achievement of the Battle of the Barracks , and greatly augmented the capabilities of the Croatian military . After he left Croatia , Trifunović was indicted for war crimes by Croatia , tried in absentia and convicted for the combat deaths of six Croatian soldiers and the wounding of dozens of Croatian citizens before and during the siege . He was also prosecuted by Yugoslav authorities for treason , but subsequently pardoned . In 2013 , he requested a re @-@ trial on his Croatian war crimes conviction .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ ) . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbian : Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin ( approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) north @-@ east of Split ) , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . In January 1991 , Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces . The request was denied and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency . Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies , the JNA request was refused on 15 March . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expansion of Serbia as the JNA came under Milošević 's control . By the end of March , the conflict had escalated with the first fatalities . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to amalgamate the areas under their control with Serbia . These were viewed by the Government of Croatia as breakaway regions .
At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . To bolster its defence , Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the Croatian police force was 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines . There were also 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons . In response to the deteriorating situation , the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all @-@ professional guards brigades . Under Ministry of Defence control and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj , the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops . The reserve police , also expanded to 40 @,@ 000 , was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions . The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms ; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level . The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II weapons taken from museums and film studios . At the time , the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30 @,@ 000 small arms purchased abroad and 15 @,@ 000 previously owned by the police . To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades , a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police was established .
= = Prelude = =
The views of the Croatian leadership on how to deal with the JNA 's role in the Croatian Serb revolt gradually evolved between January and September 1991 . Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's initial plan was to win European Community ( EC ) and United States support ; so he dismissed advice to seize JNA barracks and storage facilities in the country . This course of action was first advocated by Špegelj in late 1990 ; he again urged Tuđman to act while the JNA fought Slovenia 's TO in the Ten @-@ Day War in June – July 1991 . Špegelj 's calls were echoed by Šime Đodan , who succeeded Špegelj as Defence Minister in July . Špegelj remained in command of the ZNG .
Tuđman 's initial stance was based on his belief that Croatia could not win a war against the JNA . The ZNG was therefore limited to defensive operations , even though the actions of the JNA appeared to be coordinated with Croatian Serb forces . This impression was reinforced by buffer zones established by the JNA after fighting between Croatian Serb militia and the ZNG . The JNA often intervened after the ZNG had lost territory , leaving the Croatian Serbs in control of areas they had captured before the JNA stepped in . The JNA provided some weapons to the Croatian Serbs , although most of their weaponry was sourced from Serbia 's TO and the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs .
In July 1991 , Špegelj and Đodan 's advice was supported by a number of Croatian Parliament members . In response , Tuđman dismissed Đodan the same month he was appointed Defence Minister , and Špegelj resigned his command of the ZNG on 3 August . The deteriorating situation in eastern Croatia , including the JNA expulsion of ZNG troops from Baranja , intermittent fighting around Osijek , Vukovar and Vinkovci , increasing losses and the growing conviction that the JNA were actively supporting the Croatian Serb revolt , forced Tuđman to act . On 22 August , he issued an ultimatum to the federal Yugoslav authorities demanding the withdrawal of the JNA to its barracks by the end of the month . The ultimatum stated that if the JNA failed to comply , Croatia would consider it an army of occupation and take corresponding action . On 1 September , the EC proposed a ceasefire and a peace conference was accepted by the Yugoslav Presidency and by Tuđman , despite his earlier ultimatum . The conference started on 7 September , but only four days later , the Croatian member and chair of the presidency , Stjepan Mesić , ordered the JNA to return to its barracks within 48 hours . This order was motivated by Tuđman 's concern that the conference would drag on while the ZNG lost territory . Even though the order was opposed by other members of the presidency , it gave Croatia justification to openly confront the JNA .
Prime Minister Franjo Gregurić advised Tuđman to implement Špegelj 's plan . According to General Anton Tus , Tuđman ordered the ZNG to capture JNA barracks on 12 September , but rescinded the order the next day . The order was reinstated on 14 September after Tus pleaded with Tuđman to re @-@ authorize action , arguing that the ZNG was running out of time . The same day , the ZNG and the Croatian police blockaded and cut utilities to all JNA facilities it had access to , beginning the Battle of the Barracks . This action comprised blockades of 33 large JNA garrisons in Croatia , and numerous smaller facilities , including border posts , and weapons and ammunition storage depots .
= = Order of battle = =
Varaždin was the garrison of the JNA 32nd Corps commanded by Major General Vladimir Trifunović . In addition to the Corps headquarters there were several other JNA facilities in and around the city . The most substantial of these were located in Varaždin itself – the Kalnički partizani barracks where Colonel Berislav Popov 's 32nd Mechanised Brigade was based , and the Jalkovečke žrtve barracks of the 32nd Mixed Artillery Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Vladimir Davidović . The Corps ' area of responsibility extended beyond Varaždin and its immediate surroundings , where further significant combat units were based . The most significant among them were the 32nd Engineer Regiment in Čakovec , the 411th Mixed Antitank Artillery Regiment based in Križevci , the 73rd Motorised Brigade headquartered in Koprivnica , the 265th Mechanised Brigade based in Bjelovar , and the 288th Mixed Antitank Artillery Brigade in Virovitica . In Varaždin itself , the JNA units included approximately 1 @,@ 000 troops , making the JNA garrison of Varaždin the second largest in Croatia . Despite this , the JNA did not have sufficient number of troops in the area to secure all its facilities .
Croatian forces in and around Varaždin and nearby Čakovec consisted of 640 ZNG troops ( including 60 who had been deployed from Zagreb ) , 100 police , 300 People 's Protection ( Narodna zaštita ) troops and several hundred armed civilians . The ZNG troops were subordinated to the 104th Brigade and to the 5th Battalion of the 1st Guards Brigade – but were lightly armed . Besides small arms , they had only 17 mortars , two 9M14 Malyutka anti @-@ tank guided missile systems , two 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machine guns and four armoured personnel carriers . Initially , command of Croatian forces in the city was not unified and Colonel Želimir Škarec of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia only had a coordination role .
= = Timeline = =
= = = First hostilities = = =
A blockade of the JNA facilities in and around Varaždin was ordered on 13 September 1991 , which took effect the next day when utilities and access to the barracks were cut . In response , the Corps command informed Croatian forces that they could no longer guarantee peace unless utilities were restored and JNA military vehicles were allowed to move freely . On 15 September , the Corps began preparing for the demolition of all minor military facilities which could not be defended . At the same time , negotiations began between the Corps command and civilian authorities in Varaždin . At 15 : 30 , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked the Varaždin Airfield . The strike was intended to disrupt flights of Antonov An @-@ 2 agricultural aircraft converted to carry 1 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 5 long tons ; 1 @.@ 7 short tons ) of cargo — transporting weapons from the Hungarian town of Nagykanizsa . The attacking force comprised two planes sortied from Željava Air Base , which broke the sound barrier above Varaždin to produce a sonic boom and bombed the airfield . One bomb destroyed an An @-@ 2 on the ground and damaged the runway , while the second landed in a nearby field .
Between 16 : 50 and 17 : 07 , there was an exchange of small arms fire between the JNA troops in the Corps headquarters and a nearby police checkpoint , and at 17 : 35 a mortar attack was launched by the 32nd Mechanised Brigade . The mortar fire targeted the police station and surrounding buildings , and an electrical substation in the nearby village of Nedeljanec . The civilian authorities in Varaždin promptly notified the European Community Monitoring Mission of damage to the city . By 16 September , the JNA artillery bombardment of the city had extended to various street intersections and approaches to the Drava bridge on the Varaždin – Čakovec road . The latter was counter @-@ battery fire , targeting ZNG mortars which fired approximately 150 bombs against the JNA during the entire operation . By the end of 16 September , 42 JNA officers and soldiers had deserted from the 32nd Mechanised Brigade . The JNA ordered its border guards posted along the Hungarian border from Čakovec to Ludbreg to lay land mines around their facilities , then cross into Hungary and surrender to that country 's authorities .
= = = Peak of the fighting = = =
On 17 September , the commander of the 104th Brigade , Colonel Ivan Rukljić , took command of all Croatian forces in Varaždin . The Yugoslav Air Force attacked an airfield in Čakovec , mimicking the strike carried out in Varaždin a few days earlier . That evening , the heaviest fighting of the siege erupted in Varaždin , and the 104th Brigade reported it was uncertain how long it would be able to maintain the blockades . Croatian forces received additional weapons that day , after the JNA garrisons in Čakovec , Križevci and Virovitica surrendered to the ZNG . In Varaždin itself , corps @-@ level units of the JNA 32nd Corps based at the 15 @.@ maj barracks also surrendered to the ZNG that day . The following day , fighting intensified again , as Croatian forces captured several minor JNA facilities in Varaždin itself — leaving the Corps headquarters , the Kalnički partizani barracks and the Jalkovečke žrtve barracks as the only JNA @-@ held military bases in the city . In the course of this fighting , the ZNG suffered one fatality and captured nine JNA officers and 30 soldiers .
On 19 September , Croatian forces managed to interdict radio communications between the 32nd Mechanised Brigade artillery and its artillery observers , and set up their own transmitter to direct JNA artillery fire against the Jalkovečke žrtve barracks . This deception was designed to deceive Davidović into thinking that the ZNG had much greater firepower than it did . The plan worked and when ZNG troops entered the barracks compound that day , the 32nd Mixed Artillery Regiment ( four officers and 196 soldiers ) surrendered . Late in the evening of 19 September , Croatian police and elements of the 3rd Battalion of the 104th Brigade secured the Varaždinbreg weapons storage facility located in the village of Banjšćina near Varaždin , after its JNA commander surrendered the facility and its garrison of 60 without resistance . The capture of JNA weapons greatly improved the Croatian position in negotiations when trying to convince JNA commanding officers of the 32nd Corps to surrender .
= = = Surrender of the JNA garrison = = =
The blockade continued for two more days , with continuing clashes between Croatian and JNA troops . On 21 September , the 32nd Corps found itself in a difficult position . It reported that it could not continue to resist as its weapons and ammunition storage facilities had been lost , and all the barracks had been captured except the base of the 32nd Mechanised Brigade . Furthermore , it noted that there was a possibility that the remaining troops might desert en masse . According to Trifunović , he notified Colonel General Života Avramović , his immediate superior and commander of the 5th Military District , of his intention to surrender . Avramović then told Trifunović to do as he saw fit . A Croatian ultimatum was issued early on 22 September , demanding the surrender of JNA troops in the city , and offering its personnel the chance to leave Croatia " honourably " . Trifunović accepted the Croatian terms at 11 : 00 .
= = Aftermath = =
One JNA officer and one non @-@ commissioned officer were killed during the fighting , and 15 JNA troops were wounded . Croatian forces sustained losses of two killed and 24 wounded . Two civilians were also killed . Approximately 1 @,@ 000 JNA officers and soldiers surrendered to the ZNG . The officers and their families living in Varaždin , as well as approximately 450 soldiers who wanted to leave Croatia were transported to Serbia in a convoy comprising twelve buses and several passenger cars . The convoy was provided with a police escort and two representatives of the civilian authorities in Varaždin accompanied the convoy as hostages to guarantee its safe passage . One of the hostages was Radimir Čačić , who became Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia 20 years later .
The ZNG captured 74 T @-@ 55 tanks , approximately ten special @-@ purpose vehicles ( such as PT @-@ 76 amphibious light tanks ) , armoured recovery vehicles , and armoured vehicle @-@ launched bridges , 48 BVP M @-@ 80 infantry fighting vehicles , 18 self @-@ propelled anti @-@ aircraft weapons , six 2S1 Gvozdika self @-@ propelled howitzers , six M @-@ 63 Plamen and four M @-@ 77 Oganj multiple rocket launchers , eighteen 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) and twelve 152 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) guns with towing vehicles , approximately 180 artillery pieces below 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) calibre , several batteries of 60 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) , 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) and 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) mortars , 25 @,@ 000 small arms , 250 vehicles and pieces of engineering equipment , a large stock of communication equipment and several hundred thousand tonnes of ammunition . Some of the weapons had been disabled on Trifunović 's orders shortly before the surrender . The captured weapons were distributed to units deployed in eastern Slavonia , Lika and Dalmatia , and were also used to equip new ZNG units .
When the last JNA @-@ held barracks and the 32nd Corps headquarters surrendered , only two major JNA bases remained in the area of responsibility of the Corps — Bjelovar and Koprivnica . The JNA 's Bjelovar garrison was captured by the ZNG a week later , while its barracks in Koprivnica surrendered a day after that . The capture of the JNA barracks in and around Varaždin , and particularly the storage facilities of the 32nd Corps was very significant for development of Croatian military . The capture of the barracks is celebrated annually in Varaždin , and is locally referred to as " Varaždin 's Days of War " ( Varaždinski dani rata ) .
War crimes charges were brought against Trifunović in Croatia , where he was indicted for the combat deaths of six Croatian soldiers in and around Varaždin , and the wounding of a further 37 individuals ( both soldiers and civilians ) . After a trial in absentia , he was found guilty and in 1991 he was sentenced to 15 years in prison . In 1994 , Trifunović was charged with treason by Yugoslav authorities for surrendering the entire JNA 32nd Corps to the ZNG . He was convicted and sentenced to 11 years in prison . In early 1996 , he was pardoned and released , and the Yugoslav authorities paid him € 62 @,@ 000 compensation for spending nearly two years in prison . In 2013 , Trifunović formally requested re @-@ trial in Croatia .
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= Happy Chandler =
Albert Benjamin " Happy " Chandler , Sr. ( July 14 , 1898 – June 15 , 1991 ) was an American politician from the U.S. state of Kentucky . He represented the state in the U.S. Senate and served as its 44th and 49th governor . Aside from his political positions , he also served as the second Commissioner of Baseball from 1945 to 1951 and was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1982 . His grandson , Ben Chandler , later served as congressman for Kentucky 's Sixth District .
A multi @-@ sport athlete during his college days at Transylvania College , Chandler briefly considered a career in professional baseball before deciding to pursue a law degree . After graduation , he entered politics and was elected as a Democrat to the Kentucky Senate in 1928 . Two years , later , he was elected lieutenant governor , serving under Governor Ruby Laffoon . Chandler and Laffoon disagreed on the issue of instituting a state sales tax and when Chandler , the presiding officer in the state senate , worked to block the legislation , Laffoon 's allies in the General Assembly stripped him of many of his statutory powers . The tax then passed by a narrow margin . Knowing that Laffoon would try to select his own successor at the Democratic nominating convention , Chandler waited until Laffoon left the state — leaving Chandler as acting governor — and called the legislature into session to enact a mandatory primary election bill . The bill passed , and in the ensuing primary , Chandler defeated Laffoon 's choice , Thomas Rhea . He then went on to defeat Republican King Swope by the largest margin of victory for a Kentucky gubernatorial race to that time . As governor , Chandler oversaw the repeal of the sales tax , replacing the lost revenue with new excise taxes and the state 's first income tax . He also enacted a major reorganization of state government , realizing significant savings for the state . He used these savings to pay off the state debt and improve the state 's education and transportation systems .
Convinced that he was destined to become President of the United States , Chandler challenged Senate Majority Leader Alben Barkley for his U.S. Senate seat in 1938 . During the campaign , President Franklin D. Roosevelt came to the state to campaign for Barkley , and Chandler lost a close race . The following year , Kentucky 's other senator , Marvel Mills Logan , died in office , and Chandler resigned as governor so his successor could appoint him to the vacant seat . A fiscal conservative and disciple of Virginia 's Harry F. Byrd , Chandler opposed parts of Roosevelt 's New Deal and openly disagreed with the president 's decision to prioritize European operations in World War II over the war in the Pacific . In 1945 , Chandler resigned his senate seat to succeed the late Kenesaw Mountain Landis as commissioner of baseball . His most significant action as commissioner was the approval of Jackie Robinson 's contract with the Brooklyn Dodgers , effectively integrating Major League Baseball . He also established the first pension fund for Major League players , earning him the title " the players ' commissioner " . Baseball owners were upset with Chandler 's governance , however , and did not renew his contract in 1951 .
Following his term as commissioner , Chandler returned to Kentucky and won a second term as governor in 1955 . The major accomplishments of his second term were enforcing the integration of the state 's public schools and establishing a medical school at the University of Kentucky which was later named the Chandler Medical Center in his honor . Following his second term as governor , his political influence began to wane as he made three more unsuccessful runs for governor in 1963 , 1967 , and 1971 . His endorsement of dark @-@ horse candidate Wallace G. Wilkinson was seen as critical to Wilkinson 's successful gubernatorial campaign in 1988 . Wilkinson later resisted calls to remove Chandler from the University of Kentucky board of trustees following Chandler 's use of a racial epithet during a board meeting in 1988 . Chandler died June 15 , 1991 , a month before his ninety @-@ third birthday . At the time of his death , he was the oldest living former Kentucky governor .
= = Early life = =
Albert Benjamin Chandler was born in the farming community of Corydon , Kentucky in 1898 . He was the eldest child of Joseph Sephus and Callie ( Saunders ) Chandler . Chandler 's father allegedly rescued his mother from an orphanage and married her when she was fifteen , though no record of their marriage has ever been found . In 1899 , Chandler 's brother Robert was born . Two years later , their mother , still in her teens and unable to cope with raising two young children , abandoned the family . She fled the state and left her sons with their father . In his autobiography , Chandler said his mother leaving them was his earliest memory . Years later , he sought his mother and found her living in Jacksonville , Florida . She had married again and he had three half @-@ siblings . His full brother , Robert Chandler , died when he fell from a cherry tree when he was 13 years old .
Chandler was raised by his father and relatives , and by age eight virtually supported himself financially from his paper route and doing odd jobs in his community . In 1917 he graduated from Corydon High School , where he had been captain of the baseball and football teams . His father wanted him to study for the ministry , but Chandler instead entered Transylvania College ( now Transylvania University ) in Lexington , Kentucky . It was there that he received his lifelong nickname " Happy " because of his jovial nature . He paid for his education by doing chores for the local citizens . Chandler was captain of Transylvania 's basketball and baseball teams and the quarterback of the football team . He was a teammate of Dutch Meyer , a future member of the College Football Hall of Fame . He also joined the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity and the Omicron Delta Kappa honor society . In 1918 , during World War I , the United States Army started a Student Officers ' Training Corps at Transylvania , and Chandler began training to be an officer ; the war ended before he was called to active duty .
In 1920 , Chandler pitched a no @-@ hitter for Grafton , North Dakota 's team in the Red River Valley League . He attended a professional baseball tryout in Saskatoon , but did not make the team . He returned to Transylvania and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in June 1921 . He then signed with the Class D baseball team the Lexington Reds , where he was a teammate of future Hall of Famer Earle Combs . Briefly considering a career in baseball , he finally decided to study law . He entered Harvard Law School that same year , paying his way by coaching high school sports in Wellesley , Massachusetts . His former teammate Charlie Moran , then coaching the Centre College Praying Colonels football team in Danville , Kentucky , asked him to scout the national powerhouse Harvard Crimson , an upcoming opponent for Centre . Chandler took copious notes for Moran , and Centre defeated Harvard 6 – 0 in what is considered one of the greatest college football upsets of all time .
After a year , Chandler was not able to afford Harvard . He returned to Kentucky and continued at the University of Kentucky College of Law , coaching high school sports in Versailles and served as the head coach of the women 's basketball at the University of Kentucky in 1923 . He was an assistant coach and scout for Charlie Moran at Centre , and coached the freshman football team there . A member of the Order of the Coif , he received his Bachelor of Laws degree in 1924 . He was admitted to the bar the following year and opened his law practice in Versailles .
On November 12 , 1925 , Chandler married Mildred Watkins , a teacher at the Margaret Hall School for Girls . They would have four children : Marcella , Mildred ( " Mimi " ) , Albert , Jr . , and Joseph Daniel . Mimi Chandler played one of the four singing sisters in the 1944 film And the Angels Sing , appearing with Dorothy Lamour , Betty Hutton , and Diana Lynn before abandoning acting and working for the Kentucky Department of Tourism .
For the next five years , Chandler simultaneously practiced law , coached high school sports , and served as a scout for Centre . He joined numerous fraternal organizations including the Freemasons , Shriners , Knights Templar , Forty and Eight , and Optimist International .
= = Early political career = =
Chandler entered politics when he was named chairman of the Woodford County Democratic Committee . In 1928 , he was appointed master commissioner of the Woodford County circuit court . The following year , he was elected as a Democrat to represent the Twenty @-@ second district in the Kentucky Senate . As a member of the Senate , he was part of a Democratic coalition that passed legislation to strip Republican Governor Flem D. Sampson of many of his statutory powers .
As the 1931 gubernatorial election approached , Chandler and Prestonsburg native Jack Howard were mentioned as candidates for lieutenant governor . Congressman Fred M. Vinson backed Howard , a fellow Eastern Kentuckian , while political bosses Billy Klair , Johnson N. Camden , Jr . , and Ben Johnson supported Chandler . The support of another political boss , Mickey Brennan , gave Chandler the edge at the party 's nominating convention . Democratic gubernatorial nominee Ruby Laffoon also owed his selection to the machinations of the state 's political bosses , notably his uncle , Congressman Polk Laffoon . Problematically , Chandler was an ally of former Governor J. C. W. Beckham , Louisville Courier @-@ Journal publisher Robert Worth Bingham , and political boss Percy Haly , which put him at odds with Laffoon , a member of a Democratic faction headed by Russellville political boss Thomas Rhea and opposed to Beckham , Worth , and Haly . Despite disharmony within the ticket , the worsening of the Great Depression under Republican President Herbert Hoover and Governor Sampson ensured a Democratic victory . Chandler was elected over John C. Worsham by a vote of 426 @,@ 247 to 353 @,@ 573 . In a break with precedent , Chandler set up an office on the executive floor of the state capitol and worked there full @-@ time ; previous lieutenant governors had stayed in Frankfort only during legislative sessions , when they were charged with presiding over the state senate .
Shortly after their election , the divide between Chandler and Laffoon widened over the issue of implementing a state sales tax . Laffoon favored the tax ; Chandler opposed it . As presiding officer of the state senate , Chandler worked with Speaker of the House John Y. Brown , Sr. to block passage of the tax . In retaliation , Laffoon 's allies in the General Assembly stripped Chandler of some of his statutory power as lieutenant governor , after which they were able to pass the tax by a single vote in each house of the legislature .
Free from any constitutional duties during the time between sessions , Chandler had begun laying the groundwork to succeed Laffoon as governor almost from the beginning of his term as lieutenant governor . Laffoon , however , had made it clear that he favored Thomas Rhea to be his successor . Rhea secured the services of rising political boss Earle C. Clements as his campaign manager . Hailing from Morganfield , only a short distance from Chandler 's hometown of Corydon , Clements later said that if Chandler had asked him first , he might have managed Chandler 's campaign instead of Rhea 's . Instead , by virtue of managing the opposing campaign , Clements became the leader of a Democratic faction that opposed Chandler for the next three decades .
Chandler feared Laffoon , who controlled the State Democratic Central Committee , would attempt to hand @-@ select the Democratic gubernatorial nominee by calling a nominating convention instead of holding a primary election , and he used a bold move to circumvent Laffoon 's ability to carry out such an action . Under the Kentucky Constitution , Chandler became acting governor any time Laffoon left the state . When Laffoon traveled to meet with President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington , D. C. on February 6 , 1935 , Chandler used his authority to call the legislature into session to consider a bill requiring that each party 's gubernatorial candidates be chosen by a primary rather than a nominating convention . Laffoon returned to the state the next day and challenged Chandler 's authority to make the call , but Chandler 's actions were validated by the Kentucky Court of Appeals on February 26 .
Laffoon knew the primary bill would be widely supported in the General Assembly , since both legislators and their constituents had grown to distrust party nominating conventions . Accordingly , he proposed a bill enacting a mandatory two @-@ stage primary in which a runoff election would be held between the top two candidates in the first round . Historian Lowell H. Harrison maintained that Laffoon expected his rival faction to nominate the aging Beckham to oppose Rhea , and that he hoped a two @-@ stage primary would wear Beckham down . Journalist John Ed Pearce , however , contends that Beckham had already declined to become a candidate — citing his own ill health and that of his son — before the special session convened . Whatever the case , the legislature passed the bill that Laffoon proposed .
= = First term as governor = =
After Beckham declined to run for governor , the anti @-@ Laffoon faction supported Chandler against Rhea . During the primary campaign , Chandler seized upon the unpopular sales tax , labeling Rhea " Sales Tax Tom " and calling on the electorate to redeem the state from " Ruby , Rhea , and Ruin " . In the first round of the primary , Rhea garnered 203 @,@ 010 votes to Chandler 's 189 @,@ 575 . Frederick A. Wallis received 38 @,@ 410 votes and Elam Huddleston received 15 @,@ 501 . The votes for Wallis and Huddleston meant that neither Rhea nor Chandler had achieved a majority , triggering the runoff primary . Both Wallis and Huddleston backed Chandler in the runoff , and Chandler defeated Rhea by a vote of 260 @,@ 573 to 234 @,@ 124 to secure the nomination .
Chandler promised to repeal the unpopular sales tax , lower the gasoline tax , oppose any increase in property taxes , and end the common practice of assessing state employees a percentage of their salaries to be used for campaign activities . Infuriated by their loss , Laffoon and his allies abandoned the party and supported Republican nominee King Swope . Policy @-@ wise , there were few differences between the two , and personal attacks were employed by both sides . Swope 's reputation as a stern judge contrasted sharply with Chandler 's charisma , and Chandler used this to his advantage by dubbing Swope " his majesty " . When Chandler touted his service during World War I , Laffoon 's adjutant general Henry Denhardt countered by pointing out that Chandler had only been a cadet in training and never engaged in active service in the war . Ultimately , the campaign turned on the failed presidential administration of Republican Herbert Hoover versus that of the sitting president , Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt . Chandler defeated Swope by a vote of 556 @,@ 262 to 461 @,@ 104 in the general election . The 95 @,@ 000 @-@ vote margin of victory was , at the time , the largest ever recorded in a Kentucky gubernatorial election , and at age 37 , Chandler was the youngest governor of any U.S. state .
One of Chandler 's first acts as governor was to secure the repeal of the sales tax passed under Laffoon . He also successfully lobbied the legislature to abolish the two @-@ round primary in favor of a single primary for future elections . Knowing that he would need to raise revenue to offset the repeal of the sales tax and bring the state 's expenditures in line with its income , Chandler appointed a commission headed by former Governor Beckham to draft suggested budgetary legislation . Knowing that lobbyists hostile to the suggestions would likely try to encourage legislative gridlock until the constitutionally @-@ mandated end of the sixty @-@ day session , Chandler asked his allies in the General Assembly to adjourn after thirty @-@ nine days and allow him to call a special legislative session that would not be time @-@ limited and could only entertain the agenda he specified . Legislators obliged this request .
Acting on recommendations from Beckham 's commission , legislators helped offset the lost revenue from the sales tax by raising excise taxes ; of particular import was the tax on whiskey , which was made possible by the repeal of Prohibition in 1935 . Legislators also enacted the state 's first income tax during the session . Chandler further proposed to achieve savings through the Governmental Reorganization Act of 1936 . The bill realized significant cost savings by restructuring the state government , reducing the number of boards and commissions in the executive branch from 133 to 22 . Critics pointed out that the act also centralized more power in the hands of the governor and accused Chandler of ulterior motives in supporting it .
Chandler used the savings realized from his reorganization of government to eliminate the state 's budget deficit and pay off most of the state 's debt . This brought about further savings by eliminating debt service costs ; these were applied to improvements in the state 's infrastructure and educational institutions . Chandler allocated funds for free textbooks for the state 's school children , created a teacher 's pension fund , and provided extensive funding for the state 's colleges and universities . Because segregation prevented blacks from attending graduate school in the state , Chandler secured an allocation of $ 5 @,@ 000 annually to help blacks attend out @-@ of @-@ state graduate schools . He stopped short of desegregating the state 's universities , however , telling a group of black and white educators that " it is not wise to educate the white and colored in the same school in the South . It is not prepared for it yet . "
In 1939 , Governor Chandler appointed the first woman trustee on the University of Kentucky Board of Trustees , Georgia M. Blazer of Ashland . She served from 1939 to 1960 .
In 1936 , Chandler urged implementation of the state 's first rural roads program and development of electrical infrastructure with assistance from the federal Rural Electrification Act . He implemented an old @-@ age assistance program authorized by an earlier constitutional amendment and in 1938 , proposed another amendment that would add dependent children and needy blind people to the state 's assistance rolls . He increased funding to the state 's hospitals and asylums , and personally aided with the evacuation of the Frankfort Penitentiary during the Ohio River flood of 1937 . Following the flood , Chandler convinced the legislature to construct a new reformatory at La Grange .
Generally a friend of organized labor , Chandler supported miners ' efforts to unionize , organized the state Department of Industrial Relations , and prohibited mine operators from being appointed as deputy sheriffs . He also endorsed the proposed Child Labor Amendment to the federal constitution and secured passage of a state anti @-@ child @-@ labor law that had previously been defeated twice in the state legislature by overwhelming margins . However , he opposed closed shops and sitdown strikes , and utilized the Kentucky National Guard to quell labor @-@ related violence in Harlan County .
In the 1936 senatorial contest in Kentucky , incumbent Democrat Marvel Mills Logan was seen as vulnerable , and Chandler backed Democratic challenger J. C. W. Beckham in the Democratic primary . This endorsement drew the ire of Chandler 's former ally , Democratic Congressman John Y. Brown , Sr. , who believed that , in exchange for his support of Chandler in the 1935 gubernatorial race , Chandler would support him in the U.S. Senate contest . An embittered Brown entered the race anyway , and the votes he pulled from Beckham likely allowed Logan to retain the seat . Brown remained Chandler 's political enemy for the rest of his political career .
In 1936 , Chandler was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Kentucky ; the following year , Harvard University awarded him the same degree .
= = U.S. Senator = =
= = = Aspirations = = =
Both Robert Bingham and Percy Haly died in 1937 ; with J. C. W. Beckham aging — he would die in 1940 — Chandler moved to fill the leadership void in the faction . He soon came to believe he was destined to become President of the United States . In mid @-@ 1937 , he began advocating for Marvel Mills Logan , Kentucky 's junior senator , to be appointed to the Supreme Court , creating a Senate vacancy to which Chandler , as governor , could appoint himself . The death of Justice George Sutherland in January 1938 gave President Franklin D. Roosevelt the opportunity to accommodate Chandler 's wishes , but Roosevelt preferred younger justices — Logan was 63 — and Kentucky 's senior Senator , Alben Barkley , recommended Solicitor General Stanley Forman Reed for the appointment . Roosevelt heeded Barkley 's advice and appointed Reed instead of Logan .
Eager to augment his power and angered by Roosevelt 's and Barkley 's refusal to accept his suggestion of appointing Logan to the Supreme Court , Chandler did not attend a long @-@ planned dinner in Barkley 's honor on January 22 , 1938 ; instead , he held an event of his own at Louisville 's exclusive Pendennis Club at which he alluded to his intentions of challenging Barkley during the upcoming Democratic senatorial primary . Barkley officially announced his re @-@ election bid the following day . The death of another federal judge on January 26 provided a second opportunity for Roosevelt to appoint Senator Logan to a judgeship and appease Chandler , but Logan refused to consider the appointment . Following a January 31 meeting in Washington , D.C. between Roosevelt and Chandler , during which Roosevelt urged Chandler to put his senatorial ambitions on hold , Chandler was encouraged by his political mentor , Virginia 's Harry F. Byrd to challenge Barkley . Chandler heeded Byrd 's advice , making an official announcement of his candidacy on February 23 , 1938 , in Newport , Kentucky .
Barkley , recently chosen as Senate Majority Leader by a single vote , was a strong supporter of President Roosevelt and the New Deal . Chandler identified with the more conservative southern Democrats who , wary of Roosevelt and his New Deal , sought to gain control of the party ahead of the 1940 presidential election . Because Roosevelt was very popular in Kentucky , Chandler was put in the awkward position of expressing personal support of the president while opposing his hand @-@ picked leader in the Senate and his New Deal legislation . In April , polls showed Barkley ahead of Chandler by a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin , and the May 3 primary victory of New Deal Florida Senator Claude Pepper finally persuaded Chandler to abandon his attacks of the program .
In late May 1938 , Chandler 's campaign manager publicly claimed that federal relief agencies — especially the Works Progress Administration — were openly working for Barkley 's re @-@ election . Although the WPA administrator in Kentucky denied the charges , veteran reporter Thomas Lunsford Stokes launched an investigation of the agency 's activities in the state and eventually raised twenty @-@ two charges of political corruption in a series of eight articles covering the Barkley @-@ Chandler campaign . Federal WPA administrator Harry Hopkins claimed an internal investigation of the agency refuted all but two of Stokes ' charges , but Stokes was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Reporting in 1939 for his investigation . In the wake of the investigation . Congress passed the Hatch Act of 1939 to limit the WPA 's involvement in future elections .
The negative effects of the investigation on Barkley 's campaign were minimal because of Chandler 's own use of his gubernatorial power and patronage on behalf of his own campaign . Dan Talbott , one of Chandler 's chief political advisors , encouraged supervisors of state workers to take punitive action against employees who made " pessimistic expressions " concerning Chandler 's chances in the primary . Furthermore , Chandler initiated a rural road building project in the state , employing loyal supporters to construct and maintain the new roads . State workers who supported Chandler were employed to deliver pension checks to the state 's elderly citizens , and Talbott did not deny charges that these workers threatened to withhold the checks if the recipients did not pledge their support to Chandler .
President Roosevelt personally visited Kentucky to campaign on Barkley 's behalf on July 8 , 1938 . As governor of the state , Chandler was on hand to greet Roosevelt on his arrival in Covington . Seeking to benefit from being nearest to the president , Chandler sat between Roosevelt and Barkley in the back seat of the open @-@ topped vehicle that transported them to Latonia Race Track , the site of Roosevelt 's first speech . Throughout his tour of the state , Roosevelt endorsed Barkley while remaining friendly with Chandler ; after Roosevelt 's departure , Chandler played up Roosevelt 's complimentary remarks about him while downplaying or ignoring critical remarks .
Late in the campaign , Chandler fell ill with chills , stomach pains , and a high fever . After first claiming the symptoms were similar to those he experienced a year earlier , Chandler later described his malady as " intestinal poisoning " . His doctor announced that Chandler , Dan Talbott , and a state police officer had all been sickened after drinking " poisoned water " provided to Chandler for a radio address . Chandler maintained that someone from the Barkley campaign had tried to poison him , but the charge never gained much credence with the press or the electorate . Barkley frequently mocked it on the campaign trail by first accepting a glass of water offered to him , then shuddering and rejecting it . He pointed out to audiences that it was the young Chandler , and not he , who had broken down first under the strain of the grueling campaign .
With Chandler ally Robert Bingham no longer at its helm , The Courier @-@ Journal supported Barkley , and organized labor , a key Chandler supporter in 1935 , also threw their support to Barkley . Former Chandler ally John Y. Brown , Sr. also took an active part in the Barkley campaign . Ultimately , Barkley defeated Chandler by a vote of 294 @,@ 391 ( 56 % ) to 223 @,@ 149 ( 42 @.@ 6 % ) . The remaining 1 @.@ 4 % of the vote was dividing among minor candidates . Chandler 's 70 @,@ 872 @-@ vote loss was the worst loss for a primary candidate in state history .
= = = Appointment = = =
On October 9 , 1939 , following the death of Senator Logan , Chandler resigned as governor , elevating Lieutenant Governor Keen Johnson to the governorship ; the following day , Johnson appointed Chandler to Logan 's vacated seat in the Senate . In a subsequent special election to fill the remainder of the unexpired term , Chandler first defeated Charles R. Farnsley in the Democratic primary , then bested Republican Walter B. Smith by a vote of 561 @,@ 151 to 401 @,@ 812 in the November 5 , 1940 , general election . Although he never forgave President Roosevelt for backing Barkley in the 1938 senatorial primary , he generally supported his administration , although he opposed parts of the New Deal .
Chandler 's mentor Harry F. Byrd led a group of Southern conservatives in the Senate , and through Byrd 's influence , Chandler was appointed to the Committee on Military Affairs . In 1943 , he was part of a five @-@ person delegation from the Military Affairs Committee that traveled the world , inspecting U.S. military bases . He vociferously disagreed with Roosevelt 's decision to prioritize European operations in World War II over the war in the Pacific .
Chandler upset many in the black community by voting against an anti @-@ lynching bill soon after taking office . The bill levied fines against local governments and individual government officials in counties where illegal lynchings occurred . Of his vote against the bill , Chandler remarked , " I am against lynching by anybody and of anybody , black or white , but the present bill carries penalties on local officials and local subdivisions which I think are too severe . " The bill passed in the House of Representatives , but died in the Senate . Later , Chandler joined with senators from other southern states in opposing the repeal of poll taxes , long used as a mechanism to prevent blacks from voting .
At the expiration of his partial term in 1942 , Chandler faced a challenge from former ally John Y. Brown , Sr. in the Democratic primary . As a result of his votes on the anti @-@ lynching bill and the poll tax repeal , the Louisville chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People worked against his re @-@ election effort . During the campaign , Brown accused Chandler of abusing his power , including having a swimming pool installed at his home in violation of the federal rationing provisions implemented during World War II . Chandler invited the Truman Committee to investigate the installation of the pool ; the committee found no violations of the federal rationing provisions . Chandler went on to defeat Brown and was easily re @-@ elected in the general election over Republican Richard J. Colbert .
Chandler believed that he had enough support at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to be nominated as President Roosevelt 's running mate for the upcoming presidential election . That support failed to materialize , however , after the Kentucky delegation and Earle C. Clements in particular , refused to back his nomination . The convention nominated Harry S Truman as Roosevelt 's running mate . Truman became president upon Roosevelt 's death in 1945 , and Chandler never forgave Clements for costing him the chance to be president .
= = Commissioner of baseball = =
Following the death of Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis in November 1944 , John O. Gottlieb , a friend of Chandler 's in the War Department , suggested Chandler as a successor . Baseball owners who had been afraid that their players would be made eligible for the draft during the war had decided that their new commissioner needed to have the skills and influence to represent baseball 's interests in Washington , D. C. As a senator , Chandler had advocated on behalf of baseball during the war , endearing him to the owners . Furthermore , the commissioner 's $ 50 @,@ 000 annual salary — about five times that of a US senator at the time — proved a significant enticement , and Chandler agreed to be considered for the job .
Other candidates being considered for the position included National League president Ford Frick , Democratic National Committee chairman Robert E. Hannegan , former Postmaster General James Farley , US Senator John W. Bricker , FBI director J. Edgar Hoover , former federal judge Fred M. Vinson , Ohio Governor Frank Lausche , and Undersecretary of War Robert P. Patterson . After Cincinnati Reds owner Warren Giles and Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley raised strong opposition to Frick , formerly the front runner , New York Yankees co @-@ owner Larry MacPhail began to advocate for Chandler . When the owners met in Cleveland , Ohio on April 24 , 1945 to vote for a new commissioner , Chandler 's name was not on the short list ; the candidates were Frick , Farley , Hannegan , Vinson , Lausche , and Patterson . None of the candidates received the required two @-@ thirds majority , and after lobbying by MacPhail and New York Giants owner Horace Stoneham , the owners took an informal vote to see if anyone had the potential to be elected . Chandler 's name appeared in the top three on each of the sixteen ballots . Encouraged , the owners then held another formal vote . After two ballots , Chandler received the necessary majority ; a third vote was taken to make the choice unanimous .
Chandler remained in the Senate for several months after his election as commissioner because he wanted to cast his vote on the Bretton Woods Monetary Agreement and the Charter of the United Nations . He received only his Senate salary until his resignation on November 1 , 1945 , despite claims to the contrary by the press . Nevertheless , his delay in assuming the commissioner 's job upset many team owners , as did his late arrival to Game 3 of the 1945 World Series , which rendered him unavailable to rule on whether the weather was clement enough to begin the game . Many owners believed Chandler had been attending a political meeting ; the actual cause of his delay was his attendance at a Detroit Athletic Club luncheon , where he was representing Major League Baseball .
Chandler 's election was also met with disdain from much of the press in the Eastern United States , where most of baseball 's teams resided at that time . His southern drawl and willingness to sing " My Old Kentucky Home " with very little encouragement led some sportswriters to opine that he was too undignified for the office . Others resented his folksy , political style , calling him " a preening politician " , " the Kentucky windbag " , and " a hand @-@ shaking baby @-@ kissing practitioner of the arts " . Chandler further alienated the press by moving the commissioner 's office to Cincinnati from Chicago in 1946 .
In early 1946 , Jorge Pasquel and his four brothers , owners of the Mexican baseball league , siphoned campaign funds from the upcoming Mexican presidential election and used them to offer large salaries and signing bonuses to American baseball players . In some cases , the offers were triple the salaries being paid in the Major Leagues . Chandler deterred players from considering Mexican League offers by imposing a five @-@ year ban from Major League Baseball to anyone who played in the Mexican League and did not return by April 1 , 1946 . In all , eighteen players played for the Mexican league despite the ban , including Mickey Owen , Max Lanier , and Sal Maglie . Vern Stephens initially agreed to play in Mexico as well , but returned before Chandler 's April 1 deadline . Ted Williams , Stan Musial , and Phil Rizzuto were also offered lucrative contracts and incentives , but all eventually declined to play in Mexico .
Shortly after the Mexican league incident , Robert Murphy , a former negotiator for the National Labor Relations Board , attempted to organize the Pittsburgh Pirates into a guild for purposes of collective bargaining . Murphy decried the reserve clause in player contracts that gave team owners unlimited control over the player 's services , and demanded more rights for players , including the right of contract and the right of salary arbitration . Chandler worked with Pirates officials to avoid a threatened strike by the players . Part of Chandler 's intervention included organizing a team of replacement players as a contingency plan ; the team would have included Honus Wagner , who was 72 years old at the time .
The defections to the Mexican league and the threat of a strike by the Pirates prompted owners to form an advisory committee , chaired by Larry MacPhail , to suggest needed changes that would calm the discontent among the players . On August 27 , 1946 , the committee presented a draft a document outlining the changes . Language in the original draft admitted that baseball was operating as a monopoly and that racial bias was the sole reason for segregation in baseball . Baseball 's attorneys stripped this controversial language from the version eventually adopted by the owners .
= = = Breaking baseball 's color line = = =
Days prior to Chandler 's assumption of the commissionership , Brooklyn Dodgers general manager Branch Rickey had announced the signing of Jackie Robinson to a minor league contract with the Montreal Royals , making him the first African @-@ American to play for a Major League Baseball affiliate . The following year , Rickey transferred Robinson 's contract from Montreal to Brooklyn , effectively breaking baseball 's color line . In a speech at Wilberforce University in February 1948 , Rickey recounted a secret meeting allegedly held by baseball officials at the Blackstone Hotel in Chicago on August 28 , 1946 . At the meeting , Rickey claimed that Ford Frick disseminated a report which stated that " However well @-@ intentioned , the use of Negro players would hazard all physical properties of baseball . " According to Rickey , the other fifteen team owners voted to endorse the report ; he was the lone dissent . Rickey claimed Frick meticulously collected all copies of the report at the end of the meeting to prevent them from being disseminated . Baseball historian Bill Marshall later wrote that the document and subsequent vote to which Rickey was referring was the advisory committee 's initial draft of recommended reforms . Marshall further records that Rickey identified the meeting and the report shortly after his speech at Wilberforce and retracted his claim of 15 @-@ to @-@ 1 opposition to Robinson 's entry into Major League Baseball .
Chandler , who was also allegedly at the meeting , made no public mention of it until a 1972 interview . In the interview , Chandler then corroborated the essentials of Rickey 's story , although he placed the meeting at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in January 1947 . He also recounted that later in 1947 , Rickey came to his home in Kentucky to discuss the matter further . According to Chandler , Rickey professed that he would not move forward with Robinson 's transfer unless he had Chandler 's full support , which Chandler subsequently pledged . Aside from Chandler 's anecdote , which he frequently repeated after the 1972 interview , there is no evidence that his meeting with Rickey ever took place . Nevertheless , future baseball commissioner Bowie Kuhn and Washington Post sportswriter Bob Addie maintained that Robinson would not have played had it not been for Chandler 's intervention .
That Chandler supported Robinson and the integration of baseball is evidenced by his actions during the 1947 season . First and foremost , as commissioner , Chandler had the power to void Robinson 's contract , but he chose to approve it . Further , following extreme , race @-@ based jeering at Robinson by the Philadelphia Phillies and their manager , Ben Chapman , Chandler threatened both the team and Chapman personally with disciplinary action for any future incidents of race @-@ based taunting . Later that season , he decisively supported Ford Frick 's decision to indefinitely suspend any members of the St. Louis Cardinals who followed through on a threat to strike in protest of integration .
= = = Other matters of Chandler 's term = = =
During the 1946 postseason , rumors began to swirl that Yankees owner Larry MacPhail was lobbying Brooklyn Dodgers manager Leo Durocher to leave the Dodgers and manage the Yankees . The move angered Dodgers owner Branch Rickey , who encouraged Chandler to begin an investigation into the gambling habits of Durocher and his associate , actor George Raft . In the offseason , Chandler and Durocher had a meeting wherein Chandler counseled Durocher to abandon his gambling . Branch Rickey charged Chandler with maintaining a double standard , however , when the commissioner took no action after seeing MacPhail with two known gamblers at a Yankees – Dodgers preseason exhibition in Havana , Cuba . MacPhail then signed two Dodgers assistant coaches — Chuck Dressen and John Corriden — as aides to Yankee manager Bucky Harris while they were still employed by the Dodgers . Chandler suspended Dressen for 30 days and levied $ 2 @,@ 000 fines against MacPhail and the Yankees .
The Yankees – Dodgers feud continued in the New York newspapers throughout the offseason . Charges were levelled by both sides , including accusations that Durocher was a philanderer because of his alleged involvement with married actress Laraine Day , which ultimately resulted in Day 's divorce . When Durocher subsequently married Day , a local Catholic priest declared that attending Dodgers games was a venial sin . Prompted in part by this declaration , Chandler suspended Durocher from baseball for a year just days before Opening Day , citing " conduct detrimental to baseball " .
Also in 1947 , Chandler sold the rights to broadcast the World Series on the radio for $ 475 @,@ 000 ; he used the money from the contract to establish a pension fund for baseball players . In 1949 , Chandler negotiated a seven @-@ year contract with Gillette and the Mutual Broadcasting System to broadcast the Series . Proceeds from the $ 4 @,@ 370 @,@ 000 deal went directly into the pension fund . The same two companies negotiated a six @-@ year , $ 6 million contract to broadcast the Series on television in 1950 . Again , Chandler directed the proceeds into the pension fund .
In 1949 , Danny Gardella , who had left the New York Giants for the Mexican League in 1946 , filed suit against Major League Baseball , claiming Chandler 's ban on players who went to the Mexican League had denied him a means of pursuing his livelihood . Gardella demanded $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages from the suspension , and claimed that the award should be tripled because baseball was subject to federal antitrust laws . Similar suits were filed by Max Lanier and Fred Martin , both of whom also played in Mexico . On June 2 , 1949 , a federal court refused to reinstate the three players pending their trials , but urged that the antitrust issues be adjudicated as soon as possible . Attempting to alleviate the legal pressure on Major League Baseball , Chandler lifted the bans on players who had gone to Mexico , reinstating them almost two years early . Lanier and Martin dropped their suits , but Gardella pursued his . After Gardella 's lawyer publicly questioned Chandler in court about baseball 's antitrust exemption for a day and a half in September 1949 , baseball executives , including Chandler , agreed to settle Gardella 's case for $ 60 @,@ 000 .
Chandler 's contract as baseball commissioner was not due to expire until April 1952 , but he asked for the owners to extend it in December 1949 . The owners voted against offering the extension at that time , but promised to consider the request again in December 1950 . The vote in 1950 was nine votes for Chandler and seven against , leaving him three votes short of the necessary three @-@ fourths majority . Chandler asked that the extension be considered again at the owners ' meeting on March 12 , 1951 , but the vote was again 9 – 7 . Upset that his contract was not extended , Chandler resigned effective July 15 , 1951 .
In an interview with The Sporting News in August 1951 , Chandler cited his decision to void a trade between the New York Yankees and Chicago White Sox for outfielder Dick Wakefield as a major factor in his inability to secure a new contract . The Yankees traded Wakefield to the White Sox for cash , but Wakefield refused to report to the White Sox after a salary dispute , leading to a disagreement between the teams over who was responsible for his salary . Chandler voided the trade , making Wakefield 's contract the Yankees ' responsibility and angering their owner , Del Webb . It was not until the 1970s that Chandler began to cite his involvement in the integration of baseball as a reason for his contract not being renewed . Historian John Paul Hill considers this unlikely , however , because two of Chandler 's strongest allies , Connie Mack and Walter Briggs , Sr. , were ardently opposed to integration while William DeWitt , the second owner in the American League to integrate , voted against him . Hill points to the Dick Wakefield dispute , as well as Chandler 's investigations of Del Webb and Cardinals owner Fred Saigh involving their rumored connections to gambling interests , as more compelling reasons for Chandler 's dismissal .
Following his tenure as baseball commissioner , Chandler returned to his law practice . He also engaged in farming and published The Woodford Sun newspaper . The Kentucky Press Association and the Kentucky Broadcasting Association both named him Man of the Year . He continued his involvement in sports , presiding over the International Baseball Conference from 1952 to 1955 .
= = Second term as governor = =
Chandler remained involved in politics throughout his tenure as baseball commissioner . In 1948 , he became the leader of the Dixiecrat movement in Kentucky . He hosted Dixiecrat presidential candidate Strom Thurmond at his home when he visited the state , but did not officially endorse Thurmond 's campaign . By the time he had permanently returned to the state in mid @-@ 1951 , it was too late to influence the gubernatorial contest . He spent the next four years rebuilding his political base in preparation for another run at the office .
= = = 1955 gubernatorial campaign = = =
Twenty years after first holding the governorship , Chandler again entered the gubernatorial race in 1955 using the slogan " Be like your Pappy and vote for Happy " . His opponents in the Democratic Party , led by senator and former governor Earle C. Clements and sitting governor Lawrence Wetherby , had difficulty finding a candidate to oppose him . The most likely choice , Lieutenant Governor Emerson " Doc " Beauchamp , was handicapped by his connections to political bosses in Logan County . Clements virtually hand @-@ picked a relatively unknown candidate in Kentucky Court of Appeals Judge Bert T. Combs . Because Combs — whom Chandler nicknamed " The Little Judge " — had no record for Chandler to campaign against , Chandler portrayed him as a pawn of Clements and Wetherby — who he derisively referred to as " Clementine " and " Wetherbine " .
The inexperienced Combs did little to help his campaign . His first campaign speech , which he dryly read verbatim from his notes , included the candid admission that it might be necessary to re @-@ institute the state sales tax to balance the budget . Following the speech , a disappointed observer remarked that " Combs opened and closed [ his campaign ] on the same night . " The speech also gave Chandler his main issue for the campaign . He charged that Combs would raise taxes while promising that he would lower them as he had in his first term .
Chandler 's strategy in the campaign was to launch an attack upon the Wetherby administration and , before the Clements @-@ Wetherby @-@ Combs faction could react to it , to launch a new one . He claimed Wetherby had used the state 's money frivolously by installing air conditioning in the state capitol and installing a $ 20 @,@ 000 rug in his office . ( An invoice showing that carpeting for the entire first floor of the capitol had cost one @-@ tenth that amount did not stop Chandler from repeating the claim , which he said " didn 't hurt anybody , and people liked to hear it " . ) After a Wetherby administration official approved the purchase of African mahogany paneling for the governor 's office , Chandler charged that Wetherby had gone " clear to Africa " to find paneling for his office and promised that , if elected , he would use good , honest Kentucky wood for decoration . He also denounced the construction of a turnpike connecting Elizabethtown and Louisville , the state fairgrounds , and Freedom Hall as unnecessary .
Chandler won the Democratic primary by 18 @,@ 000 votes over Combs . In the general election , he defeated Republican Edwin R. Denney by a vote of 451 @,@ 647 to 322 @,@ 671 , the largest margin of victory for a gubernatorial candidate to that point in the state 's history .
= = = Governorship = = =
Soon after Chandler took office , it became clear that he could not fund the social programs initiated by Clements and Wetherby , plus Chandler 's own proposed programs , with the revenue presently being brought into the state treasury . He cut the popular Youth Authority , initiated by Wetherby to unify the state 's children 's welfare programs , but the savings were not enough to balance the budget . In order to deliver on his campaign promises , Chandler ignored the budget during the regular legislative session in 1956 , then called a special session during which he presented his budget proposal . The proposal called for spending in excess of $ 46 million more than officials estimated would be brought into the state 's coffers over the two @-@ year budget . Chandler convinced legislators to pass the budget , promising to propose a tax plan to pay for the expenditures in a subsequent special session . The promised package added 150 @,@ 000 citizens to the state 's tax rolls , put a surtax on income taxes , and cut tax credits . It created a new 5 percent production tax on whisky , and added taxes to deeds and life insurance premiums . It increased the state gasoline tax for trucks by two cents per gallon and raised corporate taxes by half a percent . In addition , it transferred the assessment and collection of taxes on certain intangibles from local to state government . The plan also called for a $ 100 million bond issue , allowing the allocation of generous budgets for state universities and colleges and improvements to the state highway system .
Although Democrats held a majority in both houses of the General Assembly , they were divided by factionalism , which made it difficult for Chandler to find sufficient support for his programs . Some of the factionalism came from Clements and Combs supporters who were not willing to cooperate with Chandler , their chief political enemy . Still other resistance to Chandler came from a group of more liberal lawmakers like John B. Breckinridge who simply had philosophical differences with the governor . Near the end of the 1958 legislative session , this group demanded a special session to deal with the need for more money for schools and welfare programs , but Chandler refused to call the session when the liberals would not agree to pass only the measures he put before them . Because of the factionalism , Chandler had to ally with Republican legislators throughout his term in order to pass many of his proposals , including his tax plan . Frequently , this meant promising to build or repair roads in Republican districts in return for their support of his programs .
During his campaign , Chandler had promised that he would fund a medical school at the University of Kentucky , despite the fact that the University of Louisville already had a medical school and a poll of state physicians showed overwhelming opposition to the plan because of this . Nevertheless , Chandler delivered on his promise , allocating $ 5 million to the establishment of what became known as the Albert B. Chandler Medical Center . Chandler said the establishment of the school was his proudest achievement as governor .
Just as he had as baseball commissioner , Chandler faced the issue of racial integration during his second term as governor . Among his first actions upon his election was to issue an executive order ensuring that blacks and whites would have equal access to the state park system . He publicly acknowledged the U.S. Supreme Court 's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education as the law of the land and promised to enforce it . The Kentucky Court of Appeals struck down Kentucky 's Day Law — the law proscribing integration — the following year . Some areas of the state resisted the change . Notably , in 1956 , when nine black students in Sturgis , Kentucky attempted to enter previously all @-@ white Sturgis High School , they were blocked by 500 opponents of integration . On September 4 , 1956 , Chandler called out the National Guard — including a force of over 900 guardsmen and several M47 Patton tanks — to disperse the crowd . The confrontation lasted a total of 18 days before the protesters peacefully dispersed . Shortly thereafter , Chandler took similar actions in response to a protest in the town of Clay , which was also resolved without violence . Of his actions , Chandler remarked " We regret it is necessary to use this means of guaranteeing equal rights to our citizens , but that we must do . "
Still convinced he was destined to become president , Chandler attended the 1956 Democratic National Convention with hopes of securing the party 's presidential nomination . Despite being told by his advisors that the convention would nominate Adlai Stevenson , Chandler continued to seek the nomination , but received only 36 1 / 2 votes . Following Stevenson 's nomination , Chandler returned to Kentucky bitterly disappointed . Due to the death of Senator Alben Barkley and the expiration of Senator Clements ' term , Kentucky would also elect two senators in November 1956 . Clements was seeking re @-@ election , and the state Democratic committee chose Wetherby as the nominee for Barkley 's seat . Chandler refused to use his office to support Stevenson , Clements , or Wetherby , and Republicans Dwight D. Eisenhower , John Sherman Cooper , and Thruston Ballard Morton won the presidential and senatorial races in the state .
In the 1959 gubernatorial primary , Chandler threw his support to Lieutenant Governor Harry Lee Waterfield . The anti @-@ Chandler forces eventually put forth Bert Combs as their nominee again . Having learned from his previous campaign , Combs now attacked Chandler for allegedly requiring state employees to donate 2 % of their salaries to his campaign . According to Combs , Chandler had deposited the money in a Cuban bank , but the money was lost when Fidel Castro overthrew the government in the Cuban Revolution . Ultimately , Combs prevailed in the primary by a vote of 292 @,@ 462 to 259 @,@ 461 . Republicans nominated John M. Robsion , Jr. to oppose Combs , and when Democratic President Harry S. Truman came to Paducah to campaign for Combs , Chandler refused to welcome him to the state , a customary duty of the sitting governor . Instead , in a letter to Truman , Chandler launched a blistering attack on his party 's nominees , calling Combs a liar and alleging that his running mate , Wilson W. Wyatt , who had previously served in Truman 's administration , had actually tried to undermine Truman by helping found Americans for Democratic Action . Combs ultimately won the general election by a wide margin .
= = Later life and death = =
In 1957 , Chandler was one of ten inaugural members of the Kentucky Sports Hall of Fame . A vestryman at St. John 's Church in Versailles , he was awarded the Bishop 's Medal of the Episcopal Church in 1959 . That same year , he received the Cross of Military Service from the United Daughters of the Confederacy . He served as a trustee of the Ty Cobb Foundation and Transylvania University . At the 1960 Democratic National Convention , he again sought the party 's presidential nomination , opining that the front @-@ runner , John F. Kennedy , was " a nice young fellow ... ( but ) too young for the nomination . " Chandler proposed that he be the presidential nominee with Kennedy as the nominee for vice @-@ president , but the convention chose Kennedy for president instead .
On January 3 , 1962 , Chandler opened a campaign headquarters in Frankfort , announcing his bid for an unprecedented third term as governor with the slogan " ABC [ Albert Benjamin Chandler ] in ' 63 " . His opponent in the primary was Edward T. " Ned " Breathitt , Jr . , the choice of outgoing Governor Bert Combs . Chandler reverted to his familiar campaign themes , charging the Combs administration with wasting state funds in the construction of a floral clock at the state capitol and denouncing Combs for re @-@ instituting the state sales tax . However , he found it very difficult to adapt to campaigning via television , an increasingly important medium , and his attacks mostly fell flat .
Breathitt enraged Chandler by charging that , when Chandler was a senator , he had voted in favor of declaring World War II , but soon after resigned his commission as a reserve army captain . According to Chandler 's version of events , after he voted in favor of the war declaration , he called Secretary of War Henry Stimson and asked to be put on active duty . Chandler said Stimson told him he would rather have a senator than a captain , after which Chandler resigned his commission . Chandler 's explanation did not stop Breathitt from repeating the charge often on the campaign trail .
Chandler lost to Breathitt in the primary by more than 60 @,@ 000 votes , although his running mate , Harry Lee Waterfield , won the nomination for lieutenant governor . Journalist John Ed Pearce opined that the loss marked the demise of the Chandler wing of the Democratic Party in Kentucky , although Chandler himself remained somewhat influential .
In 1965 , Chandler was named to the University of Kentucky Hall of Distinguished Alumni and became commissioner of the Continental Football League ( CFL ) . Chandler resigned from his CFL position in 1966 after league trustees supported a proposal to allow players from the major professional American football leagues , which he had been told would not happen . He served as Democratic National Committeeman from Kentucky . Becoming somewhat of a perennial candidate , he unsuccessfully ran for governor in 1967 and 1971 . After his loss in the 1967 Democratic primary , he endorsed Republican Louie B. Nunn . After his election , Nunn appointed Chandler to the first of his three terms on the University of Kentucky 's board of trustees .
In 1968 , Chandler was given serious consideration as the vice @-@ presidential running mate of Alabama 's former Governor George Wallace in the latter 's American Independent Party bid for the U.S. presidency . Wallace instead turned to Air Force General Curtis LeMay . The ticket lost to Richard M. Nixon and Spiro T. Agnew . Chandler said that he and Wallace were unable to come to an agreement regarding their positions on racial matters .
In 1971 , Chandler again entered the gubernatorial race , this time as an independent , but he garnered only 39 @,@ 493 votes , compared to 470 @,@ 720 for eventual Democratic victor Wendell H. Ford , and 412 @,@ 653 for Republican challenger Tom Emberton . Ford 's successor , Julian Carroll , again appointed Chandler to the University of Kentucky 's board of trustees .
The Major League Baseball Veterans Committee chose Chandler for induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1982 . In 1987 , filmmaker Robby Henson profiled Chandler in a 30 @-@ minute documentary entitled Roads Home : The Life and Times of A.B. ' Happy ' Chandler .
Chandler endorsed dark horse candidate Wallace G. Wilkinson in the 1987 Democratic primary , and his endorsement was considered crucial to Wilkinson 's victory in the race . After Wilkinson 's election as governor , he restored Chandler 's voting rights on the University of Kentucky 's board of trustees . ( In 1981 , then @-@ governor John Y. Brown , Jr. had designated Chandler an " honorary " , non @-@ voting member of the board . ) While discussing the University of Kentucky 's decision to dispose of its investments in South Africa at a meeting of the university 's board of trustees on April 5 , 1988 , Chandler remarked " You know Zimbabwe 's all nigger now . There aren 't any whites . " The comment immediately drew calls for Chandler 's resignation from the University Senate Council and the Student Government Association , and approximately 50 students marched on university president David Roselle 's office demanding that Chandler apologize or resign . Commenting on the controversy the next day , Chandler said " I was raised in a small town in Western Kentucky . There were 400 whites and 400 blacks , and we called them niggers and they didn 't mind . And I reverted temporarily , at least , to that expression , and of course , I wish I hadn 't . " That apology did not satisfy many , and 200 protesters marched on the state capitol , demanding that Governor Wilkinson remove Chandler from the board . Wilkinson refused to remove Chandler and urged the crowd to forgive him .
Chandler published his autobiography , Heroes , Plain Folks , and Skunks , in 1989 . In an interview with The Kentucky Kernel , the University of Kentucky 's student newspaper , Chandler was asked about his controversial comments the previous year , which were addressed in the book . Chandler reportedly told the paper " I said most of the Zimbabweans were niggers and they are niggers . " The comment sparked fresh protests and calls for Chandler 's resignation . In response to the controversy , Chandler 's personal assistant said " He used the word again in explaining that it was not intended by him to be a racial slur " , and called the Kernel 's story " a complete and total distortion . "
Chandler died in Versailles on June 15 , 1991 and was buried in the churchyard of Pisgah Presbyterian Church near Versailles . Prior to his death , he had been the oldest living member of the Baseball Hall of Fame and was the longest @-@ living former Kentucky governor .
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= John Baird ( Canadian politician ) =
John Russell Baird , PC ( born May 26 , 1969 ) is a Canadian former politician . Baird served from 2011 to 2015 as Canada 's Minister of Foreign Affairs in the cabinet of Prime Minister Stephen Harper . He had been a member of the federal cabinet , in various positions , since 2006 . Previously he was a provincial cabinet minister in Ontario during the governments of Premiers Mike Harris and Ernie Eves . Baird resigned from cabinet on February 3 , 2015 , and as a Member of Parliament on March 16 , 2015 .
= = Overview = =
Before his spell as Minister of Foreign Affairs Baird held the posts of Minister of Transport , Infrastructure and Communities , Minister of the Environment and President of the Treasury Board . Prior to entering federal politics he was a provincial politician serving in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1995 to 2005 and a cabinet minister in the Progressive Conservative governments of Mike Harris and Ernie Eves , serving as the Minister for Children , Community and Social Services , Energy and Francophone Affairs in addition to being the Government 's Chief Whip .
A long @-@ time resident of the former city of Nepean , where he attended Bell High School , and a graduate of Kingston 's Queen 's University , he was until recently the member of the House of Commons of Canada for the riding of Ottawa West — Nepean . Baird was elected there as a candidate for the Conservative Party of Canada in the 2006 federal election , when his party defeated Paul Martin 's Liberal Party and established a minority government . Baird was sworn in as Leader of the Government in the House of Commons , replacing Jay Hill , on August 6 , 2010 . Prior to this , Baird served as Transport Minister starting October 30 , 2008 , Environment Minister starting January 2007 , and President of the Treasury Board during the Conservatives ' first year in power .
Baird served in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1995 to 2005 for the riding of Nepean — Carleton ( part of Nepean until 1999 ) , and was a cabinet minister in the Progressive Conservative governments of Mike Harris and Ernie Eves . He served as the Minister for Children , Community and Social Services , Energy and Francophone Affairs in addition to being the Government 's Chief Whip . After the Conservatives ' defeat by Dalton McGuinty 's Ontario Liberal Party , he was the party 's critic for key portfolios including finance , culture and health . Baird had been a member of the Conservatives since 1985 , when he was the youngest delegate at that time and was also a political aide for the federal Progressive Conservative Party of Canada in the late 1980s .
Directly upon his entry into politics , Baird became well known for being vocal on many subjects in the provincial and federal levels of government . During his tenure in the Harris Cabinet he adopted several cost @-@ saving measures , including reductions in discretionary government spending and an attempt to sell Hydro One , the government @-@ owned utility firm . As the federal President of the Treasury Board in the Harper Cabinet , he adopted the Federal Accountability Act , which was put in place after the Gomery Commission which investigated the federal sponsorship scandal in the late 1990s and early 2000s . As Environment Minister , Baird signalled the Canadian government 's opposition to the Kyoto Protocol whose targets have been functionally ignored since its symbolic ratification by the Chretien government .
= = Early life and career = =
Baird was born in Nepean , Ontario , the son of Marianne ( née Collins ) and Gerald Baird . He became involved in politics when he backed a candidate for the local federal PC nomination in 1984 . The next year , at age sixteen , Baird was the youngest delegate to attend the party 's January 1985 provincial leadership convention , as a supporter of Ontario Attorney @-@ General Roy McMurtry .
He was later president of the youth wing of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario , and aligned himself with Dennis Timbrell during the latter 's abortive campaign for the PC leadership in 1989 – 90 . He backed Mike Harris when Timbrell withdrew from the contest . Baird has also indicated that he was charged with trespassing during the 1988 federal election , after he tried to question Ontario Premier David Peterson about free trade with the United States during a Liberal Party campaign stop in a Kingston shopping mall . He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Political Studies from Queen 's University in 1992 .
Baird worked on the political staff of Perrin Beatty when Beatty was federal Minister of National Defence in the early 1990s , and followed Beatty through subsequent cabinet shifts , culminating in his becoming Secretary of State for External Affairs in the short @-@ lived 1993 government of Kim Campbell . After the defeat of the federal Progressive Conservatives in the 1993 federal election , Baird worked as a lobbyist in Ottawa .
Baird says he has been a vegetarian since 1997 . However , he admits to eating fish , and he reportedly ate seal meat on a trip to the Arctic in 2009 .
He had a pet grey tabby cat named Thatcher ; when the cat died on November 10 , 2009 , a message sent by Baird using his Blackberry which said " Thatcher has died " resulted in a false rumour to the effect that Margaret Thatcher had died . In June 2008 , he was selected by the Ottawa Business Journal as a recipient of the " Forty Under 40 " award .
= = Provincial politics = =
= = = Government backbencher = = =
While Baird had been associated with red tories such as Timbrell and Beatty , he became associated with the conservative ideology of the Mike Harris @-@ led Ontario PC party upon entering provincial politics . He was first elected to the Ontario legislature in 1995 , defeating Liberal incumbent Hans Daigeler in the Ottawa @-@ area riding of Nepean . The youngest member of the legislature , Baird was appointed parliamentary assistant to the Minister of Labour on July 13 , 1995 .
He became parliamentary assistant to the Chair of the Management Board of Cabinet in April 1997 , and was promoted to parliamentary assistant to the Minister of Finance in November of the same year . As a backbencher , Baird proposed a bill naming Highway 416 as the " Veterans ' Memorial Highway " and successfully steered its passage through the legislature . He was easily re @-@ elected in 1999 , defeating longtime Ottawa councillor Gord Hunter by a margin of almost 15 @,@ 000 votes .
= = = Community and Social Services minister = = =
Baird joined Premier Harris 's cabinet on June 17 , 1999 as Minister of Community and Social Services , where he became responsible for implementing and expanding Ontario 's workfare program . As one of Harris 's few bilingual ministers , he was also named as Minister responsible for Francophone Affairs .
= = = = 1999 = = = =
Baird 's first press conference as a cabinet minister was held in July 1999 , and was intended to highlight the Harris government 's record in reducing the provincial welfare rolls . Baird told reporters that 15 @,@ 000 people had left the system since the introduction of workfare , and used this figure to argue that the government 's policy was a success . At the time , he lacked information on the number of workfare recipients who actually found jobs , and he also did not account for 40 % of the welfare recipients who had been cut from the list . A number of media reports subsequently criticized both the principle and the implementation of workfare in Ontario .
A September 1999 report from Baird 's ministry showed that 10 @,@ 600 workfare placements had been created in the first six months of 1999 , a figure which the Toronto Star observed was significantly lower than that which had been predicted by the government . Baird indicated that he would continue with the workfare program , and that the proportion of welfare recipients on workfare would be increased from 15 % to 30 % .
Baird was criticized in late 1999 for refusing to cancel a five @-@ year contract that had been signed between his department and the Bermuda @-@ based private firm Andersen Consulting ( later Accenture ) , worth up to $ 180 million . The contract , signed when Janet Ecker was Community and Social Services minister , entrusted Andersen with providing technological upgrades to the province 's welfare management system . The arrangement was criticized by Auditor General Erik Peters , who observed that there was nothing in the contract to prevent Andersen from increasing its hourly rates . A published report in early 2000 indicated that Andersen was charging an average of $ 257 per hour for work that had previously been done by ministry staff at $ 51 per hour . Another report indicated that the firm had charged a total of $ 55 million to find roughly $ 66 million worth of savings . In response to opposition questions , Baird said that he would not terminate the contract but would endeavour to negotiate a lower rate . Baird opposed the Harris government 's plan to amalgamate the city of Ottawa with neighboring municipalities , which was approved by the legislature in 1999 .
= = = = 2000 = = = =
In January 2000 , Baird unveiled a series of initiatives designed to reduce fraud and misuse in the welfare system . This was highlighted by the establishment of a welfare fraud hotline and a complementary conditionality three months later , in which anyone convicted of welfare fraud would run the risk of being given a lifetime ban from the program . The investigations Baird initiated during the fiscal year of 2000 uncovered $ 58 @.@ 2 million in social assistance that people were not entitled to receive , and $ 16 @.@ 6 million in avoided future costs , but critics of this approach , including opposition members , poverty advocates , and scholars , suggested that the Harris government was overstating the extent of fraud in order to undermine public confidence in welfare programs . In mid @-@ year , Baird announced that workfare placements had reached departmental quotas for most of the province .
Baird revealed a $ 50 million program in May 2000 to help people with developmental disabilities become integrated into their communities . He later affirmed that the province was considering closing its remaining three institutions for the mentally handicapped as part of a larger strategy focusing on home care . Baird expressed concern about the physical condition of these institutions , saying that their residents " deserve better " . Later that same year , he stated that his department would spend $ 26 million on shelters and other funding for the homeless .
Baird supported mandatory drug @-@ testing for welfare recipients and argued that those who refused such tests should be at risk of have their assistance cut off . He introduced a policy initiative to this effect at a press conference in late 2000 , in which he dramatically cast a box of syringes onto the floor and said that his department planned to " stop people from shooting their welfare cheque up their arm , and to help them shoot up the ladder of success " . Baird acknowledged that his department did not have reliable figures on the number of welfare recipients abusing drugs , although he cited estimates of between 4 % and 10 % . The proposal was criticized by several people , including Ontario Human Rights Commissioner Keith Norton , a former Progressive Conservative cabinet minister , who expressed concern that it could violate Ontario 's human rights code , but officials including Baird justified the measures as , " necessary in order to push people still receiving assistance toward independence . "
Shortly after Baird 's announcement , a government website operated by the Ministry of Community and Social Services launched an attack against Liberal Party leader Dalton McGuinty for opposing the drug testing plan . The site claimed that McGuinty was " opposed to helping welfare recipients who are addicted to drugs " . Baird denied that the message was partisan and initially refused to apologize . The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario subsequently ruled that the site content was inappropriate and it was removed by the government , with an apology .
= = = = 2001 – 02 = = = =
In early 2001 , Baird announced that his government 's proposed drug @-@ testing plan would be extended to identify welfare recipients addicted to prescription drugs and alcohol . He later announced that provincial welfare applicants would be required to pass a literacy test . The Harris government 's welfare policies were put under scrutiny in August 2001 after a pregnant woman in Sudbury , Kimberly Rogers , died while serving a house arrest for welfare fraud . The woman had been confined to her apartment for three months and reports indicated that her pregnancy was " exacerbated by sweltering conditions in her apartment " . Responding to criticism , Baird said that he could not comment on the specifics of the case until a coroner 's inquest was completed . He defended his government 's general policy on welfare issues . A subsequent inquest did not assign blame to the government for the woman 's death , but recommended that lifetime bans for fraud be eliminated , and that adequate food , housing and medication be provided to anyone under house arrest .
Baird was given additional responsibilities as Minister responsible for Children on February 8 , 2001 . His department increased funding for child services early in the year , amid a significant increase in provincial demand . In November 2001 , the provincial media obtained a confidential government report recommending 40 – 45 % cuts in provincial child @-@ care programs . Baird initially declined to comment on the document 's contents , but rejected its proposals in early 2002 .
Baird was the first cabinet minister to support Jim Flaherty 's campaign to succeed Mike Harris as Progressive Conservative Party leader in the party 's 2002 leadership election . The election was won by Flaherty 's rival Ernie Eves , and early media reports suggested that Baird might be dropped from the new premier 's cabinet in April 2002 . He was not , but was demoted to the position of Chief Government Whip while remaining associate minister for Francophone Affairs . His replacement in Social Services was Brenda Elliott , who was from the more centrist wing of the Progressive Conservative Party .
= = = Energy Minister and Government House Leader = = =
Baird was returned to a more prominent cabinet position in August 2002 after Eves separated the ministries of Environment and Energy and appointed Baird to head the latter department . Baird was given additional responsibilities as Government House Leader in June 2003 after Chris Stockwell was forced to resign following allegations that he had used government funds for a family vacation .
As Energy Minister , Baird was entrusted with implementing the government 's plan to sell off part of Ontario 's Hydro One . A few months later , he became unexpectedly involved in two major and interrelated policy reversals . The Energy ministry came under intense media scrutiny in late 2002 after hydro rates increased significantly in many parts of the province . Critics argued that the Progressive Conservative government 's price deregulation policy ( implemented before Baird became Energy Minister ) was responsible . Baird suggested that the rate increases resulted from an unusually hot summer . Rates remained high through the autumn , and the Eves government was forced to re @-@ regulate the market in November by introducing a price cap . The government continued to support deregulation in principle , but maintained the cap for the remainder of its term in office . The second and more fundamental reversal occurred in late January 2003 , when Premier Eves announced that Hydro One would remain under public control .
Baird was regarded as less combative as Energy Minister than he had been in Community and Social Services . The energy policies of the Eves government were controversial , but opposition criticism was often directed at the premier rather than at Baird . Eves took a prominent interest in the Energy portfolio , and sometimes relegated Baird to a secondary role in policy announcements . In November 2002 , however , he was followed around the province by " Hydrozilla " , a man in a giant lizard suit sent by the Ontario New Democratic Party as a stunt to show that deregulating electricity rates would create an ' economic monster ' for consumers . In early March 2003 , Baird announced that the government might be forced to implement rolling blackouts as a response to energy shortages . He encouraged conservation in late summer 2003 , following a province @-@ wide blackout caused by a generator failure in the United States .
= = = Opposition member = = =
The Ontario Liberal Party won a majority government in the 2003 election , although Baird was comfortably re @-@ elected in his own seat . Between 2003 and 2005 he served as Official Opposition critic for Finance , Culture , Francophone Affairs , Intergovernmental Affairs and Health . He opposed the imposition of a health premium by Dalton McGuinty 's government in 2004 , charging that the Liberals broke an election pledge not the raise taxes . Baird and New Democrat Peter Kormos were vocal critics of Speaker Alvin Curling for allegedly favouring his Liberal colleagues , saying that he sanctioned Conservative and NDP members for behaviour he would allow from Liberals . At one stage , Baird described Curling 's job performance as an " absolute disgrace " .
Baird co @-@ chaired Jim Flaherty 's second campaign to lead the Progressive Conservative party in 2004 . Flaherty was again unsuccessful , losing on the second ballot to the more centrist John Tory . Baird and Flaherty left provincial politics in 2005 to campaign for the federal House of Commons . Although Baird was generally on the right wing of the provincial Progressive Conservative Party , he expressed liberal views on some social issues . He supported same @-@ sex marriage during the 2003 provincial election , and in 2005 helped the McGuinty government achieve quick passage of a provincial bill granting legal recognition to same @-@ sex couples .
= = Federal politics = =
Baird supported a Canadian Alliance candidate in the 2000 federal election , and later endorsed Stephen Harper 's bid to lead the newly formed Conservative Party of Canada in its 2004 leadership election . He was appointed as the Conservative Party 's Ontario co @-@ chair for the 2004 federal election . There were rumours that Baird would leave provincial politics to contest the 2004 election , but this did not happen . In 2005 he resigned his provincial seat to campaign federally for the Conservative Party .
Baird won a contested nomination battle for Ottawa West — Nepean Conservative nomination on May 5 , 2005 , defeating challengers Ed Mahfouz , Margret Kopala and Ade Olumide . John Pacheco , a leader in the social conservative movement against same @-@ sex marriage , had sought the nomination but was disqualified due to past comments he had made alleging that homosexual practices posed a health risk . Pacheco later campaigned in the election as an " Independent conservative " , with the specific intent of being a spoiler against Baird . He argued that if his campaign caused Baird to lose , the Conservatives would " get the message that social conservatives are serious about their politics . " Baird chose to ignore Pacheco entirely in at least one all @-@ candidates debate .
Baird was elected , defeating Liberal candidate Lee Farnworth by about 5 @,@ 000 votes . The Ottawa Citizen endorsed Baird in this campaign , and argued that his political judgment had improved considerably since his tenure as a Harris cabinet minister . In December 2006 Baird was one of thirteen Conservative MPs who voted against reopening the national debate on same @-@ sex marriage .
Baird has played an aggressive role in Question Period since his appointment to cabinet , leading MP Garth Turner to describe him as Stephen Harper 's " Commons pit bull " .
= = = President of the Treasury Board = = =
Baird was appointed President of the Treasury Board on February 6 , 2006 . Following his appointment , he said that one of his priorities would be to prevent government jobs from being relocated from Ottawa to other regions for political purposes . Baird also indicated that his government was not planning to introduce job cuts or initiate a radical reduction in the size of government . In June 2006 he announced the creation of a three @-@ member panel to advise the federal government on grant and contribution programs and accountability issues . One of the members was Frances Lankin , a former Ontario New Democratic Party cabinet minister .
= = = = Accountability Act = = = =
Baird introduced the Conservative government 's first piece of legislation in April 2006 . The Accountability Act promised significant reform to the structure of Canadian politics and government . Prime Minister Harper said that it would " put an end to the influence of money " in the Canadian government . The Accountability Act restricted the ability of former politicians and bureaucrats to become lobbyists , provided protection to whistle @-@ blowers in the civil service and gave the Auditor General of Canada new powers of oversight . It limited individual donations to political parties and candidates to $ 1 @,@ 100 per year ( down from $ 5 @,@ 200 ) , created nine new or revised positions to oversee the activities of public officials and placed crown corporations such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation under access @-@ to @-@ information legislation .
Opposition MPs complained that several recommendations for access @-@ to @-@ information reform were left out of the bill , and were instead sent to committee for further review . New Democratic Party MP Pat Martin suggested that this deferral could delay meaningful reform for the foreseeable future . Martin later made a deal with Baird to give the bill an easy passage through committee , in return for the Conservatives accepting some NDP amendments .
Information Commissioner John Reid has criticized the new proposed powers for his department under the legislation , arguing that they will create unnecessary bureaucracy . Shortly after the Accountability Act was introduced to parliament , Reid issued an emergency report saying that the legislation would " increase the government 's ability to cover up wrongdoing , shield itself from embarrassment and control the flow of information to Canadians " . He added that no government had ever put forward " a more retrograde and dangerous " set of proposals for dealing with access to information laws . Baird described Reid 's criticisms as " excessive " , stating that most of the commissioner 's specific concerns were minor in nature . Representatives of Canada 's business community also expressed concern about changes to disclosure laws , arguing that their commercial secrets could be exposed to competitors .
The bill passed the House of Commons on division in June 2006 . The Canadian Senate approved it in December 2006 , with several amendments , and sent it back to the Commons for further consideration . The amended act was approved by the Commons without debate on December 8 , and was signed into law four days later .
Shortly after the bill first passed the Commons , Baird acknowledged that the Conservatives might have unintentionally broken political financing laws by failing to report convention fees collected in 2005 . He told a Senate committee that $ 1 @.@ 7 million was left unreported and that he did not realize it was an issue at the time . The matter is under review by the Chief Electoral Officer . The Conservatives quietly tabled an amendment to the Accountability Act in November 2006 , stipulating that convention fees will not be counted as political contributions .
= = = = Program cuts = = = =
In May 2006 , Baird was asked to find $ 1 billion in cuts for 2006 and 2007 . On September 25 , on the same day that the government announced a $ 13 @.@ 2 billion surplus , Baird announced cuts to sixty @-@ six federal programs , including Status of Women , medicinal marijuana research , Canadian museums , adult literacy , youth employment and social development and the British Columbia pine beetle program . One of the most controversial cuts was to the federal Court Challenges Program , which provided funding for Canadians to pursue rights cases in the Canadian court system . Baird argued that government funding would be redirected in a way that " reflects the priorities of working families " and that he " just [ didn 't ] think it made sense for the government to subsidize lawyers to challenge the government 's own laws in court . " In justifying cuts to adult literacy programs , Baird referenced his government 's support for youth literacy and said , " We 've got to fix the ground level problem and not be trying to do repair work after the fact . "
= = = = 2006 Ottawa municipal election = = = =
In early October 2006 , Baird 's department reviewed a promised $ 200 million grant to the City of Ottawa 's light @-@ rail expansion project for the O @-@ Train . Baird indicated that the government would keep the funding at least until the November election , but added that the Council elected in November would have the final say on the issue . He also leaked details of the city 's contact with the German firm Siemens . As a result , the rail program became a focal issue in the 2006 Ottawa mayoral election and Baird 's opponents accused him of trying to influence the outcome . Baird and Ottawa Mayor Bob Chiarelli accused one another of lying about details of the project , and Liberal MP Navdeep Bains asked the Federal Ethics Commissioner to investigate Baird 's decision to release details of the private contract . Chiarelli was defeated in the election and the light @-@ rail expansion was stopped by the new council .
An Ottawa Citizen report in January 2007 revealed that federal officials had not posed any objections to the light @-@ rail project before Baird 's intervention , and suggested that his involvement was political in nature . Green Party leader Elizabeth May speculated that Ottawa may have been deprived of light @-@ rail service because of an apparent " personal vendetta " from Baird against Chiarelli . Baird denied this charge , saying that his intervention was not political .
Opponents of the light @-@ rail project have argued that it was undertaken without sufficient consultation with the public . In February 2008 , it was reported that the House of Commons committee on government operations would be looking into his involvement over the case . MP and committee member Mark Holland voiced a concern that Baird leaked information on the contract . Baird replied that he made the right decision and dismissed the investigation saying " there is no evidence of anything " . Speaking to reporters he added following the announcement of the investigation : " If you want to avert a billion @-@ dollar boondoggle , you have to make some difficult decisions " .
= = = = Other responsibilities = = = =
Baird held ministerial responsibilities for the Toronto Harbourfront Centre and the Toronto Waterfront Revitalization Corporation . He developed a working relationship with Toronto Mayor David Miller soon after his appointment , and was present for the announcement of a comprehensive new waterfront strategy in June 2006 . Ontario cabinet minister David Caplan described Baird as a champion of waterfront renewal and Miller described him as an ally of the city . Baird spent Christmas 2006 meeting with Canadian soldiers in Afghanistan .
= = = Environment Minister 2007 – 08 = = =
On January 4 , 2007 , Baird was appointed as Environment Minister in a cabinet shuffle , replacing Rona Ambrose . In making the appointment , Prime Minister Stephen Harper acknowledged that his government needed to do more to make the environment a priority . Some commentators remarked favourably on Baird 's appointment , describing him as a strong communicator and negotiator . Columnist Andrew Coyne , however , described Baird as " the man sent to kill the issue , " suggesting that Baird 's appointment was meant to neutralize the environment as an election issue rather than to initiate any meaningful reforms . Baird is a vocal opponent of the Kyoto Protocol , which he argues will bring about an " economic collapse " . Later in 2007 , he added that any new environmental agreements must include reduction targets for major greenhouse emitters such as China , India and the United States who have not signed the Protocol or does not have any mandatory reductions set by the Protocol . Baird met with renowned Canadian environmentalist David Suzuki following his appointment . At the time Suzuki said he was encouraged by Baird 's approach , but remained skeptical of the Harper government 's environmental plans . However , when Baird unveiled the Conservative government 's plan in April 2007 , Suzuki confronted him , calling the plan " a disappointment " .
= = = = Approach to the Kyoto Protocol = = = =
In February 2007 , the Liberal opposition brought forward a non @-@ binding motion for Canada to renew its commitment to the Kyoto Protocol . All Conservative MPs who were present in the House , including Baird , voted against the motion , which passed with the support of the three opposition parties . The following month , opposition members on a special Commons committee used their majority to bring forward sweeping changes to the government 's Clean Air Act . Among other things , the revised act called for participation in international carbon markets and the fulfillment of Kyoto targets .
Baird indicated that the opposition 's changes would not be included in federal targets or regulations .
In April 2007 , Baird produced a federal study supported by five independent economists to support his approach to the Kyoto Protocol . Among the five economists was Toronto @-@ Dominion Bank chief economist Don Drummond , who also wrote a private letter to Baird arguing that the " economic cost [ of implementing Kyoto ] would be at least as deep as the recession in the early 1980s . " Opposition parliamentarians dismissed the report as a scare tactic , while Liberal Environment critic David McGuinty argued that the study was misleading , saying that it did not properly examine international emission trading and ignored jobs to be created through the " green economy " . The report claimed that Canada 's ability to invest in developing nations to meet emissions targets through CDM by misquoting the amount of credit to be $ 85 million instead of the real approximation of $ 3 billion . Soon afterward , a United Nations report also contradicted the study mentioning that " steep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions can be accomplished at a cost of only 0 @.@ 12 per cent of the world 's annual economic output " but Baird responded that Canada 's gas emission levels would peak in 2012 , three years before the UN 's set target of 2015 .
= = = = Environmental strategy = = = =
Baird was the Harper government 's representative at the release of a major United Nations report on climate change in Paris in February 2007 . He described the report as a " turning point in the battle against climate change , " while indicating his surprise that human activity was found to be a major cause of the phenomenon .
Baird released his government 's targets for greenhouse gas emissions in late April 2007 . The plan calls for Canada to begin cutting its existing rate of greenhouse gas emissions by 2010 and for cuts to reach 20 % by 2020 . Under this plan , Canada will reach its Kyoto targets between 2020 and 2025 , taking an additional eight to thirteen years longer than Kyoto . The government plan uses production intensity targets instead of hard caps . Baird said that the " plan strikes a balance between the perfection some environmentalists may be seeking and the status quo that some in industry seek to protect . " In December 2007 , Baird revealed in a plan that over 700 big @-@ polluter companies , including oil and gas , pulp and paper , electricity and iron and steel companies , must cut greenhouse emissions by six percent between 2008 and 2010 . The companies would also have to produce an annual report every May 31 that would include data regarding the level of greenhouses emissions produced each year . Baird 's proposal has been met with approval from Canada 's oilpatch executives , who described them as the toughest emission regulations in the world , and who feared that more stringent standards would stifle oil sands exploration . Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty had been considerably less critical than his brother , federal Liberal Member of Parliament David McGuinty , having written to Prime Minister Harper on the environmental policy . The Premier had stressed the importance of a policy that considered the North American market as a whole , due to the automotive industry 's importance to his province . McGuinty said the Conservatives ' environmental plan could have gone further but described the auto emissions part of the plan as " very sensible " .
Members of opposition parties have criticized the government 's abandonment of the Kyoto goals , while David Suzuki described the proposal as a " sham " with " weak targets " . Former US vice president Al Gore said Baird 's plan was a " complete and total fraud " that was " designed to mislead the Canadian people " . Baird responded by defending his plan and by criticizing Gore 's environmental record , noting that no similarly stringent measures were passed during Gore 's tenure in office and that the Kyoto Treaty was never submitted to the US Senate for ratification . Liberal Party MP Pablo Rodriguez introduced to the House of Commons a private bill that would have forced Canada to comply with the Kyoto Treaty in response to the government 's plan . While the bill passed , Baird mentioned that , even though that the government wouldn 't dismiss the idea , there were no new environmental measures planned . All three opposition parties demanded that the environment become one of the main points of the government 's Throne Speech in the 2007 fall session .
= = = = Environmental record = = = =
Shortly after his appointment , Baird , Stephen Harper and Natural Resources Minister Gary Lunn announced $ 1 @.@ 5 billion for clean @-@ energy initiatives over the next decade . Baird and Lunn also announced a $ 230 million program for clean energy technology . Lunn said that " there were literally hundreds of programs but there was no focus " when the Conservatives took office . Critics argued that the new Conservative measures were similar to measures introduced by the Liberals in their 2005 budget . Former Liberal leader Stéphane Dion has argued that the Conservative Party 's strategy is too strongly focused on nuclear energy .
On February 12 , 2007 , Baird appeared at a press conference with Stephen Harper and Quebec Premier Jean Charest to announce a $ 1 @.@ 5 billion environmental fund for the provinces . Journalist Frances Russell criticized that as a reduction from the $ 3 billion promised by the previous Liberal government .
Canada is a signatory to the Kyoto protocol which legally requires signatory countries to set up compatible carbon trading markets . In direct defiance of this international legal obligation , in March 2007 , Baird indicated that he wanted Canadian companies to be banned , or at least severely restricted , from participating in the international carbon market . Several European countries had already set up a trading system to allow companies that reduce their emission levels below government targets to sell " credits " on an international market . Many industry leaders argued that Canada should adopt a similar policy . Then @-@ opposition leader Stéphane Dion argued that participation will allow Canadian firms to make " megatonnes of money " . Baird however described some carbon markets as " shaky , " and argued that trade should be restricted to within Canada , or perhaps within North America . In April he indicated that Canadian businesses would soon gain the right to earn credits by investing in overseas environmental projects .
Baird defended another Conservative government decision to cut funds for climate science research , arguing that further studies are largely superfluous in light of recent United Nations reports . Gordon McBean of the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences has disagreed , claiming that further research is the best way to adapt to a changing climate .
Baird said in a House of Commons Committee that his government would not consider the implementation of a carbon tax . He told that the government 's approach " will be to provide regulation for industry to ensure we reduce both greenhouse gas emissions and reduce air pollutants "
= = = = Bali = = = =
While participating at the United Nations Summit On Climate Changes in Bali , Indonesia , Baird announced a $ 86 million funding to help Canadian communities notably coping with the loss of forests due to pine beetles in the west and of infrastructures in the north due to softer soil . The four @-@ year plan included $ 56 million on several projects and $ 29 million for research .
Baird was criticized by some parties and observers for obstructing progress on what was to become ' the Bali Action Plan ' . Baird showed up for the Bali Conference at which it was intended he explain Canada 's position at a meeting with non @-@ governmental activists , but instead quickly left , with one of the activists alleging that Baird left because he " probably did not want to confront young activists critical of Canada 's stand . "
= = = Draft Baird Movement = = =
In late November and early December 2008 , a website went online allegedly representing a movement to draft Baird for leader of the Conservative Party , in the face of Stephen Harper facing possible defeat by an opposition coalition .
The draft group allegedly comprised over 100 party members from across the country — including two MPs and one Senator ( who , reportedly , had requested anonymity ) . In its only contact with the media , the campaign claimed it had nearly 3 @,@ 000 visitors and 237 new supporters in less than ten hours .
Baird has since indicated not only that he is loyal to Harper , but that he is uninterested in ever becoming party leader . In 2011 he told a newspaper , " Some people may have when growing up , always harboured leadership ambitions . I 've never harboured leadership ambitions . It is the honest @-@ to @-@ God truth . "
= = = Minister of Transport ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = =
Baird served as Minister of Transport between October 30 , 2008 and August 6 , 2010 .
= = = ' Interim ' Environment Minister 2010 – 2011 = = =
= = = = Cancun climate ' fossil awards ' = = = =
After resuming his environment portfolio from November 2010 until January 2011 , Baird was the Harper government 's main representative to the United Nations climate conference in Cancun in December 2010 . On the first day , Canada “ won ” three Fossil of the Day awards , awards which , after a vote by more than 400 leading international organizations , go to countries that do the most to disrupt or undermine UN climate talks . " Canada under Baird was accused of " working against progressive legislation to address climate change " , cited for " cancelling support for clean energy and for failing to have any plan to meet its very weak target for reducing [ Canada ] ' s greenhouse gas emissions . "
= = = Foreign Affairs Minister 2011 – 2015 = = =
Activists on board a Canadian boat taking supplies to Gaza ( which had been blockaded by the Israeli government to ensure that weapons and other contraband did not enter Gaza ) in November 2011 urged Baird to resign as foreign minister for " failing to do his job " . They said they had been roughed up and Tasered by Israeli forces and that " If minister Baird wants to put the interests of a far @-@ right Israeli government before Canadians , he should apply for the job of Israel 's ambassador " . Baird affirmed Canada 's support for Likud 's opposition to Palestinian statehood while visiting Israel in February 2012 . On September 7 , 2012 he announced the sudden closure of Canada 's embassy in Tehran and the expulsion of all Iranian diplomats from Canada . Baird made the announcement at an Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation meeting in Russia . He said Canada 's decision was not linked to growing speculation of an imminent attack by Israel on Iran 's nuclear facilities . Baird said " Canada views the government of Iran as the most significant threat to global peace and security in the world today . " Canada 's actions were immediately praised by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu who described them as " bold leadership . "
Baird signed an agreement between the Governments of the United Arab Emirates and Canada for cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of nuclear energy .
Baird 's criticism of the stance of several African countries on same @-@ sex rights and of the Russian Federation for its ban on " homosexual propaganda " and other moves to suppress LGBT rights have been condemned by the social conservative lobby group REAL Women of Canada which issued a statement accusing him of " abuse of office " claiming that " Mr. Baird 's actions are destructive to the conservative base in Canada and causing collateral damage to his party . " A spokesman for Baird 's office replied stating " The promotion and protection of human rights is an integral part of Canada ’ s foreign policy . "
Baird refused to sign the world Arms Trade Treaty , with the Canadian government reportedly ordering its diplomats to play a “ low @-@ key , minimal role ” during negotiations and protect the rights of Canadian gun owners .
= = = Resignation and departing public office = = =
Following his resignation as Minister of Foreign Affairs , Baird remained a backbench MP for several weeks . On February 19 , 2015 he represented the government at the re @-@ opening of Canada House , the home of the Canadian High Commission to the United Kingdom . Baird 's resignation from parliament took effect on March 16 , 2015 .
= = Private sector = =
Since leaving politics , Baird has accepted several private sector appointments . In June 2015 he was hired as a strategic adviser to Hatch Ltd , an international engineering and consulting firm for companies in the resource industry . In October 2015 , he joined political risk consulting firm Eurasia Group as a senior adviser , where he offers strategic insight to companies on how global politics affects business . He has also been hired as an adviser to Barrick Gold and Bennett Jones , and accepted an appointment to the board of directors of Canadian Pacific Railway .
= = Electoral record = =
Source : Elections Canada
All electoral information taken from Elections Canada and Elections Ontario . Italicized expenditures refer to submitted totals , and are presented when the final reviewed totals are not available .
The 1999 and 2003 expenditure entries are taken from official candidate reports as listed by Elections Ontario . The figures cited are the Total Candidate 's Campaign Expenses Subject to Limitation , and include transfers from constituency associations .
= = Return to private sector = =
On March 27 , 2015 , Barrick Gold Corp. announced Mr. Baird 's appointment to its international advisory board , along with former U.S. Speaker of the House of Representatives , Newt Gingrich . No compensation details were disclosed in the filings .
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= Tom & Gerri =
" Tom & Gerri " is the third episode of British dark comedy anthology series Inside No. 9 . It premiered on BBC2 on 19 February 2014 . The episode was based on a play that Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith had written while living together prior to the development of their series The League of Gentlemen . While the play had originally been around two hours in length , the episode was only half an hour . " Tom & Gerri " follows a difficult period in the life of Tom ( Shearsmith ) , a primary school teacher and aspiring writer , and his partner Gerri ( Gemma Arterton ) , a struggling actress , after Tom invites the homeless Migg ( Pemberton ) into his home . Conleth Hill stars as Stevie , a man worried about the mental health of his friend Tom . The entire episode takes place inside Tom 's flat .
Reviewers generally agreed that " Tom & Gerri " was significantly darker but less funny than previous episodes of Inside No. 9 . Nonetheless , the response to the episode as a whole was very positive . Critics disagreed about the presentation of Tom 's mental illness in the episode , with one journalist suggesting that the episode 's ending " set back public awareness of mental health at least half an hour " , but another saying that the story presented " a fine – if cartoonish – take on mental illness " .
= = Production = =
Writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , who had previously worked together on The League of Gentlemen and Psychoville , took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from " David and Maureen " , episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville . This episode , in turn , was inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . " David and Maureen " took place entirely in a single room , and was filmed in only two shots . At the same time , the concept of Inside No. 9 was a " reaction " to Psychoville , with Shearsmith saying that " We 'd been so involved with labyrinthine over @-@ arcing , we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week . That 's appealing , because as a viewer you might not like this story , but you 've got a different one next week . " As an anthology series with horror themes , Inside No. 9 also pays homage to Tales of the Unexpected , The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents .
The " loose story " of " Tom and Gerri " was written originally as a two @-@ hour play while Shearsmith and Pemberton were on the dole and sharing a flat , prior to the production of League of Gentlemen . The story was inspired by their experiences in this environment . The character of Tom has his " life energy " drained in the same way that , the writers suggest , is experienced by jobhunters . The " sinister " atmosphere of the episode is meant to evoke the feeling that a person has when they " can 't quite manage to leave the flat " and they " can 't be bothered to tidy up " . " Tom & Gerri " ended up " quite different " from the play , which featured a character much like Pauline from The League of Gentlemen . Pemberton described the feel of the episode as Pinteresque , comparing it to Harold Pinter 's A Slight Ache . This sentiment was echoed by critic Gareth Lightfoot , writing in Teesside 's Evening Gazzette .
As the format of Inside No. 9 requires new characters each week , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . In addition to the writers , " Tom & Gerri " starred Gemma Arterton and Conleth Hill . The flat in which the episode was filmed , with its boardgames and " misery " , was , for Shearsmith , similar to the flat once shared by the writers . The episode was filmed in winter , and Pemberton described a " grim " atmosphere during filming . He also said that he hated the wig and beard he wore to play Migg , which irritated his skin . David Chater , writing in The Times , said that the hair meant Migg " has an eerie resemblance to the Cowardly Lion from the Wizard of Oz - only not nearly as benign " .
Considering the title of " Tom & Gerri " , critic Bruce Dessau suggested that it was likely not a reference to the Tom and Jerry of 1970s sitcom The Good Life , as the life of Tom and Gerri is " anything but good " . Instead , he suggested , the reference was more likely to cartoon characters Tom and Jerry , saying that there " is definitely a hint of cat and mouse " in the plot . Metro critics Larushka Ivan @-@ Zadeh and Carol Carter concurred , saying that the plot consisted of " a game of cat and mouse " .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with Tom ( Shearsmith ) , a primary school teacher , apathetically marking work while chatting to Gerri ( Arterton ) , who is going to audition for a part in a play . Tom complains about a tramp begging outside their house . Later in the evening , Tom is home alone and Migg ( Pemberton ) , the tramp , comes to his door , to return Tom 's wallet . Tom rewards him with £ 40 . Migg comes back later with a bottle of whiskey for Tom . Reluctantly , Tom invites Migg inside for a drink . Migg says he knows Charles Bukowski , a writer Tom idolises , and Tom warms to Migg as they drink .
Tom awakes the next morning on his sofa . Gerri is alarmed to see him there , as he should be at work , and then gets angry that Migg was invited in . Migg emerges from the bathroom as Gerri leaves the house , and encourages Tom to call in sick . It is revealed that Tom had promised Migg some of his clothes , and Migg makes breakfast . Later , Migg and Tom play Risk and drink wine . Tom is concerned that Gerri has not called . When Tom heads out to buy cigarettes and wine , Migg hides Tom 's mobile and deletes an answerphone message left by Tom 's colleague Stevie ( Hill ) .
A week later , Tom lies in bed , smoking and writing . Gerri enters the room , and it is revealed that Tom has left his job . She has been rehearsing in Portsmouth and says she left him dozens of messages , but Tom thinks he lost his phone . The pair fight over Migg , who is still living with Tom . Later still , the flat is a mess , and Tom is unkempt and drinking heavily . He has no messages on his phone and no post . He sits down to play Scrabble with Migg , and it is revealed that it is Tom 's birthday . The two argue about washing up , and Migg says that Tom has " no right " to judge him . Tom storms out of the room , and Migg flicks through birthday cards he has hidden from Tom , saying " Thank you , Grandma ! " and taking the £ 10 that Tom 's grandmother sent . The house and Tom have deteriorated further when Stevie comes to visit . He has brought Tom vouchers for The Body Shop . Stevie invites Tom out for dinner , but he declines . Stevie leaves , and Tom settles down with Migg on the sofa .
Tom 's electricity is cut off , and he weeps . A shaven Migg , wearing clean clothes , enters the house . He has started a job , working with children , and gives Tom £ 40 because Tom has " done so much " for Migg . Migg wants to take over the tenancy on the flat until Tom 's benefits come in . He walks into the bathroom to get into the bath as Gerri walks in and comforts Tom , who asks her not to leave . Gerri tells Tom that he has invented Migg to cope with what has been happening . She says Tom is depressed and has had a nervous breakdown . The pair head into the bathroom , but there is no Migg . Gerri tells Tom to " get this Migg out of [ his ] head once and for all " . She leaves , and Migg emerges from a hiding place ; he asks if everything is alright .
Things apparently get better : the flat is tidy , Tom is smartly dressed and clean @-@ shaven . Gerri is happily chatting to him . Tom answers the door to Stevie , who asks Tom to come back to work . He is alarmed to see Tom call Gerri ; Stevie says that Gerri was killed in a car accident , and that Tom went back to work too soon . Stevie heads to the bathroom to get Tom 's medication , but freezes when he sees the corpse of Migg in the bath . Tom tells him not to worry , and that Migg is not real . He invites Stevie to stay for coffee , saying Gerri is just boiling the kettle .
= = Reception = =
Reviewers generally agreed that the episode was darker than previous episodes , but not as funny . However , Will Dean , writing in The Independent , said that his observation that the episode " wasn 't really in the slightest bit funny " was " no complaint " . The critical response to " Tom & Gerri " was overwhelmingly positive ; Dean was " moved by its sad brilliance " , while Gerald Gilbert , also writing in The Independent , called it " another finely worked playlet " . Bruce Dessau said viewers would be " totally immersed from start to finish " .
Critics disagreed on how " Tom & Gerri " compared to previous episodes of Inside No. 9 . Writing in The Guardian , Mark Jones said that " Tom & Gerri " was the " highlight of the series so far , with Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton on top form " . Pat Stacey , of the Evening Herald , agreed , though considered the previous episodes weak . By contrast , an anonymous reviewer in the Liverpool Echo thought " Sardines " was stronger , but said " Tom & Gerri " was " definitely the creepiest " of the first three , and Chater also disagreed with Jones and Stacey ; while he praised the episode as " a sinister tale about the fragile nature of sanity performed by actors who are frighteningly good " , he felt that it was not as strong as earlier installments . Like Chater , Dessau stressed the quality of the acting , praising the performances of both Shearsmith and Pemberton , especially the latter .
There was further disagreement on the episode 's approach to mental illness . Andrew Billen , writing in The Times , said he initially thought Mind may be able to use " Tom & Gerri " as a teaching aid , but he said that the ending " set back public awareness of mental health at least half an hour " . By contrast , Dean considered the character of Tom to be " a fine – if cartoonish – take on mental illness " .
Billen called the episode " distressing comedy to watch " , but said that " the acting , the scripting , the satisfactions of one @-@ act resolution and the laughter it generated " were redeeming qualities , and gave the episode four out of a possible five stars . Dessau felt that parts of the script were predicable , but some twists " catch you completely unaware " , while the ending " may haunt [ viewers ] for days " . Jack Seale , of the Radio Times , suggested that viewers will believe that they have guessed the plot by the half @-@ way point in the episode . However , he said that the writers " give their story of how we 're all one slip away from the gutter a chilling sense of rising dread " which counteracts this . " Nobody " , he said , " plays wicked games with the audience more skilfully . " Larushka Ivan @-@ Zadeh and Carol Carter , writing in Metro , suggested that viewers would want to rewatch the episode in an attempt to pick up clues to the plot twists that they originally missed .
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= Dilek Peninsula @-@ Büyük Menderes Delta National Park =
Dilek Peninsula @-@ Büyük Menderes Delta National Park ( Turkish : Dilek Yarımadası @-@ Büyük Menderes Deltası Millî Parkı ) , established on May 19 , 1966 , is a national park in western Turkey . It contains within its borders the entirety of the Dilek Peninsula as well as the large delta of the Büyük Menderes River . It is located in the Kuşadası district of Aydın Province , and as such it is also within the bounds of Turkey 's Aegean Region . Directly west of the national park is the small coastal town of Güzelçamlı , where several shuttle buses and ferries operate to and from the district 's center of Kuşadası , approximately 30 km ( 19 mi ) from the park .
The park is among the most biologically diverse of Turkey 's national parks . It is the native and migratory habitat of hundreds of species of birds , mammals , plants , and marine life , some of which are entirely endemic to the park and cannot be observed anywhere else in the world . For these reasons , it is protected by numerous wildlife and wetland conventions , and is of great national and international importance in these areas .
It is separated from the Greek island of Samos ( Greek : Σάμoς ) by a very narrow strait , known as the Mycale Strait ( Greek : Στενό της Μυκάλης ) . The strait is named after Mount Mycale , the highest and most prominent mountain of the peninsula , and is one of the narrowest straits in the Aegean Sea .
= = History = =
For most of the area 's existence , the lands from the Dilek Peninsula southwards to the end of the Büyük Menderes River 's large delta were uninhabited by people or very sparsely settled , and were otherwise untouched by human influence . As a result of this isolation , the area was considerably populated with numerous species of plants and wildlife , most of which still remain within the park today . Eventually , under Ancient Greek and especially Ionian influence , several settlements near Mount Mycale and the Büyük Menderes Delta were built , such as Priene and Miletus . Nearby , Panionium was erected as the meeting place of the Ionian League . During modern times , and despite a significant increase in population and density in areas near the port town of Kuşadası , it was not until May 19 , 1966 that the Turkish Ministry of Forest and Water Management declared Dilek Peninsula a government @-@ protected national park . Several decades later , in 1994 , the Büyük Menderes river delta adjacent to the peninsula in the south was also promoted to national park status .
= = = Events = = =
In early 2005 , a severely wounded Mediterranean monk seal ( Monachus monachus ) was found within the Büyük Menderes Delta . It was treated immediately , but due to complications died shortly afterwards . The Mediterranean monk seal is critically endangered , with only about 600 remaining in the world , and over 100 of which are within the maritime borders of Turkey .
Controversy surrounded the park in April 2010 after the chairman of the Aydın Beekeepers Association , Kadir Kılıç , claimed that beekeepers would be dispatched at the national park , which had been banned since its establishment in 1966 . Debate continued for a short period of time , but the dispute was soon settled , as a representative of the Governor 's Office of Aydın publicly asserted the provincial government 's position on the matter . They denied the claims and confirmed that beekeepers would not be introduced to the park . Beekeepers are currently not allowed as a means of conserving the abundant flora of the park , many of which rely on bees for pollination .
= = Geography = =
The national park is 27 @,@ 598 ha ( 68 @,@ 200 acres ) in total land area , with the peninsula itself having an area of about 110 km2 ( 42 sq mi ) , with a width of around 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from north to south and a length of 20 km ( 20 @,@ 000 m ) east to west . It is located approximately 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from Davutlar , about 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the district 's seat of Kuşadası ( estimates range from 23 @-@ 30 kilometres ) , and is directly adjacent to the town of Güzelçamlı . Other nearby cities in Aydın Province have access roads to the park , including Aydın , Söke and , to a lesser extent , Didim .
The Mycale Strait separates the peninsula from the nearby island of Samos . Named after Mount Mycale , the strait is only about 1 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) long at its narrowest point , making it one of the smallest straits within the region of the Aegean Sea .
= = = Popular features = = =
The mountainous terrain of the peninsula and its numerous caverns , canyons , and valleys result in the area being of high interest to both visitors and researchers . There are several coves along the shore that have been named in order to identify them easily . Upon entering the park from the east , the first and easternmost beach available to the public is known as İçmeler Cove ( Turkish : İçmeler Koyu ) . This cove 's waters are shallower than any other in the park , and its beaches are sandy , unlike some of the coves farther out . Therefore , it appears to be more popular amongst tourists than most of the remaining beaches and parts of Kuşadası that are visible along the horizon from it . Aydınlık Cove is situated about 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) further to the west , and has pebbly shores and deeper waters . It marks the transition point where the waters of the peninsula 's beaches become more challenging . As a result , these beaches tend to attract more experienced swimmers and locals rather than tourists . After passing the jandarma ( public safety patrol ) checkpoint , a turn onto a road leads to a nearby canyon , immediately to the left . From this point on , there are several trails through the forests of the peninsula . One of them leads to the village of Doğanbey , and if followed further , leads to the nearby ancient Hellenistic port city of Karine . However , this path 's final 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) are limited in access , and a permit or an accompanying tour guide is required to proceed . The third cove along the peninsula , Kavaklı Burun Cove , and the final , westernmost cove accessible to the public , Karasu Cove , both provide close views of the island of Samos , and are significantly less visited than the former coves of the peninsula . At the very end of the peninsula appears its tallest mountain , Mycale ( Turkish : Dilek Dağı ) , which looms over Samos and the strait of its namesake .
= = = = Cave of Zeus = = = =
Immediately upon entry into the national park , a fork in the main path begins a trail running through the inner peninsula leading to a local cavern known as the Cave of Zeus ( Turkish : Zeus Mağarası ) . The entrance is dense in vegetation , covering parts of it . There is also a wishing tree to which people usually tie objects and belongings , hoping for their wishes to be granted . The Cave of Zeus is filled with clear subterranean spring water , making it another common tourist attraction near the national park . Visits to the cave typically increase as the waters of the nearby beaches become rougher , thereby making them less inviting . The cave 's name invokes the many legends that concern the cave and its origins , including one holding that Zeus bathed in the cave .
= = = = Büyük Menderes Delta = = = =
The wide mouth of the Büyük Menderes River ( English : Great Meander ) empties at the Aegean Sea , with an area of 16 @,@ 613 ha ( 41 @,@ 050 acres ) ; larger than the entire Dilek Peninsula directly to the north , at only 10 @,@ 985 ha ( 27 @,@ 140 acres ) . The Büyük Menderes Delta is one of the most diverse wetlands in Turkey in terms of both vegetation and marine life , and is protected by several wetland agreements such as the Ramsar Convention . Its biodiversity is derived in part from the fertile lands and fresh waters of the delta , attracting numerous species to the area , including several migratory birds . The nearby mountains of the peninsula cause a marked temperature difference between the northern and southern faces of the peninsula , producing a corollary variance in the types of species found in the delta region . The area features a trail for visitors and options for canoeing and picnicking .
= = = Climate = = =
Dilek Peninsula @-@ Büyük Menderes Delta National Park has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , and as such , it is dry and mild throughout most of the year , except during the winters , when most of the yearly precipitation occurs . The average temperature year @-@ round is about 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) , ranging from average lows of 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) in the winter to highs of around 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) in the summer . However , on the mountaintops , as altitude increases , temperatures are usually much lower , with the annual mean temperature usually being no higher than 13 ° C ( 55 ° F ) . There are additional precipitation differences depending on elevation , and also between the north and south sides of the peninsula . Such precipitation amounts range from 900 – 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 35 – 59 in ) annually . Therefore , different species of foliage and plants live at higher altitudes than those at ground level , and the same is true when comparing the southern face of the peninsula and areas of the river delta with those to the north .
= = Geology = =
The terrain of the peninsula has much to do with the geology of the Aegean Region in general . The peninsula was shaped into its current form over several geological eras with the tectonic merging of Paleozoic schist formations , Mesozoic limestone and marble deposits , and finally the accretion of large clays and other sediments during the Neogene period . This is partly because of Turkey 's unstable fault block terrain , and because of the close proximity of the Anatolian @-@ Aegean plate boundary , which generates massifs of mountains all across western Turkey . This includes the peninsula and the mountains surrounding the Büyük Menderes River , known collectively as the Menderes Massif .
The peninsula is highly mountainous , with most of its mountains having elevations close to 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) above mean sea level . Its highest mountain , Mount Mycale , is approximately 1 @,@ 237 metres ( 4 @,@ 058 ft ) high .
= = Biology = =
The national park is quite diverse in its wildlife and vegetation , hosting approximately 804 distinct species of plants , 256 bird species , and an otherwise considerable variety of mammals , reptiles , and marine life . The entirety of the national park , including both Dilek Peninsula National Park and Büyük Menderes Delta National Park , is currently protected under the Ramsar Convention , the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats , the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity , and the Barcelona Convention .
= = = Flora = = =
The park has a large diversity of vegetation . Due to the temperature and climate differences between different areas and elevations of the park , not only is the typical Aegean flora present , but also many specimens normally only found in separate coastal areas of Turkey , such as in the Mediterranean , Marmara , and Black Sea regions .
Out of the 804 species of flora distributed throughout the park , six are endemic , completely exclusive to the park area , and cannot be observed anywhere else on earth , while another 30 are indigenous . The most common and widely distributed plant species throughout the national park are Mediterranean maquis shrubs such as the Phoenician juniper ( Juniperus phoenicea ) . Other common vegetative species within the area include the oleaster @-@ leafed pear ( Pyrus elaeagnifolia ) , Turkish pine ( Pinus brutia ) , and elm @-@ leaved sumach ( Rhus coriaria ) .
= = = Fauna = = =
In total , 28 species of mammals , 42 species of reptiles , and 45 fish species have been documented within the park . Several wild boars ( Sus scrofa ) are native to the park . They are often found near the beaches where they feed on scraps and trash dropped by visitors . Further within the forests of the peninsula , other mammals can be spotted , such as golden jackals ( Canis aureus ) , Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx ) , and even several striped hyenas ( Hyaena hyaena ) and caracals ( Caracal caracal ) , among many others usually not native to such areas .
Along the southern shores of the peninsula , and within the river delta , exist a range of bird and marine life . Many of these species are endangered , which was one of the primary factors considered when placing the delta under national protection . Some of the more common bird species observed here include pygmy cormorants ( Microcarbo pygmeus ) , little egrets ( Egretta garzetta ) , lesser kestrels ( Falco naumanni ) , Kentish plovers ( Charadrius alexandrinus ) , white @-@ tailed eagles ( Haliaeetus albicilla ) , and the Dalmatian pelicans ( Pelecanus crispus ) , for which the park is a key nesting place . Marine life consists of species typical of the Aegean Sea , as well as some species usually found elsewhere .
The biodiversity of local oceanic fauna is not well understood . Sea turtles and mammals , including monk seals , fin whales ( only 1 sighting and 5 strandings have been documented in Turkish waters ) , and dolphins are considered to reside in the park area , although regularity of occurrences are unclear .
= = Activities = =
Nature photography is a common activity in the park due to the large variety of flora and fauna , as well as landscape photography due to the mountainous terrain and views . There are several forest trails and high @-@ elevation ventures used by hikers and mountaineers respectively . There are numerous other activities available for visitors , as well as some prohibited activities . For example , although recreational fishing is allowed , there are severe consequences for anyone found hunting within the jurisdiction of the park .
= = = Tourism = = =
The park is the most visited during the spring and summer months , when it is open between 8 : 00 and 19 : 00 ( 7 : 00 pm ) local time . In autumn and winter , it closes at 17 : 00 ( 5 : 00 pm ) , two hours earlier disregarding the time difference . Admission at the entrance must be paid . Camping , lighting fires , or setting up overnight shelters are strictly forbidden within the limits of the national park in order to protect the surrounding ecosystem . The park can be reached from the city center of Kuşadası via several dolmuş ( share taxis ) that regularly shuttle the route to the closest town of Güzelçamlı . Recently , there have also been ferry boat services operating back and forth between Kuşadası and Güzelçamlı , in turn providing easier access to the park for visitors . Each year , around 700 @,@ 000 foreign and domestic tourists visit the park .
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= Moonlight Madness ( video game ) =
Moonlight Madness is a video game for the ZX Spectrum home computer , published in 1986 by Bubble Bus Software . It is an arcade adventure game in which players control a boy scout . The object of the game is to unlock a safe within a mansion to obtain pills for the mansion 's owner , a mad scientist , who has collapsed . This requires the player to traverse the mansion 's rooms while avoiding hazards such as dangerous house servants and fatal falls .
The game was developed by John F. Cain , who had previously created Booty , a popular budget game . Moonlight Madness was criticized for its price on release , £ 7 @.@ 95 in the UK , as well its technical issues . The game 's graphics , gameplay and sound were negatively rated by critics , though some reviewers were more positive over these different aspects of the game .
= = Gameplay = =
Players must guide a boy scout through a 43 @-@ room mansion in order to obtain 16 keys and a combination before running out of time . These unlock a safe containing the pills needed to save the mansion owner 's life . It is necessary to jump onto platforms and evade enemies in order to progress . At the start of the game the player has three lives ; a life is lost should the boy scout fall too far or come into contact with one of the mansion 's servants or traps . Rooms contain doors that can be entered to move around the mansion , as well as push buttons and hazards . Pressing buttons can result in lifts being activated , platforms appearing or in an enemy appearing . One of the mansion 's rooms is a corridor of eight doors with a large pair of eyes above them ; this room acts as a maze . A tune is played continuously during play , but can be toggled on or off .
= = Plot = =
The player character , a boy scout , has approached a mansion looking for work during Bob a Job week . The door is answered by an old man wearing horn @-@ rimmed glasses — the owner of the mansion . The man , a mad scientist , expresses surprise that the boy has managed to get past the guards and booby traps in the mansion 's grounds . As the boy scout explains the reason for his visit , the scientist collapses , asking for his pills . At this point the game begins . The player must gather the 16 keys needed to unlock the safe and retrieve the scientist 's pills before he passes away . During play the boy scout must negotiate the mansion 's rooms , avoiding hazards and the mansion 's staff , who have been told to protect the inventions within the mansion , using lethal force if necessary . The staff are unaware of the boy scout 's purpose and will attack him should they come into contact .
= = Development and release = =
The game was created by John F. Cain , who had previously developed the successful budget game Booty for Firebird Software . By this point Cain had also developed several titles for Rabbit Software , such as Potty Painter . Moonlight Madness was published by Bubble Bus in the United Kingdom and Spain in 1986 ; the original price was £ 7 @.@ 95 in the United Kingdom . Moonlight Madness was re @-@ released on budget software labels ; Blue Ribbon Software in the United Kingdom , Zafi Chip and Z Cobra in Spain . Blue Ribbon Software was a label belonging to CDS Microsystems , both of the Spanish budget labels belonged to Zafiro Software Division . The game was published on the covertape of the February 1991 issue of Your Sinclair magazine . The covertape also featured Marsport , Ninja Hamster and Wizard 's Lair .
= = Reception = =
Moonlight Madness received negative and mediocre ratings from reviewers , who either criticized the game overall or different aspects of it . Direct comparisons with Booty feature in many reviews . The game 's price was in particular a common complaint among reviewers , who stated that it should have been a budget @-@ priced title . One reviewer stated that it would have been better received as a budget title , another stated " Like Booty , Moonlight Madness would be all right at budget price " . Your Sinclair 's reviewer began their piece by stating " Hmmm , don 't like the title Moonlight Madness much , howzabout Daylight Robbery . Catchy , ain 't it ? " Computer Gamer 's reviewer stated " Had it been released on a budget label , Moonlight Madness would have been fair value for money . As it is , it is grossly overpriced . "
Reviewers highlighted technical issues in the game . The eight door maze room was thought to be a bug , a software error , by two people at ZX Computing magazine . Because the game contains no reset feature they reloaded the game from cassette in order to continue playing . The player character 's movements were criticised for being jerky and prone to stopping at infrequent intervals . One of Crash magazine 's staff stated that the boy scout 's movement to the left was quick ; " as if there 's a force ten gale blowing to the left . " They added " When any attempt is made to move right , all the moving characters on the screen slow right down . " In @-@ game objects are removed from view when either the player character or one of the mansion staff move in front of them . When the player redefines the game 's keyboard controls , allowing them to choose which keys move the boy scout during play , the pause key and music toggle key are not included . As a result it is possible to double @-@ up movement controls with these two functions , effectively causing the game to pause and unpause or for the music to toggle constantly as the player moves in that direction .
Reviewers ' opinions on the graphics and gameplay were largely negative , while opinion 's on the title 's music varied . The background music was described as " ... the only thing that is remotely interesting about this appallingly tedious game ... " by Popular Computing Weekly 's reviewer . He followed this by stating " At first it sounds all right , if a little monotonous , then it begins to grate the nerves . After a while it begins to take on all the appeal of the Chinese water torture . " Crash magazine 's three reviewers were more positive about the music , stating " The sound is fairly well done ... " , " The title screen plays a nice tune ... " and " ... the game 's drawing point is the sound ... " The game 's graphics were described as " fairly crude " , " unattractive " and " ... none too exciting , consisting of colourful but flickery characters . " One reviewer stated " The graphics are large and colourful but there is a lot of character clash ... " Overall impressions of Moonlight Madness were negative . Crash magazine 's reviewers compared the game unfavourably to Booty . One expressed disappointment because of Bubble Bus ' history of releasing " great arcade / adventures " . Your Sinclair 's reviewer stated " Maybe Bubble Bus had a touch of Moonlight Madness when it picked this one for its new release . " The reviewer from ZX Computing stated " Keeping to the boy scout theme , be prepared before you buy this one . "
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= Shape ( song ) =
" Shape " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , released as the fourth and final single from their second studio album , Angels with Dirty Faces ( 2002 ) . It was composed by Sting , Dominic Miller , and Craig Dodds , who produced the song . The midtempo pop and R & B ballad incorporates a sample of Sting 's 1993 recording " Shape of My Heart " , whose vocals are featured in the chorus . It received mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards the sample of " Shape of My Heart " .
The single attained moderate success and reached the top twenty on the charts in Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway and the United Kingdom . The song 's music video was directed by Michael Gracey and Pete Commins , and filmed in Sydney , Australia . The video was censored and later re @-@ shot due to its depiction of nudity . It features the Sugababes at a masquerade ball in a mansion . The Sugababes performed " Shape " on GMTV , at the V Festival , and on tour in support of their albums .
= = Background and composition = =
" Shape " was written by Sting , Dominic Miller and Craig Dodds , and produced by Dodds under his production name Craigie , for the Sugababes ' second studio album , Angels with Dirty Faces ( 2002 ) . It is a remake of Sting 's 1993 recording " Shape of My Heart " ; the song 's verses were changed , while the chorus that features Sting 's vocals was re @-@ recorded . According to Sugababes member Mutya Buena , " He felt he could do better with the chorus , so he came in to re @-@ record it " . The song was engineered by Jack Guy , and programmed by Dean Barratt . Additional vocal recording was completed by Ben Georgiades . " Shape " is the album 's fourth and final single , and was released in the United Kingdom on 10 March 2003 as a CD single and cassette tape . The B @-@ side is a cover version of English producer Adamski 's and English musician Seal 's 1990 single " Killer " .
" Shape " is a midtempo pop and R & B ballad with a subtle dance groove . The song was composed in the key of F minor , at a moderately slow tempo of 82 beats per minute . The Sugababes ' vocal range in the song spans from the higher note of F3 to the lower note of G4 . Its instrumentation consists of keyboards and bass guitar . The chorus of the song features Sting 's vocals . Adrian Thrills of Daily Mail described " Shape " as an " ambitious , harmonica @-@ led reworking " of " Shape of My Heart " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Shape " received generally mixed reviews from critics . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian criticised the track as a " lumbering , mirthless AOR ballad , grown @-@ up in the worst sense of the phrase " . The Birmingham Post 's Andrew Cowen panned the song as " horrible " , and regarded the sample from " Shape of My Heart " as " not big or clever " . Andy Kellman of AllMusic called " Shape " a " bum moment " on the album , and dismissed it as a " misguided re @-@ configuration " of the sample . Alex Needham of NME considered it a " massive faux pas " on the album . The Jerusalem Post writer Harry Rubenstein viewed " Shape " as " [ a ] sing- along , more than a cover , that sounds completely uninspired and out of place amongst the faster @-@ paced R & B tracks on the rest of the album " . In contrast , David Byrne of RTÉ.ie called the track a " nice touch " on the album , while Daily Record writer Julie MacCaskill complimented the sample of Sting 's " Shape of My Heart " , which she felt produced the song 's powerful hook . Alan Poole from the Coventry Evening Telegraph wrote that the Sugababes " underline their versatility " on the track . A writer from South Wales Echo felt that " Shape " was equally good as " Freak like Me " and " Round Round " , the group 's number @-@ one singles from the same album . A critic from Daily Mirror described it as a " clever " cover that depicts the Sugababes " on top form " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Shape " debuted at number eleven on the UK Singles Chart on 22 March 2003 . It became the first single from Angels with Dirty Faces to not reach the top ten . By early 2010 , it had sold 55 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The song was more successful on the Irish Singles Chart , where it debuted and peaked at number nine , and in turn became the third single from Angels with Dirty Faces to reach the top ten . " Shape " also achieved commercial success in Continental Europe . In Belgium , the song reached number two on the Ultratip chart in Wallonia , and number 49 on the Ultratop chart in Flanders . The single debuted at number 16 on the Netherlands ' Dutch Top 40 chart , and peaked at number seven three weeks later . It ended as the chart 's 76th best @-@ performing single of 2003 . The song peaked at number 16 on the Norwegian VG @-@ lista chart and spent four weeks in the top twenty . " Shape " attained top @-@ forty positions on the German and Swiss singles charts , and reached the top fifty on the Austrian chart . The single debuted and peaked at number 75 on the Australian Singles Chart , where it charted for a total of four weeks .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Shape " was directed by Michael Gracey and Pete Commins . It was filmed during December 2002 in Sydney , Australia , and was released on 24 February 2003 . Baz Luhrmann 's Moulin Rouge team assisted in its production . Sting did not appear in the video due to a busy schedule . The Sugababes wore flesh @-@ coloured bodysuits which caused controversy as it implied nudity . The video was subsequently censored and later re @-@ shot after being deemed " too raunchy " . The video features computer @-@ generated butterflies around the group members ' bodies and was described as displaying " a wonderland " .
The video opens with a scene of the ocean at night . It then shows a mansion by the water , in which Buena is seen standing by a balcony . The following scene shows Range entering the mansion as two men open the doors for her . Buena is shown walking in the middle of a masquerade ball , in which she captures the attention of a man . The Sugababes are shown on a couch , where Buchanan holds a man 's hand ; they all then walk down the mansion 's staircase . Each group member begins to dance with a man at the ball . Buena walks towards a mirror which depicts a reflection of the Sugababes , while Buchanan drops her white mask which subsequently shatters . Towards the end of the video , they are shown leaving the ball before Buchanan jumps off the balcony and into the water . All three members are shown collectively in the water , which begins to fade out into the sky . The last scene shows the men that were in the mansion walking away .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes performed " Shape " on GMTV on 20 February 2003 which was the same day of the 2003 BRIT Awards . They performed the song on 30 March 2003 at the Royal Court Theatre in Liverpool . An acoustic version of the song was performed during their tour in support of Three ( 2003 ) , the group 's third studio album . The group sang " Shape " at the Edinburgh Corn Exchange on 18 August 2004 as part of a set list . The third line @-@ up of the Sugababes , comprising Buchanan , Range and Amelle Berrabah , played the single while on the Taller in More Ways tour as part of a medley with " Stronger " . The trio also performed these two songs as an acoustic medley at the 2006 V Festival , and at the 100 Club in London to promote the release of their greatest hits album , Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Sting , Dominic Miller , Craig Dodds
Production – Craigie
Engineering – Jack Guy
Additional vocal recording – Ben Georgiades
Additional programming – Dean Barratt
Keyboards – Jonathan Quarmby
Vocals – Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range
Bass guitar – Kevin Bacon
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Charts = =
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= Monkey Gone to Heaven =
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " is a song by the American alternative rock band Pixies and is the seventh track on their 1989 album Doolittle . The song was written and sung by frontman Black Francis and was produced by Gil Norton . Referencing environmentalism and biblical numerology , the song 's lyrics mirrored themes that were explored in Doolittle . " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was the first Pixies song to feature guest musicians : two cellists , Arthur Fiacco and Ann Rorich , and two violinists , Karen Karlsrud and Corine Metter .
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " was released as the first single from Doolittle in the United States and United Kingdom . As the band had signed to Elektra Records shortly before , the single also marked their first American and major label release . It was critically well @-@ received ; Rolling Stone 's David Fricke said " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was " a corrosive , compelling meditation on God and garbage " . In the years since its release , the song has received several accolades from music publications .
= = Lyrics and meaning = =
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " ' s main theme is environmentalism . The song mainly deals with man 's destruction of the ocean and " confusion of man 's place in the universe " . " On one hand , it 's [ the ocean ] this big organic toilet . Things get flushed and repurified or decomposed and it 's this big , dark , mysterious place " , Black later said , " It 's also a very mythological place where there are octopus 's gardens , the Bermuda Triangle , Atlantis , and mermaids . " Francis came up with the song 's hook , " this monkey 's gone to heaven " , long before the song itself was written . The line itself forms a basis for the song , which revolves around man 's relationship with the divine and environmentalism . After Francis set the developing lyrics to music , he rushed to lead guitarist Joey Santiago 's apartment to play it to him . Santiago later commented on the nascent performance : " It was early in the morning , I was still so tired . [ Francis said ] ' Hey Joe , I need to come over . I need to show you something . ' [ ... ] It was awesome , really good . He had the ' If man is five ' part there , and he was laughing . [ ... ] It was hilarious " .
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " includes references to numerology in the lyrics " If man is five / then the Devil is six / and God is seven " . Francis later expanded on the significance of the lyrics in an interview to Alternative Press , saying " It 's a reference from what I understand to be Hebrew numerology , and I don 't know a lot about it or any of it really . I just remember someone telling me of the supposed fact that in the Hebrew language , especially in the Bible , you can find lots of references to man in the 5th and Satan in the 6th and God in the 7th . [ ... ] I didn 't go to the library and figure it out " . The song 's numerology is alluded to on the single 's cover , which features figures of five , six and seven , and also a monkey with a halo .
Ben Sisario , author of Doolittle 33 ⅓ , offers a slightly different interpretation of the song : " Neptune , the god of this realm [ in reference to Francis ' ocean comment ] , the ' underwater guy who controlled the sea , ' hung out down there , the personification of man 's relationship with the earth . And what happens to Neptune ? He gets ' killed by ten million pounds of sludge from New York to New Jersey . ' Same thing with the " creature in the sky , " who gets stuck up there in a hole in the ozone layer . Man the divine manifestation effectively dies , and what remains is his degraded animal nature ; the chintzy halo stuck on the primate 's head is the symbol of that unhappy fall " .
= = Structure = =
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " is written in the key of D major , and opens with Francis ' rhythm guitar playing a short chord progression backed by the bass guitar of Kim Deal and drums of David Lovering . The guitar intensity fades as Francis begins to sing , leaving Deal 's bassline and Lovering 's steady drum @-@ beat . Between each line of the verse , Francis pauses , leaving the drums and bass playing . Joey Santiago 's lead guitar does not feature at all during the verses . By the end of the second line of each verse , the cello part joins in , following the bassline closely .
As the first verse finishes , the opening chord progression is repeated . This leads into the chorus ( where Francis and Deal repeat " This monkey 's gone to heaven " ) with the lead guitar of Santiago playing two notes repeatedly . The two violins play a melody throughout , accompanied by a piano in the background . There is then a short solo by Santiago , who repeats the melody three times , to bridge the chorus and second verse . The second verse and chorus follow the same format . At the end of the second chorus , Francis shouts " Rock me Joe ! " ; Santiago then begins a guitar solo lasting seventeen seconds , with backing violins for the second half of the solo .
After the solo , Francis sings " If man is five " several times . There is no backing , apart from the lead guitar , for several seconds , but then the song 's chord progression is heard again . This is repeated for " If the devil is six " . At the end of the second chord progression , the song 's main backing restarts again , with Francis screaming " Then God is seven " as the chorus approaches . The final repeated chorus of " This monkey 's gone to heaven " ends the song as the string section becomes more prominent .
= = Recording and production = =
The band 's parts were recorded at Downtown Recorders in Boston , Massachusetts . The string section of " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was recorded while Doolittle was being mixed at Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut . Gil Norton , the album 's producer , was inspired to add a string section to the song after seeing Deal plucking the strings of a grand piano during recording . The production team , led by Norton , asked the studio owner John Montagnese to bring in string players for one evening session . The studio was often used for recording orchestral scores for B @-@ movies such as Missing in Action and Silver Bullet . Montagnese hired four classical musicians from a local orchestra for the recording , with the session taking place on the afternoon of December 4 , 1988 .
Arthur Fiacco , a cellist , arrived at Carriage House first . He was dressed in formal black and white attire , having traveled from an afternoon concert . Fiacco was surprised to find there were no scores written for the musicians to play ; he then wrote a part based on riffs Francis had shown him . The violinists , Corinne Metter and Karen Karlsrud , also followed the directions of Francis and Norton . Another cellist , Ann Rorich , credited on the album and single , was sent home ; according to Fiacco he doubled her parts .
= = Release and music video = =
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " , the first single from Doolittle , was released to radio stations for rotation in April 1989 in the United States . The single reached number five on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart , with the help of Elektra Records ' marketing . In the United Kingdom , " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was released on April 1 , 1989 and spent three weeks in the UK chart , debuting at number 60 .
The music video , the Pixies ' first , features the band playing their instruments on a stage , with the camera alternating to focus on each band member . Filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , " searchlights " cross the stage and several camera effects are used , such as slow @-@ motion . The camera switches to color for a few seconds several times during the video , before reverting to black @-@ and @-@ white . Halfway through the video , fog appears on @-@ stage , covering the band . The members of the string section are not seen in the video .
The song would later be re @-@ recorded by Black Francis and released on his 2004 album Frank Black Francis .
South African band Absinthe covered the song on their album A Rendezvous at Nirvana .
= = Reception = =
In general , " Monkey Gone to Heaven " received a positive critical reaction . British magazine NME , reviewing the UK 7 " single in March 1989 , said : " All the smart bastards are mixing strings with grunge guitars nowadays and the Pixies are no exception . Snarled vocals , sci @-@ fi lyrics , and the usual molten lava flow of guitars burn another crater where your ears used to be . ' Monkey Gone to Heaven ' pukes acid and poetry into America 's AOR heartland before being splattered by the faster and more direct sting of the second track ' Manta Ray ' . " Upon the release of Doolittle in April 1989 , NME 's Edwin Pouncey added : " the wonderful ' Monkey Gone to Heaven ' is laced with lush but unobtrusive strings which nibble round the edge of the song and push it into a new realm of arrangement for the band . The opportunity to give ' Monkey ' the full Philharmonic treatment , complete with heavenly harp , must have been a temptation to them . Wisely such a folly has been resisted . "
Q , in their review of Doolittle , described " Monkey Gone to Heaven " : " It 's not pretty , but its carefully structured noise and straight forward rhythmic insistence makes perfect sense : a gut feeling that is doubled when it gets within sniffing distance of a tune , as on ' Monkey Gone to Heaven ' or ' Debaser ' . " Rolling Stone 's David Fricke , reviewing Doolittle , said " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was " a corrosive , compelling meditation on God and garbage . " The critical success of " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was also reflected commercially ; the song reached number five on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart , marking the Pixies ' debut in the American charts . However , the song did not perform as well in the British charts , reaching a peak position of number 60 and falling off the charts after three weeks .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were written by Black Francis
UK 7 " single
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " – 2 : 56
" Manta Ray " – 2 : 38
UK / US 12 " / CD single
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " – 2 : 56
" Manta Ray " – 2 : 38
" Weird at My School " – 1 : 59
" Dancing the Manta Ray " – 2 : 13
= = Accolades = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to " Monkey Gone to Heaven " is adapted from Acclaimed Music .
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= A.M. ( Wilco album ) =
A.M. is the debut album of Chicago @-@ based alternative rock band Wilco , released on March 28 , 1995 . The album was released only months after the breakup of Uncle Tupelo , an alternative country band that was the predecessor of Wilco . Prior to the release of the album , there was debate about whether the album would be better than the debut album of Son Volt , the new band of former Uncle Tupelo lead singer Jay Farrar .
Although A.M. was released before Son Volt 's Trace , critical reviews were modest and initial sales were low . The album was later regarded as a " failure " by band members , as Trace became a greater commercial success . It was the band 's last album to be recorded in a purely alternative country style , as following the record the band began to expand their sound across multiple genres . It is also the only Wilco album to feature Brian Henneman of The Bottle Rockets as a lead guitarist .
= = Context and recording = =
Uncle Tupelo 's last album , Anodyne , featured a new lineup for the band — a five @-@ piece outfit with drummer Ken Coomer , bassist John Stirratt , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Max Johnston . Tensions mounted between singers Jay Farrar and Jeff Tweedy , and Uncle Tupelo played its last concert on May 1 , 1994 at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis , Missouri .
Only days after the breakup , Tweedy decided to form a new group . He was able to retain the lineup of Uncle Tupelo sans Farrar , and rechristened the band Wilco . In mid @-@ May , the band began to rehearse songs in the office of band manager Tony Margherita , and hired producer Brian Paulson , who produced Anodyne . Wilco first recorded demo tracks for the album at Easley studio in Memphis , Tennessee in June . Stirratt recommended the studio based on previous experience as a member of The Hilltops , and Tweedy had heard of the studio through a Jon Spencer Blues Explosion recording . Reprise Records , a subsidiary of Warner Brothers , signed Jeff Tweedy after hearing the tapes , and recording for the album continued through August .
Jeff Tweedy was preoccupied with trying to establish Wilco as a viable band on the Reprise label and decided to add another guitarist to the band . Brian Henneman , the lead singer for The Bottle Rockets , was brought into the recording sessions as a lead guitarist . Steel guitarist Lloyd Maines and bassist Daniel Corrigan also contributed to the album . Corrigan also photographed the band for the liner booklet . Howie Weinberg mastered the album , while Barbara Longo provided graphic design . Brian Henneman had to leave the band shortly after recording the album , and was replaced by former Titanic Love Affair guitarist Jay Bennett . Tweedy also attempted to create a more collaborative environment than Uncle Tupelo , requesting songwriting contributions from other members . John Stirratt submitted three songs , hoping to become a secondary songwriter for Wilco . However , although the songs were recorded as demos , only one ( " It 's Just That Simple " ) was selected to appear on the album , and was the only Stirratt song and the only song by Wilco song not to have lyrics by Tweedy to appear on any Wilco album .
The album 's title is intended to reference Top 40 radio stations , and the tracks reflect a straightforward country @-@ rock sound . The band members felt that they needed to establish themselves outside of the Tupelo fanbase . However , Tweedy later stated that in actuality , they were " trying to tread some water with a perceived audience . " Tweedy wrote a song about the Uncle Tupelo breakup , but decided that he didn 't want any material on that subject matter to appear on the album . ( It can be argued , however , that first single " Box Full of Letters " , as well as " Too Far Apart " allude to the dissolution of Farrar and Tweedy 's friendship and working relationship . ) Critic and author Greg Kot wrote in Wilco : Learning How to Die that " Tweedy 's voice and personality are as modest as the arrangements ; there 's little sense of drama , and virtually no hint of risk . Tweedy attributes some of the straightforwardness of the album to his abuse of marijuana at the time . Shortly after the album , Tweedy stopped smoking pot , to which he credits the introspectiveness of further albums .
While Wilco was recording tracks , Jay Farrar formed a band of his own , Son Volt . Son Volt signed to Warner Bros. Records and began recording their first album ( also produced by Paulson ) , Trace , in November 1994 . The fact that both Wilco and Son Volt began working on album almost immediately after the Uncle Tupelo breakup caused debate among critics , fans , and Warner Brothers about which would be the better band . Joe McEwen , who originally signed Uncle Tupelo to a Warner subsidiary , felt that Wilco was taking a step backwards from the material on Anodyne . McEwen urged Richard Dodd , who had recently mixed Tom Petty 's Wildflowers , to remix the album . Dodd emphasized Tweedy 's vocals to increase the chances of success on radio .
Wilco began touring before the album was released . Their live debut was on November 27 , 1994 at Cicero 's Basement Bar in St. Louis , a venue where Uncle Tupelo had first received significant media attention . The band was billed for that concert as Black Shampoo , a reference to a 1970s B @-@ movie , and the show sold out . Wilco continued to tour for two hundred shows , culminating in show at the South by Southwest Music Conference in Austin , Texas in March 1995 . A.M. was released on Reprise Records on March 28 , 1995 .
= = Commercial and critical reception = =
A.M. received modest reviews from critics . Holly George @-@ Warren of Rolling Stone called the album " one hell of a country @-@ guts debut " , praising the influence of Gram Parsons and Neil Young on the music . However , the album still received a moderate three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic enjoyed " I Must Be High " , noting that Wilco can " subvert the [ alternative country ] genre without losing its accessibility " , but felt that the following songs were disappointing . However , fellow Allmusic critic Matthew Greenwald found the album to be " brilliant and underrated . " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a three @-@ star honorable mention , but called it " realist defiance grinding sadly down into realist bathos . " The Village Voice placed the album at position 34 on the 1995 Pazz & Jop critics poll . The band was disappointed by the critical reception , since Trace was met with better reviews . According to Henneman :
A.M. only hit number 27 on Billboard 's Heatseekers chart , whereas Trace peaked at number 116 on the Billboard 200 ; by 1997 , Trace had outsold A.M. two @-@ to @-@ one . Wilco released " Box Full of Letters " as a single , but it received little airplay . For the only time in Wilco 's career , ticket sales failed to meet expectations . As of 2003 , the album had sold about 150 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Jeff Tweedy unless otherwise noted .
" I Must Be High " – 2 : 59
" Casino Queen " – 2 : 45
" Box Full of Letters " – 3 : 05
" Shouldn 't Be Ashamed " – 3 : 28
" Pick Up the Change " – 2 : 56
" I Thought I Held You " – 3 : 49
" That 's Not the Issue " – 3 : 19
" It 's Just That Simple " ( John Stirratt ) – 3 : 45
" Should 've Been in Love " – 3 : 36
" Passenger Side " – 3 : 33
" Dash 7 " – 3 : 29
" Blue Eyed Soul " – 4 : 05
" Too Far Apart " – 3 : 44
= = Personnel = =
Jeff Tweedy – lead vocals ( 1 @-@ 7 , 9 @-@ 13 ) , rhythm guitar ( 1 , 3 , 13 ) , acoustic guitar ( 2 , 4 @-@ 7 , 9 @-@ 12 ) , bass guitar ( 8 )
John Stirratt – bass guitar ( 1 @-@ 7 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 ) , piano ( 6 ) , organ ( 13 ) , backing vocals ( 2 , 3 , 6 ) , lead vocals / acoustic guitar ( 8 )
Ken Coomer – drums ( 1 @-@ 6 , 8 @-@ 10 , 12 , 13 ) , backing vocals / cowbell ( 2 ) , a snare drum played with a brush ( 7 )
Max Johnston – dobro ( 1 , 3 , 9 , 13 ) , fiddle ( 2 , 10 ) , mandolin ( 4 , 8 , 10 , 12 ) , banjo ( 5 @-@ 7 ) , backing vocals ( 2 )
Brian Henneman – lead guitar ( 1 @-@ 9 , 12 , 13 ) , small stoned guitar ( 10 ) , backing vocals ( 2 )
Daniel Corrigan - backing vocals ( 2 )
Lloyd Maines - pedal steel guitar ( 1 , 6 , 8 , 11 , 12 )
Wilco , Brian Henneman and Daniel Corrigan - handclaps , crowd noise , glass cheers ( 2 )
= = = Production = = =
Daniel Corrigan – photography
Richard Dodd – mixing
Barbara Longo – design
Brian Paulson – producer , engineer , mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Wilco – producer , engineer
Bob Andrews – Production Coordinator
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= Typhoon Isa =
Typhoon Isa was the first of eleven super @-@ typhoons to occur during the 1997 Pacific typhoon season . The second tropical cyclone of the season , Isa developed from a disturbance in the monsoon trough near the Caroline Islands on April 12 . It moved erratically at first , though after attaining tropical storm status it curved westward due to the subtropical ridge to its north . Isa very gradually intensified , and on April 20 the typhoon reached peak 1 @-@ min winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) , as reported by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ; Japan Meteorological Agency reported maximum 10 @-@ min winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . After turning northward , it accelerated to the northeast , and merged with a larger extratropical cyclone on April 24 .
Early in its duration , Isa caused light rainfall and moderate winds on Pohnpei . Later , a stationary rainband from the typhoon dropped heavy precipitation on Guam during its dry season . Damage in the Guam National Weather Service area of responsibility totaled $ 1 million ( 1997 USD , $ 1 @.@ 3 million 2006 USD ) , the majority of it from crop damage . No deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early April , the monsoon trough established itself across Micronesia near the equator . An area of convection within the trough developed in the Caroline Islands on April 9 , and resembled the characteristics of a monsoon depression . Shortly thereafter , a large , yet weak low @-@ level circulation formed within the system . The system drifted erratically for several days as it slowly organized ; the system underwent several cycles of developing and losing convection . On April 11 , the system maintained a persistent area of well @-@ organized deep convection , and subsequent to an increase in upper @-@ level outflow , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 02W at 1800 UTC on April 11 . Strong influence from the monsoonal westerlies left the depression drifting and slowly executing a loop to the northwest . Based on sufficient satellite classifications , JTWC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Isa early on April 12 while it was located 105 km ( 65 mi ) of Pohnpei . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) simultaneously classified the system as a tropical depression , and upgraded it to a tropical storm early on April 13 .
With the subtropical ridge to its north , Isa tracked to the north and gradually curved to the west . It slowly intensified , due to it being a large tropical cyclone , and late on April 13 JTWC upgraded the storm to typhoon status ; at the same time , JMA continued to assess Isa as a minimal tropical storm , and did not upgrade it to a typhoon until April 16 . Isa maintained a nearly due @-@ westward movement , although tropical cyclone prediction models anticipated a quick turn to the north . The JTWC recognized the northward model bias , which was described as under @-@ analyzing the strength of the subtropical ridge . By April 16 , the typhoon attained the equivalence of a Category 3 tropical cyclone on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and despite a potential threat to Guam the typhoon remained 260 km ( 160 mi ) south of the island . It gradually curved to the north , and on April 20 JTWC classified Super Typhoon Isa as reaching peak 1 @-@ min winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) . At this point , Isa became an annular typhoon , with a large eye and a lack of spiralform rainbands , while moving nearly due northward , through a weakness in the subtropical ridge . Simultaneously , JMA assessed the typhoon as attaining peak 10 @-@ min winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) .
Shortly after peaking in intensity , Isa began to weaken , and by April 21 it dropped below " super typhoon " status . It accelerated to the northeast under the flow of the mid @-@ latitudes , and the typhoon weakened more rapidly ; JMA downgraded Isa to a tropical storm on April 22 , which was followed suit by the JTWC the next day as upper @-@ level wind shear increased . At 0600 UTC on April 23 , the JTWC issued the last advisory on the system , and the next day JMA classified Isa dissipated as it became absorbed by a cloud band from a large extratropical cyclone to the east of Japan .
= = Impact = =
Isa first affected Pohnpei as a tropical storm on April 12 . While passing near the island , the storm produced moderate winds across the island , peaking at 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The winds downed several trees and tree limbs which destroyed 40 % of the island 's power lines . A few buildings reported roof damage . About 15 % of the crops on Pohnpei were damaged , including losses to the banana and breadfruit crops . After the passage of the typhoon , President of the Federated States of Micronesia Jacob Nena declared Pohnpei as a major disaster area due to the damage from Typhoon Isa and subsequent flooding ; on April 20 heavy rainfall caused widespread mudslides and 19 fatalities on the island , though they were not related to Isa .
In Guam , the threat of Typhoon Isa postponed a flight from Guam to Honolulu , Hawaii for 48 hours . The flight was the last in Operation Pacific Haven , which was a multimillion @-@ dollar humanitarian effort to transport more than 6 @,@ 600 Kurds in a political asylum to the mainland of the United States . The threat of the typhoon also canceled the first round of the Omega Tour golf event , which was the second professional golf tournament in the island 's history . Though Typhoon Isa passed well to the south of Guam , one of its outer rainbands stalled across the island , which dropped heavy rainfall of 15 – 25 cm ( 6 – 10 in ) across the island . The rainfall was welcome as it occurred during the dry season , and largely contributed to rainfall at the Guam International Airport being 45 % above normal from the period between January through April . The rainband also produced wind gusts that reached 86 km / h ( 53 mph ) at the island 's Naval Air Station ; the winds resulted in sporadic power outages across the island . The typhoon caused some light damage to buildings , particularly on the south side of the island . The combination of winds and sea salt caused damage to the island 's tomato , okra , cucumber , and soy bean crops .
Typhoon Isa later dropped light rainfall on the island of Rota . Across its path , damage from the storm totaled over $ 1 million ( 1997 USD , $ 1 @.@ 3 million 2006 USD ) . No deaths or injuries were reported .
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= Lesser Antillean macaw =
The Lesser Antillean macaw or Guadeloupe macaw ( Ara guadeloupensis ) is a hypothetical extinct species of macaw that is thought to have been endemic to the Lesser Antillean island region of Guadeloupe . In spite of the absence of conserved specimens , many details about the Lesser Antillean macaw are known from several contemporary accounts , and the bird is the subject of some illustrations . Austin Hobart Clark described the species on the basis of these accounts in 1905 . Due to the lack of physical remains , and the possibility that sightings were of macaws from the South American mainland , doubts have been raised about the existence of this species . A phalanx bone from the island of Marie @-@ Galante confirmed the existence of a similar @-@ sized macaw inhabiting the region prior to the arrival of humans , and was correlated with the Lesser Antillean macaw in 2015 . Later that year , historical sources distinguishing between the red macaws of Guadeloupe and the scarlet macaw ( A. macao ) of the mainland were identified , further supporting its validity .
According to contemporary descriptions , the body of the Lesser Antillean macaw was red and the wings were red , blue and yellow . The tail feathers were between 38 and 51 cm ( 15 and 20 in ) long . Apart from the smaller size and the all @-@ red coloration of the tail feathers , it resembled the scarlet macaw and may therefore have been a close relative of that species . The bird ate fruit – including the poisonous manchineel , was monogamous , nested in trees and laid two eggs once or twice a year . Early writers described it as being abundant in Guadeloupe , but it was becoming rare by 1760 , and only survived in uninhabited areas . Disease and hunting by humans are thought to have eradicated it shortly afterwards . The Lesser Antillean macaw is one of 13 extinct macaw species that have been proposed to have lived in the Caribbean islands . Many of these species are now considered dubious because only three are known from physical remains , and there are no extant endemic macaws on the islands today .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Lesser Antillean macaw is well @-@ documented compared to most other extinct Caribbean macaws , since it was mentioned and described by several contemporary writers . Parrots thought to be the Lesser Antillean macaw were first mentioned by the Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in 1553 , referring to a 1496 account by the Spanish bibliographer Ferdinand Columbus , who mentioned chicken @-@ sized parrots — which the Island Caribs called " Guacamayas " — in Guadeloupe . In 1774 , the French naturalist Comte de Buffon stated that the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus had found macaws in Guadeloupe . The French botanist Jean @-@ Baptiste Du Tertre gave the first detailed descriptions in 1654 and 1676 , and illustrated the bird and other animals found in Guadeloupe . The French clergyman Jean @-@ Baptiste Labat also described the bird in 1742 . Writers such as George Edwards and John Latham also mentioned the presence of red and blue macaws on the islands off America .
The American zoologist Austin Hobart Clark gave the Lesser Antillean macaw its scientific name , Ara guadeloupensis , in 1905 , based on the contemporary accounts , and he also cited a 1765 color plate as possibly depicting this species . He wrote that it was different in several ways from the superficially similar scarlet macaw ( A. macao ) , as well as the green @-@ winged macaw ( A. chloropterus ) and the Cuban macaw ( A. tricolor ) . Clark suggested the species might have existed on the islands of Dominica and Martinique , based on accounts of red macaws there , as well as on Guadeloupe . In his 1907 book Extinct Birds , the British zoologist Walter Rothschild instead claimed each island had its own species , and that the Lesser Antillean macaw was confined to Guadeloupe . In 1967 , the American ornithologist James Greenway wrote that the macaws reported from Guadeloupe could have been imported to the region from elsewhere by the native population , but this is difficult to prove . Greenway also suggested that the scarlet macaw and the Cuban macaw formed a superspecies with the Lesser Antillean macaw and other hypothetical extinct species suggested for Jamaica and Hispaniola . According to the English paleontologist Julian Hume , the similarity between the Lesser Antillean macaw and the scarlet macaw indicates that they were close relatives , and that the Guadeloupe species may have descended from the mainland macaw .
A small parrot ulna found on the Folle Anse archaeological site on Marie @-@ Galante , an island in the Guadeloupe region , was assigned to the Lesser Antillean macaw by the ornithologists Matthew Williams and David Steadman in 2001 . In 2008 , the ornithologists Storrs Olson and Edgar Maíz López cast doubt upon this identification , and proposed that the bone instead belonged to the extant imperial amazon ( Amazona imperialis ) . The size and robustness of the bone was similar to ulnae of the imperial amazon , and though it was worn , the authors identified what appeared to be a notch , which is also present on ulnae of the genus Amazona , but not in the genus Ara . Subfossil remains from the island of Montserrat have also been suggested to belong to the Lesser Antillean macaw . The species was recognized by Birdlife International and the IUCN Red List until 2013 , but was not considered valid thereafter .
In 2015 , a terminal phalanx bone ( ungual claw bone ) attributable to the genus Ara from south @-@ western Marie @-@ Galante was described by ecologists Monica Gala and Arnaud Lenoble . It was discovered in the Blanchard Cave during excavations in 2013 @-@ 2014 , in a fossil @-@ bearing deposit dating to the late Pleistocene epoch . The deposit was radiocarbon dated to about 10 @,@ 690 years ago ; the earliest evidence of human settlement in the area has been dated to 5 @,@ 300 years ago . This confirmed that the Guadeloupe region once had an endemic macaw which could not have been brought there by humans . All other macaw bones from the Lesser Antillean islands have been recovered from archaeological sites , and could therefore have been the remains of birds brought there by Amerindians . The size of the phalanx bone matched what was described for the Lesser Antillean macaw by contemporary writers , and the authors therefore correlated the two . They conceded that this connection could only be tentative , as there were no remains of the Lesser Antillean macaw to compare with .
Later in 2015 , Lenoble reviewed overlooked historical Spanish and French sources , finding references to mainly red macaws consistent with the Lesser Antillean macaw . The writings of the French missionary Raymond Breton ( on Guadeloupe from 1635 to 1654 ) were especially illuminating , as they showed that both he and the native Island Caribs clearly distinguished between the red macaws of Guadeloupe and the scarlet macaws from the mainland , which supports the idea that the Lesser Antillean macaw represents an independent species . As the Lesser Antillean Carib language had different words reserved for men and women , Breton gave the name of the bird as Kínoulou ( ♂ ) and Caarou ( ♀ ) . Lenoble furthermore concluded that the supposed violet macaw ( named Anodorhynchus purpurascens based on accounts of blue parrots from Guadeloupe ) was based on misidentified references to the also @-@ extinct Guadeloupe amazon ( Amazona violacea ) , and therefore never existed .
As many as 13 now @-@ extinct species of macaw have variously been suggested to have lived on the Caribbean islands , but many of these were based on old descriptions or drawings and only represent hypothetical species . In addition to the Lesser Antillean macaw , only two endemic Caribbean macaw species are known from physical remains ; the Cuban macaw is known from 19 museum skins and subfossils , and the Saint Croix macaw ( A. autochthones ) is known only from subfossils . Macaws are known to have been transported between the Caribbean islands and from mainland South America to the Caribbean both in historic times by Europeans and native peoples , and in prehistoric times by Paleoamericans . Parrots were important in the culture of native Caribbeans , and were among the gifts offered to Christopher Columbus when he reached the Bahamas in 1492 . Historical records of macaws on these islands , therefore , may not have represented distinct , endemic species ; it is also possible that these macaws were escaped or feral birds that had been transported to the islands from elsewhere . All the endemic Caribbean macaws were likely driven to extinction by humans in historic and prehistoric times . The identity and distribution of indigenous macaws in the Caribbean is only likely to be further resolved through paleontological discoveries and examination of contemporary reports and artwork .
= = Description = =
The Lesser Antillean macaw was described as having similar coloration to the scarlet macaw , but with shorter tail feathers between 38 and 51 cm ( 15 and 20 in ) long . In contrast , the tail feathers of the scarlet macaw are 61 cm ( 2 ft ) long and have blue tips , and the outer feathers are almost entirely blue . In spite of the tail feathers being shorter , it is not certain whether the Lesser Antillean macaw was smaller than the scarlet macaw overall , as the relative proportions of body parts vary between macaw species . The tail feathers were longer than those of the Cuban macaw , which were 30 cm ( 12 in ) long . The morphology of the fossil phalanx bone from Marie @-@ Galante was most similar to the second or third ungual of the scarlet macaw , though the bone is slightly smaller at 15 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 60 in ) compared to 15 – 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 67 in ) .
Du Tertre described the Lesser Antillean macaw as follows in 1654 :
The Macaw is the largest of all the parrot tribe ; for although the parrots of Guadeloupe are larger than all other parrots , both of the islands and of the main land , the Macaws are a third larger than they ... The head , neck , underparts , and back are flame color . The wings are a mixture of yellow , azure , and scarlet . The tail is wholly red , and a foot and a half long .
Though Clark converted Du Tertre 's tail measurement to 18 in ( 45 @.@ 7 cm ) , Lenoble pointed out that a 17th @-@ century French foot unit was slightly larger than the English equivalent , and the measurement should rather be converted to 19 @.@ 3 in ( 49 cm ) , indicating a smaller size difference between the Lesser Antillean macaw and the scarlet macaw .
In 1742 , Labat described the macaw in much the same way as Du Tertre , while adding several details :
It is the size of a full grown fowl . The feathers of the head , neck , back and underparts are flame color ; the wings are of a mixture of blue , yellow and red ; the tail , which is from fifteen to twenty inches in length is wholly red . The head and the beak are very large , and it walks gravely ; it talks very well , if it is taught when young ; its voice is strong and distinct ; it is amiable and kind , and allows itself to be caressed ...
Both authors wrote that the macaws were the largest parrots of Guadeloupe , and stressed that the parrots of each Caribbean island were distinct , and could be differentiated both based on their morphology and their vocalizations . According to Hume , this means that the birds described could not simply have been escaped South American macaws . Furthermore , the docile and amiable nature described by Du Tertre and Labat does not match the behavior of South American macaws .
Breton 's mid @-@ 1600s accounts of the macaw confirmed it as distinct from mainland scarlet macaws :
Macaws are larger than parrots , with a very beautiful red plumage mixed with purple in the tail and wings ... Macaws found on islands are called Kínoulou , f . Caarou . Coyáli is found on the continent , and is redder and more elegant than the island variety .
Apart from Du Tertre 's crude 1667 drawing and Labat 's 1722 derivative , a few contemporary paintings depict red macaws that may be the Lesser Antillean macaw . A color plate accompanying a 1765 volume of Buffon 's encyclopaedia Histoire Naturelle ( no . 12 in Planches Enluminées , entitled L 'Ara Rouge ) shows a red macaw with entirely red tail feathers and more red on the tertial and scapular feathers of the wing than are present on the scarlet macaw . Copies of the plate differ in the nuances used , but are identical in pattern . The painting suggests that a specimen may have been present in Europe at the time . The Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus cited the plate in his 1766 description of the scarlet macaw , but his description does not match the bird shown . A 1626 painting by the Dutch artist Roelant Savery , which also includes a dodo , shows a red macaw that agrees with the descriptions of the Lesser Antillean macaw . A second macaw in the painting may be the hypothetical extinct Martinique macaw ( A. martinicus ) , but though many parrots were imported into Europe at the time from all over the world , it is impossible to determine the accuracy of such paintings today .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Du Tertre gave a detailed account of the behavior of the Lesser Antillean macaw in 1654 :
This bird lives on berries , and on the fruit of certain trees , but principally on the apples of the manchioneel ( ! ) , which is a powerful and caustic poison to other animals . It is the prettiest sight in the world to see ten or a dozen Macaws in a green tree . Their voice is loud and piercing , and they always cry when flying . If one imitates their cry , they stop short . They have a grave and dignified demeanor , and so far from being alarmed by many shots fired under a tree where they are perched , they gaze at their companions who fall dead to the ground without being disturbed at all , so that one may fire five or six times into the same tree without their appearing to be frightened .
In a 1667 work , Du Tertre gave a similar account , and added that the macaw only ate the poisonous manchineel ( Hippomane mancinella ) fruits in times of necessity . He also described the monogamous reproductive behavior of the bird :
The male and the female are inseparable companions and it is rare that one is seen singly . When they wish to breed ( which they do once or twice a year ) they make a hole with their beaks in the stump of a large tree , and construct a nest with feathers from their own bodies . They lay two eggs , the size of those of a partridge ( Perdix cinerea ) . The others of the parrot kind make their nests in the same way , but lay green eggs ... The Macaws are much larger than the large parrots of Guadeloupe or Grenada , and live longer than a man ; but they are almost all subject to a falling sickness .
The twice @-@ yearly breeding mentioned by Du Tertre may have actually been staggered breeding , which is practiced by some tropical birds .
Though Clark suggested that the Lesser Antillean macaw also occurred on Dominica and Martinique , there is no evidence for this . Instead , it probably existed on other islands close to Guadeloupe . The fossil phalanx bone from Marie @-@ Galante was deposited in a time when that island and the rest of the Guadeloupe archipelago were closer together than they are today due to lower sea @-@ levels . The areas were separated by three channels , the largest of which was 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) wide . This would not have been a hindrance to flying animals , and the macaws of the Guadeloupe islands would probably have been a single population during the Pleistocene .
= = Extinction = =
In 1534 , German historian Johann Huttich wrote that the forests of Guadeloupe were full of red macaws , which were apparently as abundant as grasshoppers , and the native people of the region cooked its flesh together with that of humans and of other birds . In 1654 , Du Tertre stated that the flesh was tough to eat , and that some considered it unpalatable and even poisonous . He wrote that he and the other inhabitants often consumed it , and that he experienced no ill @-@ effects from it . He also stated that the native people wore the feathers decoratively on their heads and as moustaches through the septum of the nose . He described how it was hunted by the native population :
The natives make use of a stratagem to take them alive ; they watch for a chance to find them on the ground , eating the fruit which has fallen from the trees , when they approach quietly under cover of the trees , then all at once run forward , clapping their hands and filling the air with cries capable not only of astounding the birds , but of terrifying the boldest . Then the poor birds , surprised and distracted , as if struck with thunderbolt , lose the use of their wings , and , making a virtue of necessity , throw themselves on their backs and assume the defensive with the weapons nature has given them – their beaks and claws – with which they defend themselves so bravely that not one of the natives dares to put his hand on them . One of the natives brings a big stick which he lays across the belly of the bird , who seizes it with beak and claws ; but while he is occupied in biting it , the native ties him so adroitly to the stick that he can do with him anything he wishes ...
Since Du Tertre wrote that the macaws were prone to sickness , an outbreak of a disease , along with hunting , may have contributed to its demise . In 1760 , the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson quoted a letter by French writer M. de la Borde , which stated that macaws had become very rare in the Antillean islands because they were hunted for food . By then they could only be found in areas not frequented by humans , and were probably extinct soon afterwards . Parrots are often among the first species to be exterminated from a given locality , especially islands .
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= The 23rd Psalm =
" The 23rd Psalm " is the tenth episode of the second season of Lost , and the 35th episode overall . The episode was directed by Matt Earl Beesley , and written by Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof . It first aired on January 11 , 2006 , on ABC , and was watched by an average of 20 @.@ 56 million American viewers . The episode is centered on the character of Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) , who in flashbacks is revealed to be a former warlord in Nigeria , and in the present day events goes with Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) to the Nigerian airplane which had crashed on the island .
The episode has an overall theme of redemption , and was written by drawing inspiration from " Deus Ex Machina " , the episode where the Nigerian airplane was first introduced . Reviews for " The 23rd Psalm " were positive , praising the flashback and Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje 's performance as Eko . The episode 's script was later nominated for an Emmy Award .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Nigerian guerrillas arrive at a small village , grab a young boy named Yemi and try to force him to shoot an old man . The boy hesitates and his older brother , Eko , takes the gun and shoots the man himself , thus saving his brother from the act . The guerrillas are pleased with this , and force him to join their group , tearing his Christian cross from his neck , which is then taken by Yemi .
Years later , Eko has become a powerful warlord . He meets with a drug dealer who is trying to get his heroin out of the country . Eko offers to do him a " favour , " buying the drugs at a low price and spiriting them out of the country . The drug runner agrees , but is killed after telling that he believed Eko had no soul . Later , Eko visits the church of his hometown , where Yemi has become a priest . Eko asks him for a plane , because only United Nations relief and missionary aircraft are allowed to fly out of Nigeria , saying he will fly the drugs away from the Nigerians and give his brother money for a polio vaccine . Yemi refuses to help . Later , Eko approaches his brother again , asking simply for Yemi to sign ordination papers that make Eko and two associates priests so that they can arrange the flight themselves . His brother refuses , but reluctantly signs after Eko says that his two friends will burn the church to the ground if Yemi does not collaborate . Eko also buys Virgin Mary statues to hide the heroin within .
Dressed as priests , Eko and two associates are loading drugs onto a Beechcraft airplane , when Yemi drives up and tells him not to leave . The Nigerian military arrives shortly thereafter , killing a henchman and shooting Yemi . Eko loads his brother onto the plane , but the pilot , who has a gold tooth , prevents Eko from boarding and flies away . Then the military approach and , mistaking Eko for a real priest , ask Eko , " Are you alright , Father ? "
= = = On the Island = = =
On the island , Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) watches Eko whittling scripture into the head of his club , and mentions that Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) carries a Virgin Mary statue . Eko immediately demands to see the statue , which he breaks open and shows Claire the heroin inside . Eko then goes to Charlie , demanding him to take him to the plane .
Meanwhile , Locke teaches Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) how to use a gun , and Michael then asks Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) to have her shift at the hatch computer . At the computer , Michael continues his conversation with his son Walt ( Malcolm David Kelley ) , which is interrupted by the arrival of Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) , who remains unaware of it .
On the way to the Beechcraft , Eko and Charlie find a parachute in a tree , which leads to the corpse of a Nigerian man dressed as a priest that Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) and John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) had previously found . When Eko sees the dead man 's gold tooth , he tells Charlie that the man " saved his life . " Charlie loses his way , and Mr. Eko tells him to climb a tree . As he is above the tree , explosions and a cloud of black smoke emerge from the jungle . It confronts him whilst flashing images to him of his past . Mr. Eko stands his ground , despite Charlie telling him to run , and stares at the smoke before it pulls back and disappears . Eko and Charlie then find the plane , inside which Eko finds another corpse which Eko recognizes as Yemi . After taking the cross from Yemi 's body , Eko tells Charlie that it is his brother , gives Charlie a Virgin Mary statue " for the one [ he ] broke " and sets the plane on fire . Charlie asks Eko if he is a priest himself , and as Eko puts the cross around his neck he replies " Yes , I am . " The two then recite Psalm 23 from the Old Testament as the plane burns .
After arriving at the camp , Charlie apologizes to Claire , but Claire tells him to leave her and her son alone . Charlie then goes into the jungle , and opens a hiding place where he is keeping Virgin Mary statues to put the one Eko gave him .
= = Production = =
During the production of " Deus Ex Machina " , which introduced the Nigerian airplane , a corpse dressed as a priest with a gun , and Virgin Mary statues filled with heroin , the Lost writers decided that the story of the Beechcraft would coincide with one of the characters ' flashbacks . They decided to use one of the tail section characters to be introduced in season 2 , " essentially a bad guy who was forced to disguise himself as a priest , and how would that come about , and could he now be presenting himself as a priest " . Since Eko and Locke are both spiritual leaders on the island - but with Locke having a " paganistic , ritualistic appreciation " for the island 's powers and Eko , " pure religious faith " - writers Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof decided to write in this episode parallels with " Deus Ex Machina " , where Locke and Boone find the Beechcraft . The biggest similarity is Charlie unwillingly become Eko 's " acolyte " , just like Boone was being Locke 's follower in their expedition to the airplane .
The main theme of " The 23rd Psalm " was redemption , which both Eko and Charlie are seeking , with Eko eventually getting his upon finding his brother . Charlie was chosen to be Eko 's companion because the character did not have much screentime up to that point in the season , and the writers found similarities between Charlie and Eko , such as both having difficult relationships with their brothers . The writers accidentally transcribed Psalm 23 wrong , with " the shadow of the valley of death " instead of " the valley of the shadow of death , " but decided to keep the mistake , feeling it was appropriate as Eko was never a proper priest .
The flashbacks had the intent of showing that Eko was the opposite of his religious brother , but eventually ended up similar to Yemi . Nigeria 's depiction was described by art director Bill Matthews as a " very dusty @-@ dirty brown kind of Nigerian @-@ earth look " , with touches such as vendors on the street , and a square where children play soccer . The interior of the church was an actual location in Haleiwa , and a facade was built on the set to match it . While editing , the producers decided to separate a part of the final scene involving the airplane getting attacked and taking off , where a soldier confuses Eko for a priest , to juxtapose with Eko 's spiritual epiphany on the island and set up his next flashback on " ? " , where he is a priest in Australia . As the casting team was having trouble finding a Moroccan to play the drug dealer , set caterer Moumen El Hajji was selected for the role .
As the Monster had not yet appeared in the second season , the producers decided to expand on his mythology in " The 23rd Psalm " , as they thought Eko was a good character to confront the Monster because of his spirituality and " self @-@ awareness " . Visual effects supervisor Kevin Blank suggested on adding imagery representing Eko 's past on the smoke , such a cross and the man he shoots at the opening scene .
= = Reception = =
The original broadcast of " The 23rd Psalm " was on January 11 , 2006 on ABC , being preceded by a clip show titled " Lost : Revelations " . It was watched by approximately 20 @.@ 56 million American viewers , being third in the weekly audience ranking , behind the AFC playoffs and Desperate Housewives .
Reviews for " The 23rd Psalm " were mostly positive . Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen gave the episode an A , describing it as a " wonderfully strange parable about redemption and fate " . Mac Slocum of Filmfodder.com considered the episode a worthy return after the two @-@ month break , saying that Eko 's " simple looks and simple phrases pummel the screen with gravitas and charisma " . Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it considered highlights of the episode the scene with the Monster , and the flashback , which in his opinion " [ did ] so great a job at explaining an entire character so succinctly " . IGN 's Chris Carabott gave the episode an 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 , praising the development of Eko 's character and the flashback .
Writers Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof 's script for " The 23rd Psalm " was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series . IGN ranked " The 23rd Psalm " 40th out of the 115 Lost episodes , calling the flashback " one of most action @-@ packed and ambitious on the series " . A similar list by Los Angeles Times ranked the episode at 49th , describing it as " a great first chapter that sadly never got a worthy follow @-@ up . "
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= Redland railway station =
Redland railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and serves the districts of Cotham and Redland in Bristol , England . It is 3 @.@ 3 miles ( 5 @.@ 3 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is RDA . As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway , which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly a train every forty minutes in each direction between Bristol Temple Meads and Avonmouth .
The line through Redland was opened in 1874 by the Great Western and Midland Railways as part of the Clifton Extension Railway . The station itself was opened in 1897 following a petition by local residents . There were two platforms , with the main station building on the Bristol @-@ bound platform and smaller facilities on the opposite platform . No goods facilities were provided . The main station building , although no longer in railway use , is the only original station building left on the line . In 1903 the station had 11 staff .
The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century , with passenger numbers falling significantly . All station staff were withdrawn in 1967 , with the line through the station reduced to single track in 1970 , with the second platform taken out of use . Services had decreased to ten per day each direction by 2005 , but have since increased to twenty @-@ four trains per day .
= = Description = =
Redland railway station is on the Severn Beach Line , serving the areas of Cotham and Redland , Bristol . The surrounding area is mostly residential , with some commercial premises to the east . A park and tennis centre are directly to the south . The station is located 3 miles 25 chains ( 5 @.@ 3 km ) along the line from Bristol Temple Meads , and 10 miles 18 chains ( 16 @.@ 5 km ) from Severn Beach . It is the fourth station from Temple Meads . There is a single 130 @-@ yard ( 120 m ) -long platform which serves trains in both directions , situated on the north side of the track and angled at 062 degrees . The station 's southern platform was abandoned in 1970 and is overgrown .
Facilities at the station are minimal – there are a few chairs and timetable information is provided . Help points , giving next train information , were installed in 2010 . There is no ticket office , but there are self @-@ service ticket machines which can be used to buy or collect tickets . The Victorian @-@ era station building is only original station building left on the line , decorated with a mural painted by local students , it is used as an upholsterer 's showroom rather than for railway purposes . Access is step @-@ free from South Road , through an area containing residents ' garages . The platform backs onto the gardens on the south side of the road .
At the west end of the station are two bridges , neither directly accessible from the station : the first is a footbridge carrying the Lovers ' Walk footpath , then some 10 metres ( 11 yd ) beyond is a road bridge carrying Redland Grove . The line crosses over Redland Road just beyond the east end of the station .
There is no car park or taxi rank . Cycle storage is available on the platform . There is a bus stop on South Road , and another on Redland Grove .
= = Services = =
Services at Redland are all operated by Great Western Railway , mainly using diesel Class 150 Sprinter units , occasionally supplemented by Class 153 Super Sprinter and Class 158 Express Sprinter units . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have mostly been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . Monday to Friday , three trains every two hours run from Bristol Temple Meads to Avonmouth , with one extended to St Andrew 's Road and Severn Beach , giving a service at Redland of one train in each direction every 40 minutes . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth begins at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , but more trains continue to Severn Beach . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period , when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction .
There is a short interval between services to Avonmouth and those to Bristol , due to the line 's passing point , Clifton Down , being the next station . Most trains call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is roughly 15 minutes , and about the same to Avonmouth . In 2012 , the single fare to Clifton Down or Bristol was £ 1 @.@ 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line .
= = History = =
The Clifton Extension Railway was opened from Narroways Hill Junction to Clifton Down as a joint venture between the Great Western Railway and Midland Railway , to connect their main lines to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier in the Avon Gorge . Passenger services to Clifton Down began in 1874 , and through services to Avonmouth started in 1885 . There was not initially a station at Redland , but there was local support , with several petitions submitted to the line 's Joint Railway Committee . The first was received in October 1885 , but was rejected due to the estimated cost of £ 3 @,@ 410 to provide the station . A second petition was rejected eighteen months later . The Bristol Chamber of Commerce petitioned for a station in 1892 , but the Committee again rejected the request , stating that estimated traffic levels would not justify the expense . It took until 1896 until a revised plan was accepted by the Committee .
Construction of the station was complicated by the need to keep the line open : trains ferrying materials were unable to stay on @-@ site for long , and frequently had to switch from one track to the other , necessitating trips to nearby Montpelier railway station , where the nearest crossover points were located . The station finally opened on 12 April 1897 . The first train was the 7 am service : 94 tickets were issued to Clifton Down , and an estimated 550 passengers bought tickets from the station the same day . Some local writers were sceptical , claiming that many of those first day passengers were not new passengers , but would previously have travelled from Montpelier or Clifton Down . Construction took nine months , and cost £ 2 @,@ 000 .
The station as built had two through lines , with platforms on either side . The southern " down " platform was for trains towards Clifton Down and Avonmouth , the northern " up " platform for trains towards Montpelier and Bristol . The main station building , comprising the station master 's office , general waiting room , ladies ' waiting room and cloakroom , was on the northern platform . A smaller building was built in the same style on the southern platform , and was used as a general waiting room . No goods facilities were provided . A footbridge at the west end of the platforms , between the preexisting Lovers ' Walk and Redland Grove bridges , allowed access between the two platforms . The ticket office was situated at the north end of this bridge , on South Road . In September 1899 , a Midland Railway @-@ style signal box was opened at the east end of the northern platform . Services were provided by the Great Western Railway and the Midland Railway . Midland trains worked between Clifton Down and Fishponds or Mangotsfield , where passengers could change for services to Bath , Birmingham and other Midland destinations . The Great Western provided services from Bristol Temple Meads to Clifron Down and Avonmouth , many looping back to Temple Meads via Henbury or Pilning . Bristol Temple Meads was the city 's major station , where passengers could change for trains to London , Exeter and Wales , among others . There were also occasional through services to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . In 1910 , Redland saw 20 Great Western trains each day to and from Clifton Down , a further 17 from and 15 to Avonmouth , and 13 Midland trains in each direction between Clifton Down and Mangotsfield or Fishponds . Midland services were suspended from 1 January 1917 due to the First World War , but resumed in May 1919 .
In 1903 , the station employed 11 men , but the post of station master was abolished on 27 August 1909 as a cost @-@ cutting measure , with responsibility passing to Clifton Down . There were six staff by 1938 . In 1923 , grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) , and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS . Services to Fishponds ended on 31 March 1941 . When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , when it came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . The signal box closed in 1950 , and by 1958 there were only three staff members : a booking clerk and two porters . Through services to Pilning and Henbury ceased with the Beeching Axe in 1964 , with services terminating at Severn Beach , and from December that year the station was unstaffed after 2 pm . Staff were withdrawn completely on 17 July 1967 , a fate shared by most of the other stations on the Severn Beach Line . The southern running line was lifted on 19 October 1970 , and the adjacent platform abandoned and its shelter demolished . The ticket office and footbridge were also demolished , with a replacement entrance opened through the South Road garages .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Redland passed to Regional Railways . All trains ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This was changed in the mid @-@ 1990s , with a more frequent service to Avonmouth but very few on to Severn Beach . Local tourism expert Bernard Lane described the line 's state as
... the line the railway wished was not there . It was the line that got bus substitution whenever they were short of trains or queues , when a rugby match in Cardiff needed a special . It has a problem in that the route is slow and not very direct ; for years it was invisible , short of marketing and lacking a regular interval timetable .
By 1995 there was no Sunday service , and there was even talk of the line being closed completely .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway ( FOSBR ) and a string of protests , services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , subsequently rebranded as Great Western Railway . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the line . In 2007 , the Council unanimously agreed to pay £ 450 @,@ 000 per annum to fund extra services from May 2008 for three years , which resulted in a 60 % increase in passenger numbers along the line , and a 25 % year @-@ on @-@ year increase between June 2009 and June 2010 . Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010 .
Passenger numbers at Redland were further boosted by a marketing campaign by the Severnside Community Rail Partnership to attract more people , especially students , to use the station . The work won a Department for Transport Community Rail Marketing Award in 2007 . The Severnside CRP also formed a support group for the station , and improved the provision of timetabling information through the use of simplified departure timetable posters . In 2008 , they helped to renovate and repaint the station building . It was decorated in 2009 by students from Fairfield School , who created a mural of Victorian characters with incongruous details such as mobile phones , sunglasses and funny hats . The work won a Community Rail Award .
Customer help points with next train information screens were installed during 2008 / 09 , paid for by money from the Department for Transport 's " Access for All " fund and local councils . The help points were stolen in early 2010 , but have since been replaced . Ticket machines were installed in early 2011 , following complaints that passengers were unable to pay their fares . A small coffee stand and snack bar began operating at the station in 2014 .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Redland are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016 . However , the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines , so Redland will continue to be served by diesel trains , with the current " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . Stephen Williams , MP for Bristol West , questioned whether electrification could continue to Redland . Then @-@ Secretary of State for Transport Philip Hammond replied that it would have to be looked at in the future . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification of the entire Severn Beach Line .
Improved services at Redland are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . There is an aspiration for half @-@ hourly services , with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at Portishead and Bath Spa , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single @-@ track and to the congested main line from Temple Meads , such frequency is not currently feasible . The scheme was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line , which could allow a direct service from Redland to Bristol Parkway via Avonmouth . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
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= Sleipnir =
In Norse mythology , Sleipnir ( Old Norse " slippy " or " the slipper " ) is an eight @-@ legged horse . Sleipnir is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In both sources , Sleipnir is Odin 's steed , is the child of Loki and Svaðilfari , is described as the best of all horses , and is sometimes ridden to the location of Hel . The Prose Edda contains extended information regarding the circumstances of Sleipnir 's birth , and details that he is grey in color .
Additionally , Sleipnir is mentioned in a riddle found in the 13th century legendary saga Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks , in the 13th century legendary saga Völsunga saga as the ancestor of the horse Grani , and book I of Gesta Danorum , written in the 12th century by Saxo Grammaticus , contains an episode considered by many scholars to involve Sleipnir . Sleipnir is generally accepted as depicted on two 8th century Gotlandic image stones ; the Tjängvide image stone and the Ardre VIII image stone .
Scholarly theories have been proposed regarding Sleipnir 's potential connection to shamanic practices among the Norse pagans . In modern times , Sleipnir appears in Icelandic folklore as the creator of Ásbyrgi , in works of art , literature , software , and in the names of ships .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the Poetic Edda , Sleipnir appears or is mentioned in the poems Grímnismál , Sigrdrífumál , Baldrs draumar , and Hyndluljóð . In Grímnismál , Grimnir ( Odin in disguise and not yet having revealed his identity ) tells the boy Agnar in verse that Sleipnir is the best of horses ( " Odin is the best of the Æsir , Sleipnir of horses " ) . In Sigrdrífumál , the valkyrie Sigrdrífa tells the hero Sigurðr that runes should be cut " on Sleipnir 's teeth and on the sledge 's strap @-@ bands . " In Baldrs draumar , after the Æsir convene about the god Baldr 's bad dreams , Odin places a saddle on Sleipnir and the two ride to the location of Hel . The Völuspá hin skamma section of Hyndluljóð says that Loki produced " the wolf " with Angrboða , produced Sleipnir with Svaðilfari , and thirdly " one monster that was thought the most baleful , who was descended from Býleistr 's brother . "
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , Sleipnir is first mentioned in chapter 15 where the enthroned figure of High says that every day the Æsir ride across the bridge Bifröst , and provides a list of the Æsir 's horses . The list begins with Sleipnir : " best is Sleipnir , he is Odin 's , he has eight legs . " In chapter 41 , High quotes the Grímnismál stanza that mentions Sleipnir .
In chapter 42 , Sleipnir 's origins are described . Gangleri ( described earlier in the book as King Gylfi in disguise ) asks High who the horse Sleipnir belongs to and what there is to tell about it . High expresses surprise in Gangleri 's lack of knowledge about Sleipnir and its origin . High tells a story set " right at the beginning of the gods ' settlement , when the gods established Midgard and built Val @-@ Hall " about an unnamed builder who has offered to build a fortification for the gods in three seasons that will keep out invaders in exchange for the goddess Freyja , the sun , and the moon . After some debate , the gods agree to this , but place a number of restrictions on the builder , including that he must complete the work within three seasons with the help of no man . The builder makes a single request ; that he may have help from his stallion Svaðilfari , and due to Loki 's influence , this is allowed . The stallion Svaðilfari performs twice the deeds of strength as the builder , and hauls enormous rocks to the surprise of the gods . The builder , with Svaðilfari , makes fast progress on the wall , and three days before the deadline of summer , the builder was nearly at the entrance to the fortification . The gods convene , and figured out who was responsible , resulting in a unanimous agreement that , along with most trouble , Loki was to blame .
The gods declare that Loki would deserve a horrible death if he could not find a scheme that would cause the builder to forfeit his payment , and threatened to attack him . Loki , afraid , swore oaths that he would devise a scheme to cause the builder to forfeit the payment , whatever it would cost himself . That night , the builder drove out to fetch stone with his stallion Svaðilfari , and out from a wood ran a mare . The mare neighed at Svaðilfari , and " realizing what kind of horse it was , " Svaðilfari became frantic , neighed , tore apart his tackle , and ran towards the mare . The mare ran to the wood , Svaðilfari followed , and the builder chased after . The two horses ran around all night , causing the building work to be held up for the night , and the previous momentum of building work that the builder had been able to maintain was not continued .
When the Æsir realize that the builder is a hrimthurs , they disregard their previous oaths with the builder , and call for Thor . Thor arrives , and kills the builder by smashing the builder 's skull into shards with the hammer Mjöllnir . However , Loki had " such dealings " with Svaðilfari that " somewhat later " Loki gave birth to a grey foal with eight legs ; the horse Sleipnir , " the best horse among gods and men . "
In chapter 49 , High describes the death of the god Baldr . Hermóðr agrees to ride to Hel to offer a ransom for Baldr 's return , and so " then Odin 's horse Sleipnir was fetched and led forward . " Hermóðr mounts Sleipnir and rides away . Hermóðr rides for nine nights in deep , dark valleys where Hermóðr can see nothing . The two arrive at the river Gjöll and then continue to Gjöll bridge , encountering a maiden guarding the bridge named Móðguðr . Some dialogue occurs between Hermóðr and Móðguðr , including that Móðguðr notes that recently there had ridden five battalions of dead men across the bridge that made less sound than he . Sleipnir and Hermóðr continue " downwards and northwards " on the road to Hel , until the two arrive at Hel 's gates . Hermóðr dismounts from Sleipnir , tightens Sleipnir 's girth , mounts him , and spurs Sleipnir on . Sleipnir " jumped so hard and over the gate that it came nowhere near . " Hermóðr rides up to the hall , and dismounts from Sleipnir . After Hermóðr 's pleas to Hel to return Baldr are accepted under a condition , Hermóðr and Baldr retrace their path backward and return to Asgard .
In chapter 16 of the book Skáldskaparmál , a kenning given for Loki is " relative of Sleipnir . " In chapter 17 , a story is provided in which Odin rides Sleipnir into the land of Jötunheimr and arrives at the residence of the jötunn Hrungnir . Hrungnir asks " what sort of person this was " wearing a golden helmet , " riding sky and sea , " and says that the stranger " has a marvellously good horse . " Odin wagers his head that no horse as good could be found in all of Jötunheimr . Hrungnir admitted that it was a fine horse , yet states that he owns a much longer @-@ paced horse ; Gullfaxi . Incensed , Hrungnir leaps atop Gullfaxi , intending to attack Odin for Odin 's boasting . Odin gallops hard ahead of Hrungnir , and , in his , fury , Hrungnir finds himself having rushed into the gates of Asgard . In chapter 58 , Sleipnir is mentioned among a list of horses in Þorgrímsþula : " Hrafn and Sleipnir , splendid horses [ ... ] " . In addition , Sleipnir occurs twice in kennings for " ship " ( once appearing in chapter 25 in a work by the skald Refr , and " sea @-@ Sleipnir " appearing in chapter 49 in Húsdrápa , a work by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason ) .
= = = Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks = = =
In Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks , the poem Heiðreks gátur contains a riddle that mentions Sleipnir and Odin :
36 . Gestumblindi said :
" Who are the twain
that on ten feet run ?
three eyes they have ,
but only one tail .
Alright guess now
this riddle , Heithrek ! "
Heithrek said :
" Good is thy riddle , Gestumblindi ,
and guessed it is :
that is Odin riding on Sleipnir . "
= = = Völsunga saga = = =
In chapter 13 of Völsunga saga , the hero Sigurðr is on his way to a wood and he meets a long @-@ bearded old man he had never seen before . Sigurd tells the old man that he is going to choose a horse , and asks the old man to come with him to help him decide . The old man says that they should drive the horses down to the river Busiltjörn . The two drive the horses down into the deeps of Busiltjörn , and all of the horses swim back to land but a large , young , and handsome grey horse that no one had ever mounted . The grey @-@ bearded old man says that the horse is from " Sleipnir 's kin " and that " he must be raised carefully , because he will become better than any other horse . " The old man vanishes . Sigurd names the horse Grani , and the narrative adds that the old man was none other than ( the god ) Odin .
= = = Gesta Danorum = = =
Sleipnir is generally considered as appearing in a sequence of events described in book I of Gesta Danorum . In book I , the young Hadingus encounters " a certain man of great age who had lost an eye " who allies him with Liserus . Hadingus and Liserus set out to wage war on Lokerus , ruler of Kurland . Meeting defeat , the old man takes Hadingus with him onto his horse as they flee to the old man 's house , and the two drink an invigorating drought . The old man sings a prophecy , and takes Hadingus back to where he found him on his horse . During the ride back , Hadingus trembles beneath the old man 's mantle , and peers out of its holes . Hadingus realizes that he is flying through the air : " and he saw that before the steps of the horse lay the sea ; but was told not to steal a glimpse of the forbidden thing , and therefore turned his amazed eyes from the dread spectacle of the roads that he journeyed . " Additionally , in book II , Biarco mentions Odin and Sleipnir : " If I may look on the awful husband of Frigg , howsoever he be covered in his white shield , and guide his tall steed , he shall in no way go safe out of Leire ; it is lawful to lay low in war the war @-@ waging god . "
= = Archaeological record = =
Two of the 8th century picture stones from the island of Gotland , Sweden depict eight @-@ legged horses , which are thought by most scholars to depict Sleipnir : the Tjängvide image stone and the Ardre VIII image stone . Both stones feature a rider sitting atop an eight @-@ legged horse , which some scholars view as Odin . Above the rider on the Tjängvide image stone is a horizontal figure holding a spear , which may be a valkyrie , and a female figure greets the rider with a cup . The scene has been interpreted as a rider arriving at the world of the dead . The mid @-@ 7th century Eggja stone bearing the Odinic name haras ( Old Norse ' army god ' ) may be interpreted as depicting Sleipnir .
= = Theories = =
John Lindow theorizes that Sleipnir 's " connection to the world of the dead grants a special poignancy to one of the kennings in which Sleipnir turns up as a horse word , " referring to the skald Úlfr Uggason 's usage of " sea @-@ Sleipnir " in his Húsdrápa , which describes the funeral of Baldr . Lindow continues that " his use of Sleipnir in the kenning may show that Sleipnir 's role in the failed recovery of Baldr was known at that time and place in Iceland ; it certainly indicates that Sleipnir was an active participant in the mythology of the last decades of paganism . " Lindow adds that the eight legs of Sleipnir " have been interpreted as an indication of great speed or as being connected in some unclear way with cult activity . "
Hilda Ellis Davidson says that " the eight @-@ legged horse of Odin is the typical steed of the shaman " and that in the shaman 's journeys to the heavens or the underworld , a shaman " is usually represented as riding on some bird or animal . " Davidson says that while the creature may vary , the horse is fairly common " in the lands where horses are in general use , and Sleipnir 's ability to bear the god through the air is typical of the shaman 's steed " and cites an example from a study of shamanism by Mircea Eliade of an eight @-@ legged foal from a story of a Buryat shaman . Davidson says that while attempts have been made to connect Sleipnir with hobby horses and steeds with more than four feet that appear in carnivals and processions , but that " a more fruitful resemblance seems to be on the bier on which a dead man is carried in the funeral procession by four bearers ; borne along thus , he may be described as riding on a steed with eight legs . " As an example , Davidson cites a funeral dirge from the Gondi people in India as recorded by Verrier Elwin , stating that " it contains references to Bagri Maro , the horse with eight legs , and it is clear from the song that it is the dead man 's bier . " Davidson says that the song is sung when a distinguished Muria dies , and provides a verse :
What horse is this ?
It is the horse of Bagri Maro .
What should we say of its legs ?
This horse has eight legs .
What should we say of its heads ?
This horse has four heads . . . .
Catch the bridle and mount the horse .
Davidson adds that the representation of Odin 's steed as eight @-@ legged could arise naturally out of such an image , and that " this is in accordance with the picture of Sleipnir as a horse that could bear its rider to the land of the dead . "
Ulla Loumand cites Sleipnir and the flying horse Hófvarpnir as " prime examples " of horses in Norse mythology as being able to " mediate between earth and sky , between Ásgarðr , Miðgarðr and Útgarðr and between the world of mortal men and the underworld . "
The Encyclopedia of Indo @-@ European Culture theorizes that Sleipnir 's eight legs may be the remnants of horse @-@ associated divine twins found in Indo @-@ European cultures and ultimately stemming from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European religion . The encyclopedia states that " [ ... ] Sleipnir is born with an extra set of legs , thus representing an original pair of horses . Like Freyr and Njörðr , Sleipnir is responsible for carrying the dead to the otherworld . " The encyclopedia cites parallels between the birth of Sleipnir and myths originally pointing to a Celtic goddess who gave birth to the Divine horse twins . These elements include a demand for a goddess by an unwanted suitor ( the hrimthurs demanding the goddess Freyja ) and the seduction of builders .
= = Modern influence = =
According to Icelandic folklore , the horseshoe shaped canyon Ásbyrgi located in Jökulsárgljúfur National Park , northern Iceland was formed by Sleipnir 's hoof . Sleipnir is depicted with Odin on Dagfin Werenskjold 's wooden relief " Odin på Sleipnir " ( 1945 – 1950 ) on the exterior of the Oslo City Hall in Oslo , Norway . Sleipnir has been and remains a popular name for ships in Northern Europe , and Rudyard Kipling 's short story entitled " Sleipnir , late Thurinda " ( 1888 ) features a horse named " Sleipnir " . A statue of Sleipnir ( 1998 ) stands in Wednesbury , England , a town which takes its name from the Anglo @-@ Saxon version of Odin , Wōden .
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= Dengue fever =
Dengue fever is a mosquito @-@ borne tropical disease caused by the dengue virus . Symptoms typically begin three to fourteen days after infection . This may include a high fever , headache , vomiting , muscle and joint pains , and a characteristic skin rash . Recovery generally takes less than two to seven days . In a small proportion of cases , the disease develops into the life @-@ threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever , resulting in bleeding , low levels of blood platelets and blood plasma leakage , or into dengue shock syndrome , where dangerously low blood pressure occurs .
Dengue is spread by several species of mosquito of the Aedes type , principally A. aegypti . The virus has five different types ; infection with one type usually gives lifelong immunity to that type , but only short @-@ term immunity to the others . Subsequent infection with a different type increases the risk of severe complications . A number of tests are available to confirm the diagnosis including detecting antibodies to the virus or its RNA .
A novel vaccine for dengue fever has been approved in three countries , but it is not yet commercially available . Prevention is by reducing mosquito habitat and limiting exposure to bites . This may be done by getting rid of or covering standing water and wearing clothing that covers much of the body . Treatment of acute dengue is supportive and includes giving fluid either by mouth or intravenously for mild or moderate disease . For more severe cases blood transfusion may be required . About half a million people require admission to hospital a year . Nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drug ( NSAIDs ) such as ibuprofen should not be used .
Dengue has become a global problem since the Second World War and is common in more than 110 countries . Each year between 50 and 528 million people are infected and approximately 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 die . The earliest descriptions of an outbreak date from 1779 . Its viral cause and spread were understood by the early 20th century . Apart from eliminating the mosquitoes , work is ongoing for medication targeted directly at the virus .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Typically , people infected with dengue virus are asymptomatic ( 80 % ) or have only mild symptoms such as an uncomplicated fever . Others have more severe illness ( 5 % ) , and in a small proportion it is life @-@ threatening . The incubation period ( time between exposure and onset of symptoms ) ranges from 3 to 14 days , but most often it is 4 to 7 days . Therefore , travelers returning from endemic areas are unlikely to have dengue if fever or other symptoms start more than 14 days after arriving home . Children often experience symptoms similar to those of the common cold and gastroenteritis ( vomiting and diarrhea ) and have a greater risk of severe complications , though initial symptoms are generally mild but include high fever .
= = = Clinical course = = =
The characteristic symptoms of dengue are sudden @-@ onset fever , headache ( typically located behind the eyes ) , muscle and joint pains , and a rash . The alternative name for dengue , " breakbone fever " , comes from the associated muscle and joint pains . The course of infection is divided into three phases : febrile , critical , and recovery .
The febrile phase involves high fever , potentially over 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) , and is associated with generalized pain and a headache ; this usually lasts two to seven days . Nausea and vomiting may also occur . A rash occurs in 50 – 80 % of those with symptoms in the first or second day of symptoms as flushed skin , or later in the course of illness ( days 4 – 7 ) , as a measles @-@ like rash . A rash described as " islands of white in a sea of red " has also been observed . Some petechiae ( small red spots that do not disappear when the skin is pressed , which are caused by broken capillaries ) can appear at this point , as may some mild bleeding from the mucous membranes of the mouth and nose . The fever itself is classically biphasic or saddleback in nature , breaking and then returning for one or two days .
In some people , the disease proceeds to a critical phase as fever resolves . During this period , there is leakage of plasma from the blood vessels , typically lasting one to two days . This may result in fluid accumulation in the chest and abdominal cavity as well as depletion of fluid from the circulation and decreased blood supply to vital organs . There may also be organ dysfunction and severe bleeding , typically from the gastrointestinal tract . Shock ( dengue shock syndrome ) and hemorrhage ( dengue hemorrhagic fever ) occur in less than 5 % of all cases of dengue , however those who have previously been infected with other serotypes of dengue virus ( " secondary infection " ) are at an increased risk . This critical phase , while rare , occurs relatively more commonly in children and young adults .
The recovery phase occurs next , with resorption of the leaked fluid into the bloodstream . This usually lasts two to three days . The improvement is often striking , and can be accompanied with severe itching and a slow heart rate . Another rash may occur with either a maculopapular or a vasculitic appearance , which is followed by peeling of the skin . During this stage , a fluid overload state may occur ; if it affects the brain , it may cause a reduced level of consciousness or seizures . A feeling of fatigue may last for weeks in adults .
= = = Associated problems = = =
Dengue can occasionally affect several other body systems , either in isolation or along with the classic dengue symptoms . A decreased level of consciousness occurs in 0 @.@ 5 – 6 % of severe cases , which is attributable either to inflammation of the brain by the virus or indirectly as a result of impairment of vital organs , for example , the liver .
Other neurological disorders have been reported in the context of dengue , such as transverse myelitis and Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome . Infection of the heart and acute liver failure are among the rarer complications .
A pregnant woman who develops dengue may be at a higher risk of miscarriage as well as low birth weight and premature birth .
= = Cause = =
= = = Virology = = =
Dengue fever virus ( DENV ) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae ; genus Flavivirus . Other members of the same genus include yellow fever virus , West Nile virus , St. Louis encephalitis virus , Japanese encephalitis virus , tick @-@ borne encephalitis virus , Kyasanur forest disease virus , and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus . Most are transmitted by arthropods ( mosquitoes or ticks ) , and are therefore also referred to as arboviruses ( arthropod @-@ borne viruses ) .
The dengue virus genome ( genetic material ) contains about 11 @,@ 000 nucleotide bases , which code for the three different types of protein molecules ( C , prM and E ) that form the virus particle and seven other types of protein molecules ( NS1 , NS2a , NS2b , NS3 , NS4a , NS4b , NS5 ) that are found in infected host cells only and are required for replication of the virus . There are five strains of the virus , called serotypes , of which the first four are referred to as DENV @-@ 1 , DENV @-@ 2 , DENV @-@ 3 and DENV @-@ 4 . The fifth type was announced in 2013 . The distinctions between the serotypes are based on their antigenicity .
= = = Transmission = = =
Dengue virus is primarily transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes , particularly A. aegypti . These mosquitoes usually live between the latitudes of 35 ° North and 35 ° South below an elevation of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . They typically bite during the early morning and in the evening , but they may bite and thus spread infection at any time of day . Other Aedes species that transmit the disease include A. albopictus , A. polynesiensis and A. scutellaris . Humans are the primary host of the virus , but it also circulates in nonhuman primates . An infection can be acquired via a single bite . A female mosquito that takes a blood meal from a person infected with dengue fever , during the initial 2 – 10 day febrile period , becomes itself infected with the virus in the cells lining its gut . About 8 – 10 days later , the virus spreads to other tissues including the mosquito 's salivary glands and is subsequently released into its saliva . The virus seems to have no detrimental effect on the mosquito , which remains infected for life . Aedes aegypti is particularly involved , as it prefers to lay its eggs in artificial water containers , to live in close proximity to humans , and to feed on people rather than other vertebrates .
Dengue can also be transmitted via infected blood products and through organ donation . In countries such as Singapore , where dengue is endemic , the risk is estimated to be between 1 @.@ 6 and 6 per 10 @,@ 000 transfusions . Vertical transmission ( from mother to child ) during pregnancy or at birth has been reported . Other person @-@ to @-@ person modes of transmission have also been reported , but are very unusual . The genetic variation in dengue viruses is region specific , suggestive that establishment into new territories is relatively infrequent , despite dengue emerging in new regions in recent decades .
= = = Predisposition = = =
Severe disease is more common in babies and young children , and in contrast to many other infections , it is more common in children who are relatively well nourished . Other risk factors for severe disease include female sex , high body mass index , and viral load . While each serotype can cause the full spectrum of disease , virus strain is a risk factor . Infection with one serotype is thought to produce lifelong immunity to that type , but only short @-@ term protection against the other three . The risk of severe disease from secondary infection increases if someone previously exposed to serotype DENV @-@ 1 contracts serotype DENV @-@ 2 or DENV @-@ 3 , or if someone previously exposed to DENV @-@ 3 acquires DENV @-@ 2 . Dengue can be life @-@ threatening in people with chronic diseases such as diabetes and asthma .
Polymorphisms ( normal variations ) in particular genes have been linked with an increased risk of severe dengue complications . Examples include the genes coding for the proteins known as TNFα , mannan @-@ binding lectin , CTLA4 , TGFβ , DC @-@ SIGN , PLCE1 , and particular forms of human leukocyte antigen from gene variations of HLA @-@ B. A common genetic abnormality , especially in Africans , known as glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency , appears to increase the risk . Polymorphisms in the genes for the vitamin D receptor and FcγR seem to offer protection against severe disease in secondary dengue infection .
= = Mechanism = =
When a mosquito carrying dengue virus bites a person , the virus enters the skin together with the mosquito 's saliva . It binds to and enters white blood cells , and reproduces inside the cells while they move throughout the body . The white blood cells respond by producing a number of signaling proteins , such as cytokines and interferons , which are responsible for many of the symptoms , such as the fever , the flu @-@ like symptoms , and the severe pains . In severe infection , the virus production inside the body is greatly increased , and many more organs ( such as the liver and the bone marrow ) can be affected . Fluid from the bloodstream leaks through the wall of small blood vessels into body cavities due to capillary permeability . As a result , less blood circulates in the blood vessels , and the blood pressure becomes so low that it cannot supply sufficient blood to vital organs . Furthermore , dysfunction of the bone marrow due to infection of the stromal cells leads to reduced numbers of platelets , which are necessary for effective blood clotting ; this increases the risk of bleeding , the other major complication of dengue fever .
= = = Viral replication = = =
Once inside the skin , dengue virus binds to Langerhans cells ( a population of dendritic cells in the skin that identifies pathogens ) . The virus enters the cells through binding between viral proteins and membrane proteins on the Langerhans cell , specifically the C @-@ type lectins called DC @-@ SIGN , mannose receptor and CLEC5A . DC @-@ SIGN , a non @-@ specific receptor for foreign material on dendritic cells , seems to be the main point of entry . The dendritic cell moves to the nearest lymph node . Meanwhile , the virus genome is translated in membrane @-@ bound vesicles on the cell 's endoplasmic reticulum , where the cell 's protein synthesis apparatus produces new viral proteins that replicate the viral RNA and begin to form viral particles . Immature virus particles are transported to the Golgi apparatus , the part of the cell where some of the proteins receive necessary sugar chains ( glycoproteins ) . The now mature new viruses are released by exocytosis . They are then able to enter other white blood cells , such as monocytes and macrophages .
The initial reaction of infected cells is to produce interferon , a cytokine that raises a number of defenses against viral infection through the innate immune system by augmenting the production of a large group of proteins mediated by the JAK @-@ STAT pathway . Some serotypes of dengue virus appear to have mechanisms to slow down this process . Interferon also activates the adaptive immune system , which leads to the generation of antibodies against the virus as well as T cells that directly attack any cell infected with the virus . Various antibodies are generated ; some bind closely to the viral proteins and target them for phagocytosis ( ingestion by specialized cells and destruction ) , but some bind the virus less well and appear instead to deliver the virus into a part of the phagocytes where it is not destroyed but is able to replicate further .
= = = Severe disease = = =
It is not entirely clear why secondary infection with a different strain of dengue virus places people at risk of dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome . The most widely accepted hypothesis is that of antibody @-@ dependent enhancement ( ADE ) . The exact mechanism behind ADE is unclear . It may be caused by poor binding of non @-@ neutralizing antibodies and delivery into the wrong compartment of white blood cells that have ingested the virus for destruction . There is a suspicion that ADE is not the only mechanism underlying severe dengue @-@ related complications , and various lines of research have implied a role for T cells and soluble factors such as cytokines and the complement system .
Severe disease is marked by the problems of capillary permeability ( an allowance of fluid and protein normally contained within blood to pass ) and disordered blood clotting . These changes appear associated with a disordered state of the endothelial glycocalyx , which acts as a molecular filter of blood components . Leaky capillaries ( and the critical phase ) are thought to be caused by an immune system response . Other processes of interest include infected cells that become necrotic — which affect both coagulation and fibrinolysis ( the opposing systems of blood clotting and clot degradation ) — and low platelets in the blood , also a factor in normal clotting .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of dengue is typically made clinically , on the basis of reported symptoms and physical examination ; this applies especially in endemic areas . However , early disease can be difficult to differentiate from other viral infections . A probable diagnosis is based on the findings of fever plus two of the following : nausea and vomiting , rash , generalized pains , low white blood cell count , positive tourniquet test , or any warning sign ( see table ) in someone who lives in an endemic area . Warning signs typically occur before the onset of severe dengue . The tourniquet test , which is particularly useful in settings where no laboratory investigations are readily available , involves the application of a blood pressure cuff at between the diastolic and systolic pressure for five minutes , followed by the counting of any petechial hemorrhages ; a higher number makes a diagnosis of dengue more likely with the cut off being more than 10 to 20 per 1 inch2 ( 6 @.@ 25 cm2 ) .
The diagnosis should be considered in anyone who develops a fever within two weeks of being in the tropics or subtropics . It can be difficult to distinguish dengue fever and chikungunya , a similar viral infection that shares many symptoms and occurs in similar parts of the world to dengue . Often , investigations are performed to exclude other conditions that cause similar symptoms , such as malaria , leptospirosis , viral hemorrhagic fever , typhoid fever , meningococcal disease , measles , and influenza . Zika fever also has similar symptoms as dengue .
The earliest change detectable on laboratory investigations is a low white blood cell count , which may then be followed by low platelets and metabolic acidosis . A moderately elevated level of aminotransferase ( AST and ALT ) from the liver is commonly associated with low platelets and white blood cells . In severe disease , plasma leakage results in hemoconcentration ( as indicated by a rising hematocrit ) and hypoalbuminemia . Pleural effusions or ascites can be detected by physical examination when large , but the demonstration of fluid on ultrasound may assist in the early identification of dengue shock syndrome . The use of ultrasound is limited by lack of availability in many settings . Dengue shock syndrome is present if pulse pressure drops to ≤ 20 mm Hg along with peripheral vascular collapse . Peripheral vascular collapse is determined in children via delayed capillary refill , rapid heart rate , or cold extremities . While warning signs are an important aspect for early detection of potential serious disease , the evidence for any specific clinical or laboratory marker is weak .
= = = Classification = = =
The World Health Organization 's 2009 classification divides dengue fever into two groups : uncomplicated and severe . This replaces the 1997 WHO classification , which needed to be simplified as it had been found to be too restrictive , though the older classification is still widely used including by the World Health Organization 's Regional Office for South @-@ East Asia as of 2011 . Severe dengue is defined as that associated with severe bleeding , severe organ dysfunction , or severe plasma leakage while all other cases are uncomplicated . The 1997 classification divided dengue into undifferentiated fever , dengue fever , and dengue hemorrhagic fever . Dengue hemorrhagic fever was subdivided further into grades I – IV . Grade I is the presence only of easy bruising or a positive tourniquet test in someone with fever , grade II is the presence of spontaneous bleeding into the skin and elsewhere , grade III is the clinical evidence of shock , and grade IV is shock so severe that blood pressure and pulse cannot be detected . Grades III and IV are referred to as " dengue shock syndrome " .
= = = Laboratory tests = = =
The diagnosis of dengue fever may be confirmed by microbiological laboratory testing . This can be done by virus isolation in cell cultures , nucleic acid detection by PCR , viral antigen detection ( such as for NS1 ) or specific antibodies ( serology ) . Virus isolation and nucleic acid detection are more accurate than antigen detection , but these tests are not widely available due to their greater cost . Detection of NS1 during the febrile phase of a primary infection may be greater than 90 % sensitive however is only 60 – 80 % in subsequent infections . All tests may be negative in the early stages of the disease . PCR and viral antigen detection are more accurate in the first seven days . In 2012 a PCR test was introduced that can run on equipment used to diagnose influenza ; this is likely to improve access to PCR @-@ based diagnosis .
These laboratory tests are only of diagnostic value during the acute phase of the illness with the exception of serology . Tests for dengue virus @-@ specific antibodies , types IgG and IgM , can be useful in confirming a diagnosis in the later stages of the infection . Both IgG and IgM are produced after 5 – 7 days . The highest levels ( titres ) of IgM are detected following a primary infection , but IgM is also produced in reinfection . IgM becomes undetectable 30 – 90 days after a primary infection , but earlier following re @-@ infections . IgG , by contrast , remains detectable for over 60 years and , in the absence of symptoms , is a useful indicator of past infection . After a primary infection , IgG reaches peak levels in the blood after 14 – 21 days . In subsequent re @-@ infections , levels peak earlier and the titres are usually higher . Both IgG and IgM provide protective immunity to the infecting serotype of the virus . In testing for IgG and IgM antibodies there may be cross @-@ reactivity with other flaviviruses which may result in a false positive after recent infections or vaccinations with yellow fever virus or Japanese encephalitis . The detection of IgG alone is not considered diagnostic unless blood samples are collected 14 days apart and a greater than fourfold increase in levels of specific IgG is detected . In a person with symptoms , the detection of IgM is considered diagnostic .
= = Prevention = =
Prevention depends on control of and protection from the bites of the mosquito that transmits it . The World Health Organization recommends an Integrated Vector Control program consisting of five elements :
Advocacy , social mobilization and legislation to ensure that public health bodies and communities are strengthened ;
Collaboration between the health and other sectors ( public and private ) ;
An integrated approach to disease control to maximize use of resources ;
Evidence @-@ based decision making to ensure any interventions are targeted appropriately ; and
Capacity @-@ building to ensure an adequate response to the local situation .
The primary method of controlling A. aegypti is by eliminating its habitats . This is done by getting rid of open sources of water , or if this is not possible , by adding insecticides or biological control agents to these areas . Generalized spraying with organophosphate or pyrethroid insecticides , while sometimes done , is not thought to be effective . Reducing open collections of water through environmental modification is the preferred method of control , given the concerns of negative health effects from insecticides and greater logistical difficulties with control agents . People can prevent mosquito bites by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin , using mosquito netting while resting , and / or the application of insect repellent ( DEET being the most effective ) . However , these methods appear not to be sufficiently effective , as the frequency of outbreaks appears to be increasing in some areas , probably due to urbanization increasing the habitat of A. aegypti . The range of the disease appears to be expanding possibly due to climate change .
= = = Vaccine = = =
As of December 2015 , there is no commercially available vaccine for dengue fever . One that is partially effective is predicted to become available in Mexico , the Philippines , and Brazil in early 2016 . It received approval in December 2015 . The vaccine is produced by Sanofi and goes by the brand name Dengvaxia . It is based on a weakened combination of the yellow fever virus and each of the four dengue serotypes . Two studies of a vaccine found it was 60 % effective and prevented more than 80 to 90 % of severe cases . This is less than wished for by some .
There are ongoing programs working on a dengue vaccine to cover all four serotypes . Now that there is a fifth serotype this will need to be factored in . One of the concerns is that a vaccine could increase the risk of severe disease through antibody @-@ dependent enhancement ( ADE ) . The ideal vaccine is safe , effective after one or two injections , covers all serotypes , does not contribute to ADE , is easily transported and stored , and is both affordable and cost @-@ effective .
= = = Anti @-@ dengue day = = =
International Anti @-@ Dengue Day is observed every year on June 15 . The idea was first agreed upon in 2010 with the first event held in Jakarta , Indonesia in 2011 . Further events were held in 2012 in Yangon , Myanmar and in 2013 in Vietnam . Goals are to increase public awareness about dengue , mobilize resources for its prevention and control and , to demonstrate the Asian region ’ s commitment in tackling the disease .
= = Management = =
There are no specific antiviral drugs for dengue , however maintaining proper fluid balance is important . Treatment depends on the symptoms . Those who are able to drink , are passing urine , have no " warning signs " and are otherwise healthy can be managed at home with daily follow up and oral rehydration therapy . Those who have other health problems , have " warning signs " , or who cannot manage regular follow @-@ up should be cared for in hospital . In those with severe dengue care should be provided in an area where there is access to an intensive care unit .
Intravenous hydration , if required , is typically only needed for one or two days . In children with shock due to dengue a rapid dose of 20mL / kg is reasonable . The rate of fluid administration is than titrated to a urinary output of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 mL / kg / h , stable vital signs and normalization of hematocrit . The smallest amount of fluid required to achieve this is recommended .
Invasive medical procedures such as nasogastric intubation , intramuscular injections and arterial punctures are avoided , in view of the bleeding risk . Paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) is used for fever and discomfort while NSAIDs such as ibuprofen and aspirin are avoided as they might aggravate the risk of bleeding . Blood transfusion is initiated early in people presenting with unstable vital signs in the face of a decreasing hematocrit , rather than waiting for the hemoglobin concentration to decrease to some predetermined " transfusion trigger " level . Packed red blood cells or whole blood are recommended , while platelets and fresh frozen plasma are usually not . There is not enough evidence to determine if corticosteroids have a positive or negative effect in dengue fever .
During the recovery phase intravenous fluids are discontinued to prevent a state of fluid overload . If fluid overload occurs and vital signs are stable , stopping further fluid may be all that is needed . If a person is outside of the critical phase , a loop diuretic such as furosemide may be used to eliminate excess fluid from the circulation .
= = Epidemiology = =
Most people with dengue recover without any ongoing problems . The fatality rate is 1 – 5 % , and less than 1 % with adequate treatment ; however those who develop significantly low blood pressure may have a fatality rate of up to 26 % . Dengue is common in more than 110 countries . It infects 50 to 528 million people worldwide a year , leading to half a million hospitalizations , and approximately 20 @,@ 000 deaths . For the decade of the 2000s , 12 countries in Southeast Asia were estimated to have about 3 million infections and 6 @,@ 000 deaths annually . It is reported in at least 22 countries in Africa ; but is likely present in all of them with 20 % of the population at risk . This makes it one of the most common vector @-@ borne diseases worldwide .
Infections are most commonly acquired in the urban environment . In recent decades , the expansion of villages , towns and cities in the areas in which it is common , and the increased mobility of people has increased the number of epidemics and circulating viruses . Dengue fever , which was once confined to Southeast Asia , has now spread to Southern China , countries in the Pacific Ocean and America , and might pose a threat to Europe .
Rates of dengue increased 30 fold between 1960 and 2010 . This increase is believed to be due to a combination of urbanization , population growth , increased international travel , and global warming . The geographical distribution is around the equator . Of the 2 @.@ 5 billion people living in areas where it is common 70 % are from Asia and the Pacific . An infection with dengue is second only to malaria as a diagnosed cause of fever among travelers returning from the developing world . It is the most common viral disease transmitted by arthropods , and has a disease burden estimated at 1 @,@ 600 disability @-@ adjusted life years per million population . The World Health Organization counts dengue as one of seventeen neglected tropical diseases .
Like most arboviruses , dengue virus is maintained in nature in cycles that involve preferred blood @-@ sucking vectors and vertebrate hosts . The viruses are maintained in the forests of Southeast Asia and Africa by transmission from female Aedes mosquitoes — of species other than A. aegypti — to their offspring and to lower primates . In towns and cities , the virus is primarily transmitted by the highly domesticated A. aegypti . In rural settings the virus is transmitted to humans by A. aegypti and other species of Aedes such as A. albopictus . Both these species had expanding ranges in the second half of the 20th century . In all settings the infected lower primates or humans greatly increase the number of circulating dengue viruses , in a process called amplification .
= = History = =
The first record of a case of probable dengue fever is in a Chinese medical encyclopedia from the Jin Dynasty ( 265 – 420 AD ) which referred to a " water poison " associated with flying insects . The primary vector , A. aegypti , spread out of Africa in the 15th to 19th centuries due in part to increased globalization secondary to the slave trade . There have been descriptions of epidemics in the 17th century , but the most plausible early reports of dengue epidemics are from 1779 and 1780 , when an epidemic swept across Asia , Africa and North America . From that time until 1940 , epidemics were infrequent .
In 1906 , transmission by the Aedes mosquitoes was confirmed , and in 1907 dengue was the second disease ( after yellow fever ) that was shown to be caused by a virus . Further investigations by John Burton Cleland and Joseph Franklin Siler completed the basic understanding of dengue transmission .
The marked spread of dengue during and after the Second World War has been attributed to ecologic disruption . The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas , and to the emergence of dengue hemorrhagic fever . This severe form of the disease was first reported in the Philippines in 1953 ; by the 1970s , it had become a major cause of child mortality and had emerged in the Pacific and the Americas . Dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome were first noted in Central and South America in 1981 , as DENV @-@ 2 was contracted by people who had previously been infected with DENV @-@ 1 several years earlier .
= = = Etymology = = =
The origins of the Spanish word dengue are not certain , but it is possibly derived from dinga in the Swahili phrase Ka @-@ dinga pepo , which describes the disease as being caused by an evil spirit . Slaves in the West Indies having contracted dengue were said to have the posture and gait of a dandy , and the disease was known as " dandy fever " .
The term " break @-@ bone fever " was applied by physician and United States Founding Father Benjamin Rush , in a 1789 report of the 1780 epidemic in Philadelphia . In the report title he uses the more formal term " bilious remitting fever " . The term dengue fever came into general use only after 1828 . Other historical terms include " breakheart fever " and " la dengue " . Terms for severe disease include " infectious thrombocytopenic purpura " and " Philippine " , " Thai " , or " Singapore hemorrhagic fever " .
= = Research = =
Research efforts to prevent and treat dengue include various means of vector control , vaccine development , and antiviral drugs .
= = = Vector = = =
With regards to vector control , a number of novel methods have been used to reduce mosquito numbers with some success including the placement of the guppy ( Poecilia reticulata ) or copepods in standing water to eat the mosquito larvae . There are also trials with genetically modified male A. aegypti that after release into the wild mate with females , and render their offspring unable to fly .
= = = Wolbachia = = =
Attempts are ongoing to infect the mosquito population with bacteria of the Wolbachia genus , which makes the mosquitoes partially resistant to dengue virus . While artificially induced infections with Wolbachia is effective , it is unclear if naturally acquired infections are protective . Working is still ongoing as of 2015 to determine the best type of Wolbachia to use .
= = = Treatment = = =
Apart from attempts to control the spread of the Aedes mosquito there are ongoing efforts to develop antiviral drugs that would be used to treat attacks of dengue fever and prevent severe complications . Discovery of the structure of the viral proteins may aid the development of effective drugs . There are several plausible targets . The first approach is inhibition of the viral RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase ( coded by NS5 ) , which copies the viral genetic material , with nucleoside analogs . Secondly , it may be possible to develop specific inhibitors of the viral protease ( coded by NS3 ) , which splices viral proteins . Finally , it may be possible to develop entry inhibitors , which stop the virus entering cells , or inhibitors of the 5 ′ capping process , which is required for viral replication .
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= Izuna 2 : The Unemployed Ninja Returns =
Izuna 2 : The Unemployed Ninja Returns , released in Japan as Gōma Reifu Den Izuna Ni ( 降魔霊符伝イヅナ 弐 ) , is a dungeon crawler video game developed by Ninja Studio and published in Japan by Success and in North America by Atlus for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the sequel to Izuna : Legend of the Unemployed Ninja and was released in Japan on November 29 , 2007 and in North America on July 22 , 2008 .
Like the first game , Izuna 2 focuses on the adventures of Izuna and her friends . Shino , Izuna 's friend , disappears in the midst of a wedding , so Izuna goes on a quest to find her . Izuna finds her , only to discover that Shino was looking for her sister , Shizune , so Izuna and her group decide to help search for Shizune . But by looking for Shizune , Izuna angers a group of foreign gods , who attempt to prevent her from reuniting with Shizune .
= = Gameplay = =
Izuna 2 , like the original Izuna game , is a dungeon crawler . The player controls Izuna or various other characters and explores randomly generated dungeons . Each dungeon has multiple floors that need to be cleared , and many of these dungeons have bosses that must be defeated . The player manages a health bar ; if the health bar is depleted , the player dies and is forced to return to town . Dying , a common occurrence in the game , will cause the player to lose all money and items being carried , though the player will not lose experience or levels . The health bar refills continuously every turn . To prevent players from remaining in place to restore health excessively , an " SP bar " was added . It constantly depletes per turn and a depleted SP bar decreases the player 's attack power . The game is turn @-@ based ; the player can perform an action , such as moving , using an item , or attacking , and every other enemy in the dungeon will perform an action as well . The game includes many role @-@ playing video game elements , such as equippable items , stats , and experience points to level up .
Equipment , items , and talismans can be found in dungeons . Their location and effects are randomly generated . Equipment comes in several classes : melee equipment such as swords , claws , arms , dolls , and boots , or ranged weapons such as boomerangs and bows . Items come in several types including pills , shuriken , kunai knives , bombs , caltrops , and restorative items that heal health or SP . Talismans can " stick , " or be attached , to equipment to add abilities or stats . A weapon can only have a limited number of talismans stuck to it . Talismans can also be used to cast magic , which uses SP .
Izuna 2 also includes a " tag " system not found in the previous game . The player enters dungeons with two characters , allowing the player to continue exploring the dungeon even after the first character has died . The player can switch characters in game during a fight through this system . Additionally , the player can use the secondary character in conjunction with the primary character to launch a powerful dual attack .
= = Plot = =
Ichika , a fisherwoman from the previous game , has plans to get married . However , during the night before Ichika 's marriage , Shino , Izuna 's best friend , disappears . Izuna frantically tries to find her and quickly locates her . Shino reveals that she was searching for her sister , Shizune , so Izuna and her friends decide to help Shino find Shizune .
Izuna enlists the help of the gods of Katamari Village , whom she aided in the previous game . Lord Takushiki , one of the gods , reveals that both Shizune and Izuna are " portable shrines " , or people who allow the gods to leave their home villages . Because the existence of two portable shrines in one area would cause conflict among gods , Takushiki sent Shizune to another region as a child . The foreign gods and their creatures from that region , mononokes , followed Shizune into Izuna 's homeland .
After defeating several foreign gods , Izuna successfully reunites Shino and Shizune . However , by defeating the foreign gods , Izuna angers the Dark Prince , the leader of these gods . Izuna is forced to defeat the Dark Prince . After doing so , she convinces him to return to his homeland , allowing peace to return to the region .
= = Development = =
According to the developer blog , the localization process for Izuna 2 was " surprisingly uncomplicated " and the original run through took less than a month . Success , the Japanese developer , provided Atlus , the North American developers , with well @-@ organized files , which helped make the translation and editing quick and easy . However , the quality assurance and debugging process was a " nightmare " due to the nature of the game and the randomized spawning of creatures . Additionally , the team looked closely at the bugs found by Japanese players and attempted to replicate every reported bug . This effort was marred by the lack of a debug menu , though debuggers were able to use both a one @-@ hit kill option and a floor @-@ skipping option . Unfortunately , the one @-@ hit kill option did not apply to the bosses , so debuggers still had to grind to gain enough levels to defeat the bosses . In total , six official testers found 104 system @-@ type bugs and 259 text bugs .
= = Release = =
On the Japanese release date of Izuna 2 , Success organized a series of fashion events at various stores in Akihabara . Cosplayers could compete for prizes by dressing up as either Izuna or Shino . Additionally , actors and members of the design staff attended to field questions and sign autographs . The game was also made available at Comiket 73 between December 21 and December 23 , 2007 .
In North America , Atlus initially announced plans to release an English version on April 17 , 2008 . Atlus released a trailer of the game in April 2008 , and in May 2008 , Izuna 2 appeared at the 2008 Run to the Sun convention in California . A competition was also held in the U.S. to help promote the release . Fans were asked to add text to a series of images involving interactions between different characters and could win a free copy of Izuna 2 and all of the posters given away as promotional items with the game .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Izuna 2 was released in several different containers . Sofmap , a Japanese retailer , released a collector 's box depicting Izuna and Shino bathing in an onsen , mirroring the design of many eroge games . Each American release contained one of two pinup @-@ styled mini @-@ posters of Izuna . Copies of the game purchased through either GameStop or Amazon each included an additional , retailer @-@ exclusive mini @-@ poster .
= = Reception = =
Izuna 2 received " mixed or average reviews " according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Many critics pointed to the game 's " quintessential roguelike RPG " nature as a drawback because it required a great deal of grinding to progress in the game , though some critics enjoyed the difficulty of the game .
Reviewers were also split with their impressions of the " tag " system . GameShark found it to be a " nice twist " while RPGFan found it to be " irrelevant and not good . " Nintendo World Report called Izuna 2 " a respectable and fun dungeon @-@ crawler " marred mostly by its gameplay mechanics and disappointing graphics . They also pointed out that the game is targeted at " very specific gamer crowd " . Likewise , GamePro commented that the game " might prove too challenging to casual DS gamers who are just looking for a quick round of fun " and would most likely fit best for " DS owners looking for a hardcore dungeon crawling experience . " In spite of this , they found that the game had several notable positive aspects , including a " solid " control scheme and " well done " Japanese voice acting and English subtitling . X @-@ Play pointed to the game 's " original visual style and a quirky sense of humor " as characteristics that distinguished the game from roguelikes . They greatly enjoyed the dialogue and voice acting and felt that the game " shouldn 't get lost " among other dungeon crawlers released to the DS . However , 1UP.com found that the " amusingly slapstick storyline " was the only point that stood out against dungeon crawlers , though the game was " a considerable improvement " over the original . In general , 1UP.com thought the game was " a challenge meant for hardcore RPG fanatics but amusing enough that newcomers might find it worthwhile , too . " Likewise , IGN commented that the game would take " a very specific gamer to cuddle up to this cute , comedic experience " and pointed out that the game was " most unlikely of sequels . " In contrast to 1UP.com , IGN found the game to be " undoubtedly more of the same , " leading to the same benefits and drawbacks .
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= New York State Route 220 =
New York State Route 220 ( NY 220 ) is a state highway located in Chenango County , New York , in the United States . It is signed as an east – west highway , but its actual routing wanders considerably from north to south as it proceeds across the county . The western terminus of NY 220 is at an intersection with NY 41 near the western county line in the town of Smithville . Its eastern terminus is in the town of Oxford , where it becomes County Route 32 ( CR 32 ) east of the village of Oxford . The stub of NY 220 east of Oxford serves as a signed connection between NY 12 and the New York State Veterans ' Home at Oxford located east of the village along the Chenango River .
In 1916 , the New York State Legislature created Route 8 @-@ a , an unsigned legislative route connecting legislative Route 8 in the center of Oxford to the Relief Corps Home by way of the east bank of the Chenango River . The Route 8 @-@ a designation was removed in 1921 as part of a partial renumbering of New York 's legislative routes . Its former routing became part of NY 220 , a new route extending from Smithville Flats to Oxford , in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 220 was rerouted near Oxford in 1982 to follow a new bridge over the Chenango River . The realignment created a short overlap with NY 12 on North Canal Street between the former routing of NY 220 on Main Street and the new river crossing to the north .
= = Route description = =
NY 220 begins at an intersection with NY 41 north of the hamlet of Smithville Flats in the Chenango County town of Smithville . It heads to the northeast , paralleling a small creek as it progresses through the rural town consisting mostly of cultivated fields . NY 220 passes into the town of McDonough and enters a hamlet bearing the same name , where it turns eastward . The route winds its way through the eastern , forested portion of the town to the small community of East McDonough , located near the McDonough – Preston town line . Here , NY 220 turns southeast and continues into Preston .
In Preston , the open fields return as NY 220 follows another waterbody , this time the slightly larger Mill Brook . The route crosses the stream just before entering the town of Oxford , where they split . While Mill Brook curves around the western extents of the village of Oxford , NY 220 serves the village directly , entering it on Butler Street . It veers eastward at a junction with State Street and follows it to Washington Avenue . Here , State Street splits into a one @-@ block long one @-@ way couplet . Eastbound NY 220 shifts south to follow LaFayette Park ; NY 220 westbound , meanwhile , is routed on State Street . At the end of the couplet , NY 220 intersects NY 12 ( North Canal Street ) on the western bank of the Chenango River .
NY 220 turns north onto NY 12 , overlapping the latter for just over 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to an intersection with North Washington Avenue north of the village . The routes split here , with NY 220 turning southeast to cross the Chenango River and the New York , Susquehanna and Western Railroad ( NYSW ) . Past the railroad , NY 220 heads through unimproved fields to a junction with East River Road . The route turns northeast here to follow East River Road . It heads through a small residential neighborhood to the New York State Veterans ' Home at Oxford , a large old soldiers ' home located adjacent to both the eastern bank of the Chenango River and the NYSW rail line . State maintenance of NY 220 ends just east of the driveway to the home , at which point the road continues onward toward Norwich as CR 32 .
= = History = =
The New York State Woman 's Relief Corps Home ( now the New York State Veterans ' Home at Oxford ) , an old soldiers ' home dedicated to the care of soldiers and their immediate families , nurses employed by the United States Army , and widows and mothers of soldiers , was constructed on a 165 @-@ acre ( 67 ha ) plot of land east of the village of Oxford and opened April 19 , 1897 . In 1916 , the New York State Legislature created Route 8 @-@ a , an unsigned legislative route connecting the home to Route 8 ( now NY 12 ) in Oxford by way of pre @-@ existing highways . That year , the state of New York began a project to improve the 1 @.@ 40 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 25 km ) long highway . In all , the improvements cost just over $ 26 @,@ 150 ( equivalent to $ 308 @,@ 891 in 2016 ) . The improved roadway was accepted into the state highway system on March 20 , 1919 . Route 8 @-@ a left Route 8 in the center of Oxford and crossed the Chenango River on Main Street . On the opposite side of the river , it followed Albany Street and East River Road to the home , where it ended . The Route 8 @-@ a designation was eliminated on March 1 , 1921 , as part of a partial renumbering of the legislative route system .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of Route 8 in the vicinity of Oxford became part of NY 12 ; however , the former routing of Route 8 @-@ a was not given a designation at this time . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the former routing of Route 8 @-@ a became part of NY 220 , a new route extending from Smithville Flats to Oxford via McDonough . The entirety of NY 220 west of Oxford was closed to traffic in July 1935 as a result of damage caused by severe statewide flooding earlier in the month . The portion of the route from McDonough to Oxford took approximately three days to repair and was reopened by July 17 . The remaining section from Smithville Flats from McDonough was reopened by the following year .
By 1980 , plans to construct a new bridge for NY 220 over the Chenango River had been set in motion . As planned , a 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) stretch of NY 220 in Oxford would be rerouted to follow the new structure over the river and a Conrail ( now New York , Susquehanna and Western Railroad ) line that ran along the riverbank . The initial price tag for the bridge was set at $ 2 @.@ 262 million ( equivalent to $ 6 @.@ 5 million in 2016 ) . Construction of the bridge was completed in 1982 , at which time NY 220 was rerouted to overlap NY 12 north to the bridge , where it turned east to cross the river and rejoin its former alignment on the east bank .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Chenango County .
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= Family in advertising =
Since the industrial revolution , the image of the family in advertising has become a prominent symbol in advertising and is utilized in marketing campaigns to increase profits . While some sociologists argue that these advertisements are ways in which behavior and attitudes towards society are influenced , others merely argue that the image of family in advertising mirrors reality and therefore holds only a representative or symbolic role . Regardless , different members of the family are portrayed in different ways within advertising and such portrayals often reflect the traditional roles of each member during the time in history in which the advertisement is presented .
= = History = =
The family symbol in advertising may be observable before the industrial revolution , but it was not until after the industrial revolution that advertising boomed and the use of family images in advertising became prevalent . The industrial revolution changed advertising from informative flyers marking the availability of goods in 17th and 18th century Europe , whose audience were those within physical propinquity , to multimillion @-@ dollar campaigns that attempted to instantly connect and persuade peoples from across the world . After the industrial revolution , large companies emerged as mass @-@ producers , products became branded , and customers began establishing brand loyalties . Thus , persuading customers to purchase one brand rather than another became vital to advertising . An advertisement was responsible for making products and services salient in order to earn consumer attention in competitive industrial markets . During this period , not only did the immensity of the advertising industry drastically change , but so did its marketing strategies as it began to incorporate images and specify an audience . This change from largely informative to largely persuasive strategies and from general to specific audiences explains the increase in presence and usage of symbols , representations , and stereotypes in advertising — including those of the family .
Different societies and cultures have used family symbols in advertising to varying extents of success . Because family life stresses in @-@ group benefits , preferences , and successes over those of the individual , collectivist societies tend to use more family symbols in advertising than individualist societies . For example , Korea , which is reputably collectivistic , has more success with family advertisements than the United States , which is reputably individualistic .
The modern post @-@ industrial era in advertising was one of reaffirming widely held social values , such as heterosexuality and the middle @-@ class , while neglecting alternative values or lifestyles . The advertising industry was conservative and did not deviate from images that were socially acceptable . Some countries , such as Japan , continue to present the family stereotypically , especially in their television advertisements . In the past decade , however , many advertising agencies have begun to more accurately capture reality and the diversity of lifestyles and family types of consumers .
= = Function = =
'Family ' is a popular symbol in commercial advertising that is commonly used to persuade audiences into consuming one 's business ' goods or services over a competitors . Consequently , the symbol of family as used in advertisements is functional – it both increases profit and builds a positive reputation among customers .
The family symbol functions on three levels of persuasion : social , psychological , and personal .
Social persuasion appeals to one ’ s role in a group and corresponding expectations ; it appeals to reference groups , social class , culture , and subculture . The family symbol is socially persuasive in that it appeals to one ’ s role within the family and their corresponding expectations .
One does not only feel a social or external pressure to fulfill roles and expectations of being a good parent , sibling , or child , however . There is a distinctly emotional and internal pressure to be ‘ good ’ due to psychological attachments in spousal , sibling and / or parent @-@ children relationships . Psychological persuasion in advertisements appeals to one 's motives , attitudes and personalities . The family symbol is psychologically persuasive in that it appeals to the emotional attachments between spouses , siblings , or parent @-@ child relationships . To continue the above example , the mother not only wants to purchase a product that purportedly limits irritation or harm for her child due to her social role and expectations , but also because she feels an emotional attachment to her child . The attempt to activate the emotions of audiences and to psychologically persuade is popular among advertisements . Family affects us significantly on this psychological level – the level at which advertisements are most effective .
Personal persuasion appeals to one ’ s demographic identity or consumer behaviors . The family symbol is personally persuasive because families make buying decisions together as a unit . Furthermore , one person in a family may make the majority of the buying decisions . To target that person in advertising , referencing their location within the family and their responsibility to make purchasing decisions for the family , will be more profitable than targeting others . For an example of personal persuasion , the McDonald 's corporation in India has had great marketing success in designating themselves as the " McDonalds Family Restaurant " .
= = = Sociological interpretations = = =
Advertisements are used to attract customers to a business ’ products or services . In doing so , they are also making statements regarding race , social class , gender , values , and family . They not only describe these social categories , they prescribe behaviors or show one how it is that they should act in accordance with social ideals or norms . According to Belk and Pollay , “ not only do [ advertisements ] show us the ideal life , they instruct us [ on ] how to live . ” Through targeting specific groups of people for products and services , advertisements both reflect changes of social norms and are changers of social norms regarding acceptable behavior . Some argue that the image of family only plays a symbolic role by reflecting the current cultural values . Advertisements may not only reflect changes in social norms , but also be asserting that such behavior is acceptable . As a result , sociologists have challenged the public to study ads containing images of the family not just as marketing messages but also as vehicles for behavior and attitudes towards society .
Advertisements , specifically ones that show the family , commentate on the transition from modernity to postmodernity . This transition is the transition of middle class nuclear families where heterosexuality is the norm to the recognition and acceptance of a variety of different family types , an embracing of societal polysexuality and plurality ; it is furthermore the transition from mass culture to the prevalence of sub @-@ cultures and multiculturalism . Literary critic Fredric Jameson says that " our advertising ... is fed by postmodernism in all the arts , and is inconceivable without it . "
= = Family members in advertising = =
= = = Wives = = =
In general , advertisements tend to reflect the popular attitudes surrounding the appropriate gender roles of the time . For example , in the 1920s , when such a tiny proportion of wives were working for economic gain outside of their homes , it was rare to see wives portrayed within advertising in a role in which they were working for monetary gain . Instead , women were primarily portrayed doing household tasks . The exceptions to this rule came about in times of economic hardship when wives were thrown into the labor force to ensure a families ’ economic survival . One of these times was the Great Depression during the 1930s . Since then , as housekeeping becomes less and less important of a family role , the amount of advertisements portraying women solely as performing household tasks have been on the decline .
= = = Husbands = = =
Just as the image of the wife in advertising has reflected the general views of the appropriate roles of a wife , images of the husband also reflect the cultural values surrounding what role was believed a husband should be engaged in . For example , over time , it is common find images of the husband as performing work outside of the home and taking care of the family finances . It has been noted that this role has been especially prevalent during 1920 , 1936 , and 1970 . On the other hand , one is not likely to find an advertisement depicting husbands engaged in household chores , except when they are depicted as particularly bad at performing the housework . In addition , it has been noted that over time , the portrayal of husbands and wives in an intimate , romantic relationship has been on the rise .
= = = Mothers and fathers = = =
Throughout history , mothers have been portrayed as the primary physical caregivers of children . Physical caregiving includes tasks such as breast @-@ feeding and changing diapers . Some theorize that this has to do with the idea of women as having a natural instinct towards motherhood . Fathers , on the other hand , have been more likely to be portrayed in play activities with their children and are often more likely to be shown interacting with sons than daughters .
Similar to the decline over time in wives as being portrayed solely as housekeepers , the portrayal of mothers as the primary physical care takers of children has been on the decline . Instead , there has been an increase in the portrayal of mothers as facilitating recreational activities with their offspring .
= = = Other family members = = =
Much like fathers are depicted primarily in recreational activities with their children , other male members of the family , including sons and male grandchildren , are portrayed in play activities the majority of the time . Interestingly , young female members of the family are depicted similarly in play activities , but nevertheless tend to be more likely shown in activities related to chores and child @-@ care . In addition , the image of the grandparent has been largely nonexistent in advertising .
It is important to also note that images of the family depend upon the specific source in which the image is found and the type of audience that the source aims to reach . For example , in a women ’ s magazine such as Good Housekeeping , one can expect to find women in the family portrayed solely as domestic housewives .
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= The Real Housewives of Atlanta =
The Real Housewives of Atlanta ( abbreviated RHOA ) is an American reality television series that premiered on October 7 , 2008 , on Bravo . Developed as the third installment of The Real Housewives franchise , following The Real Housewives of Orange County and New York City , it has aired eight seasons and focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women residing in Atlanta , Georgia .
The series originally focused on Lisa Wu @-@ Hartwell , DeShawn Snow , NeNe Leakes , Kim Zolciak , and Shereé Whitfield ; the eighth season lineup consists of Kandi Burruss , Cynthia Bailey , Phaedra Parks , Kenya Moore , Porsha Williams , and Kim Fields . Of the original housewives , Snow , Wu @-@ Hartwell , and Whitfield respectively left after the first , second , and fourth seasons ; Zolciak stopped filming during production of the fifth season ; and Leakes left after the seventh . The remaining housewives joined in later seasons ; Burruss in the second , Bailey and Parks in the third , Moore and Williams in the fifth ( the latter of whom was a friend of the housewives in the seventh ) , and Fields in the eight . Past housewives include Claudia Jordan ( season 7 ) .
The Real Housewives of Atlanta has received moderately favorable reviews from critics and has been recognized as a " guilty pleasure " by several media outlets . However , the series has been criticized for appearing to fabricate portions of its storyline . As of February 2014 , it was the highest @-@ rated installment of The Real Housewives franchise and the most @-@ watched series airing on Bravo . Its success has resulted in the conceptions of the spin @-@ offs The Kandi Factory ( featuring Burruss ) , Don 't Be Tardy ( featuring Zolciak ) , I Dream of NeNe : The Wedding ( featuring Leakes ) , Kandi 's Wedding and Kandi 's Ski Trip ( again , featuring Burruss ) .
= = Overview and casting = =
The Real Housewives of Atlanta was announced as the third installment in The Real Housewives franchise , intending to capitalize on the successes of its predecessors The Real Housewives of Orange County and New York City . Its television network Bravo stated that the series ' planned storyline focused on " [ balancing ] motherhood , demanding careers and a fast @-@ paced social calendar " .
Throughout its run , The Real Housewives of Atlanta has been led by five ( seasons 1 – 2 ) , six ( seasons 3 – 8 with the exception of some of season 5 ) , and seven ( some of season 5 ) housewives , who are credited by their first names , and is distinguished within The Real Housewives franchise in that it was , until the introduction of The Real Housewives of Potomac in 2016 , the only installment with a predominantly black cast . Its original main housewives were Lisa Wu @-@ Hartwell , DeShawn Snow , NeNe Leakes , Kim Zolciak , and Shereé Whitfield . Snow departed from the program after the first season , and alleged that producers considered her to be " too human for a circus show " and was replaced by Kandi Burruss in the second season .
The third season saw the departure of Hartwell and the addition of Cynthia Bailey and Phaedra Parks . The main lineup remained unchanged during the fourth season , although Marlo Hampton joined as a friend of the housewives . Whitfield exited the series upon the conclusion of the fourth season , and was replaced by Porsha Williams and Kenya Moore in the fifth season . Zolciak departed from the program in the middle of the fifth season , and was not replaced in the sixth season . The departure of Zolciak made Leakes the only remaining original cast member as of season six ; however , Zolciak commented that she might be interested in returning to the series . In the seventh season , Williams became a friend of the housewives , alongside new cast member Demetria McKinney , while Claudia Jordan was introduced as a main housewife .
In June 2015 , the network announced that The Real Housewives of Atlanta had been renewed for an eight season , with both NeNe Leakes and Claudia Jordan departing from the show . After Leakes ' departure , the series became the first Real Housewives franchise to not retain any original cast members as full @-@ time participants . In September 2015 , Bravo announced that Porsha Williams had assigned to be a full @-@ time housewife once again , along with newcomer actress Kim Fields . The network also announced that former housewife Shereé Whitfield , together with new cast member Shamea Morton , would join the series in a supporting capacity , with former cast members , Leakes , Hampton , Jordan and McKinney making guest appearances .
In April 2016 , Bravo announced that the series is renewed for a ninth season . Leakes revealed she would be returning to season 9 in some capacity .
= = = Timeline of housewives = = =
= = Episodes = =
= = Storylines = =
In its series premiere , The Real Housewives of Atlanta introduced Wu @-@ Hartwell , Snow , Leakes , Zolciak , and Whitfield . Leakes and Whitfield were in the midst of a personal conflict , which was escalated after Leakes was excluded from Whitfield 's divorce party . Meanwhile , Zolciak was revealed to be dating a publicly unknown boyfriend nicknamed " Big Papa " , and later decided to pursue her aspirations of becoming a country music singer . Her friendship with Leakes deteriorated after she established a companionship with Whitfield , and was ended after Leakes made sarcastic remarks about Zolciak 's music career . Snow and Wu @-@ Hartwell additionally looked to establish prominence as a socialite and a jewelry designer , respectively . Whitfield attempted to launch her own fashion line and organize a lunch for the women to reconcile , although both ventures proved unsuccessful in the finale of the first season .
The second season saw the introduction of Burruss , who had recently become engaged to her boyfriend A.J. and expressed interest in reviving her music career . An attempted reconciliation between Leakes , Whitfield , and Zolciak failed to come to fruition , while a feud developed between Leakes and Burruss after the latter became friends with Zolciak and helped her record her single " Tardy for the Party " . Meanwhile , Zolciak attempted to launch her own wig line and became engaged to Big Papa , while Wu @-@ Hartwell and Whitfield launched their own clothing collections .
The third season saw the introduction of Bailey and Parks , while Leakes and Zolciak reconciled as the former contemplated divorcing her husband Gregg and the latter began a lesbian relationship . Parks , who was in the middle of her pregnancy , clashed with her husband Apollo Nida over their differing opinions on parenting ; she gave birth later in the season . Meanwhile , Zolciak and Burruss continued recording music together , although they clashed over their creative differences . Bailey later became engaged to her boyfriend Peter Thomas , while Zolciak set her affections on football player Kroy Biermann ; a conflict between Burruss , Leakes , and Zolciak later ensued while the latter two women embark on a promotional concert tour . Against the advice of her mother and sister , Bailey married Thomas in the third season finale .
The fourth season began as Zolciak was in the middle of her first pregnancy by her boyfriend Biermann ; she later gave birth to their son . Leakes continued divorce proceedings with Gregg , while Whitfield found herself in financial difficulties after her ex @-@ husband failed to pay child support . Meanwhile , Bailey opened her own modeling agency , while Parks looked to launch a family @-@ operated funeral home . Leakes 's new friendship with Hampton caused tension between all of the women , which escalated during a group vacation in South Africa ; while Zolciak , who had remained home with her children , became upset by negative comments Bailey ( not Burruss ) made about her during the group vacation . As the season closed , Leakes began to reconsider her divorce from Gregg .
As the fifth season introduced former Miss USA Moore and football player Kordell Stewart 's wife Williams , Leakes reconciled with Gregg and pondered the possibility of remarrying him . Zolciak was forced to move out of her mansion , which she and Biermann had attempted to purchase less than a year earlier , Leakes began to question Moore 's seemingly unfaithful behavior towards her boyfriend Walter during a group trip to Anguilla , which began a feud between Leakes and Williams against Moore . Moore wished to marry Walter although their relationship had begun to deteriorate , while Parks and Moore created competing workout DVDs after plans to make the project a joint venture proved unsuccessful . Toward the end of the season , Williams attempted to revive her failing marriage to Stewart with therapist sessions .
Williams came to the realization that her marriage was not salvageable as the sixth season commenced , while Leakes became upset with Moore after the later went against " girl code " by inappropriately communicating with Nida . Moore moved out of her rental property after being evicted , while Leakes returned to Atlanta full @-@ time after her television series The New Normal was canceled . Burruss struggled to manage the conflict between her estranged mother Joyce and her longtime boyfriend Todd Tucker , although they attempted to reconcile as the couple became engaged and began planning their nuptials . In a later attempt to salvage the relationships between the women , Leakes hosted a couples pajama party for their group , although the women continued to clash with one another ; a later spa gathering failed to resolve residual tension between Leakes and Moore . Meanwhile , Williams attempted to launch her career as an actress after being cast in Burruss 's musical .
= = Critical reception = =
The Real Housewives of Atlanta has been moderately well received by critics . Writing for Common Sense Media , Melissa Camacho spoke favorably of the series ' emphasis on " a successful and powerful segment of the African @-@ American community " that appears to be frequently neglected by the popular television . Tim Hall from the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer commented of his general distaste for reality television , particularly describing The Real Housewives of Orange County as " utterly ridiculous " . However , he admitted that the dynamic and conflict between the women , in addition to the wealthy lifestyles they led , to be " somewhat entertaining " . In a more mixed review , Alessandra Stanley from The New York Times joked that its portrayal of wealth served as " the best choice for a time capsule of the Bling Decade " when noting the economic downturn the United States experienced around the time that the series premiered , although more seriously stated that the housewives ' luxuries " was never all that enviable , and now it looks as if it might not be viable . " Hanh Nguyen from Zap2It shared a similar sentiment , criticizing that the " showy elite and rampant consumerism " that the women regularly display " seems rather out of touch " given the United States ' economic hardship , although she elaborated that the program " [ is ] not by any means boring , but you do have to be in the mood to watch . "
The Real Housewives of Atlanta has been recognized as a " guilty pleasure " by several media outlets . Writing for About.com , Latoya West commented that the " self @-@ absorbed " nature of the housewives may become irritating to viewers , but noted that the series ' " divalicious drama might be addictive . " The staff from Entertainment Weekly joked that they " are never tardy for this party " ; they felt that " [ Leakes ] alone could keep [ The Real Housewives of Atlanta ] on the map " , and additionally credited Zolciak 's " slow train to cuckootown , making all local stops " for helping to establish " the franchise for the ages . " In 2009 , a writer from Essence mentioned that they " couldn 't get enough of the ladies " from the program , and recognized it as the best reality show of the year . Writing for Today , Leslie Bruce commented that The Real Housewives franchise in general rose to prominence for its depiction of " foul @-@ mouthed , often catfighting and always self @-@ promoting " women , and stated that they " dominate water @-@ cooler discussions [ ... ] by showcasing at times the worst of female behavior . "
The Real Housewives of Atlanta has been criticized for appearing to fabricate portions of its storyline . One source of speculation arose during the fifth season , when Kenya Moore allegedly requested that Walter Jackson pretend to be her boyfriend ; series producers were reportedly unaware of said arrangement . Moore commented that such claims were " completely false " , and further " [ urged ] viewers to stay tuned because the truth will come to light . " Moore was also criticized for alleging that she was financially stable , although she reportedly joined the series as a source of income to offset the difficulties with her lawsuits from several creditors . In May 2013 , Porsha Williams allegedly staged her divorce from Kordell Stewart to secure her position on the series , which she reportedly feared was in jeopardy . In December 2013 , Williams received additional criticism for comments made in an episode aired during the sixth season , where she indicated that she believed the Underground Railroad was an actual railroad line .
= = U.S. television ratings = =
The first season of The Real Housewives of Atlanta maintained an average of 1 @.@ 495 million weekly viewers ; Bravo announced that the series had become the first program from the network to " crack the two million viewer mark among adults 18 – 49 . " The premiere episode of the second season was watched by 2 @.@ 66 million people , setting the record for the highest @-@ rated The Real Housewives premiere episode in the franchise 's history at the time . The third season averaged a weekly viewership of 3 @.@ 6 million people , while the fourth and fifth seasons premiered with 2 @.@ 8 million and 3 @.@ 2 million viewers , respectively . The sixth season premiere was watched by 3 @.@ 1 million people ; with 1 @.@ 9 million viewers being classified in the adults 25 – 54 demographic , it became the highest @-@ rated episode in this target demographic . As of February 2014 , The Real Housewives of Atlanta is the highest @-@ rated installment of The Real Housewives franchise , and is additionally the most @-@ watched series airing on Bravo . The premiere episode of the seventh season attracted over 3 @.@ 8 million viewers during its initial broadcast on November 9 , 2014 , including 2 @.@ 2 million viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic via Nielsen ratings . It marked as the most watched season premiere ever to air on Bravo .
= = Broadcast history = =
The Real Housewives of Atlanta airs regularly on Bravo in the United States ; most episodes are approximately one hour in length , and are broadcast in standard definition and high definition . Since its premiere , the series has alternated airing on Monday , Tuesday , Thursday , and Sunday evenings and has been frequently shifted between the 8 : 00 , 9 : 00 , and 10 : 00 PM timeslots . The first season of The Real Housewives of Atlanta included seven episodes and one reunion special , and aired from October 7 , 2008 , until November 25 , 2008 . The second season consisted of fourteen episodes , a two @-@ part reunion special , and a deleted scenes special ; it premiered on July 30 , 2009 , and concluded on November 5 , 2009 . The third season commenced airing on October 4 , 2010 , after airing sixteen episodes and a two @-@ part reunion special , it ended on January 30 , 2011 . The fourth season aired from November 6 , 2011 until April 22 , 2012 ; it included twenty episodes and a three @-@ part reunion special . The fifth season premiered on November 4 , 2012 , and concluded on April 21 , 2013 after broadcasting twenty episodes and a three @-@ part reunion special . The sixth season commenced airing on November 3 , 2013 , and ended on May 18 , 2014 . It included a three @-@ part reunion special , a secrets revealed special , and ( for the first time in Real Housewives history ) , a husbands revealed special .
The Real Housewives of Atlanta was renewed for a seventh season in April 2014 . The season premiered on November 9 , 2014 , and concluded with a three @-@ part reunion . The eighth season premiered on November 8 , 2015 .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
Zolciak received the first spin @-@ off from The Real Housewives of Atlanta , titled Don 't Be Tardy for the Wedding , which documented the preparations for her nuptials to Kroy Biermann . It premiered on April 9 , 2012 and was renewed for a second season on April 16 , 2013 , at which time its title was shortened to Don 't Be Tardy . The show returned for a third season on July 17 , 2014 . Subsequent seasons follow the daily lives of Kim and her now @-@ husband Kroy as he tries to juggle between his professional career and personal life while Kim deals with her growing family . Originally planned as a one @-@ time television special , The Kandi Factory was launched as the second spin @-@ off from The Real Housewives of Atlanta in 2012 . It followed Burruss and her record producers as they attempted to launch the music careers of undiscovered artists , although it was confirmed in 2013 that the series was canceled after airing one season . After reconciling with her ex @-@ husband Gregg , Leakes received her own spin @-@ off series I Dream of NeNe : The Wedding , which documented the preparations for their second wedding ; it premiered on September 17 , 2013 . Bravo announced Burruss and Tucker 's wedding spin @-@ off , Kandi 's Wedding , on April 8 , 2014 . The series premiered on June 1 , 2014 , and concluded on July 6 , 2014 . Kandi 's Wedding brought in very high ratings for Bravo , and topped NeNe Leakes and Kim Zolciak 's previous spin @-@ offs . In March 2015 , Bravo renewed Don 't Be Tardy ... for a fourth season as well as announced another spin @-@ off show , NeNe and Kim : The Road to Riches , starring both Leakes and Zolciak . However , the network later decided not to move forward with the show . The network later announced another series titled Kandi 's Ski Trip , the third offshoot starring Burruss . The three @-@ part special premiered after the conclusion of the seventh season of The Real Housewives of Atlanta .
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= Zach Hyman =
Zachary Martin " Zach " Hyman ( born June 9 , 1992 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey player with the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He is currently on loan to the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . Hyman is also a published author of children 's literature under contract with Penguin Random House .
Following an outstanding 2010 – 11 season , Hockey Canada named him the 2011 CJHL Player of the Year . During the 2014 – 15 season , Hyman won a plethora of awards , including being named the University of Michigan 's Athlete of the Year , a First Team All @-@ American and one of the finalists for the Hobey Baker Award .
Hyman was selected by the Florida Panthers in the 5th round of the 2010 NHL Entry Draft , however , the two parties were unable to agree on a contract , and Hyman 's rights were traded to the Maple Leafs on June 19 , 2015 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Hyman played for the Hamilton Red Wings from 2008 to 2011 . During his rookie season , Hyman recorded 13 goals and 24 assists in 49 regular season games , and two goals in five playoff games . He was named the Red Wings ' Rookie of the Year . During his sophomore season , Hyman was voted team captain . He recorded 35 goals and 40 assists in 49 regular season games , and seven goals and nine assists in 11 playoff games .
During his final season of Junior A hockey , Hyman was the leading scorer for the Red Wings , recording 42 goals and 60 assists in 43 regular season games , and three goals and five assists in seven playoff games . Hyman ranked second in the Canadian Junior Hockey League in scoring , recording 102 points in 43 games , and led all players with 2 @.@ 37 points per game .
Following an outstanding season with the Red Wings , Hyman was named to the OJHL 's North @-@ West Conference First All @-@ Star Team , and Hockey Canada awarded him the CJHL Player of the Year Award . He became just the second player from the OJHL to win the award , following Trent Walford in 1995 – 96 . In 2010 , Hyman was chosen as the OJHL 's Most Gentlemanly Player . A two @-@ time Red Wings ' MVP , the OHA also selected him as the BJ Monroe Trophy recipient . The award recognized Zach Hyman as the Association 's Top Pro Prospect . At the conclusion of the 2010 – 11 season , Hyman 's jersey was displayed in the Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = = College = = =
Hyman was originally committed to play for Princeton during the 2010 – 11 season . However , he decommitted after Princeton head coach Guy Gadowsky left the school to start the Division I hockey program at Penn State . Following Gadowsky to Penn State was not an option , as the program did not have a varsity team at the time . In May 2011 , Hyman was offered a full Athletic Scholarship and committed to play for the University of Michigan for the 2011 – 12 season .
During his freshman season at Michigan , Hyman recorded two goals and seven assists in 41 games . He scored his first career goal on October 21 , 2011 , in a game against Northern Michigan . During his sophomore season , he recorded four goals and five assists in 38 games . During his junior season , he recorded seven goals and ten assists in 35 games . Zach Hyman was selected as the 2014 Bates / Deskins Award Winner , which is a prestigious honour bestowed upon the University of Michigan 's Top Junior Student Athlete .
During his senior season , Hyman was named alternate captain . He was Michigan 's leading scorer , and the Big Ten Scoring Champion setting a new record with 54 points , scoring 22 goals , and 32 assists in only 37 games . Hyman became the first Michigan player to record 20 goals in a season since Louie Caporusso , and the first player to record 50 points or more since Carl Hagelin during the 2009 – 10 season . Hyman led the team with 17 multiple @-@ point games , including six games with three or more points . On October 24 , 2014 , Hyman recorded a career @-@ high five points , and his first career hat @-@ trick against UMass Lowell .
In December 2014 , Hyman was named to the 50th Great Lakes Invitational Tournament team , where he scored both game @-@ winning goals against Michigan Tech and Michigan State , to help lead Michigan to its 16th Tournament Title .
Following an outstanding senior season with the Wolverines , Hyman was named to the 2014 – 15 All @-@ Big Ten First Team , and named an AHCA First Team All @-@ American . Hyman was also named a top @-@ ten finalist for the Hobey Baker Award . He was also selected as the SB Nation College Hockey Big Ten Media Most Valuable Player .
On March 27 , 2015 , Hyman received the 2015 All @-@ American Athlete Award by The National Strength and Conditioning Association ( NCSA ) and EAS Sports Nutrition . The award recognized Hyman 's athletic accomplishments and his dedication to strength and conditioning .
In a National awards ceremony at the Atlanta History Center on April 27 , 2015 , Hyman was honoured as one of five finalists for the 11th Annual Coach Wooden Citizenship Cup Award and was recognized as one of the most outstanding role models amongst athletes .
Hyman graduated from Michigan with a history major in the College of Literature , Science and the Arts . He was a three @-@ time Big Ten All @-@ Academic selection and a two @-@ time recipient of the Big Ten Distinguished Scholar Award having earned a minimum grade @-@ point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 7 or higher for the previous academic year .
On May 4 , 2015 , Hyman was selected as a Senior Athlete of The Year Award winner for the 2014 – 2015 season at Michigan 's Bob Ufer Quarterback Club 's Annual Banquet , an award previously won by former standout Michigan quarterbacks Jim Harbaugh in 1987 and Tom Brady in 2000 . Past recipients include Heisman Winner Desmond Howard in 1992 , Brian Wiseman in 1994 , Marty Turco in 1998 , TJ Hensick in 2007 , Kevin Porter in 2008 , and Carl Hagelin in 2011 .
On May 14 , 2015 , Hyman was part of a quartet of University of Michigan student @-@ athletes that were named Capital One First Team Academic All @-@ District selections , the announcement coming from the College Sports Information Directors of America ( CoSIDA ) , and his name was put forward for Academic All @-@ American consideration . On June 11 , 2015 , Hyman was named to the 2015 Capital One Academic All @-@ America Division I Men 's At @-@ Large team , as selected by CoSIDA . Hyman is the second ice hockey player at Michigan to be named an Academic All @-@ America honoree , following Jeff Jillson in 2001 , and the first to be named First Team Academic All American .
On June 22 , 2015 , the University of Michigan Athletic Department named Hyman the 2014 – 15 Michigan Athlete of the Year . Hyman is the third ice hockey player to receive this honour , following Brendan Morrison in 1997 and Kevin Porter in 2008 .
= = = Professional = = =
Hyman was drafted 123rd overall by the Florida Panthers in the 2010 NHL Entry Draft . At the conclusion of his college career , the Panthers offered Hyman an NHL contract , but Hyman announced his intent not to sign with the Panthers , and opted for free agency .
On June 19 , 2015 , Hyman 's rights were acquired by the Toronto Maple Leafs from the Florida Panthers in exchange for centre Greg McKegg . On June 23 , Hyman signed a two @-@ year entry @-@ level contract with the Maple Leafs .
Hyman made his professional debut for the Toronto Marlies on October 9 , 2015 , where he recorded his first professional point , an assist on Byron Froese 's goal in the second period . On November 7 , Hyman recorded his first professional goal , a short @-@ handed goal against Matt O 'Connor of the Binghamton Senators .
On February 29 , 2016 , Hyman was recalled by the Toronto Maple Leafs . Prior to being recalled , he recorded 13 goals and 20 assists in 54 games for the Marlies this season . He made his NHL debut in a game against the Tampa Bay Lightning later that night , recording 15 : 58 of ice time , 22 shifts , two shots , and one hit . He subsequently scored his first career NHL goal one week later on March 7 against Chad Johnson of the Buffalo Sabres .
On March 31 , 2016 , Hyman was loaned to the Marlies in preparation for the AHL Calder Cup playoffs .
= = International play = =
In 2010 , as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old underage player , Hyman served as Assistant Captain and represented Canada in the U20 Three Nations tournament in Norrtälje , Sweden . He was named game MVP vs. Finland , after scoring two goals in the game . He finished the tournament with three goals and one assist in four games .
Hyman represented Canada East at the 2010 World Junior A Challenge . He was named MVP of the game vs. Russia . He was one of the tournament 's leading scorers recording two goals and three assists in five games , and won a silver medal .
In July 2013 , Hyman served as an Assistant Captain representing Canada at the 2013 Maccabiah Games held in Israel , where he recorded three goals and three assists in two games and won a gold medal .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
= = Writing career = =
Hyman is also a published author under contract with Random House .
His award winning children 's book The Bambino and Me conjures 1920s New York and tells the story of a young Yankees fan named George , who especially admires Babe Ruth and carries his baseball card everywhere . His other book , Hockey Hero was released in October 2015 and is about a shy hockey player who overcomes playing in his brother 's shadow and eventually makes his dream come true .
Hyman has signed another two book deal with Penguin Random House , with books to be published in 2016 and 2017 .
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= Thomas Lee ( Virginia colonist ) =
Thomas Lee ( c . 1690 – November 14 , 1750 ) was a leading political figure of colonial Virginia . He was a member of the Lee family , a political dynasty which included many figures from the pre @-@ American Revolutionary War era until the late 20th century . Lee became involved in politics in 1710 and he became the resident manager of the Northern Neck Proprietary for Lady Catherine Fairfax . After his father died , he inherited land in Northumberland and Charles County . Lee later acquired vast holdings in what are now Arlington , Fairfax , Fauquier , Prince William , and Loudoun Counties . These properties were developed as tobacco plantations .
When Lee married Hannah Harrison Ludwell in 1722 , he benefited by the connections of the already established Harrison family . A year later he would become a member of the House of Burgesses . After Lee 's home was burnt down by criminals , he lost almost all of his possessions and a fair sum of money . With donations received from Caroline of Ansbach and English Commissioners , he built his new home on the Potomac River , naming it Stratford Hall . Four years later in 1733 , he was appointed to the Governor 's Council , upper house of the General Assembly . In 1747 , he founded the Ohio Company of Virginia with fellow Virginian colonists who wished to expand Virginia 's territory into the Ohio River Valley . For a period of less than a year , in 1749 , he became the de facto Governor of Virginia in place of the absent William Gooch . Lee was favored for an appointment as governor by George II but the colonist died in 1750 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Thomas Lee was born around 1690 at Mount Pleasant , on the Machodoc River in Westmoreland County , Virginia . His parents were Richard Lee II , " the scholar " , and Laetitia Corbin . His ancestors had immigrated from Coton , Shropshire , England to Virginia in 1642 . As the fourth son of the couple , Lee would not receive as large an inheritance as his older brothers . This did not prevent him from becoming successful in politics .
Lee attended college at The College of William and Mary around 1700 . Lee 's education was referred to as a " common Virginia education " . He soon became interested in the working of the tobacco industry . He left home to work with his uncle Thomas Corbin in the tobacco business .
= = Political career = =
Lee 's political career began in 1710 when he was appointed as Naval Officer of the Potomac River . The position was previously held by his father and upon his resignation , Lee was appointed as the new Naval Officer . In 1711 , Lee 's uncle Thomas Corbin helped him gain the position of Virginia agent for the Northern Neck Proprietary . As a result , he was appointed by Catherine ( Culpeper ) Fairfax , Lady Fairfax who was living in England , as her agent and resident manager for the Northern Neck Proprietary , which she had inherited from her father , Governor Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper . Catherine was the wife of Thomas Fairfax , 5th Baron Fairfax . This property , which consisted of approximately six million acres ( 24 @,@ 000 km ² ) , included all the land between the Potomac and Rappahnnock rivers .
At one time Edmund Jenings , another Lee uncle , headed this Proprietary . While Jenings was in England , the offices of the agency were located at the plantation at Machodoc and under Lee 's supervision . Due to Jening 's poor management , the agency was given to Governor Robert " King " Carter in 1720 . This event led to animosity between the competitive Lee and Carter families . The members of the families refused to marry each other until Henry " Light Horse Harry " Lee married Anne Hill Carter . Their most notable child was Robert E. Lee .
Thomas held this position until 1722 . In 1713 , Thomas succeeded his father as Naval Officer in charge of collecting customs for the south side of the Potomac .
In 1714 , upon his father 's death , Lee inherited lands in Northumberland County near Dividing Creek , as well as land in Maryland adjoining his brother Philip Lee , Sr. of “ Blenheim " . Thomas leased the estate “ Machodoc " from his brother Richard Lee III who was in London . That same year Thomas visited England , remaining for about a year .
Lee thought that marriage was not only important between two individuals but for their families . A nephew of his later said , " Our Late Hon [ ora ] ble & worthy Unkle Presid [ ent ] Lee said that the first fall & ruin of families and estates was mostly Occasioned by Imprudent Matches to Imbeggar families and estates & to beget a race of beggars . " He was engaged to Jenny Wilson in 1716 . That year he returned to England to formalize the lease to the plantation before he married . Before his return , Jenny Wilson had found another husband , James Roscoe . Lee learned this from William Byrd .
Lee and his brother Henry negotiated a lease for 99 years on the plantation . During his stay in England , Lee had decided to buy some property on the Potomac River called the " Clifts Plantation " in Westmoreland County . At the time , the property was owned by Nathaniel Pope , Jr . , a mariner , of London . Lee believed that when Virginia gained its independence , the capital would be located on the Potomac River . He later renamed it as Stratford . Thomas purchased his father 's old estate " Machodoc " , from his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Martha Silk , the former wife of his older brother , Richard Lee III . " Machodoc " was later known as " Mount Pleasant " .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
In May 1722 , Thomas Lee married Hannah Harrison Ludwell ( December 5 , 1701 – January 25 , 1750 ) , a member of the prominent Harrison family , at " Greenspring " , James City County , Virginia . The marriage lasted his life and brought him increased wealth and status . Hannah was the daughter of Philip Ludwell II of " Greenspring " , and Hannah Harrison . The couple had eleven children ; eight survived to adulthood :
Richard Lee ( b . 1723 )
Philip Ludwell Lee ( February 24 , 1726 – February 21 , 1775 )
John Lee ( b. and d . January 1728 )
Hannah Ludwell Lee ( February 1729 – 1782 )
Thomas Ludwell Lee ( December 13 , 1730 – April 13 , 1778 ) ; a member of the Virginia Delegates and editor of the Virginia Declaration of Rights .
Richard Henry Lee ( January 20 , 1732 – January 19 , 1794 ) ; signer of the United States Declaration of Independence
Francis Lightfoot Lee ( October 14 , 1734 – January 11 , 1797 ) ; signer of the United States Declaration of Independence
Alice Lee ( June 4 , 1736 – March 25 , 1817 )
William Lee ( August 31 , 1737 – June 27 , 1795 )
James Lee ( b. and d . 1739 )
Arthur Lee ( December 21 , 1740 – December 12 , 1792 )
1728 was a tragic year for Lee and his family . On January 29 , thieves broke into the house stealing the Lee family plate , jewelry , and other articles of value , and upon leaving , set fire to the plantation house at Machodoc . The fire destroyed the entire plantation , including Thomas ' office , the barns , and outhouses . Almost all of the Lees ' possessions were destroyed , as well as up to 10 @,@ 000 pounds in cash ( equal to £ 1 @,@ 219 @,@ 726 today ) . The house quickly burned and Hannah Lee , being pregnant with her fourth child , had to be thrown from her chamber window on the second floor . This resulted in Hannah 's miscarriage of a son ( they named him John ) . also injured in the fire was a slave girl , who died . Virginia Governor William Gooch blamed transported convicts for the crime . It is said that Col. Lee 's loss was not less than 50 @,@ 000 pounds ( equal to £ 6 @,@ 098 @,@ 629 today ) . English Commissioners later gave Lee 300 pounds ( equal to £ 36 @,@ 592 today ) as compensation and Queen Caroline also gave him money from her private purse to help with rebuilding . The convicts and an accomplice were later found guilty . Their punishment is unknown because the trial records were destroyed . When construction began on the new Lee mansion , the family stayed with Thomas 's brother Henry at Lee Hall . Lee sold the " Machodoc " estate to Richard Lee III 's son , George Lee , who built " Mount Pleasant " .
Lee 's political career required trips to Williamsburg , causing him to be away from his family for extended periods of time . Lee managed to make the 80 @-@ mile ( 130 @-@ km ) journey to his family and to be with his wife at the births of each of their children . Several of the sons became high @-@ ranking political figures and were active in the American Revolutionary War and post @-@ Revolution politics . Richard Henry was a senator from Virginia to the United States Senate and Francis Lightfoot was in the Virginia Senate . Lee 's youngest sons William Lee and Arthur Lee served as diplomats to various European countries . William , along with Jan de Neufville , drafted an unofficial treaty between the United States and the Netherlands which Great Britain used as a reason for the Fourth Anglo @-@ Dutch War .
Lee later became a vestryman for Copole Parish and Justice of the Peace in Westmoreland County . In 1723 , Lee became a member of the House of Burgesses . He held this office until he was appointed to the Governor 's Council in the Virginia General Assembly in 1733 . This position was a lifetime appointment . The Council was made up of twelve appointees who were selected by the Governor of Virginia and was the upper half of the Virginia General Assembly . The lower half was made up of the House of Burgesses . This position also gave Lee the rank of Colonel , a military rank that was second only to the governor . Members of the Council were advisers to the governor and judges in the General Court of the colony . Their work led them to spend about a third of the year in the capital Williamsburg .
When Governor William Gooch was recalled to England in 1749 , Lee was named President of the King 's Council of Virginia and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the colony . Nominated for appointment as Governor of Virginia by King George II , he died before it took place .
= = = Ohio Company = = =
Lee was appointed commissioner , along with William Beverley , to negotiate with the Six Nations of the Iroquois at the Treaty of Lancaster in 1744 . At the treaty , an agreement was made with the Six Nations for 400 pounds ( equal to £ 61 @,@ 424 today ) in return for the right for Virginians to travel through and settle in the Shenandoah Valley .
In 1747 , Lee co @-@ founded the Ohio Company of Virginia along with Lawrence Washington , Augustine Washington , Jr . , the Duke of Bedford , and John Hanbury . The Ohio Company was a land speculation venture which helped colonize the Ohio Country . Lee 's influence as a member of the Governor 's Council helped lead to the success of the Ohio Company and within seven years the company had 100 families living in Ohio . He was also the first president of the Company and after Lee died , was succeeded by Lawrence Washington .
= = = Stratford Hall = = =
With Lee 's higher rank in society and wealth , he decided he needed to build a mansion to secure his position as one of the Virginia gentry. he chose the " Clifts , " which he had owned since the mid @-@ 1710s . Lee decided on this site because it was located in Westmoreland County , where he was born , and because it was located on the Potomac River . The land was sufficient for having many construction laborers live there . Hannah had an influential say in the design and planning of the interior of the house . Philip , the couple 's eldest son , had said , " See what it is to be ruled by a woman . I should have been now living in a house like this ... had not my father been persuaded by his wife to put up this very inferior dwelling , now over my head . " The exact construction date of the house is unknown but it is estimated that construction began around 1725 @-@ 30 , as all of Lee 's sons were born at Stratford . Workers on the plantation were from all the working class : free people and indentured servants mostly from the British Isles , and African slaves .
Between 1719 and 1746 , Lee acquired vast holdings in what are now Arlington , Fairfax , Fauquier , Prince William , and Loudoun counties . The town of Leesburg , was named in his honor as recommended by his two sons , who were the founders and trustees .
Hannah Harrison died at " Stratford " on January 25 , 1749 , having borne eleven children . She was buried in the old family burying ground , called the " Burnt House Fields " , at " Mount Pleasant " . Her tombstone was later removed to " Stratford Hall " , probably by Henry Lee , who built the new vault at that place . On November 14 , 1750 , Thomas Lee died at age sixty and was buried in the old " Burnt House Fields " at Mount Pleasant . According to his will , he wished to be buried in between his wife and his mother . He bequeathed Stratford Hall to his eldest son , Philip Ludwell Lee , and the Machodoc plantation to his nephew , George Lee .
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= Wihtred of Kent =
Wihtred ( c . 670 – 23 April 725 ) was king of Kent from about 690 or 691 until his death . He was a son of Ecgberht I and a brother of Eadric . Wihtred acceded to the throne after a confused period in the 680s , which included a brief conquest of Kent by Cædwalla of Wessex and subsequent dynastic conflicts . His immediate predecessor was Oswine of Kent , who was probably descended from Eadbald of Kent , though not through the same line as Wihtred . Shortly after the start of his reign , Wihtred issued a code of laws — the Law of Wihtred — that has been preserved in a manuscript known as the Textus Roffensis . The laws pay a great deal of attention to the rights of the Church , including punishment for irregular marriages and for pagan worship . Wihtred 's long reign had few incidents recorded in the annals of the day . He was succeeded in 725 by his sons , Æthelberht II , Eadberht I , and Ælfric .
= = Kent in the late seventh century = =
The dominant force in late @-@ seventh @-@ century politics south of the River Humber was Wulfhere of Mercia , who reigned from the late 650s to 675 . The king of Kent for much of this time was Ecgberht , who died in 673 . Ecgberht 's sons , Eadric and Wihtred , were probably no more than infants of two or three years old when their father died , and Wulfhere was their uncle by virtue of his marriage to Eormenhild , Ecgberht 's sister . Hlothhere , Ecgberht 's brother , became king of Kent , but not until about a year later , in 674 , and it may be that Wulfhere opposed the accession of Hlothhere and was the effective ruler of Kent during this year @-@ long interregnum .
Eadric raised an army against his uncle and Hlothhere died of wounds sustained in battle in February 685 or possibly 686 . Eadric died the following year , and according to Bede , whose Ecclesiastical History of the English People is one of the primary sources for this period , the kingdom fell apart into disorder . Cædwalla of Wessex invaded in 686 and established his brother Mul as king there ; Cædwalla may have ruled Kent directly for a period when Mul was killed in 687 . When Cædwalla departed for Rome in 688 , Oswine , who was probably supported by Æthelred of Mercia , took the throne for a time . Oswine lost power in 690 , but Swæfheard ( son of Sebbi , the king of Essex ) , who had been a king in Kent for a year or two , remained . There is clear evidence that both Swæfheard and Oswine were kings at the same time , as each witnessed the other 's charters . It seems that Oswine was king of east Kent , which was usually the position of the dominant king , while Swæfheard was king of west Kent .
= = Accession and reign = =
Wihtred emerged from this disarray and became king in the early 690s . Bede describes his accession by saying that he was the " rightful " king , and that he " freed the nation from foreign invasion by his devotion and diligence " . Oswine was also of the royal family , and arguably had a claim to the throne ; hence it has been suggested that Bede 's comments here are strongly partisan . Bede 's correspondent on Kentish affairs was Albinus , abbot of the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul ( subsequently renamed St. Augustine 's ) in Canterbury , and these views can almost certainly be ascribed to the Church establishment there .
Two charters provide evidence of Wihtred 's date of accession . One , dated April 697 , indicates Wihtred was then in the sixth year of his rule , so his accession can be dated to some time between April 691 and April 692 . Another , dated 17 July 694 , is in his fourth regnal year , giving a possible range of July 690 to July 691 . The overlap in date ranges gives April to July 691 as the likely date of his accession . Another estimate of the date of Wihtred 's accession can be made from the duration of his reign , given by Bede as thirty four and a half years . He died on 23 April 725 , which would imply an accession date in late 690 .
Initially Wihtred ruled alongside Swæfheard . Bede 's report of the election of Beorhtwald as Archbishop of Canterbury in July 692 mentions that Swæfheard and Wihtred were the kings of Kent , but Swæfheard is not heard of after this date . It appears that by 694 Wihtred was the sole ruler of Kent , though it may also be that his son Æthelberht was a junior king in west Kent during Wihtred 's reign . Wihtred is thought to have had three wives . His first was called Cynegyth , but a charter of 696 names Æthelburh as the royal consort and co @-@ donor of an estate : the former spouse must have died or been dismissed after a short time . Near the end of his reign , a new wife , Wærburh , attested with her husband and son , Alric .
It was also in 694 that Wihtred made peace with the West Saxon king Ine . Ine 's predecessor , Cædwalla , had invaded Kent and installed his brother Mul as king , but the Kentishmen had subsequently revolted and burned Mul . Wihtred agreed compensation for the killing , but the amount paid to Ine is uncertain . Most manuscripts of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle record " thirty thousand " , and some specify thirty thousand pounds . If the pounds are equal to sceattas , then this amount is the equal of a king 's wergild — that is , the legal valuation of a man 's life , according to his rank . It seems likely that Wihtred ceded some border territory to Ine as part of this settlement .
= = Laws = =
The earliest Anglo @-@ Saxon law code to survive , which may date from 602 or 603 , is that of Æthelberht of Kent , whose reign ended in 616 . In the 670s or 680s , a code was issued in the names of Hlothhere and Eadric of Kent . The next kings to issue laws were Ine of Wessex and Wihtred .
The dating of Wihtred ’ s and Ine ’ s laws is somewhat uncertain , but there is reason to believe that Wihtred ’ s laws were issued on 6 September 695 , while Ine ’ s laws were written in 694 or shortly before . Ine had recently agreed peaceful terms with Wihtred over compensation for the death of Mul , and there are indications that the two rulers collaborated to some degree in producing their laws . In addition to the coincidence of timing , there is one clause that appears in almost identical form in both codes . Another sign of collaboration is that Wihtred ’ s laws use gesith , a West Saxon term for noble , in place of the Kentish term eorlcund . It is possible that Ine and Wihtred issued the law codes as an act of prestige , to re @-@ establish authority after periods of disruption in both kingdoms .
Wihtred 's laws were issued at " Berghamstyde " ; it is not known for certain where this was , but the best candidate is Bearsted , near Maidstone . The laws are primarily concerned with religious affairs ; only the last four of its twenty @-@ eight chapters do not deal with ecclesiastical affairs . The first clause of the code gives the Church freedom from taxation . Subsequent clauses specify penalties for irregular marriages , heathen worship , work on the sabbath , and breaking fasts , among other things ; and also define how members of each class of society — such as the king , bishops , priests , ceorls , and esnes — can clear themselves by giving an oath . In addition to the focus of the laws themselves , the introduction makes clear the importance of the Church in the legislative process . Bertwald , the Archbishop of Canterbury , was present at the assembly which devised the decrees , and so was Gefmund , the Bishop of Rochester ; and " every order of the Church of that nation spoke in unanimity with the loyal people " .
The privileges given to the Church are notable : in addition to the freedom from taxation , the oath of a bishop is " incontrovertible " , which places it at the same level as the oath of a king , and the Church receives the same level of compensation for violence done to dependents as does the king . This has led one historian to describe the Church 's power , less than a century after the original Roman mission landed in Kent , as " all but co @-@ ordinate with the king himself in the Kentish state " , and it has also been described as presupposing " a frightening degree of royal power " . However , the presence of clauses that provide penalties for any of Wihtred 's subjects who " sacrifice to devils " makes it clear that although Christianity was dominant , the older pagan beliefs of the population had by no means died out completely .
Clause 21 of the code specifies that a ceorl must find three men of his own class to be his " oath @-@ helpers " . An oath @-@ helper would swear an oath on behalf of an accused man , to clear him from the suspicion of the crime . The laws of Ine were more stringent than this , requiring that a high @-@ ranking person must be found to be an oath @-@ helper for everyone , no matter what class they were from . The two laws taken together imply a significant weakening of an earlier state in which a man 's kin were legally responsible for him .
= = Death and succession = =
On his death , Wihtred left Kent to his three sons : Æthelberht II , Eadberht I , and Alric . The chronology of the reigns following Wihtred is unclear , although there is evidence of both an Æthelbert and at least one Eadbert in the following years . After Wihtred 's death , and the departure of Ine of Wessex for Rome the following year , Æthelbald of Mercia became the dominant power in the south of England .
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= Muckaty Station =
Muckaty Station , also known as Warlmanpa , is a 2 @,@ 380 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 920 sq mi ) Aboriginal freehold landholding in Australia 's Northern Territory , 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) north of Tennant Creek , and approximately 800 kilometres ( 500 mi ) south of Darwin . Originally under traditional Indigenous Australian ownership , the area became a pastoral lease in the late 19th century and for many years operated as a cattle station . It is traversed by the Stuart Highway , built in the 1940s along the route of the service track for the Australian Overland Telegraph Line . It is also crossed by a natural gas pipeline built in the mid @-@ 1980s , and the Adelaide – Darwin railway , completed in early 2004 . Muckaty Station was returned to its Indigenous custodians in 1999 .
The area comprises semi @-@ arid stony ridges , claypans and a stony plateau , and experiences a sub @-@ tropical climate , with a wet season between January and March . The vegetation is mostly scrubland , including spinifex grasslands . The fauna is generally typical of Australian desert environments , and includes the red kangaroo , the eastern wallaroo , the northern nail @-@ tail wallaby , and the spinifex hopping mouse .
A site within Muckaty was being considered for Australia 's low @-@ level and intermediate @-@ level radioactive waste storage and disposal facility . Indigenous custodians of Muckaty Station were divided over the proposal , which also met resistance from environmental organisations and the Northern Territory government . The plan was abandoned after a Federal Court of Australia case in 2014 .
= = History = =
Indigenous Australians have lived in parts of the Northern Territory for around 40 @,@ 000 years . Pre @-@ European settlement numbers are not known with any precision , although the Indigenous population of the Northern Territory has been estimated at " well over 10 @,@ 000 " . The area now known as Muckaty Station ( often referred to as just " Muckaty " , though the origin of this name and near variants such as " Mucketty " is unknown ) was – and is – the responsibility of seven clans of traditional Indigenous owners : Milwayi , Ngapa , Ngarrka , Wirntiku , Kurrakurraja , Walanypirri and Yapayapa . The country is known by the Indigenous name Warlmanpa , which is also the name of a local language .
Although there had been several unsuccessful attempts by British or colonial authorities to settle in the Northern Territory , there was no permanent European presence until surveyor George Goyder in 1869 established what is now known as Darwin . The timing was auspicious : in October 1870 the South Australian government decided to construct an overland telegraph line , from Port Augusta on the continent 's south coast , to the new settlement just established in the country 's tropical north . The line traversed what is now Muckaty Station , with repeater stations built at Powell 's Creek to the north and Tennant 's Creek to the south . At the same time as the telegraph line was completed in August 1872 , a cattle industry was beginning to develop in central and northern Australia . The first pastoral lease in the Northern Territory was granted in 1872 , and by 1911 there were at least 250 such leases covering over 180 @,@ 000 square miles ( 470 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the jurisdiction . The Muckaty pastoral lease was created in the late 19th century . Currently the property is surrounded by other leases including Powell Creek to the north , Helen Springs Station to the east with Philip Creek and Banka Banka Stations to the south . In the 1930s , the Australian government was sufficiently concerned about the condition and lack of development of these leases that it held two inquiries between 1932 and 1938 . Historian Ted Ling 's accounts of those inquiries , however , make no mention of Muckaty , which was not singled out for comment by either investigation .
Throughout the history of Australia 's pastoral industry , Indigenous Australians were a major part of the workforce . In 1928 for example , 80 per cent of Indigenous people with jobs were employed on the stations , including Muckaty , with many living on and travelling across the pastoral leases . The local language , Warlmanpa , was recognised in some publications from the 1930s onward , while anthropologists and administrators made some records of language and population in the region of Muckaty Station . Only one record from the period lists both Muckaty Station as a location and Warlmanpa as a language . A record of Aboriginal wards of the state , it showed only three Indigenous adults living on Muckaty , compared to almost fifty on Banka Banka Station , to the east . This reflects the fact that , by 1940 , " Warlmanpa country had been depopulated " .
By the 1940s the lessee at Muckaty was Fred Ulyatt . The 1940s also marked a significant change in the region 's road infrastructure . A dirt track had been formed to service the telegraph line in the late nineteenth century . This became the Stuart Highway , crossing the eastern part of Muckaty , and it was upgraded to an all @-@ weather road in late 1940 , before being bitumenised in 1944 . Sources do not say who leased the property between the 1940s and 1982 , at which point the lease was held by James and Miriam Hagan . In 1988 it was transferred to Hapford Pty Limited and Kerfield Pty Limited . Between 1985 and 1987 a natural gas pipeline was built across the station , carrying gas from Palm Valley in the Amadeus Basin to Channel Island near Darwin .
In 1991 , the cattle station was taken over by the Muckaty Aboriginal Corporation . The Corporation focused on rehabilitating the land , which had been degraded by excessive numbers of cattle , and by late 1993 Muckaty had been destocked of cattle for several seasons . On 20 December 1991 , the Northern Land Council lodged a claim over Muckaty on behalf of traditional owners under the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 . The claim was made by members of the seven groups that each has responsibility for different sites and dreamings in the area . In 1997 , the Aboriginal Land Commissioner recommended that Muckaty Station be handed back to the traditional owners , and in February 1999 , title to the land was returned . At the time there were about 400 formal traditional owners , among 1 @,@ 000 people with traditional attachments to the land ; some lived on the station , but others were elsewhere in the region , including in the nearby towns of Tennant Creek and Elliott . As Aboriginal Freehold land it is inalienable communal title , and cannot be bought or sold . The pastoral lease holder and manager of the station since 1997 has been Ray Aylett . The Adelaide – Darwin railway , which passes through the western part of Muckaty Station , was completed in early 2004 .
= = Geology and geography = =
Muckaty Station covers an area of 2 @,@ 380 square kilometres ( 920 sq mi ) and lies 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) north of Tennant Creek , in Australia 's Northern Territory . It includes a homestead that lies 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) west of the Stuart Highway and 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) east of the railway . The residence has associated cattle yards , an airstrip , and workers ' accommodation . It is adjacent to Banka Banka Station to the east , and Powell Creek Station ( also referred to as an outstation ) to the north .
The climate is subtropical , with a wet season between January and March , during which the area receives monthly rainfall of between 50 and 125 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 9 in ) . For the rest of the year there is usually less than 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) of rain each month .
The station 's geology is dominated by the Tomkinson Group , a formation comprising sedimentary rocks of the Paleoproterozoic era that is over 1 @.@ 6 billion years old . The Tomkinson Group includes layers of coarse sandstones and conglomerates , with some claystone and siltstone , deposited in a fluvial to shallow marine environment . There are also Cambrian basaltic rocks , particularly near the homestead . The eastern parts of the station form a stony plateau within the Ashburton Range . The central parts are flat and include claypans , while to the west are stony ridges . The region is drained by an ephemeral waterway , Tomkinson Creek , and is considered a good candidate to contain manganese deposits , the mineral having been extracted in the 1950s and 1960s at the Mucketty mine just east of Muckaty Station .
The region is semi @-@ arid , and the vegetation is generally scrubland . Muckaty Station lies at the boundary of two bioregions , Tanami and Sturt Plateau . The Tanami bioregion is made up primarily of sandplains vegetated with bootlace oak ( Hakea lorea ) , desert bloodwoods ( Corymbia species ) , acacias and grevilleas , together with spinifex grasslands . The Sturt Plateau bioregion also includes spinifex grasslands , but with a canopy of bloodwood trees .
Most of the region 's fauna is typical of desert environments . Species include the red kangaroo , the eastern wallaroo ( also known as the euro ) , the northern nail @-@ tail wallaby , and the spinifex hopping mouse . The central pebble @-@ mound mouse also occurs in the region , and other mammal species including the Forrest 's mouse , desert mouse and short @-@ beaked echidna have been predicted by biologists to occur on the station . The station may lie within the range of the critically endangered night parrot ( Pezoporus occidentalis ) . There is relatively high diversity and abundance of reptiles , including the military dragon ( Ctenophorus isolepis gularis ) and the sand goanna ( Varanus gouldii flavirufus ) .
= = Radioactive waste facility = =
The search for a site at which to dispose of or store Australia 's low and intermediate @-@ level radioactive wastes commenced in 1980 . A formal public process of site selection that had commenced in 1991 finally failed in 2004 . On 7 December 2005 , the Australian government passed legislation , the Commonwealth Radioactive Waste Management Act , to facilitate the siting of a radioactive waste facility in the Northern Territory . Section four of the Act allowed the Australian government to schedule potential sites for a waste facility , and three Northern Territory sites were proposed under the legislation . Following criticisms made by the Northern Land Council , in December 2006 the legislation was revised to also allow Aboriginal Land Councils to nominate potential sites for a facility . In May 2007 the Northern Land Council , on behalf of Ngapa clan traditional owners , nominated a small area within Muckaty Station ( for which the Ngapa had traditional responsibility ) to be considered as a possible site for the facility . In September 2007 , the government accepted the nomination , bringing the total number of possible sites to four . The Government of the Northern Territory opposed the nomination , but could not prevent it . Ngapa clan members volunteered a 4 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) area to be considered for the facility , which was expected to require 1 square kilometre of land .
A parliamentary inquiry and media reports indicated that the Indigenous traditional owners of Muckaty Station were divided over whether it should host a radioactive waste facility . Some members of the Ngapa clan supported hosting the facility , while other traditional owners of Muckaty opposed it . There were also claims that some members of the Ngapa clan were among those who had signed a petition opposing the facility . Political scientist Rebecca Stringer criticised the federal government 's approach to the siting of the waste facility , arguing that it undermined the Indigenous owners ' sovereignty and control of their own lands . Environmental organisations and the Australian Greens are opposed to using the site for a dump .
In 2009 , the Australian government received a consultant 's report that examined Muckaty Station as one of four possible sites for a nuclear waste facility in the Northern Territory . The report was released in 2010 . In February 2012 , the Muckaty Station site was the only one under consideration by the government .
= = = Legal action = = =
In 2010 , Mark Lane Jangala and other traditional owners instructed law firms Maurice Blackburn , Surry Partners ( a firm that includes human rights lawyer George Newhouse ) , and lawyer Julian Burnside to commence legal proceedings against the Northern Land Council and the Australian government in the Federal Court of Australia to stop the nomination of Muckaty Station as a nuclear waste storage facility . The Federal Court challenge was due to commence early in 2013 before Justice Tony North , who handled the Tampa affair . According to a June 2012 report in The Age , some indigenous owners would " testify they were never consulted , while others [ will ] say that they were not properly consulted and never consented to the nomination " . The court did not begin hearing the case until 2 June 2014 , for what was expected to be a five @-@ week trial . However , on 18 June , the Northern Land Council withdrew the nomination of Muckaty as part of a legal settlement between the parties . The Australian government indicated there would be a three @-@ month period during which the Northern Land Council and traditional owners could determine whether they wished to nominate an alternative site for the dump elsewhere on Muckaty Station .
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= Prepatellar bursitis =
Prepatellar bursitis is an inflammation of the prepatellar bursa at the front of the knee . It is marked by swelling at the knee , which can be tender to the touch but which does not restrict the knee 's range of motion . It is most commonly caused by trauma to the knee , either by a single acute instance or by chronic trauma over time . As such , prepatellar bursitis commonly occurs among individuals whose professions require frequent kneeling .
A definitive diagnosis of the condition can usually be made once a clinical history and physical examination have been obtained , though determining whether or not the bursitis is septic is not as straightforward . Treatment of prepatellar bursitis depends on the severity of the symptoms . Mild cases may only require rest and icing of the knee . A number of different treatment options have been used for severe septic cases , including intravenous antibiotics , surgical irrigation of the bursa , and bursectomy .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The primary symptom of prepatellar bursitis is the swelling of the area around the kneecap . It generally does not produce a significant amount of pain unless pressure is applied directly to the swelling . The area of swelling may be red ( erythema ) , warm to the touch , or surrounded by cellulitis , particularly if the area has become infected . In such cases , the bursitis is often accompanied by fever . Unlike arthritis , prepatellar bursitis generally does not affect the range of motion of the knee , though it may cause some discomfort when the knee is completely flexed . Flexion and extension of the knee may cause crepitus .
= = Causes = =
In human anatomy , a bursa is a small pouch filled with synovial fluid . Its purpose is to reduce friction between adjacent structures . The prepatellar bursa is one of several bursae of the knee joint , and is located between the patella and the skin . Prepatellar bursitis is an inflammation of this bursa . Bursae are readily inflamed when irritated , as their walls are very thin . Along with the pes anserine bursa , the prepatellar bursa is one of the most common bursae to cause knee pain when inflamed .
Prepatellar bursitis is caused by either a single instance of acute trauma to the knee , or repeated minor trauma to the knee . The trauma can cause extravasation of nearby fluids into the bursa , which stimulates an inflammatory response . This response occurs in two phases : The vascular phase , in which the blood flow to the surrounding area increases , and the cellular phase , in which leukocytes migrate from the blood to the affected area . Other possible causes include gout , sarcoidosis , CREST syndrome , diabetes mellitus , alcohol abuse , uremia , and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease . Some cases are idiopathic , though these may be caused by trauma that the patient does not remember .
The prepatellar bursa and the olecranon bursa are the two bursae that are most likely to become infected , or septic . Septic bursitis typically occurs when the trauma to the knee causes an abrasion , though it is also possible for the infection to be caused by bacteria traveling through the blood from a pre @-@ existing infection site . In approximately 80 % of septic cases , the infection is caused by Staphylococcus aureus ; other common infections are Streptococcus , Mycobacterium , and Brucella . It is highly unusual for septic bursitis to be caused by anaerobes , fungi , or Gram @-@ negative bacteria . In very rare cases , the infection can be caused by tuberculosis .
= = Diagnosis = =
There are several types of inflammation that can cause knee pain , including sprains , bursitis , and injuries to the meniscus . A diagnosis of prepatellar bursitis can be made based on a physical examination and the presence of risk factors in the person 's medical history ; swelling and tenderness at the front of the knee , combined with a profession that requires frequent kneeling , suggest prepatellar bursitis . Swelling of multiple joints along with restricted range of motion may indicate arthritis instead .
A physical examination and medical history are generally not enough to distinguish between infectious and non @-@ infectious bursitis ; aspiration of the bursal fluid is often required for this , along with a cell culture and Gram stain of the aspirated fluid . Septic prepatellar bursitis may be diagnosed if the fluid is found to have a neutrophil count above 1500 per microliter , a threshold significantly lower than that of septic arthritis ( 50 @,@ 000 cells per microliter ) . A tuberculosis infection can be confirmed using a roentgenogram and urinalysis .
= = Prevention = =
It is possible to prevent the onset of prepatellar bursitis , or prevent the symptoms from worsening , by avoiding trauma to the knee or frequent kneeling . Protective knee pads can also help prevent prepatellar bursitis for those whose professions require frequent kneeling and for athletes who play contact sports , such as American football , basketball , and wrestling .
= = Treatment = =
Non @-@ septic prepatellar bursitis can be treated with rest , the application of ice to the affected area , and anti @-@ inflammatory drugs , particularly ibuprofen . Elevation of the affected leg during rest may also expedite the recovery process . Severe cases may require fine @-@ needle aspiration of the bursa fluid , sometimes coupled with cortisone injections . However , some studies have shown that steroid injections may not be an effective treatment option . After the bursitis has been treated , rehabilitative exercise may help improve joint mechanics and reduce chronic pain .
Opinions vary as to which treatment options are most effective for septic prepatellar bursitis . McAfee and Smith recommend a course of oral antibiotics , usually oxacillin sodium or cephradine , and assert that surgery and drainage are unnecessary . Wilson @-@ MacDonald argues that oral antibiotics are " inadequate " , and recommends intravenous antibiotics for managing the infection . Some authors suggest surgical irrigation of the bursa by means of a subcutaneous tube . Others suggest that bursectomy may be necessary for intractable cases ; the operation is an outpatient procedure that can be performed in less than half an hour .
= = Epidemiology = =
The various nicknames associated with prepatellar bursitis arise from the fact that it commonly occurs among those individuals whose professions require frequent kneeling , such as carpenters , carpet layers , gardeners , housemaids , mechanics , miners , plumbers , and roofers . The exact incidence of the condition is not known ; it is difficult to estimate because only severe septic cases require hospital admission , and mild non @-@ septic cases generally go unreported . Prepatellar bursitis is more common among males than females . It affects all age groups , but is more likely to be septic when it occurs in children .
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= Egbert of Wessex =
Egbert ( 771 / 775 – 839 ) , also known as Ecgberht , Ecgbert , or Ecgbriht , was King of Wessex from 802 until his death in 839 . His father was Ealhmund of Kent . In the 780s Egbert was forced into exile by Offa of Mercia and Beorhtric of Wessex , but on Beorhtric 's death in 802 Egbert returned and took the throne .
Little is known of the first 20 years of Egbert 's reign , but it is thought that he was able to maintain the independence of Wessex against the kingdom of Mercia , which at that time dominated the other southern English kingdoms . In 825 Egbert defeated Beornwulf of Mercia , ended Mercia 's supremacy at the Battle of Ellandun , and proceeded to take control of the Mercian dependencies in southeastern England . In 829 Egbert defeated Wiglaf of Mercia and drove him out of his kingdom , temporarily ruling Mercia directly . Later that year Egbert received the submission of the Northumbrian king at Dore . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle subsequently described Egbert as a bretwalda , or " Ruler of Britain " .
Egbert was unable to maintain this dominant position , and within a year Wiglaf regained the throne of Mercia . However , Wessex did retain control of Kent , Sussex , and Surrey ; these territories were given to Egbert 's son Æthelwulf to rule as a subking under Egbert . When Egbert died in 839 , Æthelwulf succeeded him ; the southeastern kingdoms were finally absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex after Æthelwulf 's death in 858 .
= = Family = =
Historians do not agree on Egbert 's ancestry . The earliest version of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , the Parker Chronicle , begins with a genealogical preface tracing the ancestry of Egbert 's son Æthelwulf back through Egbert , Ealhmund ( thought to be Ealhmund of Kent ) , and the otherwise unknown Eoppa and Eafa to Ingild , brother of King Ine of Wessex , who abdicated the throne in 726 . It continues back to Cerdic , founder of the House of Wessex . Egbert 's descent from Ingild was accepted by Frank Stenton , but not the earlier genealogy back to Cerdic . Heather Edwards in her Online Dictionary of National Biography article on Egbert argues that he was of Kentish origin , and that the West Saxon descent may have been manufactured during his reign to give him legitimacy , whereas Rory Naismith considered a Kentish origin unlikely , and that it is more probable that " Egbert was born of good West Saxon royal stock " .
Egbert 's wife 's name is unknown . A fifteenth century chronicle now held by Oxford University names Egbert 's wife as Redburga who was supposedly a relation of Charlemagne that he married when he was banished to Francia , but this is dismissed by academic historians in view of its late date . He is reputed to have had a half @-@ sister Alburga , later to be recognised as a saint for her founding of Wilton Abbey . She was married to Wulfstan , ealdorman of Wiltshire , and on his death in 802 she became a nun , Abbess of Wilton Abbey . He was believed at one time to also be the father of Saint Eadgyth of Polesworth and Æthelstan of Kent .
= = Political context and early life = =
Offa of Mercia , who reigned from 757 to 796 , was the dominant force in Anglo @-@ Saxon England in the second half of the eighth century . The relationship between Offa and Cynewulf , who was king of Wessex from 757 to 786 , is not well documented , but it seems likely that Cynewulf maintained some independence from Mercian overlordship . Evidence of the relationship between kings can come from charters , which were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen , and which were witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land . In some cases a king will appear on a charter as a subregulus , or " subking " , making it clear that he has an overlord . Cynewulf appears as " King of the West Saxons " on a charter of Offa 's in 772 ; and he was defeated by Offa in battle in 779 at Bensington , but there is nothing else to suggest Cynewulf was not his own master , and he is not known to have acknowledged Offa as overlord . Offa did have influence in the southeast of the country : a charter of 764 shows him in the company of Heahberht of Kent , suggesting that Offa 's influence helped place Heahberht on the throne . The extent of Offa 's control of Kent between 765 and 776 is a matter of debate amongst historians , but from 776 until about 784 it appears that the Kentish kings had substantial independence from Mercia .
Another Egbert , Egbert II of Kent , ruled in that kingdom throughout the 770s ; he is last mentioned in 779 , in a charter granting land at Rochester . In 784 a new king of Kent , Ealhmund , appears in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . According to a note in the margin , " this king Ealhmund was Egbert 's father [ i.e. Egbert of Wessex ] , Egbert was Æthelwulf 's father . " This is supported by the genealogical preface from the A text of the Chronicle , which gives Egbert 's father 's name as Ealhmund without further details . The preface probably dates from the late ninth century ; the marginal note is on the F manuscript of the Chronicle , which is a Kentish version dating from about 1100 .
Ealhmund does not appear to have long survived in power : there is no record of his activities after 784 . There is , however , extensive evidence of Offa 's domination of Kent during the late 780s , with his goals apparently going beyond overlordship to outright annexation of the kingdom , and he has been described as " the rival , not the overlord , of the Kentish kings " . It is possible that the young Egbert fled to Wessex in 785 or so ; it is suggestive that the Chronicle mentions in a later entry that Beorhtric , Cynewulf 's successor , helped Offa to exile Egbert .
Cynewulf was murdered in 786 . His succession was contested by Egbert , but he was defeated by Beorhtric , maybe with Offa 's assistance . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that Egbert spent three years in Francia before he was king , exiled by Beorhtric and Offa . The text says " iii " for three , but this may have been a scribal error , with the correct reading being " xiii " , that is , thirteen years . Beorhtric 's reign lasted sixteen years , and not thirteen ; and all extant texts of the Chronicle agree on " iii " , but many modern accounts assume that Egbert did indeed spend thirteen years in Francia . This requires assuming that the error in transcription is common to every manuscript of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ; many historians make this assumption but others have rejected it as unlikely , given the consistency of the sources . In either case Egbert was probably exiled in 789 , when Beorhtric , his rival , married the daughter of Offa of Mercia .
At the time Egbert was in exile , Francia was ruled by Charlemagne , who maintained Frankish influence in Northumbria and is known to have supported Offa 's enemies in the south . Another exile in Gaul at this time was Odberht , a priest , who is almost certainly the same person as Eadberht , who later became king of Kent . According to a later chronicler , William of Malmesbury , Egbert learned the arts of government during his time in Gaul .
= = Early reign = =
Beorhtric 's dependency on Mercia continued into the reign of Cenwulf , who became king of Mercia a few months after Offa 's death . Beorhtric died in 802 , and Egbert came to the throne of Wessex , probably with the support of Charlemagne and perhaps also the papacy . The Mercians continued to oppose Egbert : the day of his accession , the Hwicce ( who had originally formed a separate kingdom , but by that time were part of Mercia ) attacked , under the leadership of their ealdorman , Æthelmund . Weohstan , a Wessex ealdorman , met him with men from Wiltshire : according to a 15th @-@ century source , Weohstan had married Alburga , Egbert 's sister , and so was Egbert 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . The Hwicce were defeated , though Weohstan was killed as well as Æthelmund . Nothing more is recorded of Egbert 's relations with Mercia for more than twenty years after this battle . It seems likely that Egbert had no influence outside his own borders , but on the other hand there is no evidence that he ever submitted to the overlordship of Cenwulf . Cenwulf did have overlordship of the rest of southern England , but in Cenwulf 's charters the title of " overlord of the southern English " never appears , presumably in consequence of the independence of the kingdom of Wessex .
In 815 the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that Egbert ravaged the whole of the territories of the remaining British kingdom , Dumnonia , known to the author of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as the West Welsh ; their territory was about equivalent to what is now Cornwall . Ten years later , a charter dated 19 August 825 indicates that Egbert was campaigning in Dumnonia again ; this may have been related to a battle recorded in the Chronicle at Gafulford in 823 , between the men of Devon and the Britons of Cornwall .
= = The battle of Ellendun = =
It was also in 825 that one of the most important battles in Anglo @-@ Saxon history took place , when Egbert defeated Beornwulf of Mercia at Ellendun — now Wroughton , near Swindon . This battle marked the end of the Mercian domination of southern England . The Chronicle tells how Egbert followed up his victory : " Then he sent his son Æthelwulf from the army , and Ealhstan , his bishop , and Wulfheard , his ealdorman , to Kent with a great troop . " Æthelwulf drove Baldred , the king of Kent , north over the Thames , and according to the Chronicle , the men of Kent , Essex , Surrey and Sussex then all submitted to Æthelwulf " because earlier they were wrongly forced away from his relatives . " This may refer to Offa 's interventions in Kent at the time Egbert 's father Ealhmund became king ; if so , the chronicler 's remark may also indicate Ealhmund had connections elsewhere in southeast England .
The Chronicle 's version of events makes it appear that Baldred was driven out shortly after the battle , but this was probably not the case . A document from Kent survives which gives the date , March 826 , as being in the third year of the reign of Beornwulf . This makes it likely that Beornwulf still had authority in Kent at this date , as Baldred 's overlord ; hence Baldred was apparently still in power . In Essex , Egbert expelled King Sigered , though the date is unknown . It may have been delayed until 829 , since a later chronicler associates the expulsion with a campaign of Egbert 's in that year against the Mercians .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle does not say who was the aggressor at Ellendun , but one recent history asserts that Beornwulf was almost certainly the one who attacked . According to this view , Beornwulf may have taken advantage of the Wessex campaign in Dumnonia in the summer of 825 . Beornwulf 's motivation to launch an attack would have been the threat of unrest or instability in the southeast : the dynastic connections with Kent made Wessex a threat to Mercian dominance .
The consequences of Ellendun went beyond the immediate loss of Mercian power in the southeast . According to the Chronicle , the East Anglians asked for Egbert 's protection against the Mercians in the same year , 825 , though it may actually have been in the following year that the request was made . In 826 Beornwulf invaded East Anglia , presumably to recover his overlordship . He was slain , however , as was his successor , Ludeca , who invaded East Anglia in 827 , evidently for the same reason . It may be that the Mercians were hoping for support from Kent : there was some reason to suppose that Wulfred , the Archbishop of Canterbury , might be discontented with West Saxon rule , as Egbert had terminated Wulfred 's currency and had begun to mint his own , at Rochester and Canterbury , and it is known that Egbert seized property belonging to Canterbury . The outcome in East Anglia was a disaster for the Mercians which confirmed West Saxon power in the southeast .
= = Defeat of Mercia = =
In 829 Egbert invaded Mercia and drove Wiglaf , the king of Mercia , into exile . This victory gave Egbert control of the London Mint , and he issued coins as King of Mercia . It was after this victory that the West Saxon scribe described him as a bretwalda , meaning " wide @-@ ruler " or " Britain @-@ ruler " , in a famous passage in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . The relevant part of the annal reads , in the [ C ] manuscript of the Chronicle :
⁊ þy geare geeode Ecgbriht cing Myrcna rice ⁊ eall þæt be suþan Humbre wæs , ⁊ he wæs eahtaþa cing se ðe Bretenanwealda wæs .
In modern English :
And the same year King Egbert conquered the kingdom of Mercia , and all that was south of the Humber , and he was the eighth king who was ' Wide Ruler ' .
The previous seven bretwaldas are also named by the Chronicler , who gives the same seven names that Bede lists as holding imperium , starting with Ælle of Sussex and ending with Oswiu of Northumbria . The list is often thought to be incomplete , omitting as it does some dominant Mercian kings such as Penda and Offa . The exact meaning of the title has been much debated ; it has been described as " a term of encomiastic poetry " but there is also evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership .
Later in 829 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Egbert received the submission of the Northumbrians at Dore ( now a suburb of Sheffield ) ; the Northumbrian king was probably Eanred . According to a later chronicler , Roger of Wendover , Egbert invaded Northumbria and plundered it before Eanred submitted : " When Egbert had obtained all the southern kingdoms , he led a large army into Northumbria , and laid waste that province with severe pillaging , and made King Eanred pay tribute . " Roger of Wendover is known to have incorporated Northumbrian annals into his version ; the Chronicle does not mention these events . However , the nature of Eanred 's submission has been questioned : one historian has suggested that it is more likely that the meeting at Dore represented a mutual recognition of sovereignty .
In 830 Egbert led a successful expedition against the Welsh , almost certainly with the intent of extending West Saxon influence into the Welsh lands previously within the Mercian orbit . This marked the high point of Egbert 's influence .
= = Reduction in influence after 829 = =
In 830 , Mercia regained its independence under Wiglaf — the Chronicle merely says that Wiglaf " obtained the kingdom of Mercia again " , but the most likely explanation is that this was the result of a Mercian rebellion against Wessex rule .
Egbert 's dominion over southern England came to an end with Wiglaf 's recovery of power . Wiglaf 's return is followed by evidence of his independence from Wessex . Charters indicate Wiglaf had authority in Middlesex and Berkshire , and in a charter of 836 Wiglaf uses the phrase " my bishops , duces , and magistrates " to describe a group that included eleven bishops from the episcopate of Canterbury , including bishops of sees in West Saxon territory . It is significant that Wiglaf was still able to call together such a group of notables ; the West Saxons , even if they were able to do so , held no such councils . Wiglaf may also have brought Essex back into the Mercian orbit during the years after he recovered the throne . In East Anglia , King Æthelstan minted coins , possibly as early as 827 , but more likely c . 830 after Egbert 's influence was reduced with Wiglaf 's return to power in Mercia . This demonstration of independence on East Anglia 's part is not surprising , as it was Æthelstan who was probably responsible for the defeat and death of both Beornwulf and Ludeca .
Both Wessex 's sudden rise to power in the late 820s , and the subsequent failure to retain this dominant position , have been examined by historians looking for underlying causes . One plausible explanation for the events of these years is that Wessex 's fortunes were to some degree dependent on Carolingian support . The Franks supported Eardwulf when he recovered the throne of Northumbria in 808 , so it is plausible that they also supported Egbert 's accession in 802 . At Easter 839 , not long before Egbert 's death , he was in touch with Louis the Pious , king of the Franks , to arrange safe passage to Rome . Hence a continuing relationship with the Franks seems to be part of southern English politics during the first half of the ninth century .
Carolingian support may have been one of the factors that helped Egbert achieve the military successes of the late 820s . However , the Rhenish and Frankish commercial networks collapsed at some time in the 820s or 830s , and in addition , a rebellion broke out in February 830 against Louis the Pious — the first of a series of internal conflicts that lasted through the 830s and beyond . These distractions may have prevented Louis from supporting Egbert . In this view , the withdrawal of Frankish influence would have left East Anglia , Mercia and Wessex to find a balance of power not dependent on outside aid .
Despite the loss of dominance , Egbert 's military successes fundamentally changed the political landscape of Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Wessex retained control of the south @-@ eastern kingdoms , with the possible exception of Essex , and Mercia did not regain control of East Anglia . Egbert 's victories marked the end of the independent existence of the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex . The conquered territories were administered as a subkingdom for a while , including Surrey and possibly Essex . Although Æthelwulf was a subking under Egbert , it is clear that he maintained his own royal household , with which he travelled around his kingdom . Charters issued in Kent described Egbert and Æthelwulf as " kings of the West Saxons and also of the people of Kent . " When Æthelwulf died in 858 his will , in which Wessex is left to one son and the southeastern kingdom to another , makes it clear that it was not until after 858 that the kingdoms were fully integrated . Mercia remained a threat , however ; Egbert 's son Æthelwulf , established as king of Kent , gave estates to Christ Church , Canterbury , probably to counter any influence the Mercians might still have there .
In the southwest , Egbert was defeated in 836 at Carhampton by the Danes , but in 838 he won a battle against them and their allies the West Welsh at the Battle of Hingston Down in Cornwall . The Dumnonian royal line continued after this time , but it is at this date that the independence of one of the last British kingdoms may be considered to have ended . The details of Anglo @-@ Saxon expansion into Cornwall are quite poorly recorded , but some evidence comes from place names . The river Ottery , which flows east into the Tamar near Launceston , appears to be a boundary : south of the Ottery the placenames are overwhelmingly Cornish , whereas to the north they are more heavily influenced by the English newcomers .
= = Succession = =
At a council at Kingston upon Thames in 838 , Egbert and Æthelwulf granted land to the sees of Winchester and Canterbury in return for the promise of support for Æthelwulf 's claim to the throne . The archbishop of Canterbury , Ceolnoth , also accepted Egbert and Æthelwulf as the lords and protectors of the monasteries under Ceolnoth 's control . These agreements , along with a later charter in which Æthelwulf confirmed church privileges , suggest that the church had recognised that Wessex was a new political power that must be dealt with . Churchmen consecrated the king at coronation ceremonies , and helped to write the wills which specified the king 's heir ; their support had real value in establishing West Saxon control and a smooth succession for Egbert 's line . Both the record of the Council of Kingston , and another charter of that year , include the identical phrasing : that a condition of the grant is that " we ourselves and our heirs shall always hereafter have firm and unshakable friendships from Archbishop Ceolnoth and his congregation at Christ Church . "
Although nothing is known of any other claimants to the throne , it is likely that there were other surviving descendants of Cerdic ( the supposed progenitor of all the kings of Wessex ) who might have contended for the kingdom . Egbert died in 839 , and his will , according to the account of it found in the will of his grandson , Alfred the Great , left land only to male members of his family , so that the estates should not be lost to the royal house through marriage . Egbert 's wealth , acquired through conquest , was no doubt one reason for his ability to purchase the support of the southeastern church establishment ; the thriftiness of his will indicates he understood the importance of personal wealth to a king . The kingship of Wessex had been frequently contested among different branches of the royal line , and it is a noteworthy achievement of Egbert 's that he was able to ensure Æthelwulf 's untroubled succession . In addition , Æthelwulf 's experience of kingship , in the subkingdom formed from Egbert 's southeastern conquests , would have been valuable to him when he took the throne .
Egbert was buried in Winchester , as were his son , Æthelwulf , his grandson , Alfred the Great , and his great @-@ grandson , Edward the Elder . During the ninth century , Winchester began to show signs of urbanisation , and it is likely that the sequence of burials indicates that Winchester was held in high regard by the West Saxon royal line .
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= Las Meninas =
Las Meninas ( pronounced : [ laz meˈninas ] ; Spanish for The Ladies @-@ in @-@ Waiting ) is a 1656 painting in the Museo del Prado in Madrid , by Diego Velázquez , the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age . Its complex and enigmatic composition raises questions about reality and illusion , and creates an uncertain relationship between the viewer and the figures depicted . Because of these complexities , Las Meninas has been one of the most widely analyzed works in Western painting .
The painting shows a large room in the Royal Alcazar of Madrid during the reign of King Philip IV of Spain , and presents several figures , most identifiable from the Spanish court , captured , according to some commentators , in a particular moment as if in a snapshot . Some look out of the canvas towards the viewer , while others interact among themselves . The young Infanta Margaret Theresa is surrounded by her entourage of maids of honour , chaperone , bodyguard , two dwarfs and a dog . Just behind them , Velázquez portrays himself working at a large canvas . Velázquez looks outwards , beyond the pictorial space to where a viewer of the painting would stand . In the background there is a mirror that reflects the upper bodies of the king and queen . They appear to be placed outside the picture space in a position similar to that of the viewer , although some scholars have speculated that their image is a reflection from the painting Velázquez is shown working on .
Las Meninas has long been recognised as one of the most important paintings in Western art history . The Baroque painter Luca Giordano said that it represents the " theology of painting " and in 1827 the president of the Royal Academy of Arts Sir Thomas Lawrence described the work in a letter to his successor David Wilkie as " the true philosophy of the art " . More recently , it has been described as " Velázquez 's supreme achievement , a highly self @-@ conscious , calculated demonstration of what painting could achieve , and perhaps the most searching comment ever made on the possibilities of the easel painting " .
= = Background = =
= = = Court of Philip IV = = =
In 17th @-@ century Spain , painters rarely enjoyed high social status . Painting was regarded as a craft , not an art such as poetry or music . Nonetheless , Velázquez worked his way up through the ranks of the court of Philip IV , and in February 1651 was appointed palace chamberlain ( aposentador mayor del palacio ) . The post brought him status and material reward , but its duties made heavy demands on his time . During the remaining eight years of his life , he painted only a few works , mostly portraits of the royal family . When he painted Las Meninas , he had been with the royal household for 33 years .
Philip IV 's first wife , Elizabeth of France , died in 1644 ; and their only son , Balthasar Charles , died two years later . Lacking an heir , Philip married Mariana of Austria in 1649 , and Margaret Theresa ( 1651 – 1673 ) was their first child , and their only one at the time of the painting . Subsequently , she had a short @-@ lived brother Philip Prospero ( 1657 – 1661 ) , and then Charles ( 1661 – 1700 ) arrived , who succeeded to the throne as Charles II at the age of three . Velázquez painted portraits of Mariana and her children , and although Philip himself resisted being portrayed in his old age he did allow Velázquez to include him in Las Meninas . In the early 1650s he gave Velázquez the Pieza Principal ( " main room " ) of the late Balthasar Charles 's living quarters , by then serving as the palace museum , to use as his studio . It is here that Las Meninas is set . Philip had his own chair in the studio and would often sit and watch Velázquez at work . Although constrained by rigid etiquette , the art @-@ loving king seems to have had an unusually close relationship with the painter . After Velázquez 's death , he wrote " I am crushed " in the margin of a memorandum on the choice of his successor .
During the 1640s and 1650s , Velázquez served as both court painter and curator of Philip IV 's expanding collection of European art . He seems to have been given an unusual degree of freedom in the role . He supervised the decoration and interior design of the rooms holding the most valued paintings , adding mirrors , statues and tapestries . He was also responsible for the sourcing , attribution , hanging and inventory of many of the Spanish king 's paintings . By the early 1650s , Velázquez was widely respected in Spain as a connoisseur . Much of the collection of the Prado today — including works by Titian , Raphael , and Rubens — were acquired and assembled under Velázquez 's curatorship .
= = = Provenance and condition = = =
The painting was referred to in the earliest inventories as La Familia ( " The Family " ) . A detailed description of Las Meninas , which provides the identification of several of the figures , was published by Antonio Palomino ( " the Giorgio Vasari of the Spanish Golden Age " ) in 1724 . Examination under infrared light reveals minor pentimenti , that is , there are traces of earlier working that the artist himself later altered . For example , at first Velázquez 's own head inclined to his right rather than his left .
The painting has been cut down on both the left and right sides . It was damaged in the fire that destroyed the Alcázar in 1734 , and was restored by court painter Juan García de Miranda ( 1677 – 1749 ) . The left cheek of the Infanta was almost completely repainted to compensate for a substantial loss of pigment . After its rescue from the fire , the painting was inventoried as part of the royal collection in 1747 – 48 , and the Infanta was misidentified as Maria Theresa , Margaret Theresa 's older half @-@ sister , an error that was repeated when the painting was inventoried at the new Madrid Royal Palace in 1772 . A 1794 inventory reverted to a version of the earlier title , The Family of Philip IV , which was repeated in the records of 1814 . The painting entered the collection of the Museo del Prado on its foundation in 1819 . In 1843 , the Prado catalogue listed the work for the first time as Las Meninas .
In recent years , the picture has suffered a loss of texture and hue . Due to exposure to pollution and crowds of visitors , the once @-@ vivid contrasts between blue and white pigments in the costumes of the meninas have faded . It was last cleaned in 1984 under the supervision of the American conservator John Brealey , to remove a " yellow veil " of dust that had gathered since the previous restoration in the 19th century . The cleaning provoked , according to the art historian Federico Zeri , " furious protests , not because the picture had been damaged in any way , but because it looked different " . However , in the opinion of López @-@ Rey , the " restoration was impeccable " . Due to its size , importance , and value , the painting is not lent out for exhibition .
= = = Painting materials = = =
A thorough technical investigation including a pigment analysis of Las Meninas was conducted around 1981 in Museo Prado . The analysis revealed the usual pigments of the baroque period frequently used by Velázquez in his other paintings . The main pigments used for this painting were lead white , azurite ( for the skirt of the kneeling menina ) , vermilion and red lake , ochres and carbon blacks .
= = Description = =
= = = Subject matter = = =
Las Meninas is set in Velázquez 's studio in Philip IV 's Alcázar palace in Madrid . The high @-@ ceilinged room is presented , in the words of Silvio Gaggi , as " a simple box that could be divided into a perspective grid with a single vanishing point " . In the centre of the foreground stands the Infanta Margaret Theresa ( 1 ) . The five @-@ year @-@ old infanta , who later married Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I , was at this point Philip and Mariana 's only surviving child . She is attended by two ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , or meninas : doña Isabel de Velasco ( 2 ) , who is poised to curtsy to the princess , and doña María Agustina Sarmiento de Sotomayor ( 3 ) , who kneels before Margaret Theresa , offering her a drink from a red cup , or bucaro , that she holds on a golden tray . To the right of the Infanta are two dwarfs : the achondroplastic German , Maribarbola ( 4 ) ( Maria Barbola ) , and the Italian , Nicolas Pertusato ( 5 ) , who playfully tries to rouse a sleepy mastiff with his foot . Behind them stands doña Marcela de Ulloa ( 6 ) , the princess 's chaperone , dressed in mourning and talking to an unidentified bodyguard ( or guardadamas ) ( 7 ) .
To the rear and at right stands Don José Nieto Velázquez ( 8 ) — the queen 's chamberlain during the 1650s , and head of the royal tapestry works — who may have been a relative of the artist . Nieto is shown pausing , with his right knee bent and his feet on different steps . As the art critic Harriet Stone observes , it is uncertain whether he is " coming or going " . He is rendered in silhouette and appears to hold open a curtain on a short flight of stairs , with an unclear wall or space behind . Both this backlight and the open doorway reveal space behind : in the words of the art historian Analisa Leppanen , they lure " our eyes inescapably into the depths " . The royal couple 's reflection pushes in the opposite direction , forward into the picture space . The vanishing point of the perspective is in the doorway , as can be shown by extending the line of the meeting of wall and ceiling on the right . Nieto is seen only by the king and queen , who share the viewer 's point of view , and not by the figures in the foreground . In the footnotes of Joel Snyder 's article , the author recognizes that Nieto is the queen 's attendant and was required to be at hand to open and close doors for her . Snyder suggests that Nieto appears in the doorway so that the king and queen might depart . In the context of the painting , Snyder argues that the scene is the end of the royal couple 's sitting for Velázquez and they are preparing to exit , explaining that is " why the menina to the right of the Infanta begins to curtsy " .
Velázquez himself ( 9 ) is pictured to the left of the scene , looking outward past a large canvas supported by an easel . On his chest is the red cross of the Order of Santiago , which he did not receive until 1659 , three years after the painting was completed . According to Palomino , Philip ordered this to be added after Velázquez 's death , " and some say that his Majesty himself painted it " . From the painter 's belt hang the symbolic keys of his court offices .
A mirror on the back wall reflects the upper bodies and heads of two figures identified from other paintings , and by Palomino , as King Philip IV ( 10 ) and Queen Mariana ( 11 ) . The most common assumption is that the reflection shows the couple in the pose they are holding for Velázquez as he paints them , while their daughter watches ; and that the painting therefore shows their view of the scene .
Of the nine figures depicted , five are looking directly out at the royal couple or the viewer . Their glances , along with the king and queen 's reflection , affirm the royal couple 's presence outside the painted space . Alternatively , art historians H. W. Janson and Joel Snyder suggest that the image of the king and queen is a reflection from Velázquez 's canvas , the front of which is obscured from the viewer . Other writers say the canvas Velázquez is painting is unusually large for a portrait by Velázquez , and is about the same size as Las Meninas . Las Meninas contains the only known double portrait of the royal couple painted by Velázquez .
The point of view of the picture is approximately that of the royal couple , though this has been widely debated . Many critics suppose that the scene is viewed by the king and queen as they pose for a double portrait , while the Infanta and her companions are present only to relieve their boredom . Leo Steinberg suggests that the King and Queen are to the left of the viewer and the reflection in the mirror is that of the canvas , a portrait of the king and queen . Others speculate that Velázquez represents himself painting the Infanta Margaret Theresa . No single theory has found universal agreement .
The back wall of the room , which is in shadow , is hung with rows of paintings , including one of a series of scenes from Ovid 's Metamorphoses by Peter Paul Rubens , and copies , by Velázquez 's son @-@ in @-@ law and principal assistant Juan del Mazo , of works by Jacob Jordaens . The paintings are shown in the exact positions recorded in an inventory taken around this time . The wall to the right is hung with a grid of eight smaller paintings , visible mainly as frames owing to their angle from the viewer . They can be identified from the inventory as more Mazo copies of paintings from the Rubens Ovid series , though only two of the subjects can be seen .
The paintings on the back wall are recognized as representing Minerva Punishing Arachne and Apollo 's Victory Over Marsyas . Both stories involve Minerva , the Goddess of Wisdom and patron of the arts . These two legends are both stories of mortals challenging gods and the dreadful consequences . One scholar points out that the legend dealing with two women , Minerva and Arachne , is on the same side of the mirror as the queen 's reflection while the male legend is on the side of the king .
= = = Composition = = =
The painted surface is divided into quarters horizontally and sevenths vertically ; this grid is used to organise the elaborate grouping of characters , and was a common device at the time . Velázquez presents nine figures — eleven if the king and queen 's reflected images are included — yet they occupy only the lower half of the canvas .
According to López @-@ Rey , the painting has three focal points : the Infanta Margaret Theresa , the self @-@ portrait and the half @-@ length reflected images of King Philip IV and Queen Mariana . In 1960 , the art historian Kenneth Clark made the point that the success of the composition is a result first and foremost of the accurate handling of light and shade :
Each focal point involves us in a new set of relations ; and to paint a complex group like the Meninas , the painter must carry in his head a single consistent scale of relations which he can apply throughout . He may use all kinds of devices to help him do this — perspective is one of them — but ultimately the truth about a complete visual impression depends on one thing , truth of tone . Drawing may be summary , colours drab , but if the relations of tone are true , the picture will hold .
However , the focal point of the painting is widely debated . Leo Steinberg argues that the orthogonals in the work are intentionally disguised so that the picture 's focal center shifts . Similar to Lopez @-@ Rey , he describes three foci . The man in the doorway , however , is the vanishing point . More specifically , the crook of his arm is where the orthogonals of the windows and lights of the ceiling meet .
Depth and dimension are rendered by the use of linear perspective , by the overlapping of the layers of shapes , and in particular , as stated by Clark , through the use of tone . This compositional element operates within the picture in a number of ways . First , there is the appearance of natural light within the painted room and beyond it . The pictorial space in the midground and foreground is lit from two sources : by thin shafts of light from the open door , and by broad streams coming through the window to the right . The 20th @-@ century French philosopher and cultural critic Michel Foucault observed that the light from the window illuminates both the studio foreground and the unrepresented area in front of it , in which the king , the queen , and the viewer are presumed to be situated . For José Ortega y Gasset , light divides the scene into three distinct parts , with foreground and background planes strongly illuminated , between which a darkened intermediate space includes silhouetted figures .
Velázquez uses this light not only to add volume and definition to each form but also to define the focal points of the painting . As the light streams in from the right it brightly glints on the braid and golden hair of the female dwarf , who is nearest the light source . But because her face is turned from the light , and in shadow , its tonality does not make it a point of particular interest . Similarly , the light glances obliquely on the cheek of the lady @-@ in @-@ waiting near her , but not on her facial features . Much of her lightly coloured dress is dimmed by shadow . The Infanta , however , stands in full illumination , and with her face turned towards the light source , even though her gaze is not . Her face is framed by the pale gossamer of her hair , setting her apart from everything else in the picture . The light models the volumetric geometry of her form , defining the conic nature of a small torso bound rigidly into a corset and stiffened bodice , and the panniered skirt extending around her like an oval candy @-@ box , casting its own deep shadow which , by its sharp contrast with the bright brocade , both emphasises and locates the small figure as the main point of attention .
Velázquez further emphasises the Infanta by his positioning and lighting of her maids of honour , whom he sets opposing one another : to left and right , before and behind the Infanta . The maid to the left faces the light , her brightly lit profile and sleeve creating a diagonal . Her opposite number creates a broader but less defined reflection of her attention , making a diagonal space between them , in which their charge stands protected .
A further internal diagonal passes through the space occupied by the Infanta . There is a similar connection between the female dwarf and the figure of Velázquez himself , both of whom look towards the viewer from similar angles , creating a visual tension . The face of Velázquez is dimly lit by light that is reflected , rather than direct . For this reason his features , though not as sharply defined , are more visible than those of the dwarf who is much nearer the light source . This appearance of a total face , full @-@ on to the viewer , draws the attention , and its importance is marked , tonally , by the contrasting frame of dark hair , the light on the hand and brush , and the skilfully placed triangle of light on the artist 's sleeve , pointing directly to the face .
From the figure of the artist , the viewer 's eye leaps again diagonally into the pictorial space . Another man stands , echoing and opposing the form of the artist , outside rather than inside , made clearly defined and yet barely identifiable by the light and shade . The positioning of such an area of strong tonal contrast right at the rear of the pictorial space is a daring compositional tactic . The shapes of bright light are similar to the irregular light shapes of the foreground Maid of Honour , but the sharply defined door @-@ frame repeats the border of the mirror .
The mirror is a perfectly defined unbroken pale rectangle within a broad black rectangle . A clear geometric shape , like a lit face , draws the attention of the viewer more than a broken geometric shape such as the door , or a shadowed or oblique face such as that of the dwarf in the foreground or that of the man in the background . The viewer cannot distinguish the features of the king and queen , but in the opalescent sheen of the mirror 's surface , the glowing ovals are plainly turned directly to the viewer . Jonathan Miller points out that apart from " adding suggestive gleams at the bevelled edges , the most important way the mirror betrays its identity is by disclosing imagery whose brightness is so inconsistent with the dimness of the surrounding wall that it can only have been borrowed , by reflection , from the strongly illuminated figures of the King and Queen " .
As the maids of honour are reflected in each other , so too do the king and queen have their doubles within the painting , in the dimly lit forms of the chaperone and guard , the two who serve and care for their daughter . The positioning of these figures sets up a pattern , one man , a couple , one man , a couple , and while the outer figures are nearer the viewer than the others , they all occupy the same horizontal band on the picture 's surface .
Adding to the inner complexities of the picture and creating further visual interactions is the male dwarf in the foreground , whose raised hand echoes the gesture of the figure in the background , while his playful demeanour , and distraction from the central action , are in complete contrast with it . The informality of his pose , his shadowed profile , and his dark hair all serve to make him a mirror image to the kneeling attendant of the Infanta . However , the painter has set him forward of the light streaming through the window , and so minimised the contrast of tone on this foreground figure .
Despite certain spatial ambiguities this is the painter 's most thoroughly rendered architectural space , and the only one in which a ceiling is shown . According to López @-@ Rey , in no other composition did Velázquez so dramatically lead the eye to areas beyond the viewer 's sight : both the canvas he is seen painting , and the space beyond the frame where the king and queen stand can only be imagined . The bareness of the dark ceiling , the back of Velázquez 's canvas , and the strict geometry of framed paintings contrast with the animated , brilliantly lit and sumptuously painted foreground entourage . Stone writes :
We cannot take in all the figures of the painting in one glance . Not only do the life @-@ size proportions of the painting preclude such an appreciation , but also the fact that the heads of the figures are turned in different directions means that our gaze is deflected . The painting communicates through images which , in order to be understood , must thus be considered in sequence , one after the other , in the context of a history that is still unfolding . It is a history that is still unframed , even in this painting composed of frames within frames .
According to Kahr , the composition could have been influenced by the traditional Dutch Gallery Pictures such as those by Frans Francken the Younger , Willem van Haecht , or David Teniers the Younger . Teniers ' work was owned by Philip IV and would have been known by Velázquez . Like Las Meninas , they often depict formal visits by important collectors or rulers , a common occurrence , and " show a room with a series of windows dominating one side wall and paintings hung between the windows as well as on the other walls " . Gallery Portraits were also used to glorify the artist as well as royalty or members of the higher classes , as may have been Velázquez 's intention with this work .
= = = Mirror and reflection = = =
The spatial structure and positioning of the mirror 's reflection are such that Philip IV and Mariana appear to be standing on the viewer 's side of the pictorial space , facing the Infanta and her entourage . According to Janson , not only is the gathering of figures in the foreground for Philip and Mariana 's benefit , but the painter 's attention is concentrated on the couple , as he appears to be working on their portrait . Although they can only be seen in the mirror reflection , their distant image occupies a central position in the canvas , in terms of social hierarchy as well as composition . As spectators , our position in relation to the painting is uncertain . It has been debated whether the ruling couple are standing beside the viewer or have replaced the viewer , who sees the scene through their eyes . Lending weight to the latter idea are the gazes of three of the figures — Velázquez , the Infanta , and Maribarbola — who appear to be looking directly at the viewer .
The mirror on the back wall indicates what is not there : the king and queen , and in the words of Harriet Stone , " the generations of spectators who assume the couple 's place before the painting " . Writing in 1980 , the critics Snyder and Cohn observed :
Velázquez wanted the mirror to depend upon the useable painted canvas for its image . Why should he want that ? The luminous image in the mirror appears to reflect the king and queen themselves , but it does more than just this : the mirror outdoes nature . The mirror image is only a reflection . A reflection of what ? Of the real thing — of the art of Velázquez . In the presence of his divinely ordained monarchs ... Velázquez exults in his artistry and counsels Philip and Maria not to look for the revelation of their image in the natural reflection of a looking glass but rather in the penetrating vision of their master painter . In the presence of Velázquez , a mirror image is a poor imitation of the real .
In Las Meninas , the king and queen are supposedly " outside " the painting , yet their reflection in the back wall mirror also places them " inside " the pictorial space .
Snyder proposes it is " a mirror of majesty " or an allusion to the mirror for princes . While it is a literal reflection of the king and queen , Snyder writes " it is the image of exemplary monarchs , a reflection of ideal character " Later he focuses his attention on the princess , writing that Velázquez 's portrait is " the painted equivalent of a manual for the education of the princess — a mirror of the princess "
The painting is likely to have been influenced by Jan van Eyck 's Arnolfini Portrait , of 1434 . At the time , van Eyck 's painting hung in Philip 's palace , and would have been familiar to Velázquez . The Arnolfini Portrait also has a mirror positioned at the back of the pictorial space , reflecting two figures who would have the same angle of vision as does the viewer of Velázquez 's painting ; they are too small to identify , but it has been speculated that one may be intended as the artist himself , though he is not shown in the act of painting . According to Lucien Dällenbach :
The mirror [ in Las Meninas ] faces the observer as in Van Eyck 's painting . But here the procedure is more realistic to the degree that the " rearview " mirror in which the royal couple appears is no longer convex but flat . Whereas the reflection in the Flemish painting recomposed objects and characters within a space that is condensed and deformed by the curve of the mirror , that of Velázquez refuses to play with the laws of perspective : it projects onto the canvas the perfect double of the king and queen positioned in front of the painting . Moreover , in showing the figures whom the painter observes , and also , through the mediation of the mirror , the figures who are observing him , the painter achieves a reciprocity of gazes that makes the interior oscillate with the exterior and which causes the image to " emerge from its frame " at the same time that it invites the visitors to enter the painting .
Jonathan Miller asks : " What are we to make of the blurred features of the royal couple ? It is unlikely that it has anything to do with the optical imperfection of the mirror , which would , in reality , have displayed a focused image of the King and Queen " . He notes that " in addition to the represented mirror , he teasingly implies an unrepresented one , without which it is difficult to imagine how he could have shown himself painting the picture we now see " .
= = Interpretation = =
The elusiveness of Las Meninas , according to Dawson Carr , " suggests that art , and life , are an illusion " . The relationship between illusion and reality were central concerns in Spanish culture during the 17th century , figuring largely in Don Quixote : the best @-@ known work of Spanish Baroque literature . In this respect , Calderón de la Barca 's play Life is a Dream is commonly seen as the literary equivalent of Velázquez 's painting :
Jon Manchip White notes that the painting can be seen as a résumé of the whole of Velázquez 's life and career , as well as a summary of his art to that point . He placed his only confirmed self @-@ portrait in a room in the royal palace surrounded by an assembly of royalty , courtiers , and fine objects that represent his life at court . The art historian Svetlana Alpers suggests that , by portraying the artist at work in the company of royalty and nobility , Velázquez was claiming high status for both the artist and his art , and in particular to propose that painting is a liberal rather than a mechanical art . This distinction was a point of controversy at the time . It would have been significant to Velázquez , since the rules of the Order of Santiago excluded those whose occupations were mechanical . Kahr asserts that this was the best way for Velázquez to show that he was " neither a craftsman or a tradesman , but an official of the court " . Furthermore , this was a way to prove himself worthy of acceptance by the royal family .
Michel Foucault devoted the opening chapter of The Order of Things ( 1966 ) to an analysis of Las Meninas . Foucault describes the painting in meticulous detail , but in a language that is " neither prescribed by , nor filtered through the various texts of art @-@ historical investigation " . Foucault viewed the painting without regard to the subject matter , nor to the artist 's biography , technical ability , sources and influences , social context , or relationship with his patrons . Instead he analyses its conscious artifice , highlighting the complex network of visual relationships between painter , subject @-@ model , and viewer :
We are looking at a picture in which the painter is in turn looking out at us . A mere confrontation , eyes catching one another 's glance , direct looks superimposing themselves upon one another as they cross . And yet this slender line of reciprocal visibility embraces a whole complex network of uncertainties , exchanges , and feints . The painter is turning his eyes towards us only in so far as we happen to occupy the same position as his subject .
For Foucault , Las Meninas illustrates the first signs of a new episteme , or way of thinking . It represents a midpoint between what he sees as the two " great discontinuities " in European thought , the classical and the modern : " Perhaps there exists , in this painting by Velázquez , the representation as it were of Classical representation , and the definition of the space it opens up to us ... representation , freed finally from the relation that was impeding it , can offer itself as representation in its pure form . "
Now he ( the painter ) can be seen , caught in a moment of stillness , at the neutral centre of his oscillation . His dark torso and bright face are half @-@ way between the visible and the invisible : emerging from the canvas beyond our view , he moves into our gaze ; but when , in a moment , he makes a step to the right , removing himself from our gaze , he will be standing exactly in front of the canvas he is painting ; he will enter that region where his painting , neglected for an instant , will , for him , become visible once more , free of shadow and free of reticence . As though the painter could not at the same time be seen on the picture where he is represented and also see that upon which he is representing something . "
In the conclusion of Order of Things Foucault explained why he undertook such a forensic analysis of Las Meninas :
let us , if we may , look for the previously existing law of that interplay [ ie the law of representation ] in the painting of Las Meninas ... In Classical thought , the personage for whom the representation exists , and who represents himself within it , recognizing himself therein as an image or reflection , he who ties together all the interlacing threads of the ' representation in the form of a picture or table ' – he is never to be found in that table himself . Before the end of the eighteenth century , man did not exist @-@ any more than the potency of life , the fecundity of labour , or the historical density of language . He is a quite recent creature , which the demiurge of knowledge fabricated with its own hands less than two hundred years ago : but he has grown old so quickly that it has been only too easy to imagine that he had been waiting for thousands of years in the darkness for that moment of illumination in which he would finally be known .
Foucault 's analysis of Las Meninas , although on one level a contribution to art history , is more about epistemology , specifically the ' cognitive status of the modern human sciences ' , based on the possibility , suggested by Ludwig Wittgenstein , that a picture is a model of reality ( TLP 2 @.@ 22 )
= = Las Meninas as culmination of themes in Velázquez = =
Many aspects of Las Meninas relate to earlier works by Velázquez in which he plays with conventions of representation . In the Rokeby Venus — his only surviving nude — the face of the subject is visible , blurred beyond any realism , in a mirror . The angle of the mirror is such that although " often described as looking at herself , [ she ] is more disconcertingly looking at us " . In the early Christ in the House of Martha and Mary of 1618 , Christ and his companions are seen only through a serving hatch to a room behind , according to the National Gallery ( London ) , who are clear that this is the intention , although before restoration many art historians regarded this scene as either a painting hanging on the wall in the main scene , or a reflection in a mirror , and the debate has continued . The dress worn in the two scenes also differs : the main scene is in contemporary dress , while the scene with Christ uses conventional iconographic biblical dress . This is also a feature of Los Borrachos of 1629 , where contemporary peasants consort with the god Bacchus and his companions , who have the conventional undress of mythology . In this , as in some of his early bodegones , the figures look directly at the viewer as if seeking a reaction .
In Las Hilanderas , probably painted the year after Las Meninas , two different scenes from Ovid are shown : one in contemporary dress in the foreground , and the other partly in antique dress , played before a tapestry on the back wall of a room behind the first . According to the critic Sira Dambe , " aspects of representation and power are addressed in this painting in ways closely connected with their treatment in Las Meninas " . In a series of portraits of the late 1630s and 1640s — all now in the Prado — Velázquez painted clowns and other members of the royal household posing as gods , heroes , and philosophers ; the intention is certainly partly comic , at least for those in the know , but in a highly ambiguous way .
Velázquez 's portraits of the royal family themselves had until then been straightforward , if often unflatteringly direct and highly complex in expression . On the other hand , his royal portraits , designed to be seen across vast palace rooms , feature more strongly than his other works the bravura handling for which he is famous : " Velázquez 's handling of paint is exceptionally free , and as one approaches Las Meninas there is a point at which the figures suddenly dissolve into smears and blobs of paint . The long @-@ handled brushes he used enabled him to stand back and judge the total effect . "
= = Influence = =
In 1692 , the Neapolitan painter Luca Giordano became one of the few allowed to view paintings held in Philip IV 's private apartments , and was greatly impressed by Las Meninas . Giordano described the work as the " theology of painting " , and was inspired to paint A Homage to Velázquez ( National Gallery , London ) . By the early 18th century his oeuvre was gaining international recognition , and later in the century British collectors ventured to Spain in search of acquisitions . Since the popularity of Italian art was then at its height among British connoisseurs , they concentrated on paintings that showed obvious Italian influence , largely ignoring others such as Las Meninas .
An almost immediate influence can be seen in the two portraits by Mazo of subjects depicted in Las Meninas , which in some ways reverse the motif of that painting . Ten years later , in 1666 , Mazo painted Infanta Margaret Theresa , who was then 15 and just about to leave Madrid to marry the Holy Roman Emperor . In the background are figures in two further receding doorways , one of which was the new King Charles ( Margaret Theresa 's brother ) , and another the dwarf Maribarbola . A Mazo portrait of the widowed Queen Mariana again shows , through a doorway in the Alcázar , the young king with dwarfs , possibly including Maribarbola , and attendants who offer him a drink . Mazo 's painting of The Family of the Artist also shows a composition similar to that of Las Meninas .
Francisco Goya etched a print of Las Meninas in 1778 , and later used Velázquez 's painting as the model for his Charles IV of Spain and His Family . As in Las Meninas , the royal family in Goya 's work is apparently visiting the artist 's studio . In both paintings the artist is shown working on a canvas , of which only the rear is visible . Goya , however , replaces the atmospheric and warm perspective of Las Meninas with what Pierre Gassier calls a sense of " imminent suffocation " . Goya 's royal family is presented on a " stage facing the public , while in the shadow of the wings the painter , with a grim smile , points and says : ' Look at them and judge for yourself ! ' "
The 19th @-@ century British art collector William John Bankes travelled to Spain during the Peninsular War ( 1808 – 1814 ) and acquired a copy of Las Meninas painted by Mazo , which he believed to be an original preparatory oil sketch by Velázquez — although Velázquez did not usually paint studies . Bankes described his purchase as " the glory of my collection " , noting that he had been " a long while in treaty for it and was obliged to pay a high price " . The copy was admired throughout the 19th century in Britain .
The art world developed a new appreciation for Velázquez 's less Italianate paintings after 1819 , when Ferdinand VII opened the royal collection to the public . In 1879 John Singer Sargent painted a small @-@ scale copy of Las Meninas , and in 1882 painted a homage to the painting in his The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit , while the Irish artist Sir John Lavery chose Velázquez 's masterpiece as the basis for his portrait The Royal Family at Buckingham Palace , 1913 . George V visited Lavery 's studio during the execution of the painting , and , perhaps remembering the legend that Philip IV had daubed the cross of the Knights of Santiago on the figure of Velázquez , asked Lavery if he could contribute to the portrait with his own hand . According to Lavery , " Thinking that royal blue might be an appropriate colour , I mixed it on the palette , and taking a brush he [ George V ] applied it to the Garter ribbon . "
Between August and December 1957 , Pablo Picasso painted a series of 58 interpretations of Las Meninas , and figures from it , which currently fill the Las Meninas room of the Museu Picasso in Barcelona , Spain . Picasso did not vary the characters within the series , but largely retained the naturalness of the scene ; according to the museum , his works constitute an " exhaustive study of form , rhythm , colour and movement " . A print of 1973 by Richard Hamilton called Picasso 's Meninas draws on both Velázquez and Picasso . Photographer Joel @-@ Peter Witkin was commissioned by the Spanish Ministry of Culture to create a work titled Las Meninas , New Mexico ( 1987 ) which references Velázquez 's painting as well as other works by Spanish artists .
The American novelist David Foster Wallace titled an unpublished short story after this painting ; the story was incorporated into his 1995 magnum opus Infinite Jest as the " Wardine " section , but without the Velásquez allusion .
In 2004 , the video artist Eve Sussman filmed 89 Seconds at Alcázar , a high @-@ definition video tableau inspired by Las Meninas . The work is a recreation of the moments leading up to and directly following the approximately 89 seconds when the royal family and their courtiers would have come together in the exact configuration of Velázquez 's painting . Sussman had assembled a team of 35 , including an architect , a set designer , a choreographer , a costume designer , actors , actresses , and a film crew .
A 2008 exhibit at the Museu Picasso titled " Forgetting Velázquez : Las Meninas " included art responding to by Velázquez 's painting by Fermín Aguayo , Avigdor Arikha , Claudio Bravo , Juan Carreño de Miranda , Michael Craig @-@ Martin , Salvador Dalí , Juan Downey , Goya , Hamilton , Mazo , Vik Muniz , Jorge Oteiza , Picasso , Antonio Saura , Franz von Stuck , Sussman , Manolo Valdés , and Witkin , among others .
= = A version in England = =
A smaller version of the painting , thought to be a draft , is preserved in the country house of Kingston Lacy in Dorset , England . Several experts , including the former Curator of the Department of Renaissance and Baroque Painting in the Museo del Prado and current Director of the Moll Institute of Studies of Flemish Paintings , in Madrid , Professor Matías Díaz Padrón , suggest that this " could be a model " painted by Velázquez before the completed work which hangs in the Museo del Prado , perhaps to be approved by the king . Conflicting with this is the fact that the Kingston Lacy version represents the final state of Las Meninas , not the earlier state of the painting revealed by radiographs , suggesting that it was painted after the completed work , not before it .
Another possibility is that the Kingston Lacy painting is a copy by Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo ( c . 1612 @-@ 1667 ) , son @-@ in @-@ law and close follower of Velázquez . The version is missing some of the final work 's details and nuances such as the royal couple 's reflection in the mirror . Its composition is almost identical to the original . Although its colors are lighter , the light is less strong . Pencil lines outlining the Infanta 's face , eyes , and hair are also visible .
The Kingston Lacy painting was previously owned by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos and then by Ceán Bermúdez , who were both friends of Goya whose portraits he painted . Bermúdez 's writings on the painting were published posthumously in 1885 .
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= Tropical cyclogenesis =
Tropical cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone in the atmosphere . The mechanisms through which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly different from those through which mid @-@ latitude cyclogenesis occurs . Tropical cyclogenesis involves the development of a warm @-@ core cyclone , due to significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment . There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a preexisting low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear .
Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer , but have been noted in nearly every month in most basins . Climate cycles such as ENSO and the Madden – Julian oscillation modulate the timing and frequency of tropical cyclone development . There is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path . An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide . Of those , 47 reach hurricane / typhoon strength , and 20 become intense tropical cyclones ( at least Category 3 intensity on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale ) .
= = Requirements for tropical cyclone formation = =
There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to sustain a low pressure center , a preexisting low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . While these conditions are necessary for tropical cyclone formation , they do not guarantee that a tropical cyclone will form .
= = = Warm waters , instability , and mid @-@ level moisture = = =
Normally , an ocean temperature of 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) spanning through at least a 50 @-@ metre depth is considered the minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone . These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems . This value is well above 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 60 @.@ 9 ° F ) , the global average surface temperature of the oceans . However , this requirement can be considered only a general baseline because it assumes that the ambient atmospheric environment surrounding an area of disturbed weather presents average conditions .
Tropical cyclones are known to form even when normal conditions are not met . For example , cooler air temperatures at a higher altitude ( e.g. , at the 500 hPa level , or 5 @.@ 9 km ) can lead to tropical cyclogenesis at lower water temperatures , as a certain lapse rate is required to force the atmosphere to be unstable enough for convection . In a moist atmosphere , this lapse rate is 6 @.@ 5 ° C / km , while in an atmosphere with less than 100 % relative humidity , the required lapse rate is 9 @.@ 8 ° C / km .
At the 500 hPa level , the air temperature averages − 7 ° C ( 18 ° F ) within the tropics , but air in the tropics is normally dry at this level , giving the air room to wet @-@ bulb , or cool as it moistens , to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection . A wetbulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of − 13 @.@ 2 ° C is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is 26 @.@ 5 ° C , and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 ° C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 ° C change at 500 hpa . Under a cold cyclone , 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as − 30 ° C , which can initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres . This also explains why moisture in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere , roughly at the 500 hPa level , is normally a requirement for development . However , when dry air is found at the same height , temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres . At heights near the tropopause , the 30 @-@ year average temperature ( as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990 ) was − 77 ° C ( − 132 ° F ) . A recent example of a tropical cyclone that maintained itself over cooler waters was Epsilon of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season .
= = = = Role of Maximum Potential Intensity ( MPI ) = = = =
Kerry Emanuel created a mathematical model around 1988 to compute the upper limit of tropical cyclone intensity based on sea surface temperature and atmospheric profiles from the latest global model runs . Emanuel 's model is called the maximum potential intensity , or MPI . Maps created from this equation show regions where tropical storm and hurricane formation is possible , based upon the thermodynamics of the atmosphere at the time of the last model run ( either 0000 or 1200 UTC ) . This does not take into account vertical wind shear .
= = = Coriolis force = = =
A minimum distance of 500 km ( 310 mi ) from the equator is normally needed for tropical cyclogenesis . The Coriolis force imparts rotation on the flow and arises as winds begin to flow in toward the lower pressure created by the pre @-@ existing disturbance . In areas with a very small or non @-@ existent Coriolis force ( e.g. near the Equator ) , the only significant atmospheric forces in play are the pressure gradient force ( the pressure difference that causes winds to blow from high to low pressure ) and a smaller friction force ; these two alone would not cause the large @-@ scale rotation required for tropical cyclogenesis . The existence of a significant Coriolis force allows the developing vortex to achieve gradient wind balance . This is a balance condition found in mature tropical cyclones that allows latent heat to concentrate near the storm core ; this results in the maintenance or intensification of the vortex if other development factors are neutral .
= = = Low level disturbance = = =
Whether it be a depression in the intertropical covergence zone ( ITCZ ) , a tropical wave , a broad surface front , or an outflow boundary , a low level feature with sufficient vorticity and convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis . Even with perfect upper level conditions and the required atmospheric instability , the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and a surface low . Tropical cyclones can form when smaller circulations within the Intertropical Convergence Zone merge .
= = = Weak vertical wind shear = = =
Vertical wind shear of less than 10 m / s ( 20 kt , 22 mph ) between the surface and the tropopause is favored for tropical cyclone development . A weaker vertical shear makes the storm grow faster vertically into the air , which helps the storm develop and become stronger . If the vertical shear is too strong , the storm cannot rise to its full potential and its energy becomes spread out over too large of an area for the storm to strengthen . Strong wind shear can " blow " the tropical cyclone apart , as it displaces the mid @-@ level warm core from the surface circulation and dries out the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere , halting development . In smaller systems , the development of a significant mesoscale convective complex in a sheared environment can send out a large enough outflow boundary to destroy the surface cyclone . Moderate wind shear can lead to the initial development of the convective complex and surface low similar to the mid @-@ latitudes , but it must relax to allow tropical cyclogenesis to continue .
= = = = Favorable trough interactions = = = =
Limited vertical wind shear can be positive for tropical cyclone formation . When an upper @-@ level trough or upper @-@ level low is roughly the same scale as the tropical disturbance , the system can be steered by the upper level system into an area with better diffluence aloft , which can cause further development . Weaker upper cyclones are better candidates for a favorable interaction . There is evidence that weakly sheared tropical cyclones initially develop more rapidly than non @-@ sheared tropical cyclones , although this comes at the cost of a peak in intensity with much weaker wind speeds and higher minimum pressure . This process is also known as baroclinic initiation of a tropical cyclone . Trailing upper cyclones and upper troughs can cause additional outflow channels and aid in the intensification process . It should be noted that developing tropical disturbances can help create or deepen upper troughs or upper lows in their wake due to the outflow jet emanating from the developing tropical disturbance / cyclone .
There are cases where large , mid @-@ latitude troughs can help with tropical cyclogenesis when an upper @-@ level jet stream passes to the northwest of the developing system , which will aid divergence aloft and inflow at the surface , spinning up the cyclone . This type of interaction is more often associated with disturbances already in the process of recurvature .
= = Times of formation = =
Worldwide , tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer when water temperatures are warmest . Each basin , however , has its own seasonal patterns . On a worldwide scale , May is the least active month , while September is the most active .
In the North Atlantic , a distinct hurricane season occurs from June 1 through November 30 , sharply peaking from late August through October . The statistical peak of the North Atlantic hurricane season is September 10 . The Northeast Pacific has a broader period of activity , but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic . The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year @-@ round , with a minimum in February and a peak in early September . In the North Indian basin , storms are most common from April to December , with peaks in May and November .
In the Southern Hemisphere , tropical cyclone activity generally begins in early November and generally ends on April 30 . Southern Hemisphere activity peaks in mid @-@ February to early March . Virtually all the Southern Hemisphere activity is seen from the southern African coast eastward , toward South America . Tropical cyclones are rare events across the south Atlantic ocean and the southeastern Pacific ocean .
= = Unusual areas of formation = =
= = = Middle latitudes = = =
Areas farther than 30 degrees from the equator ( except in the vicinity of a warm current ) are not normally conducive to tropical cyclone formation or strengthening , and areas more than 40 degrees from the equator are often very hostile to such development . The primary limiting factor is water temperatures , although higher shear at increasing latitudes is also a factor . These areas are sometimes frequented by cyclones moving poleward from tropical latitudes . On rare occasions , such as in 2004 , 1988 , and 1975 , storms may form or strengthen in this region . Typically , tropical cyclones will undergo extratropical transition after recurving polewards , and typically become fully extratropical after reaching 45 – 50 ˚ of latitude . The majority of extratropical cyclones tend to restrengthen after completing the transition period .
= = = Near the Equator = = =
Areas within approximately ten degrees latitude of the equator do not experience a significant Coriolis Force , a vital ingredient in tropical cyclone formation . However , recently a few tropical cyclones have been observed forming within five degrees of the equator .
= = = South Atlantic = = =
A combination of wind shear and a lack of tropical disturbances from the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) makes it very difficult for the South Atlantic to support tropical activity . Over four tropical cyclones have been observed here such as — a weak tropical storm in 1991 off the coast of Africa near Angola , Hurricane Catarina , which made landfall in Brazil in 2004 at Category 2 strength , and a smaller storm in January 2004 , east of Salvador , Brazil . The January storm is thought to have reached tropical storm intensity based on scatterometer wind measurements .
= = = Mediterranean and Black Seas = = =
Storms that appear similar to tropical cyclones in structure sometimes occur in the Mediterranean basin . Examples of these " Mediterranean tropical cyclones " formed in September 1947 , September 1969 , September 1973 , August 1976 , January 1982 , September 1983 , December 1984 , December 1985 , October 1994 , January 1995 , October 1996 , September 1997 , December 2005 , September 2006 , and November 2011 . However , there is debate on whether these storms were tropical in nature .
The Black Sea has , on occasion , produced or fueled storms that begin cyclonic rotation , and that appear to be similar to cyclones seen in the Mediterranean .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Tropical cyclogenesis is rare in the southeastern Pacific Ocean due to the cold sea @-@ surface temperatures generated by the Humboldt Current and to unfavourable wind shear ; there are no records of a tropical cyclone hitting western South America . But in mid @-@ 2015 , a rare subtropical cyclone was identified in early May relatively close to Chile . This system was unofficially dubbed Katie by researchers .
Vortices have been reported off the coast of Morocco in the past . However , it is debatable if they are truly tropical in character .
Tropical activity is also extremely rare in the Great Lakes . However , a storm system that appeared similar to a subtropical or tropical cyclone formed in 1996 on Lake Huron . It formed an eye @-@ like structure in its center , and it may have briefly been a subtropical or tropical cyclone .
= = Influence of large @-@ scale climate cycles = =
= = = Influence of ENSO = = =
Warm waters during the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation lower the potential of tropical cyclone formation primarily in the Atlantic Basin and around Australia . Because tropical cyclones in the northeastern Pacific and north Atlantic basins are both generated in large part by tropical waves from the same wave train , decreased tropical cyclone activity in the north Atlantic translates to increased tropical cyclone activity in the Eastern North Pacific .
In the Northwestern Pacific , El Niño shifts the formation of tropical cyclones eastward . During El Niño episodes , tropical cyclones tend to form in the eastern part of the basin , between 150 ° E and the International Date Line ( IDL ) . Coupled with an increase in activity in the North @-@ Central Pacific ( IDL to 140 ° W ) and the South @-@ Central Pacific ( east of 160 ° E ) , there is a net increase in tropical cyclone development near the International Date Line on both sides of the equator . While there is no linear relationship between the strength of an El Niño and tropical cyclone formation in the Northwestern Pacific , typhoons forming during El Niño years tend to have a longer duration and higher intensities . Tropical cyclogenesis in the Northwestern Pacific is suppressed west of 150 ° E in the year following an El Niño event .
= = = Influence of the MJO = = =
In general , westerly wind increases associated with the Madden – Julian oscillation lead to increased tropical cyclogenesis in all basins . As the oscillation propagates from west to east , it leads to an eastward march in tropical cyclogenesis with time during that hemisphere 's summer season . There is an inverse relationship between tropical cyclone activity in the western Pacific basin and the north Atlantic basin , however . When one basin is active , the other is normally quiet , and vice versa . The main reason for this appears to be the phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation , or MJO , which is normally in opposite modes between the two basins at any given time .
= = = Influence of equatorial Rossby waves = = =
Research has shown that trapped equatorial Rossby wave packets can increase the likelihood of tropical cyclogenesis in the Pacific Ocean , as they increase the low @-@ level westerly winds within that region , which then leads to greater low @-@ level vorticity . The individual waves can move at approximately 1 @.@ 8 m / s ( 4 mph ) each , though the group tends to remain stationary .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
Since 1984 , Colorado State University has been issuing seasonal tropical cyclone forecasts for the north Atlantic basin , with results that are better than climatology . The university has found several statistical relationships for this basin that appear to allow long range prediction of the number of tropical cyclones . Since then , numerous others have followed in the university 's steps , with some organizations issuing seasonal forecasts for the northwest Pacific and the Australian region . The predictors are related to regional oscillations in the global climate system : the Walker circulation which is related to the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ; the North Atlantic oscillation or NAO ; the Arctic oscillation or AO ; and the Pacific North American pattern or PNA .
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= Wings ( Little Mix song ) =
" Wings " is a song by British girl group Little Mix . It was co @-@ written by the group in collaboration with Iain James , Erika Nuri , Michelle Lewis , Mischke , Heidi Rojas and the song 's producers , TMS . It was released as their second single after winning the eighth series of The X Factor in 2011 , and the lead single from their debut studio album DNA ( 2012 ) . Syco Music serviced the single to BBC Radio 1 in the United Kingdom on 2 July 2012 and it was released for digital download on 24 August 2012 . The uptempo song , which features modern beats , drums , horns and clapping , is a pop arrangement with elements of R & B and old school . Lyrically , the song has themes of girl power , maternal advice and individuality .
" Wings " was well received by contemporary music critics , who praised its lyrical message , upbeat sound and vocals . " Wings " was the group 's most successful single to date , until they released " Black Magic " in 2015 . It topped the UK Singles Chart with sales of 107 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The single also reached number one in Ireland and Scotland and number three in Australia , where it was certified triple platinum . It charted in the top 40 in three other countries , peaking at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 26 on the US Billboard Pop Songs chart .
The accompanying music video was directed by Max and Dania at an abandoned warehouse . The clip shows the group dancing and singing in front of colourful backdrops and a pink Union Jack flag , wearing urban @-@ styled outfits corresponding to the backdrops . The video received favorable reviews from critics , who praised the group 's fashion sense , dancing and confidence . Little Mix promoted the song by performing it live on a number of television shows ( including Red or Black ? and The X Factor Australia ) and during their 2013 DNA Tour .
= = Inspiration and writing = =
In December 2011 , Little Mix won the eighth series of The X Factor ( UK ) , becoming the first group to do so and subsequently signing a recording deal with Syco Music . A cover of Damien Rice 's 2002 single " Cannonball " was released as the group 's debut single and winner 's single that month . Although " Cannonball " became their first number one single in the UK and Ireland , the group were adamant on writing an original single to follow it up . " Wings " was primarily written by Little Mix , Iain James , and TMS members Thomas Barnes , Peter Kelleher and Ben Kohn . However , Little Mix continued to collaborate with other writers until they felt the song was complete , including Erika Nuri of The Writing Camp , singer Michelle Lewis , Mischke , and Heidi Rojas . It was the first song written for the group 's debut studio album , DNA .
According to group member Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock , the line " Mama told me not to waste my time " was considered an important part during the development of " Wings " ; the song was in part based on the group 's personal experiences of overcoming bullying . Little Mix wanted the single to be something listeners could relate to without sounding cheesy . The lyrics were written as an uplifting message for both the group and their fans . Group member Jesy Nelson said : " There 's nothing wrong with writing songs about clubs and partying but I think it 's cool to do a song with meaning . " The song specifically drew inspiration from the group 's experience on The X Factor where they felt discouraged , being the favourites to be eliminated after the competition 's first live show . Nelson explained : " On our first week on X Factor the paps were all shouting ' See you on This Morning on Monday ' because that 's where all the losers go . I was like : ' Oh , right , thanks ! ' "
Other inspiration came from a time when Nelson aspired to be a singer as a teenager , but was discouraged by her teachers who told her she needed a back @-@ up plan or she would end up working at the retailer Tesco . The song in turn has a theme of maternal advice ; Nelson advised that listeners of " Wings " should listen to their mothers " because they 're always right " . Group member Jade Thirlwall stated that they also wanted the song to promote girl power and to return girl groups to prominence , inspired by 1990s girl groups such as the Spice Girls . " Wings " was further inspired by songs by Beyoncé and Michael Jackson .
= = Production and recording = =
Little Mix immediately began recording after taking a short break to spend time with their families , following their win on The X Factor . During the early stages of the song 's development in January 2012 , group member Perrie Edwards revealed : " We 're going a bit urban , old school with a bit of pop . We wanna bring back old school harmonies . And Jesy beat @-@ boxes and Leigh Anne raps , so we 're trying out different things . " The recording of " Wings " continued while the group were embarking on The X Factor Live Tour ( 25 February – 4 April 2012 ) . Recording took place at The Music Shed in London . The group knew on first @-@ listen that " Wings " had to be a single . In March 2012 , Little Mix played a demo to Syco owner Simon Cowell who was impressed , believing the group 's input bettered the quality of their music .
The song was produced by TMS with vocal production by James F. Reynolds . While oldschool @-@ sounding , the song was developed with a modern beat , so listeners could also dance to it . The group envisioned " Wings " to be " a bit different " from other singles released at the time , and a combination of pop , hip hop and R & B. The track was also composed with an American audience in mind .
= = Composition and structure = =
" Wings " is an upbeat , bubblegum pop and R & B song with elements of 1990s music and a length of 3 : 39 ( 3 minutes and 39 seconds ) . It is composed in simple time and in the key of E minor with a fast tempo of 112 beats per minute . The song has a minimal beat . It contains a varying kick and snare drum arrangement throughout , pertaining to a sound reminiscent of a marching band . A number of other instruments are also used , including : an alto saxophone , a Baritone saxophone , guitar , keyboards , a tenor saxophone , a trombone and trumpet . Little Mix 's vocals span the notes B3 to E5 .
The track opens with a brief instrumental introduction comprising rhythmic clapping and a brass backbeat . Before leading into the first verse , the group chant the chorus : " Mama told me not to waste my life / She said spread your wings my little butterfly / Don 't let what they say keep you up at night / And if they give you shhhh / Then they can walk on by . " The arrangement is primarily four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor during this segment ( 0 : 03 – 0 : 17 ) , leading to a sparser sound than that on the later double @-@ chorus . The lyric " shhhh " is sung as a replacement for the word " shit " . A bass synthesizer plays on the lyric " running up your mouth " ( 0 : 26 ) in the first verse .
Halfway on the double chorus – on the lyric " fly " ( 1 : 01 ) – the group harmonize altogether and a major chord substitution takes place . This is preceded by a build @-@ up of a variety of transition effects and a brief return to the four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor kick drum sequence . When the substitution takes place , Little Mix 's vocals ( along with the backing vocals by James and singer Carmen Reece ) become more sustained and melismatic as the stereo widens and their pitch increases .
The second verse is introduced with eighth note delay taps ( 1 : 20 – 1 : 22 ) on the verse 's first lyric " I 'm " which gradually increases until properly sung . The lyric features an A – B pitch change which increases harmonic momentum for the second verse by implying a return to the cadential D chord in the chorus , instead of a continuation of the tonic E. The second verse is shorter than the first , although it also features bass synthesizer , on " ready steady go , no " ( 1 : 29 ) . A dubstep @-@ influenced breakdown occurs after the second double chorus during which the group chant the lyric " hey " repeatedly at the end of each line . Following the breakdown and a third double chorus , the song ends in an outro harmony .
= = Release = =
" Wings " served as the lead single from DNA . Little Mix first announced the single 's title during a live Twitcam with their fans on 30 May 2012 , and shared the single 's cover art on Facebook the following day . It features them against a sky @-@ blue background , as well as a new logo comprising four icons ( one for each member ) . The cover art was designed by Studio Output . The group previewed a short snippet of " Wings " during an interview on Alan Carr : Chatty Man on 1 June 2012 . The same day , the single was made available for pre @-@ order with a release date of 22 July 2012 . However , it was announced on 11 June 2012 that the single 's release was postponed to 19 August 2012 . " Wings " received its radio premiere on BBC Radio 1 on 2 July 2012 . An accompanying lyric video was posted on the group 's Vevo channel the same day .
Syco first released " Wings " for digital download in Ireland on 24 August 2012 , and in the UK on 26 August 2012 , after being pushed back a second time . The single was later made available in New Zealand on 4 October 2012 , and in Australia on 5 October 2012 . It was also released as a CD single in the UK on 26 August 2012 , and in Australia on 30 October 2012 . In January 2013 , Little Mix signed to Columbia Records ; " Wings " was released by the label for digital download on 5 February 2013 as the group 's debut single in Canada and the US . The single impacted contemporary hit radio in the US on 19 February 2013 . The group recorded a Korean version of " Wings " featuring verses mainly sung in Korean ; it was released in South Korea on 19 August 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
" Wings " received acclaim from critics . Joe Rivers of No Ripcord gave the song a rating of nine out of ten , describing it as " vivacious , fun , brash and confident " , and praising its " absolute belter of a chorus " . Rivers concluded : " ' Wings ' is really pretty darn good . Not just good @-@ for @-@ X @-@ Factor good , but good @-@ in @-@ the @-@ context @-@ of @-@ all @-@ pop @-@ music good . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars , and said it resoundingly lived up to expectations and was " a seriously promising start " for the group . John Earls of the Daily Star rated the track eight out of ten , writing : " Their modern , confident attitude fits in nicely with the song , while the military drums and lairy vocals show Little Mix have big ideas . " Daniella Graham from Metro found the inspirational lyrics to be a good fit for the group who she believed " were styled as perfect role models for teenage girls during their time on X Factor " .
Michael Cragg of The Guardian said the group were poised to succeed " where other X Factor winners have failed by releasing a great single at the right time " . Cragg wrote that the song 's production made it " brilliant " and had " everything you 'd want to hear in a pop song in 2012 " , and likened Little Mix 's " ridiculous vocal runs " to those of Christina Aguilera . Gordon Smart from The Sun regarded the track as a " polished slice of pop " and its lyrics " straight from the Spice Girls ' book of inspirational girl power lines " , comparing it to Aguilera 's 2007 single " Candyman " . Popjustice also compared " Wings " to songs by Aguilera , and praised its outro as " so astounding that it will probably be the best outro of any song to be released this summer " . They complimented the track 's " really breezily defiant and carefree " take on anti @-@ bullying lyrics , and opined : " There 's enough intense greatness in this song to launch Little Mix in at least eight countries that aren 't the UK . " The website went on to deem " Wings " the best girl group single since Girls Aloud 's " Call the Shots " ( 2007 ) .
Elizabeth Thompson of Paper magazine called it " an effervescent single with a debt to En Vogue " . Similarly , Bill Lamb from About.com likened the group 's vocal style to that of En Vogue , and deemed the track " irresistibly catchy " , concluding : " it 's impossible to dismiss the pop power of a record like ' Wings ' " . Ailbhe Malone of The Irish Times commented that " Wings " was " a stomper " reminiscent of a combination of Beyoncé 's " Get Me Bodied " and Lisa Lopes ' " The Block Party " , explaining : " Basically , this means hand claps , vocal harmonies and an X Factor 's worth of attitude . " Ian Gittins from Virgin Media described " Wings " as a " swoon of pop bliss suggestive of Sugababes rulin Tamla Motown . " James Robertson of the Daily Mirror cited the track as " exactly what made the girls so popular " , and in his opinion , Little Mix " made history " by becoming the first winner from The X Factor to release a second single that was a vast improvement on their first . Al Fox from BBC Music deemed the song " addictive " , while Vicki Newman of the Shields Gazette wrote that it " firmly cemented the girls ' signature sound " . Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle viewed it as " ridiculously catchy " , and quipped , " All hail the Spice Girls 2 @.@ 0 ! "
= = = Recognition = = =
" Wings " placed at number 21 on Popjustice 's list of The Top 45 Singles of 2012 . It was ranked at number 35 on No Ripcord 's Top 40 Tracks of 2012 list . The song was nominated for the 2012 Popjustice £ 20 Music Prize , but lost to Will Young 's " Jealousy " . The single also placed at number three on About.com 's list of Top 100 Pop Songs of 2013 . It received a nomination for Best Song to Dance To at the 2014 Radio Disney Music Awards , losing to Selena Gomez 's " Birthday " . In 2015 , " Wings " was voted the favourite girl group single by Billboard magazine readers , ahead of the Spice Girls ' " Wannabe " and T.A.T.u 's " All the Things She Said " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Wings " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart – for the week ending 8 September 2012 – with first @-@ week sales of 106 @,@ 766 copies , becoming Little Mix 's second consecutive number @-@ one single on the chart after 2011 's " Cannonball " . The single fell to number four in its second week , selling 59 @,@ 355 copies . The group became only the third winner from The X Factor ( UK ) , after Leona Lewis and Alexandra Burke , to follow up their winner 's single with a second number one single . By the end of 2012 , " Wings " had sold more than 380 @,@ 000 copies , placing at number 40 on the year @-@ end chart . It spent a total of 25 weeks on the chart . On 22 July 2013 , the single was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting sales in excess of 400 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . As of 24 July 2015 , " Wings " has sold 526 @,@ 717 units in the UK .
The track had similar success in Ireland where it bowed at number one on the Irish Singles Chart . It marked Little Mix 's second consecutive number @-@ one single and accumulated a total of 25 weeks on the chart . The song became the group 's highest @-@ charting single in Australia , debuting at number 34 and peaking at number three on the ARIA Singles Chart in its fourth week . " Wings " is among the best @-@ selling girl group singles in Australia , having been certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 210 @,@ 000 copies . The track entered at number 17 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and reached a peak of number 15 in its third week . It received a gold certification from Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) , denoting sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
" Wings " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 98 for the week ending 11 April 2013 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the single had already sold 97 @,@ 000 copies prior to its chart debut . Brian Mansfield of USA Today wrote that " Wings " was poised to become " [ 2013 's ] ' What Makes You Beautiful ' " in the US . However , it stalled at number 79 and spent a total of nine weeks on the chart . The single fared better on the US Mainstream Top 40 chart where it reached number 26 . On 16 August 2013 , " Wings " received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the song peaked at number 69 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and was certified gold by Music Canada for sales of 40 @,@ 000 copies . " Wings " became Little Mix 's highest @-@ charting single in Japan where it climbed as high as number seven on the Japan Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for " Wings " was directed by Max & Dania . The group began rehearsing choreography for the video on 3 May 2012 . It was filmed at Elstree Studios on 6 – 7 June 2012 . As a result of several re @-@ takes of the group 's dance routine , the video was shot over a 22 @-@ hour period from 04 : 00 to 02 : 00 BST . The group 's wardrobe included outfits from Topshop , American Apparel and Dr. Martens . The set used was an abandoned warehouse . The group regard " Wings " as their " first proper video " ; their previous music video for " Cannonball " was a montage of scenes from their experiences on The X Factor . The music video premiered on The Box on 25 July 2012 .
The music video follows no storyline . Each group member wears three different outfits throughout , all of which portray their individual styles . The video is introduced with a screen split into four in which each member is shown singing to the camera . They then dance separately in front of different , brightly @-@ coloured backdrops which manifest their individual personalities : a flower and gramophone record backdrop ( Edwards ) , a bow tie backdrop ( Thirlwall ) , graffiti @-@ decorated ( Pinnock ) , and boomboxes ( Nelson ) . Near the end of the video , the group are accompanied by male backing dancers for a hip hop and chair @-@ dance dance routine in front of a large Union Jack .
= = = Reception = = =
Newman opined that the visual had viral video popularity and poised " Wings " for commercial success . The video was accidentally released on the iTunes Store in the US the same day as its premiere to instant sales success , before being promptly taken down . When released in December 2012 , Gary Trust of Billboard magazine noted that the video was a consistent seller for the group ahead of the US debut of " Wings " in February 2013 .
The music video was well received among critics . Sam Lansky from MTV News called it dazzling and colourful , and cited the chair @-@ dancing sequence as his favourite since that of Britney Spears ' " Stronger " ( 2000 ) . Lansky concluded : " Who needs to be high @-@ concept when you have this much attitude ? " Similarly , Lewis Corner from Digital Spy highlighted the group 's " sassy poses , on @-@ point strutting and [ ... ] whole lot of attitude . " Rebecca Martin of Sky Living complimented their " quirky outfits " and " fun dance moves " , concluding that the video " proves [ Little Mix are ] ready to give other girlbands on the scene a serious run for their money . " Sarah Deen of Metro wrote that the visual demonstrated the group 's dancing abilities and " truly shows off their individual style " . Deen said it made sure the song " leaves a lasting impression " , describing it as " eye @-@ catching " and a " vibrant and attitude @-@ packed pop video " . Ellie Ross from The Sun deemed the video " sassy " and felt it portrayed Little Mix as " fully grown up " , noting that " they 've stepped up their game even more since [ The X Factor ] " .
= = Live performances = =
Little Mix gave their first live performance of " Wings " at T4 on the Beach on 1 July 2012 . The group promoted the single in the UK with televised performances of it on This Morning on 20 August 2012 , Red or Black ? on 25 August 2012 , and Daybreak on 3 September 2012 . They also performed the song along with " DNA " at the BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards on 7 October 2012 . In Australia , Little Mix promoted " Wings " with live performances of the track on Sunrise and the fourth series of The X Factor ( Australia ) on 30 October 2012 . In the US , the group performed the song on Good Morning America on 7 June 2013 , and twice on The Today Show ( 17 June 2014 and 19 August 2015 ) .
" Wings " was the sixth song , and encore reprise on the setlist for Little Mix 's 2013 DNA Tour . The group sported 1990s style outfits for the renditions with each member wearing baggy jeans and personalised crop tops with their names printed in graffiti font . For 2014 's The Salute Tour , " Wings " was also the setlist 's encore closer . Performances of the song ended in confetti showers .
= = Usage in the media = =
English pop @-@ rock band Scouting for Girls performed a cover of the song for BBC 's Live Lounge on 30 August 2012 . On 1 May 2013 , American Idol ( season 12 ) finalists Candice Glover , Angie Miller , Kree Harrison and Amber Holcomb performed " Wings " during the quarterfinal round of the live shows . The dance troupe of Lancaster , Lancashire performed a routine to " Wings " joint appearance with the dance troupe of York in the 2013 Roses Tournament . Many of the group 's fans designed tattoos based on the song 's inspirational message . Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock later inked a tattoo featuring a musical note and four butterflies as a tribute to Little Mix fans and " Wings " . The song was performed by Jessica Sanchez in the fourth @-@ season finale of Glee , " All or Nothing " , which aired on 9 May 2013 . " Wings " was featured twice during the 21st episode of the third season of Hawaii Five @-@ 0 .
It was also featured in Baggage Claim ( film ) movie in 2013 . In 2014 , the song was covered on the television series Rising Star by contestant Alice Lee .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album liner notes of DNA , and the single liner notes of " Wings " .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= David Clyde =
David Eugene Clyde ( born April 22 , 1955 in Kansas City , Kansas ) is a former left @-@ handed Major League Baseball pitcher who played for five seasons with the Texas Rangers ( 1973 – 1975 ) and Cleveland Indians ( 1978 – 1979 ) . He is noted for his once promising baseball career , which ended at age 26 because of arm and shoulder injuries .
Billed as the next Sandy Koufax , Clyde had a stellar high school career at Westchester High School . He was drafted with the first overall pick in the 1973 Major League Baseball draft . The Rangers planned to have Clyde pitch his first two professional games in the major leagues before moving him down to the minor leagues , but Rangers owner Bob Short decided to keep him in the roster for monetary purposes , where he had a 5 @.@ 01 earned run average in 18 starts . Journalists criticized the Rangers for promoting Clyde too soon , and after an uneventful 1974 campaign , he developed shoulder trouble and was sent down to the minor leagues in 1975 , where he pitched three seasons . He was traded to the Cleveland Indians in 1978 , and played two seasons before being demoted . Clyde attempted to make a comeback with the Houston Astros but was unsuccessful .
Clyde 's career made him the " poster @-@ boy " for bringing up young players prematurely and dealing with arm injuries . He was named by journalist Randy Galloway as among the worst cases of " mishandling " a young player in baseball history . He is considered by many as a savior of the Texas Rangers franchise because of the significant attendance boost that Clyde 's hype brought to the team , preventing it from a possible bankruptcy or American League takeover .
= = Early life = =
The son of a telephone executive , Clyde was born in Kansas City , Kansas , the oldest of four brothers . After living for a time in New Jersey , his family moved to Houston , Texas in 1969 . He played football and baseball at Westchester High School in Houston where he became known as a perfectionist and was an excellent student . During his senior year at Westchester , Clyde had a stellar record of 18 – 0 , giving up only three earned runs in 148 innings pitched , while pitching five no @-@ hitters and setting 14 national high school records . His dominance at the high school level attracted the attention of many MLB team scouts , many of whom billed Clyde as the " next Sandy Koufax " and others called him the " best pitching prospect they had ever seen " .
Clyde was praised by national publications such as Sports Illustrated and Newsweek prior to the 1973 MLB draft , and was the consensus among scouts as the best player available in the draft . That year the Texas Rangers held the first overall pick , having the worst record in baseball the previous year at 54 – 100 . He was the first player selected in the 1973 draft by the Rangers . He received a $ 125 @,@ 000 ( $ 666 @,@ 323 today ) signing bonus , the highest bonus ever given to a draft pick at the time , and a free college education . After signing his contract , Clyde stated that his career goal was to " become the greatest pitcher ever " .
= = Major League career = =
Prior to the draft , the Texas Rangers held the second lowest attendance in the American League , ahead of only the Cleveland Indians despite having Baseball Hall of Famer Ted Williams as manager at one point . They had moved from Washington , D.C. , two years prior , and owner Bob Short expanded Arlington Stadium an extra 20 @,@ 000 seats . Short was looking for some sort of way to boost attendance , and found it using fellow Texas native Clyde . When Clyde agreed to sign his rookie contract , part of the deal was to make his first two professional starts with the Rangers at their home field before heading to the minors to develop .
Twenty days after pitching his last high school game , Clyde won his first ever Major League start before over 35 @,@ 000 fans in Arlington Stadium , the first sellout in stadium history . After a poor start in which he walked the first two batters he faced , he settled down , pitched five innings , giving up only one hit ( a home run to Mike Adams ) while striking out eight batters in a 4 – 3 victory over the Minnesota Twins . Clyde later called it his most memorable game in his Major League career .
Clyde then pitched well in his second start against the Chicago White Sox , pitching six innings before a blister in his finger forced him out of the game . However , with his performance in the two starts , the Rangers dropped all plans to send him to the minors . The youngest player to play in a major league game in 1973 , Clyde pitched a total of eighteen games ( all starts ) that season , finishing with a record of 4 – 8 , with a 5 @.@ 01 earned run average ( ERA ) . Questioned about the difference between high school or professional baseball , Clyde stated that MLB hitters " see the ball better , thus they make contact more often " .
Clyde began 1974 season with a 3 – 0 record , but became embroiled in controversy following a dispute between new manager Billy Martin and general manager Bobby Brown . Martin and Brown argued about what was the best way on handling Clyde 's future development , which led to Brown 's resignation and forced Clyde caused to miss a month before remaining in the Rangers roster for the rest of the year . He played in 28 games ( 21 starts ) and finished with 3 – 9 record , and a 4 @.@ 38 ERA . He started one game in 1975 ( a loss ) before injuring his shoulder and was demoted to the Pittsfield Rangers of the Eastern League . He stayed in the minors for three seasons , having a shoulder operation in 1976 . The Rangers organization lost so much faith in Clyde 's ability that he was left unprotected in the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft , but was not chosen . He played for the Sacramento Solons in 1976 , and the Tucson Toros of the Pacific Coast League in 1977 where he had 5 – 7 record with a 5 @.@ 84 ERA . When the season ended , the Rangers traded Clyde and veteran Willie Horton to the Cleveland Indians for Tom Buskey and John Lowenstein on February 28 , 1978 .
Clyde started for the Indians that year , playing in 28 games and finished with a record of 8 – 11 , with a 4 @.@ 28 ERA and 83 strikeouts . In his first start with the Indians , he gave up four hits in a 3 – 2 complete game victory against the Oakland Athletics . Clyde also finished fourth in the American League with 11 wild pitches . He pitched in nine games with the Indians in 1979 ( 3 – 4 , 5 @.@ 91 ERA ) before tearing his rotator cuff and was demoted to the minors , playing in what would be his last Major League game on August 7 , 1979 . He was traded back to the Rangers after the 1979 season , but injured his shoulder for the second time , and was released prior to the 1980 season with the Rangers claiming that Clyde was " damaged goods " .
In 1981 , Clyde tried to restart his career with the Houston Astros , but he spent the season in the minor leagues splitting time between the Columbus Astros and Tucson Toros . He dominated for Columbus , having a 6 – 0 record with a 0 @.@ 76 ERA , but struggled with the Toros , having a 6 @.@ 85 earned run average . Clyde retired from professional baseball on February 5 , 1982 , while participating in an instructional league .
In his five @-@ year career , Clyde had an 18 – 33 win – loss record with a 4 @.@ 63 earned run average and 228 strikeouts in 84 games pitched .
= = Legacy = =
Named a " sensation " , " phenomenon " , or other hyped up words in his first two years in the league , most of Clyde 's troubles were attributed to the rush to get him into the majors before he was ready . This was due to the fact the Rangers finances were weak at the time . The Rangers averaged a near @-@ capacity crowd in Clyde 's six home starts , but 6 @,@ 000 fans for the other 75 home dates . Prior to Clyde 's debut , the highest crowd in Rangers history was 24 @,@ 000 . At the end of the 1973 season , Clyde drew nearly a third of all fans in attendance for Rangers home games throughout the year . According to journalist Randy Galloway , Clyde put baseball on the map in Dallas , as the city started to get interested on the sport , even after Clyde 's inconsistency forced him out of the league . Longtime Rangers coach Jackie Moore agreed with Galloway , stating that Clyde and Corbett buying the team " went a long way toward saving the franchise " . Using Clyde success of bringing attendance up as an example , Short sold the Rangers to Brad Corbett in 1974 , which prevented the American League from taking over the team , thus potentially saving the franchise .
Clyde 's unsuccessful career made him the " poster @-@ boy " for bringing up young players . In his autobiography White Rat his first big league manager , future Baseball Hall of Famer Whitey Herzog stated that he was often forced to leave Clyde in the game much longer than usual because fans wanted to see the 18 @-@ year @-@ old " phenom " pitch . It led to Clyde 's arm burning out at an early age , Herzog argued . In a 2003 interview with The New York Times , Herzog criticized Bob Short , stating that " ( Short ) sure wasn 't going to send him down without getting some people in the ballpark to see him . The kid should have gone to the minors after two starts . " He also said that Clyde " was one of the best young left @-@ handed pitchers I 've ever seen . " Former teammate Tom Grieve said that keeping Clyde in the roster was the " dumbest thing you could ever do to a high school pitcher . "
In a 2003 interview with the Associated Press , Clyde looked back on his career , recognizing that he was rushed too early , calling his career " a classic case not to handle a young talent " , and stating that his case had a " black side " to it but that he made a contribution to the sport . One week before the thirtieth anniversary of his first career game , Clyde threw the ceremonial first pitch to his ex – teammate Ken Suarez during an Rangers @-@ Astros game .
= = Personal life = =
Following the problems Clyde had during the 1974 and 1975 seasons , he became dependent on alcohol , which he later called " the lowest point of my life " . He had two failed marriages , the first one with his high school sweetheart , before settling down with his third wife , Robin , having two boys , Ryan and Reed , and a daughter , Lauren . He worked in his father @-@ in @-@ law 's lumber business in Tomball , Texas for 20 years , which he called one of the best periods of his life , giving him a " peace of mind " . He retired in 2003 as vice president of the company and worked as a coach for a local youth baseball team . He is now a caregiver for his elderly father .
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= Matt Hardy =
Matthew Moore " Matt " Hardy ( born September 23 , 1974 ) is an American professional wrestler and wrestling promoter currently signed with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . He is best known for his work in the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , later renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) .
Matt ( with brother Jeff ) gained notoriety in WWE 's tag team division due to their participation in Tables , Ladders , and Chairs matches . As a tag team wrestler , Hardy is a nine @-@ time world tag team champion , having held six World Tag Team Championships , one WWE Tag Team Championship , one WCW Tag Team Championship , and one TNA World Tag Team Championship .
Apart from his success as a tag team wrestler , Hardy is a three @-@ time world champion , having held the TNA World Heavyweight Championship twice and the ECW Championship once . He has also won the WWE 's United States , European , Hardcore , and Cruiserweight Championships once each . All totaled , Hardy has won 16 total championships between WWE and TNA .
Hardy has also won numerous championships in independent promotions , including OMEGA Championship Wrestling , where he is the founder , co @-@ owner , and current Heavyweight Champion in his second reign .
= = Early life = =
Son to Gilbert and Ruby Moore Hardy , he is the older brother of Jeff Hardy . Their mother died of brain cancer in 1987 . Hardy played baseball as a child and throughout high school , but had stopped by his senior year . He also played football , either as a linebacker or a defensive end . Hardy was a good student at Union Pines High School in North Carolina , and was a nominee for the " Morehead Award " , a scholarship to any university in North Carolina . Hardy attended University of North Carolina at Charlotte , where he majored in engineering ; after a year , however , he dropped out due to his father being ill . He then attended Sandhills Community College in Pinehurst to gain his associate degree .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1992 – 1998 ) = = =
Hardy , along with his brother Jeff and friends , started their own federation , the Trampoline Wrestling Federation ( TWF ) and mimicked the moves they saw on television . They later created their own wrestling promotion , OMEGA Championship Wrestling , in which Hardy competed under the name High Voltage . Shortly after Hardy sent in a tape for the World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) Amateur Challenge using the ring name High Voltage , a tag team named High Voltage began competing in WCW , causing Hardy to change his name to Surge . A few years later , it was revealed to him by Chris Kanyon that the tape had been kept in the WCW Power Plant , watched multiple times , and that the name High Voltage was blatantly stolen from it .
The Hardys also wrestled for several other North Carolina @-@ based wrestling organizations and adapted a number of alter @-@ egos . As The Wolverine , Hardy captured the New England Wrestling Alliance ( NEWA ) Championship in May 1994 . As High Voltage , he teamed with Venom to claim the New Frontier Wrestling Association ( NFWA ) Tag Team Championship in March 1995 . A month later , High Voltage defeated the Willow for the NFWA Championship .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = The Hardy Boyz ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = = =
Hardy worked as a jobber for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) from 1994 up until he signed a full @-@ time contract . His first WWF match was against Nikolai Volkoff on May 23 , 1994 , which he lost by submission He wrestled sporadically throughout 1994 in the WWF , losing matches against Crush , Razor Ramon , Hakushi , Owen Hart and the imposter Undertaker . Hardy continued wrestling with the WWF sporadically , including matches against Hunter Hearst Helmsley and " The Ringmaster " Steve Austin . It was not until 1998 , however , ( at the height of the attitude era ) that the Hardy brothers were given full @-@ time WWF contracts , and sent to train with former wrestler Dory Funk , Jr . The Hardy Boyz used a cruiserweight , fast @-@ paced high flying style in their matches , often leaping from great heights to do damage to their opponents ( and themselves in the process ) . Although Jeff was better known for his extreme moves , Hardy was a prodigious high @-@ flier himself . In 1999 , while feuding with Edge and Christian , the duo briefly picked up Michael Hayes as a manager . On July 5 , they won their first WWF Tag team Championship by defeating The Acolytes , but lost it to them a month later . However , they soon dumped Hayes , and joined the short lived stable The New Brood with Gangrel . After breaking away from Gangrel , Hardy and Jeff were briefly managed by Terri Runnels , after they won her services in the first ever tag team ladder match .
In 2000 , the Hardy Boyz found a new manager in their real @-@ life friend Lita . Together , the three became known as " Team Xtreme " . Throughout 2000 they continued feuding with Edge and Christian , defeating them for the WWF Tag Team Championship on two occasions . Hardy won the Hardcore Championship on April 24 , 2000 , on Raw Is War , by defeating Crash Holly , but lost it back to Holly three days later on SmackDown ! . At SummerSlam , The Hardy Boyz competed in the first ever Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match , for the WWF Tag Team , Championship against The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian , but were unsuccessful .
= = = = Version 1 ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = = =
In 2001 , after Jeff 's Intercontinental Championship run , Hardy was given a singles championship push . He won the European Championship on SmackDown ! four days before Backlash . Hardy believes that he was pushed to win the title because of Jeff winning the Intercontinental Championship , and because of the effort he put into his previous storyline with Triple H and Stone Cold Steve Austin . He became the second @-@ longest reigning European Champion in history and the longest @-@ reigning American @-@ born European Champion .
Throughout the year , the Hardy Boyz continued to win as a tag team , winning the WWF Tag Team Titles two more times , and the WCW Tag Team Championship during the Invasion . By the end of the year , the Hardy Boyz began a storyline where they were having trouble co @-@ existing . This culminated in a match between the two , with Lita as the guest referee , at the Vengeance pay @-@ per @-@ view , which Jeff won .
At the beginning of 2002 , it seemed Team Xtreme had patched things up . After the Brand Extension , however , Hardy was relegated to Heat while Jeff wrestled on the main show , Raw . On the August 12 episode of Raw , Hardy turned against Jeff during Jeff 's match against Rob Van Dam , because Hardy was frustrated at not receiving a match against Van Dam for the number one contendership for the Intercontinental Championship , making Hardy a heel in the process . A short time later , Hardy joined the SmackDown ! roster . On the October 3 episode of the show , Hardy took advantage of a run @-@ in from Brock Lesnar to defeat The Undertaker in a falls count anywhere match .
Hardy began dubbing himself " Matt Hardy : Version 1 " , complete with a " version 1 " hand signal . Along with his MF 'er ( Mattitude Follower ) Shannon Moore in his corner , 2003 began with Hardy frantically trying to lose weight to get under the 215 lb ( 98 kg ) weight limit to compete for the Cruiserweight Championship . After just barely making weight , Hardy defeated Billy Kidman at No Way Out to win the Cruiserweight title . At WrestleMania XIX , he successfully defended it against Rey Mysterio . The Mattitude faction then expanded to include Crash Holly as Moore 's " Moore @-@ on " ( follower ) . He later disbanded the group in November and returned to Raw in order to be able to travel and work with his then girlfriend Lita , who just returned from an injury . On his first night back , he turned on Lita in storyline after teasing a proposal to her . Hardy spent little time on Raw until he turned into a fan favorite after saving Lita from getting attacked by Kane in April 2004 . After losing a match against Kane at Summerslam , Lita was forced to marry Kane on the August 23 episode of Raw , Hardy was chokeslamed off the stage by Kane . Hardy then spent almost a year off from wrestling due to a severe knee injury .
= = = = Release and sporadic appearances ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
Along with his friend Rhyno , Hardy was released by WWE on April 11 , 2005 . Edge and Lita received jeers from the crowds at WWE events , often resulting in chants , " You screwed Matt " , and , " We want Matt " . Paul Heyman , in a " shoot " promo , mocked Edge for his actions at One Night Stand . Lita , for the first time in over five years , became a heel as a result of the affair becoming public knowledge . Fans began a petition on the internet , wanting WWE to re @-@ sign Hardy , and amassed over fifteen thousand signatures .
Hardy released two character promotional vignettes , that he was planning to use before he was offered a new contract by WWE . Hardy called himself The Angelic Diablo with the tagline " the scar will become a symbol " in reference to the way in which he had been treated by Lita and WWE . On the June 20 episode of Raw , during the storyline wedding of Edge and Lita , Hardy 's entrance music and video were played when the priest asked if anyone had a reason why Edge and Lita should not be wed . On the July 11 episode of Raw , Hardy made his return , attacking Edge as he made his way to the ring . On the July 13 episode of WWE 's webcast Byte This ! , which featured Lita as its guest , one of the callers was Hardy himself .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2005 ) = = =
Hardy appeared at a scheduled Ring of Honor ( ROH ) event on July 16 , 2005 , in Woodbridge , Connecticut where he defeated Christopher Daniels via submission . Hardy also cut a brief promo where he continued in full " worked shoot " mode , attacking WWE and John Laurinaitis . Following his official return to WWE , Hardy was met with backlash following a match with Homicide from the fans at a subsequent ROH event , which Hardy won . The next day at his final ROH appearance , he lost to Roderick Strong .
= = = Return to WWE = = =
= = = = Feud with Edge ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
On July 11 , 2005 , Hardy posted on his website that he was finally " free " , that wrestling fans had not seen the last of him , and that he had a surprise for the fans who had supported him . That night on Raw , Hardy attacked Edge backstage and again later during Edge 's match with Kane , leaving the commentators speechless . Before being escorted out of the building by security , Hardy stated that Edge and Lita would pay for their actions and told fans that they could see him at Ring of Honor while security officials and event staff were trying to restrain him . Hardy also called out Johnny Ace as security had him in handcuffs taking him out of the arena . This caused an uproar amongst fans , who were confused and wondered if the whole thing was a work or a shoot . Similar occurrences repeated during the following two weeks .
On the August 1 episode of Raw , Vince McMahon officially announced Hardy 's return to WWE , adding that Hardy would face Edge at SummerSlam . Hardy made his in @-@ ring return , defeating Snitsky on the August 8 Raw . Seconds after the victory , Hardy was attacked by Edge , and as he was being carried backstage , Matt counterattacked Edge in the locker room . On August 21 at SummerSlam , their match came to a premature end when Edge dropped Hardy onto the top of a ring post , causing him to bleed heavily . The referee ended the match on the grounds that Hardy could not continue , and Edge was declared the winner . After SummerSlam , the two continued fighting on Raw , including a Street Fight that resulted in Hardy performing a Side Effect on Edge off the entrance stage and into electrical equipment below . At Unforgiven , Edge faced Hardy in a steel cage match . Hardy caught an interfering Lita with the Twist of Fate and won the match with a leg @-@ drop off the top of the cage . Hardy and Edge faced each other at WWE Homecoming in a Loser Leaves Raw ladder match . Edge 's briefcase holding the contract for his WWE World title shot was suspended above the ring . The winner of the match received the contract and the loser was forced to leave Raw . After a contentious match , Edge tied Hardy 's arms in the ropes , and Lita trapped Hardy in a crucifix hold , leaving Hardy only able to watch Edge win . When the match ended , Edge and Lita gloated over the victory , but Hardy took it in stride and left the arena . With his defeat at the hands of Edge , Hardy was moved to the SmackDown ! brand where he re @-@ debuted with a win over Simon Dean on October 21 in Reno , Nevada . One week later , Hardy won the fan vote to represent Team Smackdown ( alongside the second @-@ highest vote @-@ getter Rey Mysterio ) to challenge team RAW ( Edge and Chris Masters ) at Taboo Tuesday . Edge , however , refused to wrestle and sent Snitsky in place of him in the match , which Hardy and Mysterio would win .
Back on SmackDown ! , Hardy started an angle with MNM ( Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury ) and their manager Melina when Melina approached Hardy , seemingly wanting Hardy to join with her team . Hardy refused the offer , which led to him facing the tag team on several occasions with a variety of partners . One of his partners , Road Warrior Animal , brutally attacked him after they were defeated – sick of " pulling all the weight in tag teams " . Animal , who was renamed The Road Warrior , and Hardy feuded for a while after this , with Hardy picking up several wins over the veteran , including a qualifying match for a spot in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 22 . The match would be won by Rob Van Dam .
Hardy next competed in the SmackDown ! King of the Ring tournament , losing to eventual winner Booker T in the opening round thanks to a low blow and distraction from Sharmell . Hardy also became the first man to defeat Mr. Kennedy in singles ' competition . On July 25 , after the SmackDown ! taping , Hardy was taken out of action after doctors found the remnants of the staph infection that had plagued him the previous year . He was sidelined until August 25 while he healed . Hardy made a surprise appearance backstage at Unforgiven after Jeff 's match against Johnny Nitro . Lita joined the two in the segment , making this the first time the three had been seen together on WWE television since February 2003 . Hardy then began a rivalry against Gregory Helms which saw both winning over each other time and time again . Then at No Mercy , in both of their hometown , Cameron , North Carolina , Hardy beat Helms . The two met again one more time at Survivor Series , where Hardy 's team won in a clean sweep .
= = = = The Hardy Boyz reunion ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
On the November 21 , 2006 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Hardy and Jeff competed in a match together for the first time in almost five years , defeating The Full Blooded Italians . At Survivor Series , the Hardy Boyz competed with CM Punk and D @-@ Generation X ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) as part of Team DX versus Team Rated @-@ RKO ( which included Edge , Randy Orton , Johnny Nitro with Melina , Mike Knox , and Gregory Helms ) in a traditional Survivor Series match . Team DX won in a clean sweep , last eliminating Orton . At December to Dismember , the Hardy Boyz issued an open challenge to any tag team who wanted to face them . MNM answered their challenge by reuniting at December to Dismember , a match that the Hardy Boyz would be victorious in . At Armageddon , Hardy and Jeff competed against Paul London and Brian Kendrick , MNM , and Dave Taylor and William Regal in a Ladder match for the WWE Tag Team Championship but lost . Subsequently , he and Jeff feuded with Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro after the legitimate incident where they injured Mercury 's face at Armageddon 2006 . This led to a bitter long term rivalry , and at the 2007 Royal Rumble , Hardy and Jeff defeated MNM . Mercury and Hardy continued to feud until Mercury was released from WWE in March . Before Mercury 's release , however , Hardy defeated him to earn a spot in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 23 , which was ultimately won by Mr. Kennedy .
The night after WrestleMania on Raw , the Hardys competed in a 10 @-@ team battle royal for the World Tag Team Championship . They won the titles for the sixth time from then WWE Champion John Cena and Shawn Michaels after last eliminating Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . After briefly feuding with Cade and Murdoch , the Hardys retained their World Tag Team Championship in their first title defense at Backlash . The Hardy Boyz would also successfully retained their titles at Judgment Day . One month later at One Night Stand , they defeated The World 's Greatest Tag Team to retain the titles in a Ladder match . The following night on Raw , Vince McMahon demanded that The Hardys once again defend their championships against Cade and Murdoch . The Hardys were defeated after Murdoch pushed Jeff 's foot off the bottom rope during Cade 's pinfall , causing the three count to continue . They invoked their rematch clause against Cade and Murdoch at Vengeance : Night of Champions , but were unsuccessful .
= = = = Feud with MVP ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
On the July 6 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! , Hardy won a non @-@ title match against United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) , which resulted in a feud between the two . Hardy was unsuccessful to defeat MVP at The Great American Bash for the United States Championship . MVP then claimed that he was " better than Hardy at everything " , which led to a series of contests between Hardy and MVP , such as a basketball game , an arm wrestling contest , and a chess match which MVP " sneezed " on and ruined when Hardy put him in check . MVP challenged Hardy to a boxing match at Saturday Night 's Main Event , however MVP was legitimately diagnosed with the heart condition Wolff @-@ Parkinson @-@ White syndrome . Since MVP was unable to compete , Hardy faced his replacement , former world champion boxer , Evander Holyfield . The match ended in a no contest after MVP entered the ring to verbally abuse Holyfield , who then knocked him out . MVP also challenged Hardy to a beer drinking contest at SummerSlam , but as revenge for what happened at SNME , Hardy allowed Stone Cold Steve Austin to replace him ; Austin simply performed a stunner on MVP then kept drinking .
After a segment involving MVP inadvertently choosing Hardy as his tag @-@ team partner , Theodore Long promptly set up a match against Deuce ' n Domino for the WWE Tag Team Championship which the duo were able to win , therefore setting up Hardy 's first reign as WWE Tag Team Champion . It was the first time Hardy held a tag team championship with someone other than his brother . Hardy and MVP retained the titles at Unforgiven in a rematch against former champions Deuce ' n Domino . Hardy was scheduled to face MVP at Cyber Sunday , but due to a head injury sustained on the previous episode of SmackDown ! , he was not medically cleared to compete . As part of the storyline , Hardy continually asked MVP for a shot at the United States Championship but MVP refused stating that he was more focused on the Tag Team Championship . During this time , MVP teased a babyface turn as he seemingly got along better with Hardy during matches , even when they were on opposite sides .
On the November 16 episode of SmackDown ! , Hardy and MVP dropped the WWE Tag Team Championship to John Morrison and The Miz . Despite the fact that Hardy was hurt , MVP immediately invoked the rematch clause . After the rematch , in which Hardy was forced to tap out , MVP attacked Hardy , repeatedly targeting his knee . It was later confirmed by WWE.com that Hardy had suffered an injury at his former partner 's hands and that he might not be able to compete at Survivor Series . But his team however won the match despite his absence . Despite his absence at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , his team was able to win the match . On November 21 , WWE 's official website reported that Hardy underwent an emergency appendectomy in Tampa , Florida . A CAT scan revealed an inflamed appendix after Hardy was feeling extreme pain . Later surgery revealed that his appendix had already burst . According to Hardy himself , on December 8 doctors back in North Carolina found an abscess of infection that had not been caught , and he had it drained , spending an additional several days in the hospital . Hardy made an appearance at the December 31 episode of Raw supporting his brother Jeff . To further Jeff 's storyline with Randy Orton , however , Hardy was attacked by Orton . Hardy made his return at a live event in Muncie , Indiana on March 1 , 2008 .
On March 30 , 2008 , at WrestleMania XXIV , Hardy made his televised return to WWE programming in the Money in the Bank ladder match by cutting through the crowd , and attacking MVP to prevent him from winning the match . He made his official in @-@ ring return the next night on Raw , losing a singles match to WWE Champion Randy Orton . On the April 4 episode of SmackDown ! , Hardy faced MVP in a non @-@ title match , which he won , re @-@ igniting their storyline rivalry . On April 27 , 2008 , Hardy defeated MVP to win the United States Championship at Backlash , and successfully retained his title against MVP five days later on Smackdown .
After some sporadic feuds for the title , Hardy was drafted to the ECW brand on the June 23 , 2008 episode of Raw during the 2008 WWE Draft , in the process making the United States Championship exclusive to ECW . After a successful title defense against Chavo Guerrero at Night of Champions , he dropped the United States Championship to Shelton Benjamin at the Great American Bash pay @-@ per @-@ view on July 20 , 2008 , which meant that the title returned to SmackDown .
= = = = ECW Champion ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
On the July 22 episode of ECW , Hardy became the number one contender to Mark Henry 's ECW Championship after defeating John Morrison , The Miz and Finlay in a fatal four @-@ way match . He won the title match at SummerSlam by disqualification due to interference from Henry 's manager , Tony Atlas , thus he failed to win the title . Due to the ending of the pay @-@ per @-@ view match , Hardy received a rematch for the title on the next episode of ECW , but again failed to win the title when Henry pinned him after a distraction by Atlas .
At Unforgiven , Hardy won the ECW Championship during the Championship scramble match , defeating then @-@ champion Henry , The Miz , Finlay and Chavo Guerrero by pinning the Miz with three minutes left , thus making Hardy the first person in history to win a championship scramble in WWE , and marking his first world heavyweight championship win . He continued to feud with Henry until No Mercy , where Hardy successfully retained the title . After successful defenses against Henry , Chavo , Finlay , and Evan Bourne , Hardy lost the title to Jack Swagger on the January 13 , 2009 episode of ECW , which was taped on January 12 .
= = = = Feud with Jeff and departure ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
At the 2009 Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view , after losing an ECW Championship rematch to Swagger , Hardy turned on his brother when he hit Jeff with a steel chair , allowing Edge to win the WWE Championship turning him heel for the first time since 2004 . On the January 27 , 2009 episode of ECW , it was announced by General Manager Theodore Long that Hardy had requested , and been granted , his release from ECW , and had re @-@ signed with the SmackDown brand . On the January 30 episode of SmackDown ! , Hardy explained that his actions at the Royal Rumble were due to him being fed up with " sharing the spotlight " with Jeff and taking care of Jeff when he was nothing more than a " self @-@ destructive screw @-@ up " and a " constant mistake " , and that , from that point onward , he no longer considered Jeff as a partner or sibling . As part of the buildup to this feud , Hardy implied that he was responsible for all of Jeff 's accidents leading back to November , including an assault in a hotel stairwell that prevented him from appearing at Survivor Series , an automobile accident and a pyrotechnics accident , in an attempt to stop Jeff holding the WWE Championship , and , on the March 3 episode of SmackDown ! , he also implied that he was responsible for the fire that burned down Jeff 's house , going so far as to reveal that he had in his possession a dog collar that supposedly belonged to Jeff 's dog , who perished in the fire , that he supposedly salvaged from the wreckage of the house , which provoked Jeff into viciously attacking him . At WrestleMania XXV , Hardy defeated Jeff in an Extreme Rules match , and in a stretcher match on the following episode of SmackDown .
On the April 13 episode of Raw , Hardy was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the WWE draft . Two weeks later , in a rematch from WrestleMania , Hardy lost to Jeff in an " I Quit " match at Backlash , in which he broke his hand . Hardy continued to wrestle with his hand in a cast , incorporating it into his persona and claiming that he was wrestling under protest . He reignited his feud with MVP on Raw again for the United States Championship ; this time with Hardy as the heel . He also formed a tag team with William Regal , and the two acted as henchmen for General Manager Vickie Guerrero . At the June 22 taping of WWE Superstars , Hardy suffered yet another injury , when his intestines " exploded " through his abdominal wall , during a triple threat match against MVP and Kofi Kingston . Hardy had suffered a tear in his abdominal muscle two years previously , but had not needed surgery until it worsened , and became a danger to his health .
He was then traded to the SmackDown brand on June 29 , and underwent surgery for the torn abdominal muscle on July 2 . He made his return on the August 7 episode of SmackDown as the special guest referee in the World Heavyweight Championship match between his brother , Jeff , and CM Punk , and helped Jeff retain the championship by counting the pinfall . The following week Hardy saved his brother when CM Punk and The Hart Dynasty attacked both Jeff and John Morrison , turning into a fan favorite again . On the August 21 episode of SmackDown , after apologizing for his past actions towards Jeff , he had his first match back after his injury when he teamed with Jeff and John Morrison to defeat The Hart Dynasty and CM Punk , when Matt pinned Punk .
In early 2010 , Hardy began an on @-@ screen relationship with Maria ; but was brief and the relationship ended when Maria was released from her WWE contract . On the February 16 , 2010 episode of ECW , it was announced that Hardy would be mentoring Justin Gabriel on NXT . On the March 5 episode of SmackDown , Hardy qualified for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXVI by defeating Drew McIntyre , but was unsuccessful at WrestleMania , as the match was won by Jack Swagger . Hardy was suspended by Vince McMahon because he attacked Drew McIntyre after McIntyre lost to Kofi Kingston at Over the Limit . He was able to get his revenge on McIntyre during the Viewer 's Choice episode of Raw when chosen as the opponent for McIntyre , with Theodore Long stating that Hardy was suspended from SmackDown , but not from Raw . On the following episode of SmackDown , however , Vickie Guerrero announced that , per orders of Vince McMahon , Hardy had been suspended from all WWE programming . However , at Fatal 4 @-@ Way , Hardy prevented McIntyre from regaining the Intercontinental Championship , thus continuing their feud . On the following edition of SmackDown he was reinstated by General Manager Theodore Long and had a match with McIntyre which Hardy won . After the match , it was announced that McIntyre 's visa had legitimately expired and was sent back to Scotland , thus ending their feud . Hardy would then qualify for the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view 's Smackdown ladder match , which would be won by Kane .
On September 12 , WWE confirmed they had sent Hardy home from a European tour . Following this , Hardy began posting videos on his YouTube channel expressing his disinterest in the WWE product and insisting that he wanted to be released from the company . On October 15 , 2010 , WWE announced that Hardy had been released from his contract . Hardy later stated that his release had been in effect two weeks before WWE made the announcement .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2011 ) = = =
On January 9 , 2011 , Hardy made his debut for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) at the Genesis pay @-@ per @-@ view , as part of the heel stable Immortal . He was the surprise opponent for Rob Van Dam , and defeated him to prevent Van Dam from receiving a match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , held by Hardy 's brother Jeff . In the main event , Hardy attempted to interfere in Jeff 's World Heavyweight Championship match with Mr. Anderson , but was stopped by Van Dam , which led to Jeff losing both the match and the championship . On the January 13 episode of Impact ! , the Hardy Boyz reunited to defeat Anderson and Van Dam in a tag team match , following interference from Beer Money , Inc .. Two weeks later , Hardy suffered his first loss in TNA when he was defeated by Mr. Anderson . On February 13 at Against All Odds , Rob Van Dam defeated Hardy in a rematch .
On the following episode of Impact ! , Hardy , along with the rest of Immortal and Ric Flair , betrayed Fortune . On March 13 at Victory Road Hardy was defeated by Flair 's previous protégé , A.J. Styles . On April 17 at Lockdown , Immortal , represented by Hardy , Abyss , Bully Ray and Ric Flair , was defeated by Fortune members James Storm , Kazarian and Robert Roode and Christopher Daniels , who replaced an injured A.J. Styles , in a Lethal Lockdown match . On the April 21 episode of Impact ! , Hardy faced Sting for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , Hardy 's first World Title match in TNA , but was defeated . The following month Hardy was granted a shot at the TNA World Tag Team Championship against James Storm and Robert Roode , Beer Money , Inc . While the champions looked to defend the title against the Hardy Boyz , Matt instead introduced the returning Chris Harris , Storm 's old tag team partner , as his partner for the title match . The match took place at Sacrifice , where Storm and Roode retained their title .
On June 20 , Hardy announced that he was taking a few weeks off from TNA . The following day , it was reported that the promotion had actually suspended Hardy . On August 20 , Hardy was released from TNA following a DUI arrest that occurred earlier that same day .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2011 – present ) = = =
Hardy announced his retirement from full @-@ time professional wrestling due to injuries on September 1 , 2011 . He issued a challenge to his long @-@ time rival MVP , who was wrestling in Japan at the time , to one final match at " Crossfire Live ! " in Nashville . The event was held May 19 , 2012 and benefited the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation . Hardy won the match .
Throughout 2012 , Hardy would wrestle sporadically on the independent circuit , working with promotions such as Mid Atlantic Championship Wrestling , Pro Wrestling Syndicate and Northeast Wrestling . On September 22 , 2012 , Hardy defeated Sami Callihan at Northeast Wrestling 's Under the Stars event . On October 5 , Hardy was defeated by Kevin Steen at Pro Wrestling Xperience 's An Evil Twist of Fate . On October 19 , Hardy was defeated by Eddie Edwards at Scuared Circle Wrestling 's V2 event . On October 26 , Hardy defeated Chris Masters in the Big Time Wrestling 16º Anniversary Show . On November 11 , Hardy , as the masked wrestler Rhaway Reaper , defeated the Pro Wrestling Syndicate Kevin Matthews , winning the championship . On November 17 in the main event of Extreme Rising Remember November iPPV Hardy wrestled Shane Douglas to a no contest after Luke Hawx interfered and pushed Hardy off the top rope to the floor , legitimately injuring him . At Extreme Rising 's third iPPV on December , 29 Hardy defeated Sabu . On February 9 , 2013 Hardy lost the Pro Wrestling Syndicate Championship back to Kevin Matthews .
On January 15 , 2013 , Hardy announced the return of OMEGA in Durham , North Carolina the main event featured Matt Hardy , Jeff Hardy , James Storm and Shane " Hurricane " Helms defeating Lodi , Gunner , Steve Corino and C.W. Anderson . On February 16 , at Family Wrestling Entertainment 's No Limit , Hardy wrestled a TLC match for the FWE Heavyweight Championship against the champion Carlito and Tommy Dreamer , but he was defeated . On October 12 , Hardy defeated C.W. Anderson to advance in the finals of the OMEGA Heavyweight Championship tournament . After the match , Willow would appear saving Hardy and the rest from an after match beatdown . On November 9 , 2013 , Hardy and Devon defeated Homicide and Eddie Kingston at House of Hardcore 3 . On November 30 , 2013 , at WrestleCade , Hardy defeated Carlito to become the first ever WrestleCade Champion . On December 28 , at Extreme Rising Unfininished Business iPPV , Hardy was defeated by Luke Hawx in a steel cage grudge match , ending their year @-@ long feud .
On April 26 , 2014 , at OMEGA Chaos in Cameron The Hardys defeated The Briscoe Brothers . On May 3 , 2014 , following a match between Christian York and Drolix , Hardy defeated Drolix to become the new MCW Heavyweight Champion . On June 14 , 2014 at House of Hardcore 6 , Hardy defeated Tommy Dreamer and Carlito in a three @-@ way TLC match . At Maryland Championship Wrestling 's Shane Shamrock Cup , Hardy defeated Luke Hawx in a TLC match for Hardy 's MCW Heavyweight title and Hawx Extreme Rising World title . Hardy won the match , but he gave back the title to Hawx . On October 4 , Hardy lost the MCW Heavyweight Chamapionship back to Drolix , following outside interference from Kevin Eck . On November 1 , 2014 , Hardy made his debut for the Japanese Wrestle @-@ 1 promotion , losing to Seiya Sanada in a three @-@ way match , which also included Tajiri .
On February 9 , 2015 , Hardy appeared on FWE 's " No Limits 2015 " iPPV , challenging Drew Galloway for the ICW World Heavyweight Championship , but was defeated .
On November 21 , 2015 , Hardy won the OMEGA Heavyweight Championship for the second time , defeating former student Trevor Lee . Following this , Hardy ( upon regaining the TNA World Title as part of his villainous egotistical " Iconic " gimmick ) began proclaiming himself to be the only world champion that matters , and the only " true " world champion in wrestling , as he held both the TNA and OMEGA Championships , which ( according to him ) put him above any other promotions ' world champions .
On November 28 , 2015 , Hardy lost the WrestleCade Championship to Jeff Jarrett at WrestleCade IV in Winston @-@ Salem , NC after taking two guitar shots to the head , which opened a six @-@ inch gash on his head , which later required 38 stitches to close . Hardy regained the Wrestlecade Championship in a triple @-@ threat cage match against Jarrett and Ethan Carter III in Hickory , NC on May 20 , 2016 .
In 2016 , Hardy would defend the TNA and OMEGA Titles jointly at OMEGA events as part of his " only true world champion " gimmick .
= = = Return to ROH ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
On September 11 , 2012 , ROH announced that Hardy would be returning to the promotion , with his first appearance being at Death Before Dishonor X : State of Emergency . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Hardy confronted Adam Cole and challenged him to a match for the ROH World Television Championship , thus establishing himself as a babyface character . On December 16 at Final Battle 2012 : Doomsday , Hardy defeated Cole in a non @-@ title match .
At the following iPPV , 11th Anniversary Show on March 2 , 2013 , Hardy joined the villainous S.C.U.M. stable . On April 5 at the Supercard of Honor VII iPPV , Hardy unsuccessfully challenged Matt Taven for the ROH World Television Championship in a three way elimination match , which also included Adam Cole . On June 22 at Best in the World 2013 , Hardy defeated former S.C.U.M. stablemate Kevin Steen in a No Disqualification match to become the number one contender to the ROH World Championship . Hardy received his title shot at the following day 's Ring of Honor Wrestling tapings , but was defeated by the defending champion , Jay Briscoe . Later that same day , S.C.U.M. was forced to disband after losing a Steel Cage Warfare match against Team ROH . On December 14 , 2013 at Final Battle 2013 , Hardy defeated Adam Page in a singles match , later on in the main event Hardy aided Adam Cole in retaining his title and forming a tag team with him .
After Hardy 's client Adam Cole defeated Jay Briscoe to become the Undisputed Ring of Honor World Champion , Cole presented Jay Briscoe 's custom made world championship belt ( Briscoe claimed to still be the Ring of Honor champion as he forfeited the title due to injury and never officially lost it ) to Hardy as a show of appreciation , Hardy re @-@ branded the belt as the Ring of Honor Iconic ( Innovative Creator and Originator of a New @-@ Found Industry Champion ) Championship , however , the title has not been sanctioned as an official championship by Ring of Honor . On June 22 , 2014 at Best in the World , Hardy and Michael Bennett were defeated by The Briscoe Brothers in a no disqualification tag team match . In July , Hardy opted out of his ROH contract and went back to TNA .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = The Hardys reunion ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = = =
On July 24 , 2014 , Matt returned to TNA as a face and reunited with Jeff Hardy to reform The Hardys . At the Destination X episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys were defeated by The Wolves in a match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . The next week , Matt was one of many TNA wrestlers who stopped Dixie Carter from running away from Team 3D , which led to Carter being put through a table . On the August 14 episode of Impact Wrestling , Team 3D ( formerly the Dudley Boyz ) challenged The Hardys to a match , which Team 3D won . At the Hardcore Justice episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys and Team 3D talked about a match involving themselves and The Wolves . When The Wolves were asked by the two teams , they agreed . Later that night , Kurt Angle announced all three teams would compete in a best of three series for the TNA World Tag Team Championship with the winners of the first match choosing the stipulation of the next one . The Hardys won the second match of the series on the September 10 episode of Impact Wrestling in a tables match and choose a ladder match for the third match of the series . The Hardys were unsuccessful in winning that match on the September 17 episode of Impact Wrestling , as the Wolves won that match . The Wolves then went on to pick the final match of the series to be a Full Metal Mayhem match to take place on the October 8 episode of Impact Wrestling . The Hardys were unsuccessful in that match as the Wolves won that match .
On October 22 , The Hardys entered a number one contenders tournament for the TNA World Tag Team Championship defeating The BroMans ( Jessie Godderz and DJ Z ) in the first round of the tournament . On the October 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys defeated Team Dixie ( Ethan Carter III and Tyrus ) in the semifinals to advance to the finals of the tournament , where they defeated Samoa Joe and Low Ki to become number one contenders for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the January 16 , 2015 episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys defeated the Wolves . At the Lockdown episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardy Boyz were defeated by The Revolution in a six sides of steel cage match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the February 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy and The Wolves defeated The Revolution in a six @-@ man tag team match .
On March 10 , 2015 , TNA announced that Hardy has signed a full @-@ time contract with the company . In March , The Hardys participated in a tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship . On March 16 , 2015 , Matt and Jeff won an Ultimate X match for the titles . On May 8 , 2015 , Hardy vacated the TNA World Tag Team Championship due to his brother Jeff being injured .
= = = = TNA World Heavyweight Champion ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = = =
On June 28 , 2015 , Matt was among the five wrestlers who competed for the TNA King of the Mountain Championship at Slammiversary , with Jeff Jarrett ultimately emerging victorious . On the July 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy requested a world title shot against Ethan Carter III , but was denied and forced to face the Dirty Heels ( Austin Aries and Bobby Roode ) in a handicap match , which he lost . On the July 22 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Roode in a Tables match to become the # 1 contender for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the August 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy got his shot at the title against EC3 in a Full Metal Mayhem match , but failed to win the title . On the August 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Tyrus . On the September 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy got another shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against EC3 , but again failed to win the title ; as part of the storyline , Jeff Hardy was forced to act as Ethan Carter 's personal assistant . On the September 30 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy was added to the Ethan Carter III vs. Drew Galloway main event match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Bound for Glory after he and Galloway defeated Carter and Tyrus , making it a three @-@ way match , following which Jeff , who EC3 had just " fired " in the previous episode , was revealed to be the special guest referee .
On October 4 at Bound for Glory , Matt won the TNA World Heavyweight Championship by pinning Galloway , making Hardy the third man in professional wrestling history to win the ECW Championship and the TNA World Heavyweight Championship since Rob Van Dam and Lashley . However , EC3 filed an injunction ( kayfabe ) that banned Hardy from appearing on Impact Wrestling for a month , which forced Hardy to relinquish the title in order to stay on the show . However , Hardy has been participating in the TNA World Title Series for the vacant title . He qualified to the round of 16 by defeating Davey Richards , Robbie E and Eddie Edwards . He then advanced to the round of 8 by defeating the King of the Mountain Champion Bobby Roode and then to Jessie Godderz to continue his winning streak . The semifinals and finals were held on the January 5 , 2016 , live episode of Impact Wrestling during its debut on Pop TV , in which he defeated Eric Young to advance to the final round . Hardy faced EC3 in the TNA World Title Series finals , but lost the match via pinfall .
Hardy won the TNA World Title from EC3 on the January 19 , 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling , becoming the first man to defeat him in a one @-@ on @-@ one match in TNA . During the match a double turn took place ; Hardy turned heel after Tyrus betrayed EC3 . The following week on Impact Wrestling , Jeff Hardy had confronted him about last week and issued a challenge to Matt for the World Heavyweight title in the main event and Matt accepted . However , later before the main event could begin , Eric Young and Bram would attack Jeff from behind . Kurt Angle would then come out to try save Jeff and Matt would have Tyrus attack Angle from behind . While Matt watched from the ramp , Young hit Jeff with the Piledriver off the apron through a table . The following week , he successfully retained his title against Kurt Angle . At Lockdown , he retained his title in a Six @-@ side of steel match against Ethan Carter III , with the help of Rockstar Spud . He lost his title against Drew Galloway , after a match featuring EC3 and Jeff Hardy . Two weeks later , he had his title match , but again in a losing effort . Angry with Jeff for it , he wanted an I Quit Match and had it after defeating Jeff and Drew Galloway in a tag team match . At the main event , an I Quit Match , the match eventually ended up in a no @-@ contest as both Matt and Jeff were badly injured and Matt was taken out to the hospital on a stretcher , ending the show .
= = = = Broken Matt Hardy ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
Hardy returned on May 17 episode of Impact Wrestling , revealing himself to be one of the impostor Willows behind the attacks on his brother Jeff . He would later attack Jeff during that episode 's main event , pushing him off the turnbuckle when he was attempting the Swanton Bomb on Mike Bennett . In the following weeks , Hardy would debut a new persona as a disheveled man with a strange accent , blaming Jeff ( who he began to refer to as " Brother Nero " ) for breaking him . At Slammiversary Matt was defeated by Jeff in a Full Metal Mayhem match . Matt was also defeated by Jeff in a Six Sides of Steel match on the June 21 edition of Impact Wrestling . On the June 28 episode , Matt challenged Jeff to a final battle with the Hardy brand on the line , to take place at their home in Cameron , North Carolina the next week , ending with Matt attacking Jeff . On the July 5 episode , Matt defeated Jeff in the match ( dubbed " The Final Deletion " ) to become sole owner of the Hardy brand .
= = Other media = =
In 1999 , Matt Hardy , along with his brother Jeff , appeared as an uncredited wrestler on That ' 70s Show episode " That Wrestling Show " . Matt and Jeff also appeared on Tough Enough in early 2001 , talking to and wrestling the contestants . He appeared in the February 25 , 2002 episode of Fear Factor competing against five other World Wrestling Federation wrestlers . He won $ 50 @,@ 000 for the American Cancer Society . Hardy also appeared on the October 13 , 2009 episode of Scare Tactics , as a mental patient who threatens to attack the prank 's victim .
In 2001 , Matt , Jeff and Lita appeared in Rolling Stone magazine 's 2001 Sports Hall of Fame issue . In 2003 , Matt and Jeff , with the help of Michael Krugman , wrote and published their autobiography The Hardy Boyz : Exist 2 Inspire . As part of WWE , Matt appeared in their DVD , The Hardy Boyz : Leap of Faith in 2001 . On April 29 , 2008 , WWE released " Twist of Fate : The Matt and Jeff Hardy Story " . The DVD featured footage of the brothers in OMEGA and WWE . Hardy also appears on The Hardy Show , an internet web show which features the Hardys , Shannon Moore and many of their friends .
Hardy plays himself in the 2013 film Pro Wrestlers vs. Zombies in which he and his real @-@ life wife Reby Sky battle the undead .
= = Personal life = =
His brother Jeff Hardy is also a professional wrestler , currently competing in Total Nonstop Action . Hardy is good friends with Marty Garner , Shannon Moore and Gregory Helms . Hardy was in a six @-@ year relationship with former WWE Diva Amy Dumas , known by the ring name " Lita " . They first met in January 1999 , at a NWA Mid @-@ Atlantic show , but did not begin dating until a few months later . The couple broke up when she had an affair with one of Hardy 's close friends , fellow wrestler Adam " Edge " Copeland in February 2005 . Hardy previously dated former WWE Diva Ashley Massaro .
In February 2011 , Hardy stated he was dating Rebecca " Reby Sky " Reyes . Hardy married Reyes on October 5 , 2013 . On December 5 , 2014 Hardy announced that he and Reby were expecting their first child , a boy . On June 23 , 2015 , Hardy and Sky welcomed their first child , a boy named Maxel " Max " Hardy . Reby and Maxel were in attendance at Bound for Glory in 2015 , in Hardy 's home state of North Carolina , when Hardy won the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and were seen celebrating with him afterwards .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Twist of Fate ( WWF / E , TNA ) Twist of Hate ( TNA ) ( Front facelock cutter , sometimes from the top rope / front facelock stunner )
Ice Pick ( TNA ) White Light Experience ( Independent circuit ) ( Double underhook with bodyscissors )
Signature moves
Corner clothesline followed by a running bulldog
Corner sitout powerbomb
Diving elbow drop , sometimes to the back of a bent @-@ over or kneeling opponent 's head , with theatrics
Diving leg drop , with theatrics
Forearm smash
Inverted DDT
Moonsault
Northern Lights suplex
Ricochet ( Belly to back suplex lifted and dropped into an elbow drop to the opponent 's midsection ) – 2003
Russian legsweep
Side Effect ( Sitout side slam )
Splash Mountain ( Sitout crucifix powerbomb )
Managers
Gangrel
Lita
Michael Hayes
Reby Sky / Hardy
Ric Flair
Terri Runnels
Tyrus
Vanguard 1
Nicknames
" Version 1 ( V1 ) " ( WWE )
" The Sensei of Mattitude " ( WWE )
" The Angelic Diablo " ( WWE )
" The Man Who Will Not Die " ( WWE )
" ( Arguably ) Everyone 's Favorite Wrestler " ( WWE )
" Broken " ( TNA )
" Big Money Matt " ( TNA )
" The ( self @-@ proclaimed ) Icon ( ic ) " ( ROH , TNA )
Entrance themes
World Wrestling Entertainment
" Loaded " by Zack Tempest ( Independent Circuit ; used while teaming with his brother Jeff )
" Live for the Moment " by Monster Magnet ( 2002 – September 7 , 2010 )
Ring of Honor
" Something for You " by David Rolfe ( used while part of The Kingdom )
" Another White Lie " by Voodoo Johnson
" Dirty Angel " by Voodoo Johnson ( used while part of S.C.U.M. )
Independent Circuit
" Unbroken ( Hotel Baby ) " by Monster Magnet
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
" Rogue and Cold Blooded " by Dale Oliver ( January 9 , 2011 – August 20 , 2011 )
" Immortal Theme " by Dale Oliver ( used while a part of Immortal )
" Reptillian " ( Creatures Intro ) by Peroxwhy ? gen ( July 31 , 2014 – January 19 , 2016 ; used as a member of The Hardys )
" SPUD Theme " ( w / " I Am Iconic " Intro ) by Dale Oliver ( February 4 , 2016 – June 7 , 2016 )
" No. 14 , Moonlight Sonata : III " performed by Nicolas James ( June 12 , 2016 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Future Stars of Wrestling
FSW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Maryland Championship Wrestling
MCW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Extreme Rising World Championship ( 1 time )
National Championship Wrestling
NCW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NCW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
New Dimension Wrestling
NDW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NDW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) 1 – with Jeff Hardy
New England Wrestling Alliance
NEWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NEWA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2012 )
New Frontier Wrestling Association
NFWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NFWA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Venom
NWA 2000
NWA 2000 Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jeff Hardy
OMEGA Championship Wrestling
OMEGA Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times , current )
OMEGA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jeff Hardy
Pro Wrestling South
PWS Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time , current )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2005 ) vs. Edge and Lita
Match of the Year ( 2000 ) with Jeff Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Triangle Ladder match at WrestleMania 2000
Match of the Year ( 2001 ) with Jeff Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven
Tag Team of the Year ( 2000 ) with Jeff Hardy
PWI ranked him # 17 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2003
Pro Wrestling Syndicate
PWS Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Remix Pro Wrestling
Remix Pro Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Facade
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA World Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
TNA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jeff Hardy
TNA World Tag Team Championship # 1 Contenders Tournament ( 2014 ) – with Jeff Hardy
World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment
ECW Championship ( 1 time )
WCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jeff Hardy
World Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) – with Jeff Hardy
WWE Cruiserweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWE United States Championship ( 1 time )
WWF European Championship ( 1 time )
WWF Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Montel Vontavious Porter
Bragging Rights Trophy ( 2009 ) – with Team SmackDown ( Chris Jericho , R @-@ Truth , Kane , Finlay and The Hart Dynasty ( David Hart Smith and Tyson Kidd ) )
Terri Invitational Tournament – with Jeff Hardy
WrestleCade
WrestleCade Championship ( 2 times , current )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Gimmick ( 2002 )
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2004 ) with Lita vs. Kane
1 The title was vacated in 1999 due to The Hardy Boyz signing contracts with the WWF .
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
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= SM U @-@ 14 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 14 or U @-@ XIV was a U @-@ boat or submarine of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy during the First World War . She was launched in 1912 as the French Brumaire @-@ class submarine Curie ( Q 87 ) , but captured and rebuilt for service in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . At war 's end , the submarine was returned to France and restored to her former name .
Curie was launched in July 1912 at Toulon and completed in 1914 . She measured just under 171 feet ( 52 m ) long and displaced nearly 400 metric tons ( 390 long tons ) on the surface and just over 550 metric tons ( 540 long tons ) when submerged . At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , Curie was assigned to duty in the Mediterranean . In mid @-@ December , Curie 's commander conceived a plan to infiltrate the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's main base at Pola , but during the 20 December attempt , the vessel became ensnared in harbor defenses . Two Austro @-@ Hungarian ships sank Curie , killing three of her crew ; the remainder were taken prisoner .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , which had a small and largely obsolete U @-@ boat fleet , immediately began salvage efforts and succeeded in raising the lightly damaged submarine in early February 1915 . After a refit , the boat was commissioned as SM U @-@ 14 in June , but had little success early in her career . When her commander fell ill in October , he was replaced by Georg Ritter von Trapp . U @-@ 14 was damaged by a depth charge attack in February 1916 , and underwent an extensive modernization through November . Resuming duty under von Trapp , U @-@ 14 sank her first ship in April 1917 , but had her most successful patrol in August , when she sank five ships — including Milazzo , reportedly the largest cargo ship in the world — in a six @-@ day span .
In January 1918 , von Trapp was replaced as commander , but neither of his two successors were able to match his accomplishments . In all , U @-@ 14 sank 11 ships with a combined gross register tonnage of nearly 48 @,@ 000 tons . Returned to France at the end of the war , she rejoined the French Navy in July 1919 under her former name of Curie . She remained in service until 1928 and was scrapped in 1929 .
= = Design and construction = =
Curie was a part of the 16 @-@ boat Brumaire class authorized under the 1906 program . The Brumaire @-@ class boats were diesel @-@ powered versions of the steam @-@ powered Pluviôse class submarines ( which had been authorized the year before ) , and , like the Pluviôse boats , were named after either months of the French Republican Calendar or scientists . Curie was named after Pierre and Marie Curie .
The Bruimaire @-@ class was designed by French naval designer Maxime Laubeuf and featured a double hull . The boats were 170 feet 11 inches ( 52 @.@ 10 m ) long , 17 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 41 m ) abeam , with a draft of 10 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 10 m ) when surfaced . They had a displacement of 397 metric tons ( 391 long tons ) surfaced and 551 metric tons ( 542 long tons ) submerged . Curie , like the other 15 submarines of the class , featured one 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) bow torpedo tube and could carry as many as eight torpedoes . As built , Curie did not have a deck gun .
The Brumaire @-@ class featured twin propeller shafts driven by two French license @-@ built MAN 6 @-@ cylinder diesel engines on the surface , or by two electric motors when submerged . Curie 's diesel engines generated a total of 840 brake horsepower ( 630 kW ) and could move the submarine at up to 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) on the surface ; her electric motors generated 660 shaft horsepower ( 490 kW ) and could propel the boat up to 8 @.@ 8 knots ( 16 @.@ 3 km / h ; 10 @.@ 1 mph ) submerged . While traveling on the surface at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , Curie had a range of 1 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km ; 2 @,@ 000 mi ) ; the submarine 's range while submerged was 84 nautical miles ( 156 km ; 97 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) .
Curie was laid down at the Arsenal de Toulon and launched on 18 July 1912 , completed by 1914 , and commissioned into the French Navy .
= = French career and sinking = =
Like all the Brumaire @-@ class submarines , Curie began her First World War service in the Mediterranean , and was one of the first French submarines to appear in the Adriatic .
On 17 December 1914 , Curie , at the insistence of her French @-@ Irish commander Gabriel O 'Byrne , departed her base in the Ionian Sea under tow by the French armored cruiser Jules Michelet . Depositing her charge 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ; 170 mi ) from Pola , the site of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's main base , Jules Michelet departed , leaving Curie to proceed to the Austro @-@ Hungarian base . Curie arrived the next day and began reconnoitering the entrance to the harbor . O 'Byrne observed the entrance and exit paths of Austro @-@ Hungarian vessels and plotted a course through the deployed defensive mines . On 19 December , O 'Byrne took Curie in to observe the anti @-@ submarine net that ran across the opening in a long , defensive breakwater built to keep submarines from infiltrating the naval base .
Believing that he had accounted for all of the defensive measures , O 'Byrne took Curie to a depth of 65 feet ( 20 m ) early on 20 December and , attempting an incursion into the harbor , heard the sounds of chains and wires dragging on the submarine 's hull . When the sounds stopped after half a minute , O 'Byrne brought Curie up to periscope depth to discover that he had only penetrated the outer net . Curie 's forward momentum carried her into the second net where she became " inextricably entangled " . When the submarine , still trapped in the net , was forced to surface for fresh air , Curie came under fire from the Austro @-@ Hungarian destroyer Magnet and torpedo boat Tb 63 T which quickly sank her . Three of the twenty @-@ six men on board were killed in the attack ; the survivors — who included Curie 's commander , O 'Byrne — were all taken prisoner .
= = Salvage and Austro @-@ Hungarian career = =
At the beginning of the First World War , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's U @-@ boat fleet consisted of six largely experimental submarines of three classes . The Navy had five larger , more modern submarines ( what would have been the U @-@ 7 class ) under construction in Germany at the outbreak of war , but when the Navy became convinced that delivery of the U @-@ 7 boats would be impossible , they were sold to Germany in November 1914 .
Amidst Austro @-@ Hungarian efforts to replace the now @-@ unavailable U @-@ 7 boats , the largely intact Curie , resting at a depth of 39 metres ( 128 ft ) , became the focus of salvage efforts . Beginning on 21 December , the day after Curie 's sinking , salvage crews raised the submarine in stages , finally bringing her to the surface on 2 February 1915 .
The former Curie , now assigned the designation U @-@ 14 , was reconditioned and commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Korvettenkapitän Otto Zeidler on 1 June . Zeidler remained in command until he fell ill , and was replaced in mid @-@ October by Linienschiffsleutnant Georg Ritter von Trapp . Under Zeidler 's command and the first months of von Trapp 's command , U @-@ 14 had no successes .
In early February 1916 , U @-@ 14 joined U @-@ 4 for a patrol near Durazzo . U @-@ 4 came closest to scoring a success when she narrowly missed hitting HMS Lowestoft , a British Birmingham @-@ class cruiser on 7 February . U @-@ 14 survived a depth charge attack , but made it back to port with all of her externally mounted torpedoes crushed and both fuel tanks leaking .
When she put in for repairs , U @-@ 14 was extensively modernized in a refit that kept her in port from February to November . The submarine was given a German @-@ style conning tower that replaced the French @-@ designed wet lookout platform . She was equipped with more powerful diesel engines , which increased her power output from 480 to 840 brake horsepower ( 360 to 630 kW ) . U @-@ 14 's fighting potential was further enhanced by the installation of larger fuel tanks , which nearly quadrupled her range to 6 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 000 km ) , up from her former maximum of 1 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km ) .
On 28 April 1917 , U @-@ 14 was patrolling off the coast of Greece when she scored her first success , Teakwood , a 5 @,@ 315 @-@ ton British tanker headed from Port Arthur , Texas , to Port Said . On 3 May , on patrol in the same vicinity , von Trapp and U @-@ 14 sank another ship , this one the 1 @,@ 905 @-@ ton Italian steamer Antonio Sciesa .
In another patrol in July , U @-@ 14 sailed on the north side of the island of Corfu while headed for Santi Quaranta , Albania . Because the harbor at Corfu was occupied by the French fleet at the time , U @-@ 14 conducted a ruse de guerre by flying the submarine 's former national flag , the French tricolor , in order to pass unmolested . Even though U @-@ 14 's new conning tower made her look unlike any other Brumaire @-@ class boat , one French patrol plane was successfully fooled by the ruse . When U @-@ 14 's crew first spotted the aircraft , flying towards them from the direction of the sun , there was not enough time to submerge . As the aircraft drew near , its French markings — and its cargo of bombs — became apparent to the crew . With no other course of action possible , U @-@ 14 's crew waved their hats and handkerchiefs at the plane . As the French pilot passed overhead , he returned the waves , apparently unaware of the U @-@ boat 's true nationality . The only success by U @-@ 14 on this cruise was the sinking of Marionga Goulandris , a Greek steamer , near Cape Matapan .
U @-@ 14 's next war patrol was very successful , sinking five ships with a combined tonnage of 24 @,@ 814 , over half of her total tonnage sunk . U @-@ 14 departed from the submarine base at Cattaro on 20 August and headed through the Straits of Otranto , successfully evading the Otranto Barrage , and Allied blockade of the passageway between Italy and Albania . Heading into the Ionian Sea , von Trapp and U @-@ 14 sank the French steamer Constance on 23 August 142 nautical miles ( 263 km ; 163 mi ) northeast of Malta . The following day , U @-@ 14 sank Kilwinning , a British steamer loaded with coal and a general cargo headed for Port Said . Two days after that , the British steamer Titian was sunk by U @-@ 14 while on en route to Alexandria . U @-@ 14 's next victim was the British steamer Nairn . The 3 @,@ 627 @-@ ton turret deck ship , on her way from Malta to Port Said with coal , was sunk on the night of 27 / 28 August 125 nautical miles ( 232 km ; 144 mi ) from Benghazi .
On 29 August , von Trapp sank the Italian steamer Milazzo 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) east of Malta . Milazzo , at 11 @,@ 744 tons , was the largest ship sunk by U @-@ 14 , and among the largest ships sunk by a U @-@ boat in World War I. Milazzo , reported by The New York Times in 1916 as the largest cargo ship in the world , was the second @-@ largest ship sunk by an Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine . U @-@ 14 concluded her patrol on 1 September , when she returned to Cattaro .
U @-@ 14 sank three more ships during a five @-@ day span in October . On 19 October , U @-@ 14 sank the British ship Elsiston 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ; 170 mi ) from Malta . One person aboard Elsiston , which was carrying military stores between Malta and Suda Bay , was killed in the attack . Nearby , and on the same day , von Trapp sank the 3 @,@ 618 @-@ ton Good Hope , a British ship laden with iron ore for Middlesbrough . The next ship sunk by U @-@ 14 was the Italian steamer Capo di Monte , sunk 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) from Candia while on her way from Karachi to Malta .
In January 1918 , Friedrich Schlosser replaced von Trapp as commander of U @-@ 14 . Schlosser was , in turn , replaced in June by Hugo Pistel , who remained in command until the end of the war . Neither of the later commanders was able to duplicate von Trapp 's success in U @-@ 14 ; the U @-@ boat sank no more ships through the rest of the war .
After Austria @-@ Hungary 's surrender and the end of the First World War , U @-@ 14 was returned to France and on 17 July 1919 rejoined the French Navy under her former name of Curie . She was stricken in 1928 and scrapped in 1929 .
= = Ships sunk by U @-@ 14 = =
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= Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men 's 100 metre butterfly =
The men 's 100 metre butterfly event at the 2008 Olympic Games took place on 14 – 16 August at the Beijing National Aquatics Center in Beijing , China .
U.S. swimmer Michael Phelps set a new Olympic record of 50 @.@ 58 to defend his title in the event , edging out Serbia 's Milorad Čavić ( 50 @.@ 59 ) by one hundredth of a second ( 0 @.@ 01 ) . He also earned his seventh Olympic gold at a single Games , tying Mark Spitz 's 1972 record for the most gold medals . Australia 's Andrew Lauterstein earned a bronze in 51 @.@ 12 , finishing in a close race against world record holder Ian Crocker by the slimmest margin . Phelps ' triumph occurred after Čavić had remarked that it would be better for the sport if Phelps was defeated . Phelps ' margin of triumph was so close that the Serbian team filed a protest , but after officials reviewed the video , the International Swimming Federation ( FINA ) announced that Phelps did touch the wall first and his victory would be upheld .
Kenya 's Jason Dunford finished fifth with a time of 51 @.@ 47 , and was followed in the sixth spot by Japan 's Takuro Fujii , in an Asian record of 51 @.@ 50 . Ukraine 's Andriy Serdinov ( 51 @.@ 59 ) , the bronze medalist in Athens four years earlier , and Papua New Guinea 's Ryan Pini , gold medalist at the 2006 Commonwealth Games , ( 51 @.@ 86 ) closed out the field . Dunford and Pini also made history as the first swimmer for their respective nation to reach an Olympic final .
Out of six individual events from his Olympic program , Phelps did not break the current world record in a final , finishing 0 @.@ 18 of a second behind Crocker 's time of 50 @.@ 40 , set in 2005 . In the entire event , other records were established , the Olympic record , five continental records , and several national records .
= = Preview = =
Due to a combination of the venue , Beijing National Aquatics Center ( better known as the Water Cube ) , which was claimed to be built to increase the speed of the swimmers , and the recently introduced LZR Racer swim suits , which had been proven to give the swimmer a lower time by 1 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 2 % , some analysts were predicting that many fast times and world records would be set in all the swimming events .
As with almost every event that he entered in at the 2008 Summer Olympics , Michael Phelps was the favorite to win the men 's 100 metre butterfly . Since winning the gold medal at the previous Games , in Athens , Phelps had demonstrated his superiority in this event , by also becoming world champion at the Melbourne 2007 World Championships , and achieving victory at the United States Olympic Trials . Therefore , the 100 metre butterfly was one of the eight Olympic events where Phelps was attempting to win a gold medal .
Going into the event , Phelps ' compatriot Ian Crocker was seen as the swimmer with the best chance of beating Phelps . Crocker beat Phelps ' 100 metre butterfly world record in 2003 , and had since lowered it twice : once at the 2004 United States Olympic trials , and then at the 2005 World Championships in Montreal . Before the Olympics , Crocker and Phelps held the seventeen fastest times ever in the event . In 2004 , Crocker was the favorite in the men 's 100 metre butterfly , but lost to Phelps by four one @-@ hundredths of a second . This victory gave Phelps the right to swim in the final of the 4 × 100 metre medley relay , however he gave up the spot to Crocker , and took his turn in the semifinals . Although holding the world record , Crocker had lost the last four times that he was up against Phelps in the 100 metre butterfly , including the 2008 United States Olympic Trials . Some thought that Crocker was not in the same shape that he was when we broke the world record , including Canadian Broadcasting Company ( CBC ) analyst Byron MacDonald who said that " If he 's ( Crocker ) going to beat Phelps in Beijing , Crocker has to get close to his world record time of 50 @.@ 40 . He just hasn 't shown it [ he ] can do it this year " .
Another threat to Phelps ' goal was Serbia 's Milorad Čavić . In Athens 2004 , Čavić was leading in a semifinal of the 100 metre butterfly , but right after his final turn , his suit opened at the neck and sucked in water , causing Čavić to finish last with a time of 53 @.@ 12 seconds . At the 2008 European Championships , Čavić won the men 's 50 metre butterfly and was the heavy favorite to win at twice that distance , but was suspended for wearing a " Kosovo is Serbia " T @-@ shirt on the medal podium . American swimmer Gary Hall , Jr. told The New York Times that although " Mike ( Phelps ) has been saying he ’ s going to win the 100 fly at the Olympics for the last year " , he thought that Čavić would be the winner .
Other possible medal contenders included Andriy Serdinov of Ukraine , who had won the Olympic bronze medal in 2004 , and Venezuelan Albert Subriats , a bronze medalist at the 2007 World Championships and seen as a potential spoiler , if he could match or improve on his 51 @.@ 82 time , in Beijing .
= = Competition = =
= = = Heats = = =
The heats began on August 14 , at 19 : 57 local time ( CST or UTC + 8 ) . There were nine preliminary heats , but all sixteen qualifiers came from the last five heats . Only three swimmers participated in the first heat , which was won by Andrejs Duda of Latvia with a time of 55 @.@ 20 seconds . Heats 2 , 3 , and 4 were won by Shaune Fraser ( Cayman Islands ) , Rimvydas Šalčius ( Lithuania ) , and Jakob Schioett Andkjaer ( Denmark ) , respectively . Salcius , Jeremy Knowles ( Bahamas ) , and Alon Mandel ( Israel ) all broke their countries ' previous records , while in heat 4 , Andkjaer , Michal Rubáček of the Czech Republic , Sotirios Pastras of Greece , and Ioan Stefan Gherghel of Romania also set new national records . South African Lyndon Ferns was the first swimmer to qualify for the semifinals , winning heat 5 with a time of 52 @.@ 04 seconds , while national records were broken by Mario Todorović ( Croatia ) , Simão Morgado ( Portugal ) , and Douglas Lennox @-@ Silva ( Puerto Rico ) . Sergii Breus ( Ukraine ) and Shi Feng ( China ) , finished first and second in heat 6 , with times of 51 @.@ 82 and 51 @.@ 87 seconds , respectively , that allowed them to reach the semifinals . Five of the eight swimmers in heat 7 advanced as well , including Jason Dunford ( Kenya ) , Andrew Lauterstein ( Australia ) , Takuro Fujii ( Japan ) , Frédérick Bousquet ( France ) , and Ryan Pini ( Papua New Guinea ) . Dunford , with a 51 @.@ 14 time , set a new Olympic record , beating Phelps ' previous record of 51 @.@ 25 seconds , achieved in the final of the 100 metre butterfly in Athens ; he also set new African and Kenyan records . Andrew Lauterstein 's 51 @.@ 37 time was a new Oceanic and Australian best . Takuro Fujii set a Japanese and an Asian record with his 51 @.@ 50 time . The swimmers qualifying from heat 8 were Albert Subirats Altes ( Venezuela ) , Corney Swanepoel ( New Zealand ) , and Ian Crocker ( United States ) . Records broken in this heat included the South American and Venezuelan records ( by Altes ) , and the New Zealand record ( by Swanepoel ) . Heat 9 was the fastest one , with Milorad Čavić ( Serbia ) , Michael Phelps ( United States ) , Andrii Serdinov ( Ukraine ) , Peter Mankoč ( Slovenia ) , and Kaio de Almeida ( Brazil ) all earning spots in the next round . Čavić , the heat 's winner with a 50 @.@ 76 time , beat the Olympic record set by Dunford two heats earlier , thus also setting a new European and Serbian record . Serdinov and Mankoč also managed to break their national records .
= = = Semifinals = = =
The semifinals were held on August 15 and started at 11 : 26 CST . The first semifinal was won by Michael Phelps with a time of 50 @.@ 97 seconds . Other three swimmers qualified from this semifinal : Andrew Lauterstein ( 51 @.@ 27 seconds ) , Jason Dunford ( 51 @.@ 33 seconds ) , and Ryan Pini ( 51 @.@ 62 seconds ) . Surprisingly , Albert Subirats Altes , the bronze medalist at the 2007 World Championships , failed to qualify , after finishing in the sixth place . Also missing the cut was the host nation 's representative Shi Feng , Segii Breus , and Kaio de Almeida . The second semifinal was won in 50 @.@ 92 seconds by Milorad Čavić , once again . The remaining three qualifiers were Ian Crocker ( 51 @.@ 27 seconds ) , Andriy Serdinov ( 51 @.@ 41 seconds ) , and Takuro Fujii ( 51 @.@ 59 seconds ) . New time bests set in the semifinals included the Oceanic and Australian records ( set by Lauterstein ) , and the Chinese record ( set by Shi ) .
= = = Final = = =
The final took place on August 16 , at 10 : 10 CST . Before the race , Milorad Čavić made headlines by saying in an interview that it would be better for swimming if he beat Phelps . Phelps ' coach Bob Bowman used the quote to provide motivation to his protégé . In an interview , Phelps said that doubters like Čavić " fires me up more than anything , I always welcome comments . It definitely motivates me even more . " Almost immediately after the race started , Čavić took the lead with Phelps getting off to a slow start . At the turn , Čavić was first , followed by Ian Crocker , while Phelps made the split in seventh place , just 0 @.@ 62 seconds behind Čavić . As the two approached the finish , Čavić tried to coast to the wall on one last stroke , while Phelps , who had misjudged the end , took an extra half @-@ stroke , causing both competitors to touch the wall at almost exactly the same time . It turned out that Phelps had actually finished one one @-@ hundredth of a second ahead of Čavić , with a time of 50 @.@ 58 seconds . Phelps even admitted that , at first , he thought the extra stroke he took had cost him the gold medal , until he looked at the scoreboard displaying the results . Andrew Lauterstein won the bronze medal , also beating Crocker by one one @-@ hundredth of a second .
Several records were broken at the final . For the first time at the 2008 Summer Olympics , Phelps did not break the current world record in a final , finishing eighteen one @-@ hundredths of a second behind team @-@ mate Crocker 's 50 @.@ 40 @-@ second world record from 2005 ; he did though set a new Olympic record . Three continental records were broken in the final , with Fujii setting a new Asian record , Čavić a new European record , and Lauterstein a new Oceanic record . Although he finished last , swimmer Ryan Pini made history as the first swimmer from Papua New Guinea to swim in an Olympic final , and even received a call from the prime minister Michael Somare congratulating him . Most notably though , Phelps won his seventh gold medal at these Games , tying Mark Spitz 's record for most gold medals won at a single Olympic Games . For being able to emulate Spitz 's record , Speedo , a sponsor of Michael Phelps , awarded him a US $ 1 million bonus , which had already been offered to him at the 2004 Summer Olympics , under the same conditions . After the final , the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) arranged a joint interview with Phelps and Spitz , where Spitz praised Phelps ' effort , telling him that " what you did tonight was epic " and even though at one point , Phelps was more than half a second behind Čavić , Spitz " never thought for one moment you ( Phelps ) were out of that race . "
= = = = Protest = = = =
Almost immediately after the end of the race , the Serbian team filed a protest claiming that Čavić touched the wall first but did not use enough force to trigger the timing sensor . Officials of the International Swimming Federation ( FINA ) watched the video in slow motion , and announced that Phelps ' victory would be upheld . Ben Ekumbo , a FINA referee announced that " It 's very clear that the Serbian swimmer touched second after Michael Phelps . " Although Serbia conceded their protest , not everyone was convinced that Phelps had won the gold medal ; Branislav Jevtić , Serbia 's deputy chef de mission for all sports , was quoted as saying " in my opinion , it 's not right , but we must follow the rules . Everybody saw what happened . " In one interview following the race , Čavić said " I am completely happy with where I am " , while in another he revealed that he expects that " people will be bringing this up for years and saying you ( Čavić ) won that race . If we got to do this again , I would win it " . While the result is still controversial , a high speed photograph shows Phelps touching the wall , while Čavić is still a short distance away . In April 2015 , Spitz said that he had been sent an email posted by Omega which stated that Phelps had lost the 100m butterfly final .
= = Records = =
Prior to this competition , the existing world and Olympic records were as follows .
The following records were established during the competition :
= = Results = =
= = = Heats = = =
= = = Semifinals = = =
= = = = Semifinal 1 = = = =
= = = = Semifinal 2 = = = =
= = = Final = = =
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= Design management =
Design management is a business discipline that uses project management , design , strategy , and supply chain techniques to control a creative process , support a culture of creativity , and build a structure and organization for design . The objective of design management is to develop and maintain a business environment in which an organization can achieve its strategic and mission goals through design , and by establishing and managing an efficient and effective system . Design management is a comprehensive activity at all levels of business ( operational to strategic ) , from the discovery phase to the execution phase . " Simply put , design management is the business side of design . Design management encompasses the ongoing processes , business decisions , and strategies that enable innovation and create effectively @-@ designed products , services , communications , environments , and brands that enhance our quality of life and provide organizational success . " The discipline of design management overlaps with marketing management , operations management , and strategic management
Traditionally , design management was seen as limited to the management of design projects , but over time , it evolved to include other aspects of an organization at the functional and strategic level . A more recent debate concerns the integration of design thinking into strategic management as a cross @-@ disciplinary and human @-@ centered approach to management . This paradigm also focuses on a collaborative and iterative style of work and an abductive mode of inference , compared to practices associated with the more traditional management paradigm .
Over recent years , design has become a strategic asset in brand equity , differentiation , and product quality for many companies . More and more organizations apply design management to improve design @-@ relevant activities and to better connect design with corporate strategy .
= = Extended definition = =
The multifaceted nature of design management leads to varied opinion , making it difficult to give an overall definition ; furthermore , design managers have a broad range of roles and responsibilities . These factors , combined with a multitude of other influences such as the industry involved , company size , the market situation , and the importance of design within the organization 's activities . As a result , design management is not restricted to a single design discipline and usually depends on the context of its application within an individual organization .
On an abstract level , design management plays three key roles in the interface of design , organization , and market . The three key roles are to :
Align design strategy with corporate or brand strategy , or both
Manage quality and consistency of design outcomes across and within different design disciplines ( design classes )
Enhance new methods of user experience , create new solutions for user needs and differentiation from competitor 's designs
= = = Defining quotes = = =
Design management is the effective deployment by line managers of the design resources available to an organization in the pursuance of its corporate objectives . It is therefore directly concerned with the organizational place of design , with the identification with specific design disciplines which are relevant to the resolution of key management issues , and with the training of managers to use design effectively .
Design management is a complex and multi @-@ faceted activity that goes right to the heart of what a company is or does [ ... ] it is not something susceptible to pat formulas , a few bullet points or a manual . Every company 's structure and internal culture is different ; design management is no exception . But the fact that every firm is different does not diminish the importance of managing design tightly and effectively .
= = Definition of related terms = =
= = = Design = = =
Unlike unique sciences such as mathematics , the perspective , activity , or discipline of design is not brought to a generally accepted common denominator . The historical beginnings of design are complex and the nature of design is still the subject of ongoing discussion . In design , there are strong differentiations between theory and practice . The fluid nature of the theory allows the designer to operate without being constrained by a rigid structure . In practice , decisions are often referred to as intuition . In his Classification of Design ( 1976 ) , Gorb divided design into three different classes . Design management operates in and across all three classes : product ( e.g. industrial design , packaging design , service design ) , information ( e.g. graphic design , branding , media design , web design ) , and environment ( e.g. retail design , exhibition design , interior design ) .
= = = Management = = =
Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives efficiently and effectively . Management comprises planning , organizing , staffing , leading or directing , and controlling an organization ( a group of one or more people or entities ) , or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal . Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources , financial resources , technological resources , and natural resources . Towards the end of the 20th century , business management came to consist of six separate branches , namely human resource management , operations management ( or production management ) , strategic management , marketing management , financial management , and information technology management , which was responsible for management information systems . Although it is difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way , it helps in navigating the discipline of management . Design management overlaps mainly with the branches marketing management , operations management , and strategic management .
= = = Design leadership = = =
Design managers often operate in the area of design leadership ; however , design management and design leadership are interdependent rather than interchangeable . Like management and leadership , they differ in their objectives , achievements of objectives , accomplishments , and outcomes . Design leadership leads from creation of a vision to changes , innovations , and implementation of creative solutions . It stimulates communication and collaboration through motivation , sets ambitions , and points out future directions to achieve long @-@ term objectives . In contrast , design management is reactive and responds to a given business situation by using specific skills , tools , methods , and techniques . Design management requires design leadership to know where to go and design leadership requires design management to know how to get there .
= = History = =
Difficulties arise in tracing the history of design management . Even though design management as an expression is first mentioned in literature in 1964 , earlier contributions created the context in which the expression could arise . Throughout its history , design management was influenced by a number of different disciplines : architecture , industrial design , management , software development , engineering ; and movements such as system theory , design methodologies . It cannot be attributed directly to either design nor to management .
= = = Business = = =
= = = = Managing product aesthetics and corporate design ( early contributions ) = = = =
Early contributions to design management show how different design disciplines were coordinated to achieve business objectives at a corporate level , and demonstrate the early understanding of design as a competitive force . In that context , design was merely understood as an aesthetic function , and the management of design was at the level of project planning .
The practice of managing design to achieve a business objective was first documented in 1907 . The Deutscher Werkbund ( German Work Federation ) was established in Munich by twelve architects and twelve business firms as a state @-@ sponsored effort to better compete with Great Britain and the United States by integrating traditional craft and industrial mass @-@ production techniques . A German designer and architect , Peter Behrens , created the entire corporate identity ( logotype , product design , publicity , etc . ) of Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft ( AEG ) , and is regarded as the first industrial designer in history . His work for AEG was the first large @-@ scale demonstration of the viability and vitality of the Werkbund 's initiatives and objectives and can be considered as first contribution to design management .
In the following years , companies applied the principles of corporate identity and corporate design to increase awareness and recognition by consumers and differentiation from competitors . Olivetti became famous for its attention to design through their corporate design activities . In 1936 Olivetti hired Giovanni Pintori in their publicity department and promoted Marcello Nizzoli from the product design department to develop design in a comprehensive corporate philosophy . In 1956 , inspired by the compelling brand character of Olivetti , Thomas Watson , Jr . , CEO of IBM , retained American architect and industrial designer Eliot Noyes to develop a corporate @-@ wide IBM Design Program consisting of coherent brand @-@ design strategy together with a design management system to guide and oversee the comprehensive brand identity elements of : products , graphics , exhibits , architecture , interiors and fine art . This seminal effort by Noyes , with his inclusion of Paul Rand and Charles Eames as consultants , is considered to be the first comprehensive corporate design program in America . Up to and during the 1960s , debates in the design community were focused on ergonomics , functionalism , and corporate design , while debates in management addressed Just in time , Total quality management , and product specification . The main proponents of design management at that time were AEG , Bauhaus , HfG Ulm , the British Design Council , Deutscher Werkbund , Olivetti , IBM , Peter Behrens , and Walter Paepcke .
= = = = Managing design systematically ( 1960s – 1970s ) = = = =
The work of designers in the 1960s was influenced by industry , as the debate on design evolved from an aesthetic function into active cooperation with industry . Designers had to work in a team with engineers and marketers , and design was perceived as one part of the product development process . In the early years , design management was strongly influenced by system science and the emergence of a design science ( e.g. the " blooming period of design methodologies " in Germany , the US , and Great Britain ) , as its main contributors had backgrounds in architecture . Early discussions on design management were strongly influenced by Anglo @-@ Saxon literature ( e.g. Farr and Horst Rittel ) , methodological studies ( e.g. HfG Ulm and Christopher Alexander ) , and theories in business studies . Design management dealt with two main issues :
how to develop corporate systems of planning aims
how to solve problems of methodological information processing
Instruments and checklists were developed to structure the processes and decisions of companies for successful corporate development . In this period the main contributors to design management were Michael Farr , Horst Rittel , HfG Ulm , Christopher Alexander , the London Business School , Peter Gorb , the Design Management Institute , and the Royal Society of Arts . Debates in design disciplines were focusing on design science , design methodology , wicked problems , Ulm methodology , new German design , and semiotic and scenario technique .
= = = = Managing design as a strategic asset ( 1980s – 1990s ) = = = =
In the 1980s several managers realized the economic effect of design , which increased the demand for design management . As companies were unsure how to manage design , there was a market for consultancy ; focusing on helping organizations manage the product development process , including market research , product concepts , projects , communications , and market launch phases — as well as the positioning of products and companies .
Three important works were published in 1990 : the Publication of Design Management – A Handbook of Issues and Methods by Mark Oakley ( Editor ) , the book Design Management by French researcher Brigitte Borja de Mozota , and the Publication of Design Management – Papers from the London Business School by Peter Gorb ( Editor ) . This new method @-@ based design management approach helped to improve communication amongst technical and marketing managers . Examples of the new methods included trend research , the product effect triad , style mapping , milieus , product screenings , empiric design methods , and service design , giving design a more communicative and central role within organizations .
In the management community the topics of management theory , positioning strategy , brand management , strategic management , advertisement , competitive strategy , leadership , business ethics , mass customization , core competencies , strategic intent , reputation management , and system theory were discussed . Main issues and debates in design management included the topics of design leadership , design thinking , and corporate identity ; plus the involvement of design management at the operational , tactical , and strategic levels .
In 1980 Robert Blaich , the senior managing director of design at Philips , introduced a design management system that regards design , production , and marketing as a single unit . This was an important contribution to the definition of design as a core element in business . At Philips Design , Stefano Marzano became CEO and Chief Creative Director in 1991 , continuing the work of Robert Blaich to align design processes with business processes and furthering design strategy as an important asset of the overall business strategy .
Upon being appointed corporate head of the IBM Design Program in 1989 , Tom Hardy , initiated a strategic design management effort , in collaboration with IBM design consultant Richard Sapper , to return to the roots of the IBM Design Program first established in 1956 by Eliot Noyes , Paul Rand and Charles Eames . The intent was to reprise IBM 's brand image with customer experience @-@ driven quality , approachability and contemporary product innovation . The highly successful IBM ThinkPad was the first product to emerge from this strategy in 1992 and , together with other innovative , award @-@ winning products that followed , served to position design as a strategic asset for IBM 's brand turnaround efforts initiated in 1993 by newly appointed CEO Louis V. Gerstner , Jr .
As a consultant following his 22 @-@ year tenure at IBM , Hardy served as Corporate Design Advisor to Samsung from 1996 @-@ 2003 where his integration of a brand @-@ design philosophy and guiding principles , together with a comprehensive design management system , became a strategic corporate asset that significantly helped elevate Samsung 's image from follower to global brand @-@ design leader and dramatically increased brand equity value .
= = = = Managing design for innovation ( 2000s – 2010s ) = = = =
Design management has taken a more strategic role within business since 2000 , and more academic programs for design management have been established . Design management has been recognized ( and subsidized ) throughout the European Union as a function for corporate advantage of both companies and nations . The main issues and debates included the topics of design thinking , strategic design management , design leadership , and product service systems . Design management was influenced by the following design trends : sustainable design , inclusive design , interactive design , design probes , product clinics , and co @-@ design . It was also influenced by the later management trends of open innovation and design thinking .
= = = Notion of the term " design management " = = =
The term " architectural management " was coined by the architects Brunton , Baden Hellard and Boobyer in 1964 where they highlighted the tension and synergy between the management of individual projects ( job management ) and the management of the business ( office management ) . Although they did not use the term " design management " , they stressed identical issues ; while the design community discussed methodologies for design . Christopher Alexander 's work played an important role in the development of the design methodology , where he devoted his attention to the problems of form and context ; and focused on disassembling complex design challenges into constituent parts to approach a solution . His intention was to bring more rationalism and structure into the solving of design problems .
In 1965 the term design management was first published in a series of articles in the Design Journal . This series includes a pre @-@ publication of the first chapter of the book Design Management by Michael Farr , which is considered as the first comprehensive literature on design management . His thoughts on system theory and project management led to a framework on how to deal with design as a business function at the corporate management level by providing the language and methodology to effectively manage it .
= = = Politic ( till 2000s ) = = =
Design policies have a history reaching back to the end of the 19th century , when design programs with roots in the crafts sector were implemented in Sweden ( 1845 ) and Finland ( 1875 ) . In 1907 the Deutscher Werkbund ( German Work Federation ) was established in Munich to better compete with Great Britain and United States . The success of the Deutscher Werkbund inspired a group of British designers , industrialists and business people after they had seen the Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne in 1914 , to found the Design and Industries Association and campaign for a greater involvement of government in the promotion of good design . In 1944 design management by managing design policies was used by the British Government . The British Design Council was founded by Hugh Dalton , president of the Board of Trade in the British wartime government , as the Council of Industrial Design with the objective " to promote by all practicable means the improvement of design in the products of British industry " .
Germany also realized the national importance of design during World War II . Between 1933 and 1945 Adolf Hitler used design , architecture and propaganda to increase his power ; shown through the annual Reichsparteitage in Nürnberg on September 5 . Heinrich Himmler coordinated several design activities for Hitler , including : the all @-@ black SS @-@ uniform designed by Professor Karl Diebitsch and Walter Heck in 1933 ; the Dachau concentration camp , designed by Theodor Eicke , and prototypes for other Nazi concentration camps ; and the Wewelsburg redesign commissioned by Heinrich Himmler in 1944 .
Since the 1990s the practice of design promotion is evolving , and governments have used policy management and design management to promote design as part of their efforts of fostering technology , manufacturing and innovation .
= = = Promotion and conference ( till 2000s ) = = =
In America the Chicago industrialist Walter Paepcke , of the Container Corporation of America , founded the Aspen Design Conference after World War II as a way of bringing business and designers together – to the benefit of both . In 1951 the first conference topic , " Design as a function of management " , was chosen to ensure the participation of the business community . After several years , business leaders stopped attending because the increased participation of designers changed the dialogue , focusing not on the need for collaboration between business and design , but rather on the business community 's failure to understand the value of design .
The Royal Society of Arts ( RSA ) Presidential Medals for Design Management were instituted in June 1964 . These were to recognize outstanding examples of design policy in organizations that maintained a consistently high standard in all aspects of design management , throughout all industries and disciplines . With these awards the RSA introduced the term design management . In 1965 the first medals were given to four companies ; Conran & Co Ltd , Jaeger & Co Ltd , S. Hille & Co Ltd and W. & A. Gilbey Ltd. in the category " current achievements " and two companies London Transport and Heal and Son Ltd. in the category " long pioneering in the field of design management " . The medal selection committee included representatives of the RSA council and the faculty of Royal Designers for Industry .
The Design Management Institute ( DMI ) was founded in 1975 at the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston . Since the mid @-@ 1980s the DMI has been an international non @-@ profit organization that seeks to heighten the awareness of design as an essential part of business strategy , and become the leading resource and international authority on design management . One year later the first conference was organized . The DMI increased its international presence and established the " European International Conference on Design Management " in 1997 , and a professional development program for design management .
In 2007 the European Commission funded the Award for Design Management Innovating and Reinforcing Enterprises ( ADMIRE ) project for two years , as part of the Pro Inno Europe Initiative , which is the EU 's " focal point for innovation policy analysis , learning and development " . The aim was to encourage companies – especially small and medium enterprises ( SMEs ) – to introduce design management procedures to ; improve their competitiveness , stimulate innovation , establish a European knowledge @-@ sharing platform , organize the Design Management Europe Award , and to identify and test new activities to promote Design Management .
= = = Education ( 1970 on ) = = =
Teaching design to managers was pioneered at the London Business School ( LBS ) in 1976 by Peter Gorb ( 1926 @-@ 2013 ) , the first Honorary Fellow of the DMI and a long @-@ standing Fellow of the RSA . Gorb had previously embedded design management in the Burton Retail Group before joining LBS where he later founded the Design Management Unit in 1982 ( in collaboration with Charles Handy ) which he led for over 20 years . In 1979 his talk at the RSA entitled Design and its Use by Managers provided a background introduction to the wide scope of design within industry and commerce , and an appreciation of the power of design as a management resource . Gorb produced two books based on seminars at the Design Management Unit at LBS , Design Talks ( 1988 ) with Eric Schneider and Design Management : Papers from the London Business School ( 1990 ) . Gorb is also remembered as introducing the concept of Silent Design , design undertaken by non @-@ designers , in an influential paper with Angela Dumas ( 1987 ) .
In 1991 the University of Art and Design Helsinki founded the Institute of Design Leadership and Management and established an international training program . The International Design Management Conference was organized in the same year by them . In 1995 the Helsinki School of Economics ( HSE ) , University of Art and Design Helsinki ( TaiK ) , and University of Technology ( TKK ) cooperated to create the International Design Business Management Program ( IDBM ) , which aims to bring together experts from different fields within the concept of design business management .
The Design Leadership Fellowship at the University of Oxford was founded in 2005 . In the same year the Stanford University Institute of Design founded the D @-@ school , a faculty intended to advance multidisciplinary innovation . The Finnish Aalto University was founded in 2010 and is a merger of the three established Finnish universities – the Helsinki School of Economics ( HSE ) , University of Art and Design Helsinki ( TaiK ) , and University of Technology ( TKK ) – that had been cooperating on the IDBM design management program since 1995 . Since 2006 the Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts in Switzerland offers one of the few undergraduate studies in design management , completely taught in English .
= = = Research = = =
The first international research project on design management , the TRIAD research project , was initiated by Earl Powell , then president of DMI and the Harvard Business School in 1989 . In the same year Earl Powell and Thomas Walton , Ph.D. developed the Design Management Review and DMI published the first issue . The publication is solely focusing on design management and has become the flagship publication of the discipline .
Design and design management have experienced different generations of theories . In its first generation design focused on the object , in the second on the process , and in the third on the user . Similar shifts can be seen in management and design management in almost parallel steps . For design management this has been illustrated by Brigitte Borja de Mozota , using Findeli 's Bremen Model as a framework . Design management research organised itself into :
Organizational studies : design in an economic sector or design in large firms , such as Philips or Olivetti
Descriptive studies of specific methods of design management
It is difficult to predict where design management research is heading .
= = Different types = =
Different types of design management depend on the type and strategic orientation of the business .
= = = Product design management = = =
In product @-@ focused companies , design management focuses mainly on product design management , including strong interactions with product design , product marketing , research and development , and new product development . This perspective of design management is mainly focused on the aesthetic , semiotic , and ergonomic aspects of the product to express the product 's qualities and to manage diverse product groups and product design platforms and can be applied together with a user @-@ centered design perspective .
= = = Brand design management = = =
In market and brand focused companies , design management focuses mainly on brand design management , including corporate brand management and product brand management . Focusing on the brand as the core for design decisions results in a strong focus on the brand experience , customer touch points , reliability , recognition , and trust relations . The design is driven by the brand vision and strategy .
Corporate brand design management
Market and brand focused organizations are concerned with the expression and perception of the corporate brand . Corporate design management implements , develops , and maintains the corporate identity , or brand . This type of brand management is strongly anchored in the organization to control and influence corporate design activities . The design program plays the role of a quality program within many fields of the organization to achieve uniform internal branding . It is strongly linked to strategy , corporate culture , product development , marketing , organizational structure , and technological development . Achieving a consistent corporate brand requires the involvement of designers and a widespread design awareness among employees . A creative culture , knowledge sharing processes , determination , design leadership , and good work relations support the work of corporate brand management .
Product brand design management
The main focus of product brand management lies on the single product or product family . Product design management is linked to research and development , marketing , and brand management , and is present in the fast @-@ moving consumer goods ( FMCG ) industry . It is responsible for the visual expressions of the individual product brand , with its diverse customer – brand touch points and the execution of the brand through design .
= = = Service design management = = =
Service design management deals with the newly emerging field of service design . It is the activity of planning and organizing people , infrastructure , communication , and material components of a service . The aim is to improve the quality of the service , the interaction between the service provider and its customers , and the customer 's experience . The increasing importance and size of the service sector in terms of people employed and economic importance requires that services should be well @-@ designed in order to remain competitive and to continue to attract customers . Design management traditionally focuses in the design and development of manufactured products ; service design managers can apply many of the same theoretical and methodological approaches . Systematic and strategic management of service design helps the business gain competitive advantages and conquer new markets . Companies that proactively identify the interests of their customers and use this information to develop services that create good experiences for the customer will open up new and profitable business opportunities .
Companies in the service sector innovate by addressing the intangibility , heterogeneity , inseparability , and perishability of service ( the IHIP challenge ) :
Services are intangible ; they have no physical form and they cannot be seen before purchase or taken home .
Services are heterogenous ; unlike tangible products , no two service delivery experiences are alike .
Services are inseparable ; the act of supplying a service is inseparable from the customer 's act of consuming it .
Services are perishable ; they can not be inventoried .
Service design management differs in several ways from product design management . For example , the application of international trading strategies of services is difficult because the evolution of service ' from a craftsmanship attitude to industrialization of services ' requires the development of new tools , approaches , and policies . Whereas goods can be manufactured centrally and delivered around the globe , services have to be performed at the place of consumption , which makes it difficult to achieve global quality consistency and effective cost control .
= = = Business design management = = =
Business design management deals with the newly emerging field of integrating design thinking into management . In organisation and management theory , design thinking forms part of the Architecture / Design / Anthropology ( A / D / A ) paradigm which characterizes innovative , human @-@ centered enterprises . This paradigm focuses on a collaborative and iterative style of work and an adductive mode of thinking , compared to practices associated with the more traditional Mathematics / Economics / Psychology ( M / E / P ) management paradigm . Since 2006 , the term Business Design is trademarked by the Rotman School of Management ; they define business design as the application of design thinking principles to business practice . The designerly way of problem solving is an integrative way of thinking that is characterized by a deep understanding of the user , creative resolution of tensions , collaborative prototyping , and continuous modification and enhancement of ideas and solutions . This approach to problem solving can be applied to all components of business , and the management of the problem solving process forms the core of business design management activity . Universities other than the Rotman School of Management are offering similar academic education concepts , including the Aalto University in Finland , which initiated their International Design Business Management ( IDBM ) program in 1995 .
= = = Engineering design management = = =
[ Engineering Design Management ] is a knowledge area within engineering management . It represents the adaptation and application of customary management practices , with the intention of achieving a productive [ engineering design process ] . Engineering design management is primarily applied in the context of engineering design teams , whereby the activities , outputs and influences of design teams are planned , guided , monitored and controlled . The output of an engineering design process is ultimately a description of a technical system . That technical system may either be an artifact ( technical object ) , production facility , a process plant or any infrastructure for the benefit of society . Therefore , the domain of engineering design management includes high volume , mass production as well as low @-@ volume , infrastructure .
= = = Urban design management = = =
Urban design management involves mediation among a range of self @-@ interested stakeholders engaged in the production of the built environment . Such mediation can encourage a joint search for mutually beneficial outcomes or integrative development . Integrative development aims to produce sustainable solutions by increasing stakeholder satisfaction with the process and with the resulting urban development .
Conventional real estate development and urban planning activities are subject to conflicting interests and positional bargaining . The integrative negotiation approach emphasises mutual gains . The approach has been applied in land use planning and environmental management , but has not been used as a coordinated approach to real estate development , city design , and urban planning . Urban design management involves reordering the chain of events in the production of the built environment according to the principles of integrative negotiation . Such principled negotiation can be used in urban development and planning activities to reach more efficient agreements . This leads to integrative developments and more sustainable ways to produce the built environment .
Urban design management offers prescriptive advice for practitioners trying to organise city planning activities in a way that will increase sustainability by increasing satisfaction levels . Real estate development and urban planning often occur at very different decision @-@ making scales . The practitioners involved may have diverse educational and professional backgrounds . They certainly have conflicting interests . Providing prescriptive advice for differing , possibly conflicting , groups requires construction of a framework that accommodates all of their daily activities and responsibilities . Urban design management provides a common framework to help bring together the conventional practices of urban and regional planning , real estate development , and urban design .
The work on Integrative Negotiation Consensus Building and the Mutual Gains Approach provide a helpful theoretical framework for developing the theory of urban design management . Negotiation theory provides a useful framework for merging the perspectives of urban planning , city design , and real estate project proposals regarding production of the built environment . Interests , a key construct in negotiation theory , is an important variable that will allow integrated development , as defined above , to occur . The path @-@ breaking work of Roger Fisher and William Ury ( 1981 ) , Getting to yes , advises negotiators to focus on interests and mutual gains instead of bargaining over positions .
= = = Architectural management = = =
Architectural management can be defined as an ordered way of thinking which helps to realise a quality building for an acceptable cost or as a process function with the aim of delivering greater architectural value to the client and society . Research by Kiran Gandhi describes architectural management as a set of practical techniques for an architect to successfully operate his practice . The term architectural management has been in use since the 1960s . The evolution of the field of architectural management has not been a smooth affair . Architectural practice was merely considered a business until after the Second World War , and even then practitioners appeared to be concerned about the conflict between art and commerce , demonstrating indifference to management . There was apparent conflict between the image of an architect and the need for professional management of the architectural business . Reluctance to embrace management and business as an inherent part of architectural practice could also be seen in architectural education programmes and publications . It appears that the management of architectural design , as well as architectural management in general , is still not being given enough importance . Architectural management falls into two distinct parts : office or practice management and project management . Office management provides an overall framework within which many individual projects are commenced , managed , and completed . Architectural management extends between the management of the design process , construction , and project management , through to facilities management of buildings in use . It is a powerful tool that can be applied to the benefit of professional service firms and the total building processes , yet it continues to receive too little attention both in theory and in practice .
= = Business = =
= = = Value for business = = =
Design plays a vital role in product and brand development , and is of great economic importance for organisations and companies . Creativity and design in particular ( as an activity : design skills , methods and processes ) play a growing role in creating products and services with high added value to consumers . Design generates 50 % of world export revenue in the creative industries ' products ( goods and services ) . The creative industry workforce is 3 @.@ 1 % of total employment in the European Union ( EU ) , which creates a revenue that is 2 @.@ 6 % of the EU gross value . Creative industries have attained an unprecedented average annual growth rate of 8 @.@ 7 per cent across the EU between 2000 and 2005 .
The increasing importance of creative industries ( and especially design ) in knowledge @-@ intense industries is reflected not only in the policies and studies on EU levels , but has initiated design and creative policies and programmes in the most advanced economies . Furthermore , design and creativity has been recognised on a regional and local level as a driving force for competitiveness , economic growth , job market , and citizen 's satisfaction . The investment in creative and cultural industries are considered a significant component of EU growth in the Lisbon Strategy and the Europe 2020 strategy ; and designers are increasingly involved in innovation issues .
To better understand the value of design and its role in innovation , the EU holds a public consultation on the basis of their publication Design as a driver of user @-@ centred innovation and have published the mini @-@ study Design as a tool for innovation . The report highlights the importance of design in user @-@ centred innovation and recommends the integration of design into the EU innovation policy . In addition to the design share in the export of all creative industry products , design can also have a positive impact on all business performance indicators ; from turnover and profit to market share and competitiveness . Design management research results can be classified as follows :
Design improves the performance of the innovation policy and of the communications policy of the firm
Design improves the global performance of the firm ; it is a profitable investment
Design is a profession that creates value on a macro economic level
Design improves the competitive edge of a country in the international competition ; it develops exports
Design can help the restructuring of an economic sector in regional economic policy
If and how design management is applied in a company correlates with the importance and integration of design in the company , but depends also on industry type , company size , ownership for design and type of competitive competence . A research from the Danish Design Centre ( DDC ) led to the " Danish Design Ladder " , which shows how companies interpreted and applied design in differing depth :
Non @-@ design : Companies that do not use design ( 15 % in 2007 ) .
Design as styling : Companies that use design as styling appearance ( 17 % in 2007 ) .
Design as process : Companies that integrate design into the development process ( 45 % in 2007 ) .
Design as innovation : Companies that consider design as key strategic element ( 21 % in 2007 ) .
The research showed that companies that considered design on a higher level of the ladder were constantly growing . Additionally , the Danish Design Centre published an Evaluation of the Importance of Design in 2006 , with the result that most companies considered design as a promoter for innovation ( 71 % ) , as a growth potential for the company ( 79 % ) , and to make products more user friendly ( 71 % ) . With increasing importance of design for the company , design management also becomes more important .
The value of design can be leveraged if it is managed well . Research by Chiva and Alegre shows that there is no link between the level of design investment and business success , but instead a strong correlation between design management skills and business success . This means that efficient and effective design management is crucial for maximising the value of design . Effective design management increases the efficiency of operations and process management , has a significant positive impact on process management , improves quality performance ( internal and external quality ) , and increases operating performance . To measure and communicate the value of design management , Borja de Mozota suggests adapting the Balanced Score Card model and structuring the values in the following four categories :
Internal business processes : Design management as an innovation process , providing improvements in company performance and processes . Here , these innovations and processes are totally invisible to outsiders .
Learning and growing : Beyond advanced design management . Design explicit knowledge is applied to strategic focus and improves the quality of staff .
Customer and brand : Design management as perception and brand . Design knowledge is applied to corporate difference building and strategic positioning .
Financial : The historic design management economic model . Design management as an explicit and measurable value for company reputation and stock market performance .
= = = Relation to other disciplines and departments = = =
Three different orientations for the choice of design management can be identified in companies . These orientations influence the perception of management and the responsibility of design managers within the organisation . The strategic orientations are ; market focus , product focus and brand focus .
Product @-@ driven organisations often have design responsibility in their research and development ( R & D ) departments .
Market @-@ focus driven organisation often have design responsibility in their marketing departments .
Brand @-@ focus driven organisations often have design responsibility in corporate communication .
Depending on the strategic orientation , design management overlaps with other management branches to differing extents :
Marketing management : The concepts and elements of brand management overlap with those of design management . In practice , design management can be part of the job profile of a marketing manager , though the discipline includes aspects that are not in the domain of marketing management . This intersection is called " brand design management " and consists of positioning , personality , purpose , personnel , project and practice , where the objective is to increase brand equity .
Operations management : At the operational level design management deals with the management of design projects . Processes and tools from operations management can be applied to design management in the execution of design projects .
Strategic management : Due to the increasing importance of design as a differentiator and its supporting role in brand equity , design management deals with strategic design issues and supports the strategic direction of the business or enterprise . The debate on design thinking suggests the integration of design thinking into strategic management . Design thinking and strategic thinking have some commonalities in their characteristics , both are synthetic , adductive , hypothesis @-@ driven , opportunistic , dialectical , enquiring and value @-@ driven .
Innovation management : The value of the coordinating role of design in new product development has been well documented . Design management can help to improve innovation management , which can be measured by three variables : it reduces time @-@ to @-@ market , by improving sources and communication skills and developing cross @-@ functional innovation ; it stimulates networking innovation , by managing product and customer information flows with internal ( e.g. teams ) and external ( e.g. suppliers , society ) actors ; it improves the learning process by promoting a continuous learning process .
= = = Hierarchy = = =
Like the management of strategy , design can be managed on three levels : strategic ( corporate level or enterprise wide ) , tactical ( business level or individual business units ) , and operational ( individual project level ) . These three levels have been termed differently by various authors over the last 50 years .
Operational level
Operational design management involves the management of individual design projects and design teams . Its goal is to achieve the objectives set by strategic design management . Success of good design management can be measured by evaluating the quality of operational design management outcomes . It includes the selection and management of design suppliers and encompasses the documentation , supervision , and evaluation of design processes and results . It deals with personal leadership , emotional intelligence , and the cooperation with and management of internal communications . Regular management functions , tools , and concepts can often be applied to the management of design on the operational level . It is implemented to achieve specific design objectives and manage the judgment of design proposals . It can help to build brand equity through the consistent creation and implementation of high @-@ quality design solutions that best fit the brand identity and desired consumer experience , in the most efficient way . Depending on the type of company and industry , the following job titles are associated with this role : operational design manager , senior designer , team leader , visual communication manager , corporate design coordinator , and others .
Tactical level
Tactical design management addresses the organisation of design resources and design processes . Its goal is to create a structure for design in the company , bridging the gap between objectives set through strategic design management and the implementation of design on the operational level . It defines how design is organised within the company . This includes the use of a central body to coordinate different design projects and activities . It deals with defining activities , developing design skills and competencies , managing processes , systems and procedures , assigning of roles and responsibilities , developing innovative products and service concepts , and finding new market opportunities . Outcomes of tactical design management are related to the creation of a structure for design within the company , to build internal resources and competencies for the implementation of design . Depending on the type of company and industry , the following job titles are associated with this function : tactical design manager , design director , design & innovation manager , brand design manager , new product development ( NPD ) manager , visual identity manager , and others .
Strategic level
Strategic design management involves the creation of strategic long @-@ term vision and planning for design , and deals with defining the role of design within the company . The goal of strategic design management is to support and strengthen the corporate visio by creating a relationship between the design and corporate strategy . It includes the creation of design , brand and product strategies , ensuring that design management becomes a central element in the corporate strategy formulation process . Strategic design management is responsible for the development and implementation of a corporate design programme that influences the design vision , mission , and positioning . It allows design to interact with the needs of corporate management and focuses on the long @-@ term capabilities of design . Where strategic design management is applied , there is often a strong belief in the potential to differentiate the company and gain competitive advantage by design . As a result , design thinking becomes integrated into the corporate culture . Depending on the type of company and industry the following job titles are associated with this function : strategic design manager , chief design officer , vice president design and innovation , chief creative officer , innovation design director , and others .
= = = Role and responsibility = = =
Design management is not a standard model that can be projected onto every enterprise , nor is there a specific way of applying it that leads to guaranteed success . Design management processes are carried out by humans with different responsibilities and backgrounds , who work in different industries and enterprises with different sizes and traditions , whilst having different target groups and markets to serve . Design management is multifaceted , and so are the different applications of and views on design management . The function of design management in an organisation depends on its tasks , authority , and practice .
Task
Similar tasks can be grouped into categories to describe the job profile of a design manager . Different categories in management that encompass design were defined by several authors ; those tasks occur on all three design management levels ( strategic , tactical , and operational ) :
Authority and position
The authority and position of the design management function has a large influence on what the design manager does in his or her daily job . Kootstra ( 2006 ) distinguishes design management types by organisational function : design management as line function , design management as staff function , and design management as support function . Design management as a " line function " is directly responsible for design execution in the " primary " organisational process and can take place on all levels of the design management hierarchy . The main attributes for design managers in the line are authority over and direct responsibility for the result . Design management as a staff function is not directly responsible for design execution in the " primary " organisational process , but consults as a specialist on all levels of the design management hierarchy . The main attributes for design managers in this function are their limited authority and the need to consult line managers and staff . When the design process is defined as a " secondary " organisational process , design management is seen as " supportive function " . In this function it has only a supportive character , classifying the design manager as a creative specialist towards product management , brand management , marketing , R & D , and communication . Various authors use different concepts to describe the authority and position of design management ; they can be grouped as follows :
= = Design Policy ( since the 2010s ) = =
Today , most developed countries have some kind of design promotion programme . The Design Management Institute has dedicated three issues to design policy development . Although initiatives promote design in different complexities , scopes and focuses , specific targets tend to address the following objectives :
support business : increase use of design by companies , particularly by small and medium enterprises ( SMEs ) , and grow the design sector ( use dimension ) ;
promote to the public : increase exports of design and attract international investment ( international dimension ) ;
educate designers : improve design education and research ( academic dimension ) .
A very comprehensive analysis on the situation of design on national level in Britain is the Cox review . The chairman of the Design Council , Sir George Cox , published the Cox Review of Creativity in Business in 2005 to communicate the competitive advantage of design for the British industry .
Innovation policies have been excessively focused on the supply of technologies , neglecting the demand side ( the user ) . There have been several initiatives by the European Commission to support and research design and design management in recent years . However , a European @-@ wide policy to support design has never been planned , due to the inconsistencies and differences in design policies in each nation . Nonetheless , there are currently plans to include design in the EU innovation policy .
= = Education ( since the 2010s ) = =
While design management had its origins in business schools , it has increasingly become embedded in the curriculum in design schools , particularly at the postgraduate level . Teaching design to managers was pioneered at the London Business School in 1976 , and the first programme of design management at a design school was started in the 1980s at the Royal College of Art ( RCA ) , DeMontfort , Middlesex , Staffordshire . Although , in the UK , some design management courses have not been sustainable , including those at the RCA , Westminster and Middlesex , other postgraduate courses have flourished including ones at Brunel , Lancaster and more recently the University of the Arts with each providing a specific point of view on design management .
BusinessWeek annually publishes a lists of the best programmes that combine design thinking and business thinking ( D @-@ schools 2009 and D @-@ school Programmes to Watch 2009 ) . The article Finland – World ´ s Innovation Hot Spot in the Harvard Business Review shows the interest of business leaders in the blended education of design and management . Business Schools ( such as the Rotman School of Management , Wharton University of Pennsylvania and MIT Sloan Executive Education ) have acted on this interest and developed new academic curricula .
Integrated education models are emerging in the academic world , a model which is referred to as T @-@ shape and π @-@ shaped education . T @-@ shaped professionals are taught general knowledge in a few disciplines ( e.g. management and engineering ) and specific , deep knowledge in a single domain ( e.g. design ) . This model also applies to companies , when they shift their focus from small T innovations ( innovations involving only one discipline , like chemists ) to big T innovations ( innovations involving several disciplines , like design , ethnography , lead user , etc . ) . Like in education , this shift makes breaking down silos of departments and disciplines of knowledge essential .
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= Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 film ) =
Ben @-@ Hur is a 1959 American epic historical drama film , directed by William Wyler , produced by Sam Zimbalist for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer and starring Charlton Heston , Stephen Boyd , Jack Hawkins , Hugh Griffith and Haya Harareet . A remake of the 1925 silent film with the same name , Ben @-@ Hur was adapted from Lew Wallace 's 1880 novel Ben @-@ Hur : A Tale of the Christ . The screenplay is credited to Karl Tunberg but includes contributions from Maxwell Anderson , S. N. Behrman , Gore Vidal , and Christopher Fry .
Ben @-@ Hur had the largest budget ( $ 15 @.@ 175 million ) as well as the largest sets built of any film produced at the time . Costume designer Elizabeth Haffenden oversaw a staff of 100 wardrobe fabricators to make the costumes , and a workshop employing 200 artists and workmen provided the hundreds of friezes and statues needed in the film . Filming commenced on May 18 , 1958 and wrapped on January 7 , 1959 , with shooting lasting for 12 to 14 hours a day , six days a week . Pre @-@ production began at Cinecittà around October 1957 , and post @-@ production took six months . Under cinematographer Robert L. Surtees , MGM executives made the decision to film the picture in a widescreen format , which Wyler strongly disliked . More than 200 camels and 2 @,@ 500 horses were used in the shooting of the film , with some 10 @,@ 000 extras . The sea battle was filmed using miniatures in a huge tank on the back lot at the MGM Studios in Culver City , California . The nine @-@ minute chariot race has become one of cinema 's most famous sequences , and the film score , composed and conducted by Miklós Rózsa , is the longest ever composed for a film and was highly influential on cinema for more than 15 years .
Following a $ 14 @.@ 7 million marketing effort , Ben @-@ Hur premiered at Loew 's State Theatre in New York City on November 18 , 1959 . It was the fastest @-@ grossing as well as the highest grossing film of 1959 , in the process becoming the second @-@ highest grossing film in history at the time after Gone with the Wind . It won a record 11 Academy Awards , including Best Picture , Best Director ( Wyler ) , Best Actor in a Leading Role ( Heston ) , Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Griffith ) , and Best Cinematography – Color ( Surtees ) , an accomplishment that was not equaled until Titanic in 1997 and then again by The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King in 2003 . Ben @-@ Hur also won three Golden Globe Awards , including Best Motion Picture – Drama , Best Director and Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture for Stephen Boyd . Today , Ben @-@ Hur is widely considered to be one of the greatest films ever made , and in 1998 the American Film Institute ranked it the 72nd best American film and the 2nd best American epic film in the AFI 's 10 Top 10 . In 2004 , the National Film Preservation Board selected Ben @-@ Hur for preservation by the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress for being a " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " motion picture .
= = Plot = =
In AD 26 , Judah Ben @-@ Hur ( Charlton Heston ) is a wealthy prince and merchant in Jerusalem , who lives with his mother , Miriam ( Martha Scott ) ; his sister , Tirzah ( Cathy O 'Donnell ) ; their loyal slave , Simonides ( Sam Jaffe ) and his daughter , Esther ( Haya Harareet ) . Esther loves Judah but is betrothed to another . Judah 's childhood friend , the Roman citizen Messala ( Stephen Boyd ) , is now a tribune . After several years away from Jerusalem , Messala returns as the new commander of the Roman garrison . Messala believes in the glory of Rome and its imperial power , while Judah is devoted to his faith and the freedom of the Jewish people . This difference causes tension between the friends , and results in their split after Messala issues an ultimatum to Judah .
During the parade for the new governor of Judea , Valerius Gratus , loose tiles fall from the roof of Judah 's house . Gratus is thrown from his spooked horse and nearly killed . Although Messala knows this was an accident , he condemns Judah to the galleys and imprisons Miriam and Tirzah . By punishing a known friend and prominent citizen , he hopes to intimidate the Jewish populace . Judah swears to take revenge .
After three years as a galley slave , Judah is assigned to the flagship of the Roman Consul Quintus Arrius ( Jack Hawkins ) , who has been charged with destroying a fleet of Macedonian pirates . Arrius admires Judah 's determination and self @-@ discipline and offers to train him as a gladiator or charioteer . Judah declines the offer , declaring that God will aid him in his quest for vengeance . When the Roman fleet encounters the Macedonians , Arrius orders all the rowers except Judah to be chained to their oars . Arrius ' galley is rammed and sunk , but Judah unchains the other rowers , and rescues Arrius . In despair , Arrius wrongly believes the battle ended in defeat and attempts to atone in the Roman way by " falling on his sword " , but Judah stops him . They are rescued , and Arrius is credited with the Roman fleet 's victory .
Arrius successfully petitions Emperor Tiberius ( George Relph ) to free Judah , and adopts him as his son . Another year passes . Wealthy again , Judah learns Roman ways and becomes a champion charioteer , but still longs for his family and homeland .
Judah returns to Judea . Along the way , he meets Balthasar ( Finlay Currie ) and an Arab , Sheik Ilderim ( Hugh Griffith ) . The sheik has heard of Judah 's prowess as a charioteer , and asks him to drive his quadriga in a race before the new Judean governor Pontius Pilate ( Frank Thring ) . Judah declines , even after he learns that Messala will also compete .
Judah returns to his home in Jerusalem . He meets Esther , and learns her arranged marriage did not occur and that she is still in love with him . He visits Messala and demands his mother and sister 's freedom . The Romans discover that Miriam and Tirzah contracted leprosy in prison , and expel them from the city . The women beg Esther to conceal their condition from Judah so that he may remember them as they were before , so she tells him that they died . It is then that he changes his mind and decides to seek vengeance on Messala by competing against him in the chariot race .
During the chariot race , Messala drives a Greek chariot with blades on the hubs to tear apart competing vehicles ; he attempts to destroy Judah 's chariot but destroys his own instead . Messala is fatally injured , while Judah wins the race . Before dying , Messala tells Judah that " the race is not over " and that he can find his family " in the Valley of the Lepers , if you can recognize them . " Judah visits the nearby leper colony , where ( hidden from their view ) he sees his mother and sister .
Blaming Roman rule for his family 's fate , Judah rejects his patrimony and Roman citizenship . Learning that Tirzah is dying , Judah and Esther take her and Miriam to see Jesus Christ ( Claude Heater ) , but the trial of Jesus before Pontius Pilate has begun . Judah witnesses the crucifixion of Jesus , and Miriam and Tirzah are miraculously healed during the rainstorm following the crucifixion . Judah declares , " And I felt His voice take the sword out of my hand . "
= = Cast = =
Charlton Heston as Judah Ben @-@ Hur
Jack Hawkins as Quintus Arrius
Haya Harareet as Esther
Stephen Boyd as Messala
Hugh Griffith as Sheik Ilderim
Martha Scott as Miriam
Cathy O 'Donnell as Tirzah
Sam Jaffe as Simonides
Finlay Currie as Balthasar and the narrator
Frank Thring as Pontius Pilate
Terence Longdon as Drusus
George Relph as Tiberius Caesar
André Morell as Sextus
Claude Heater as Jesus Christ ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) originally announced a remake of the 1925 silent film Ben @-@ Hur in December 1952 , ostensibly as a way to spend its Italian assets . Stewart Granger and Robert Taylor were reported to be in the running for the lead . Nine months later , MGM announced it would make the film in CinemaScope , with shooting beginning in 1954 . In November 1953 , MGM announced it had assigned producer Sam Zimbalist to the picture and hired screenwriter Karl Tunberg to write it . Sidney Franklin was scheduled to direct , with Marlon Brando intended for the lead . In September 1955 , Zimbalist , who continued to claim that Tunberg 's script was complete , announced that a $ 7 million , six @-@ to @-@ seven month production would begin in April 1956 in either Israel or Egypt in MGM 's new 65mm widescreen process , MGM Camera 65 . MGM , however , suspended production in early 1956 , following Franklin 's resignation .
By the late 1950s , the consent decree of 1948 forcing film studios to divest themselves of theater chains and the competitive pressure of television had caused significant financial distress at MGM . In a gamble to save the studio , and inspired by the success of Paramount Pictures ' 1956 Biblical epic The Ten Commandments , studio head Joseph Vogel announced in 1957 that MGM would again move forward on a remake of Ben @-@ Hur . Filming started in May 1958 and wrapped in January 1959 , and post @-@ production took six months . Although the budget for Ben @-@ Hur was initially $ 7 million , it was reported to be $ 10 million by February 1958 , reaching $ 15 @.@ 175 million by the time shooting began — making it the costliest film ever produced up to that time . When adjusted for inflation , the budget of Ben Hur was approximately $ 123 million in constant dollars .
One notable change in the film involved the opening titles . Concerned that a roaring Leo the Lion ( the MGM mascot ) would create the wrong mood for the sensitive and sacred nativity scene , Wyler received permission to replace the traditional logo with one in which Leo the Lion is quiet .
= = = Development = = =
Lew Wallace 's 1880 novel , Ben @-@ Hur : A Tale of the Christ , ran to about 550 pages . Zimbalist hired a number of screenwriters to cut the story down and turn the novel into a script . According to Gore Vidal , more than 12 versions of the script had been written by various writers by the spring of 1958 . Vidal himself had been asked to write a version of the script in 1957 , refused , and been placed on suspension for his decision . According to Vidal , Karl Tunberg was one of the last writers to work on the script . Other sources place Tunberg 's initial involvement much earlier . Tunberg cut out everything in the book after the crucifixion of Jesus , omitted the sub @-@ plot in which Ben @-@ Hur fakes his death and raises a Jewish army to overthrow the Romans , and altered the manner in which the leperous women are healed . According to Wyler , Vidal , their biographers ( see bibliography below ) and the sources that follow them , Zimbalist was unhappy with Tunberg 's script , considering it to be " pedestrian " and " unshootable " .
The writing effort changed direction when director Sidney Franklin fell ill and was removed from the production . Zimbalist offered the project to William Wyler , who had been one of 30 assistant directors on the 1925 film , in early 1957 . Wyler initially rejected it , considering the quality of the script to be " very primitive , elementary " and no better than hack work . Zimbalist showed Wyler some preliminary storyboards for the chariot race and informed him that MGM would be willing to spend up to $ 10 million , and as a result Wyler began to express an interest in the picture . MGM permitted Wyler to start casting , and in April 1957 , mainstream media outlets reported that Wyler was giving screen tests to Italian leading men , such as Cesare Danova .
Wyler did not formally agree to direct the film until September 1957 , and MGM did not announce his hiring until January 3 , 1958 . Even though he still lacked a leading man , Wyler took the assignment for many reasons : He was promised a base salary of $ 350 @,@ 000 as well as 8 percent of the gross box office ( or 3 percent of the net profits , whichever was greater ) , and he wanted to work in Rome again ( where he had filmed Roman Holiday ( 1954 ) . His base salary was , at the time , the largest ever paid to a director for a single film . Professional competitive reasons also played a role in his decision to direct , and Wyler later admitted that he wished to outdo Cecil B. DeMille , and make a " thinking man 's " Biblical epic . In later years , William Wyler would joke that it took a Jew to make a good film about Christ .
= = = Writing = = =
Wyler felt Tunberg 's draft was too much of a morality play overlaid with current Western political overtones , and that the dialogue was too modern @-@ sounding . Zimbalist brought in playwright S. N. Behrman ( who also wrote the script for Quo Vadis ) and then playwright Maxwell Anderson to write drafts . Gore Vidal biographer Fred Kaplan states that British poet and playwright Christopher Fry was hired simultaneously with Vidal , although most sources ( including Vidal himself ) state that Vidal followed Anderson , and that Fry did not come aboard until Vidal was close to leaving the picture . Vidal arrived in Rome in early March 1958 to meet with Wyler . Vidal claimed that Wyler had not read the script , and that when he did so ( at Vidal 's urging ) on his flight from the U.S. to Italy , he was upset with the modernist dialogue . Vidal agreed to work on the script for three months so that he would come off suspension and fulfill his contract with MGM , although Zimbalist pushed him to stay throughout the entire production . Vidal was researching a book on the 4th century Roman emperor Julian and knew a great deal about ancient Rome .
Vidal 's working style was to finish a scene and review it with Zimbalist . Once Vidal and Zimbalist had come to agreement , the scene would be passed to Wyler . Vidal said he kept the structure of the Tunberg / Behrman / Anderson script , but rewrote nearly all the dialogue . Vidal admitted to William Morris in March 1959 that Fry rewrote as much as a third of the dialogue which Vidal had added to the first half of the script . Vidal made one structural change which was not revised , however . The Tunberg script had Ben @-@ Hur and Messala reuniting and falling out in a single scene . Vidal broke the scene in two , so that the men first reunite at the Castle Antonia and then later argue and end their friendship at Ben @-@ Hur 's home . Vidal also added small character touches to the script , such as Messala 's purchase of a brooch for Tirzah and Ben @-@ Hur 's purchase of a horse for Messala . Vidal claimed that he worked on the first half of the script ( everything up to the chariot race ) , and scripted 10 versions of the scene where Ben @-@ Hur confronts Messala and begs for his family 's freedom .
Vidal 's claim about a homoerotic subtext is hotly debated . Vidal first made the claim in an interview in the 1995 documentary film The Celluloid Closet , and asserted that he persuaded Wyler to direct Stephen Boyd to play the role as if he were a spurned homosexual lover . Vidal said that he believed that Messala 's vindictiveness could only be motivated by the feeling of rejection that a lover would feel , and claimed to have suggested to Wyler that Stephen Boyd should play the role that way , and that Heston be kept in the dark about the Messala character 's motivations . Whether Vidal wrote the scene in question or had the acting conversation with Wyler , and whether Wyler shot what Vidal wrote , remain issues of debate . Wyler himself says that he does not remember any conversation about this part of the script or Boyd 's acting with Gore Vidal , and that he discarded Vidal 's draft in favor of Fry 's . Morgan Hudgens , publicity director for the film , however , wrote to Vidal in late May 1958 about the crucial scene , and implied there was a homosexual context : " ... the big cornpone [ the crew 's nickname for Heston ] really threw himself into your ' first meeting ' scene yesterday . You should have seen those boys embrace ! " Film critic F. X. Feeney , in a comparison of script drafts , concludes that Vidal made significant and extensive contributions to the script .
The final writer on the film was Christopher Fry . Charlton Heston has claimed that Fry was Wyler 's first choice as screenwriter , but that Zimbalist forced him to use Vidal . Whether Fry worked on the script before Vidal or not , sources agree that Fry arrived in Rome in early May 1958 and spent six days a week on the set , writing and rewriting lines of dialogue as well as entire scenes , until the picture was finished . In particular , Fry gave the dialogue a slightly more formal and archaic tone without making it sound stilted and medieval . A highly publicized bitter dispute later broke out over screenplay credits to the film , involving Wyler , Tunberg , Vidal , Fry and the Screen Writers ' Guild .
The final script ran 230 pages . The screenplay differed more from the original novel than did the 1925 silent film version . Some changes made the film 's storyline more dramatic . Others inserted an admiration for Jewish people ( who had founded the state of Israel by this time ) and the more pluralistic society of 1950s America rather than the " Christian superiority " view of Wallace 's novel .
= = = Casting = = =
MGM opened a casting office in Rome in mid @-@ 1957 to select the 50 @,@ 000 people who would act in minor roles and as extras in the film , and a total of 365 actors had speaking parts in the film , although only 45 of them were considered " principal " performers . In casting , Wyler placed heavy emphasis on characterization rather than looks or acting history . He typically cast the Romans with British actors and the Jews with American actors to help underscore the divide between the two groups . The Romans were the aristocrats in the film , and Wyler believed that American audiences would interpret British accents as patrician .
Several actors were offered the role of Judah Ben @-@ Hur before it was accepted by Charlton Heston . Burt Lancaster stated he turned down the role because he found the script boring and belittling to Christianity . Paul Newman turned it down because he said he didn 't have the legs to wear a tunic . Marlon Brando , Rock Hudson , Geoffrey Horne , and Leslie Nielsen were also offered the role , as were a number of muscular , handsome Italian actors ( many of whom did not speak English ) . Kirk Douglas was interested in the role , but was turned down in favor of Heston , who was formally cast on January 22 , 1958 . His salary was $ 250 @,@ 000 for 30 weeks , a prorated salary for any time over 30 weeks , and travel expenses for his family .
Stephen Boyd was cast as the antagonist , Messala , on April 13 , 1958 . William Wyler originally wanted Heston for the role , but sought another actor after he moved Heston into the role of Judah Ben @-@ Hur . Because both Boyd and Heston had blue eyes , Wyler had Boyd outfitted with brown contact lenses as a way of contrasting the two men . Marie Ney was originally cast as Miriam , but was fired after two days of work because she could not cry on cue . Heston says that he was the one who suggested that Wyler cast Martha Scott as Miriam , and she was hired on July 17 , 1958 . Cathy O 'Donnell was Wyler 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , and although her career was in decline , Wyler cast her as Tirzah .
More than 30 actresses were considered for the role of Esther . The Israeli actress Haya Harareet , a relative newcomer to film , was cast as Esther on May 16 , 1958 , after providing a 30 @-@ second silent screen test . Wyler had met her at the Cannes Film Festival , where she impressed him with her conversational skills and force of personality . Sam Jaffe was cast as Simonides on April 3 , 1958 , and Finlay Currie was cast as Balthasar on the same day . Wyler had to persuade Jack Hawkins to appear in the film , because Hawkins was unwilling to act in another epic motion picture so soon after The Bridge on the River Kwai . Hugh Griffith , who gained acclaim in the post @-@ World War II era in Ealing Studios comedies , was cast as the colorful Sheik Ilderim . The role of Jesus was played by Claude Heater ( uncredited ) , an American opera singer performing with the Vienna State Opera in Rome when he was asked to do a screen test for the film .
= = = Cinematography = = =
Robert L. Surtees , who had already filmed several of the most successful epics of the 1950s , was hired as cinematographer for the film . Early on in the film 's production , Zimbalist and other MGM executives made the decision to film the picture in a widescreen format . Wyler strongly disliked the widescreen format , commenting that " Nothing is out of the picture , and you can 't fill it . You either have a lot of empty space , or you have two people talking and a flock of others surrounding them who have nothing to do with the scene . Your eye just wanders out of curiosity . " The cameras were also quite large , heavy , and difficult and time @-@ consuming to move . To overcome these difficulties , Surtees and Wyler collaborated on using the widescreen lenses , film stocks , and projection technologies to create highly detailed images for the film . Wyler was best known for composition in depth , a visual technique in which people , props , and architecture are not merely composed horizontally but in depth of field as well . He also had a strong preference for long takes , during which his actors could move within this highly detailed space .
The movie was filmed in a process known as " MGM Camera 65 " . 1957 's Raintree County was the first MGM film to use the process . The MGM Camera 65 used special 65mm Eastmancolor film stock with a 2 @.@ 76 : 1 aspect ratio . 70mm anamorphic camera lenses developed by the Mitchell Camera Company were manufactured to specifications submitted by MGM . These lenses squeezed the image down 1 @.@ 25 times to fit on the image area of the film stock . Because the film could be adapted to the requirements of individual theaters , movie houses did not need to install special , expensive 70mm projection equipment . Six of the 70mm lenses , each worth $ 100 @,@ 000 , were shipped to Rome for use by the production .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Pre @-@ production began at Cinecittà Studios around October 1957 . The MGM Art Department produced more than 15 @,@ 000 sketches and drawings of costumes , sets , props , and other items needed for the film ( 8 @,@ 000 alone for the costumes ) ; photostatted each item ; and cross @-@ referenced and catalogued them for use by the production design team and fabricators . More than a million props were ultimately manufactured . Construction of miniatures for the entrance of Quintus Arrius into Rome and for the sea battle were under way by the end of November 1957 . MGM location scouts arrived in Rome to identify shooting locations in August 1957 . Location shooting in Africa was actively under consideration , and in mid @-@ January 1958 , MGM said that filming in North Africa ( later revealed to be Libya ) would begin on March 1 , 1958 , and that 200 camels and 2 @,@ 500 horses had already been procured for the studio 's use there . The production was then scheduled to move to Rome on April 1 , where Andrew Marton had been hired as second unit director and 72 horses were being trained for the chariot race sequence . However , the Libyan government canceled the production 's film permit for religious reasons on March 11 , 1958 , just a week before filming was to have begun . It is unclear whether any second unit filming took place in Israel . A June 8 , 1958 , reported in The New York Times said second unit director Andrew Martin had roamed " up and down the countryside " filming footage . However , the American Film Institute claims the filming permit was revoked in Israel for religious reasons as well ( although when is not clear ) , and no footage from the planned location shooting near Jerusalem appeared in the film .
Principal photography began in Rome on May 18 , 1958 . The script was still unfinished when cinematography began , so that Wyler had only read the first 10 to 12 pages of it . Shooting lasted for 12 to 14 hours a day , six days a week . On Sundays , Wyler would meet with Fry and Zimbalist for story conferences . The pace of the film was so grueling that a doctor was brought onto the set to give a vitamin B complex injection to anyone who requested it ( shots which Wyler and his family later suspected may have contained amphetamines ) . To speed things up , Wyler often kept principal actors on stand @-@ by , in full costume and make @-@ up , so that he could shoot pick @-@ up scenes if the first unit slowed down . Actresses Martha Scott and Cathy O 'Donnell spent almost the entire month of November 1958 in full leprosy make @-@ up and costumes so that Wyler could shoot " leper scenes " when other shots didn 't go well . Wyler was unhappy with Heston 's performances , feeling they did not make Judah Ben @-@ Hur a plausible character , and Heston had to reshoot " I 'm a Jew " 16 times . Shooting took nine months , which included three months for the chariot race scene alone . Principal photography ended on January 7 , 1959 , with filming of the crucifixion scene , which took four days to shoot .
= = = Production design = = =
Italy was MGM 's top choice for hosting the production . However , a number of countries — including France , Mexico , Spain , and the United Kingdom — were also considered . Cinecittà Studios , a very large motion picture production facility constructed in 1937 on the outskirts of Rome , was identified early on as the primary shooting location . Zimbalist hired Wyler 's long @-@ term production supervisor , Henry Henigson , to oversee the film , and art directors William A. Horning and Edward Carfagno created the overall look of the film , relying on the more than five years of research which had already been completed for the production . A skeleton crew of studio technicians arrived in the summer of 1956 to begin preparing the Cinecittà soundstages and back lot .
The Ben @-@ Hur production utilized 300 sets scattered over 148 acres ( 60 ha ) and nine sound stages . Several sets still standing from Quo Vadis in 1951 were refurbished and used for Ben @-@ Hur . By the end of the production more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 @,@ 000 kg ) of plaster and 40 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m3 ) of lumber were used . The budget called for more than 100 @,@ 000 costumes and 1 @,@ 000 suits of armor to be made , for the hiring of 10 @,@ 000 extras , and the procurement of hundreds of camels , donkeys , horses , and sheep . Costume designer Elizabeth Haffenden oversaw a staff of 100 wardrobe fabricators who began manufacturing the costumes for the film a year before filming began . Special silk was imported from Thailand , the armor manufactured in West Germany , and the woolens made and embroidered in the United Kingdom and various countries of South America . Many leather goods were hand @-@ tooled in the United Kingdom as well , while Italian shoemakers manufactured the boots and shoes . The lace for costumes came from France , while costume jewelry was purchased in Switzerland . More than 400 pounds ( 180 kg ) of hair were donated by women in the Piedmont region of Italy to make wigs and beards for the production , and 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of track laid down for the camera dollies . A workshop employing 200 artists and workmen provided the hundreds of friezes and statues needed . The mountain village of Arcinazzo Romano , 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Rome , served as a stand @-@ in for the town of Nazareth . Beaches near Anzio were also used , and caves just south of the city served as the leper colony . Some additional desert panoramas were shot in Arizona , and some close @-@ up inserts taken at the MGM Studios , with the final images photographed on February 3 , 1958 .
The sea battle was one of the first sequences created for the film , filmed using miniatures in a huge tank on the back lot at the MGM Studios in Culver City , California in November and December 1957 . More than 40 miniature ships and two 175 @-@ foot ( 53 m ) long Roman galleys , each of them seaworthy , were built for the live @-@ action segment . The ships were constructed based on plans found in Italian museums for actual ancient Roman galleys . An artificial lake with equipment capable of generating sea @-@ sized waves was built at the Cinecittà studios to accommodate the galleys . A massive backdrop , 200 feet ( 61 m ) wide by 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , was painted and erected to hide the city and hills in the background . To make the scene bloodier , Dunning sought out Italian extras who had missing limbs , then had the makeup crews rig them with fake bone and blood to make it appear as if they had lost a hand or leg during the battle . When Dunning edited his own footage later , he made sure that these men were not on screen for long so that audiences would be upset . The above @-@ decks footage was integrated with the miniature work using process shots and traveling mattes .
One of the most lavish sets was the villa of Quintus Arrius , which included 45 working fountains and 8 @.@ 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ) of pipes . Wealthy citizens and nobles of Rome , who wanted to portray their ancient selves , acted as extras in the villa scenes . To recreate the ancient city streets of Jerusalem , a vast set covering 0 @.@ 5 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) was built , which included a 75 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) high Joppa Gate . The sets were so vast and visually exciting that they became a tourist attraction , and various film stars visited during production . The huge sets could be seen from the outskirts of Rome , and MGM estimated that more than 5 @,@ 000 people were given tours of the sets .
Dismantling the sets cost $ 125 @,@ 000 . Almost all the filmmaking equipment was turned over to the Italian government , which sold and exported it . MGM turned title to the artificial lake over to Cinecittà . MGM retained control over the costumes and the artificial lake background , which went back to the United States . The chariots were also returned to the U.S. , where they were used as promotional props . The life @-@ size galleys and pirate ships were dismantled to prevent them from being used by competing studios . Some of the horses were adopted by the men who trained them , while others were sold . Many of the camels , donkeys , and other exotic animals were sold to circuses and zoos in Europe .
= = = Editing = = =
A total of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 feet ( 340 @,@ 000 m ) was shot for the film . According to editor John D. Dunning , the first cut of the film was four and one @-@ half hours long . William Wyler stated that his goal was to bring the running time down to three and a half hours . The most difficult editing decisions , according to Dunning , came during scenes which involved Jesus Christ , as these contained almost no dialogue and most of the footage was purely reaction shots by actors . Dunning also believed that in the final cut the leper scene was too long and needed trimming . Editing was also complicated by the 70mm footage being printed . Because no editing equipment ( such as the Moviola ) existed which could handle the 70mm print , the 70mm footage would be reduced to 35mm and then cut . This caused much of the image to be lost . When the film was edited into its final form , it ran 213 minutes and included just 19 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 800 m ) of film . It was the third @-@ longest motion picture ever made at the time , behind Gone With The Wind and The Ten Commandments .
= = = Musical score = = =
The film score was composed and conducted by Miklós Rózsa , who scored most of MGM 's epics , although Zimbalist had previously commissioned and then set aside a score from Sir William Walton . Rózsa conducted research into Greek and Roman music of the period to give his score an archaic sound while still being modern . Rózsa himself directed the 100 @-@ piece MGM Symphony Orchestra during the 12 recording sessions ( which stretched over 72 hours ) . The soundtrack was recorded in six @-@ channel stereo . More than three hours of music were composed for the film , and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours of it were finally used , making it ( as of 2001 ) the longest score ever composed for a motion picture . The score contains no leitmotifs for the main characters . While not a leitmotif , the score does transition from full orchestra to pipe organ whenever Jesus Christ appears .
Rózsa won his third Academy Award for his score . As of 2001 , it was the only musical score in the ancient and medieval epic genre of film to win an Oscar . Like most film musical soundtracks , it was issued as an album for the public to enjoy as a distinct piece of music . The score was so lengthy that it had to be released in 1959 on three LP records , although a one @-@ LP version with Carlo Savina conducting the Symphony Orchestra of Rome was also issued . In addition , to provide a more " listenable " album , Rózsa arranged his score into a " Ben @-@ Hur Suite " , which was released on Lion Records ( an MGM subsidiary which issued low @-@ priced records ) in 1959 . This made the Ben @-@ Hur film musical score the first to be released not only in its entirety but also as a separate album .
The Ben @-@ Hur score is considered to be the best of Rózsa 's career . The musical soundtrack to Ben @-@ Hur remained deeply influential into the mid 1970s , when film music composed by John Williams for films such as Jaws , Star Wars , and Raiders of the Lost Ark became more popular among composers and film @-@ goers . Rózsa 's score has since seen several notable re @-@ releases , including by the Nuremberg Symphony Orchestra on Capitol Records in 1967 , several of the tracks by the United Kingdom 's National Philharmonic Orchestra and Chorus on Decca Records in 1977 and a Sony Music reissue as a two @-@ CD set in 1991 . In 2012 , Film Score Monthly and WaterTower Music issued a limited edition five @-@ CD set of music from the film .
= = Chariot race sequence = =
The chariot race in Ben @-@ Hur was directed by Andrew Marton and Yakima Canutt , filmmakers who often acted as second unit directors on other people 's films . Each man had an assistant director , who shot additional footage . Among these were Sergio Leone , who was senior assistant director in the second unit and responsible for retakes . William Wyler shot the " pageantry " sequence that occurs before the race , scenes of the jubilant crowd , and the victory scenes after the race concludes . The " pageantry " sequence before the race begins is a shot @-@ by @-@ shot remake of the same sequence from the 1925 silent film version . Wyler added the parade around the track because he knew that the chariot race would be primarily composed of close @-@ up and medium shots . To impress the audience with the grandeur of the arena , Wyler added the parade in formation ( even though it was not historically accurate ) .
= = = Set design = = =
The chariot arena was modeled on a historic circus in Jerusalem . Covering 18 acres ( 7 @.@ 3 ha ) , it was the largest film set ever built at that time . Constructed at a cost of $ 1 million , it took a thousand workmen more than a year to carve the oval out of a rock quarry . The racetrack featured 1 @,@ 500 @-@ foot ( 460 m ) long straightaways and five @-@ story @-@ high grandstands . Over 250 miles ( 400 km ) of metal tubing were used to erect the grandstands . Matte paintings created the illusion of upper stories of the grandstands and the background mountains . More than 40 @,@ 000 short tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) of sand were brought in from beaches on the Mediterranean to cover the track . Other elements of the circus were also historically accurate . Imperial Roman racecourses featured a raised 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high spina ( the center section ) , metae ( columnar goalposts at each end of the spina ) , dolphin @-@ shaped lap counters , and carceres ( the columned building in the rear which housed the cells where horses waited prior to the race ) . The four statues atop the spina were 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high . A chariot track identical in size was constructed next to the set and used to train the horses and lay out camera shots .
= = = Preparation = = =
Planning for the chariot race took nearly a year to complete . Seventy eight horses were bought and imported from Yugoslavia and Sicily in November 1957 , exercised into peak physical condition , and trained by Hollywood animal handler Glenn Randall to pull the quadriga ( a Roman Empire chariot drawn by four horses abreast ) . Andalusian horses played Ben @-@ Hur 's Arabians , while the others in the chariot race were primarily Lipizzans . A veterinarian , a harness maker , and 20 stable boys were employed to care for the horses and ensure they were outfitted for racing each day . The firm of Danesi Brothers built 18 chariots , nine of which were used for practice , each weighing 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) . Principal cast members , stand @-@ ins , and stunt people made 100 practice laps of the arena in preparation for shooting .
Heston and Boyd both had to learn how to drive a chariot . Heston , an experienced horseman , took daily three @-@ hour lessons in chariot driving after he arrived in Rome and picked up the skill quickly . Heston was outfitted with special contact lenses to prevent the grit kicked up during the race from injuring his eyes . For the other charioteers , six actors with extensive experience with horses were flown in from Hollywood , including Giuseppe Tosi , who had once been a bodyguard for Victor Emmanuel III of Italy .
= = = Filming = = =
The chariot scene took five weeks ( spread over three months ) to film at a total cost of $ 1 million and required more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of racing to complete . Marton and Canutt filmed the entire chariot sequence with stunt doubles in long shot , edited the footage together , and showed the footage to Zimbalist , Wyler , and Heston to show them what the race should look like and to indicate where close @-@ up shots with Heston and Boyd should go . Seven thousand extras were hired to cheer in the stands . Economic conditions in Italy were poor at the time , and as shooting for the chariot scene wound down only 1 @,@ 500 extras were needed on any given day . On June 6 , more than 3 @,@ 000 people seeking work were turned away . The crowd rioted , throwing stones and assaulting the set 's gates until police arrived and dispersed them . Dynamite charges were used to show the chariot wheels and axles splintering from the effects of Messala 's barbed @-@ wheel attacks . Three lifelike dummies were placed at key points in the race to give the appearance of men being run over by chariots .
The cameras used during the chariot race also presented problems . The 70mm lenses had a minimum focusing distance of 50 feet ( 15 m ) , and the camera was mounted on a small Italian @-@ made car so the camera crew could keep in front of the chariots . The horses , however , accelerated down the 1 @,@ 500 @-@ foot ( 460 m ) straightaway much faster than the car could , and the long focal length left Marton and Canutt with too little time to get their shots . The production company purchased a more powerful American car , but the horses were still too fast , and even with a head start , the filmmakers only had a few more seconds of shot time . As filming progressed , vast amounts of footage were shot for this sequence . The ratio of footage shot to footage used was 263 : 1 , one of the highest ratios ever for a film .
One of the most notable moments in the race came from a near @-@ fatal accident when stunt man Joe Canutt , Yakima Canutt 's son , was tossed into the air by accident ; he incurred a minor chin injury . Marton wanted to keep the shot , but Zimbalist felt the footage was unusable . Marton conceived the idea of showing that Ben @-@ Hur was able to land on and cling to the front of his chariot , then scramble back into the quadriga while the horses kept going . The long shot of Canutt 's accident was cut together with a close @-@ up of Heston climbing back aboard , resulting in one of the race 's most memorable moments . Boyd did all but two of his own stunts . For the sequence where Messala is dragged beneath a chariot 's horses and trampled , Boyd wore steel armor under his costume and acted out the close @-@ up shot and the shot of him on his back , attempting to climb up into the horses ' harness to escape injury . A dummy was used to obtain the trampling shot in this sequence .
Several urban legends exist regarding the chariot sequence . One claims that a stuntman died during filming , which Nosher Powell claims in his autobiography , and another states that a red Ferrari can be seen during the chariot race . The book Movie Mistakes claims this is a myth . Heston , in a DVD commentary track for the film , mentions that a third urban legend claims that he wore a wristwatch during the chariot race , but points out that he wore leather bracers up to the elbow .
= = Release = =
A massive $ 14 @.@ 7 million marketing effort helped promote Ben @-@ Hur . MGM established a special " Ben @-@ Hur Research Department " which surveyed more than 2 @,@ 000 high schools in 47 American cities to gauge teenage interest in the film . A high school study guide was also created and distributed . Sindlinger and Company was hired to conduct a nationwide survey to gauge the impact of the marketing campaign . In 1959 and 1960 , more than $ 20 million in candy ; children 's tricycles in the shape of chariots ; gowns ; hair barrettes ; items of jewelry ; men 's ties ; bottles of perfume ; " Ben @-@ Her " and " Ben @-@ His " towels ; toy armor , helmets , and swords ; umbrellas ; and hardback and paperback versions of the novel ( tied to the film with cover art ) were sold .
Ben @-@ Hur premiered at Loew 's State Theatre in New York City on November 18 , 1959 . Present at the premiere were William Wyler , Charlton Heston , Stephen Boyd , Haya Harareet , Martha Scott , Ramon Novarro ( who played Judah Ben @-@ Hur in the 1925 silent film version ) , Spyros Skouras ( president of the 20th Century Fox ) , Barney Balaban ( president of Paramount Pictures ) , Jack L. Warner ( president of Warner Bros. ) , Leonard Goldenson ( president of the American Broadcasting Company ) , Moss Hart ( playwright ) , Robert Kintner ( an ABC Television executive ) , Sidney Kingsley ( playwright ) , and Adolph Zukor ( founder of Paramount Pictures ) .
= = = Box office = = =
During its initial release the film earned $ 33 @.@ 6 million in North American theater rentals ( the distributor 's share of the box office ) , generating approximately $ 74 @.@ 7 million in box office sales . Outside of North America , it earned $ 32 @.@ 5 million in rentals ( about $ 72 @.@ 2 million at the box office ) for a worldwide total of $ 66 @.@ 1 million in rental earnings , roughly equivalent to $ 146 @.@ 9 million in box office receipts . It was the fastest @-@ grossing film as well as the highest grossing film of 1959 , in the process becoming the second @-@ highest grossing film of all @-@ time ( at that time ) behind Gone with the Wind . Ben @-@ Hur saved MGM from financial disaster , making a profit of $ 20 @,@ 409 @,@ 000 on its initial release , and another $ 10 @.@ 1 million in profits when re @-@ released in 1969 . By 1989 , Ben @-@ Hur had earned $ 90 million in worldwide theatrical rentals .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Ben @-@ Hur received overwhelmingly positive reviews upon its release . Bosley Crowther , writing for The New York Times , called Ben @-@ Hur " a remarkably intelligent and engrossing human drama " . While praising the acting and William Wyler 's " close @-@ to " direction , he also had high praise for the chariot race : " There has seldom been anything in movies to compare with this picture 's chariot race . It is a stunning complex of mighty setting , thrilling action by horses and men , panoramic observation and overwhelming use of dramatic sound . " Jack Gaver , writing for United Press International , also had praise for the acting , calling it full of " genuine warmth and fervor and finely acted intimate scenes " . Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times called it " magnificent , inspiring , awesome , enthralling , and all the other adjectives you have been reading about it . " He also called the editing " generally expert " although at times abrupt . Ronald Holloway , writing for Variety , called Ben @-@ Hur " a majestic achievement , representing a superb blending of the motion picture arts by master craftsmen , " and concluded that " Gone With the Wind , Metro 's own champion all @-@ time top grosser , will eventually have to take a back seat . " The chariot race " will probably be preserved in film archives as the finest example of the use of the motion picture camera to record an action sequence . The race , directed by Andrew Marton and Yakima Canutt , represents some 40 minutes of the most hair @-@ raising excitement that film audiences have ever witnessed . "
There was some criticism , however . Crowther felt the film was too long . Scheuer , whilst mostly praising the film , felt that its biggest fault was " overstatement " , and that it hammered home at points long after they had been made . He singled out the galley rowing sequence , Jesus ' journey to the place of crucifixion , and nearly all the sequences involving the lepers . He also lightly criticized Charlton Heston for being more physically than emotionally compelling . John McCarten of The New Yorker was more critical of Heston , writing that he " speaks English as if he 'd learned it from records . " Even William Wyler later privately admitted he was disappointed with Heston 's acting . Film critic Dwight Macdonald also was largely negative . He found the film so uninvolving and lengthy that he said , " I felt like a motorist trapped at a railroad crossing while a long freight train slowly trundles by . " British film critic John Pym , writing for Time Out , was equally dismissive , calling the film a " four @-@ hour Sunday school lesson " . Many French and American film critics who believed in the auteur theory of filmmaking saw the film as confirmation of their belief that William Wyler was " merely a commercial craftsman " rather than a serious artist .
The film currently has an 88 % " Certified Fresh " rating on Rotten Tomatoes . The consensus reads , " Uneven , but in terms of epic scope and grand spectacle , Ben @-@ Hur still ranks among Hollywood 's finest examples of pure entertainment . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Ben @-@ Hur was nominated for 12 Academy Awards and won an unprecedented 11 . As of 2016 , only Titanic in 1998 and The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King in 2004 have matched the film 's wins . The lone category where Ben @-@ Hur did not win was for Best Adapted Screenplay ( losing to Room at the Top ) , and most observers attributed this to the controversy over the writing credit . MGM and Panavision shared a special technical Oscar in March 1960 for developing the Camera 65 photographic process .
Ben @-@ Hur also won three Golden Globe Awards – Best Motion Picture – Drama , Best Director , Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture for Stephen Boyd – and received a Special Achievement Award ( which went to Andrew Marton for directing the chariot race sequence ) . Heston was nominated for a Golden Globe in the Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama category , but did not win . The picture also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film , the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Film , and the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Motion Picture for William Wyler 's masterful direction .
Ben @-@ Hur also appears on several " best of " lists generated by the American Film Institute , an independent non @-@ profit organization created by the National Endowment for the Arts in 1967 . The " AFI 100 Years ... series " were created by juries consisting of over 1 @,@ 500 artists , scholars , critics , and historians , with movies selected based on the film 's popularity over time , historical significance , and cultural impact . Ben @-@ Hur appeared at # 72 on the 100 Movies , # 49 on the 100 Thrills , # 21 on the Film Scores , # 56 on the 100 Cheers and # 2 on the AFI 's 10 Top 10 Epic film lists . Judah Ben @-@ Hur was also nominated as a hero and Messala nominated as a villain in the AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains list . In 2004 , the National Film Preservation Board selected Ben @-@ Hur for preservation by the National Film Registry for being a " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " motion picture . It was listed as number 491 on Empire 's 500 Greatest films of all time .
= = = Broadcast and home video releases = = =
The film 's first telecast took place on Sunday , February 14 , 1971 . In what was then a television first for a Hollywood film , it was broadcast over five hours ( including commercials ) during a single evening by CBS , preempting all of that network 's regular programming for that one evening . It was watched by 85 @.@ 82 million people for a 37 @.@ 1 average rating . It was one of the highest rated movies ever screened on television at the time ( behind the broadcast premiere of Bridge on the River Kwai ) .
Ben @-@ Hur has been released on home video on several occasions . Recent releases have all been on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc . A two @-@ sided single disc widescreen release occurred in the United States on March 13 , 2001 . This release included several featurettes , including a commentary by Charlton Heston , a making @-@ of documentary ( made for a laserdisc release in 1993 ) , screen tests , and a photo gallery . This edition was released soon thereafter as a two @-@ disc set in other countries . The film saw another DVD release on September 13 , 2005 . This four @-@ disc edition included remastered images and audio , an additional commentary , two additional featurettes , and a complete version of the 1925 silent version of Ben @-@ Hur . A boxed " Deluxe Edition " , issued in the U.S. in 2002 , included postcard @-@ sized reprints of lobby cards , postcard @-@ sized black @-@ and @-@ white stills with machine @-@ reproduced autographs of cast members , a matte @-@ framed color image from the film with a 35mm film frame mounted below it , and a 27 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ inch ( 69 by 102 cm ) reproduction film poster .
In 2011 , Warner Home Video released a 50th anniversary edition on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD , making it the first home video release where the film is present on its original aspect ratio . For this release , the film was completely restored frame by frame from an 8K scan of the original 65mm negative . The restoration cost $ 1 million , and was one of the highest resolution restorations ever made by Warner Bros. A new musical soundtrack @-@ only option and six new featurettes ( one of which was an hour long ) were also included .
= = Remake = =
On April 25 , 2014 , Paramount Pictures and MGM announced that they will co @-@ produce another Ben @-@ Hur film with Mark Burnett and Roma Downey , who also made the 2013 miniseries The Bible . The film is set for release in August 2016 . On September 11 , Morgan Freeman was added to the cast to play the role of Ildarin , the man who teaches the slave Ben @-@ Hur to become a champion @-@ caliber chariot racer .
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= Cyberpunk ( album ) =
Cyberpunk is the fifth studio album by English rock vocalist Billy Idol . A concept album , it was released in 1993 by Chrysalis Records . Inspired by his personal interest in technology and his first attempts to use computers in the creation of his music , Idol based the album on the cyberdelic subculture of the late 1980s and early 1990s . Heavily experimental in its style , the album was an attempt by Idol to take control of the creative process in the production of his albums , while simultaneously introducing Idol 's fans and other musicians to the opportunities presented by digital media .
The album featured a cyberpunk @-@ styled narrative as well as synthesized vocals and industrial influences . Despite the critical and financial failure of the album , Billy Idol set several precedents in the process of promoting the album . These included his use of the internet , e @-@ mail , virtual communities , and multimedia software – each a first for a mainstream celebrity . Idol also based his fashion style , music videos , and stage shows on cyberpunk themes and aesthetics .
Released to negative reviews , Cyberpunk polarised the internet communities of the period . Detractors viewed it as an act of cooptation and opportunistic commercialisation . It was also seen as part of a process that saw the overuse of the term " cyberpunk " until the word lost meaning . Alternatively , supporters saw Idol 's efforts as harmless and well @-@ intentioned , and were encouraged by his new interest in cyberculture .
= = Conception = =
During the release of 1990 's Charmed Life , Idol suffered a broken leg in a motorcycle accident . While in recovery , he was interviewed by Legs McNeil . McNeil noticed the electronic muscle stimulator on Idol 's leg and referred to him as a " cyberpunk " , citing the cyborg qualities of his appearance . This led to Idol taking a serious interest in the works of William Gibson for the first time , although he had read Neuromancer in the mid- ' 80s . In the following months , Idol continued to investigate cyberpunk fiction and technology . He also read Neal Stephenson 's Snow Crash , works by Robert Anton Wilson , and others .
At approximately the same time , he began to work with Trevor Rabin to create his music , having parted ways with his former producer , Keith Forsey . Rabin introduced Idol to his home studio , which was centralised around Rabin 's Macintosh computer and music software . The ability to personally produce music from his home , rather than at a professional studio , appealed to Idol 's " do it yourself " ethic . He felt that working through a team of producers and sound engineers cut into his personal vision for previous albums , and was interested in being more directly in control of his future work . Idol asked his producer , Robin Hancock , to educate himself and his guitarist , Mark Younger @-@ Smith , on the use of software for musical production .
With his increasing exposure to technology and science fiction , Idol decided to base his upcoming album on the cyberpunk genre , and quickly set about educating himself in Cyberdelic counter culture . Idol saw the convergence of affordable technology with the music industry and anticipated its impact on a new era for DIY punk music . " It 's 1993 , " Idol said during a New York Times interview . " I better wake up and be part of it . I 'm sitting there , a 1977 punk watching Courtney Love talk about punk , watching Nirvana talk about punk , and this is my reply . "
Reading Mondo 2000 and Gareth Branwyn 's 1992 manifesto , " Is There a Cyberpunk Movement ? " , Idol resolved to base an opening sequence on Branwyn 's essay , contacting the writer for permission . He also read Branwyn 's Beyond Cyberpunk ! HyperCard stack , a collection of essays based on fanzines , political tracts , conspiracy theories , and which referred to itself as " a do @-@ it @-@ yourself guide to the future . " Idol proceeded to consult with various writers familiar with the computer related magazines , such as Mondo 2000 , and Boing Boing . Idol also hosted a " cyber @-@ meeting " attended by the likes of Timothy Leary , famed counterculture guru ; Jaime Levy , author of books published on disks under the " Electronic Hollywood " imprint ; R. U. Sirius , co @-@ founder of Mondo 2000 ; and Brett Leonard , director of The Lawnmower Man .
Asked by Idol about how he could become further involved in cyberculture , Branwyn and Mark Frauenfelder advised him to investigate The WELL , one of the oldest online communities . Idol did so , discussing the album project online with WELL users , and creating a personal e @-@ mail account which he released on printed advertisements for the upcoming album , so that fans could communicate with him . Idol also made occasional postings to alt.cyberpunk , a Usenet newsgroup . Later in an interview for MTV News promoting the album , Idol expressed excitement over the medium . " This means I can be in touch with millions of people , but on my own terms . "
= = Recording = =
Cyberpunk was created in Idol 's home studio in Los Angeles , centred around his Macintosh computer and accompanying software . Programs used in the production included Studio Vision , by Opcode Systems , and Pro Tools , by Digidesign . Idol later recalled that the beginning of the recording sessions coincided with the onset of the 1992 Los Angeles riots . " We 'd just installed the computer in my music room , and there was a window above it overlooking the whole city . And there was a fire raging . There was smoke just pouring across the whole of LA . It was LA burning . And so I just straight quickly wrote the lyrics and sang them three times . What you 're hearing on the single ' Shock to the System ' is my news reportage of what I 'm seeing . " Idol recalled for a German broadcast . " We started the album with a riot . So that 's really rock and roll . "
Excited by the DIY aspects of the production process , Idol took only ten months to record the album , which he often contrasted with the combined period of eight years it took to create his two previous albums . Working with his computer over time also gave him the sense that the computer was itself an instrument , and that the performer 's style was also presented by the technology . Its versatility also allowed him to switch roles with Mark Younger @-@ Smith and Robin Hancock , allowing each to experiment with their different talents and blurring the lines of their specialised roles , leading Idol to repeatedly compare the production process to that of being in a garage band . Keyboards were also used to drive much of the music through the album . Together , the trio comprised what Idol considered to be the " core " production group , although a number of artists contributed to a various tracks . In particular , he credited his drummer Tal Bergman and bassist Doug Wimbish for their contributions to numerous tracks . Wimbish had recorded his work from a studio in New York City , and sent it to Los Angeles for use in the production .
= = Cyberpunk themes = =
Cyberpunk was a departure from Idol 's previous style of pop @-@ rock music . Several spoken or sound @-@ effect segues were placed between the album tracks to create a linear narrative . The effect of these segues caused the album to become a concept album . Karen Schoemer , of the New York Times , commented that " [ w ] ith its booming techno beats , screeching guitar riffs , sampled computer voices and songs like ' Power Junkie ' ( ' I feel tonight we 're bought and sold / Ah yeah , I think I 'll overload ' ) , the album functions as Mr. Idol 's interpretation of cyber culture . "
When asked why he was pursuing such a shift in his musical style by adopting electronic music , Idol responded that he had attempted to incorporate technology in his older work , but found the equipment of the late ' 70s and early ' 80s too limiting and gave up . With the computers of the ' 90s , Idol finally felt that the technology was able to quickly and easily make changes as he saw fit . Idol came to expound on his belief in their future importance for the music industry , and quoting Gareth Branwyn , referred to the computer as " the new cool tool . "
However , he rejected the idea of referring to the music as " computerized " , on the grounds that nothing was done for the album that couldn 't have been done with standard recording equipment , and that the computer had simply sped up and simplified the creative process . Placing emphasis on the contribution of the performers over the computer tools they used , Idol felt the album achieved a " garage band " spirit , that had captured the " Sturm und Drang " he found in rock and roll , and had simply modified it digitally . Idol thus felt that the album could be best identified as a rock album , rather than a techno album . Idol later agreed with an interviewer who commented that the album 's digital production and themes were ahead of their time .
= = = Futurism = = =
Idol was keen to share his ideas regarding the future of Cyberculture and its impact on the music industry , and was noted for his enthusiastic speculation in the future of computers throughout the promotion of the album . " You 're using very sort of extreme and raw ideas , but with very high level technology ... it 's probably whats going to be happening — or in fact , it is what is happening now — because that 's how we made this album , Cyberpunk . " Some of the predictions Idol made for the future of the internet , computers , and musicians , was that it would allow for cheap and efficient recording from home ; that musicians could record their music and send it to producers and fellow band members from great distances , perhaps while on tour ; and that musicians would be able to directly communicate with their fans and critics . Idol also hoped that the rapid ability to do whatever he desired with the production would allow raw forms of rock music to remain relevant after the Grunge movement swept America in the early 90s . " [ The computer ] can do anything ... If you want the music backwards , it can be backwards in a snap . This is in a way my sort of answer to grunge . I know there 's a way of using this modern technology to bring a lot of rawness back . "
= = = Fashion = = =
On 24 September 1992 , Billy Idol took part in a benefit fashion show by Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier . The event , entitled the " Jean Paul Gaultier in L.A. " , was a fashion benefit for amfAR AIDS research , at the Shrine Auditorium . Idol modelled a leather jacket and pants , covered in black sunglasses , to the yet @-@ unreleased song " Neuromancer " . This coincided with Idol 's decision to change his fashion style to match the cyberpunk aesthetic of the album . Idol changed his hair to dreadlocks , and wore sleek , futuristic clothing by New York fashion designer Stephen Sprouse . In a photo shoot published in Details July 1993 issue , highlighting Billy Idol 's new " cyberpunk " aesthetic , Idol modelled in a distressed @-@ velvet jacket and matching trousers designed by Paul Smith . In the background , Idol stood amongst computers and chaotically strewn cables representing his home studio . Idol wore the same suit during the " Shock to The System " music video and the 1993 Billboard Music Award presentation spot .
= = = Special edition software = = =
During his initial research into cyberculture , Idol ordered Beyond Cyberpunk ! from Gareth Branwyn . The HyperCard stack , which included collections of essays on cyberpunk culture , inspired Idol to include similar material within the Cyberpunk album as a special edition digipak feature . Discussing the matter with Branwyn , Idol received an initial bid for the job of producing the disk from the writer . While this bid was under consideration by Idol 's management company , Idol had purchased a book @-@ on @-@ disk by Jaime Levy at a Los Angeles bookstore . At the time , Levy was the author and publisher of Electronic Hollywood , one of the first magazines produced on floppy disk . Impressed by its contents , Idol set about contacting her for the job of producing the disk . Successfully under @-@ bidding Branwyn , she was then given the job and a master tape of recorded songs – which were not yet compiled into CD format – for use in sampling . Levy was given permission to include whatever content she desired . Meeting Idol to find what he was interested in presenting in the disk , his only concern was that the whole cyberpunk genre be represented as much as possible .
The special edition diskette , a Macintosh press kit entitled " Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk " , was an industry first . It included album clip art , sample sound bytes , a biography by Mark Frauenfelder , lyrics , and a cyberculture bibliography by Gareth Branwyn . Frauenfelder appeared on a segment of MTV News to describe the diskette 's features . Plans were considered by EMI / Chrysalis to re @-@ release the album in the following fall with an updated CD @-@ ROM if the album was successful . As CD @-@ ROMs were prohibitively expensive at the time of production , this was anticipated as a potential benchmark event for the music industry . However , this failed to materialise due to the critical and financial failure of the album .
= = = Computer graphic design = = =
After reading the work of Mark Frauenfelder on Boing boing , Idol hired him to use graphics software in the design of artwork associated with the album . This included its use for the album and singles ' cover art , the Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk floppy disk , and in the press pack released to the media .
Frauenfelder worked with Adobe Photoshop , while Idol was present for the design process to provide suggestions . The album cover itself was the first image created , following the initial five minutes of editing on Idol 's personal computer at the singer 's home .
= = = " Blendo " cinematography = = =
Inspired by The Lawnmower Man , Idol conceived of using " Blendo " imagery throughout the promotion of the album . Six music videos were produced with the use of what Idol dubbed " Blendo " cinematography , five for " Heroin " and a final one for " Shock to the System . "
= = = 1993 No Religion Tour = = =
To promote the release of Cyberpunk , Idol began the 1993 No Religion Tour . The title of the tour came from a lyric in the album 's first track , " Wasteland " , which described a man travelling through a dystopia . In keeping with the album 's theme , the performance stages were set to a computerised , high @-@ tech aesthetic . Idol wished to use Blendo imagery on massive television screens behind the stage to rapidly shift in time with the music . Some of the video and photography was shot by Idol and Brett Leonard , including photos of Idol during acupuncture , himself at a spa , various LA landscapes , and imagery which referenced heroin use . An engineer on stage , whom Idol fashioned as another band member , would be charged with altering the images in rhythm with the music , as though it were also an instrument . Multiple engineers with video equipment would also roam the audience , beaming images of the crowd onto the screen as well , creating an interactive show . The tour took place in Europe , performing a total of 19 shows in 18 cities across 11 countries . It began on 18 August 1993 in Berlin , and concluded on 20 September 1993 in London .
Idol hoped to advance the way stagecraft and lighting were used at rock concerts . " Part of the idea is to create an element of visible language , " Idol explained during an interview with the New York Times , " so that you feel as if you 're being talked to through images . I think you have to start looking to get to the future of what rock @-@ and @-@ roll concerts should be like . We 're working ; we 're pushing the technology to the edge . "
= = = Music videos = = =
Three of four Cyberpunk singles were promoted by music videos : " Heroin " , " Shock to the System " , and " Adam in Chains " . The fourth single , " Wasteland " , did not receive a music video .
The first single , " Heroin " , was accompanied with the most music videos , with a total of five for several different remixed versions of the cover . Each was a " Blendo " video which rapidly shifted random imagery and colours in time with the music . Four of the music videos for the song were directed by Brett Leonard , with a fifth being credited to Howard Deutch . Each used stock footage shot by Idol and Leonard , filmed personally and edited on Idol 's computer . Idol did so with the intention of sending a " do @-@ it @-@ yourself " message that mocked and rejected the standards of MTV music video creation . " We did it all on camcorder and we sort of wanted to say you can make your own videos , and you don 't always have to do it in a very MTV way . " None were released for rotation on television ; instead , one was included in the video album release , Cyberpunk : Shock to the System .
A " blendo " video was also produced for " Shock to the System " , being included in the Cyberpunk : Shock to the System VHS cassette .
The second single , " Shock to the System " , which was inspired by the Los Angeles riots of 1992 , received the first music video put into MTV rotation . As Idol explained for MTV News , he had originally created the song with an entirely different set of lyrics , but upon witnessing the riots on television he immediately rewrote and recorded them that day . Idol explained that he was trying to capture the political and economic conflict that had created the LA Riots . Idol further felt that the camcorder – as displayed in the witnessing of the Rodney King beating – was a " potent way of conveying ideas " and an important metaphor for technology used in rebellion .
The music video was set in a dystopian future controlled by Cyber @-@ cops ( referred to as such by director Brett Leonard . ) It depicted an individual who records the Cyber @-@ cops beating a man , only to be noticed and attacked himself . His camera is destroyed and the Cyber @-@ cops leave him unconscious on the ground , as they are busy trying to put down a riot elsewhere in the city . Alone , his camera equipment lands on him and is absorbed into his body , causing him to dramatically morph into a cyborg . The cyborg then joins the riot , leading the rebels to victory .
The make @-@ up effects were achieved through stop motion , with Billy Idol moving in slow stages during points of the filming , allowing the make up effects to gradually cover more of his body to create the illusion of metamorphosis . Stan Winston , who had previously worked on the Terminator series and Jurassic Park , supervised and created the special effects for the video . The music video for " Shock to the System " was nominated for " Best Special Effects in a Video " and " Best Editing in a Video " at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards , losing both times to Peter Gabriel 's video for " Steam " .
The final music video , " Adam in Chains " , was directed by Julien Temple . It depicted Billy Idol being bound into a chair as he is monitored by scientists . He struggles before being hypnotised , and is then inserted into a virtual reality simulator . There he is treated to an ethereal water fantasy . Idol eventually rejects the fantasy , which is consumed in flames as , in the real world , his body violently convulses . The scientists end the experiment and Idol is brought back into reality , only to fall unconscious .
= = = Cyberpunk : Shock to the System = = =
A supplementary VHS cassette was also produced to promote the album . Cyberpunk : Shock to the System included a director 's cut version of the " Shock to the System " music video ; Shockumentary , a mini @-@ documentary on the making of the aforementioned video ; and two music videos which made use of Blendo images , one for " Heroin " ( Overlords mix ) and " Shock to the System " . The production was directed by Brett Leonard , having already directed the " Shock to the System " music video . Its cover art featured images of the cyborg freedom fighter played by Billy Idol in the " Shock to the System " music video , and included taglines that suggested a story of a dystopian world of high technology and rebellion .
= = Release = =
A press pack was distributed to the media prior to its release to promote the album . The centerpiece of the pack was a copy of the Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk custom stickered 3 ½ " floppy disk , which was housed in a custom multi @-@ coloured folder with artist and title logo on the front and contact information on the back . The pack included a 5 @-@ page version of the biography in the diskette , for the benefit of any journalist who lacked the equipment to operate the floppy disk . Also included in the pack were three black @-@ and @-@ white publicity photographs . Two pictures of Idol were taken by Peter Gravelle and the other was a digitally edited image of Idol as he appeared in the blendo video , " Heroin " .
As part of press junkets promoting the album , Idol reportedly insisted attending journalists be familiar with cyberpunk fiction . It was also revealed that Idol was not entirely as familiar with the genre as he had proclaimed . William Gibson reported in an interview , " A London journalist told me when Billy did his ' Cyberpunk ' press junket over there , he made it a condition of getting an interview with him , that every journalist had to have read Neuromancer ... Anyway , they all did but when they met with Billy , the first thing that became really apparent was that Billy hadn 't read it . So they called him on it , and he said he didn 't need to .. he just absorbed it through a kinda osmosis . "
Upon release , the album did not fare well , failing to make the top 20 in either the UK or United States . Instead , the album debuted at No. 48 on the Billboard 200 on 17 July 1993 , and quickly plummeted to No. 192 in seven weeks before falling off the chart completely . The album saw slightly better chart placings in Europe , where it peaked at No. 5 in Austria , and No. 15 in Switzerland .
The first two singles fared slightly better . " Heroin " , a cover of The Velvet Underground 's " Heroin " , peaked at No. 16 on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . " Shock to the System " peaked at No. 7 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart , No. 23 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart , and No. 5 on Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . The last two singles , " Adam in Chains " and " Wasteland " , both failed to achieve any chart ratings within the United States , but did in other countries .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Cyberpunk was mostly slammed by critics , with some stating that the album was pretentious and meandering . They said Idol sounded like a man desperate to keep up with current trends . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic considered the album a failed attempt by Idol to recast himself for the ' 90s , and judged the content of the album as being mostly " ... padded with pretentious speeches , sampled dialog , and underdeveloped songs . " He also referred to the cover of " Heroin " as " one of the worst covers ever recorded . "
Taking note of Idol 's assertion that he had attempted to use technology in creating his early music , Ira Robbins of Newsday was sceptical . " [ It ] is hardly obvious in his work . " Though if his early work had been mild attempts to use technology , Cyberpunk itself , Robbins wrote , was " the sound of science gone too far . " The ideology of futurism Idol adopted was panned by Robbins , while the music itself was hardly different from his previous work . " For the most part , other than keyboards that add a pervasive nod to the jittering beat of techno @-@ rave music , Cyberpunk sounds pretty much like every other Idol album . "
Manuel Esparza of The Daily Cougar wrote a more mixed review , praising some elements , such as the track " Shangrila " , the use of sound space echo effects , and Idol 's talent as a singer . However , Esparza felt that Idol attempted the same techniques across too many songs , and referred to the lyrics as " ... [ just barely making ] more sense than a monkey pounding away on a typewriter ... " The " Billy Idol " entry on TrouserPress.com skewered Cyberpunk as a " third @-@ rate self @-@ parody ... that trusses him up in sci @-@ fi lingo and futurist mumbo jumbo . " Noting Idol 's attempt to infuse Cyberpunk with themes of social change , Paul Giangiordano of The Daily Collegian judged the album to be a repetitive and poorly developed attempt to create a socially relevant album . " There is a positive message to be found in Cyberpunk , " Giangiordano wrote , " the only problem is that techno plus early- ' 80s equals a big yawn , especially when the lyrics that accompany are annoyingly repetitive . "
Entertainment Weekly presented a favourable review of the album , giving it a " B + " rating and stating , " ... this is old @-@ fashioned glam @-@ pop — as dumb , and occasionally glorious , as it gets . " Two months later , Weekly included Idol on a list of " surprise losers " , following the album 's ranking of No. 48 on the Billboard charts .
= = = Cyberculture reception = = =
Prior to the album 's release , Idol was asked if he feared his new interest in technology would be seen as an attempt to co @-@ opt cyberculture . Idol denied this , stating that his belief in the relevancy of cyberpunk culture was genuine , and that he didn 't care what others thought of him . However , the reaction by the majority of the online community was openly hostile and suspicious of Idol 's motives . It was reported that his e @-@ mail account on the WELL received mail from angry computer users , and was occasionally flooded with e @-@ mail spam to antagonise him . Idol was also cast by many as a naive , tech @-@ illiterate poseur . The charge of illiteracy was not entirely false , as at the time of the album 's release , Idol was still typing using the " hunt and peck " system , and needed notes to log onto the internet .
In defending himself from what he believed was the elitism of his online critics , Idol admitted that he was still learning about computers , but compared it to the early punk ethic of simply trying your best as a musician , even if you had difficulty . He also pointed out that William Gibson was computer illiterate when he wrote Neuromancer . " I don 't know much about computers , but I have the desire to learn and I have a computer and a modem , so I go for it . Banging my head sometimes , but continuing on . "
Idol was also criticised for his use of the term " cyberpunk " for his album title , as detractors alleged that he had no claim to a title which belonged to the entire movement . Idol responded that he was not approaching the movement with a sense of entitlement . " I ain 't no rock star . I 'm an eager student , " Idol wrote on a post to the WELL . Regarding his use of the " cyberpunk " moniker , Idol refuted claims that he had ever called himself one , and instead used the name as an ode to the subculture . " I was revved up by the DIY energy of Gibson and the high @-@ tech underground . "
Gareth Branwyn , who was among the initial tech @-@ experts Idol consulted , defended Idol 's interest in cyberpunk . " Billy is genuinely interested in and excited by cyberculture , and like all the rest of us , wants to factor that interest into his work , which happens to be pop music . Whether presenting cyberculture in that forum is ultimately a good thing or not is beside the point of Billy 's right to bring it to that forum . After all , access to information should be free and total , right ? Or at least that 's how the mythology goes . " An update to Branwyn 's Beyond Cyberpunk ! hyper @-@ card stack included a new introduction , which referred to the Cyberpunk controversy , frankly stating " The release of Billy Idol 's album Cyberpunk was met with a hailstorm of controversy on the Net , as young cyber @-@ Turks whined about how he had ripped them off and destroyed their secret club . "
Mark Frauenfelder also defended Idol , pointing out the elitist hypocrisy of the WELL community , and highlighted the perceived pointlessness of the conflict . " There are all these 16- and 17 @-@ year @-@ old cyberpunks who are afraid that everybody 's going to learn their secret handshake or something . " Andy Hawks , original maintainer of the alt.cyberpunk Frequently Asked Questions list , and founder of the Future Culture mailing list , criticized what he perceived to be a double @-@ standard among Idol 's critics in questioning his motivation behind creating the album and his choice of associating on internet forums .
Penn Jillette , then a columnist for PC / Computing , accepted that Idol wasn 't well versed in computers , but considered it a non @-@ issue . " I 'm tempted to call him a computer ' poser ' but that 's not the point . [ ... ] He 's not a poser . He 's a fan of computers , and he doesn 't claim to be more . [ ... ] He 's not a fan of computers because he can write code , he 's a fan because he knows that whatever is really happening nowadays is happening around computers . "
Regardless , Cyberpunk is still seen as having been an act of hyped commercialisation . In Escape Velocity : Cyberculture at the End of the Century , Mark Dery commented on the mainstreaming of the cyberpunk subculture . He viewed Idol as representing some of the worst abuses this took , deriding Cyberpunk as " a bald @-@ faced appropriation of every cyberpunk cliché that wasn 't nailed down . " In 1995 , when writer Jack Boulware asked " When did cyberpunk die ? " at a meeting of former staff members of Mondo 2000 , a response was " 1993 . The release of the Billy Idol record . " In a section on " cyberpunk music " , The Cyberpunk Project website notes , " ... [ the ] usual opinion is that Billy Idol 's album is just commercialization and it has nothing to do with cyberpunk . " The F.A.Q for alt.cyberpunk , mirrored on the website , rejects the notion that there is a " cyberpunk fashion " . Of Billy Idol 's attempts to base his fashion and music on it , it states , " No matter how sincere his intentions might have been , scorn and charges of commercialization have been heaped upon him in this and other forums . "
Well known music critic , Robert Christgau , excoriated what he considered to be Idol 's attempt to co @-@ opt cyberpunk for commercial gain . In particular , he compared Idol 's new interest in cyberpunk to the musician 's previous co @-@ optation of the punk subculture . " Even if his interest was originally piqued by the dollar signs that appear in front of his eyes whenever he encounters the magic rune p @-@ u @-@ n @-@ k , that 's the fate of any good idea — sooner or later it touches people who have no deep connection to it . " However , unlike some critics who asserted Idol had no genuine interest in cyberculture , Christgau assumed he did and that this was to be expected , as many subcultures are eventually adopted by mainstream society . The problem , Christgau asserted , was that Idol had no genuine understanding of the concept , and that ultimately Idol could only " [ struggle ] for , over , or with authenticity , a rock obsession [ he 's ] always kept at arm 's length and never escaped . "
As one of the founders of the cyberpunk genre , William Gibson has repeatedly been asked for his opinion on the subject of the mainstreaming of cyberpunk , which has often brought up the topic of Idol 's album . In a 1994 interview , Gibson said that he did not approve of the way the term " cyberpunk " was being increasingly commercialised by popular culture , and that Idol had " turned it into something very silly . " Gibson also said in another interview that to understand cyberpunk as a movement was " something of a joke , as wonderfully demonstrated , not too long ago , by Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk album . " Despite his negative comments , Gibson was bemused , rather than angered , by Idol 's creation . Stating that he 'd tried to withhold judgment before hearing the album , he eventually did and said " ... I just don 't get what he 's on about . I don 't see the connection . [ ... ] I had lunch with Billy years ago in Hollywood ... and I thought he was a very likeable guy . He had a sense of humour about what he was doing that is not apparent in the product he puts out . If I run into him again , we can have a good laugh about what he 's doing now ! "
= = = Academic analysis = = =
Shawn P. Wilbur , a left @-@ libertarian academic then associated with the Bowling Green State University , closely critiqued the concept of the supposed " cyberpunk movement " . In an attempt to understand why members of the movement were so negative in reaction to attempts by the mainstream to investigate the cyberpunk meme , he directly investigated the criticism of Billy Idol on alt.cyberpunk. His interpretation of the discussions led him to dub the reactions of alt.cyberpunk the " Panic of ' 93 " . It was Wilbur 's assertion that the lack of a cohesive understanding of what " cyberpunk " meant was the chief reason for a lack of critical thought displayed during discussions concerning its inspection or adoption by " outsiders " .
He concluded , " [ u ] senet 's alt.cyberpunk is both a warning and a promise . It suggests the power of ideas to draw people together , even when they aren 't quite sure what those ideas are . "
While examining Pat Cadigan 's 1991 novel , Synners , Wilbur also referenced the Cyberpunk single , " Shock to the System " , interpreting the song on multiple levels . These included the " shock " cyberpunk represented to established forms of science fiction , as well as the " future shock " society felt in reaction to new technology . Wilbur also asserted that the storyline told by the music video neatly fit into the cyberpunk tradition of glorifying social resistance .
The single , " Shock to the System " , and its accompanying music video were also heavily analysed for the overtones of racial , sexual , and physical trauma presented within them by Thomas Foster , associate professor at Indiana University , in his 2005 book , The Souls of Cyberfolk .
= = = Re @-@ release = = =
Despite the overwhelmingly negative reviews from professional critics , the album was reissued on 22 August 2006 by Collectables Records as part of its Priceless Collection series . The reissued album did not include the special edition multimedia of the original , but did include new cover art .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Billy Idol 's career = = =
Following the failure of the Cyberpunk album , Billy Idol did not produce another original album until 2005 , 13 years later . However , this was not due to the failure of the album , but rather his dissatisfaction with his producers at Chrysalis Records . With the founding of Sanctuary Records , an independent record label Idol felt positive about , and the formation of a new band with Steve Stevens , Idol decided to produce Devil 's Playground . Idol 's later album featured a more power pop and classic rock sound similar to Idol 's 80s style , and received middling reviews .
During the intermittent years between albums , Idol created music for the Speed and Heavy Metal 2000 film soundtracks and regularly wrote and performed new songs for several tours , but never attempted to experiment with the style he explored in Cyberpunk . In 2001 , Idol released a compilation album , Greatest Hits . Only one song from Cyberpunk , " Shock to the System " , was included in the collection . In 2008 , another compilation album , The Very Best of Billy Idol : Idolize Yourself , was released . Once again , the only song from Cyberpunk to be included was a digital remaster of " Shock to the System " . Idol achieved widespread commercial success with his greatest hits material , Greatest Hits went platinum .
In the years following the album 's release , musicians who had worked with Idol in the past were asked to comment on the failure of Cyberpunk . Tony James of Sigue Sigue Sputnik , a pop @-@ cyberpunk band , and former bassist for Generation X , weighed in . Though sympathetic to his former band mate , he felt the stylistic change didn 't fit Idol . " Billy is always cool but he does Billy Idol rebel yellin the best , i felt cyberpunk was a wrong turning for him .. he has his sound .. stay great as u are Bill ... [ sic ] " In 2001 Steve Stevens was asked if Idol 's declining popularity and the failure of Cyberpunk was related to their split . Stevens rejected the idea , saying of the failed album , " I think the Cyberpunk record people didn 't get . I think I would be doing Billy and his fans a great disservice if I said that he needed me for his popularity . "
Idol briefly responded once more to the negative reception the album received on two occasions . In 1996 , Idol gave an interview for his website in which he was asked if he 'd pursue the style of Cyberpunk for a future album . Idol addressed the question by first explaining his interpretation of the failure of the album . " You see the thing about Cyberpunk is that it was supposed to be like a home [ - ] made record , much like these rap bands are doing , all made really on home equipment . But it was very hard to make people understand that I was sort of making an alternative record . They don 't allow you to make an alternative record ... " He then stated that he would not be pursuing the same style with any future album . In a 2005 interview , Idol simply stated " ... the idea that I was trying to do an overground @-@ underground record just wasn 't understood at the time . " Tony Dimitriades , a prominent music industry producer and manager , interpreted Idol 's response at the time . " He realized at that point , ' Well , if that 's what people think , maybe I lost touch with my public . ' "
While embarking upon a 2010 tour , Idol was asked if he intended to perform music from the Cyberpunk album . While not distancing himself from the production , Idol stated he had no intentions of doing so immediately . Pointing out that he did wish to perform a mixture of new and older works , and would perhaps perform the music in the future , he intended to base his tour on " more guitar music " and pointed out that Cyberpunk 's keyboard @-@ driven music was not going to be featured .
= = = Critical legacy = = =
In 1999 , The A.V. Club awarded Cyberpunk as the " Least Essential Concept Album " of the 1990s . An accompanying review stated , " The result [ of Idol 's casting as a " futuristic maverick " and the album itself ] is as laughably dated as it is difficult to endure in its entirety . " In 2006 , Q magazine listed Cyberpunk as No. 5 in their list of the 50 worst albums of all time . Said music critic Parke Puterbaugh , " To make that record in ' 93 , it may have been a number of years ahead of its time actually , because it didn 't do terribly well . "
= = = Music industry 's use of technology = = =
The album was prescient for its early advocacy of the use of the internet and software to market albums . The Boston Globe reported , " ... [ Cyberpunk ] demands recognition as a style setter , not for its musical content , but for the changes it may prompt in the ways recordings are made and marketed ... " Idol 's early adoption of the internet to communicate with fans was broadened in the years after Cyberpunk 's release . By the late ' 90s , many celebrities had made inroads on to the internet , using official websites and blogs to directly advertise albums and tours to fans , as well as organizing fansites for official fan clubs . Billy Idol 's own official fansite was established in 1997 . In 2010 , Idol continued to pursue his early vision for the integration of his tours with technology by utilising his website to document a world tour through a blog and streaming video feed . " These days , [ Idol ] sees his own website as his old vision of the future becoming reality . "
The inclusion of multimedia software as a special feature was a novelty when Chrysalis Records released the Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk diskette . This was also widely adopted by the music industry years later . CD @-@ ROMs were initially considered as a medium for Cyberpunk 's multimedia features , but were too expensive at the time of production , and so floppy disks were used instead . Peter Gabriel and Todd Rundgren had previously experimented with CD @-@ ROMs , but it was hoped that if Idol 's album had proved popular , it could have been reissued with CD @-@ ROMs , catapulting the format into the music industry 's mainstream . This never materialised due to the album 's general failures . However , during the late ' 90s it became increasingly common for some limited edition digipaks to include CD @-@ ROMs , evolving by the early 2000s into the inclusion of DVDs .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Billy Idol and Mark Younger @-@ Smith , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
" Core " personnel
Billy Idol – vocals ; keyboards ; programming ; arranger
Mark Younger @-@ Smith – guitars ; sitars ; keyboards ; programming ; arranger
Robin Hancock – arrangement ; mixing ; engineer ; producer ; programming ; keyboards
Additional personnel
Doug Wimbish – bass guitar
Larry Seymour – bass guitar
Tal Bergman – drums
Durga McBroom – vocals ( background )
Carnie Wilson – vocals ( background )
Wendy Wilson – vocals ( background )
Jamie Muhoberac – organ ; keyboards
Stephen Marcussen – audio mastering
Ed Korengo – audio mixing ; mixing assistant
Mike Baumgartner – audio engineering assistant ; mixing ; mixing assistant
Ross Donaldson – audio engineering
Ron Donaldson – audio engineering
Robert Farago – voices ; speech / speaker / speaking part ; spoken word
London Jo Henwood – speech / speaker / speaking part
David Weiss – percussion , saw
Henry Marquez – art direction
Michael Diehl – design
Greg Gorman – photography
Elisabeth Sunday – photography
Brett Leonard – photography
Gwen Mullen – rendering
Scott Hampton – rendering
Uncredited
Gareth Branwyn – consultation
Mark Frauenfelder – consultation ; graphic design ( cover art & logo for album , singles , and VHS cassette )
Timothy Leary – consultation ; spoken word ( album track No. 15 segue )
Jaime Levy – Interactive Producer
= = Chart positions = =
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= Homer Simpson =
Homer Jay Simpson is a fictional character and the main protagonist of the American animated television series The Simpsons as the patriarch of the eponymous family . He is voiced by Dan Castellaneta and first appeared on television , along with the rest of his family , in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Homer was created and designed by cartoonist Matt Groening while he was waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called to pitch a series of shorts based on his comic strip Life in Hell but instead decided to create a new set of characters . He named the character after his father , Homer Groening . After appearing for three seasons on The Tracey Ullman Show , the Simpson family got their own series on Fox that debuted December 17 , 1989 .
Homer and his wife Marge have three children : Bart , Lisa , and Maggie . As the family 's provider , he works at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . Homer embodies several American working class stereotypes : he is a crude , bald , overweight , incompetent , clumsy , lazy , heavy drinking , ignorant and idiotic person ; however , he is essentially a decent man and fiercely devoted to his family . Despite the suburban blue @-@ collar routine of his life , he has had a number of remarkable experiences .
In the shorts and earlier episodes , Castellaneta voiced Homer with a loose impression of Walter Matthau ; however , during the second and third seasons of the half @-@ hour show , Homer 's voice evolved to become more robust , to allow the expression of a fuller range of emotions . He has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons – including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials and comic books – and inspired an entire line of merchandise . His signature catchphrase , the annoyed grunt " D 'oh ! " , has been included in The New Oxford Dictionary of English since 1998 and the Oxford English Dictionary since 2001 .
Homer is one of the most influential characters in the history of television . The British newspaper The Sunday Times described him as " the greatest comic creation of [ modern ] time " . He was named the greatest character " of the last 20 years " in 2010 by Entertainment Weekly , was ranked the second greatest cartoon character by TV Guide , behind Bugs Bunny , and was voted the greatest television character of all time by Channel 4 viewers . For voicing Homer , Castellaneta has won four Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance and a special @-@ achievement Annie Award . In 2000 , Homer and his family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Homer is the bumbling husband of Marge and father of Bart , Lisa and Maggie Simpson . He is the son of Mona and Abraham " Grampa " Simpson . Homer held over 188 different jobs in the first 400 episodes of The Simpsons . In most episodes , he works as the Nuclear Safety Inspector at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , a position he has held since " Homer 's Odyssey " , the third episode of the series . At the plant , Homer is often ignored and completely forgotten by his boss Mr. Burns , and constantly falls asleep and neglects his duties . Matt Groening has stated that he decided to have Homer work at the power plant because of the potential for Homer to wreak havoc . Each of his other jobs has lasted only one episode . In the first half of the series , the writers developed an explanation about how he got fired from the plant and was then rehired in every episode . In later episodes , he often began a new job on impulse , without any mention of his regular employment .
The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters never physically age , and , as such , the show is generally assumed to be set in the current year . Nevertheless , in several episodes , events in Homer 's life have been linked to specific time periods . " Mother Simpson " ( season seven , 1995 ) depicts Homer 's mother , Mona , as a radical who went into hiding in 1969 following a run @-@ in with the law ; " The Way We Was " ( season two , 1991 ) shows Homer falling in love with Marge Bouvier as a senior at Springfield High School in 1974 ; and " I Married Marge " ( season three , 1991 ) implies that Marge became pregnant with Bart in 1980 . However , the episode " That ' 90s Show " ( season 19 , 2008 ) contradicted much of this backstory , portraying Homer and Marge as a childless couple in the early 1990s .
Homer 's age has changed as the series developed ; he was 36 in the early episodes , 38 and 39 in season eight , and 40 in the eighteenth season , although even in those seasons his age is inconsistent . During Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein 's period as showrunners , they found that as they aged , Homer seemed to become older too , so they increased his age to 38 . His height is 6 ' 0 " .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Naming the characters after members of his own family , Homer was named after Groening 's father Homer Groening , who himself had been named after ancient Greek poet Homer . Very little else of Homer 's character was based on him , and to prove that the meaning behind Homer 's name was not significant , Groening later named his own son Homer . According to Groening , " Homer originated with my goal to both amuse my real father , and just annoy him a little bit . My father was an athletic , creative , intelligent filmmaker and writer , and the only thing he had in common with Homer was a love of donuts . " Although Groening has stated in several interviews that Homer was named after his father , he also claimed in several 1990 interviews that a character in the 1939 Nathanael West novel The Day of the Locust was the inspiration for naming Homer . Homer 's middle initial " J " , which stands for " Jay " , is a " tribute " to animated characters such as Bullwinkle J. Moose and Rocket J. Squirrel from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show , who got their middle initial from Jay Ward .
Homer made his debut with the rest of the Simpson family on April 19 , 1987 , in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series airing on the Fox Broadcasting Company . Homer and the Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show .
= = = Design = = =
The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . Homer 's physical features are generally not used in other characters ; for example , in the later seasons , no characters other than Homer , Lenny , and Krusty the Clown have a similar beard line . When Groening originally designed Homer , he put his initials into the character 's hairline and ear : the hairline resembled an ' M ' , and the right ear resembled a ' G ' . Groening decided that this would be too distracting and redesigned the ear to look normal . However , he still draws the ear as a ' G ' when he draws pictures of Homer for fans . The basic shape of Homer 's head is described by director Mark Kirkland as a tube @-@ shaped coffee can with a salad bowl on top . Bart 's head is also coffee @-@ can shaped , while spheres are used for Marge , Lisa , and Maggie . During the shorts , the animators experimented with the way Homer would move his mouth when talking . At one point , his mouth would stretch out back " beyond his beardline " ; but this was dropped when it got " out of control . " In some early episodes , Homer 's hair was rounded rather than sharply pointed because animation director Wes Archer felt it should look disheveled . Homer 's hair evolved to be consistently pointed . During the first three seasons , Homer 's design for some close @-@ up shots included small lines which were meant to be eyebrows . Matt Groening strongly disliked them and they were eventually dropped .
In the season seven ( 1995 ) episode " Treehouse of Horror VI " , Homer was computer animated into a three @-@ dimensional character for the first time for the " Homer3 " segment of the episode . The computer animation directors at Pacific Data Images worked hard not to " reinvent the character " . In the final minute of the segment , the 3D Homer ends up in a real world , live @-@ action Los Angeles . The scene was directed by David Mirkin and was the first time a Simpsons character had been in the real world in the series . Because " Lisa 's Wedding " ( season six , 1995 ) is set fifteen years in the future , Homer 's design was altered to make him older in the episode . He is heavier ; one of the hairs on top of his head was removed ; and an extra line was placed under the eye . A similar design has been used in subsequent flashforwards .
= = = Voice = = =
Homer 's voice is performed by Dan Castellaneta , who voices numerous other characters , including Grampa Simpson , Krusty the Clown , Barney Gumble , Groundskeeper Willie , Mayor Quimby and Hans Moleman . Castellaneta had been part of the regular cast of The Tracey Ullman Show and had previously done some voice @-@ over work in Chicago alongside his wife Deb Lacusta . Voices were needed for the Simpsons shorts , so the producers decided to ask Castellaneta and fellow cast member Julie Kavner to voice Homer and Marge rather than hire more actors . In the shorts and first few seasons of the half @-@ hour show , Homer 's voice is different from the majority of the series . The voice began as a loose impression of Walter Matthau , but Castellaneta could not " get enough power behind that voice " , or sustain his Matthau impression for the nine- to ten @-@ hour @-@ long recording sessions , and had to find something easier . During the second and third seasons of the half @-@ hour show , Castellaneta " dropped the voice down " and developed it as more versatile and humorous , allowing Homer a fuller range of emotions .
Castellaneta 's normal speaking voice has no similarity to Homer 's . To perform Homer 's voice , Castellaneta lowers his chin to his chest and is said to " let his I.Q. go " . While in this state , he has ad @-@ libbed several of Homer 's least intelligent comments , such as the line " I am so smart , s @-@ m @-@ r @-@ t " from " Homer Goes to College " ( season five , 1993 ) which was a genuine mistake made by Castellaneta during recording . Castellaneta likes to stay in character during recording sessions , and he tries to visualize a scene so that he can give the proper voice to it . Despite Homer 's fame , Castellaneta claims he is rarely recognized in public , " except , maybe , by a die @-@ hard fan " .
" Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " ( season five , 1993 ) is the only episode where Homer 's voice was provided by someone other than Castellaneta . The episode features Homer forming a barbershop quartet called The Be Sharps ; and , at some points , his singing voice is provided by a member of The Dapper Dans . The Dapper Dans had recorded the singing parts for all four members of The Be Sharps . Their singing was intermixed with the normal voice actor 's voices , often with a regular voice actor singing the melody and the Dapper Dans providing backup .
Until 1998 , Castellaneta was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing for casting of new voices . However , the dispute was soon resolved and he received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The issue was resolved a month later , and Castellaneta earned $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary re @-@ negotiations in 2008 , the voice actors receive approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Castellaneta and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
= = = Character development = = =
Executive producer Al Jean notes that in The Simpsons ' writing room , " everyone loves writing for Homer " , and many of his adventures are based on experiences of the writers . In the early seasons of the show , Bart was the main focus . But , around the fourth season , Homer became more of the focus . According to Matt Groening , this was because " With Homer , there 's just a wider range of jokes you can do . And there are far more drastic consequences to Homer 's stupidity . There 's only so far you can go with a juvenile delinquent . We wanted Bart to do anything up to the point of him being tried in court as an adult . But Homer is an adult , and his boneheaded @-@ ness is funnier . [ ... ] Homer is launching himself headfirst into every single impulsive thought that occurs to him . "
Homer 's behavior has changed a number of times through the run of the series . He was originally " very angry " and oppressive toward Bart , but these characteristics were toned down somewhat as his persona was further explored . In early seasons , Homer appeared concerned that his family was going to make him look bad ; however , in later episodes he was less anxious about how he was perceived by others . In the first several years , Homer was often portrayed as sweet and sincere , but during Mike Scully 's tenure as executive producer ( seasons nine , 1997 to twelve , 2001 ) , he became more of " a boorish , self @-@ aggrandizing oaf " . Chris Suellentrop of Slate wrote , " under Scully 's tenure , The Simpsons became , well , a cartoon . [ ... ] Episodes that once would have ended with Homer and Marge bicycling into the sunset [ ... ] now end with Homer blowing a tranquilizer dart into Marge 's neck . " Fans have dubbed this incarnation of the character " Jerkass Homer " . At voice recording sessions , Dan Castellaneta has rejected material written in the script that portrayed Homer as being too mean . He believes that Homer is " boorish and unthinking , but he 'd never be mean on purpose . " When editing The Simpsons Movie , several scenes were changed or otherwise toned down to make Homer more sympathetic .
The writers have made Homer 's intelligence appear to decline over the years ; they explain this was not done intentionally , but it was necessary to top previous jokes . For example , in " When You Dish Upon a Star " , ( season 10 , 1998 ) the writers included a scene where Homer admits that he cannot read . The writers debated including this plot twist because it would contradict previous scenes in which Homer does read , but eventually they decided to keep the joke because they found it humorous . The writers often debate how far to go in portraying Homer 's stupidity ; one suggested rule is that " he can never forget his own name " .
= = = Personality = = =
The comic efficacy of Homer 's personality lies in his frequent bouts of bumbling stupidity and laziness , and his explosive anger . He has a low intelligence level and is described by director David Silverman as " creatively brilliant in his stupidity " . Homer also shows immense apathy towards work , is overweight , and " is devoted to his stomach " . His short attention span is evidenced by his impulsive decisions to engage in various hobbies and enterprises , only to " change ... his mind when things go badly " . Homer often spends his evenings drinking Duff Beer at Moe 's Tavern , and was shown in the episode " Duffless " ( season four , 1993 ) as a full @-@ blown alcoholic . He is very envious of his neighbors , Ned Flanders and his family , and is easily enraged by Bart. Homer will often strangle Bart on impulse in a cartoonish manner . The first instance of Homer strangling Bart was in the short " Family Portrait " . According to Matt Groening , the rule was that Homer could only strangle Bart impulsively , never with pre @-@ meditation , because doing so " seems sadistic . If we keep it that he 's ruled by his impulses , then he can easily switch impulses . So , even though he impulsively wants to strangle Bart , he also gives up fairly easily . " Another of the original ideas entertained by Groening was that Homer would " always get his comeuppance or Bart had to strangle him back " , but this was dropped . Homer shows no compunction about expressing his rage , and does not attempt to hide his actions from people outside the family .
Homer has complex relationships with all three of his children , and the rest of his family . He often berates Bart , but the two commonly share adventures and are sometimes allies ; some episodes , particularly in later seasons , show that the pair have a strange respect for each other 's cunning . Homer and Lisa have opposite personalities and he usually overlooks Lisa 's talents , but when made aware of his neglect , does everything he can to help her . While Homer 's thoughtless antics often upset his family , he has also revealed himself to be a caring father and husband : in " Lisa the Beauty Queen " , ( season four , 1992 ) he sold his cherished ride on the Duff blimp and used the money to enter Lisa in a beauty pageant so she could feel better about herself ; in " Rosebud " , ( season five , 1993 ) he gave up his chance at wealth to allow Maggie to keep a cherished teddy bear , despite the show also occasionally implying Homer forgets he has a third child , while the episode " And Maggie Makes Three " suggests she is the chief reason Homer took and remains at his regular job ( season six , 1995 ) ; in " Radio Bart " , ( season three , 1992 ) he spearheaded an attempt to dig Bart out after he had fallen down a well ; and in " A Milhouse Divided " , ( season eight , 1996 ) he arranged a surprise second wedding with Marge to make up for their unsatisfactory first ceremony . Homer , however , has a poor relationship with his father Abraham " Grampa " Simpson , whom he placed in a nursing home as soon as he could . The Simpson family will often do their best to avoid unnecessary contact with Grampa , but Homer has shown feelings of love for his father from time to time .
Homer is " a ( happy ) slave to his various appetites " , and would gladly sell his soul to the devil in exchange for a single doughnut . He has an apparently vacuous mind but at times exhibits a surprising depth of knowledge about various subjects , such as the composition of the Supreme Court of the United States , Incan mythology , bankruptcy law , and cell biology . Homer 's brief periods of intelligence are overshadowed , however , by much longer and consistent periods of ignorance , forgetfulness , and stupidity . Homer has a low IQ of 55 which has variously been attributed to the hereditary " Simpson Gene " ( which eventually causes every male member of the family to become incredibly stupid ) , his alcohol problem , exposure to radioactive waste , repetitive cranial trauma , and a crayon lodged in the frontal lobe of his brain . In the episode " HOMR " ( season 12 , 2001 ) Homer gets surgery to remove the ( newly discovered ) crayon from his brain , boosting his IQ to 105 , but although he bonds very well with Lisa , his newfound capacity for understanding and reason makes him less happy and he gets Moe to reinsert a crayon , causing his intelligence to return to its previous level . Homer often debates with his own mind , which is expressed in voiceover . His brain has a record of giving him dubious advice , sometimes helping him make the right decisions , but often failing spectacularly . It has even become completely frustrated and , through sound effects , walked out on him , Homer 's conversations with his brain were used several times during the fourth season , but were later phased out after the producers " used every possible permutation " . These exchanges were often introduced because they filled time and were easy for the animators to work on .
In the episode " Fear of Flying " it is revealed that his favorite song was " It 's Raining Men " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commendations = = =
Homer 's influence on comedy and culture has been significant . In 2010 , Entertainment Weekly named Homer " the greatest character of the last 20 years . " He was placed second on TV Guide 's 2002 Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters , behind Bugs Bunny ; fifth on Bravo 's 100 Greatest TV Characters , one of only four cartoon characters on that list ; and first in a Channel 4 poll of the greatest television characters of all time . In 2007 , Entertainment Weekly placed Homer ninth on their list of the " 50 Greatest TV icons " and first on their 2010 list of the " Top 100 Characters of the Past Twenty Years " . Homer was also the runaway winner in British polls that determined who viewers thought was the " greatest American " and which fictional character people would like to see become the President of the United States . His relationship with Marge was included in TV Guide 's list of " The Best TV Couples of All Time " .
Dan Castellaneta has won several awards for voicing Homer , including four Primetime Emmy Awards for " Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance " in 1992 for " Lisa 's Pony " , 1993 for " Mr. Plow " , in 2004 for " Today I Am a Clown " , and in 2009 for " Father Knows Worst " . Although in the case of " Today I Am a Clown " , it was for voicing " various characters " and not solely for Homer . In 2010 , Castellaneta received a fifth Emmy nomination for voicing Homer and Grampa in the episode " Thursdays with Abie " . In 1993 , Castellaneta was given a special Annie Award , " Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Field of Animation " , for his work as Homer on The Simpsons . In 2004 , Castellaneta and Julie Kavner ( the voice of Marge ) won a Young Artist Award for " Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series " . In 2005 , Homer and Marge were nominated for a Teen Choice Award for " Choice TV Parental Units " . Various episodes in which Homer is strongly featured have won Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program , including " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " in 1991 , " Lisa 's Wedding " in 1995 , " Homer 's Phobia " in 1997 , " Trash of the Titans " in 1998 , " HOMR " in 2001 , " Three Gays of the Condo " in 2003 and " Eternal Moonshine of the Simpson Mind " in 2008 . In 2000 , Homer and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
= = = Analysis = = =
Homer is an " everyman " and embodies several American stereotypes of working class blue @-@ collar men : he is crude , overweight , incompetent , dim witted , clumsy and a borderline alcoholic . Matt Groening describes him as " completely ruled by his impulses " . Dan Castellaneta calls him " a dog trapped in a man 's body " , adding , " He 's incredibly loyal – not entirely clean – but you gotta love him . " In his book Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner describes Homer as " the most American of the Simpsons " and believes that while the other Simpson family members could be changed to other nationalities , Homer is " pure American " . In the book God in the Details : American Religion in Popular Culture , the authors comment that " Homer 's progress ( or lack thereof ) reveals a character who can do the right thing , if accidentally or begrudgingly . " The book The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer includes a chapter analyzing Homer 's character from the perspective of Aristotelian virtue ethics . Raja Halwani writes that Homer 's " love of life " is an admirable character trait , " for many people are tempted to see in Homer nothing but buffoonery and immorality . [ ... ] He is not politically correct , he is more than happy to judge others , and he certainly does not seem to be obsessed with his health . These qualities might not make Homer an admirable person , but they do make him admirable in some ways , and , more importantly , makes us crave him and the Homer Simpsons of this world . " In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly justified designating The Simpsons as a television classic by stating , " we all hail Simpson patriarch Homer because his joy is as palpable as his stupidity is stunning " .
In the season eight episode " Homer 's Enemy " the writers decided to examine " what it would be like to actually work alongside Homer Simpson " . The episode explores the possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic named Frank Grimes placed alongside Homer in a work environment . In the episode , Homer is portrayed as an everyman and the embodiment of the American spirit ; however , in some scenes his negative characteristics and silliness are prominently highlighted . By the end of the episode , Grimes , a hard working and persevering " real American hero " , has become the villain ; the viewer is intended to be pleased that Homer has emerged victorious .
In Gilligan Unbound , author Paul Arthur Cantor states that he believes Homer 's devotion to his family has added to the popularity of the character . He writes , " Homer is the distillation of pure fatherhood . [ ... ] This is why , for all his stupidity , bigotry and self @-@ centered quality , we cannot hate Homer . He continually fails at being a good father , but he never gives up trying , and in some basic and important sense that makes him a good father . " The Sunday Times remarked " Homer is good because , above all , he is capable of great love . When the chips are down , he always does the right thing by his children — he is never unfaithful in spite of several opportunities . "
= = Cultural influence = =
Homer Simpson is one of the most popular and influential television characters in a variety of standards . USA Today cited the character as being one of the " top 25 most influential people of the past 25 years " in 2007 , adding that Homer " epitomized the irony and irreverence at the core of American humor . " Robert Thompson , director of Syracuse University 's Center for the Study of Popular Television believes that " three centuries from now , English professors are going to be regarding Homer Simpson as one of the greatest creations in human storytelling . " Animation historian Jerry Beck described Homer as one of the best animated characters , saying , " you know someone like it , or you identify with ( it ) . That 's really the key to a classic character . " Homer has been described by The Sunday Times as " the greatest comic creation of [ modern ] time " . The article remarked , " every age needs its great , consoling failure , its lovable , pretension @-@ free mediocrity . And we have ours in Homer Simpson . "
Homer has been cited as a bad influence on children ; for example , in 2005 a survey conducted in the United Kingdom found that 59 % of parents felt that Homer promoted an unhealthy lifestyle . A five @-@ year study of more than 2 @,@ 000 middle @-@ aged people in France found a possible link between weight and brain function , the findings of which were dubbed the " Homer Simpson syndrome " . Results from a word memory test showed that people with a body mass index ( BMI ) of 20 ( considered to be a healthy level ) remembered an average of nine out of 16 words . Meanwhile , people with a BMI of 30 ( inside the obese range ) remembered an average of just seven out of 16 words .
Despite Homer 's embodiment of American culture , his influence has spread to other parts of the world . In 2003 , Matt Groening revealed that his father , after whom Homer was named , was Canadian , and said that this made Homer himself a Canadian . The character was later made an honorary citizen of Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada , because Homer Groening was believed to be from there , although sources say the senior Groening was actually born in the province of Saskatchewan . In 2007 , an image of Homer was painted next to the Cerne Abbas Giant in Dorset , England as part of a promotion for The Simpsons Movie . This caused outrage among local neopagans who performed " rain magic " to try to get it washed away . In 2008 , a defaced Spanish euro coin was found in Avilés , Spain with the face of Homer replacing the effigy of King Juan Carlos I.
On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Homer and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 .
Homer has appeared , voiced by Castellaneta , in several other television shows , including the sixth season of American Idol where he opened the show ; The Tonight Show with Jay Leno where he performed a special animated opening monologue for the July 24 , 2007 , edition ; and the 2008 fundraising television special Stand Up to Cancer where he was shown having a colonoscopy .
= = = D 'oh ! = = =
Homer 's catchphrase , the annoyed grunt " D 'oh ! " , is typically uttered when he injures himself , realizes that he has done something stupid , or when something bad has happened or is about to happen to him . During the voice recording session for a Tracey Ullman Show short , Homer was required to utter what was written in the script as an " annoyed grunt " . Dan Castellaneta rendered it as a drawn out " d 'ooooooh " . This was inspired by Jimmy Finlayson , the mustachioed Scottish actor who appeared in 33 Laurel and Hardy films . Finlayson had used the term as a minced oath to stand in for the word " Damn ! " Matt Groening felt that it would better suit the timing of animation if it were spoken faster . Castellaneta then shortened it to a quickly uttered " D 'oh ! " The first intentional use of D 'oh ! occurred in the Ullman short " The Krusty the Clown Show " ( 1989 ) , and its first usage in the series was in the series premiere , " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " .
" D 'oh ! " was first added to The New Oxford Dictionary of English in 1998 . It is defined as an interjection " used to comment on an action perceived as foolish or stupid " . In 2001 , " D 'oh ! " was added to the Oxford English Dictionary , without the apostrophe ( " Doh ! " ) . The definition of the word is " expressing frustration at the realization that things have turned out badly or not as planned , or that one has just said or done something foolish " . In 2006 , " D 'oh ! " was placed in sixth position on TV Land 's list of the 100 greatest television catchphrases . " D 'oh ! " is also included in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations . The book includes several other quotations from Homer , including " Kids , you tried your best and you failed miserably . The lesson is never try " , from " Burns ' Heir " ( season five , 1994 ) as well as " Kids are the best , Apu . You can teach them to hate the things you hate . And they practically raise themselves , what with the Internet and all " , from " Eight Misbehavin ' " ( season 11 , 1999 ) . Both quotes entered the dictionary in August 2007 .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Homer 's inclusion in many Simpsons publications , toys , and other merchandise is evidence of his enduring popularity . The Homer Book , about Homer 's personality and attributes , was released in 2004 and is commercially available . It has been described as " an entertaining little book for occasional reading " and was listed as one of " the most interesting books of 2004 " by The Chattanoogan . Other merchandise includes dolls , posters , figurines , bobblehead dolls , mugs , alarm clocks , jigsaw puzzles , Chia Pets , and clothing such as slippers , T @-@ shirts , baseball caps , and boxer shorts . Homer has appeared in commercials for Coke , 1 @-@ 800 @-@ COLLECT , Burger King , Butterfinger , C.C. Lemon , Church 's Chicken , Domino 's Pizza , Intel , Kentucky Fried Chicken , Ramada Inn , Subway and T.G.I. Friday 's . In 2004 , Homer starred in a MasterCard Priceless commercial that aired during Super Bowl XXXVIII . In 2001 , Kelloggs launched a brand of cereal called " Homer 's Cinnamon Donut Cereal " , which was available for a limited time . In June 2009 , Dutch automotive navigation systems manufacturer TomTom announced that Homer would be added to its downloadable GPS voice lineup . Homer 's voice , recorded by Dan Castellaneta , features several in @-@ character comments such as " Take the third right . We might find an ice cream truck ! Mmm ... ice cream . "
Homer has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons . He has appeared in every one of The Simpsons video games , including the most recent , The Simpsons Game . Homer also appears as a playable character in the crossover game Lego Dimensions . Alongside the television series , Homer regularly appears in issues of Simpsons Comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 , and are still issued monthly . Homer also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood .
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= Mother ( video game series ) =
The Mother series ( Japanese : マザー , Hepburn : Mazā ) consists of three role @-@ playing video games : the 1989 Mother for the Famicom , the 1994 Mother 2 , known as EarthBound outside of Japan , for the Super NES , and the 2006 Mother 3 for the Game Boy Advance . Written by Shigesato Itoi and published by Nintendo , and featuring game mechanics modeled on the Dragon Quest series , the Mother series is known for its sense of humor , originality , and parody . Set in a late 20th century United States , the player uses weapons and psychic powers to fight hostile , everyday objects . Signature elements of the series include the lighthearted plots , the battle sequences with psychedelic backgrounds , and the " rolling HP meter " : as player health ticks down like an odometer , players can outrun the meter to heal before dying . While the franchise is popular in Japan , in the United States , it is best associated with the cult following behind EarthBound .
While visiting Nintendo for other business , Itoi approached Shigeru Miyamoto about making Mother . When approved for a sequel , Itoi increased his involvement as a designer in the five @-@ year development of EarthBound . When the project began to flounder , producer and later Nintendo president Satoru Iwata rescued the game . EarthBound 's English localizers were given great liberties when translating the Japanese game 's cultural allusions . The American version sold poorly despite a multimillion @-@ dollar marketing budget . Mother 3 was originally slated for release on the Nintendo 64 and its 64DD disk drive accessory , but was cancelled in 2000 . Three years later , the project was reannounced for the Game Boy Advance alongside a rerelease of Mother and Mother 2 in a combined cartridge : Mother 1 + 2 , released in 2003 . The new Mother 3 abandoned the 3D graphics progress for a 2D style , and became a bestseller upon its release . EarthBound was rereleased for the Wii U Virtual Console in 2013 , and Mother received its English @-@ language debut in 2015 for the same platform , retitled EarthBound Beginnings .
EarthBound is widely regarded as a video game classic , and is included in multiple top ten lists . In absence of continued official support for the series , an EarthBound fan community organized online to advocate for further series releases through petitions and fan art . Their projects include a full fan translation of Mother 3 , a full @-@ length documentary , and a fangame sequel to Mother 3 . The protagonist of EarthBound , Ness , received exposure from his inclusion in all four entries of the Super Smash Bros. series . Other Mother series locations and characters have made appearances in the fighting games .
= = History = =
= = = Mother = = =
While visiting Nintendo for other work , celebrity copywriter Shigesato Itoi pitched to the company 's lead designer Shigeru Miyamoto , his idea for a role @-@ playing game set in contemporary times . The modern setting worked against role @-@ playing genre norms , and while Miyamoto liked the idea , he was hesitant until Itoi could show full commitment to the project . Itoi reduced his workload , formed a team , and began development in Ichikawa , Chiba . Nintendo tried to accommodate Itoi 's ideal work environment to feel more like an extracurricular club of volunteers . Itoi wrote the game 's script . Mother was developed by Ape , published by Nintendo , and released in Japan on July 27 , 1989 for the Famicom ( known as the Nintendo Entertainment System outside Japan ) . The game was slated for an English @-@ language localization as Earth Bound , but was abandoned when the team chose to localize Mother 2 instead . Years later , the complete localization was recovered by the public and distributed on the Internet , where it became known as EarthBound Zero . Mother received its English language debut in June 2015 as EarthBound Beginnings for the Wii U Virtual Console .
Mother is a single @-@ player , role @-@ playing video game set in a " slightly offbeat " , late 20th century United States ( as interpreted by Itoi ) . Unlike its Japanese role @-@ playing game contemporaries , Mother is not set in a fantasy genre . The player fights in warehouses and laboratories instead of in standard dungeons , and with baseball bats and psychic abilities instead of swords and magic . Mother follows the young Ninten as he uses psychic powers to fight hostile , formerly inanimate objects and other enemies . The game uses random encounters to enter a menu @-@ based , first @-@ person perspective battle system .
= = = EarthBound = = =
Mother 2 was made with a development team different from that of the original game , and most of its members were unmarried and willing to work through nights on the project . Itoi again wrote the game 's script and served as a designer . The game 's five @-@ year development exceeded time estimates and came under repeated threat of cancellation . It was in dire straits until producer Satoru Iwata joined the team . Mother 2 was developed by Ape and HAL , published by Nintendo , and released in Japan 's Super Famicom on August 27 , 1994 . The game was localized into English in the United States for Western audiences whereupon it became the only Mother series game to be released in North America until the later localization of Mother as Earthbound Beginnings . The localizers were given liberties to translate the Japanese script 's cultural allusions as they pleased . Symbolism was also modified between the versions to adapt to Western sensitivities . To avoid confusion about the series ' numbering , its English title was changed to EarthBound , and was released on June 5 , 1995 for the North American Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Though Nintendo spent about $ 2 million on marketing , the American release was ultimately viewed as unsuccessful within Nintendo . EarthBound was released when RPGs were not popular in the United States , and visual taste in RPGs was closer to Chrono Trigger and Final Fantasy VI . The game 's atypical " this game stinks " marketing campaign was derived from the game 's unusual humor and included foul @-@ smelling scratch and sniff advertisements . 1UP.com called the campaign " infamously ill @-@ conceived " . Between the poor sales and the dwindling support for the Super NES , the game did not receive a European release .
The Mother series titles are built on what Itoi considered " reckless wildness " , where he would offer ideas that encouraged his staff to contribute new ways of portraying scenes in the video game medium . He saw the titles foremost as games and not " big scenario scripts " . Itoi has said that he wanted the player feel emotions such as " distraught " when playing the game . The game 's writing was intentionally " quirky and goofy " in character , and written in the Japanese kana script so as to give dialogue a conversational feel . Itoi thought of the default player @-@ character names when he did not like his team 's suggestions . Many of the characters were based on real life personalities . Itoi sought to make the game appeal to populations that played games less , such as girls .
Giygas ( / ˈɡiːɡᵻs / , / ˈɡaɪ- / , GEE @-@ gus GUY @-@ gus ) reappears as the antagonist , and continues Mother 's story ( and thus did not die at the end of Mother ) . By default , the player starts as a young boy named Ness , who finds that the alien force Giygas has enveloped the world in hatred and consequently turned animals , humans , and objects into malicious creatures . A bee from the future instructs Ness to collect melodies in a Sound Stone to preemptively stop the force . While visiting these eight Sanctuaries , Ness meets three other kids named Paula , Jeff , and Poo — " a psychic girl , an eccentric inventor , and a ponytailed martial artist " , respectively — who join his party . Along the way , Ness meets the cultists of Happy Happy Village , the zombie @-@ infested Threed , the Winters boarding school , and the kingdom of Dalaam . When the Sound Stone is filled , Ness visits Magicant alone , a surreal location in his mind where he fights his dark side . Upon returning to Eagleland , he prepares to travel back in time to fight a young Giygas , a battle known for its " feeling of isolation , ... incomprehensible attacks , ... buzzing static " and reliance on prayer . EarthBound plays as a Japanese role @-@ playing game modeled on Dragon Quest . The game is characterized by its contemporary , satirical Western world setting and its unconventional characters , enemies , and humor . Examples of the game 's humor include untraditional enemies such as " New Age Retro Hippie " and " Unassuming Local Guy " , snide dialogue , frequent puns , and fourth wall @-@ breaking . The game also plays self @-@ aware pranks on the player , such as the existence of the useless ruler and protractor items that players and enemies can unsuccessfully try to use nonetheless .
= = = Mother 3 = = =
In 1996 , a sequel for the Nintendo 64 , Mother 3 ( EarthBound 64 in North America ) , was announced . It was slated for release on the 64DD , a disk drive expansion peripheral for the Nintendo 64 . Itoi 's expansive ideas during development led the development team to question whether fans would still consider the game part of the series . The game entered development hell and struggled to find a firm release date and in 2000 , despite its level of completion , was later cancelled altogether with the commercial failure of the 64DD .
The project was reannounced three years later as Mother 3 for the Game Boy Advance alongside a combined Mother 1 + 2 cartridge for the same handheld console . Itoi had been working on porting Mother and Mother 2 to the Game Boy Advance , and based on encouragement what he predicted to be further pressure , decided to release Mother 3 . The new Mother 3 abandoned the Nintendo 64 version 's 3D graphics , but kept its plot . The game was developed by Brownie Brown and HAL Laboratory , published by Nintendo , and released in Japan on April 20 , 2006 , whereupon it became a bestseller . It did not receive a North American release on the basis that it would not sell .
Mother 1 + 2 was released in Japan on June 20 , 2003 . The combined cartridge contains both Mother and EarthBound . Mother uses the extended ending of the unreleased English language prototype , but is still only presented in Japanese .
Unlike earlier games in the series , Mother 3 is presented in chapters . When the Pig Mask Army starts a forest fire and imposes police state @-@ like conditions on a " pastoral forest village " , a father , Flint , ventures out to protect his family ( twin sons Lucas and Claus and wife Hinawa ) , but the rest of the world is eventually implicated in the plot . Lucas , the game 's hero , does not become prominent until the fourth chapter . Along with his dog , a neophyte thief , and a princess , Lucas fulfills a prophecy of a " chosen one " pulling Needles from the earth to wake a sleeping dragon and determine the fate of the world . The game features a lighthearted plot , with characters such as " partying ghosts " and " talking rope snakes " . Mother 3 is a single @-@ player , simple role @-@ playing video game played with two buttons : one for starting conversations and checking adjacent objects , and another for running . The game updates the turn @-@ based , Dragon Quest @-@ style battle system with a " rhythm @-@ action mechanic " , which lets the player take additional turns to attack the enemy by chaining together up to sixteen taps in time with the background music . Apart from this , the battle system and " rolling HP meter " ( where health ticks down like an odometer such that players can outrun the meter to heal before dying ) are similar to EarthBound .
= = = Future of the series = = =
Around Mother 3 's 2006 release , Itoi stated that he had no plans to make Mother 4 , which he has reaffirmed repeatedly . Itoi has said that , of the three , he had the strongest drive to create the first Mother video game , and that it was made for the players . He made the second game as an exploration of his personal interests , and wanted to run wild with the third . While reflecting on Mother 3 's 2000 cancellation , Itoi recounted the great efforts the team made to tell small parts of the story , and felt this was a core theme in the series ' development .
In the absence of continued support for the series , an EarthBound fan community coalesced at Starmen.net with the intent to have Nintendo of America acknowledge their interest in Mother series . They drafted petitions for English language releases and created a full @-@ color , 270 @-@ page anthology of fan art , Upon " little " response from Nintendo , they localized Mother 3 by themselves and printed a " professional quality strategy guide " through Fangamer , a video game merchandising site that spun off from Starmen.net. The Verge cited the effort as proof of the fan base 's dedication . Other fan efforts include EarthBound , USA , a full @-@ length documentary on Starmen.net and the fan community , and Mother 4 , a fan @-@ produced sequel to the Mother series that went into production when Itoi definitively " declared " that he was done with the series .
IGN described the series as neglected by Nintendo in North America , as Mother 1 , Mother 1 + 2 , and Mother 3 were not released outside Japan . Despite this , Ness 's recurrence in the Super Smash Bros. series signaled favorable odds for the future of the Mother series . IGN and Nintendo Power readers anticipated a rerelease of EarthBound on the Wii 's Virtual Console upon its launch in 2006 , but it did not materialize . A Japanese rerelease was announced in 2013 for the Wii U Virtual Console as part of a celebration of the anniversaries of the NES and Mother 2 . North American and European releases for the same platform followed , with Nintendo president Satoru Iwata crediting fan interest on the company 's Miiverse social platform . The game was a " top @-@ seller " on the Wii U Virtual Console , and Kotaku users and first @-@ time EarthBound players had an " overwhelmingly positive " response to the game . Simon Parkin wrote that the game 's rerelease was a " momentous occasion " as the return of " one of Nintendo 's few remaining lost classics " after 20 years . In an interview in late November 2015 , Shigesato Itoi has once again denied plans to create a Mother 4 , despite fan feedback .
= = Recurring elements = =
The series is known for its emotionally evocative scripts . Itoi wanted to tell Mother 3 's through a technique that swapped the active player @-@ character , which he first attempted in EarthBound . The two games also share similar visual styles , both with psychedelic battle backgrounds and cartoonish art . While Mother 3 's music is both similar in tone to its predecessors and completely new , it features similar sound effects . EarthBound characters such as Mr. Saturn recur , and RPGamer wrote that Mother 3 's final chapter is " full of blatant links " between the games of the series . Mother also shares similarities with its sequel , such as the game save option through phoning Ninten 's father , an option to store items with Ninten 's sister at home , and an automated teller machine for banking money . Additionally , the members of the party follow behind the protagonist on the overworld screen in the first two games . Ninten 's party members in Mother are analogous to those of EarthBound in style and function .
While Mother 's battles were trigged through random encounters , EarthBound and early Mother 3 shared battle scene triggers , where physical contact with an enemy in the overworld began a turn @-@ based battle scene shown in the first @-@ person . Apart from Mother 3 's rhythm and combo battle mechanic , the two game 's battle systems are similar . Mother 3 also retains the " rolling HP meter " of EarthBound ( where health ticks down like an odometer such that players can outrun the meter to heal before dying ) but removes the feature where experience is automatically awarded before battles against much weaker foes . Recurring through the series is its signature " SMAAAASH " text and sound , which show when the player registers a critical hit .
Some characters are present in multiple entries of the series , such as Giygas , Mr. Saturn , and Pokey / Porky . Giygas is the primary antagonist in both Mother and EarthBound . The alien creature 's emotional complexity deviates from genre norms . Giygas shows internal conflict in Mother and has no appearance but as an " indescribable " force in EarthBound 's final boss battle . In both final battles , Giygas is defeated through love and prayer instead of through a tour de force of weaponry , unlike the endings of other period games . Nadia Oxford wrote for IGN that nearly two decades later , EarthBound 's final fight against Giygas continues to be " one of the most epic video game standoffs of all time " with noted emotional impact . This battle 's dialogue was based on Itoi 's recollections of a traumatic scene from the Shintoho film The Military Policeman and the Dismembered Beauty that he had accidentally seen in his childhood . Oxford wrote for 1UP.com that Itoi intended to show the alien 's yearning for love in " a manner ... beyond human understanding " . Despite EarthBound and Mother 3 's dissimilar settings , the Mr. Saturn fictional species appear in similar Saturn Valleys in both games . The Mr. Saturn look like an old man 's head with feet , a large nose , and bald except for a single hair with a bow . Though they are a technologically advanced and peaceful species with a pureness of heart , they are under constant attacks from encroaching enemies . Nadia and David Oxford of 1UP.com considered the Mr. Saturn to be aliens despite their human @-@ like and fleshy appearance , as described a piece arguing the central theme of aliens in the Mother series . They compared the Mr. Saturn to Kurt Vonnegut 's Tralfamadorian alien species . Finally , Pokey begins as Ness 's child neighbor who " cowers " and " refuses to fight " in EarthBound , but grows into a " vicious control freak with no regard for human life " , Porky , by the end of the series ' Mother 3 .
= = Music = =
The soundtracks for Mother and EarthBound were composed by Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka . The Mother soundtrack was likened by RPGFan reviewer Patrick Gann to compositions by The Beatles and for children 's television shows . He found the lyrics " cheesy and trite " but appreciated the " simple statements " in " Eight Melodies " and the " quirky and wonderful " " Magicant " . The Mother soundtrack contains several tracks later used in subsequent series games . When Suzuki and Tanaka were unavailable to commit to Mother 3 's soundtrack , Itoi chose Shogo Sakai for his experience with and understanding of the series . Sakai worked to make the music feel similar to previous entries in the series . Kyle Miller of RPGFan wrote that the game retained the quirkiness of the previous soundtracks in the series despite the change in composers . He felt that the second half of the album , which included reinterpreted " classics " from the series , to be its strongest . RPGamer 's Jordan Jackson too found that the music was " just as catchy as previous games " despite being " almost completely new " . Luke Plunkett of Kotaku credited Suzuki 's background outside of games composition as a rock star and film scorer for making the music of Mother and EarthBound " so distinct and memorable " as " a synthesized tribute to 20th century pop music " .
= = Reception = =
In 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , Christian Donlan wrote that the Mother series is a " massive RPG franchise " in Japan comparable to that of Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest , though it does not enjoy the same popularity in the West . IGN described the series as neglected by Nintendo in North America , which only received one of the three Mother releases . Donlan added that the series ' oddities did not lend towards Western popularity . RPGamer 's Jordan Jackson noted that the series is " known for its wacky sense of humor , originality , and its very young protagonists " , and Kotaku 's Luke Plunkett said that the games were distinct from all other video games in that they stirred " genuine emotion in players beyond ... ' excited ' and ' afraid ' " with a " charming " , " touching " , and " tragic " story , which he credited to its creators ' pedigrees from outside the video game industry .
Mother received a " Silver Hall of Fame " score of 31 / 40 from Japanese reviewer Weekly Famitsu . Critics noted the game 's similarities with the Dragon Quest series and its simultaneous " parody " of the genre 's tropes . They thought the game 's sequel , EarthBound , to be very similar and a better implementation of Mother 's gameplay ideas , overall . Reviewers also noted the game 's high difficulty level and balance issues . Mother sold 150 @,@ 000 copies . USgamer 's Jeremy Parish said that Mother 's script was " as sharp as EarthBound 's " , but felt that the original 's game mechanics were subpar , lacking the " rolling HP counter " and non @-@ random encounters for which later entries in the series were known . Parish wrote earlier for 1UP.com that in comparison to EarthBound , Mother is " worse in just about every way " , and important less for its actual game and more for the interest it generated in video game emulation and the preservation of unreleased games .
EarthBound originally received little critical praise from the American press , and sold poorly in the United States : around 140 @,@ 000 copies , as compared to twice as many in Japan . Kotaku described EarthBound 's 1995 American release as " a dud " and blamed the low sales on " a bizarre marketing campaign " and graphics " cartoonish " beyond the average taste of players . Multiple reviewers described the game as " original " or " unique " and praised its script 's range of emotions , humor , cheery and charming ambiance , and " real world " setting , which was seen as an uncommon choice . Since its release , the game 's English localization has found praise , and later reviewers reported that the game had aged well .
Prior to its release , Mother 3 was in the " top five most wanted games " of Famitsu and at the top of the Japanese preordered game charts . It sold around 200 @,@ 000 units in its first week of sales in Japan , and was one of Japan 's top 20 bestselling games for the first half of 2006 . In comparison , the 2003 Mother 1 + 2 rerelease sold around 278 @,@ 000 copies in Japan in its first year , and a reissue " value selection " of the cartridge sold 106 @,@ 000 copies in Japan in 2006 . Mother 3 received a " Platinum Hall of Fame " score of 35 / 40 from Famitsu . Reviewers praised its story ( even though the game was only available in Japanese ) and graphics , and lamented its 1990s role @-@ playing game mechanics . Critics also complimented its music . Jackson said that the game was somewhat easier than the rest of the series and somewhat shorter in length .
= = Legacy = =
The series has a legacy as both " one of Japan 's most beloved " and the video game cognoscenti 's " sacred cow " , and is known for its long @-@ lasting , resilient fan community . At one point leading up to Mother 3 's release , the series ' " Love Theme " played as music on hold for the Japan Post . Similarly , the Eight Melodies theme used throughout the series has been incorporated into Japanese elementary school music classrooms . Donlan of 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die wrote that EarthBound is " name @-@ checked by the video gaming cognoscenti more often than it 's actually been played " .
Critics consider EarthBound a " classic " or " must @-@ play " among video games . The game was included in multiple top 50 games of all time lists , including that of Famitsu readers in 2006 and IGN readers in 2005 and 2006 . IGN ranks the game 13th in its top 100 SNES games and 26th among all games for its in @-@ game world , which was " distinct and unforgettable " for its take on Americanism , unconventional settings , and 1960s music . And Gamasutra named it one of its 20 " essential " Japanese role @-@ playing games . The rerelease was Justin Haywald of GameSpot 's game of the year , and Nintendo Life 's Virtual Console game of the year . GameZone said it " would be a great disservice " to merely call EarthBound " a gem " . In the United Kingdom , where EarthBound had been previously unreleased , GamesTM noted how it had been " anecdotally heralded as a retro classic " . IGN 's Scott Thompson said the game was " the true definition of a classic " . Kotaku wrote that the game was content to make the player " feel lonely " , and , overall , was special not for any individual aspect but for its method of using the video game medium to explore ideas impossible to explore in other media .
Multiple critics wrote that Mother 3 was one of the best role @-@ playing games for the Game Boy Advance . GamePro 's Jeremy Signor listed it among his " best unreleased Japanese role @-@ playing games " for its script and attention to detail . Video game journalist Tim Rogers posited that Mother 3 was " the closest games have yet come to literature " . There are no plans for an official Mother 4 .
The series , and specifically EarthBound , is known for having a cult following that developed over time well after its release . Colin Campbell of Polygon wrote that " few gaming communities are as passionate and active " as EarthBound 's , and 1UP.com 's Bob Mackey wrote that no game was as poised to have a cult following . Starmen.net hosted a Mother 25th Anniversary Fanfest in 2014 with a livestream of the game and plans for a remixed soundtrack . Later that year , fans released a 25th Anniversary Edition ROM hack that updated the game 's graphics , script , and gameplay balance . The Verge cited the two @-@ year @-@ long Mother 3 fan translation as proof of the fan base 's dedication , and Jenni Lada of TechnologyTell called it " undoubtably one of the best known fan translations in existence " , with active retranslations into other languages . Frank Caron of Ars Technica said that the fan translation 's " massive undertaking ... stands as a massive success " , and that " one cannot even begin to fathom " why Nintendo would not release their own English localization .
= = = Super Smash Bros. = = =
EarthBound 's Ness became widely known due to his later appearance in the Super Smash Bros. series . He appeared in the original Super Smash Bros. and its sequels : Melee , Brawl , and 3DS / Wii U. In Europe , which did not see an original EarthBound release , Ness is better known for his role in the fighting game than for his original role in the role @-@ playing game . He returned in the 2001 Melee with EarthBound 's Mr. Saturn , which could be thrown at enemies and otherwise pushes items off the battlefield . Melee also had an unlockable Fourside level based on the EarthBound location . Ness was joined by Mother 3 's Lucas in Brawl , and both characters returned in 3DS / Wii U , its sequel . Players can fight in the 3DS 's Magicant stage , which features clips from the Mother series in its background .
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